il MUM 1339110 7 | UNIVER Il © ro i $ ‘ : . 231 Hand Glasses, . . . ere te er ate | Wall Glasses, ge Rg et Neen ae cee ee eae Reversing the Bunches, . . .« «+ .« « 204 Ringing or Girdling, . . a ar « « 234 XIV.—Care or Oup VINES, . ‘ s A! é ¥ . 241 woe V¥o—LO PRESERVE GRAPES, 4. « 74 od eee XVI.—Desorretive List or Native Grapes,. . . . 250 Bland, . “ x * . ‘ * s - 250 Canadian Chief, . OREN Ee wo aie - 251 Catawba, . woe Pa isa : ° - 261 Clinton, : ° Bien ete tel oe Bae, cae oe Concord, . Us gn ° . ° ° : - 252 Delaware, . ° : ° ° oem . . 258 a a na” home ig? os ose a Se ee Elsinborough, . Seige eee Kings 36:* % ° ° ° . ° . ° » 255 Hartford Prolific, A aa eT See 2): Herbemont, . : . * . . . : - 256 Isabella, : < . : P ° . . - 257 Logan, . ‘ ig kG - ‘ ‘ Saree - 259 Early Northern Muscatine—a Shaker Seedling, . - 260 Rebecca, . - ‘ ° ° . P > - 262 To Kalon, . . ° ‘ F . ° a . 264 Union Villagejseia') (mares ers. Ys New Varieties, . F ° . ° é P « 265 TABULAR VIEW OF THE Sizzx, Coton, SHapz, Erc., Erc., of all the Varieties of American Grapes, of which apy account can be found, . . > F . ° ° ‘ P . F . 269 Vu CONTENTS. THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. PAGE Extracts from Letters from Mr. Jefferson, late President of the United States, . . F ‘ Manufacture of Wine in the South of England, . Manufacture of Wine by Mr. Longworth and others, Currant Wine, ° : 55 Recipe for White Currant Wine, . Another Recipe, . . ° ° Mr. Cornell’s Recipe for making Red Currant Wine, Black Currant Wine, . . ° Elderberry Wine, . ° ‘ . Another Method, . ° ° ° Blackberry Wine,. . .«. « Strawberry or Raspberry Wine, . Orange Wine, . : ee Gterer Wine, 6 Aso ce ate Currant Wine, * e ‘ . APPENDIX I. EXAMPLES OF AMERICAN VINEYARD PRACTICE. The Ohio Vineyard System, . Dr. Underhill’s Vineyard, . Judge Conklin’s Vineyard, . McKay’s Vineyard, rien + 281 - 283 le CONTENTS. Hy ix APPENDIX II. Tur THomery System oF GRAPE CULTURE. (This is the famous system under which the splendid Chasselas de Fontaine- bleau Grapes are produced ; it is the method advocated by Dr. Grant. The ac- count is literally translated from Du Breuil’s Cours d@’ Arboriculture, and is the only complete account which can be found—at least so says the Frenchman, Rendu, in his ‘‘ Ampelographie Francaise,” and he ought to know.) Cultivation of the Vine upon Trellises, in Northern and Olited = France, according to the New Methods in use at Thomery, . 320 ’ Form to be given to the Trellises, SRR aM Tage DA eee ae Horizontal Cordon of Thomery, . . . «.« «6 « . 324 Horizontal Cordon of Charmeux, . . . . F é . 328 Vertical Cordon, . é P F : e ‘ F ‘ . 330 Vertical Cordon with alternate Shoots, é . 3 p . 331 Cultivation of Trellised Vines arranged in the form of the Verti- cal Cordon with opposite Shoots, . ° 7 . : . 334 Walls proper for the Trellis, . . . Nee Valet ae 2 - 334 Exposure of the Walls,.. : ‘ ‘ Ba ete nd she S3F Propagation of the Vine, . 6 0 os aS a a ee Graft, . ° “ roe : ‘ . é > . . 339 Plantation and Process of Bedding or Laying the Trellised Vine— First Year, . ° F F F ° . . . . « 340 Second Year of the Plantation, . . ig eg Ponape * Third Year, . H r . F r ° . ° > - 345 Method of Pruning adopted for the Vertically Trellised Vine with opposite Shoots—Construction of the Frame—First Year, 348 Second Year, . P é a Fe Fae F . . - 351 Third Year, . ° : ‘ ‘ ° ‘ Fs . . . 353 PROMEON AD CRE e626 gh 89 A ae a ae) og a ee Care necessary to the Lateral Branches—First Year, . , - 355 Disbudding the Lateral Branches or Coursons, . ‘ r . 358 Pinching the Shoots, . ° Teg . ° . ‘ . 359 Manner of fastening the Shoots in Summer, Sas eae us . 360 1* CONTENTS. Renewal of the Coursons, . . .- -« Pare | Replacement of the Spurs (Coursons), oe ge Care of the Grapes, ge TiAied ote Ce Ge i eae : Suppression of the Superfluous Branches, . 0 te eae ae Thinning the Branches,» . . + «© «© « «: » S61 Gathering the Leaves, . : Pause ; : ° : . 362 Protections, . . : ° re etter Hecht a6 ie ‘Arviular Incision, O00 Pee ee ee ee Renewal of the Trellised Vine, . RAR care . wis - 363 Culture of Table Grapes in the Open Air, . . . « « 366 Culture of Table Grapes in Southern France, . , - . 367 Diseases of the Vine—Destructive Animals and Insects, . . 368 Gathering and Preservation—Fresh Grapes, A é % . 370 Dried Grapes—Raisins, . : ° ° . : s out Bae BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE. \ THE subjoined list contains all the principal works which have been consulted in the preparation of the following treatise. Having made the study of the subject a specialty, we have been at considerable pains to collect all the works relating to vine culture of which we could find any account, and although there are several important omissions in the list given below, yet it is believed that their place is tolerably well supplied by those of which titles are given. As our attention has been. chiefly directed to open air culture, we have intentionally omitted some excellent English works. The French, however, possess some valuable treatises which we regret having been unable to obtain, and a still greater source of regret has been that we have been unable to use the many fine works possessed by the Germans, It was suggested that this list be prefaced with a short article on the bibliography of grape culture, or at least that the pecu- liar features of the works mentioned be indicated. But we found ourselves incompetent to the former, and the latter would have occupied a space disproportionate to its importance in a prac- tical treatise. It is hoped, however, that the list given will not prove useless to those who desire to extend their inquiries be- yond the narrow limits of the present work, and from the assist- ance which we ourselves have frequently derived from similar catalogues, we feel confident that this hope is not ill founded. It may be added, in conclusion, that many works have been con- sulted and used of which no mention is made, simply from the remoteness of their general bearing upon the subject. Thus | the figure of the oidium is taken from Pouillet’s “Traité de X11 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE Physique,” and is, we believe, the only thing in all the three vo- lumes of that work which at all relates to vine culture. Having no desire to preface our work with a mere catalogue of our private library (as we have seen done more than once), no work has been mentioned which it will not repay the reader to consult. On the general subject of the ‘Theory of Horti- culture,” Lindley’s.work has been our guide and our standard, and for our chemical facts and principles we have relied upon the work of Gmelin, published by the Cavendish Society of London, in twelve volumes, as we have always. found it most full and reliable. _ But in selecting a course of reading with a view to advance his knowJedge of grape culture, the student must bear in mind that so varied, complex and intimately connected are all the operations of nature, that the facts which have a bearing upon any portion of them, are to be found in books which professedly treat of the most diverse subjects. Chemistry and mechanics are alike important; the principles which govern the relations of heat, light, and electricity, exert a more or less important influence on all vegetation, and he who would be fully master of the subject, must aim at an extent of knowledge only to be found in the widest range of scientific reading and experiment. Abercrombie, John, Practical Gardener. London. Adlum, John; Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America. Wash- ington, 1828. Allen, J. F., Practical Treatise on the Culture of the Grape. New York, 1858. é the same, Boston, 1849. American Cyclopedia. New York, 1858, continued. American Pomological Society, Transactions 1852, 1854, 1856, 1858. Barry, Sir Ed., Observations on Wines. 4to. London, 1775. Barry, P., Fruit Garden. New York, 1855. Bernay, A. J., Household Chemistry. London, 1854. Blodgett, Lorin, Climatology of the United States. Philadelphia, 1857. Bordeaux Wine and Liquor Dealer’s Guide. New York, 1851. Boussingault, J. B., Rural Economy. London, 1855. Bradley, R., Survey of Ancient Husbandry and Gardening. London, 1725. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE OULTURE. xiii Bridgeman, Thomas, Young Gardener’s Assistant. New York, 1857. Brown, J. D., Sylva Americana. Boston, 1832. —_—_—— Trees of America. New York, 1851. Field Book of Manures. New York, 1855. Buchannan, R., Culture of the Grape and Wine Making. Cincinnati, 185-. Buist, R., Management of the Grape Vine. New York, 1856. Busby, James, Visit to Vineyards of France and Spain. New York, 1835. Carnell, P. P., Treatise on Family Wine Making. London, 1814. Carpenter, W. B., Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors. Philadelphia, 1855. Chaptal, C., Traité sur la Vigne et l’Art de faire Vin. 2 vols., Paris, 1801. The same, translated in Philosophical Magazine. ————. Chemistry applied to Agriculture. Hartford, 1854. Chorlton, Wm., American Grape Grower’s Guide. New York, 1856. The Cold Grapery. New York, 1853. Cole, S. W., American Fruit Book. Boston, 1849. Coleman, Henry, European Agriculture. Boston. Country Gentleman. Albany (published weekly). Dana, 8. L., Muck Manual. New York, 1856. Davy, Sir H., Agricultural Chemistry. London, 1827. Davy, John, Ionian Islands. London, 1842. De Bow, J. B. D., Industrial Resources of South and West. New. Or- leans, 1852. - Reyiew. New Orleans. Décandolle, N. P., Physiologie Végétale. 3 vols. Paris, 1832. Dempsey, G. D., On the Drainage of Districts and Lands. London, 1854. Don, George, General System of Gardening and Botany. 4 vols., 4to., London, 1838. Donaldson, Treatise on Clay Lands and Loamy Soils. London, 1854. Donovan, Michael, Tréatise on Domestic Economy and Wine Making. London, 1830. Downing, A. J., Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. New York, 1853. the same, revised by C. Downing. New York, 1857. Du Breuil, Cours Elémentaire d’Arboriculture. Paris, 1857. Elliot, F. R., Fruit Book. New York, 1854. —————. Western Fruit Book. New York, 1859. Ellis, Robert, Chemistry of Creation. London, 1850, Encyclopedia Americana. Philadelphia, 1834. Encyclopedia Britannica. 8th edition, Edinburgh, 1852-60. English Cyclopedia. London, 1854. xiv BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE. Fentwanger, Lewis. Fermented Liquors. New York, 1858. Fitch, Asa, Report on the Insects of the State of New York. Flint, C., Agriculture of Massachusetts. Boston, 1858. Floy, M., Guide to Orchard and Fruit Garden. New York, 1852. Forsyth, Wm., Culture and Management of Fruit Trees. London, 1802. French, Art of Distillation and Manufacture of Liquors. London, 1657. Gardener’s Chronicle. 19 vols., London, 1841y. continued. Gardener’s Monthly. Philadelphia, 1859, continued. Gardener’s Monthly Volume. London, 1849. Genesee Farmer. Rochester, N. Y. (published monthly.) Gmelin, Leopold, Handbook of Chemistry. 12 vols., London, 1848-58. Graham, Thomas, Elements of Chemistry. 2 vols., London, 1858. Gray, Asa, Manual of Botany. New York, 1858. ———— Systematic and Structural Botany. New York, 1858. Guide to Importers and Purchasers of Wines, with a Topographical Ac- count of all the known Vineyards in the World. London, 1828. Hannan, John, Economy of Waste Manures. London, 1844. Harris, Joseph, Rural Annual, 1857, 8, 9. Rochester, N. Y. Harris, T. W., Report on the Insects of Massachusetts injurious to Vege- tation. Cianhtldne, 1841. Hoare, Clement, Treatise on the Grape Vine. New York, 1850. Homans, J. S., Cyclopedia of Commerce. New York, 1858. Hooker, Journal of Botany. 4 vols., London. Horticulturist, 1846-1859. . Hovey, C. M., Magazine of Horticulture. Jacques, Geo., Practical Treatise on Fruit Trees. Worcester, 1849. Johnson, Geo. W., The Gardener. 3 vols., London, 1849. Dictionary of Modern Gardening, edited bv Landreth. Philadelphia, 1857. Principles of Practical Gardening. London, 1845. ‘Johnston, James F. W., Lectures on the Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture. New York, 1858. ; Chemistry of Common Life. 2 vols., New York, 1855. Notes on America. 2 vols., Boston, 18—.- Johnson, S. W., The Culture of the Vine. New Brunswick, N. J., 1806. Jullien, Topographie de tous les Vignobles connus. Paris, 1816. Kendrick, Wm., New American Orchardist. Boston, 1848. Kollar, V., Treatise on Insects injurious to Farmers and Gardeners. *Lon- don, 1840. a ‘Gg q 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE. XV ‘ Ladrey, M. C., Chimie appliquée 4 la Viticulture et 41’nologie. Paris, 1857. Liebig, J., Complete Works. Philadelphia, 1856. Letters on Modern Agriculture. New York, 1859. Liebig and Kopp, Annual Report on the Progress of Chemistry and the allied Sciences. London, 1847-1850. Lindley, Theory and Practice of Horticulture. 2d edition, London, 1855. the same, edited by A. J. Downing. New York, 1852. Loudon J. C., Encyclopedia of Gardening. London, 1850. Gardener’s Magaziné. 16 vols. Manures, Practical Treatise on. Society for Diffusion of Useful Know- ledge. London, 1830. . McCulloch, Remarks on the Art of Making Wine. London, 1817. McIntosh, Charles, Book of the Garden. 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1855. McMahon, Bernard, American Gardener’s Calendar. Philadelphia, 1859. the same, Philadelphia, 1806. McMullen, Thomas, Hand-book of Wines. New York, 1853. Meteorological Observations made in the State of New York from 1826 to 1850. Albany, 1855. Meteorological Register, State of New York. Miller, Philip, Gardener’s Dictionary. Large folio, 1759. the same, 4 vols., folio, 1807s Morewood, Samuel, Essay on Meliorating Liquors. London, 1824. Mulder, C. J., Chemistry of Wine. London, 1857. ——__——— Chemistry of Animal and Vegetable Physiology. Edin- burgh, 1849. Muspratt, Sheridan, Chemistry applied to Arts and Manufactures. Glas- gow, 1858. Natural History of the State of New York. 19 volumes, Albany. Neil, Patrick, Practical Fruit, Flower and Kitchen Gardener’s Com- panion. New York, 1856. Northern Fruit Culturist. Odart, Comte, Ampelographie Universelle. Paris, 1854. ——___—— Manuel de Vigneron. Patent Office Reports. Washington, D. C., 1837-1858. Pereira, Jonathan, Treatise on Food and Diet. London, 1844. Perzoz, Nouveau Systeme de Culture de Ja Vigne. Paris. Philosophical Magazine (Tilloch’s). 97 vols, London, 1798, continued. Prince, W. R., Treatise on the Vine. New York, 1830. ——_——_—— Treatise on Horticulture. New York, 1828. Pomological Manual. New-York, 1832. xvi BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE. Quarterly Journal of Science and Art. 30 volumes, London, 1816-1830. Redding, Cyrus, History and Description of Modern Wines. London, 1951. i Reemelin, C., Vine Dresser’s Manual. New York, 1856. Register of Rural Affairs. Albany, L. Tucker, 1855-1859. Rendu, Ampelographie Frangaise. Paris, 1857. Rural New Yorker (weekly). Rochester, N. Y. Schenck, P. A., Gardener’s Text Book. Boston, 1852. Schow, J. F., Earth, Plants and Man. London, 1852. Silliman, B., American Journal of Science and Art. New Haven, Ct., 1819-1858. Smeed, Wine Merchant’s Manual. London, 1828. Skinner, John §., Journal of Agriculture. 3 volumes, New York, 1848. Speechly, William, Treatise on the Culture of the Vine, and the forma- tion of Vineyards. 4to., London, 1790. the same, 8vo., 1821. Solly, Edward, Rural Chemistry. Philadelphia, 1852. Somerville, Mary, Physical Geography. Philadelphia, 1853. Stockhard, Julius C., Chemical Field Lectures. London, 1858, Spooner, Alden, The Cultivation of American Grape Vines. Brooklyn, 1846. Thayer, Albert, Principles of Agriculture. London, 1845. Thomas, J. J., Fruit Culturist. Buffalo, N. Y., 1847. ——_. "the same, New York,.1857. Transactions American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, 1789. Transactions of Society for Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures. London, 1783-1850. Transactions of New York Agricultural Society. Albany, 1842-1858. Transactions of New York Institute. Albany, 1841-1858. Transactions of Royal Horticultural Society of London. 8 vols. 1824— 1840. Tucker, L., Register of Rural Affairs. Albany, 1855-1859. Tall, Jethro. Horse Hoeing Husbandry. London 1829. Ure, Andrew, Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines. New York, 1857. Dictionary of Chemistry. Edinburgh, 1824. Watson, American Home Garden. New York, 1859. Webster, Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy. New York, 1856. OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CHAPTER I. - NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. Prorane history reaches not back to the time when man first planted a vineyard and made wine, and when we leave the sacred records, its first culture is shrouded in allegories, myths and fables. The native country of the vine cannot be well ascer- tained. It occurs wild in Greece, Italy and even in the south of France. In Mingrelia, Georgia and the regions between Caucasus and Ararat and Taurus, it flourishes in extreme vigor and great abundance. And that it is indigenous to America, also, there can be no doubt, the apocryphal stories about its intro- duction by Sir W. Raleigh to the contrary notwith- standing. Records ‘of its culture are found in most of the poems and sculptures of antiquity. The shield of 1 18 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Achilles represented a vine-gathering, and Herodotus and Theophrastus speak of the culture of the vine in” Egypt; and on the very oldest Greek tombs are found pictures representing the vine harvest. Pliny enters fully into the natural history of the yine, and describes a variety with berries shaped like the finger,* while the second book of Virgil’s Georgies forms no mean treatise on practical viticulture. The generic name of the vine (vitis) is derived, ac- cording to some authors, from the Latin wineire to bind ; according to others it comes from viere, to bend, alluding to the flexibility of its branches. Both these * Most of the authors who have noticed this variety, suppose it to - have been lost, but we have received from John Kolber, Esq., of New York, slips of a vine imported by him from Hungary, the fruit of which is described as being an inch and a half long and half an inch in diameter—a form which might easily be described by an imagina- tive writer as resembling a finger. In fact the native name is Keckse, esocs or Goats teats—an idea similar to that of the old philosopher, though not quite so elegant. We find also in several catalogues grapes called finger-grapes—synonyms of which are Cornichon Blane, Cucumber Grape, Bec d’Oiseau (Bird’s beak), Teta de Vacca (Cow’s teats), Doigts Donzelle, ete., ete. Mr. Kolber has made earnest and praiseworthy efforts to introduce the hardier varieties of the vine from the hills of Hungary, and we are happy to learn that thus far, the results are exceedingly promising. It will take several years, however, to decide whether or not any foreign variety can be grown with success in this country, as most imported plants do well for a few years. NATURAL AND OIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 19 Latin words, however, are derived from a Greek word signifying’to bind. Dr. Whittaker, in a work published in 1638, entitled, “The Tree of Human Life, or the Blood of the Grape,” expresses his opinion that the name vinum is derived a vi from its strength, or, per- haps quasi divimwm, because it is a species of the tree. of life in Paradise. The species of the genus vitis are numerous, though botanists are not agreed as to the distinctive differ- ences, especially as between the European and Ameri- can sorts. In France, Chaptal, when Minister of the Interior, caused 1,400 different varieties of the vine to be collected in the garden of the Luxembourg, and under his direction M. Champagny described as dis- tinct 550 different kinds. Four American species have been usually numbered (some authors describe eight), though the varieties, more or less distinctly. marked, probably exceed 300. To the number of the- latter, however, there is no limit, as every seed may produce a new variety. The vine lives to’ a great age and attains a great size. Pliny mentions a vine which had lived for 600 years, and in Italy, vineyards have continued in bearing for 300 years, while in some parts of that country, a vineyard of 100 years is still accounted young. Its size, whether we regard the European or Ame- 20 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. rican varieties, is often very great. Speechly describes and figures a vine trained against a row of houses in Northallerton, Yorkshire, which covered a space of one hundred and thirty seven square yards, and had a stem three feet eleven inches in circumference at a short distance from the ground. No work on the grape vine would be complete without a mention of the great Hampton Court vine, from which George the Third once directed his gardener to cut one hun- dred dozen bunches of grapes, if so many were on the vine, and present them to the players of Drury-lane Theatre, who had greatly pleased him. The gardener not only cut off this number, but sent word to the king that he could cut off as many more without entirely stripping the vine. This vine was planted in 1769 and has a stem fourteen inches in girth, one branch extending nearly 200 feet. In America, too, very large vines are to be found. The following is clipped from the “ Alta Californian :” * At Monticito, four miles from Santa Barbara, there is a grape vine, probably the largest in the world. Its dimensions and yield would be incredible, were it not that my informant is a man of veracity, and he spoke from personal observation. Itis asingle vine, the main stock being ten feet in circumference. It is trained upon a trellis sixty feet in diameter. My informant with another person counted 7000 NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 21 bunches, and the estimated yield was 18,000 pounds of fruit. Can this be beaten? The only thing that surprised me in the relation of my friend was that any person in Santa Barbara should have displayed the energy necessary to build the trellis for this noble vine.” In the “ Horticulturist ” for October, 1858, a vine growing near Burlington, New Jersey, is described as follows: “In May last it was measured with the following result: Two feet from the ground it mea- sured 6 feet, 24 inches in girth; four feet high it is about 6 inches less; it there divides into two branches, . the largest of which is 3 feet, 3 inches in girth, and the smallest is 3 inches. The largest of the trees which the vine covers is 10 feet in circumference at two feet from the ground. The vine is very much decayed, but still puts forth leaves and young shoots. It has never borne a grape in the memory of a lady now 98 years old and who has lived her long life within sight, or nearly so, of this gigantic production, and to whom it was a wonder in her youth. The largest tree is a black oak, the others are black, or sour gum. On pacing the circumference covered by the branches, it was found to exceed 100 feet. “This vine grows near a springy soil, or upland, its roots, no doubt, penetrating to the water. May not this teach us a lesson, to give the rootlets, wherever 29 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. it is possible, access to a spring, or running water? . s It may be a question, too, whether we do not cut our vines too much. I have observed frequently in England that a whole house was devoted to a single vine, generally of the Black Hamburgh, and I think they uniformly bore the finest grapes. To carry a single vine over a large grapery would, of course, re- quire years of judicious trimming and management.” The bunches and berries also have been known to attain a very great size. In the south of France instances are known of bunches attaining a weight of eight or ten pounds; travellers in Syria mention bunches weighing 17 lbs. ; and we all remember the enormous clusters which the Jewish spies brought back from the promised land. Even at the present day the grapes of Damascus frequently weigh 25 pounds to the bunch. - With all the vigor and fruitfulness evinced by such instances it is no wonder that the culture of the vine should prove profitable and certain. At the meeting of the Fruit Growers’ Society for western New York, held in the city of Rochester in 1859, §. H. Ainsworth made some statements as to the actual products of several vineyards, showing that from $1000 to $1500 had been realized from an acre of Isabella grapes. Mr. Rush, of East Bloomfield, had 100 vines on one-third of an acre, from which he, NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 23 picked 4000 Ibs., which he sold for $500, or at the rate of 124 cts. per pound. None reported a less profit than $500 per acre. From the very first settlement of America the vine attracted the attention of the colonists, and efforts were made both to introduce the finer Euro- pean varieties and to cultivate the native sorts. Even as early as 1564, wine was made from the native grape in Florida, though, of course, in small quantity. The earliest attempt to establish a vineyard in the British North American colonies was by the “ Lon- don Company” in Virginia prior to 1620. By the year 1630, the prospects were sufficiently favorable to warrant the importation of several French vigne- rons, who, it was alleged, ruined them by bad management. Wine was also made in Virginia in 1647, and in 1651 premiums were offered for its pro- duction. On the authority of Beverley, who wrote prior to 1722, there were vineyards in that colony which produced 750 gallons a year. In 1664, Col. Richard Nicolls, the first English _governor of New York, granted to Paul Richards of _ the city of New York the privilege of making and selling wine free of all duty or impost, Richards hay- ing been the first to enter upon the culture of the vine on a large scale. It was also enacted that every person who should during the succeeding thirty ~ 94 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. years set out a vineyard should pay to Richards five shillings for every acre of vines so set out. We have been unable, however, to find any account of his sue- cess or failure, and the probability is, that after a short time the enterprise was abandoned. A gentle- man in Hoboken, also, had a fine vineyard which after a little time fell into decay. Beauchamp Plantagenet, in his ‘Description of the Province of New Albion,” published in London in 1648, states that the English settlers in Uvedale (now Delaware) had vines running on mulberry and sassafras trees, and that there were four kinds of grapes. “The first is the Tholouse Muscat, sweet scented; the second, the great fox and thick grape, after five moneths reaped, being boyled, and salted, and well-fined is a strong red Xeres; the third, a light claret; the fourth, a white grape, creeps on the land maketh a pure, gold-colored wine. Tennis Pale, the Frenchmen, of these four made eight sorts of ex- cellent wine; and of the Muscat, acute boyled, that the second draught will fox (intoxicate) a reasonable pate four moneths old; and here may be gathered and made two hundred tun in the vintage moneth, and replanted will mend.” In 1683, William Penn attempted to establish a. vineyard near Philadelphia, but without success. The same result attended the efforts of Andrew Doré NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 95— in 1685, but after some years, Mr. Tasker, of Mary- land, and Mr. Antil, of Shrewsbury, N.J., seem to have succeeded to a certain extent. Mr. Antil wrote an excellent article on the culture of the grape and the manufacture of wine, which may be found in the first volume of the “ Transactions of the American Philoso- phical Society,” published in 1771. In this article, Mr. : agony 3 iat 50 See Me md ° : 7.3 es > he ey eee : reer 4 s as , : Se er Pe ae) eee Se US ee Fay eee LS A ae oy Lee a ee CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE BIRST YEAR. 97 shoot). As these laterals absorb much of the nutri- ment which would otherwise go to the increase of the stem, they should be carefully pinched out after they have made one or two leaves. Ifremoved before they have made some growth, the bud at their base is very apt to push, as it is called (that is, to grow), which should be avoided, if possible. Fig. 13 shows a young shoot of the current year with a lateral (s) springing from the base of the leaf L. This lateral should be pinched off at the cross line. Fig. 18. If removed entirely or too soon the bud (c) will be apt to push, and destroy our prospects for next season. Winter Protection or youna Vines.—At the close - of the season, the vines may either be bent down and covered with earth in the manner usually © adopted for covering raspberries, or a upright, and tied to the bapaziiia “Fr 98 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. being raised up around each such mound, being at least 18 inches high. The soil of which it is made should be taken from the centre of the rows, as, if we take it from about the plants, we only cover the stem to expose the roots. Where the vines are left tied to the stakes, we pre- fer to leaving them unpruned. True, most of the wood gets killed, but this is of little moment since it is to be nearly all cut away at the spring pruning. | ManaGEMENT DURING THE Seconp YEAR.—As soon as the severe frosts of winter and early spring have passed away, uncover the young vines, and if not already pruned, cut them to a good bud within 9 to 14 inches of the ground. They should be shaded for a few days from the sun and cold, which may be very — well done by sticking a shingle before each, though two shingles placed so as to form an angle in which the vine may stand, will be better. We have now arrived at a point where it will be necessary to decide upon the peculiar system to be adopted in the training of our vines. Instead, however, of describ- ing all the different modes of pruning and training in this place, we shall give only that which we consi- der best adapted to the native American varieties and leave the consideration of the others to the chapter on general. pruning and training. CARE OF THE VINKS DURING THE SECOND YEAR. 99 If the plants have made but a weakly, stunted growth, it will be necessary to allow them another year before proceeding to grow shoots for permanent arms or branches. In this case but one shoot should be trained up, which may be treated precisely as directed for the first year. But if a cane of from 6 _ to 12 feet has been produced, we may safely proceed to train up two canes which will serve for the future arms of our vine. To do this, after cutting down the first year’s shoot as directed, remove all the buds except the three uppermost, and as soon as these are beyond danger of accident, rub off one if three ‘should still remain. The two shoots which are left must be carefully trained up, the laterals being 100 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. pinched out and any fruit blossoms which may appear being removed. ~ The operations of the second year will be readily understood from the inspection of Fig. 14, which shows the young vine as it should appear at the close of the first season. Here @ is the wood of the old cutting, with 6, the shoot which was cut back and _ from which the young cane ¢ d grew. As this old wood is hard and cross-grained and cannot be renewed, it will be well to add top dressing, suf- — ficient to cover it up to the linea. The buds, ee, are those which produce next year’s shoots; andthe . buds at d d must be carefully removed. The ground should be kept clean and mellow during the season, and by the first or middle of September the further growth of the canes should be stopped by pinching off the ends—the wood being much more — ripened when this is done. — It will be necessary, or at least advisable, to lay the vines down this season also and protect, not only the old stem, but at least four feet of the young shoots. The stakes may be removed, and during the fall or early spring the trellises may be erected, for which full directions are given in Chapter IX. MANAGEMENT DURING THE TurrD Srason.—The tre- CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE THIRD YEAR. 101 lises having been constructed in such a manner, that the lowest slat or wire may be just below the base of the second year’s shoots, that is from 9 to 14 inches above the surface of the ground, these two shoots should be firmly, though not tightly, tied, in a hori- zontal position as shown in Fig. 15, and all buds “: nah an | . should be rubbed out except three on each arm (or shoot) thus leaving six on each vine. Each of these buds should produce a shoot which, if the ground has been in good condition and the plants healthy and properly set out, would reach from 12 to 25 feet unless stopped, and asit is upon every second one of these that we depend for our next year’s supply of fruit, they deserve and will require great care and 102 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. attention in order that they may finally be of equal strength and well ripened. Every second shoot should be stopped when it has made a growth of about two feet, and if any of the others should so far outstrip their compeers as to reach the top of the trellis much before them, they should be stopped also, though except in the case of excessive growth all the shoots had best be allowed to grow on until the first of September, when they may all be stopped at once, unless it be deemed best to allow the weak-— est a few days’ longer growth, in which case it is sur- prising how soon they will overtake their companions. Stopping, or pinching, consists in breaking off the end of a shoot, and its immediate effect is to arrest. the further growth of the cane, or at least its further lineal development, for the time being. But although no more leaves are immediately formed, those already in existence perform their usual functions and the whole energies of the plant are directed to the ripen- ing of the wood already produced. ~ After a time, one of the buds near the extremity of the shoot will probably break and become the leader, when it should be stopped in turn, this process being repeated as often as any symptoms of vigorous growth are exhibited. The result of all this checking is to lessen the ultimate amount of wood produced and to improve its quality both as to ripeness and density. Stopping, furnishes us with an effectual means of " ; CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE THIRD YEAR. 103 equalizing the growth of our young canes—a most important point, not only as regards the neatness of their appearance, but the regularity with which the fruit buds will break next season and the strength with which they will shoot. But as-the latter points depends not only upon the size of the canes, but their maturity, it is necessary that an equal growth be kept up during the whole season. This is easily accomplished as the stopping may fortunately be per- formed at any time. The same directions as to the removal of laterals and the clearing of the. ground should be observed during this as during former years. Greater care is, however, required in the treatment of laterals when raising fruit-bearing canes, as if by too close pinch- ing we should cause the buds which are found at the base of the leaves and upon which we depend for our next year’s fruit to push, our prospects would be materially injured. A good rule will be, never to pinch out the laterals, and stop the main cane at the same time; and if the vines show a very vigorous growth of wood, to allow the laterals to make two leaves before stopping them. If the vines are weakly, we may stop the laterals as soon as they appear, as in this case, the main shoot makes sufficient draft upon the roots, to keep all other growth in abeyance. 104 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CHAPTER VI. MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. Ar the close of the third season we ought to have a vine such as is shown in Fig. 16, consisting of a stout, strait, clean stem, 9 to 14 inches high, from the ah cd . Fig. 16, top, or head of which springs two horizontal arms, each bearing two well ripened canes, 8 to 10 feet long, yy a: elit eee a ae -" MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 105 and two smaller shoots of from two to five feet. The two canes ought next season to produce 3 to 5 lbs. of fruit each, and their proper care during the winter is worthy of our best efforts. Winter Prorecrion or tae Frurrine Canus.—As the vines have now assumed their permanent form and size (unless it should be deemed advisable after the lapse of a few years to remove each alternate vine and so double the extent of trellis allotted to” the remainder), it becomes important to settle upon a systematic course of procedure in order to facilitate our operations, and this remark applies to their pro- tection during winter as well as to every other pro- cess connected with them. Of the advantage, we had almost said necessity, for winter protection there can be no doubt. Some extensive cultivators, at a late meeting of the Western N. Y. Fruit Growers Society stated, that they would have made $100 per day for the time spent in covering their vines if they had done so in the fall of 1858. One gentleman asserted that he had lost thousands of dollars by neglecting it—and there is probably no point in the whole range of grape growing upon which cultivators are so thoroughly agreed as this. The mere iaying down the vines on the ground, cover- ing them with snow, laying boards or brush upon or 5* 106 OPEN. AIR GRAPE CULTURE. against them have all been found materially. to increase the next year’s product and to improve its quality. But these are clumsy expedients, incapable of systematic application and unfit for adoption on a large scale. | Where vines are trained to trellises in the manner which we have just described, it has been asserted by many that it is impossible to lay down the horizontal arms so as to cover them, owing to the rigidity of the "old wood, and in order to avoid this it has been pro- posed to leave the head of the vine so low down that the arms shall lie on the surface and be always co- vered with earth. To this method there are many objections. The berries are soiled with every rain, clean culture is rendered more difficult, and the sur- face roots thrown out by the arms cause a succulent growth during moist weather, which suffers during the succeeding drought. But if the vines are bent down every year, little difficulty need be appre- hended on this score, and if the following plan be adopted, vines may be bent sufficiently, even when they have become old and rigid. ~ The method which we have proposed, is to place the trellis 8 to 12 inches in advance of the vine, the stem being brought forward beneath the first slat or rail, and tied up as usual. The accompanying figure (17) explains this better than words can express it, and MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 107 it will be readily seen that very little bending is required, and even that is so distributed over the a fi a ——— Fig. 18, 198 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. whole stem that no injury can result. No practical objections that we are aware of exist to this method. Before bending down the stem, the vine should be . pruned. This consists in cutting off the long shoots to a length of four feet (the first season), and the alternate short ones to the lowest good bud. The vine so pruned is shown in Fig. 18. Then the stem, having been bent down, it will be easy to fold the flexible young canes so as to lie compactly to- gether, as shown in Fig. 19, when they may be O Woes aa ane | Fig. 19. covered with earth. The soil for this purpose must be light and sandy, and should be so disposed that water will not penetrate to the vines. If light soil cannot be had, the vines may be pegged down and covered with the branches of evergreens, though it is improbable that these could be obtained in suffi- cient quantity to protect a large vineyard. Leaves or straw would answer, though they might harbor mice, which would soon destroy the vines. The vines should be left covered as long as possible, but must be exposed before the buds begin to push in the spring. No particular day of the month can athe Mie is hk Se —— Te. ae ae ee MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 109 be given, the date varying with the locality and the season. The best mode of determining the point is to uncover some of the vines as soon as the cold weather has passed away. If they are swollen and ready to push, it is time to tie the vine to the trellis. If they seem still dormant, leave them a little longer. The later the vines can be made to push the better, as they © not only escape late frosts, but their excitability seems to be so accumulated and intensified by such retarda- tion that their after growth is much more vigorous than it would otherwise have been. After the vines have been properly tied to the trellis, and the ground raked, or hoed level (all work on it being avoided when it is wet, however), nothing should be done until the buds have burst so as at least to show their vitality and strength. Then go over the vines and rub off all buds which show themselves on the upright stem and horizontal arms and disbud the canes so as to leave six good buds, and no more, on each. By doing this at this early period, the strength of the vine is thrown into the buds which remain, and they consequently push with increased vigor. The lowest good bud on the short spurs must also be left, all the others being removed. As soon as the blossoms show themselves, and before they have expanded, it will be necessary again to go over the vines and stop or pinch all the shoots 110 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. which show fruit, at the same time removing all the © blossoms except two or three clusters on each shoot. This will not only serve to keep the vine within bounds, but it will cause the fruit to set much better than it would do if this course were not pursued. In a former section, we alluded to stopping with a view to the ripening of the wood and the training of the vine, and the directions there given apply equally to our action as regards the shoots from the short spurs —they being designed to furnish the bearing canes for next year, to replace those which are now fruiting, and which will be entirely cut away at the next winter pruning. But other reasons also induce us to stop the fruit-bearing shoots, and as the whole subject of stop- ping, and its detrimental substitute, summer prun- ing, is one of vital importance to the grape vine, we cannot do better than preface our remarks by quoting the physiological laws upon which it is based, from Lindley’s “‘ Theory and Practice of Horticulture.” “Nature has given plants leaves, not merely to decorate them or to shade ws, but as a part of a won- drous system of life quite as perfect as that of the ani- mal kingdom. It would be of no use for a plant to suck food out of the earth by its roots, unless there was some place provided in which such food, consist- ing principally of water and mucilage, could be digested and so converted into the matter which oe a eee ae ee eee “ MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. geet maintains the health of the individual. The stem can- not do this: firstly, because it is a mere channel through which fluids pass; and, secondly, because many plants have no visible stem, as in the instance of the primrose; and yet in allsuch cases the plant feeds and must digest its food. It is to the leaves that this important office is assigned, and to enable them to execute it God has formed them with wisdom no less infinite than has been displayed in the creation of man. The leaves have veins through which their fluids pass and cells in which they are held while digesting, myriads of little caverns through whose sides respira- tion is maintained, a skin to guard them from the air, and pores for carrying off perspiration. A leaf is, in fact, both stomach and lungs; and to destroy it is to do the same injury to a plant as would be effected in an animal by the destruction of the parts to which those names are given. Of this we may be certain, that neither taste, perfume, color, size, nor any other property, can be given to a plant except through the assistance of the leaves; and that the more numerous these are, the larger and the more luxuriant, so, within certain limits, will be all that a plant is capable of forming. Strip the leaves off a tree, and no more wood will. appear until the leaves are restored ; feed its roots in the hope of thus compensating for the loss of its leaves, and the stem will be filled indeed with eC 112 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. watery matter; but the latter will collect in the inte- rior until it forces its way through the bark, and runs down in putrid streams, as happens to the mulberry- tree when it is: incessantly stripped for silkworms, and as occurs to trees whose leaves are continually destroyed by a noxious atmosphere. Strip the ripen- ing grapes of their green garments, and no color or sweetness will be collected in their berries. Rob the potato of its foliage and you will seek in vain for nourishment in its tubers; and so of all things else. On the other hand, leave the mulberry, the vine and the potato uninjured, to the genial influence of the | sun and the air, and the dews of heaven, and wood is formed in the one case, sugar and color in the other— and flour, the staff of life, in the last, and these pro- | ducts will all be in exact proportion to the health and abundance of the foliage. * But although the general rule is to allow as many leaves to remain on a tree as can be kept in health, yet there are circumstances which justify their re- moval, and, indeed, render it necessary. For example, when a tender tree is trained to a wall, a great object with the gardener is to secure ripe wood ; for unless he does this, the frost of the succeeding winter may destroy the branches, or the buds may be so imper- fectly formed as to produce feeble shoots the ensuing season. To attain this object, those leaves must be es MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 113 removed which prevent the sun from striking upon the branches to be ripened, the effect of this being to stop the rapid growth of the branches and to consoli- date their tissue, in consequence, partly, of the exces- sive perspiration, and partly of the rapid digestion of the sap, which is thus induced ; for the rate of digestion and perspiration in a healthy plant, is in proportion to the quantity of light and heat to which tu is ex- posed. Hence the removal of those shoots which in summer overshadow that wood of the peach-tree which is intended to be preserved another year, is useful ; there can be no doubt, however, that as few shoots as possible should be thus removed. Another case in which the removal of the leaves is justifiable occurs in the vine. In this plant the fruit is borne near the base of the lateral shoots, which will, if un- checked, go on lengthening and producing leaves to a considerable distance. Now all the food of such a lateral shoot is obtained from the main branch, which, however, is only capable of furnishing a certain quantity. Ifthe lateral shoot is allowed to grow un- checked, it will consume its portion of food in the production of many leaves and some grapes; and the more there is of the former, the less will be the weight of the latter. But ifthe shoot is stopped after _ having formed two leaves, all that quantity of food which would have been consumed in the production 114 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. of other leaves is applied to the increase of size in the grapes, and the two leaves that are left; while on the other hand, the general crop of leaves on the vine will be amply sufficient to prepare those secretions which are to give flavor, color and sweetness to the grapes. This will, perhaps, be better explained by the annexed diagram. “Let the line ag represent a lateral vine g branch, bearing fruit at B, and leaves at cd ¢/f. F Suppose six ounces of sap are destined ‘to sup- port this lateral @ g, during the summer; it | @ is evident that, if equally distributed, each @ leaf and branch will receive one ounce of sap F as its proportion. But if ef g are removed, it is obvious that the three which remain will have two ounces each, or double the supply. a “Why, then, it may be asked, not remove ¢ and d also? because, in that case, B, the bunch of fruit, would have the whole six ounces of sap to itself. The reason why this should not be done is this: if all the leaves on the lateral are removed, there will be no B force left upon it wherewith to attract from the main branch the food that belongs to it; for the power which the parts of the plants possess of attracting fluid is in proportion to the amount of their perspira- tion. Now leaves perspire copiously, but the grapes themselves scarcely at all ; whence their gradual con- Ee ee ore se ee MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. . 115 version from a substance of the texture of a leaf into a mass of pulp. In the instance of vine pruning, the great object is to leave on the laterals just as much-force as may be required to secure for the bunches the food that is intended for them, and at the same time to deprive the laterals of the means of expending that food uselessly in the production of leaves instead of fruit.” : In applying the above to the culture of the grape in this country, however, we are inclined to believe that the direct access of the sun to the wood or fruit is not necessary to their perfect ripening. And our readers must also observe that, although in the illus- tration at the close of the paragraph, Dr. Lindley alludes to the “removal” of the leaves, yet from the remarks immediately preceding it, we gather that he is no advocate for “ summer pruning,” but for “ stop- ping.” By summer pruning we mean the removal of large quantities of leaves and shoots—a practice which is quite common throughout the country. Often and often have we seen loads of such matter cut away under the pretence of “letting in the sun and air to the grapes.” Now if these summer prun- ers would only observe that all the finest bunches grow and ripen under the shade of the leaves, they would cease their senseless efforts and rest content with merely breaking off the ends of the shoots. 116 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. That grapes will not ripen well, and that vines will not be healthy under a dense mass of matted foliage, we freely admit. But this is not an evil to be reme- died by the knife. In this case, most emphatically, prevention is better that cure. When we reflect that the amount of organizable matter which can be furnished by any vine is limited, and also that all rank and succulent growth is prejudi- cial to the production of fruit, we can readily appre- ciate the advantage of directing the sap to the pro- duction of fruit, rather than wood and leaves. But we must also remember that every ounce of organiz- able matter which is embodied in leaves or stem, is so much capital invested, and is no more to be thrown away than the stock of the moneyed capitalist, which only brings in two per cent., even though his neigh- bor, on a different investment, receives ten. The leaves are the laboratories in which the sap is — prepared for the nourishment, not only of the fruit, but of the wood, and the more of them we have the better, provided we do not invest too large an amount of our available capital in their production, just as some of our farmers invest all their capital in land, and leave themselves nothing with which to work it. Another evil attendant upon summer pruning, is the sudden and violent check which it gives to the MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. £17": plants. The roots being excited into vigorous action by the enormous draft made upon them, find them- selves suddenly without a channel through which their unelaborated product can find vent; the balance of product and supply is upset and the fruit is filled with crude, ill-digested sap, thus causing it to be unripe and ill-flavored. But by early stopping the shoots, and thus preventing the further production of leaves and wood, we render summer pruning, that is, the removal of superabundant leaves and wood, unne- cessary ; no sudden check is given to the vines, the sap is fully elaborated as fast as it is supplied, and the fruit receiving an extra supply of properly prepared sap (which would otherwise have gone to the produc- tion of wood and leaves) is enlarged in size and improved in flavor. That the leaves are the great agents in the elabora- tion of sap, was fully proved by the experiments of Hales, who forced orange flower-water into the vessels of a vine, with a view to impart its flavor to the fruit. The experiment was unsuccessful as to its ostensi- ble object, but not as to its concomitant results; for he traced the flavor through the stem and branches to the leaves, but no further; there it was decomposed, . and doubtless returned to the wood and fruit in the form of sap. : * Tn a few weeks, or perhaps days, after being 118 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. stopped, the last bud on all these shoots, will, no doubt, burst and form a leader, which will grow nearly as vigorously as if the terminal bud had not been removed. It will, therefore, be necessary to go over all these vines again as soon as the fruit is set, and repeat the same operation. At this time, also, the fruit should be thinned, which, for vineyard culture, consists in the removal of all weak, ill-formed bunches, some even recommending the removal of the lower part of all the bunches. When, -however, extra fine bunches are desired, we prefer the plan usually adopted-in hot-house culture, which consists in removing at least one half the berries from every bunch—the largest and finest being, of course, left. This operation is best performed when the grapes are tlie size of peas, but by many it will be deemed too minute and laborious an operation for vineyard practice. While doing this, it will also be proper to remove or extirpate all shoots which either have not fruit, or are not wanted for next year’s canes. During the growing season it will be necessary to look over the vines, at intervals of two or three weeks, stopping the fruiting shoots, removing suck- ers, and pinching out laterals at the second eye. The erpand should also be kept loose and mellow, and all AieBeperations of the vineyard be carried on, with as MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 119 little trampling on the borders as possible. Indeed, if the expense be not an objection, we would lay down boards or planks, supported by suitable stakes or posts, and forming a walk along the front of each trellis, so as to allow all the work of the vineyard being performed without a foot being set upon the soil. 120 » OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CHAPTER VIL. SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. Tur future management of the vines will consist in training up, each year, a shoot from the intermediate spurs, and cutting out entirely the cane which has borne the fruit. The cane which wastrained up last year, will this year produce a crop, while, from the spur left in cutting out the former cane, is trained up a shoot for the following year, and so on ad infinitum. As the peculiar pruning necessary is a subject of vital importance to success in grape culture, we will give a consecutive condensed description of it, illus- trated by proper figures. Fig. 20. Fig. 20 shows a section of the horizontal arms, at the end of the third season. a is the cane which has oe a a SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 121 been trained to the top of the trellis. s the shoot which was stopped when two to four feet long. Just before laying down the vine for winter protection, A is cut to about a length of 4 feet, and B is cut away at the cross-line, or just above the first good bud. As the force with which the buds push, depends a good deal upon their number relatively to the size of the vine, it is absolutely necessary to cut off a to 4 feet or less, and rub out several of the buds which appear on it. If, in addition to this, all other buds except one from each of the spurs, B, be removed, we could scarcely fail to train up a good cane from B, even though none but latent buds were left. Fig. 21. Next season the figure is reversed. Here B is the young shoot of last year, while a, which carries the six shoots upon which the fruit grew, is cut off at the cross-line. B is shortened this year to 5 or 6 feet, and disbudded as before—one or two more buds being left on, as the vine is growing stronger. 6 122 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. At the base of a, below the cross-line, will appear intermediate little buds—some of them quite promi- nent. The best of them must be taken, and no fear need be entertained of getting a good cane from it, of all the unnecessary buds are promptly extirpated. If, however, we allow shoots to grow all over the vine we will probably fail to get any cane at all. The following season, the shoot proceeding from A is fruited, and 8 is cut off at the cross-line. This stage of its progress is shown in Fig. 22. SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 123 In Fig. 23 is shown the vine at the end of the sixth season. By this time, the spurs will have become hard, and if allowed to remain much longer, it will be necessary to renew the whole vine, as is done in the Thomery system (see Appendix). It will, there- fore, be well to allow a bud to push from the base of B, if one should show itself, as there most likely will. In. this case, Fig. 24 will represent 8 as it will appear at the close of the season, when the entire spur must be cut off with a fine saw, at the cross line, and the wound carefully pared smooth and coated with a solution of shellac in alcohol.* * “ Take a quart of alcohol and dissolve it in as much gum shellac as will make a liquid of the consistence of paint. Apply this to the wound with a common painter’s brush; always paring the wound smoothly first with a knife. The liquid becomes perfectly hard, adheres closely, excludes the air perfectly, and is affected by no changes of weather; while at the same time its thinness offers no a 124 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. The shoot a@ is cut off at the line, as shown, or just above the lowest good bud. Next season, B will appear as shown in Fig. 20, and the same routine as that first described much be again gone over. If we should be unable to obtain the shoot wat the time it is wanted (which, however, will not happen once in twenty times), we must leave the old spur and obtain a shoot from the base of last year’s fruit- ing cane. : After a number of years (say six to ten), it may be found advisable to extend the vines. This may be done either by removing every second one, or by raising the trellis. In the latter case it will be best, in order to secure an equal distribution of the sap, to lay down two courses of horizontal arms and allow the vertical, or bearing canes, to extend only’ half-way up the trellis. The proper arrangement for this, is shown in Fig. 25, where it will be seen that the horizontal arms of every second vine are extended both ways, so as to cover double their usual space. The stem of the centre vine is carried up to the middle of the trellis and arms from it laid down, of the same length as the resistance to the lip of the new bark that gradually closes over the wound. If the composition is kept in a well-corked bottle, suffi- ciently wide mouthed to admit the brush, it will always be ready for use and suited to the want of the moment.”—Downing. SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 125 lower ones. The fruiting canes are produced and treated in the manner just described. c 5 . (-) { i] t Sa MESS if Po al Fig. 25. In order to effect the change, the lower arms may be extended by laying down the outer fruit canes of last year and pruning their junction with the old wood so as to leave a continuous rod. To produce the upper arms, however, it will, we think, be found best to cut the vines down to the ground and train up new stems, arms and verticals. The loss of time incurred will be more than repaid by the increased vigor and health of the vine. That the general system of culture here laid down 126 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. is the best for all ordinary purposes, we are firmly convinced. The extent allowed to the vine during its first few years, is amply sufficient for the produc- tion of an abundant crop, while at the same time the vine is so far kept within bounds, that every bud is pushed with vigor. And this will be found to be one of the most important points connected with the proper training of the vine. For when the balance between the vital forces of the plant and the extent to which it is allowed to extend, is greatly disturbed, as exemplified in the opposite extremes of stake train- ing and total neglect, nothing but debility on the one hand, and the inordinate production of wood to the exclusion of fruit on the other, can result. PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 127 CHAPTER VIII. GENERAL THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING AS AP- PLIED tO THE GRAPE VINE. In the preceding chapters we have given minute directions for that particular system of pruning and training, which we believe to be best adapted to our native grapes. It is now our purpose to detail those general principles which apply to all modes of prun- ing and training, and to describe a few of those pecu- liar systems which have been founded upon them. I. The first principle upon which all correct prun- ing, whether of the vine or any other tree, must be based, is that the sap always tends to the extremities of the branches. From this, it follows that unless the balance be- tween the roots and branches of the vine be eare- fully and accurately adjusted, all the lower portion of the old wood will become devoid of spurs or bear- ing shoots, and unless the portion of the wall or trel- lis over which it is trained is otherwise occupied, the space will be left practically vacant. Experience has also shown that there is no practi- 128 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. cal limit to this law—that is, that the distance to which the sap may be propelled exceeds any limits to which it is ever necessary to carry it. “Tf the shoots of the vine are trained along a con- siderable extent of wall, the branches spread out much wider, and the berries attain a larger size. This property of the vine, although known to experienced gardeners, is not taken advantage of as it ought to be. A vine might be trained horizontally under the cop- ing of a wall to a great distance, and by inverting the bearing shoots, the spaces between the other fruit- trees and the top-of the wall could readily be filled — up, and if different vines were inarched to the hori- zontal branch, the south wall of a large garden might be furnished with a variety of sorts from the stem and root of a single plant, the roots ef which would not encumber the border in which the other fruit- trees are. growing. I have an experiment of this kind now in progress in my garden. Within a few years past, | have gradually trained bearing branches of a small black cluster grape, to the distance of near fifty feet from the root, and I find the bunches every year grow larger, and ripen earlier as the shoots con- tinue to advance. “ According to Mr. Knight’s theory of the circula- lation of the sap, the ascending sap must necessarily become enrivhed by the nutritious particles it meets en eS be ea en tee ae Se PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 129 with in its progress through the vessels of the albur- num ; the wood at the top of the tall trees, therefore, “becomes short-jointed and full of blossom buds, and the fruit there situated attains its greatest perfection. ' Hence, we find pine and fir-trees loaded with the finest cones on the top boughs, the largest acorns grow on the terminal branches of the oak, and the finest mast on the high boughs of the beech and chestnut; so, likewise, apples, pears, cherries, etc., are always best flavored from the top of the tree But I suppose there are certain limits, beyond which ~ the sap would be so loaded with nutriment, that it could not freely circulate.” The sap being determined so powerfully to the extremities of the branches, the most unremitting attention is required upon the part of the vine dresser, so that the bearing shoots may be equally distributed along the entire plant and an equal amount of nutriment directed to each. But if through negligent management the bearing shoots or spurs are allowed to die out on the lower part of the vine, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to replace them. By judicious pruning, the entire head of the vine may be so reduced that there will be abundant nutri- ment-for all the buds, and by promptly and carefully stopping the more vigorous shoots, the sap may be Ke 130 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. so directed to the weaker ones that no difficulty of this kind need occur. Il. In this connection, we may consider a rule— which is laid down as a principle, however, by most arboricultural authorities—the buds are developed with greater vigor upon a branch which is cut short, than upon one which is left long. This is true, but must be accepted with limitations. If there be two shoots springing from the same stem, one being pruned short and the other long, the buds on the long branch will be developed with the great- est vigor. If, however, the shoots be upon different stems, the buds upon that which is pruned most closely will push most strongly. This we might anticipate, from the fact that there is more root power (if we may use the expression) to a given number of buds. But experiment would lead us to believe that if the lower buds are removed so that the same number of eyes are left on both, the longest would have the advantage—at least at first. But as sap moves with greater difficulty through old than through young wood, the shortest shoot soon overtakes its companion and outstrips it. This prin- ciple is well exemplified in the rampant growth of those suckers which spring from old vines near the ground. They will frequently grow twenty or thirty feet in a season, while the strongest shoots at the PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 181 extremities of the old branches do not exceed from five to eight. Upon these principles is founded the rule which directs us to cut back plants which have made a weak growth, or have become old, gnarled and hard, so that they may throw up strong, vigorous shoots. Ill. The sap supplied by the roots must be elabo- rated by the leaves, before it is fitted for the forma- tion of wood or fruit, and the development of the roots is in direct proportion to the increase of leaves. From this, it follows: 1st. That it is injurious to remove the leaves from the plant, with a view to ripen the fruit by the admission of sun and air (this point has been fully discussed, page 110, e¢ seg). 2. That during the first two years’ growth of the plants, the production of leaves should be encouraged as much as possible, so as to aid in the development of roots. Hence the plants should be carefully tied up, so as to preserve the leaves clean, active and unin- jured, and abundant light and air should be furnished, so that they may be able to perform their part with efficiency. This being the case, it may be asked why we advise the stopping of the laterals which certainly form leaves, and hence must increase the growth of the roots. Two reasons may be given for the practice either of which are ample. The first is that it is not the leaves, per se, which do good, but their action on 182 - OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE, the sap, to effect which, they must be supplied with air and light. Now, if the leaves on the laterals are allowed to grow, they crowd the foliage at the base of the plant, so that many of the leaves are partially shaded, while if these laterals are prevented from growing, the sap which would be absorbed by them goes to the elongation and enlargement of the main stem, by which the leaves are disposed over a greater surface and consequently maintain a more vigorous action. And, as during the first two years at least, the production of canes well ripened in their whole length, is no object, seeing that they are all to be cut away at the winter pruning, the vines should not be stopped, but should be allowed to grow to the end of the season. For as the roots require a certain degree of warmth to enable them to grow, and as the earth is in the best condition as regards temperature, just vat the close of the growing season, it is best to main- tain a vigorous action in the roots at that time—a ‘time when they can make the most of it. | The second reason is, that the sap, as before stated, flows most vigorously through stout, free-growing shoots. Now, by removing the laterals, we increase the vigor of the main stem as well as its size, and hence not only obtain an enlarged, but. a more suitable channel for the sap to flow in. The conse. quence is, that a well trained shoot will far exceed the PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 1338 aggregate of the same shoot and its laterals, if it be neglected during its growth. IV. The more the sap is impeded in its course, the less vigorous will. be the shoots produced, but the greater the tendency to bear fruit. This is exempli- fied in the pear-tree, where the branches are bent in order to produce: fruit buds, and also in the common practice of bending the canes of the vine into bows and spirals, so that the buds may burst equally and produce fruit. V. Whatever tends to diminish ihre vigor of the shoots and to force the sap into the fruit, enlarges the size and improves the flavor of the latter. Upon this law depends the practice of summer pruning, which has been fully discussed in a previous chapter. And as it is necessary not only to diminish the vigor of the shoots, but to force the sap thereby saved into the fruit, the object of destroying all fruit- less shoots (in bearing vines) is obvious, as well as the necessity of attending to the health of the roots. Such are the general principles which should regu- late the proper pruning of all trees; though they have been expressed chiefly with reference to the vine. In pruning with a view to the production of fruit, however, it is necessary to know the peculiar fruit-bearing habit of the plant under consideration. Thus upon the peach, fruit is always borne upon the 134 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. last year’s shoots ; the pear bears its fruit upon spurs which have been formed during the previous year, upon old wood, and the fruit of the vine is always borne upon shoots of the current year, these shoots proceeding from either last year’s shoots, or wood, which is much older. The last assertion is one which conflicts with the statements of most of our pomolo- gists, and therefore it is incumbent upon us to give 3 some evidence of its truth. Thus, Barry says: “Tt must be observed, that the grape vine pro- duces its fruit on shoots of the current year produced from eyes on the previous year’s wood.” Du Breuil is more positive, and states that shoots which accidentally spring from old wood never pro- duce grapes. His words are: “Dans la vigne, les grappes sont attachées sur des bourgeons naissant sur les sarments formés pendant l’été précédent. Les bourgeons développés accidentellement sur le vieux bois ne portent jamais des grappes.” We were rather surprised at this assertion, as it appeared to contradict our own observation. But lest it might be that the shoots which we had in view, had been produced by the remains of last yedr’s rubbed out buds, we carefully watched a piece of old wood during one season, so as to assure ourselves that no buds had sprung from it between certain marked points. Next season the head of this old PRUNING GRAPE VINES. | 135 vine was pruned so severely as to cause several shoots to issue from the previously barren wood. Two of these bore fruit. In performing this experiment, we kept carefully in view the difficulties attendant upon bringing it to a successful result, and although we succeeded in getting fruit from only two out of nine shoots, still, this was sufficient to establish the point. In perform- ing it, care will be necessary to prune with sufficient severity to force the buds out of the barren wood, and yet to leave sufficient head to draw up the sap and prevent the too vigorous growth of the shoots after they are formed; otherwise the blossoms may change to tendrils. This experiment does not sug- gest any newer or better mode of pruning the vine, but it throws new light upon the laws which govern the formation of fruit buds, and exemplifies the fact that they are formed where the vital forces of the vine are so balanced that there is sufficient vigor and material to form fruit, and yet not so much rampant growth as to rob the blossoms of their necessary nutriment and convert them into tendrils. That they are so convertible, every cultivator is aware, for it often happens that the hopes of the unskillful vine-dresser are disappointed—his fine show of blossom buds, turning out nothing but ten- drils. 136 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. We believe the converse of this was first shown by Knight, from whose papers we make the following extract: “Every bunch of grapes commences its formation as a tendril, and it’is always within the power of every cultivator to occasion it to remain a tendril. The blossoms are all additions, the forma- tion of which is always dependent upon other agents ; and if any considerable part of the leaves be taken off the branch prematurely, or if the vine be not sub- jected to the influence of the requisite degree of heat and light, the tendrils will permanently retain their primary form and office; and it is very frequently observable, when much of the foliage of fruit-trees has been destroyed, by insects, or when the previous season has been cold and wet, that blossoms are not formed at all, or are feeble and imperfect, and consequently abortive. “The tendrils of the vine, in its internal organiza- tion, is apparently similar to the young succulent shoot and leaf stalk of the same plant, it is abun- dantly provided with vessels, or passages for the sap, — and it is alike capable of feeding a succulent shoot or a leaf when grafted upon it. It appears, therefore, not improbable, that a considerable quantity of the moving fluid of the plant passes through its tendrils ; and that there is a close connection between its vas- cular structure and its motions.” ae ee Pena ee en ee PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 137 The various systems of vine pruning which have been founded upon these general principles, may be classified according to the part of the vine from which the fruit buds are produced. Thus, if we suppose A to be a shoot of last year; B a spur two years old, and - oa branch three years old, then we may by judicious pruning obtain fruit, first from the plump buds a @ on the young cane a; secondly from the buds b ¢ near its base; thirdly from the buds e which will be found at its junction with the spurs; and fourthly from buds situated at 7, that is at the junction of the spur B with the branch oc. In the latter case, how- ever, if the spur B is old and has borne several shoots like a it will require some skill and very favorable 138 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. circumstances to procure fruit from the buds at f. But if 8 be always kept short, and no shoots be al- lowed except from its base, no difficulty of this kind willarise. Following this arrangement, then, we have: ~ I. The long-rod renewal system. I. The long-spur system. Il. The short, or secondary-spur system. IV. The close-cut, or primary spur system. This system of classification we believe to be the - only true one, although we are not aware that it has been adopted by any preceding author. Each of these four systems is not only distinct, but it may be adapted to almost any system of training, while none of them-can be well combined in the same vine, un- less the power of the roots is greatly in excess over the extent of the branches. Suppose, for example, on a vine with a well balanced head, a few long rods are left. No buds will start from the base of the spurs. But if all parts are treated alike, the eyes will break equally and in general will be all fruitful. The facility with which this principle may be explained and enforced is greatly increased by a clear and sys- tematic classification, such as we have given above, and most authors have been aware of the importance of such a classification.; but if the reader will com- pare the attempts of Loudon, who depends in his PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 139 classification, not only upon the system of pruning, but of training; of McIntosh, whose three systems are “the spur,” “the long-rod,” and “the irregular ” forms; of McPhail, who has the “ fruit-tree method ;” “the spurring-in system” and “ the long-rod sytem ;” of Von Babo, who has “head pruning,” “limb prun- ing,” “frame pruning,” and several sub-varieties named after the localities in which they have been adopted ; and most of our American authors, who have simply the renewal and spur methods, with that given ' above, we think he cannot but give his preference to the latter. And as allsystems of pruning with which we have ever met may be easily referred to one or the other of our four classes, we will describe them in detail and give a few illustrations of each, as derived from the practice of our best growers. I. The long-rod or renewal system is generally attributed to Clement Hoare, who adopted it in his “Practical treatise on the Cultivation of the Vine,” and as he has not seen fit to give the credit of it to prior authors, most of his readers have awarded it to him. But it is substantially the “new method” of Switzer; the alternate system of Speechly, and the “new and experimentally proved superior method” of Kecht. It is certainly very old, though it is still commonly called the “new method.” The system which we have adopted as the best for 140 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. vineyards and gardens in the northern States where our natwe vines are cultivated is substantially the | system explained by Hoare. The system pursued in Ohio and in many European vineyards, is also a modification of the long-rod system, but as: we pro- pose to give a full accouut of Ohio vine culture amongst our examples of American vineyard prac- tice, we need not dwell upon it here. The following are a few of the most elegible modi- fications which have been proposed : Mr. John Mearns, in the Horticultural Transactions, (vol. iv.) describes a system which is not only well adapted to the hot-house culture of the vine, but is — one of the best with which we are acquainted where it is desired to fruit quickly, a great variety of grape vines in a small place. This method is as follows: “My method of managing vines is insome respects — different from any other with which I am acquainted ; by it I have never failed, for the last eleven years, to obtain invariably the same luxuriant crops, although I have never allowed above one-third of the bunches which showed themselves to remain on the vine ; and each succeeding crop has been ag uniform as if the branches had been placed, artificially, over the whole roof. I have no doubt but, under the same treat- ment, the vines will continue to be equally produe- tive for.any length of time. The shoots are so vigor- PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 141 ous that their girth is, generally, at the end of the season, from an inch and a half to an inch and three | quarters. The branches, in their most luxuriant growth, never appear in any confusion, even to those who are but little skilled in the cultivation of grapes, and the method is so simple, that it may be described with the assistance of figures, so as to be perfectly com- prehended by any person in the least acquainted with the nature of the vine. I have never deviated from it since I planted the vines in the spring of 1806. “My vines were planted two feet and a half apart, and being watered to settle the earth round their balls, I headed them down to within a foot of the soil, as here represented. “T only allowed one shoot to proceed from each plant the first year; rubbing off all the others before they had completely burst into leaf, the uppermost be- ing the oneI retained. In the course of the summer I watered them with soft pond water, as I found they wanted it, and frequently with drainings from the farm-yard, and with soap suds, when I could procure any. “ During the first summer, the vines made quite as 142 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. much progress as I could have expected, and their different degrees of vigor were nearly in proportion to the state ofthe roots when planted. When the leaves had fallen in the end of the year, I eut them down to the second or third eye, when they had this appearance. (Fig. 28.) “In the beginning of the succeeding February, I ex- cited them gradually into action by a little fire heat, and when the buds were ready to burst I rubbed all off but the two finest on each plant ; the strongest of these I intended to furnish bearing wood for the lower half of the roof for the following year. The most feeble of the two was cut down to the second or third eye, at the end of the season, and at the same time the strongest shoot was reduced to eight feet, being the length of the lower half of the rafter. Whilst they were growing during the second sum- mer, I kept the shoots regularly trained upward, di- vesting them of tendrils and laterals. I only allowed the strongest of the two leading shoots to run about AS, four or five joints beyond the middle of the aa Ex, PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 143 roof (where I intended to cut them at their winter pruning), according to the vigor of the different shoots; and then I pinched off their tops, in order to strengthen the eyes for the ensuing season. The weaker shoots I only suffered to run about three four, or five feet, according to their strength, and I then pinched off their tops, never allowing them to push _ above two or three eyes from the same place, during the remainder of the season, without pinching them back ; and then retaining only a’single eye, unless I found it necessary, in consequence of the vigor of the D bg 2, Dy Fig. 29, vine. I kept the laterals stopped back also to the first leaf, At the fall of the leaf, I cut the leading shgo \ 144 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. at the middle of the rafter, and the lower one at the the eye, as is here represented. (Fig. 28.) “The preceding sketch represents four separate _ vine-plants, at the end of the second season after they had been planted, when the strongest shoot had been headed down to the middle of the rafter p, and the weakest shoot to o. In the third season, I carefully preserved the upper- most shoot from the end of my bearing branch at p, as a leader to furnish the upper part of the rafter with bearing wood for the next year; and I also trained upward the leading shoot from the bottom spur 0, which I intended should become the bearing branch for the lower half of the roof in the follow- ing season. I was careful that none of the tops of these leaders should meet with accident, till they had reached their destination for the season—that was about three or four joints beyond where they were intended to be cut down, to the winter pruning. Ail the buds on the bottom spur co, were rubbed .off, except the leading one. As I bore in mind the neces- sity of a bottom spur to produce a succession shoot from the bottom in the following year, which was necessary to the regularity of the system I contem- plated, I selected one of the most convenient buds for my purpose, from the bottom of the old stems, all of which were now putting out several buds; but I z fa ee! ee! eS eee ee PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 145 suffered none except the selected one, to remain long after it had made its appearance. The management of the young shoots of the year was, in this and the following seasons, the same as I have before detailed. “Tn the autumn of this, the third season, the lower half of the house was furnished with a crop of ripe _ grapes upon the wood of the preceding year, and parallel to it on each vine grew a young shoot, intended to bear the lower crop the next year; whilst the upper half of the house had single shoots trained from the end of the bearing wood, which shoots were also to bear a crop the next year; and besides these, a third shoot on each vine had been trained from the bottom bud, which I had not removed, and which were about four feet in length, having been treated as the weaker shoots in the second year’s management, which I have described, and to which they were similar. When this half crop was gathered and the leaves had dropped, I cut off the top leaders level with the uppermost wire of the house to which they were tied, and the lower leaders level with the middle of the roof (the top and bottom leaders, or bearing wood for the next sea- son, being each eight feet long), and the bottom or weak shoot, above described, was cut down to the second or third eye, as the lower shoot had been cut in the preceding winter. All the spurs of the lowe 7 146 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 147 part of the shoot, which had now reached the top of the house and had borne the crop of grapes, were “ eut clean out. The following was the appearance of the same four vines, after they had been pruned in the third winter, when they were in a state to pro- duce their fufl crop in the following season. (Fig. 30.) In the fourth summer a full crop was produced both in the upper and lower half of the house; the longer shoot p bore its bunches on the upper half of its length, and it was not suffered to extend itself by a leading shoot ; the shorter shoot o bore its bunches on its whole length, and extended itself by a leading shoot to the top of the house ; the spur = was suffered to become a shoot, extending a few joints beyond half the length of the rafter, and from the bottom of the old wood a weaker shoot, as before, was trained, to become the foundation.of the lower shoot of the next season. In the pruning season, p, which had become the longest branch in the previous winter, was entirely cut away from the bottom; the shorter branch c, which had now become the longest, was stripped of its spurs on its lower half of the old wood, and its upper half was left for bearing ; thé extended spur n, became the lower bearing branch, and the weak shoot F (Fig. 31.) at the bottom, was reduced to a spur, to furnish the lower wood for the next year. The following figure represents the plants after 148 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. a == PRUNING GRAPE VINES.. 149 being pruned the fourth season, the sides being reversed. With this alternation of pruning, the system has been continued to the present time, and may con- tinue as long as it shall be desirable to have the house in bearing. During the last four years, I have stopped the bearing branches at the bunch, instead of the next joint above it, which is the usual practice; for I found that the fruit did equally well and it divested the branch of an incumbrance, while it allowed a much larger portion of light to come into the house, — together with a more free circulation of air among the fruit and young wood. 1 blind all the eyes on each fruit spur as soon as they push, except the uppermost, which I retain to draw up the sap to nourish the fruit. I never suffer them to push above a joint or two, before I pinch them back, always cautiously retaining an eye. By constant stopping, the eyes soon increase to a large cluster, when I frequently find it expedient to pinch out a great part of them with my finger nails, unless Isee danger of its exciting my next year’s fruiting eyes to burst prematurely. I am particularly cau- tious that nothing shall happen to injure the leaf that accompanies the bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit, of course, will come to nothing. 150 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. ‘During the summer I inspect the vines regularly every morning; seeing that the ends of my leaders VA N A INANE 1 WAYA VV Vy Wa Fig. 82. are in their proper places, and not obstructed; pick- ing off tendrils and stopping the laterals above the Fig. 33. first leaf, on my next year’s bearing wood, tying down fruit spurs carefully, and stopping any shoot that may have sprung from the ends of them; as PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 151 well as other shoots that may come out from the pre- viously stopped laterals. Fig. 82 shows a simple method of training wines to a trellis formed of light stakes or a couple of wires. If trained on the plan shown in Fig. 33 neither stakes nor trellises will be required. i Il. The long-spur system is that upon which old vines are trained, and consists in cutting the young 152 OPEN AIR GRAPE OULTURE. wood the previous year, back to three or four eyes, all weak shoots and dead wood being removed. Sir J. Paxton, in the “ Gardener’s Chronicle ” for 1842, gives the following directions for pruning vines on the spur system. The cut there given (Fig. 34) has been often reproduced, but in general it has been soreduced that the character of the shoots is not clearly seen : ; “It represents a portion of the vine when pruned in autumn, on the spur system, with short rods of five or six eyes each, left at convenient intervals on the oldest branches throughout the vine. The per- pendicular main shoots should not be less than two feet apart, and when pruning them no useless eyes should be left, that is, no eye should be allowed to remain but where a shoot is desired in the following season. By attending to this, the vine will not have to develop (as is usually the case), an immense quan- tity of superfluous branches ; and although the ope- ration may appear a tedious one at the time of prun- ing, an immense saving of labor and time may be effected at a busier period in the spring, and the quantity of fruit may be easier regulated in propor- tion to the strength of the vine. If this is attended to, nothing will be required in the summer but securing the young fruit-bearing shoots to the wall, and shortening them to one joint above the bunch ot RES a PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 153 as soon as the fruit is set, excepting the leading shoots, which should not be stopped until the lower part is ripened ; otherwise the main eyes for the next season may be induced to grow prematurely. In autumn the young wood from the spurs is shortened back to one, or at most, to two eyes, and the terminal shoots in proportion to their strength; but for the strongest wood, from eight to twelve eyes will be found as many as will break well. “ When commencing to train a young vine in this manner, the side branches should not be brought to the horizontal position at first, but lowered gradually as the number of suitable branches for upright stems are obtained; by this means they acquire strength faster than if trained horizontally at first.” It is obvious that this system is nearly the same as the long rod, or renewal system—the difference being that instead of taking several of the upper buds on each young cane, we use only one and have a great many canes or spurs. The only real advantage to be derived from it (so far as we are able to judge), and that upon which its distinctive features is founded, is that the buds from which the next year’s crop is to be obtained are always well ripened. We would, therefore, prefer it to the first system, where the vines are tender, or the climate unfavorable, and deem it of sufficient impor- Y by - 154 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. tance to give in detail a method of treating the spurs during a series of years. Fig. 35. Fig. 85 (4) shows a.portion of a youngcane which may either form part of the vertical branches on a | trellis, or the single stem of a young vine. The first season of fruiting, the tendrils should be cut off and — the buds thinned to from six to ten inches apart, depending upon the vigor of the variety ; and so the £ : they will be alternately on different sides of the cane, thus leaving the buds on each side from 12 to 20 — PPT IT ee eer i aletles cate Tok hy Fig. 36. inches apart. Not more than four or five buds should be left on a cane during the first season. ~ “PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 155 At the close of the first season, after the leaves have fallen, the cane will present the appearance shown in Fig. 36. Here a is the main cane; Bis the shoot produced by the buds on Fig. 35 ; and o is a bud atthe base of thisshoot. Prune the shoot B to one plump bud, as shown in the figure and allow the bud c to push and form a shoot; stopping it, however, as soon as it has made a few leaves. Fig. 37, Next season we will have the shoot p, (Fig. 37) with several nice, plump buds, and the old spur B, with its shoot which bore fruit last year. Out p back to one -or two eyes, and cut B away entirely. The buds on p will push and bear fruit, and a bud will, no doubt, push from the base to form the spur for next year. _ Fig. 88 shows the next winter pruning. From this description, it is obvious that we must, each year, have eyes to produce, not only fruit, but a 156 OPEN AIR GRAPE OULTURE. young cane, which will form the spur for next year. If we depend for this spur upon last year’s fruiting Fig. 38. shoots, our spur will soon become so long, and our vine so encumbered with old wood as to be quite unmanageable, unless we adopt the system to be next described : III. Here we depend for our fruit upon buds pro- ceeding from the base of last year’s fruiting shoot, this fruiting shoot being borne upon a spur attached to the main branch. This is the system of pruning adopted at Thomery, and as no good description of it is be found in any American publication with which we are acquainted, we give the very full and lucid account by M. Dubreuil—a translation of which may be found at the close of the volume. . IV. In the short-spur, or Thomery system, the fruit-bearing shoot proceeds from a spur on the main a spur tion of last ye branch. juue main ae ae is . a8 h th the g ch altl proceed | from the shoot wi fof oS, ms . 5 » 3 7 ; = : : 7 arm 5 ; : . : : é w~ Ps Me » ~ ‘ a “) * FN sa : Fi : oct * a - a m2 v « Pe em { > ‘ ~ ¥ 3 if : : . . z \ ‘ <. : < . 158 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. > CHAPTER IX. WALLS AND TRELLISES—THEIR INFLUENCE AND CON- STRUCTION. AursnoueH the influence of the various forms of walls, trellises and stakes upon the growth and matu- rity of the vine depends somewhat upon the systemf pruning and training pursued in connection with — them, still, it cannot be doubted but that their forms and the materials of which they are made also exert an influence which is by no means to be disregarded. In this country, walls devoted to the culture of the vine have not been used to a sufficient extent, to afford reliable data as to the benefit to be derived from them. Many single vines, however, are trained on the ends of houses and along board fences, and from a careful examination of several such examples, we are inclined to believe that in exposed situations the erection of cheap walls would pay well, even in vine- yards. When vines are judiciously trained in front of brick walls and at a few inches’ distance from them, the grapes uniformly ripen sooner than those on WALLS AND TRELLISES. 159 exposed trellises. The wood also is more perfectly matured, and this, during a succession of years, exerts a considerable and favorable influence on the vine. The effect of walls doubtless depends upon two causes, one being the higher temperature produced by the radiation from the surface of the solid wall, and the other being the protection from wind and storms which such a structure affords. ' That the latter point is one of material importance, we are well satisfied, for however essential ventilation may be to the healthy growth of the vine, all violent winds and cold blasts are to be studiously avoided. A striking instance of this is to be seen in the gar- den of a gentleman of this city. Several vines are there trained along the east side of a high board fence, and although the same judicious and systematic care is given to all parts of the vines, yet the finest fruit is uniformly found a foot or two below the top of the fence. Now when we remember that on all open trellises the finest grapes are found at the ¢op, since all trees produce the best fruit at the extremities of the branches, we must attribute no mean effect to the protection afforded by the fence, since the boards of which it is composed can scarcely be supposed to retain and radiate much heat, and its height (about eight feet) is not sufficient to include the limit to which vines may be judiciously carried. 160 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. “The actual temperature to which a tree trained upon a wall facing the sun is exposed is much higher than that of the surrounding air, not.only because it receives a larger amount of the direct solar rays, but because of the heat received by the surrounding earth, reflected from it and absorbed by the wall itself. Under such circumstances the secretions of the plant are more fully elaborated than in a more shady and colder situation, and by aid of the greater heat and dryness in front of a south wall, the period of maturity is much advanced. In this way we suc- ceed in procuring a Mediterranean or Persian sum- mer in these northern latitudes. ** When the excellence of fruit depends upon its sweetness, the quality is exceedingly improved by such an exposure to the sun; for it is found that the quantity of sugar elaborated in a fruit is obtained by an alteration of the gummy, mucilaginous, and gela- tinous matters previously formed in it, and the quan- tity of those matters will be in proportion to the amount of light to which the tree, if healthy, has been exposed. Hence the greater sweetness of plums, pears, etc., raised on walls from those grown on standards. It has been already stated that an increase of heat has been sought for on walls by blackening them, and we are assured in the ‘ Horti- cultural Transactions’ (III. 330) that, in the cultiva- WALLS AND TRELLISES. 161 tion of the grape, this has been attended with the best effects. But, unless when trees are young, the wall ought to be covered with foliage during the sum- mer, and the blackened surface would scarcely act, and in the spring the expansion of the flowers would be hastened by it, which is no advantage in cold, late springs, because of the greater liability of early flowers to perish from cold. That a blackened surface does produce a beneficial effect upon trees trained over it is, however, probable, although not by hastening the maturation of the fruit; it is by raising the temperature of the wall in autumn, when the leaves are falling, and the darkened surface becomes uncovered, that the advantages are perceived by a better completion of the process of growth, the result of which is the ripening the wood. This is indeed the view taken of it by Mr. Harrison, who found the practice necessary, in order to obtain crops of pears in late seasons at Wortley, in Yorkshire (see ‘ Hort. Trans.’ II. 330 and VI. 453.) It hardly need be added that the effect of blackening will be in propor- tion to the thinness of the training and vice versa.” —Lindley. The articles referred to by Lindley, being short and practical, it may be well to transcribe them. Henry Dawes writes thus to Sir Joseph Banks: “I take the liberty of communicating to you my remarks Aa Se ee SECT a Saree 162 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. on a. garden wall, on which I have been making experiments at Slough. It faces the south, and against it, about the middle, a young grape vine*is trained. ‘Two years ago I covered a portion of the wall with thick black paint. The vine was divided into two equal parts, one half was trained on the painted, and the other on the plain wall. The sea- son was so unfavorable last year, that scarcely any out-door grapes came to perfection; but those in the blackened part of the wall were much finer than those on the plain part. This year the success of my expe- riment has been complete. The weight of fine grapes gathered from the blackened part of the wall” was 20 Ibs. 10 oz., while the plain part yielded only 7 lbs. 1 oz., being little more than one-third of the other. The fruit on the blackened part of the wall was also much finer, the bunches were larger and ripened better than on the other half; the wood of the vine was likewise stronger and more covered with leaves on the blackened part. “Tt is a generally known fact, that a black, unpo-— lished surface absorbs more rapidly than other colors the sun’s rays, and thereby becomes sooner heated. It is equally well known that surfaces which absorb heat more quickly, part with it more easily when the source of heat is withdrawn, and cool quicker. In the summer time, when the days are long, the wall WALLS AND TRELLISES. 163 will be more intensely heated under the blackened surface, and the night (or time of cooling) being short, it may not have returned to the temperature of the air, before it is again subjected to an increase of heat. If the time of cooling were long enough, that part of the wall under the blackened surface, might become actually cooler than the part not blackened, and thus _ the extremes of heat and cold be greater than when the wall was left with its usual surface. . In the sum- mer time, however, the wall is not only more in- tensely heated, but probably retains a great portion of the heat during the night. “ Horticulturists will decide which of these two causes is efficient in producing the effect I have stated, or whether both may not codperate ; it is not for me to presume to do so, though I should be inclined to think, that in this climate, the intensity had more influence than the uniformity.” Chas. Harrison, gardener at Wortley Hall, York- shire, gives the following directions for blackening walls : “When ‘the leaves have fallen in the autumn, I take the earliest opportunity to loosen the tree from the wall and to prune them; the wall is then colored with coal-tar, mixing with every gallon of the tar one pint of linseed oil, in order to prevent it having a shining surface when dry. It is more necessary to 164 OPEN AIR GRAPE OULTURE. make this addition in the hotter parts of the kingdom than it is here, but even here it is essential in hot summers, for when the sun shines strongly on the wall with a shining black surface it has appeared to me to scorch those shoots which touch the wall; but this does not happen when the color is rendered opaque by the mixture of the oil as recommended. If the wall has not been previously colored, I give it a second coat as soon as the first is dry. In laying on the color care is taken that the liquid is not sprinkled upon the trees, for it would close up the pores of the wood and consequently do injury. “After the wall is colored I allow the trees to remain loose from the wall until the coal tar has set (unless strong winds prevail, in which ease I secure the main limbs and branches~to the wall), in order that the shoots may not be damaged by coming in contact with it before it is dry. When the wall has become moderately dry, I nail the trees to it. A wall of sound bricks will not require recoloring more than once in ten years. Ooal tar being very cheap, a wall of considerable extent may be colored for a trifling sum. Any dark-colored paint will answer the same purpose, but it is far more expen- sive, and requires renewal more frequently. “The dark color, absorbing the rays of the sun, the wall acquires at least ten degrees of heat more than {2 WALLS AND TRELLISES. 165 the walls not colored, as directed; thus affording great assistance in maturing the buds upon fruit-bear- ing shoots, so that the trees may be productive. In cold and wet seasons, without such aid, I should not. have been able to obtain ripe buds upon fruit-trees under my care. This I have had ample proof of by the unfruitfulness of those trees which are against walls not colored, at the same time that trees against colored walls were abundantly fruitful. The wall being colored is also a preventive of insects harboring in it and also tends to keep it dry. “The growth of young trees is much promoted by the coloring and they are sooner brought to a supply of fruitful buds.” In all cases in which vines are trained in front of walls or fences, it is important that a space of from six to twelve inches be left between the wall and the trellis to which they are fastened. If trained direetly to the wall, the vine will not only be subject to mil- dew, but ventilation will be materially interrupted. ” The bunches also, are liable to injury when lying against the surface of the wall. Walls may, of course, be constructed of any mate- rial, brick, stone or concrete. Brick is probably the most suitable material, though, as plain walls can be rapidly and cheaply built of concrete, it is probable that it might pay to erect them on an extensive scale 165 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. in some parts of the country. In the celebrated Thomery vineyards, the walls are built of clay with acap of thatch. It is probable that walls built of well made sun-burnt bricks would last a long time and answer a good purpose if properly protected by a ° cap or eave of board or straw. _ But, for all practical purposes, our reliance for vine- yard training, in the present state of our experience, must be upon properly arranged trellises. We will, therefore, give what we consider the best mode of con- structing them. — : If the vines have been planted two years previ6usly at distances of eight feet in the rows and the rows six feet apart, the first step to the erection of the trellises is to set up a post between each vine and slightly in advance of the rows, so as to facilitate bending the vines for winter protection.* These posts may be of such size and material as the vine dresser may pro- cure. Cedar, chestnut, locust or oak make the best, -and a good size is four inches deep (across the rows) and three inches thick. They should stand from seven to nine feet out of the ground and be sunk not less \e —than two and a half feet—if three feet, all the better. 3 The two posts at the ends of the rows must be placed so that they cannot be drawn inward. Various de- vices for effecting this are shown in Figs. 89 and 40. | * See page 107. WALLS AND TRELLISES. 167 One consisting simply of a piece of plank nailed across the post so as to afford a broad surface to lie against the earth. The other is secured by a brace, > — ‘Fig. 40. ‘which rests against a large stone sunk below the sur- face. The posts having been set in a straight line and reduced to a proper height, the next step will be to. nail two strips of wood, one along the top and the other at from 9 to 14 inches from the ground, or just at such a height that the head of the vine-stems 168 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. (from which the horizontal arms spring) may reach its upper edge when laid against it. If the trellis is over seven and a half feet high, it will be well to nail a third slat, equidistant between the two, though it is not absolutely necessary. The next step is to divide the spaces between the slats into equal parts of about 15 inches each. Thus if the trellis be seven _ and a half feet high, and two slats (the lower one ten © inches from the ground) we would divide into five spaces of 16 inches each. Ifnine feet high with three slats (the lower one twelve inches from the ground) we would divide each of the two spaces into three divisions of 16 inches each. Then take No. 12-16 annealed iron wire, twist a good loop on the end, and aving slipped it over a stout nail driven into the end ost, draw the wire along the posts, attaching it to each with a small staple well driven in until the last is reached, when the wire may be twisted round a nail or pin and the.loose end secured by a staple. Various devices have been proposed for drawing the wire tight and adjusting it for contraction and elongation according to the temperature, as is done in the construction of fences. But we are satisfied that there is no necessity for this, as the wire can be drawn over a stretch of eight feet tight enough for all practical purposes, while it will always be loose enough to allow of any contraction that can take ; ee ee ee ay WALLS AND TRELLISES. 169 place. The truth is, that the wires do not require to be so very tight ; even if they do have a little motion from the wind, it is not productive of any injury. Our method of putting up the wire is as follows: We first provide a pair of strong wooden pincers such as those shown in Fig. 41, the handles of which are at least 30 inches long, and having a piece of stout - sole leather tacked over the jaws. Fig. 41. Then having secured one end of the vine to the first post and uncoiled the roll, laying it on the ground, ai : 170 OPEN AIR GRAPE OULTURE. in front of the posts to which it is to be fastened we grasp it between the leather jaws of the pincers and step slowly back, straining it as much as possible un- til we are past the second post, when an assistant fastens it firmly with a small staple and we are again ready to step back to the next. By means of this contrivance, the wire can be laid on as tightly and smoothly as possible, for all the kinks are taken out by passing it through the leather jaws of the pin- cers, which should be well greased. It is necessary to go into the field provided with several sets of leathers, as they soon wear out, but are easily re- newed. They should be at least three inches broad, so as to straighten out the wire thoroughly. That wire is better than wooden slats there can be no doubt. It is less in the way, the vines cling to it more readily and the appearance is vastly superior. A pound of No. 12 wire will stretch across three posts (24 ft.) so that a trellis 8 feet high with two wooden slats and five wires, each 14 inches apart, will require 13lbs., which, at eight cents per lb., will cost about 13 or 14 cents. ‘As the cost of the wire is con- siderable, some cultivators do with less. Dr. Under- hill’s trellises are seven feet high with only three wires, and we believe no slats. But we prefer the arrange- ment just described, as we can thus tie in each shoot conveniently and regularly, and the wires at 14 inches WALLS AND TRELLISES. 171 are none too close to have a bearing shoot on each. When wire cannot be conveniently had, the follow- ing is a good mode of putting up a rough trellis. Set the posts as usual, and provide a number of slender split poles (hoop poles) and also a sufficient number of wire staples made of strong wire (No. 6 or 8 hard). Then secure the poles or slats to the posts by means of the staples, the ends of the poles being made to lap over each other so that two may | be fastened by one staple. The accompanying figure (42) will explain this better than words can describe. If the staples are a little less than the poles, the latter will be held very firmly. Nails will not answer, at ‘they are apt to split the poles, and we are inclined t think that, for ordinary slats, staples would be bette. than nails on this very account. If made square and light, they need not be unsightly, and the cost is not very. great. No directions need be given for the construction of 172 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. arbors, or those ornamental trellises usually erected in gardens, as their form and arrangement will vary with the taste of the possessor. A very neat, simple and efficient support fora sino vine trained on the spur system ixshown in Fig. 43. Fig. 48, It might be constructed so as to be removable when the vine is laid down for the winter. It has even been proposed to have a hinge at the foot of the trel- eee ae 7 ee Re ee En rly ee ens WALLS AND TRELLISES. 173 lis and lay down trellis and all. But this would be very injudicious. ? ‘ Stakes are frequently used in vineyards, and also in gardens, but do not present any feature which is not more immediately connected with the subject of training, than with that of the present chapter. The materials of which trellises, etc., should be made, will as often be governed by local cireum- stances as by any other consideration. As before stated, cedar, chestnut, locust and oak, are to be preferred for posts, and any tough, light and straight-grained. wood for slats. The posts may be charred, where they enter the earth, though we should prefer to soak them for an hour or so in boiling coal tar. This may be readily done in a large pot, or caldron, set up in the field over a temporary furnace. It will of course be wise to give the whole structure a couple of good coats of paint, especially the wire. The height to which trellises may be carried, depends upon two circumstances—the extent of their shadow and the influence of high training upon the vines. The latter point has been sufficiently dis- cussed, under the head of pruning and training, and we find that at a distance of six feet. no ordinary trellis will, in latitudes suited to the culture of the grape, shade its neighbor during the growing season. At other times, shade is not at all injurious. We had 174 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. prepared extensive tables, giving the distance to which shadows will be thrown by trellises of various heights, at different seasons of the year, and in dif- ferent latitudes; but omit them for the above rea- sons. The only limit which we would set to the height of a trellis, would be our ability to prune the vines and gather the fruit, with the aid of a light stool. Lad- ders are too unwieldy and involve too much labor, except for a few vines. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 175 CHAPTER X. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. Youne vine plants may be raised from seeds, eyes, or cuttings, or by layering or grafting, all which modes are in common practice, though some are only adapted to peculiar circumstances and objects. We shall give a few practical directions for each. Lavertne.—This is the mode in which large, thrifty vines may be most rapidly obtained; but it is by no means adapted to general use, where large quantities are required. To procure a young vine by layering, we take a cane of the preceding year, having a well advanced shoot; and about the middle of June, or first of July, cut it half through, as shown in Fig. 45. It is then bent down and pegged into a hole, about three or four inches deep. It should be well watered, and the application of a little mulch, consisting of long litter, new-mown grass, weeds, or any similar matter, will prove of much service. Roots wifl soon push, and at the proper time for transplanting, it will have formed a fine healthy plant. Larger and stronger 176 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. vines, which will in some cases bear the succeeding season, may be obtained by layering older and stronger shoots; but the most healthy and, we believe, the most vigorous, plants will be produced by follow- ing the directions just given. Instead of one plant, several may be obtained from Ven 7 1 [ ‘ | : : Pe oe - 5s vars aa price hte = 7 V4 a) WES w ; (A Fig. 44. the same layer, if it be simply buried its whole length, as in Fig. 44. Roots will start from each joint, and consequently each joint will form a plant. But where a single plant is wanted, the method shown in Fig. 45 will give the finest results. If very fine plants are wanted, in a short time, the best method is to sink a six-inch (or. larger) pot in the gronnd and layer the shoot in it. This is best done by first making a hole in the ground, sufficiently large to receive the pot; then by running the loop / PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 177 end of a doubled cord through the hole in the bot- tom of the pot, and passing a stick through the loop Fig. 45. or double, it will be easy to tie the shoot in any desired position. The whole process will be readily understood from an inspection of Fig. 46; and we much prefer this plan to pegging down the shoot, or laying on bricks or weights, as pegs are rather uncertain when used in pots, and bricks take up too much room to the prejudice of the roots. Q* 178 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. The young plant should be detached from the parent vine in about five or six weeks after layering, and may then be set out in its proper location. As this will be about the latter part of July, or the first of September, the vine will have plenty of time to become well established, and make good roots before winter sets in ; and it will form a strong plant, capa- ble of throwing up two permanent canes or producing a specimen bunch of fruit, during the succeeding sea- son—provided, of course, that the variety propagated is of a vigorous and prolific character. An Isabella vine, layered in this manner in an eight-inch pot, threw up, next season, two canes, one twelve and the other sixteen feet. Another, treated in the same way, bore sixteen bunches of fine fruit. In several instances, we have used common four-inch semi-tubular tile, instead of flowerpots, and with excel- lent results. They have the advantage of cheapness ; but, in other respects, the flower-pot is to be preferred. In somé cases, the shoot is drawn through the hole in the bottom of the pot; but although we have tried this in one or two instances, we have not found it _ either convenient or satisfactory. A bearing shoot, layered in a good sized pot, or in a common water-pail, may be made to produce a well-rooted plant, which will perfectly ripen several bunches of fruit the same season, even after being ~ PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 179 removed from the parent plant. This forms a very elegant and ornamental object ; but, except as a matter of curiosity, such a process is worthless. In rare instances, perhaps, specimen bunches might be grown Fig. 46. out of doors, and perfected in the house, thus avoid- ing numerous evils to which the finer varieties of the vine are subject in this climate. In all cases, it is essential that the layer be kept moist and warm. As ~ 180 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. the earth does not seem to be warm enough to induce _ the formation of roots, before June, it has occurred to us that very early and strong plants might be pro- duced by inserting the pot (Fig. 46) in a slight hot- bed. A few barrow loads of manure would answer every purpose; and by producing roots thus early, strong specimen plants might be procured more easily than by any other method. It may be well here to state that wood of any age from the oldest gnarled stems to the succulent growth of the current year will root if properly treated. We have always found, however, that the best and healthiest roots always spring from the junction of the old wood with the current year’s growth. It is recommended upon good authority (with which we in general coincide) to separate the plants from the old vine at least by the end of September, unless previously removed. In the case of some varieties, however (Diana, e¢. g.) this will not always answer, as roots are produced with such difficulty that two years are often required to make good plants. Currines.— Where large quantities of young plants of the common varieties are required, this is one of the cheapest and easiest methods of procuring them. Where wood is plenty, each cutting may consist of several buds or joints, asin Fig. 47. In ordinary cases, ae ee ee PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 181 however, a length of three buds is sufficient, and we have grown very good plants from cuttings of only. one joint in length—that is, having two buds. Indeed, the latter make by far the nicest and cleanest plants, and though not quite so strong at first as those from a greater number of eyes, yet we question if in the long run they would not prove quite their equals. Fig. 47. Cuttings to be good should-be of thrifty, well ripened, close jointed wood—long reedy canes and . spindling twigs being alike to be avoided. The best cuttings are those which have the base of the shoot attached, and this may be either as in Fig. 47, where the cutting has been cut away close to the old wood; or it may be a mallet cutting, as it is called, where a small section of the two-year-old wood is left, as in Fig: 48. The proper time for procuring cuttings is at the 182 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. regular fall or spring pruning. The cuttings may then be preserved in a cool cellar, either buried in mode- rately dry sand or simply laid on the floor and covered with straw or leaves. Excessive dryness or damp- ness are equally to be avoided, and the temperature should be low though never sufficient to freeze the fluids in the cutting. In this state they should be kept until the middle or end of April, as nothing is gained by setting them out at an earlier period. Indeed, we have found those which had been well preserved during the winter and set out in May do quite as well if not better than any others. In some experi- ments we used the previous year’s wood, cut from the vines when the young shoots had grown two inches, and yet in this case they grew finely and made strong plants. But of course this is not an example to be imitated except where it is desired to procure scions of some particular variety, and the opportunity for so doing occurs only at the period indicated. Such eut- tings should be set out as soon after being cut off as possible, and if the weather be dry and warm, shad- ing, watching and watering will all be necessary. In planting cuttings it is best to choose a plot of rather sandy soil (heavy soil will not do); trench it deeply, mixing it with manure thoroughly rotten and converted into a black mold. (Any decomposition going on in the soil will ruin the cuttings.) Then PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 183 plant the cuttings in rows twelve to eighteen inches apart and six to eight inches apart in the rows. They may be planted either in holes made by a dibble or laid in trenches made by the spade—the earth from the next trench being used to fill up the trench in which the cuttings are placed. Some authors direct us to place them perpendicularly, but we have always obtained the best results when they were placed as shown in Fig 49. In placing them, always be careful Fig. 49, to have the end bud which is out of the soil upper- most, and be careful that the end be cut with a slant, the same as that in the figure, so that it will not throw the rain on to the bud as in that case it may cause it to rot. In long cuttings the upper bud should be left about three inches above the surface of the soil, so that it may not be covered by the coat of mulch, which it is well to apply. Short cuttings must be inserted more deeply, but in all cases the bud should be uncovered unless in very late planting. We are aware that many advise the bud to be covered, but our own experience has been uniformly against it, 184 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Neither should several buds be left above the sur- face, as they can do no good and require constant watching, as it is important for reasons to be here- after detailed that only one shoot should be allowed ~ to grow. With cuttings of four or more buds, avery good rule is to place the second bud even with the surface of the ground. In this case the eutting should be turned one-fourth round from its position in~ Fig. 49 so that the two upper buds may lie one on each side. Another mode of planting cuttings is to make a hole with a dibble, and after inserting the cutting about two-thirds its length, bend it over and peg it down, as shown in Fig. 50, Fig. 50. Fig. 51. tig 51 shows a method of inserting cuttings which we have practised with success. As it is well known that a cutting will grow, no matter which end is stuck in the ground, a scion is taken containing at least three buds, and after bending it into a semicircular e en Oe oe PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 185 form, both ends are inserted in the ground, leaving the middle bud above the surface. As soon as this bud begins to grow, it will be supplied with nutri- meut from both ends and will make rapid progress. The plants produced by this method are very strong and if designed to remain where they are first set out they give very certain and satisfactory results. But they do not transplant well. The following plan described in Miller’s “ Gar- dener’s Dictionary” is one which we have tried with - success: “Having an Iron bar of an Inch or more in Diameter, a little pointed at the End, they there- with make a Hole directly down about three Feet and a Half deep ; then, being provided with an Instru- ment they call a Crucciala, having a Handle of Wood like that of a large Auger and the Body of Iron four Feet long and more than half an Inch in Diameter, at the End of which there is a Nich some- thing like a half moon, they after twisting the End of the Cutting, put it therein, and force it down the Bottom of the Hole, where they then leave it, and afterward fill up the Vacancy with fine sifted Earth or Sand; observing to tread the Earth close to the Plants, which otherwise (unless it be stiff Land) is often inclinable to be Loose and Dry, especially if Rain does not soon follow their Planting; and it is incredible how many Vines three Persons can in 186 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. this Manner plant in one Day, viz., upward of two - _ thousand.” Tn our own practice we simply make a deep hole, insert the cutting, fill up with dry sand and give a liberal supply of water. By inserting the cutting as deeply as here advised it is placed beyond reach of drought, though the lower portion rarely throws out roots unless the soil be very favorable. Eyrs.—Where the aid of a hot bed or propagating house can be obtained, eyes afford an easy and rapid mode of multiplying vines. They are usually cut about two inches long, containing only one bud, and are started in February or March in pots or boxes filled with a mixture of sand, leaf-mold, and soil. | The buds are’ either buried half an inch deep or placed even with the surface of the earth, according : Fig. 52. Fig. 58. to the ideas of‘the operator, and generally form strong plants, which may be set out in the open ground in June or July. Figs. 52 and 53 illustrate the position 5 » seen gure Seer ee. ey Saree | PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 187 of the cutting in relation to the soil. This method of propagating requires skill and great care and is seldom employed except by professional men. Grartine is seldom employed in the case of those common varieties which are easily raised from cut- tings or eyes. Diana and Delaware are, however, sometimes raised by this method, and to the amateur it is one of the most important processes, as by this means a new and rare variety can be fruited some years before a young plant would come into bearing. Loudon gives the following directions for performing . the operation : “Oleft grafting the vine is shown in Fig. 54, in which @ is a bud on the scion, and 6, on the stock, Fig. 54. both in the most favorable position for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual manner, except ing that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite 188 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. the eye of the scion, for its development. In graft- ‘ing the vine in this manner when the bud () on the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or fourteen days, ‘after which it is cut off, leaving only one bud and one leaf near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock. The time of grafting is when the stock is about to break into leaf, or when it has made shoots with four or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffer- ing from bleeding; though, if vines are in good health and the wood thoroughly ripened, all the - bleeding that takes place does little injury.” Root-grafting the vine is also frequently practised. For this purpose, saddle-grafting is most suitable, the scion being properly secured to the stock with waxed cloth or paper. ‘ Lindley, in the “ Gardener’s Chronicle,” states that the great secret of success in grafting the vine is to keep the scion dormant until the steck has so far developed its leaves and shoots as to be beyond the reach of danger from bleeding, His directions are as follows : “ Shorten the branch or shoot at the winter prun- ing, tothe most eligible place for inserting the graft. The graft should be kept in sufficiently moist soil till the time of performing the operation, and for a week i ae \ PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 189 previous in the same temperature as that in which the vines to be operated upon ‘are growing. When such portions of the latter as are shortened for receiv-. ing the grafts have made a bit of shoot, graft as you would other fruit-trees, taking care, however, to pre- serve the shoot at the top in claying, and till the buds on the scions have pushed, then shorten it back. . Inarching may be performed at any time after the vines have started, so far as not to bleed.” Speechly, however, names the middie of March as the best time for grafting the vine in the open air; and his directions are so lucid that we offer no apo- logy for quoting them: “Tn general, vines should be grafted about three weeks before they begin to break into bud. “Upon small stocks, not more than one inch in diameter, cleft grafting will be found the most pro- per; but upon larger stocks, whip grafting is to be preferred. “Tn both methods, much care should be taken in fitting the scion and stock together, and the operation should be performed with great exactness. “When the stock and scion are well fitted the graft should be fastened with the strands of bass matting, and should then be covered with clay in the _ usual way. “ Vines do not harmonize with so much freedom as 190 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. commoner fruit; for though the scion will sometimes begin to push in a few weeks, yet it will frequently remain ina dormant state for two or three months}; and during this period it will be necéssary to strip the stock of all the shoots it may produce, as soon as they appear; and, in order to preserve the scion in a vegetative state, it will be necessary to keep the clay moderately moist, which may easily be effected by wrapping it round with moistened moss, and keeping the moss constantly sprinkled. with water. “ When the scion has made. shoots five or six inches long, the clay and bandage should be carefully taken off; and the clay may be removed without injuring the graft, when it is in a moist state. “ Vines will frequently prove successful by both the above-mentioned methods, but still the most eligible way of all, seems to me, to be that of grafting by approach. Indeed, I have seldom known any plants miscarry, that have been grafted in this way. Now in this case, it is necessary to have the plant, intended to be propagated, growing in a pot. Strong plants that have been two or three years in pots are to be preferred, but plants from the nursery may be potted and grafted in the same season, if brought into a hot- house or vinery ; for the great warmth of either will generally cause plants, brought out of the open air, to push with vigor, and to form new roots, which will PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 191 support the plant, and greatly facilitate its forming a union with the stock. “T have constantly had fine grapes, and the grafts have made good wood, the first season, by every method of grafting, but particularly by the last. In which it is obvious that the graft has a double sup- port, viz.: from the stock, as well as from the plant in the pot. i “In this method it will be necessary to let the clay and bandage remain two or three months after the graft has formed a union; for if taken off at an earlier period, the grafted part of the plant will be very liable to spring from the stock. “The pot should be plentifully supplied with water till the month of August, when the graft should be separated from the plant in the pot. Two or three inches of wood below the bottom of the graft may be left, but should be taken clean off at the next winter’s pruning.” Grafting is a common practice in the vineyards of ~ France. Chaptal’s directions are as follows: _ “Having selected a healthy stock, it is, just when - the sap is beginning to flow, taken off with a clean - cut an inch or two below the surface of the ground. The upper portion of the stock, which must be per- fectly free from knots, is split evenly down the centre aud pared quite smooth within, of a sufficient size for 192 OPEN AIR GRAPE OULTURE. the reception of the scion. The latter is pruned to three eyes in length, having the lower part cut in the form of a wedge, commencing about an inch beneath the lowest eye, and gradually tapering to the bottom. It is then inserted as far as the lowest bud into the cleft of the stock: the second bud is level with the surface of the ground, which is drawn close around it, and the uppermost is quite above the soil. Great | Fig. 55. care is necessary in adjusting the scion, that its bark may touch that of the stock in every possible point. — “The whole is then bound round witha pliable osier Ss te \ a eee PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 193 which retains the scion in its proper place. The best season for grafting the vine is just when the warmth of spring sets the sap in motion, and it should be performed when the sky is cloudy, with the wind | blowing from the southeast or southwest. Whenever a northerly wind or great drought prevails, it is better to delay the operation; a burning sun or cold wind would arrest the course of the sap by drying up the vessels at the point of union. Neither is it advisable to graft in rainy weather, because the water will trickle down into the incision, and pre- vent the union between the scion and stock. The best time for taking off the grafts is in a dry day toward the end of autumn, when the sap is still. : They should be cut off with a portion of the old wood adhering, which will assist in preserving them until wanted for use. They should be plunged two or three inches deep in damp sand, and kept in a cool cellar, where neither heat nor frost can penetrate. Twenty-four hours previously to being used, they should be taken up, and that part which had before been in the sand should be laid in water.” He, moreover, states that “ the vine is thus grafted with so much facility, and the union between scion and stock is so perfect, that no plant appears more adapted for this mode of propagation.” We have never met with an example of budding 9 194 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. as practised on the grapevine. The following process, which is described as budding in the “ Gardener’s Chronicle” for 1844, is in reality a species of grafting : ‘¢ Bud about the first week in March, or as soon as the sap begins to rise. Cutan eye about three inches in length, having attached as much wood as you can get with it; at each end of the eye cut off about a quarter of an inch of the upper bark, making the ends quite thin. Next measure off the exact length of the bud on the bark of the vine intended to be budded, and make a niche slanting upward at the upper part; and another slanting downward at the bottom. Then take the piece neatly out, so that tlie bud may fit nicely in, and by making the niche, as stated above, each end of the bud is covered by the bark of the shoot. Bind the bud firmly round with matting, and clay it, taking care, however, that the clay does not cover the eye of the bud. Then tie it round with moss, and keep it constantly damp, and as the sap rises in the vine the bud begins to swell. When the vine commences to push out young shoots, — take the top ones off, in order.to throw a little more sap into the bud, and as you perceive it getting stronger take off more young shoots, and so continue until you have taken off all the young shoots: Bud- ding can only be performed where the long-rod system is practised, as in that case you have the power of con- P a PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 195 fining the sap to the bud, which will grow vigorously. As soon as you perceive this, cut the vine down to the bud. Budding has the advantage over graft- ing of not leaving an unsightly appearance where the bud was inserted. A bud likewise grows more luxu- riantly. Allow the matting to remain until about - the month of September.” Mr. Knight was accustomed on some occasions to employ two distinct ligatures to hold the bud of his | peach-trees in its place. One was placed above the bud inserted, and upon the transverse section through the bark; the other, which had no further office than that of securing the bud, was employed in the usual way. As soon as the bud had attached itself, the ligature last applied was taken off; but the other was suffered to remain. The passage of the sap upward was in consequence much obstructed, and buds inserted in June began to vegetate strongly ». in July: when these had afforded shoots about four itiehes long the remaining ligature was taken off to permit the excess of sap to pass on; and the young © shoots were nailed to the wall. Being there properly exposed to light, their wood ripened well, and afford- ed blossoms in the succeeding spring. Might not the principles here indicated be applied with advantage to the foregoing method of budding (grafting ?) the vine? Me? “"*a7 196 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. A method which partakes partly of grafting and partly of inarching is shown in the annexed figure. Fig 56. Here the graft is covered with soil which Fig. 56, supports it in the same manner as a cutting, while at the same time it receives nutriment from the stock. Srxp Hypripmation.—Young vines are never raised” from seed, except for the production of new varietiés; but, as this subject is deservedly attracting very general attention at present, a few practical hints ~ thereon may prove acceptable. Ever since Bacon observed that “The compound- ing and mixture of plants is not found out, which, nevertheless, if it be possible, is more at command than that of living creatures, wherefowe it were one PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 197 of the most noble experiments touching plants to find this out; for so you may have a great variety of plants and flowers yet unknown. Grafting doth it not; that mendeth the fruit, or doubleth the flower, but it hath not the power to make a new kind,” it has been the constant endeavor of good gardeners to improve the qualities of domestic plants by judicious mixtures of varieties. Bradley, we believe, was the first who undertook to produce hybrid plants; but since his day, it has been attempted by almost every celebrated horticul- turist. The limits of hybridization amongst plants have never been thoroughly ascertained, although it is a subject of deep importance. For in the animal king- dom we know that while cross breeding (or intermix- ture of varieties) has been productive of the best results, hybridization, or muling has been successful in but very few instances, at least so far as practical good is concerned. Now whether the different spe- cies of the vine, as vitis vinifera, vitis labrusca, vitis cordifolia, ete. are so far removed from each other as to produce mules by their intermixture, or whe- ther they are varieties and will freely cross-breed, has not yet been fully determined. To examine this subject, however, with sufficient fullness to be useful would far exceed our limits. 198 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Neither can we enter upon a discussion of the claims of the rival theory of Van Mons. We shall therefore rest content with a few practical directions. Speechly, who was probably the first to attempt the improvement of vines by cross-breeding, directs us to bring the flowering branches of the two kinds of vines into close proximity—they being, of course, in the same stage of maturity. No very superior varieties followed his attempts, however; and this is not to be wondered at, as it is probable that branches might be entwined a thou- sand times without effecting the result aimed at; for no means are taken to bring the pollen of the dif- ferent flowers into contact with the stigma of the - others, and although we have no reasons to doubt the possibility of super-foetation, (seeing it is well-known to occur in the higher animals) yet no means are here taken to produce even this. J. Fiske Allen, one of our most successful grape growers and the originator of some new and excel- lent varieties, gives the following directions upon this point. “The applying the pollen, or farina of one variety to the pistil, or stigma of another, is the surer method of proceeding to obtain new sorts in the shortest time ; and this is called hybridizing. To do this properly, the bunch should be thinned PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 199 of three-quarters of the buds; the lower part should be cut away entirely (immediately before inflores- cence), the strongest buds always being left. Observe them closely, and as soon as the flowers open, with sharp scissors clip the anthers, being care- ful not to injure the pistil; with a soft brush, apply the pollen from the kind to be used in impregnation ; or the whole bunch which is to furnish the pollen may be cut from the vine and gently rubbed or applied to the bunch, by frequently striking them together on every side. This should be repeated several days, until it is evident that the fruit is all impregnated ; a fresh bunch with the pollen in a suitable condition, must be had at each operation. “The pollen must be dry and ina falling condition, to be fit for the purpose. If your vines are so situated that a branch to be acted upen can be brought into contact with the branch of another kind, and the bunches interlaced, this will be a good method of proceeding—cutting away the males part of the blossom from the kind that is to ripen the seed for the new kinds.” WW, - 2 ig. 57. Fig. 58. ‘Fig. 59. Fig. 57 is a magnified representation of the bud 200 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. of the grape. Figs. 58 and 59 show the blossom. The change from the bud to the blossom is usually rapid, and takes place about thirty to forty days after the shoot appears in the spring which bears the fruit. This bud, which forms the blossom, consists of a covering, or cap, and the embryo berry with five anthers, which, when the time for inflorescence has come, is raised, or lifted, by the anthers, and the wind blows this cap free. “The third is the blossom or embryo grape, with the anthers clipped and deprived of their farina; on the top of the embryo is the pistil; upon this is to be placed the farina, or pollen of the male plant ; when this is done, impregnation takes place, and the em- bryo rapidly swells off. If the operation has not been effectual, the berry will remain as it is. When the grape has attained one-third or one-half its size, _ it remains stationary two or three weeks, and at this, time it is perfecting the seed. When this is done, the fruit begins growing again; thus it appears the seed will vegetate, even if the fruit does not ripen sufficiently to be eatable.” Loudon’s directions for saving and sowing seed are as follows: “Grapes for seed should be permitted to remain on the plant till the fruit is perfectly mature, and the seeds are of a very dark brown color. They should be separated from the pulp, and preserved till ie og 4 : : 5 3 PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 201 February or the beginning of March. They should - then be sown in pots filled with light fresh mold, and plunged in.a moderately warm hot-bed; they will come up in from four to six weeks, and when the plants are about six inches high, they should be transplanted singly, into forty-eights, and afterward into pots of a larger size. Water gently, as circum- stances require, allow abundance of light and air, and carefully avoid injuring any of the leaves. Cut down the plants every autumn to two good buds, and suffer only one of these to extend itself in the fol- lowing spring. Shift into larger pots as occasion © requires, till they have produced fruit. This, under good management, will take place in the fourtn or fifth year, when the approved sorts should be selected, and the rest destroyed, or used as stocks on which to graft or inarch good sorts.” O* 202 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CHAPTER XL MANURE. Manure* may be defined to be anything added to the soil to increase its fertility, whether by mechani- cal or chemical action. Substances serving the first purpose have been alluded to under the head of soils. The latter will now occupy our attention. In a former chapter sufficient practical directions were given for the preparatory enrichment of the soil and for the annual top-dressing of the borders ; it will now be our object to consider in detail the character of the nutriment required by the vine; the sources whence it may be derived ; the various modes of its application; and its effects upon the plant. It is a well-established fact, that unless the soil in which any plant is placed contains all the elements necessary to the formation of such plant, no healthy growth can ensue. Hence our first step must be to inquire into the chemical constitution of the grape- ° vine, or at least of its ashes, those elements which * Query.—To what extent was Jethro Tull’s idea of horse-hoeing, as a substitute for manure, anticipated by those who first used the word manzre (maneeuvrer—to work with the hand), before it was em- ployed to express the addition of matter to the soil, with a view to increase its fertility? One old English author speaks of the Com- monwealth of England as being ‘‘gouerned, administered, and manured by three sorts of persons,” ete. MANURE. 203 are dissipated during combustion being abundantly supplied from the atmosphere. The following are a few of the most reliable analy- ses which have been published: Dr. Emmons found the wood of Vitis Labrusca (Isabella?) to contain: Water, 40.26; dry matter, 59.74; ash, .98. Full-sized leaves of Catawba, picked June 2d: Water, 72.388; dry matter, 27.612; ash, 2.138. Per centage of ash calculated on dry matter, 7.746. Leaves of Catawba grape picked June 2d. An- alysis of ash: : Carbonic acid............ 3.050|Potassa .....-..... o0e se lL 8.394 MOTO CIC, <.. 83.05 oo ols ose 29.650|Soda...... pas esee dese 9.698 Sulphuric acid........ .«.. 2.062|Chlorine.,... ws, amie sh aatieeee 0.741 Phosphates ..........s0+5 82.950| Organic acid........ eeees 2.250 OSE RE TRS ie Wate aaa aie 4.391 OS ae 1.740 96.926 An analysis of wood and bark of wild vine gave Wood. | Bark. eo ew as ne cacms pis Sete S er ae iert's'60 als 20.84) 1.77 SEA Wie sid Uc. sled win wave oa eka Bale eae eae cee es 2.06| 9.27 MIE Slane atk eae Wadi eae oly as ober Sie sN RW ae 0.02} 0.40 DUlphuric acid. ose. ee. vee i pun keniee as as wee iaaeed 0.28 | trace Semen BONING 3 oy oso che oo es aes eaens Hedees.« 15.40] 5.04 Phosphate of peroxide of iron.........cseseeeeees 1.20} 5.04 Carbonic acid. ......6.... Lisle 5 ead os pine Mma ee 54.83] 32.22 MU Tk on os-o Se ros.c cua Ge sae ewer es ose e of 17.88 | 89:82 I yah a, Sass koe piles gi tac anne eas wuee. 4.40| 0.80 BOE. ore ca Pat ee debs oh Nid Odea ieee Edlae ies ee 2.80} 14.00 Soluble silica ...... Ce Se eS «Shearer 4A ie 0.00} 80.00 Coal and organic matter........... Sates asa asi F201. L20 100.21 {100.86 The following tabulated analyses by Orasso & Welz explain themselves : ANALYSES OF ASH OF GRAPE VINE. OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Drollingen Vines, with |SYSR :AS : 8 :SYRBSZ |S S eaves. beh d iad ah ee) SAO re s o Reisling Vines, with | B= S= (AR: 74 (SSSRS |S =F 5 leaves, eet > lane x ‘ se CAA g E Cleven Vines, with PRES ‘8S ‘ 8 IRARAB 3 = leaves. ; rons sort :© iris s ) Small Burgundy Vines RSSEBRS BAAS iii: ; s S —Ash of Wood. : s ay Green Grapes—Ash of s 5 ‘ Seed. Sa = 7 o Blue Grapes—Ash of 3 Se - Seed. Sa nm Green Grapes—Ash of s a Skin. Sw coal S © mm tok st Sax ee Blue Grapes—Ash of | SARSHES SSH iii i /Ss 8 : ~ pe) o oem eee . ; Ripe Green Grapes— ESHEIRZ 7243 Marte a ye s s Ash of Juice. BRC O SS OAS tt. sae e mr Ripe Blue Grapes— SARSSAS AS ee S Ash of Juice. EVOL Se ee ee s s Ripe Blue Grapes— SI5ESER iS=S “ : yp : s x Ash of Juice. BoOaVtTooe ras : : 3 08 s s coran ace Unripe Blue Grapes— | BRANES ALSR I: /E 8 Ash of Juice. Breese (eS | tah Liliggid bit ipsa ion ee ee : 22 te — . . . . . . . . . S n”~ “| Meo r af % Sib hp Piis St Pee < ee eee ee au: 33 4 Pe S33 gm St ee oe ‘s S PiiTES PETE eeeo fey a ii:iggea : HESeSSe fg t ¢> S18 “25% - . S iilige<§ igeSSSua ig & ‘igh FeSoSesseod gs 8 g cEStesecaaaees 3 5 5 SggbeseeseCeeees 8X Rgasgtgmocancaoe REE lye gO RED Se ae ee ope end i MANURE. 205 Such being the normal constituents of the vine and of its fruit, and the latter being, in almost all cases, removed from the soil in which it was pro- duced, it is obvious that a process of exhaustion must be constantly carried on, which, if not counteracted, must, in a short time, perceptibly reduce the crop. The means by which the matter thus removed from the soil is restored, are of three. kinds: First, the action of the plants themselves, or of man upon the subsoil ; secondly, rain; and thirdly, by the direct addition of the requisite elements, through the agency of man and animals. Although the soil has, to a certain extent, the power of separating: salts and gases from the water which passes through it, the drainage water still re- tains a certain proportion of valuable matter,* and consequently the subsoil also becomes saturated to a greater or less extent with these same elements. Hence one of the effects of trenching is not only to bring up unexhausted soil to the surface, but to return those matters which had previously been washed out of the upper soil by the rains. The plants themselves occasionally bring up some of this matter, sending * A series of valuable analyses and experiments upon this point ap- peared lately in the transactions of the Highland (Scottish) Agricul- tural Society, which the reader who desires to pursue this subject would do well to consult. 206 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. down roots deep into the subsoil if it is open and porous. Rain is another important source not only of am- “monia and gases, but of mineral matter. We quote the following from Lindley’s “Theory of Horticulture:” “The researches of chemists have shown that all rain water contains ammonia, a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, and thus the source of the nitrogen absorbed by plants was explained. But it has also been shown, especially by M. Barral, that other sub- stances upon which plants feed are contained in rain water to a much greater amount than was suspected. This observer was led, during six months of 1851, to examine minutely the water collected in the rain gauges of the Observatory of Paris.” His mode of investigation is declared by Messrs. Dumas, Bous- singault, Gasparin, Régnault, and Arago, names fore- most in French science, to be free from all objection, ‘a and to bear the most counter trials, to which they 4 could expose it. M. Barral: states, that although the quantities of the following substances varied in dif- ferent months, yet the monthly average from July to December, inclusive, was as follows : SS ea ““SUBSTANCES IN A CUBIC METRE OF RAIN WATER, GRAMMES. GRAINS. Nitrogen, . . : : a - 8.36129. Nitric Acid, . F ° e « 19,09 = 294, i > Eee MANURE. 207 GRAMMES, GRAINS, Ammonia, . : . e ‘ 6 POOL =~ ODeE Chlorine, ° . + a . ° 2.27 = 385. bees 20S ene Ig ey ee es ae ON Mewues, 22s istiys eee Wide She ee SOE. “ He did not ascertain whether all these substances are contained in rain water collected at a distance from towns. But Dr. Bence Jones found at least nitric acid in rain water collected in London, at Kingston in Surrey, at Melbury in Dorsetshire, and far from any town at Clonakelty, in Ireland. If we assume that M. Barral’s averages represent what occurs on an English acre, the quantity of such sub- stances deposited on that extent of caupes may be safely estimated as follows: ? “The average depth of rain which falls in the neigh- borhood of London is well ascertained to be about twenty-four inches per annum. This is at the rate of 87,120 cubic feet, or 2,466 cubic metres of rain water per acre; and this, according to the proportions per cubic metre in’ the preceding hs; would afford anu- ally of— Nitrogen, . : . : : . 45} lbs, Nitric acid, . Pe ° ‘ i 103 * Ammonia, . . . ° F ‘ 194 ‘* MRE sone ae eo ey ie Lime,. . i ere . d ; ea Magnesia. . ; : Sa, vaaeet ty ei Amount total per acre, way ss 208 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. “Of these substances, the three first are of the utmost importance, on account of their entering so largely into the indispensable constituents of the food by which vegetable life is sustained. The quantity of ammonia thus ascertained to exist, is about what is expected in two hundred weight of Peruvian guano; and bountiful nature gives us, moreover, nearly one hundred and fifty pounds of nitrogenous matter equally suited to the nutrition of our crops.” But although nature is thus liberal in supplying the necessary wants of her children, man desires returns ~ rather more extensive than is merely necessary for the good of the plant. He therefore adds directly to the soil these matters which contain proper nutriment for the vine. In doing this, however, it is not neces sary to follow very accurately any recipe founded upon the analysis of the vine, provided we obtain sufficient of those elements which are most wanted. If we only spread a liberal table, the vine will select its own food. ‘ Of all applications to the soil, none deserve more confidence than well rotted barnyard manure; from time immemorial it has been the staple reliance of the gardener and farmer and few are the instances in which its judicious application has been known to fail. That it may do good and not harm, however, whem MANURE. “ 209. mived with the soil in which plants are growing, it is necessary it be thoroughly rotten. However much may have been written about the waste incurred by allowing manure to decompose, it is a well know fact that thoroughly decomposed manure is beneficial to most plants, while decomposing or fermenting ma- nure is frequently prejudicial. This probably arises from the fact that all bodies while undergoing decom- position exert a catalytic action on any organized matter in contact with them. Thus decomposing manure directly tends to produce rot in the roots or other parts of plants with which it comes in contact. The proper time for the application of manure to a vine border has been a subject of much discussion. Our plan is to apply it as a top-dressing in the fall and fork it in in the spring. It thus serves to keep the border warm and the soluble portions are washed down amongst the roots of the vine by the winter snow and rain, thus reaching it in a most effectual manner. To assist this process, the border should be’ loosened with a fork before the manure is laid on. Of all the substances entering into the composi- tion of a manure heap none have a better influence upon vines than bones. In the formation of a border they are of essential utility, affording for a long period a constant source of nutriment. The avidity with which the roots of the vine seek such a depot of food 210 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. may be easily seen by placing a large porous bone amongst the roots of a vine. Ina few months it will — be literally covered with rootlets which have sought it out and find their nutriment in its recesses. Leather, hair, horns, hoofs, woollen rags and other animal offal possess a similar action to bones. They all possess the valuable property of lying undecom-~ posed in the soil for long periods, yet yield readily to the disintegrating action of plant roots. Hence, while they afford abundant and valuable nourish. ment to the vine, it is not surfeited by them as this nutriment must be wanted and sought before it will be given up. Ashes of wood, whether fresh or leached are a powerful manure for the vine, and probably contain _ all that it requires. Leached ashes may be applied as a top dressing in almost any quantity with excel- lent effect, but a more cautious use must be made of fresh wood ashes, they being much more powerful and caustic. Coal ashes have hitherto been deemed — utterly worthless, and are usually thrown into the ~ street. To some soils, however, particularly those which are too heavy, they are a very useful addition, and as they are a powerful absorbent, there is no doubt that if mixed with night soil, or some similar matter, they would prove an excellent article—more lasting, and consequently better than night soil by MANURE. 211 itself. They should never be thrown away, however, as they contain lime, iron and minute, though appre- ciable quantities of alkalies, soda usually predomi- nating. It is also quite possible that they contain minute traces of phosphates, though in no analysis with which I have met is it mentioned. Where the coal has been burned at a high temperature the alkali is in general reduced, and the metal volatilized. The dung and urine of animals forms a powerful manure. The solid excrements of all these are best mixed with some absorbent, as plaster, charzoal, burnt clay, etce.; or thoroughly decomposed in con- tact with vegetable matter, as straw, leaves, ete. ‘The liquid and soluble portion may be used as liquid manure, or may be poured over the fermenting dung heap. -The dung of birds, as hens, pigeons, ete., and also guano, form a very convenient and most excellent top dressing for vine borders, but-are better when applied as liquid manure during the growing season. - An excellent manure may be made as follows: Sink a hole in any convenient part of the premises and fill up with saw-dust. On this pour all the urine that can be obtained from time to time, and keep closely covered with a broad cover. When sufficient has been added, or when the smell becomes offensive, remove the cover and place a pile 912 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. of charcoal, burnt clay, coal ashes, or other absor- bent on top of it, and allow it to lie for a few weeks. At the end of that time, a mass of matter will have been produced almost equal to guano. Road scrapings form a good top dressing for most soils. Hoare considers them unrivalled for the grape vine, and such was the opinion of Speechly, who tells us: “The dust, or dirt, from roads, consists princi- - pally of the following particulars: first, the soil of the vicinity ; secondly, the dung and urine of horses and other animals; and thirdly, the materials of the road itself when pulverized. Various other matters may be brought by winds, and by other means, but | the foregoing may be deemed the principal. The first of the above articles is brought to roads by the wheels of carriages, and the legs of horses and other animals; the last is the worst part of the materials, as the dust and scrapings of roads, made and mended with soft stone that grinds fast away, is much infe- rior in its vegetating quality to that which is collected from hard roads. On the whole, however, this in- gredient of compost from the roads is unquestionably in general of a fertile nature, which may be attri- buted in part to the dung, uriné, and other rich ma- terials, of which it is composed, and in part to a kind of magnetic power, impressed upon it by friction and its perpetual pulverization. MANURE. 913 “The nature of this road earth ought to be duly considered, when used in the vine compost, and its proportion adjusted according to its quality. In a sandy country it will naturally abound with particles of sand, and long and continued rains will, of course, wash away its best parts. High winds, too, in dry weather, will as certainly deprive it of its lightest and finest parts, especially when roads lie on emi- nences, or enjoy an open exposure. Those materials from roads are therefore preferable, which are pro- duced from an inclosed track in a low situation Pavements, however, and hard roads, produce the best sulture of all. The compost is much better when collected in a moderate dry state, than when it is either very wet or dusty. If scraped off the road in a wet and soft state, when it is become dry it will be hard and cloddy, and will require time to bring it to a proper condition. “When thus cireumstanced, the best way of recover- ing it is to give it frequent turnings in hard, frosty weather.” Dead animals may be used in a vine border if placed sufficiently far from the roots to allow of their being decomposed, before the roots reach them, as previously remarked. Any decaying matter in a border is very detri- mental. 914 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. 4 Charcoal is one of the best additions to any soil. It should be well burnt, however, and free from. all smell of creosote, as this substance is rather prejudi- cial to the roots of the grape vine, although it seems to agree with some plants; (chiefly alliaceous, for which soot is a specific), On this account, when used for drainage in pots, it should be reburnt. I am informed by one successful grape culturist that unless this precaution of reburning is taken with most charcoal, it is rather prejudicial to the roots of young vines in pots than otherwise. I have found, however, that if well sprinkled (it need not be satu- rated) with putrid urine and allowed to lie for some time, it loses its injurious qualities and retains abund- ant nourishment, which is gradually given off to the roots of the plants as they require it. When used as a compost for enriching a vine border it had always better be saturated with night soil or urine. Even brick rubbish, if so treated, becomes of great value. Most of these solid matters are best added to the soil in the original formation of the border. This is especially the case with the prunings of the vine, than which nothing can be more valuable. If added when the border is first formed, it will not only fur- nish nutriment for the vine, but will tend to keep the soil open and porous. For our established vines, there- fore, it will be best to depend upon liquid manure at te" «, Ae 4 ~ idl Pde YS. S 6 Hy x x amie) i : es. ws a * ™ sa Pees : i — o ei & #: ge ne a MANURE. ; 215 and autumn top dressing of stable manure, and all solid matters may go to the formation of new vine- yards, of which we suppose there will in general be an annual addition. But where no new borders are being formed, it would be well to open trenches between the rows of vines, in which such matters might be buried. If this were done immediately after the vintage, the roots would recover the same season from any wounds they might receive, and the ultimate gain would greatly overbalance any tempo- ‘rary injury. In doing this, it will of course be best to enrich but a small extent of border each year and do it thoroughly, so that it may afford a supply during many succeeding seasons. Liqgum Manvurg.—Of all the forms in ahioh manure can be applied, the liquid manure is the most conve- nient and the most effective. _No garden or vineyard should be without a tank of this article, as its judi- cious application will often enable us to mature a fine crop under very unfavorable circumstances, its great advantage consisting in the immediate results obtained ; though this very quality, renders it a dangerous article in the hands of those who do not theroughly understand its proper application. To prepare and preserve liquid manure, two tanks with good covers should be made in some convenient spot. In smal] gardens, barrels, such as are used for 216 - OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. hydraulic cement, will answer—larger establishments, of course, requiring something more capacious. They should be filled with chamber and kitchen slops and soap suds, the latter being generally added warm. On the large scale, when horse, cow, and other ma-— nure can be obtained, it may be mixed with water and added to the contents of the barrels. Hen manure is one of the most valuable additions. Zwo barrels should be used, so as constantly to have some of the manure thoroughly decomposed. After standing for a week or ten days, it will be fit for use, and may either be applied to the surface of the border, or what is far better, introduced by means of subterranean drains or channels. ‘These may con- sist simply of long wooden boxes, bored full of small holes and* sunk about twelve inches beneath the surface, or of common, horse shoe tiles placed in a similar position. Under any circumstances, it must have a tube at one end rising up to the surface, through which the liquid may be poured and which may be closed on the approach of winter so as to exclude frost. In very small gardens, it may prove _ sufficient to sink one or two flower pots in the border. These, being filled with the liquid manure, it will soak down amongst the roots without the possibility — of loss by evaporation from the surface of the ground. The pots should, of course, ordinarily be kept covered. MANURE. O17 Liquid manure is such a powerful agent, that there is only one season of the year at which it.can be ap- plied ; that is from the time the first leaves are well developed until the fruit is fully formed. During this period a very weak solution may be applied in large quantities once or twice a week. The culturist, however, must remember that the solution must be weak—say one pailful of the contents of the barrels to six or ten pails of water, according to the strength of the original liquid. To prepare extemporaneous liquid manure ready for application to the borders or drains, dissolve two or three ounces of guano in a gallon of rain water, and allow to stand some time, stirring occasionally. The principles which govern the application of this useful and powerful agent, are so clearly set forth by Dr. Lindley, in the last edition of his “Theory of Horticulture,” that we cannot do better than quote from him. “In order that the full effects of liquid manure should be felt without injury, it is indispensable: 1, that it should be weak, and frequently applied ; 2, that it should be perfectly clear; 3, that it should be administered when plants are in full growth, If strong, it is apt to produce great injury, because of the facility with which it is absorbed, beyond the decomposing and assimilating power of plants. If 10 918 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. turbid, it carries with it in suspension a large quan- tity of fine sedimentary matter, which fills up the interstices of the soil, or, deposited upon the roots themselves, greatly impedes their power of absorp-_ tion. If applied when plants are torpid, it either acts as in the case of being over strong, or it actually corrodes the tissues. “Let the manure be extremely weak; it owes its value to matter that may be applied with consider- — able latitude ; for they are not absolute poisons, like arsenic and corrosive sublimate, but only become dangerous when in a state of concentration. Gas water illustrates this; pour it over the plant in the caustic state in which it comes from the gas-works, and it takes off every leaf, if nothing worse ensues. Mix it with half water—still it burns; double the quantity once more—it may still burn, or discolor foliage somewhat. But add a tumbler of gas water to a bucketful of pure water, no injury whatever ensues ; add two tumblers full, and still the effect is salubrious, not injurious. Hence it appears to be immaterial whether the proportion is the hundredth or two hundredth of the*fertilizing material. “ Manuring is, in fact, a rude operation in which _ considerable latitude is allowable. The danger of error lies on the side. of strength, not of weak- Tress. MANURE. i Ses “To use liquid manure very weak and very often is, in fact, to imitate nature, than whom we cannot take a safer guide. This is shown by the carbonate of am- monia, carried to plants in rain, which is not under- stood to contain, under ordinary circumstances, more than one grain of ammonia in 1 Ib. of water; so that in order to form a liquid manure of the strength of rain water, 1 lb. carbonate of ammonia would have to be diluted with about 7,000 lbs. weight of water, or more than three tons. Complaints which have been made of guano water and the like are unquestionably refer- able to their having been used too strong. ~ “Jt must be borne in mind: 1, That liquid manure is an agent ready for immediate use, its main value depending upon that quality; 2, that its effect is to produce exuberant growth; and 3, that it will con- tinue to do so as long as the temperature and fight required for its action are sufficient. “These three propositions, rightly understood, point to the true principles of applying it; and if they are kept in view, no mistakes can well be made. “With fruit, the period of application should be when the fruit, not the flowers, is beginning to swell. . Nothing is gained by influencing the size or color of the flower of a fruit tree; what we want is to increase the size or the abundance of the fruit. If liquid manure is applied to a plant when the flowers are 220 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. 2 growing, the vigor which it communicates to them must also be communicated to the leaves; but when leaves are growing unusually fast, there is sometimes a danger that they may rob the branches of the sap required for- the nutrition of the fruit; and if that happens, the latter falls off. There, then, is a source of danger which must not be lost sight of. No doubt ~ the proper time for using liquid manure is when the fruit is beginning to swell, and has acquired, by its own green surface, a power of suction capable of © opposing that of the leaves. “ At that time liquid manure may be applied freely, and continued from time to time as long as the fruit is growing. But at the first sign of ripening, or even earlier, it should be wholly withheld.” The action of manure is even now very far from being thoroughly understood. When modern chem- istry was first applied to agriculture, it was supposed — that the great object of manure was merely to afford food for plants. But it was afterward found that other conditions were of equal importance, and that the advantage of many manures arose from their me- chanical influence upon the soil. At Lois Weedon in England, excellent crops of wheat have been raised by thorough cultivation, without the application of manure, and the same principle was advocated by Jethro Tull in 1731, whose famous system of horse MANURE. 291 hoeing husbandry consisted simply in deep ploughing and thorough pulverization of the soil. But while the mechanical condition of the soil exerts a most important influence on the growth of plants, there can be no doubt that unless all those elements of which a plant is composed, exist in the soil, or are derivable from other sources, healthy vegetation isimpossible. Tull’s farm finally failed to yield fair crops, notwithstanding large expenditures, on the mechanical part of the process, and the same result is said, to have attended the rigorous applica- tion of his principles elsewhere. If the action of manures in general, is but imper- fectly understood, still less does its influence upon the vine and its products, seem to have been reduced to known laws. In France the use of manure has been productive of, evils so great as to induce the company of wine merchants, and vineyard proprie- tors, to condemn the use of azotized manures entirely. On the other hand, the vine-dressers of Thomery, who produce the beautiful Chasselas de Fontainebleau grapes, use rich manures in liberal quantities. In general, it will be found in this, as in other cases, that a middle course is best. If the border has been’ purposely prepared in the first place, a vigorous growth will have been secured, while it was necessary that the vine should produce abundant wood, and 229 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. when, after four or five years, the fruit is applied to the manufacture of wine, all rankness of growth will have disappeared. If, in after years, the vine should show symptoms of debility, it will be easy to supply it with nourishment, by means of liquid manure; and if ample means are provided for keeping the roots very dry during the ripening process, so that we can regulate the period over which the effects of such application shall extend, we are inclined to believe that no evil results will follow. M. Ladrey suggests that but one portion of the vineyard be manured at one time, and that the wine . from the part so treated be kept separate from the rest, until the evil influence of the manure has disap- peared. It is obvious, however, that if we could avoid entirely any loss, of even a part of the vineyard, it would be desirable. i : In this, however, as in all other matters, we must keep steadily in view the fact, that all rank vegeta- tion exerts an injurious influence, not only upon the fruit product of the current year, but on the wood — upon which our next year’s crop depends. In his “ Nouveau systéme de la culture de la vigne,” Persoz attempts to avoid the evils incident to the ordinary mode of the application of manure, by add- ing to the soil those matters which tend to produce wood, and those which favor the production of fruit, > MANURE. / 223 each at the appropriate time. His formule are as follows. Six pounds bone dust; three pounds leather clip- pings and other animal refuse; (blood, horns, hoofs, . etc.) and one pound gypsum, making in all ten pounds to be added to each square yard of border. This is done in the spring before the buds have pushed. As soon as the young shoots are well advanced, he manures each square yard with eight pounds silicate of potassa, and two pounds of the double phosphate of potassa and lime. Silicate of potassa he procures by fusing fifteen parts of quartz sand with ten of potassa and two of-charcoal. The double phosphate of potassa and lime is pre- pared, by adding 18 lbs. of sulphuric acid to 24 lbs. of calcined and pulverized bones. This, after being well stirred, is diluted with water, allowed to stand for three days, treated with hot water and filtered. Carbonate of potassa is then added, until the liquid is slightly alkaline, and it is then evaporated in,a cast iron vessel, roasted at a red heat, mixed with the sili- cate, and the whole reduced to powder. A vine manured by Persoz with 0.5 kilogr. of sili- cate of potassa, 1.5 of phosphate of lime and potassa, and an equal weight of dried blood and goose dung, put forth in one year a shoot 11 metres in length, and yielded on nine shoots twenty-five bunches of grapes, DISEASES AND INSECYS. 225 CHAPTER XII. DISEASES AND INSECTS. We confess we have had very little experience in the matter of diseases and insects affecting the grape vine. Our native varieties are so vigorous and hardy that disease rarely affects them, and during the grow- ing season they push with such rapidity, that the loss of a few leaves destroyed by insects is scarcely felt. But we are aware that it is not always so, and we shall therefore give as full an account as we can obtain of the formidable oougar to which the grape — grower is exposed. When growing in the open air’ in a suitable soil, ~and with a good exposure, the only two diseases to which the grape vine is liable, are mildew and the rot. The former appears in whitish spots on the surface of the leaves and wood, and when examined with a simple lens of 25 inch focus, shows a net-work of fungus with its sporules. For this, as well as for the red spider, no remedy has-been found equal to sulphur, the use of which for this purpose has been known from time immemorial. 10* 296 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. To apply it, use may be made either of a common _dredger fixed to the end of a pole, or of a pair of bellows with a contrivance for admitting a small quantity of sulphur into the stream of air. Or it may be mixed with water and the foliage syringed therewith. But the most efficient method is that proposed by Dr. Price, who was the first to suggest pentasulphide of calcium for this purpose. This compound is prepared by boiling 30 parts by weight of caustic lime with 80 parts by weight of flowers of sulphur, suspended in a sufficient quantity of water ; heat is applied until the solution has ac- quired. a dark red color and the excess of sulphur ceases to dissolve. The clear solution is drawn off, and after being diluted with 20 times its bulk of water, may be applied to the vines by. means of a sponge, brush or syringe. Where flowers of sulphur is used, it should have a few drops of ammonia added before it is applied to the foliage, as the sulphurous acid with which it is saturated (derived from its combustion during dis- tillation) is always injurious to leaves and young shoots. ‘ The rot has rarely troubled our northern vineyards, though it is the great bane of vine culture in Ohio. We are inclined to believe that if vines are planted in soil, dry or well drained and not too rich, and bo DISEASES AND INSECTS. 227 allowed to extend themselves moderately, but little | need be apprehended from the rot. Dr. Asa Fitch has found upward of thirty different insects which prey upon the grape vine, but with the exception of the red spider, and occasionally the rose- bug, they do not injure the vine materially. The red spider (acarus tellarvus) of which we give a cut (Fig. 60), we have found, not only under glass, © Fig. 60. but on vines in the open air. It is a small, reddish- colored insect which it requires a sharp eye to detect. For this, as for mildew, sulphur is a specific, and we are always safe in giving our vines a good dusting of this substance, so as to prevent any injury which might arise from either source. The rose-bug has never troubled us much. It nearly destroyed Dr. Underhill’s vineyards at one time, however, and we therefore give his account of the-matter in his own words. “Several years since, when my vineyards were 228 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. smaller than at present, I found the rose-bug a formidable enemy. They appeared on the vines when they were in blossom, or just as the blossoms were falling off and the young grapes forming, and devoured them with the greatest avidity. This feast — continued from eight to twelve days, or, until the cherries on the trees in the vicinity began to ripen, when they with one accord flew to them, for a change of diet, I presume, or from some other cause. I was quite familiar with the habits of the caterpil- lar, and had been in the practice of clearing them from my orchards in the spring, before they had destroyed scarcely a leaf. This I did not considera — great or difficult matter, for they were enveloped in a — web early in the morning, and one man in a few days was able to clear many hundred trees, by twist- — ing them off, web and all, with a basket, and care- fully placing them under his foot. The rose-bug, however, did not, like the caterpillar, make its appearance ‘in clusters or webs, but in small numbers at first, and scattered through the vineyards, increas- ing rapidly every day. Though taken from the vines on the trellis every morning, they continued to mul- tiply till the eighth or twelfth day, when they suddenly left for the cherry-trees, as before stated. I was at a loss at first to know where they came from, till at length I discovered the ground perfo DISEASES AND INSECTS. 229 rated with numerous holes, through which they made their way to the surface. -“T observed, when they first appeared on the vines, they were so feeble as to be unable to fly even for a few yards. Having surmounted all other difficulties, I was determined not to be defeated in the vineyard cultivation of the grape by this insect, and consequently resorted to the following means for their destruction. I directed my men to take each a eup, with a little water in it, and go through the vineyards every morning, removing every bug from the vines; and this was done quite rapidly by — passing the cup under the leaf, and merely touching it, when the bugs instantly dropped, and were re- ceived in the cup containing the water. When the cup was full, they were soon destroyed by pressing the foot upon them on a hard surface. After all of them had been taken off, on the following morning there were ten on the vines where we had found but one; and the succeeding morning, after having been removed as before, there were one hundred where there were but ten, andso on. I was not discouraged, © however, and directed my men to persevere in the work of destruction, and we should thus perhaps prevent the formation of another progeny for the next season, for it is very easily shown that they do not migrate to any great distance; and by thus 230 — OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. destroying the present race, I am convinced that we insure ourselves from their further depredations to any injurious extent. When a person of some energy has cleared them from his vineyard or garden, he is pretty certain to enjoy the benefit of his labor an- other season as well as the present, though he may have a few from his less resolute neighbor. Pursu- ing the course I have mentioned, I very soon lessened the rose-bugs so much that they gave me very little trouble. “JT also tried ploughing my vineyards just before winter set in, so as to expose to the weather the insect in the larva state, which will certainly destroy all the young tribe that have not descended below the reach of the plough. For two years past the number has been so small, that I have omitted this process for their destruction.” 3 HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 231 CHAPTER XIII. METHOD OF HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. SrveraALt methods have been proposed for causing grapes to ripen at an earlier period of the season than usual, or in localities where they would not other- wise ripen at all. The most successful, and, on the large scale, economical, mode ‘of effecting this is un- doubtedly by means of glass houses, either with or - without fire heat. A description of these is beyond the limits assigned to this work, though we may, per- haps, be allowed briefly to describe two devices of this nature, by which a few bunches may be matured at small expense and with very little trouble. “More than twenty years ago, a market gardener at Bath published a plan of ripening grapes under common hand-glasses. He planted the vines in a soil composed in great part of lime rubbish ; placed a glass over each plant, taking out half a pane in its summit through which the leading shoot of the vine protruded itself, and grew in the open air. The bunch or bunches of grapes remained within the hand-glass, and enjoyed the advantages of protection 932 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. from cold winds, dews, and rains during the night, and of a high degree of confined solar heat oe the day.”—Lovpon. Mr. Maund, editor of the “ Botanic Garden,” em- ploys the. following method of obtaining a few bunches: “ Although my experiment is not yet com- pleted, I cannot omit mentioning to you its success. Grapes grown on open walls in the midland counties are rarely well-ripened ; therefore, I provided a small glazed frame—a sort of narrow hand-glass—of the | shape shown in the annexed outline, to fix against - the wall, and inclosed in it one branch of she the vine with its fruit and foliage. The open part, which rests against the wall, is 13 inches wide, and may be of any length required to take in the fruit. The sides are formed of single panes of glass, seven inches wide, and meet on a bar which s may represent the ridge of a roof, the ends. inclosed by triangular boards, and having Fig 61. a notch to admit the branch. This was fixed on the branch a month before the vine came into flower. The consequence was, the protected branches flowered a week earlier than the exposed. The frame was not fitted closely to the wall, but in some places may have been a quarter of an inch from it. The lateral branches being shortened before it HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 233 was fixed, it did not require removal, even for prun- ing, because I adopt the long-rod mode of training, which is peculiarly adapted to my partial protection system. “The temperature within the frame is always higher than that without, sometimes at mid-day even from 20 to 30 degrees. By this simple protection, 1 find grapes may be ripened from three weeks to a month earlier than when wholly exposed, and this saving of time will, I believe, not only secure their ripening well every year in the midland counties, but, also, that such advantage will be available in the north of England, where grapes never ripen on the open walls. I should have told you that the cold nights of spring have caused almost all the young fruit to fall off during the flowering season, excepting where it was protected. “To hasten the maturity of grapes grown in the — open air, means may be taken to throw them early into a state of rest. On the 20th of September prune the vine as you would in the month of December, taking off all the leaves and grapes, ripe or unripe, and shortening all the branches to one, two or three eyes at most. The following spring it will push its buds a few days before any of the neighboring: vines pruned in winter. Train it as carefully all the sum- mer as though you were certain it would ripen its 934 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. crop of fruit. Pursue the same system annually, pruning the tree always between the 20th and 30th of September, and in the course of seven years you will be rewarded for your patience and expense with half a ripe crop in most summers, and a whole ripe crop in warm summers.”—Lovpon. The following method of hastening the maturity of grapes on open walls, was communicated to the Horti- cultural Society of London, by Mr. Thos. Fleetwood: “Before the vines are out of flower, he’ brings each bunch into a perpendicular position by a thread at- tached to its extremity, and fastened to a nail in the wall, carefully confining the young branch with the bunch thereon, as close to the wall as possible. _ rhe period of blossoming is preferred for this operation, because the bunch at that time takes a proper posi-. tion, without injury. By this practice the bunches are kept so steady that the berries are not bruised by the action of the wind, and being fixed close to the wall, they receive such additional heat, that they ripen a month earlier than when left to hang in the usual way.” But of all the plans which have been proposed, perhaps the simplest and most efficient is ringing, girdling or breaking. It has been employed for many years in France, although it is there conceded, that it injures the quality of the wine produced. For HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 235 table purposes, however, the grapes seem to be im- proved both in size and appearance. The French method is shown in Fig. 62. Here the annular incision is made just below the fruit bunch at the time of flowering. A pair of pincers with a double pair of semicircular jaws, makes both the upper and lower incision at once, when the bark is easily removed by the finger nail. The following are the details of an English practi- tioner: . “The vines are generally cultivated upon the Hoare system, or, as it is called, the long rod system ; but they are not so cultivated in every case, for sometimes an old bearer is spurred back to one or two buds, to carry its crop another year. My vines are very strong, and the rods or branches stand at 236 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. least three feet, or even three feet six inches, distant from each other, when winter pruned. This allows just sufficient room for the fruit-bearing laterals and a young rod to come up between every two bearers. . This young rod, of course, to be the bearer of laterals the following year: i “Thus no vines cultivated on any other system are so capable of being rung, without the disadvantage of killing or losing the future useful part of the tree, because on Hoare’s long-rod system, the whole of the previous years, bearers will have to be cut entirely away. “The very right time to perform the ringing is just after the berries are all set, or have attained the — the size of No. 2 shot, or small peas. In ringing, cut, with a sharp knife, clean round the branch between — two joints. Or, if you are going to ring the laterals carrying the fruit, leave either two or three buds and leaves beyond the main stem, and make the ring just in the middle, between the third and fourth leaves, or joints. As I said before, make two cuts clean through the bark, quite down into the wood, one inch apart, and remove the bark clean away, all round the branch or lateral. By this means, if you are in the habit of spur pruning, the hinder buds are left all right, to spur back the following year. If you prune upon the long-rod system, you may ring the rod just | Pe OE ee eke pee HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 237 wherever you please— the whole branch, if you like— as the rung part will have to be cut away entirely after the fruit is gathered. “The ringing is performed just the same on an old whole branch as in that of the young lateral carrying one or two bunches. I have repeatedly rung old branches, that have been carrying from twenty to thirty bunches of grapes, with the same good effect; only it has been such branches that I have intended to cut away entirely the following autumn: of course, thinning out the berries of the bunches, and the bunches too, if excellence be aimed at, is of the utmost importance. The process of thinning this cannot be too early attended to. I always begin as soon as the fruit is fairly set, and continue to remove all inferior berries, and, with a good pair of scissors and clean fingers, using my eyes to see what I am about, so as not to injure the berries by handling and maul- ing them. 3 “By thus practising ringing, I have produced for the last twelve or fourteen years, grapes, out of doors, that have puzzled many a tyro and others too. “Our indefatigable editors have both watched my progress in vine culture for years. My grapes have many a time puzzled the late Mr. Elphinstone, when he was gardener to the late speaker of the House of Commons, now Lord Eversley, although I used to 238 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. compete against him, with both indoor and outdoor grapes, at our Hampshire horticultural show in No- vember. “As a matter of course, I had read of ringing fruit trees, etc., but it never struck me to put the same into practice until about fourteen years ago, when my _ attention was called to it in an amateur friend’s gar- den, Mr. Frampton, glass and paint merchant of this city. I happened to walk in and look at some vines to which he was paying great attention at that time. This was in the month of September, and here I first saw the ringing process of the vine. Seeing a few bunches of the Black Hamburg so large in the berry, — and all ripe, I began to inquire into the particulars, when Mr. Frampton kindly showed me where the branches were rung, and that the ringing was the cause of their being so very large and so early. I then wanted to know whence Mr. Frampton obtained his information, when he showed it to me in the ‘Penny Cyclopedia, from the pen of Professor Henslow.”—TZhos. Weaver, Gardener to the Warden of Winchester College. i [Itis quite true that we have watched for some years, with great interest, the experiment upon ringing vines carried on by Mr. Weaver, and we can authen- ticate his statement of the mode of ringing and its HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 239 results. It must not be done in that petty timid manner hinted at by a contemporary. There must be a ring of bark perfectly removed; the cuts being . made boldly down to the very young wood, or albur- num, and every particle of bark, inner and outer, must be removed between the cuts. (See Fig. 63.) Fig. 68. This drawing represents, faithfully, the rung part of a rod at the close of autumn, and shows how the removal of the band of bark checked the return of the sap, and how, in consequence, the rod above the 240 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. removed band increased in size beyond that portion of the rod below the band. The effect upon the berries was, in every instance, to advance their early ripening a fortnight, and to about double the size and weight of the berries, when compared with those grown on unrung branches of- the same vine. Nor was the color and bloom of the berries diminished ; indeed, so excellent were they, that we have seen them exhibited deservedly by the side of grapes grown under glass, and they were sold _in November, at. Winchester, for half-a-crown a pound. Ringing the branches of fruit-trees, to render them fruitful, was practised in France, and recommended there in print, about a century and.a half since. There are various letters. wpon the subject in the early volumes of the “ Horticultural Society’s Trans- actions,” and in one of them (vol. 1,. page 107), published in 1808, Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, gives full directions for ringing the grape vine. He tells the result, in these words: “I invariably found that the fruit not only ripened earlier, but that the ber- ries were considerably larger than usual, and more highly flavored.”—Lditor of the Cottage Gardener.] pe re og CARE OF OLD VINES. 941 CHAPTER XIV. CARE OF OLD VINES. tect are scattered through the country numerous old vines of large growth and great age, which have been trained upon trellises, through trees, against the sides of houses and on arbors, without much skill or attention. These well deserve good culture, and the owners would gladly bestow it if they knew how. For their benefit, a few hints in this direction may not be out of place. Such vines have in general either been left entirely to themselves, or trained wholly on the long-spur system, no new wood except these spurs being kept from last year’s growth to supply the wants of next yearygand the strength has thus been thrown to the ends of the stems, leaving them barren for a great distance from their base. i Vines in this condition, if of good origin, may, by judicious management, be speedily made to bear large crops of excellent fruit, as their roots are large and powerful, and fully competent to supply nutri- ment to a large crop of grapes. 11 249, OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. If the stems are tolerably well supplied with bearing spurs, it may be advisable to take good care of such of these as we can find, and where there is a barren spot, to train a young shoot over it from the nearest bearing spur. Upon this young shoot spurs may soon be made, which will bear admirably. But, in almost all cases, the better plan will be to gradually renew the whole vine, as strong, vigorous shoots, when once laid in for main branches and well supplied with bearing spurs or canes, will last for a long time and give satisfactory results with far less labor than is required by an old and straggling vine. This change had better be effected gradually, a portion of the old wood being retained until the young shoots come into bearing, so that we need not be entirely deprived of fruit during its progress. Commence, then, at the spring or winter pruning, and remove all the wood that can be well spared, keeping only a few of the best main branches, and cutting the spurs on these very close, leaving not more than one eye to each. This severe pruning will cause the vine to throw up numerous strong shoots, or suckers, from near the roots. Two or three of the best of these must be selected and trained to stakes, away from the trellis” or arbor, so as to give them all the light and air pos- sible; the laterals which start from these must be CARE OF OLD VINES. 243 pinched at the third leaf, and they should be stopped about the middle or end of September. All other shoots from the base of the vine, as well as all useless _or barren shoots on other parts, must be carefully re- moved as fast as they appear, so as to throw as much as possible into the canes we had selected. Next, season, these canes must be disbudded and laid in as follows: Having removed all laterals and tendrils and tied them firmly to the trellis, as shown in Fig. 64, commence at the first good bud from the Fig. 64. base, which leave, and then remove all the buds for a space of from 14 to 20 inches. Between 14 and 20 inches we wail certainly find a good bud on the +. a aes be ‘ a P CN and a. A Wu vs sue wet A OMS 9A4 -OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. upper side of the cane (as itis tied to the trellis), which must be kept, and all the buds on the next equal space, removed in the same manner. So pro- ceed until you have laid in ten or a dozen buds on ~ each cane, when it should be cut off. We will now have two or more horizontal arms, each of which will throw up from 5 to 6 vertical canes of a strength sufficient to bear fruit next year, and the same num- ber of short shoots which will form spurs for next year’s bearing canes. But in order to make sure of this, we must prune the old vine very severely, in- deed, and if we could make up our minds to do with- out fruit for one year and cut it all away, we would be gainers by it in the end. But in any case, all fruit must be removed from our new wood, as the stems will have enough to do to cover the trellis without bearing a crop of grapes. Next year, the canes 8, d, d, b, b, will bear a full crop of fruit, and shoots must be trained up from the spurs, @, a, a, a, a, a, to take their place at the winter — pruning. The whole management will now be the same as that previously described for vineyards. If it be preferred to train up the vine on the spur system, the buds at a, a, a, a, a, a, should be removed when the cane is disbudded the first season, and after having borne once on the long-rod system, the canes _ b, b, b, b, b, will be well provided with shoots by cutting CARE OF OLD VINES. 245 back on which good spurs may be formed. These spurs should be distributed along the canes at a distance of 14 to 20 inches on each side, and may be managed individually, as described in Chap. VIL. The height to which spur-bearing canes may be carried is, perhaps, without limit, if they are properly treated and the vines have sufficient root power. But in practice, we do not think that it-will be well to have them longer than 6 to 8 feet. They are thus kept within bounds, and any one which may become barren is more easily renewed than if they are of greater length. Where the vines are managed on the long-rod sys- tem, we would never haye the canes over 6 feet long, and if only 44 to 5 feet, so much the better. Thus, if we desired to cover a wall or trellis fifteen feet high, we would have two tiers of arms carrying spur-bearing canes each 7 feet long, or three tiers carrying long-rod or renewal canes. Before proceeding to renew an old vine, it may be well to manure it thoroughly, either by a good top dressing in the fall, liquid manure during the grow- ing season, or by digging a trench about six feet from the roots and filling it with good compost, bones, ete. An excellent plan for feeding an old vine is to make a basin about six inches deep round its roots, with boards, against the outside of which sufficient 246 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. heavy soil has been placed to make it water-tight. Then, during the growing season, let this basin be filled with soap-suds every washing day—mixing - them with chamber slops, ete. During the winter, it should be filled with leaves and prunings, over which a little earth may be thrown to keep the wind from blowing them about, and preventing an unsightly appearance. If the roots of the vine are so near the house as to be unsightly when treated in this manner, the basin might easily be provided with a light board cover neatly painted. It might be requisite to form it in two parts, having notches through which the stem of the vine can pass. That a good manuring will often cause a vine which has been previously unfruitful to bear abun- dant crops, is well known. We have now in mind an instance of a vine which after remaining barren for many years suddenly became quite fruitful from chickens making a roost of the trellis on which it grew. TO PRESERVE GRAPES. 247 CHAPTER XV. TO PRESERVE GRAPES. Aurnoven He who “has made everything beauti- ful in his season,” no doubt designed grapes to be used while fresh, yet, though we cannot preserve the exquisite flavor of newly-gathered grapes, we may, nevertheless, prolong their season, if not in its full excellence yet with sufficient attraction to make it worth while. With proper care, grapes may be kept until Christmas, and at that time will command a price which would not be paid for fresh fruit during the height of the grape season. As yet, the preserving of the fruit seems to be but little understood, and although we have kept grapes until January in a very palatable state, and we have tasted others which have been tolerably preserved until March, we must acknowledge that none of these attempts quite came up to our desires, however much others might have praised the result. The truth is, that grapes in March will never be very severely criticised under any circumstances. They are too ‘much of a rarity for that. 2438 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Although the foreign grapes which are imported, packed in sawdust, are said to be gathered before they are fully ripe, we believe that this plan is not suited to our native varieties. They should always be fully ripe Lefore they are gathered, and this should be done on a clear, dry day before they have been touched with frost. The bunches should be carefully examined, none but the first-rate ones selected, and they must be scrupulously freed from all dirt, such as leaves, spiders’ webs, insects, etc. All decayed or unripe berries must be removed with a pair of sharp scissors (merely pulling them off will not do); and they should be exposed to the air (but not the sun) for a few hours before being packed away. In one case where, after the grapes were gathered, the weather became damp before they were put up, we know them to have been placed in a moderately warm oven for rather more than five minutes, and the result was very good. The following are a few of the methods which have been recommended : 1st. Procure some fine, dry sawdust (avoiding that from resinous or scented wood), and pack the grapes in a box or barrel, in layers, being careful to have sufficient between the bunches to prevent their touching. Bran is sometimes substituted for saw- TO PRESERVE GRAPES. 249 2d. Wrap each bunch in fine, clean dry paper, and put away in layers in boxes. 3d. Take a good box and place a layer of cotton batting on the bottom; on this place a layer of grapes, then a layer of batting and so on, until the box is full, wrapping each cluster in thin paper. Some omit the paper. | 4th. Seal up the ends of the stems with wax, and suspend them in a cool, dry and dark room, looking them over occasionally and removing unsound berries and bunches. The French suspend their bunches by the lower ends to a little hook (see Appendix). Some cultiva- tors, however, cut away the fruit-bearing branches and preserve the grapes attached to them. It has been advised to immerse the stems of the bunches in wine, before the fruit isused; but as they are always dried up and incapable of transmitting fluid, we have found it better to immerse the whole bunch in cold water for half an hour or so. This restores the plumpness of the berries and removes some of the foxy flavor which is apt to tinge our native grapes when long kept. 11* 250 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CHAPTER XVI. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. BLAND. Synonyms—Bland’s Madeira, Bland’s Pale Red, Bland’s Fox, Bland’s Virginia, Carolina Powel, fed Bland, Red Scuppernong. Where this grape will ripen well it is valuable on account of its fine flavor. It is, however, confined to the most southern and favorable localities, of which we take cognizance in this work, rarely ripening north of the Hudson, al- though Elliot states that, in 1820, it was well grown and ripened in New Haven, Connecticut, in sandy soil. Said to have originated in Virginia, discovered by Col. Bland, who presented cuttings to W. Bartrem, the botanist, and also to Samuel Powel, Esq., after whom it was in some cases named. Bunches shouldered, long, loose. Berries round or slightly ‘oblate, medium size, pale red when ripe, juicy, sweet sprightly flavor, very little pulp. Foliage pale green, smooth and delicate. ee eT oe sla DESORIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 251 4 CANADIAN CHIEF. This grape is claimed to be a native of New Jersey ; but our best pomologists are of opinion, that if a. native, it is at best but a seedling, from some foreign variety. The bunches are large, berries medium, green or faint amber, and the flesh tender. In Canada it is said to be perfectly hardy and to ripen well in the open air. Grape-growers in the United States have sometimes found that it is apt to be winter-killed, and that it mildews badly. CATAWBA. 4 This is the great wine grape of the South. It was first introduced by Major Adlum, of Georgetown, D. C., and has been subsequently patronized by N. Longworth, Esq., the father of American wine culture. Bunches medium size, loose, shouldered. Berries large and round or very slightly oval. Skin rather thick, pale red in the shade, deeper red in the sun, and covered with a lilac bloom. Juicy, sweet, musky. Should be allowed to hang till fully ripe. Downing states, that wnless fully ripe it is more musky than the Isabella. Prince, on the other hand, says, that when fully ripe it is quite musky, Our own experience leads us to think that it is more musky when ripe than when unripe. 252 : OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. CLINTON. — It is generally believed that this grape originated in western New York. It is extremely hardy and productive, but as a table fruit we regard it as scarcely worthy of cultivation. It is said to ripen several days before the Isabella, but until well touched with frost it is uneatable. As a wine grape, however, it is said to be unequalled, amongst those — grapes which ripen, where the Catawba fails to come to maturity. . Bunches medium or rather small, shouldered, com- pact. Berries small, round, black, thick bloom, juicy, acid and astringent. CONCORD. Though by no means a fine grape, the Concord is valuable from its quality of ripening ten days or so before the Isabella, and consequently maturing in a large range of country where that grape fails. It is very vigorous, hardy, and productive. C. Downing describes it as follows: * Bunch rather compact, large, shouldered. Berries large, globular, almost black, thickly covered with bloom. Skin rather thick, with more of the native pungency and aroma than the Isabella, which it re- sembles, but does not quite equal in quality. Flesh moderately juicy, rather buttery, very sweet, with considerable toughness aud acidity in its pulp.” DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 253 The Concord grape becomes more foxy the longer it is kept, hence two persons, one of whom ate the fruit fresh from the vine, and the other obtained it only after it had been gathered some time, might form very different ideas as to its quality. DELAWARE. This fine grape, which promises to stand in the front rank of our hardy native grapes, is said to have originated in New Jersey, whence it was carried to Ohio, and falling into the hands of A. Thompson, has been thence distributed pretty widely amongst fruit-growers. Some German vine-dressers have sup- posed it to be the Traminer, while others have thought it the Resling, but we believe our best pomologists are agreed thatit isanative. The following descrip- tion is by C. Downing: * Bunch small, very compact, and generally shoul- dered. ‘Berries smallish, round when not compressed. Skin thin, of a beautiful bright red or flesh color, very translucent, passing to wine color by long keep- ing. It is without hardness or acidity in its pulp, ex- © ceedmgly sweet but sprightly, vinous, and aromatic, and is well characterized by Mr. Prince, as our high- est flavored and most delicious hardy grape.” DIANA. A seedling of the Catawba raised by Mrs. Diana 4 954 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. Crehore, of Boston, and named after her by the Mas- sachusetts Horticultural Society. Next to the Isabella and Catawba, the merits of this vine are perhaps the best established of any we have. It is a vigorous grower, a productive bearer, and extremely hardy. The bunches are large, the berries but slightly less than the Catawba, and of about the same color, per- haps a shade darker when ripe. The flavor is very _ superi@®fand even before being fully ripe is still quite good, and is esteemed by some, as even then supe- rior to the Isabella. Another excellent quality con- sists in the ease with which the fruit may be “a for winter use. ELSINBOROUGH. A fine though small table grape, found near Elsin- - borough, Salem Co., New Jersey, and first introduced by Dr. Hulings. It is hardy and productive, and worthy of ‘more general cultivation than it’ has re- ceived. Bunches medium, loose, shouldered. Berries small, round, black and covered with a blue bloom. They have generally but two seeds and are free from pulp or musky taste. Different authors have different modes of spelling the name of this grape. Thus it is called Elsinburg, Elsinburgh, etc. We prefer to spell it in the same manner as the village from which it takes its name. Se nl Meccan ae DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 255 KING. This is a new grape which sprung up accidentally in a garden in the northeastern part of this city, and is supposed to be a seedling of the Clinton, which it resembles very much both in habit and foliage; the fruit, however, being of a green or yellowish hue in- stead of black. We first saw it in bearing, in the fall of 1857 and thought so much of it as to procure cut- tings. The fruit was brought before the Fruit-growers Society in 1858, and named by them in honor of Wm. King, by whom it was introduced. It appears to be — as hardy as the Clinton, and as the flavor is much superior it cannot fail to prove a valuable acquisition. HARTFORD PROLIFIC, A hardy, vigorous and productive variety which originated in Connecticut, and matures in latitudes where the Isabella and Catawba fail to ripen. Bunch large, shouldered, compact. Berry large, round, with thick black skin covered with bloom. Sweet, juicy and acid, but with a good deal of the native perfume. Ripens ten days before the Isabella. The berries have sometimes been found to fall from the bunch as soon as ripe, leaving a number of unripe berries. Lately, however, this difficulty has been lessened by superior cultivation. 256 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. HERBEMONT. This is one of the grapes recommended by the American Pomological Society, as promising well. — There is so much discrepancy in the descriptions by various authors, that we confesssome doubt as to the identity of the varieties described. We quote the fol- lowing from C. Downing: “ This is the most rampant grower of all our hardy grapes, and under favorable circumstances yields a fruit of surpassing excellence, with which the nicest detector of foxiness, thickness of skin, toughness or acidity of pulp, can find no fault; north of Philadelphia, it needs a warm expo- sure or favorable season for the full development of its excellences. In our village, under the care of a lady, it has not failed for many years to give a most abundant crop of perfectly ripened fruit, and without protection has not suffered at all from winter-killing. A very old vine in Baltimore, which had never before failed to produce abundantly since its first bearing, had, last winter, when the mercury fell to 19° below zero, all its young wood killed; but ordi- narily in that latitude and further south, it is an unfailing bearer and particularly fitted for those southern latitudes that are liable to injury from late frosts in spring and early frosts in autumn, as it flow- ers very late and ripens its fruit early. Its leaves in DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 257 autumn are the last to yield to frost, remaining per- fectly green and vigorous after all others have withered and fallen; consequently, it has often an amount of unripened wood, which should be cut off before winter. Ak “Bunch very large and exceedingly compact, shouldered. Berries below medium, round, dark blue, or violet, covered with a thick, light bloom. Skin thin, which is filled with a sweet, rich, vinous aromatic juice, of so little consistence that it cannot be called flesh. “Tvnworr, Lone, Devereaux, anp THurMoND.— Under the above names, grapes much resembling in character the Herbemont, are grown in the southern States, and we have hitherto considered them synony- mous of it ; but our southern friends claim that Lenoir is a distinct variety, and much earlier than any of the others, and also that at least some of the others are distinct. The matter is now under investigation, and we must wait the result before deciding.” ISABELLA. The popular account of the origin of this vine, is that it was a native of South Carolina, which being brought tothe North and introduced to the notice of cultivators by Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, the wife of George Gibbs, Esq., was named in honorof that lady. It has, 258 _ OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. ~ however, been attempted to throw some doubt upon this history—not, perhaps, as to the facts themselves, — but as to their accounting for the origin of the Isa- bella grape—some pomologists claiming that it is a widely distributed and well-known native species, while others assert that it is a well-known European variety. : But be this as it may, it is certainly one of our most prolific and vigorous varieties, and is thus far more widely cultivated at the North than any other with which we are acquainted. Nor is this preference misplaced, as it excels all others which have been fully tested, both in the amount and in the certainty of the crops produced. When quite ripe, the flavor also is excellent, and the pulp almost disappears. Few realize this condition, however, as the fruit is generally gathered long before it is ripe. The follow- ing description is by A. J. Downing: « Bunches of good size, five to seven inches long, rather loose, shouldered._ Berries oval, pretty large. Skin thick, dark purple, becoming at last nearly black, covered with a blue bloom. Flesh tender, with some pulp, which nearly dissolves when fully mature ; juicy, sweet, and rich, with slight musky aroma.” — or a a DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 959 LOGAN. This is a new grape which is recommended by the American Pomological Society as promising well. It ripens about the first of September; is black, sweet: and good. Bunches and berries large. A. Thomson, Esq., of Delaware, Ohio, describes it as follows: “It isa black grape, ripening before the Catawba, and preferred to the Isabella, and is believed to be a wilding of Ohio; hardy, vigorous; wood short-jointed and compact; distinct in wood and foli- age, productive, and probably the earliest hardy grape of fair quality in cultivation, and will ripen its fruit several degrees further north than the Isabella and Catawba.” EARLY NORTHERN MUSCADINE. With regard to this grape, the most contradictory accounts have been published. Some pomologists speak of it in high terms, and by others it has been as fiercely condemned. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 965 It is one of the seven varieties recommended by C. Downing for general cultivation, but it is not . recommended as even promising well by the Pomo- ' logical Society. UNION VILLAGE. A fine black grape, said to resemble the black Hamburgh very much. It is a vigorous grower, hardy and productive. A little earlier than the Ca- tawba or Isabella. Recommended as promising well by the Pomological Society. NEW VARIETIES. New varieties of grapes may be raised by the me- thods formerly described. Most of those so produced will of course prove worthless, being seldom equal to the parents. But occasionally a fine variety will reward our efforts and afford ample compensation for a thousand failures. Amongst those who devote their attention to the raising of new kinds may be mentioned, J. Fiske Allen, Esq., of Salem, Massachu- setts, and Dr. Valk, of Flushing, Long Island. O. T. Hobbs, Esq., of Randolph, Pa., also informs us that he intends to devote his entire nursery to the produc- tion of new kinds of fruits and flowers, making the hardy native grape a specialty. He has already produced two new varieties which are said to be of 12 266 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE. . considerable excellence, viz. the Kitchen grape and the North America, both seedlings from the Franklin grape, which is also a variety first brought forward by Mr. Hobbs. LISTS OF SELECT GRAPES. ~ © By tae American Pomotoaica, Socrery.—for general cultivation.—Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Diana, Isabella. Grapes which promise well—Herbe- mont, Logan, Rebecca, Union Village. List sy C. Downinc.—Catawba, Isabella, Diana, Delaware, Rebecca, To Kalon, Concord. Our own views are that the Isabella is the most re- liable grape for general cultivation at the North. By proper culture, both the Isabella and Catawba may be grown much further north than they are usually found, and it is possible that amongst our new yarie- ties some may be found to excel there. The Diana is now pretty well established, and is ‘a most excellent variety, and we would by all means encourage a trial of the Delaware, which gives great promise. For a garden, we should choose Isabella, Diana, and Dela- ware with the Catawba when it will ripen. It would also be well to plant a Olinton where the exposure is not sufficiently good to warrant the planting of TSF, ee Ur. ae DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 267 a better variety. The Clinton is a hardy grape which will mature where other kinds will not, and althorgh the fruit is not eatable in our estimation, yet it makes — good wine. The King grape, however, seems to be quite as hardy as the Clinton and the quality pro- mises to be equal to many of the. more celebrated kinds. Where the vines we have named will not sueceed, we would plant Concord, Northern Muscadine and Hartford Prolific in preference to any other kinds, and under any circumstances we confess ‘to a pen- chant for variety, as it is often found that the good and bad qualities of any particular grape, are confined to certain localities, so that by extending our selection we may gain an experience which will enable us to avoid the evil and to obtain the goed. TABULAR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE oF NATIVE GRAPES. The following catalogue makes no pretensions to originality, the descriptions given being in general those published by the originators of the variety, where such descriptions were procurable. The numerous blanks occurring in the tables will show at a glance the extreme imperfection of the descriptions usually published. Instead of giving such an account as would enable us to recognize the variety or to appreciate its real qualities, most so-called descriptions consist merely of a string of eulogies. The reader will observe that sometimes (for want of more definite in- formation), we have described the flavor as ‘ good,” “ pleasant,” etc., although such a description is no description at all, not only because tastes differ so much as to what is good, but because there probably never was a grape which was not thought by its originators to excel everything else. Wegive their statements merely for what they are worth. In many cases we have been able to give the name and nothing more. If by so doing, however, we can lessen in a slight degree the further increase of synonyms, the space thus occupied will not be wasted. There are certain names which seem to occur to every one who has or thinks he has a new variety and the bantling straightway receives a name which has probably served half a dozen before it. 270 DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF NATIVE GRAPES. purr =| *eUysar,A §,puerg “para “pee aed §,purig : “‘puvig , SOS *PUvia "490M “par aed *puno. *eB18] *as00] “umypeur weet ween es purig “4dag erpprar *£xoy ‘981800 “yoRyq *‘puno1 "e318 ee ee ee wae ** euoysyoutg : , Arom03yu0yy) *** -Yysaedg yoelg *‘Bny jo 4svy *£xoy ‘youq «fe ete*| euIs “[pexepmoys) “umpeur [4 Aq ouuMg) ****° Surly YOvlg snoulA 999. AS “yoriq “*puno “lyeus 's ‘Suopqo | ees Pei ee ee es “Dp eusm. ) xv agit PIVIN JOVI “poyesouea yRoy eee * *£xoy "par ered *puno. ‘umnimpour |****** sorelecerceeereloonrs eet wees eee reer eqs] e19E “ogyoid pue Apaeyy|"""**** **| *€xoy ‘qooass |‘otdind yep} “punot ‘eSavyt | yoeduroo oe ee amt er ik ae Dial de WeIyleg 3 “pppoe Soniq oltre tees ‘munypeur |*u100 ‘Zu0] ‘a3. 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Ir is still a disputed question whether or not it is possible for good wine to be manufactured in the United States. Daniel Webster, whose high intel- lectuality did not detract from his fondness for the pleasures of the table, declared that we could never hope to make good wine on this continent, and that it would always pay us better to raise corn, cotton, etc., for export, and buy our wines and silks. - On the other hand, the following letters from President Jefferson to Mr. Adlum would seem to establish the fact that, even at an early day, wine had been made in this country of more than ordinary quality : EXTRAOTS OF LETTERS FROM MR. JEFFERSON, LATE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Dated October Tth, 1809. “ While I lived in Washington, a member of Congress from your State (I do not recollect which) presented me with two bottles of wine made by you, one of which, of Madeira color, he said was entirely factitious; the other, a dark red wine, made from a wild or native grape, called in Maryland a Fox grape, but very different from what is called by that name in Virginia. This was a very jine wine, and so exactly resembling the red Burgundy of Chamberlin (one of the best crops) that on a fair comparison with that, of which I had very good on the 281 ' 282 “THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. same table, imported by myself from the place where made, the company could not distinguish the one from the other. I think it would be well to push the culture of that grape, without — losing our time and efforts in search of foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil and climate.” : : i - Dated April 20th, 1819. . The quality of the bottle you sent me before satisfies me that we have at length found one native grape inured to all the accidents of our climate, which will give us a wine worthy — the best vineyards of France. When you did me the favor of sending me the former bottle, I placed it on the table with some of the best Burgundy of Chamberlin, which I had imported myself from the maker of it, and desiring the company to point out which was the American bottle, it was acknowledged they — could perceive no difference.” Dated April 11, 1828. - pe “T received successively two bottles of wine you were so kind as to send me; the first, called Tokay, is truly a fine wine, of high flavor, and as you assure me there was not a drop of brandy or other spirit added to it, I may say it is a wine of a good body of its own. The second bottle, a red wine, I tried when I had good judges at the table; we agreed it was a wine one might always drink with satisfaction, but of no peculiar excellence. Speaking of brandy being added to the wine, he says it is never done but by the exporting merchants, and then only for the English and American markets, where, by a viti- ated taste, the intoxicating quality of wine, more than its flavor, is required by the palate.” Now Mr. Jefferson and his friends were no doubt accustomed to drink good wines, and we think their opinions valuable, although at the same time it must be confessed that they were not very extraordinary . THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. “988 © judges, or they would have detected a difference between the French and American wines. The question of superiority may sometimes be disputed even by good judges, that of identity never. Good wine has also been made in. the south of England, as the following extract from Barry’s work on wines will show, and as it contains some practical notes on wine-making, we give it entire: : “The vineyard of Painshill is situated on the south side of a gentle hill; the soil a gravelly sand; it is planted entirely with the two sorts of Burgundy grapes: the Auvernat, which is the _ most delicate, but the tenderest; and the Miller grape, com- monly called the black cluster, which is more hardy. The first year I attempted to make red wine in the usual way, by tread- ing the grapes, then letting them ferment in a vat till- the hulls and impurities formed a thick crust at the top, the boiling ceased, and the clear wine was drawn off from the bottom. “ This essay did not answer; the wine was so very harsh and austere, that I despaired of ever making red wine fit to drink, But through that hardness I perceived a flavor something like some small French white wines, which made me hope I should succeed better with white wine. That experiment succeeded far beyond my most sanguine expectations; for the very first year I made white wine, it nearly resembled the flavor of cham- pagne, and in two or three years more, as the vines grew ‘stronger, to my great amazement, my wine had a better flavor than the best champagne I ever tasted. The first running was as clear as spirits, the second running was wil de perdria, and both of them sparkled and creamed in the glass like champagne. It would be endless to mention how:-many good judges of wine were deceived by my wine, and thought it superior to any champagne they ever drank; even the Duke de Mirepoix pre- ferred it to any other wine. But such is the prejudice of most people against anything of English growth, I generally found it most prudent not to declare where it grew till after they had 984 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. passed their verdict on it. The surest proof I can give of its excellence is that I have sold it to wine merchants for fifty guineas a hogshead; and one wine merchant, to whom I sold five hundred pounds’ worth at one time, assured me he sold some of the best of it from 7s. 6d. to 10s, 6d. per bottle. ' “ After many years’ experience, the best method I found of making and managing it was this: I let the grapes hang till — they got all the maturity the season would give them. Then they were carefully cut off with scissors and brought home to the vine barn in small quantities, to prevent their heating or pressing one another; then they were all picked off the stalks, and all the moldy or green ones were discarded before they were put upon the press, where they were all pressed in a few hours after they were gathered; much would run from them before the press squeezed them, from their own weight one upon another. . This running was as clear as water and sweet as syrup, and all this of the first pressing, and part of the second, continued white. The other pressings grew reddish, and were not mixed with the best. As fast as the wine ran from the press into a large receiver, it was put into hogsheads and closely bunged up. In a few hours one could hear the fermentation commence, which would soon burst the casks if not guarded against by hooping them strongly with iron and securing them in strong wooden frames and the heads with wedges. In the height of the fermentation I have frequently, seen the wine oozing through the pores of the staves, “These hogsheads were left all the depth of winter in the cool barn to reap the benefits of the frosts. When the fermen- tation was over, which was easily discovered by the cessation of noise and oozing—but, to be more certain, by pegging the cask—when it would be quite clear, then it was racked off into clean hogsheads and carried to the vaults, before any warmth of weather could raise a second fermentation. In March the hogsheads were examined, If they were not quite fine, they were fined down with common fish glue, in the usual manner; those that were fine of themselves were not fined down, and all were bottled about the end of March, and in about six weeks THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 285 a more would be in perfect order for drinking, and would be in their prime for above one year; but the second year the flavor and sweetness would abate and would gradually decline, till at last it lost all flavor and sweetness, and some that I kept sixteen years became so like old hock that it might pass for such to one who was not a perfect connoisseur. The only art I ever used to it was putting three pounds of white sugar-candy to some of the hogsheads, when the wine was first tunned from the press, in order to conform to a rage that prevailed to drink none but very sweet champagne. “T am convinced that much good wine might be made in many parts of the south of England. Many parts are south of Painshill, many soils may be yet fitter for it, and many situa- tions must be so, for mine was much exposed to southwest winds (the worst of all for vines) and the declivity was rather too steep. Yet with these disadvantages it succeeded many years, Indeed, the uncertainty of our climate is against it, and many fine crops have been spoiled by May frosts and wet summers. ‘But one good year balances many disappointments. “Captain St. Pierre, who has established a great colony of vignerons in South Carolina, and carried there three years ago above three hundred vignerons from different parts of Europe, was with me several days before his departure, was charmed with my vineyard, and he had cultivated vineyards many years in France. He was very happy at my giving him all the cut- tings of my vineyard, as he found it very difficult getting the right sort, and though his plantations are about the latitude of 33°, he has not the least doubt of having excellent wine there, which, if he has, must be of infinite service to this country.” Still more recently Mr. Longworth has succeeded in the manufacture of fine champagne wines, which we believe are valued as high as any, except the very finest brands of foreign wines. Wine is the fermented juice of the grape, and pure wine should contain nothing else. When sugar and 286 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. ‘ ° spices are added, and exist in the fluid as such, the product is no longer wine, but ligueur or cordial. Some have, however, extended this principle so far as to assert that any addition to the juice of the grape, either before or after its fermentation, robs it of its claim to the name of wine; but to this we cannot subscribe. If we by any process could pro- duce a fluid identical in its chemical and physical properties with the juice of the grape, we could no doubt make good and real wine therefrom. And if so, then surely the addition of any ingredient which may be required to bring the juice up to the quality and composition of a good wine-making must, cannot have any but a good effect, and must produce a real wine. . se Now the juice of the grape varies in composition from several causes. The variety of grape, the cli- mate in which it is produced, the character of the soil in which it grows, the nature of the manure with which it has been nourished, the mode in which it has beef pruned, its exposure to sun and air, and many other influences, all modify the character of the must, and consequently of the wine produced there- from. In almost every locality we are confined to a few varieties of grapes, and as the climatic condi- tions are also in a great measure beyond our control, we must depend upon judicious pruning, manuring and cultivation for the production of the best grapes for the manufacture of wine. In former chapters we have detailed the peculiarities of vine-dressing as o adapted to the producing pf wine-making grapes; a, a Re eis SRT op ie ae ae Ta at Fae ae, Pe ws ee ee aie ee Ney ae Vee en, eons, tee ae eee oh ee a et THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 287 but we may be excused for briefly recapitulating them. Must for wine requires to be highly saccharine, and although the wines manufactured from Ame- rican grapes have not yet shown much inorganic matter (potash salts) in their compesition, yet the best wines in Europe are made from grapes contain- ing an extra quantity of these matters. In order, therefore, to the production of a good wine, it will be requisite to produce grapes not only thoroughly ripened by A HOT SUN ACTING ON THE LEAVES, but they should also contain the juices and inorganic salts in large amount. With a view to this, it will be necessary in the fall, and shortly after the vintage, to lightly fork in a dressing of bone-dust, guano or hen manure; and on the fall of the leaf, and before any frosts set in, the border should be covered with the fallen leaves raked together and mixed with stable litter or clean- ings. This will protect the roots trom the severity of our winters, and enable them to sustain the draft made in spring by the branches at an earlier date than they otherwise would. In the spring, after the weather has become settled, the border should be very lightly forked over and the long litter removed; the rest may be mixed with the surface soil. The vine having been properly pruned, must be allowed to break its buds, as it is termed, and push out the young stems until those which promise best can be clearly distinguished. 288 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. As soon as the leaves are formed, liquid manure may be applied if the number of vines cultivated will permit of it, and this application of liquid manure may be continued until after the middle of July. It should then cease for the season. Meanwhile, as soon as the young shoots are well formed, all the weakly ones should be rubbed off, carrying the pru- — ning recommended in former pages to even a greater degree of severity than there noted. By these means the grapes will be obtained ripe much earlier and of a higher (not stronger) flavor. - The importance of having the grapes ripe early will be appreciated when we consider that, other things being equal, the heat and dryness of the season in which they ripen will be the measure of the per- fection of the grapes, at least in this latitude. Now, in 1858, the mean temperature of August was 69° Fahrenheit, while the mean temperature of Septem- ber was only 61°, and as the amount of rain which fell in each month was equal, the grapes which were ripe by the beginning and middle of September were much richer in saccharine and other wine-making elements than those which were produced in the cool and damp atmosphere of September and October. From the foregoing observations it will be evident that /in preparing must for wine we must pay par- ticular attention to the quality of the grapes and the circumstances under which they were raised. ‘Thus, in Cincinnati, no sugar is added to the juice of the Catawba; it is fermented just as it comes from the press. But in'more northern climes, not only does > ‘ “a THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 289 the juice of the Isabella and Clinton require sugar, but that of the Catawba stands in need of it, in order to make, not a sweet but a-full-bodied wine, which will bear keeping. . In the manufacture of wine from the grape, the first process is to carefully pick over all the grapes, rejecting those which are unripe, rotten, mildewed, or imperfect in any other way. The rejection of the stems will depend upon the character of the wine desired. If retained, they impart a roughness to the wine, which some admire; and it is claimed by some, that the tannin of the stems helps to preserve the wine. The grapes are then to be mashed, which is- easily done with the hands if in small quantity. In the large way it is performed by passing the grapes between rollers armed with pins. On asmaller scale, a beetle or stamper, armed with pins, may be used ; and where but a few are prepared (as for domestic purposes) the hands alone can perform the work. Sees ae Av APPENDIX II. 343 upper edge of the basket on that side nearest the wall, so that the shoot may be easily turned in the required direction. Then on that side of the trench nearest the wall, and in front of each basket, is made a smaller trench, as is shown in the figure at p, 3 inches deep and 10 inches long. In this the shoot is carefully laid, and it is filled with earth mixed with vegetable mold up to the level of the soil. The first trench is partly filled with the earth which was taken from it, mixed with vegetable mold. This operation is performed in such a manner that the trench is left empty to the depth of 8 inches, that the layer is buried to the depth of 10 inches, and that the top of the basket is covered by a bed of earth 2 inches in thickness. The operation is con- cluded by cutting off the shoot, as it leaves the earth just above. the bud x, or that which is nearest the ground. The sap being thus concentrated upon a single bud, it attains a more vigorous development, and that part of the shoot which is buried, puts — forth more roots, which pierce the bark with greater ease, in proportion as the leaf-buds from which they spring are nearer to the light. The end of the shoot above the earth is fixed upon a stave or prop 39 inches in length, and the remainder of the earth taken out of the trench is piled up on each side in the form of a shelving bank. The result of this last arrangement is to retain a greater degree of moisture in the neighborhood of the newly-planted shoot during the summer. When the. cultivator has no layers in baskets at his disposal, -and is obliged to content himself with uncovered layers or even with cuttings, they should be planted in the same manner as the basket layers, only care must;be taken to place the earth firmly around the chevelées and especially around the cuttings, and all that part which is under ground should be surrounded with earth which has been considerably enriched. We will now proceed to describe the attentions demanded by this plantation during the next summer. When the bud & is developed, it is fixed upon the prop. As soon as it has attained a length of 20 inches the top is cut off; next the premature twigs which are thus developed are removed when they are 4 inches in length. The result this operation is to increase 3844 5 APPENDIX Il. the size of the stem by limiting the evolution of the antici- patory shoots, and to accumulate in a small space all the nutri- tive juices taken up by the roots. It also promotes the increase of.the roots along the newly interred layer. No bunch of grapes is allowed to remain on this shoot for fear of weakening it. The whole plantation should also receive two or three dress- ings in the course of the year. They should be applied, if possi- ble, after rather a smart shower of rain, and when the earth has slightly drained. Ifthe soil is light and dryness is to be appre- hended, the trench and the little ditch should be covered with a bed of manure 6 inches in thickness, besides that which has already been applied, and finally, the trench is filled with the earth banked up on each side. After this operation, the whole appears like Fig. 78. Szconp YEAR OF THE PLANTATION.—Toward the end of February, the shoot developed during the preceding year is cut at a (Fig. 79), above the three buds nearest to the base, then it ! TH yf = === =—— Fig. 79. is attached. to a prop 58 inches long which replaces the first. When the shoots have attained a length of 6 inches the laterals are pinched out, so as to preserve only the shoots from the three buds just described. These shoots are fixed upon a prop in proportion as they grow longer. They are not allowed to exceed the prop by which they are supported, and the process of nipping off the buds is continued. Should _ APPENDIX II. 845 _the shoots on the props be very vigorous, two clusters, at the most, should be left upon each, and should be treated in the manner which we will explain in the proper order. The same attentions are bestowed as in the preceding summer, and then a light dressing in November. The result then obtained is shown in Fig. 80. Fig. 80. Tarp Yrar.—Relaying.—In good weather in the first of March, or, if in the South, in the aitumn, the layers must be examined in order to know if they have put forth shoots sufli- ciently large and vigorous to be relaid. If uncovered layers, and still more, if cuttings have been planted, the cultivator will be obliged to wait till the following year and even to the year after to repeat the process of bedding or laying. The roots on the previously bedded shoot will not be sufficiently numerous, they would injure in their development the new layer which it is intended to put down, and the future health of tlie stalk des- _tined to be placed against the wall would suffer. In that case only the two finest shoots of the young stalk should be pre- served. These are cut to a length of only 6 inches, and upon these only a single shoot is preserved during the summer. Should they not be strong enough for relaying in the following year, the same operation is repeated. The stalks obtained from layers in baskets may almost always be rebedded from the third year. In that case the ag method is employed. >>==_¥—=————_S = —— € } a. 7B y . \ of Z, q 7 \ y Bas . = ‘ I UEFA ‘9 7 RS AWS. “AAS AAS fae ° APPENDIX II. 847 most vigorous shoots should be preserved, and they should be carried obliquely toward the wall, and from two stalks at the points B. If, on the contrary, it is intended that each principa: stalk shell furnish but one stalk for the wall (Fig. 83), only the finest shoot is preserved, which is buried in the trench and directed toward theewall at the point B, where it is intended to be trained. In both cases the shoots are covered as far as the foot of the wall by a bed of mixed soil and vegetable mold about 4 inches in thickness (Fig. 83). The trench is then filled with part of the earth which was taken from it, and the re- mainder is heaped up in a shelving bank at a distance of 40 inches from the wall, in order to preserve the moisture in the neighborhood of the newly laid vines, and thus facilitate a plentiful development of roots. The upper extremities of the buried shoots are fixed at the base of the uprights of the trellis. These shoots are cut so as ~ to preserve only the three buds nearest the base. This opera- tion being concluded, the trellis presents the form shown in Fig. 81. If the plantation of layers or cuttings has been in a trench at a distance of 40 inches from the wall instead of 28 inches, they must be brought to the foot of the wall only after a third lay- ing, otherwise we should be obliged each time to cover too large a part of the shoot, which, as we shall see farther on, will / 348 APPENDIX IL. prevent them from properly taking root, and so injure the strength of the vine. If this method of planting for the trellised vine is compared with that used in the majority of gardens, it will be seen that it is very different. In fact, the vines are almost always planted directly at the foot of the wall, and the only part buried is that which was originally below the soil; so that the vine, the roots of which ramify with great difficulty, cannot, when thus, planted, develop new radical organs upon the stems below the - soil. It puts forth roots with great difficulty, it is long in recovering from its transplantation, and its vegetation is never vigorous. On the contrary, by adopting the mode of cultivation used at Thomery, which we have just described, the vine is placed under much better circumstances. The first year there is buried, besides the stem first covered with roots, 10 inches of the shoot, which during the two or three years preceding the relaying, covers itself with vigorous roots. Two or three years after this, 14 inches of the shoot are againelaid, which in a little while is completely covered with roots. Each stalk intended for the wall is then provided with an underground stem 44 inches in length, bearing through all its length numerous and vigorous roots, which give to the vine more strength and hardi- ness than is possible when the method of which we spoke first is used. When uncovered chevelées, or those in baskets are used, the cultivator may be tempted to lay at once a length of shoot sufficient to bring the upper end directly to the foot of the wall, a length, for instance of 24 inches. This is a very bad plan, for the stems do not properly take root only upon the 12 to 14 inches nearest to the upper ends, because the woody and cortical fibres which run down from the buds to produce roots are not sufficiently numerous to put forth roots enough, and they pierce the bark at the same time that they meet the soil. It is desirable to lay only 14 inches at the most, if it is intended that the underground stalk shall be fully provided with roots throughout its whole extent. Mersop or PRUNING ADOPTED FOR THE VERTICALLY TREL- APPENDIX II. 849 _LISED VINE WITH OPPOSITE SHOOTS.—CONSTRUCTION OF THE Frame.—First Year.—The shoots having been laid and brought to the foot of the wall, the buds are watched in their first deve- lopment to see that they are not harmed by caterpillars, snails, or other destructive insects. When the three shoots have attained a length of about 6 inches, the stipulary shoots Fig. 84, (A, Fig. 84), which often grow by the side of the shoots properly so called, are taken away. Then, when they are about 12 inches long,.we begin to break the tendrils which uselessly absorb the sap. This breaking of the tendrils is continued through the period during which the length of the shoot increases, and should be put in force while the tendrils are yet so soft that’ « they may be easily broken. That is also the time which should be .chosen to begin the formation of the stalk intended to be trained upon-the wall. The following is the method then employed : Let us suppose that one of these young stalks is represented by Fig. 84. From the three stalks which have been preserved, one is chosen having a leaf 12 inches above the ground. Let us suppose in our figure that this is the second shoot on leaving 350 APPENDIX Il. | the ground, and that the leaf aforesaid is situated opposite the second cluster. This cluster is taken off and the shoot is cut immediately. above this leaf, as in B, Fig. 85. The top of the two Fig. 85. other shoots is then removed in order to hinder them from too great a growth to the detriment of the shoot upon which it is intended to operate. We may then proceed to train it upon the frame. The shoot under treatment is placed in a vertical posi- tion, and the two others are attached at an angle of forty-five degrees. A premature stipulary shoot will be seen immediately to spring from the axil of the leaf of the cut shoot (a, Fig. 85). This shoot should be broken when only an inch or two in length, so that the bud B at the hase of this shoot is forced to develop itself. Before long this bud gives birth to a shoot , APPENDIX II. 351 (4, Fig. 86), which is allowed to grow, and which is trained vertically. These young main stalks require no other care dur- _ ing the summer, so far as the frame is concerned, than the complete suppression of all the premature stipulary shoots Fig. 87. (A, Fig. 87), or of premature shoots commonly so called, as also of the tendrils. Upon each shoot should be left only the clus- ters o and p and the primitive leaves. These attentions should be given each year to all the shoots preserved. Second Year.—The stems operated upon in the manner just described present the appearance of Fig. 88. They are then subjected to the second pruning. The two shoots (B) are com- pletely taken off by cutting the first at a. Then the premature shcot o is cut at p immediately above the bud situated near the Fie line i eet gibt "LRG Se E------" ; Fig. 88, 2 base. During the following summer this bud develops well as the germs immediately below it upon the secondary sh APPENDIX Il. 8538 indicated by the letters Ex, which is called the spur (talon). The number of buds on the spur may be three or four. But two buds on the spur, one on each side and one at the top of the shoot, are preserved. The produce of the buds £ £ is entirely removed. This last operation is performed as soon as the shoots from the spur have attained a length of 4 inches.. When the remaining shoots are fastened to the frame, the young vine presents the appearance of Fig. 86. When the centre shoot (s) puts forth, as it increases in length, a leaf above that point where the first pair of lateral shoots is attached, it is cut above this leaf at the point a, as in the preceding summer, in order to obtain from the axil of this leaf a new shoot for the formation of a second pair, which must be treated in the same manner. The two lateral shoots are subjected to the same operation. Third Year.—In the following spring each stem on the walls presents the appearance ¢f Fig. 89. The shoot ais cut at the point B, in order to, obtain the same result as in the preceding year. As to the branches o, they are cut near their base in order to form the two first cowrsons or double branches shown 354 _ APPENDIX II. in Fig. 90. The same development takes place during the sum- mer below the point B, as well as the same operation upon the new terminal shoot. The product of the buds p is removed. Fourth Year.—Fig. 90 shows the result of the operations performed during the preceding years. The same method of pruning is’ practised one year after another until the trellised vine has covered the space for which it was intended, when it presents the appearance shown in Fig. 74. All that we have just said applies to those stems which rise to half the height of the wall. Those which extend to its top grow more rapidly during the first years. During the summer, after the layering by which they have been brought to the wall, two shoots are left upon each of the three first shoots. The ee ee Ne ee ey ee See eee ag TPE fa eS ci ee a aed _——— ee iti APPENDIX II. 355 following year, at the winter pruning, the strongest of the three shoots resulting from thence is chosen; the two others are ~ taken away and the remaining one is cut at 20 inches above the point where it is attached to the frame. In summer it is allowed to retain but three buds, which give place to three new shoots. The best of these is again chosen and extended also to 20 inches. The same process is repeated till the vertical stalk reaches the point where it is intended to support lateral branches. Then the same series of operations is employed as in the first case. This method of forming the main stalks has this advantage. that each pair of lateral branches being separated by a regular interval of 10 inches and by a knotty place at the point of attachment of the successive extensions, the course of the sap is arrested below every one of these knots and thus obliged to act with the same intensity on all the lateral branches of the same stalk. Such is not the use in the vertical cordons which are moré rapidly formed, as they are more extended at each pruning. CARE NEOESSARY TO THE LATERAL BranouEs.—First Year.— The essential principles of pruning the lateral branches are the following: In the case of the vine, the clusters are attached to Fig. 91. shoots proceeding from the branches of the preceding summer (Fig. 91). The shoots accidentally developed on the old wood never bear grapes (Fig. 92). The further the buds are removed from the base of the branch, the more fruitful are the shoots to which they give rise. 856 APPENDIX II. Fig. 92. Hence it appears that the shoots should be left entire, or be | left very long. But in that case we immediately encounter the following inconveniences. Thus, if the shoot in the Fig. 93 is cut in B, the buds o and B are the only ones which will be Fig. 93. Fig.. 94, developed, and we shall have in the following year the result shown in Fig. 94. If, then, we trim the shoot at the points A and B (Fig. 94), we shall have two new shoots produced at the top of the,shoots. Continuing to trim in this manner the lateral branch or immediate support of the young shoot increases in length each year from 4 to 6 inches, and thence results great confusion through the whole extent of the trained vine, and moreover, @ progressive enfeeblement, or, as it were, starvation, of the new shoots, and, consequently, an immediate diminution of fruitfulness. On the other hand, if the shoot in Fig. 93 is cut so as to a Ta LN Re Nr vy ° a lt APPENDIX Il. 857 preserve only the bud a, this bud is so near the old wood that the shoot produced from it will bear no grapes. It will be best, then, to cut this shoot (Fig..93) as short as possible, to hinder the lateral shoot from increasing in length, but in such a manner, however, as to preserve a bud far enough from the old wood to produce grapes. Experience has shown that in order to attain this double end, the shoots from varieties of only a slight or average degree of strength should be cut above the two buds the nearest to the base, one of these two being that bud which, hardly visible, is on the base of the shoot itself—that is, just where it springs from the stalk (Fig. 93). Two new buds are developed, and in consequence, two new shoots. The branch will then present the appearance shown in Fig. 95. Fig. 95. The shoot a has borne clusters during the summer. The shoot B is too near the old wood to have produced anything. It is called the shoot of replacement—that is to say, it is that intended to undergo the next pruning. For that, almost all the old wood is cut from the top of the spur. Then the shoot B is cut above the two buds néarest its base. During the summer two new shoots are thus produced, and each year the same method of pruning is repeated, so as to allow the old wood to increase as little as possible in length, and keep the fruitful shoots as near as possible to the direct channel of the sap. Such is the method of pruning applied to the branches intended to bear grapes for the table. ' There are, nevertheless, varieties so hardy that, should they be subjected to this process, no fruit, or very little, would be 358 APPENDIX II. obtained. The different varieties of muscats, the Frankenthal, and others which we have noted in our list, are of this descrip- tion. For these, the shoots should be left a little longer. They are cut off below the third bud. This difference does not result in increasing the length of the lateral branches. In fact, such is the strength of these vines that three shoots are obtained from each lateral branch. That from the top, which generally bears the clusters, is the one preserved, then that at the base, intended to undergo the next year’s pruning. The intermediate one is suppressed. The same operation is each year repeated. Dissuppine THE LaTERAL BRancnEs oR Coursons.— When the coursons are cut so as to preserve but two or three buds, it will often happen, nevertheless, that a larger number will be deve- loped. Only two, at the most, should be left at each point, The shoot a (Fig. 96), nearest the old wood, is preserved as a shoot of replacement, together with that farthest from the same | | We) (j W/Z NAS = Y YG VA - APPENDIX Il. 359 point B. The latter generally bears the clusters. There are, however, two cases in which but a single shoot should be left on the courson. First, when none of the shoots of the cowrson bear clusters; then a single shoot, that from the base, is useful as a shoot of replacement. By the others being suppressed, the remaining one becomes stronger and will yield finer fruit in the following year. Second. When the two shoots of the cowrson both bear clus- ters, which occasionally occurs in very fertile years. As it is advisable to leave only two small clusters or one large one to be supported by each cowrson, as we will presently explain, a retrenchment will be necegsary. In this case, the shoot from the base only is preserved, and it will become at the same time a fruit-bearing shoot and a shoot of replacement. In conse- quence of this retrenchment the shoot in question will acquire ‘more strength, it will bear better grapes, and the new shoot will afford the finest products of the following year. The proper time for putting in practice these different trim- mings, is, as soon as the young clusters make their appearance upon the shoots, that is to say, when they are about 10 inches long. We must repeat what we have said concerning the cut- ting of the shoots—that there should be left upon each one of the shoots preserved only the clusters and the primitive leaves. Then all the supplementary shoots and the tendrils should be removed as soon as they appear. Pryouine tue SHoors.—The buds on the shoots of the vine, as on those of other trees, should often be pinched back. The end of this operation is to prevent the shoots from confused growth, to diminish the growth of some of the shoots to the profit of feebler ones, and finally to favor the development of the grapes by enabling them to profit by the sap, which would otherwise pass to the shoots which would spring from the buds destroyed. In order to obtain these different results the buds on the shoots should be pinched off as they develop themselves to the length of from 16 to 20 inches, and their extremities ouly should then be cut. 360 APPENDIX II. MANNER OF FASTENING THE SHoots 1n SummMEeR.—The shoots of the vine are fastened in order to prevent their being broken by the wind, and in general this fastening should be twice prac- tised upon the same shoot. ‘The first fastening is made when the shoots have attained a length of about 12 inches, Then the shoots are but slightly compressed in the rush which Serves as a ligature. Otherwise, in growing, they would break them- selves. ae A! Fifteen days after this first fastening, we proceed to the second, or récollage, as it is called by the cultivators of Tho- mery. At this time the shoots are tied as close as is necessary to arrange them conveniently. Thig process of fastening should be successively made for the different shoots of the same vertical main stalk, and by beginning with the most vigorous we may equalize their strength. The shoots of the vertical cordons should be inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees. RENEWAL OF THE OCoursons.—We have seen that in spite of the care which has beer taken to keep down’ the spurs by an annual trimming, to the shoot nearest the base, they will always increase a little in length, and the shoot which they bear will diminish in vigor in proportion as they are removed from the point where the spur or lateral branch is attached to the cordon or vertical main stalk. In order to remedy this incon- venience, the shoots which sometimes grow at the base of the spurs are carefully preserved, whatever may be the age of _ APPENDIX IL. 361 the spurs from which they spring. Then, of the two upper shoots, that which bore the-worst cluster is suppressed. The following year the spur is cut at a, Fig. 97, and the shoot B is cut above the two lowest germs or eyes in order to form a new couwrson or spur. REPLACEMENT OF THE Spurs (Coursons).—-Sometimes also cer- tain spurs disappear entirely or are not developed where they are expected, and in either case spaces are left which it becomes necessary to fill. This accident may be remedied by the graft. OARE oF THE GrapEs.—It is in particular the intelligent labor bestowed upon the grapes from their first appearance to their maturity to which the cultivators of Thomery are indebted for their success. The following are the processes adopted : : : Suppression or THE SuprErFLuovs Bunones.—Too large a quantity of grapes upon the vine produces the same result as a superabundance of fruit upon other trees. 862 APPENDIX II. With a straight, pointed pair of scissors we cut from each bunch —first, all the abortive berries; and secondly, those in the middle of the bunch, together with some of those which, although on the outside, are too. much crowded. If the bunches are very long, as is often the case with young and vigorous vines, the point of the bunch (4, Fig. 98) must also be removed, since the berries which it bears would be slow in ripening. The result of this thinning is, that, other things being equal, the grapes are ripe fifteen days earlier, the berries are a third larger, and those intended to be kept through the winter will keep better. The thinning practised at Thomery is performed by women, and is applied to at least half the harvest—that is to say, 500,000 kilogrammes of chasselas, GATHERING THE Leaves.—At the time when the thinning takes place should also be applied the first épamprement, or picking off the leaves. At first only the leaves turned toward the wall and those more or less broken or distorted are removed. When the berries begin to look transparent, a second épampre- ment takes place. A few leaves on the front of the vine are then removed in situations where the foliage is thick; but the leaves which shelter the branches, the parasols, are preserved with care. Finally, when the berries are entirely cleared, and begin to turn yellow, the leaves which shadow them, are removed. if they are exposed earlier the berries will harden and cease to increase in size. The bunches thus uncovered are exposed alternately to the dew and the sun, by the action of which they acquire that beautiful pale yellowish brown which distinguishes the chasselas of Thomery. Black grapes require particular care in this respect. The first removal of the leaves should not take place till the grapes are completely colored. . These successive strippings of the leaves from the vine result in progressively arresting the annual growth of the vine, a long time before it would otherwise cease. The fruit, therefore, sooner begins to mature, and will be completely ripe by the first cold weather. APPENDIX IIL 863 Protections.—The very projecting copings which we have recommended for trellised vines are insufficient, if the wall is more than 80 inches high, to protect the grapes from the damp- ness of the atmosphere. It will then be advisable to place a movable pent-house at about half the height of the wall after the last gathering of the leaves in the middle of September. This pent-house should project about 20 inches. AnnuLar Inotsion.—Refer to page 234 for the description of this operation, intended to hasten fifteen days the ripening of the grape, and whick will increase also fully a third the size of the berry. ' RenewaL or tae Tretiisep Vine.—The trellised vine, attended in the manner we have described, will bear fruit for more than fifty years. But there comes a time when the suc- cessive renewal of the spurs produces upon them so many knots that the circulation of the sap is interrupted. The vege- tation becomes languishing, many of the coursons wither, and the vertical stems themselves finally perish. When this state of decrepitude first manifests itself, the cultivator proceeds to the renewal of the vine. All the vertical stalks are cut at about 8 inches above the soil (Fig. 99). This trimming concentres the action of the sap upon this point, and so develops a certain number of shoots. During the summer the most vigorous are . chosen and the others removed. The following year the reserved shoot is cut above the third bud, and the same care before described is applied to the three resulting shoots. Then the process is continued as for the establishment of a young vine. To assure its success, it is well to remove, from the time when the shoofs are suppressed, as much earth as possible from the foot of the trellis without injuring the roots of the vine, and we should apply abundance of manure, which should be covered with a bed of new earth nearly equal in thickness to that removed. When the trellis to be renewed is in a state of advanced decrepitude, and when a certain number of vertical stalks are completely withered, and the regularity of the whole is lost, we proceed ina different manner. Each vertical stem is cut off, as we have said, above, and those which are dead 864 APPENDIX II. removed. During the summer the two most vigorous shoots on each vertical stalk are preserved, and they are allowed to grow to the top of the wall. The following year there is taken away from the foot of the trellis as much earth as possible, about 16 inches, taking care not to harm the old roots. The earth is hollowed out, completely as it were isolating the base of each vertical stalk. Then they are laid at the base of the trellis pre- viously arranged for their reception. As each one leaves two APPENDIX II. | 365 shoots, and as this number is more than sufficient to furnish the required number of vertical stalks, we preserve only the proper number, choosing the most vigorous for our purpose. These stalks and shoots are finally extended on the ground by means of wooden hooks, in such a manner that the new shoot directed toward the wall leaves the ground at exactly that point where the new vertical stalk should rise. A bed of manure, 3 inches in thickness, is then spread, and the rest of the hollow is filled with new earth. All these vertical stalks will develop with exceeding vigor during the year, and will then be managed like those of a new plantation. We saw thus renewed, in 1848, a trellis more than eighty years old, belonging to M. Rose Char- meux. The operation was attended with no difficulty, and its success was complete. It will readily be perceived that by the aid of this renewing process the duration of the trellised vines is almost indefinite, and it will seldom be necessary to replant. The cultivators of ' Thomery have a proverb, ‘‘ He who plants an espalier is not there to take it away.” This mode of a renewal may be applied to an old trellis more or less regularly disposed in horizontal cordons, which it may be desirable to replace by vertical ones. The process in such a case is as follows: In the spring each cordon is cut immediately above the spur (courson) nearest the base (Fig. 100). During the simmer two shoots are preserved upon each spur and allowed to grow freely. The following year the ground at the foot of the trellis is dug 866 APPENDIX It. out as we have explained. Then the foot of each vertical stem is deeply laid bare and laid down horizontally so that the extremities of the shoots are connected to the foot of the wall at each of those parts were it is intended they shall form new vertical stems. The rest of the process is conducted in the manner already described. CULTURE OF TABLE GRAPES IN THE OPEN AIR (Prein Vent). The table grape is also cultivated in the open air,* but the climate of Paris is the extreme limit of this culture. The vines are arranged upon espalier and then managed as before described. They are even sometimes trained upon poles or stumps, and the method pursued is then the same as for the ordinary vineyard. At Thomery the interval which separates each inclosure is used in the following manner: Zspaliers are established parallel to the walls. The first is at 80 inches’ distance, and the others are separated by an interval of 8 ft. 6 in. These espaliers are sustained by a trellis similar to that on the wall. They are supported on wooden posts, or, as is better, on those of schistose stone, analogous to slate. These posts are placed at a distance of 5 ft. 4 in. one from the other. Some- times for these posts are substituted iron uprights fixed in prisms of sandstone placed in the ground. In this case the wooden cross-pieces may be replaced by lines of iron wire which pass across the uprights. The main stems of the vine form upon this frame a,series of little vertical cordons like those just described. These espaliers are, moreover, planted with the same care as the trellised vines, and are treated in the same manner. The interval of 8 ft. 6 in. which separates each espalier is occupied by a row of vines on poles, propped up as in the * “Open air” is here used not in contradistinction to vines protected by glass, but those simply protected by walls and copings as just described, APPENDIX II. 867 ordinary vineyard, and subjected to the same method of cultiva- tion. These poles, separated by an interval of 53 inches, rise to a height of 13 inches above the soil, so that the rain may not cover the grapes with mud. Tn the same climate, the same variety of grape supported on a pole is always inferior to that cultivated upon a wall. The grapes from the pole vines are always worse than those from the contre espalier. The earliest varieties only should be cultivated in this man- ner, since the temperature of the contre espaliers is always lower than that of the espaliers. CULTURE OF TABLE GRAPES IN SOUTHERN FRANCE. In the south of France the greater warmth and dryness of the climate hastens to a great extent the annual vegetation of the vine, and the ripening of the fruit is accomplished without its being necessary to increase the warmth of the atmosphere arti- ficially, or to moderate and even to arrest the growth of the vines. Hence the vine grows most vigorously and the choice varieties of table grapes which are native to these regions have amuch greater development than those which belong to the centre and.north of France. Finally, these varieties require less pruning in order to produce grapes. These different con- siderations give rise to the following modifications in processes of grape culture for those regions, First. The vine should be placed on espaliers, single or double, the supports of which should be like those already described. In all cases the walls of the garden which have the warmest exposure should be devoted to the vine, and for these walls should be selected the latest varieties. Second. The vines should be planted before winter, as if planted later they suffer much from the dryness of the spring. Third. As the vine grows with much more strength in the south than in the north of France, whether on account.of the climate, or the nature of the varieties peculiar to that region, it is necessary that they should be planted at a greater distance 3868 APPENDIX IIL. one from the other. For the vertical cordons, with opposite lateral shoots, it will be proper to leave an interval of 24 — between each cordon instead of 14. Fourth. The coursons of those varieties siintonaal to the shies. selas, on account of their strength are cut so as to leave two buds as we have explained, but all those which grow with more strength are cut so as to leave three buds. Fifth. The operation of thinning the clusters is as efficacious in the south as in the north, but removing the leaves would be much more injurious than beneficial. Only the leaves which cover the clusters are to be taken off, and those only at the time when the grapes are perfectly transparent. Sixth. The vine in the south being stronger than in the north, a third more clusters than the amount previously specified are. ‘allowed to remain upon the vine. q¢ Diszases or Taz Vine—Dusrevorive ANnrm™ats AND Insgors. —tThe diseases of the vine have been already referred to, and we will confine ourselves at present to the consideration of the destructive animals and insects, which’ especially a the trellised vine. Birds, and particularly sparrows, thrushes, grossbeaks and black-birds are the great enemies of the trellised vine. When these birds do not fly in large flocks and descend in great numbers upon one place, they occasion little mischief, and the cultivators of Thomery adopt no precaution against them. Nets undoubt- edly- would be a good defence, but their price prevents their being employed over a large surface. M. Orbelin, of St. Maur, near Paris, has contrived, as a defence against birds, little mirrors with a double face, of a very moderate price, and the result, up to the present time, has been very satisfactory. In the spring the first young shoots are often devoured by snails or slugs. Their size, their slow pro- — gress, and their habit of taking refuge in the chinks of the wall or belind the trellis, and of coming out in the morning or during the rain renders their destruction easy. The kermes, known also under the name of gall insect, be- longs to the genus coccws, and particularly attacks the peach \ APPENDIX II. 369 When it has acquired complete development toward the end of May, it presents the following appearance : The male (4, Fig. 101) appears in the form of a little multipede and the vine. y \ % - y S36 = _—— a 2 vy) ai B Fig. 101. . er woodlouse covered with white dust. The female appears like a little brown shell, s, adhering very firmly to the branches of the trees. About this time the males impregnate the females and die. The females lay their egzs directly, and the eggs 16* 370 ' APPENDIX II. remain surrounded with a little mass of white down, and cov- ered with the dried body of the female, who expires as soon as they are deposited. These eggs hatch rapidly, and the insects issue from the shell which covers them, toward the end of June, to the number of more than a thousand. Hardly visible to the naked eye, they spread themselves over the surface of the ' leaves and young shoots, and destroy them by piercing their epidermis and absorbing their fluids. Toward the month of November, when the leaves fall, the kermes abandon them and fix themselves on the branches, choosing in preference, where the trees are en espalier, the side next the wall, where they remain torpid through the winter, appearing like little brown stains. In the month of April they change their skins, rapidly increase in size, and give birth to a new generation. The measure-worm is the larva of a moth, which in the spring greatly injures the vine by devouring the young shoots as they are put forth. It is difficult to find it, as it has the form and color of a little dried stick. It carries on its ravages during the night, and it is then that the cultivators of Thomery, armed with lanterns, seek it out and destroy it. GATHERING AND PrEsERVATION—FresH Graprs.—The grapes should be gathered only when perfectly ripe. The longer the APPENDIX II. 371 vintage is delayed in the centre and north of France, the higher is the flavor of the grape. The first frosts of autumn, to which it is very sensitive, should however be anticipated. The gather- ing should take place in a dry time. Each cluster should be taken by the stem, and detached by means of the pruning shears.. As the grapes are gathered they are deposited in little bas- kets lined with vine leaves and fern. These baskets are arranged on what is called a crotchet, or sort of hod, shown in Fig. 102, which can be carried by one man to the storehouse, or to the place where the grapes are packed for market. _ The following is the manner employed each year in the pre- servation of a great quantity of grapes by the cultivators of Thomery : : First, a certain portion is retained on the trellis to the latest possible moment. They choose the clusters from the two upper cordons of the walls having a southern exposure. These grapes are the least watery, and consequently the least susceptible to cold. They guard them by sheltering them with leaves of fern, and even with straw matting, and thus preserve them until Christmas. The grapes which they wish to preserve still later they treat in the following manner: Those which they wish to retain till May are chosen from the poles, or the coun- ter espaliers. The bunches are taken which have been subjected to the thinning process and which are formed of the largest and least crowded berries. They are cut a little before they are completely ripe--that is to say, from the 25th of September to the 15th of October. The grapes intended to be kept only till March, may be taken from the espaliers, and are gathered from the 1st to the 15th of November. The place where the grapes are kept is generally some room or building connected with the house, and especially devoted to this use. Shelves about 30 inches wide, placed one over the other, cover the walls from floor to ceiling. In the middle of the room, and 380 inches distant from the lateral shelves, ano- ther series of shelves rises to the ceiling. These shelves are composed of a frame of wood filled up with a grating of iron 3872 APPENDIX IL. wire. It is upon this grating, which is covered by a slight layer of very dry straw, that the grapes are spread. They should often be inspected, and the berries which begin to decay should be removed by the scissors. A storehouse on this plan presents the following inconyve- niences. Heat must often be introduced in order to defend it from the winter’s cold, and the result is an injurious change of temperature. On the other side, the accumulation of moisture makes it necessary that it should be aired from time to time, and produces the same result in an inverse mode. Finally, if the currents of air produced by this ventilation are too great, the grape dries, shrivels, and loses, if not its quality, at least its commercial value. We think, then, that it is better to use the storehouse a description of which the reader will find at page 685 of the second part of this work. It will be necessary but to change the arrangement of the shelves, and also to use chloride of calcium with precaution, for fear of shrivelling the grapes.* When it is necessary to preserve only a small quantity of grapes, the same storehouse will serve at once for grapes and — * The reference here is to the “‘ Cours Elémentaire d’Aboriculture,” from which the present account of the Thomery system is translated, M. Du Breuil there gives a very full and accurate description of a room or house for preserving fruit of all kinds; the principal features of which are the provision of means whereby the’ fruit is kept at an equable temperature, free from all pressure produced by the fruits pressing upon each other, and free from dampness. The latter point is— attained by keeping a vessel of chloride of calciwm in the house—a substance which must not be confounded with chloride of lime, which would quickly destroy the fruit. This caution is not unnecessary, as it is only a few years since a writer in the “‘ Horticulturist ’? recommended chloride of lime for the purpose ; having, no doubt, used this term under the impression that it was simpler than the word cal- cium. Chloride of calcium may be purchased cheaply, or it may be made by dis- solving chalk or lime in hydrochloric acid. It must be evaporated to dryness, and calcined at a red heat; after it has become moist by exposure to the air in the fruit room, it loses its power of absorbing moisture, and must be again dried and calcined, but after undergoing this process it is as good as new. Most cellars in American dwellings maintain a very equable temperature during winter, and it has occurred to us, that a small wooden press, made air tight, shelved and kept dry by means of chloride of calcium, would form no bad substitute for Du Breuil’s * Fruiterie.”? We hope to try it next season. oP ere APPENDIX II. os Bee oa other fruits. The grapes should then be spread on shelves by ‘ themselves, or can be arranged in the following manner, which has the advantage of economy of space. Each bunch should pe suspended by the point on a little hook of iron wire in the i Fig. 108. form of an § (Fig. 103). Thus attached, they will be less liable to decay, because the berries will have a tendency to fall apart 374 - APPENDIX II. : from each other. The bunches are then suspended by the upper hook of the §, around hoops hung one over the other (Fig. 104), and themselves suspended from the ceiling of the room, and moved up and down by little pulleys. If we should wish to pre- serve a larger quantity of grapes, we may, for the sake of economizing space, substitute for the hoops wooden frames in Fig. 105. the form of sashes, as shown in Fig. 105. These sashes are furnished with rods, separated from each other by an interval of 4 inches, and having on one side little points intended to receive the hooks by which the clusters are suspended. These sashes are hung from the ceiling in such a manner as to fill the entire space, and like the hoops, move up and down. However, the grapes thus preserved wither and lose more of their quality than those preserved upon shelves. Driep Grapes—Raistns.—The large proportion of saccharine principle which the grapes of the south generally contain, ren- ders it easy to dry and preserve them. They have thus become the object of special attention and considerable commerce for some countries in the south of Europe where are cultivated the varieties best adapted to this purpose. We have noted the most desirable of these varieties in our list. Malaga, Calabria, Egypt, cs APPENDIX II. 875 and Roquevaire in Provence are the principal places devoted to this culture. Zante in particular is distinguished for the Corinth grape, or currant. The process most commonly employed for the preparation of raisins is the following: When the fruit approaches maturity, the stem of the bunch is twisted, and the leaves are removed in part from the branch in order to expose the grapes to the influence of the sun’s rays, in order to favor the action of the essential principles and diminish the superfluous moisture. The grapes are gathered at the proper time, and the spoiled berries are carefully removed. After which the clusters are left upon hurdles exposed to the sun for one day. The next day a boiling ley is prepared from _the ashes of the burnt vine cuttings, to which are added some handfuls of lavender, rosemary or other aromatic herbs. A bunch is plunged three times in succession into this ley. If the berries are slightly cracked, the ley is strong enough, but if they are much cracked, it is too strong. When it is properly prepared it is allowed to cool and settle; it is then strained through a linen cloth and a second time placed over the fire. When it boils, each bunch is dipped into it three times in suc- cession. They are then spread on the hurdles, which are exposed to the sun during the day and taken into the house at night. The raisins are commonly completely dried at the end of two or three days. The Zante grapes undergo a different treatment, They are cut some days after they have attained their complete matu- rity. They are deposited on hurdles very close together, or on cloths placed in the full sun. When the berries preserving the pedicle begin to be detached from the main stalk, they are lightly beaten with little sticks, in order to hasten this result. They are then passed through a sieve in order to separate them from the stems, and lastly subjected to the action of a fan or winnowing machine, in order to remove the dust and rubbish. _ *,* Single copies of any Book upon this List sent by Mail free of postage to any address upon receipt of its price in © Bank Bills or in Postage Stamps. een fe de Fe COCs TE OF LATE ©, M. Saxton & Co.’s, Miller, Orton, & Co.’s, and A.O. Moore & Co.’s, PUBLISHED BY C. M. SAXTON, 25 PARK ROW, IM EEE VV COPS. , The Books are 12mos, and bound in cloth, except otherwise described. American Farmer’s Encyclopedia, - - - - $400 Asa Book or REFERENCE FOR THE FARMER OR GARDENER, this work is superior | toany other. It contains Reliable Information for the cultivation of every variety of Field and Garden Crops, the use of all kinds of Manures, descriptions and figures of American Insects ; and containing over twelve hundred pages, illustrated by numerous engravings of Grasses, Grains, Animals, Impliments, Insects, &c., &c., By GouveRNEUR Emerson, of Pennsylvania. 8vo., morocco. .o8 American Weeds and Useful Plants, - - ‘- - 150 AN ILiusrrarep Eprrion or AGRICULTURAL Botany: an Enumeration and De- - scription of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or require the at- _ tention of American Agriculturists. “By Wm. Dartineton, M.D. Revised, with Additions, by Gro. Tuurser, Prof. of Mat. Med. and Botany in the New York ’ College of Pharmacy. Illustrated with 300 figures, drawn expressly for this work. Allen’s (R. L.) 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By Joun W. Ricu, Architect. 4to, morocco. 7 American Florist’s Guide, - - * => =))s3=a CompRIsING THE AMERICAN Rose CuLtuRIsTt, AND Every Lapy HER OWN Flower Gardener. Barry’s FruitGarden, - - - - - - «= = {725 A TREATISE EXPLAINING AND ILLUSTRATING THE PHysIoLoGy oF Frurr TREgs, the Theory and Practice of all Operations connected with the Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as Stand- ards, Dwarfs, Pyramids, Espalier, &c. The Laying Out and Arranging diff ent kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for dif ferent purposes and localities, Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment o Diseases, Destruction of Insects, Description and Uses of Impliments, &e. IL lustrated with upwards of 150 figures. By P. Barry, of the Mount Hope Ni series, Rochester, N. Y. Bsement’s (C. N.) 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Introduction and a series of carefully prepared headings, arra for entering every date and event useful for Reference upon the Farm ; the result of each particular Crop, and of each Field and every Item useful for record and reference concerning Domestic Animals. This book is ruled and — ' i arranged for entering the results of twenty-five years, from 1860 to 1884 in- clusive,, and will supply every want, as to the means of arriving at a direct and intelligent understanding of the profits and loss of the various de ments of Husbandry. Prepared by Dr. B. F. Hovau, Superintendent of the New York State Census. . Dadd’s (Geo. H.) Modern Horse Doctor, - - ae 00 ConTAINING PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE Causes, NATURE AND TREATMENT — of Disease and Lameness of Horses ; embracing the most recent and approved — Methods, according to an enlightened system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Pestoration of Health. With Illustrations. Dadd’s (Geo. H.) 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Kerr Illustrated with sixty-five original Portraits, engraved expressly for this W, oa Downing’s (A. J.) Landscape Gardening, - - - qo” Revisep, ENLARGED AND Niw Ly luvusTRaTeD, by H. WINTHROP SARGENS.2 great work which has accomplished so much in elevating the American taste for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and valuable by the experience of all the prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the United States, and by the Descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central Park, New York, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the newer Deciduous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. ‘Lhe Illustrations of this Edition consist of seven superb Steel Plate Engravings, by Smillie, Hin- shelwood, Duthie, and others; besides one hundred Engravings on Wood and Stone, of the best American Residences and Parks, with Portraits of many new or remarkable Trees and Shrubs. 8vo. Eastwood (Benj.) on the Cultivationofthe Cranberry, 50 Wirs A Description OF THE BEST VARIETIES, Illustrated. Elllicott’s (F. R.) Western Fruit Book, $e ot ae A New Epirion or Tas Work, TuHorouGHLY ReviseD; embracing all the new and valuable Fruits, with the latest Improvements in their Cultivation; es- pecially adapted to the wants of Western Fruit Growers ; full of Illustrations. Every Lady Her Own Flower Gardener, a: ea OO ee ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND ECONOMICAL ONLY}; Containing simple and Practical Directions for cultivating Plants and Flowers; also, Hints for the Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By Louisa Jonnson. Family Doctor ; mo a RC Tee Sie a el Or, THe Home Book or HrautH anp MEDICINE; a popular Treatise on the means of avoiding and curing Diseases, and of preserving the Health and. Vig- or of the Body’; including an account of the nature and properties of Reme- dies. 8vo., marble edge, sheep. Farmer’s Library, - RE i omy RL oe a A CompLete GUIDE T0 THE FARMER IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, embracing Srevuen’s Book of the Farm, Tuarr’s Principles of Agriculture, GuENoN on Milch Cows, ete. etc. 3 vols octavo. Cloth. THE SAME, mor. marbled edges, - ae Sera yamine ae 750 Farmer’s Practical Horse Farrier, - - - - - 60 Contains many valuable Receipts and Illustrations. maeuemerarm Drainage, « - -, - - - => TOO Tue Principites, Process anp Errects of Draining Land with Stones, Wood, Drain-plows, Open Ditches, and especially with Tiles; including Tables of Rainfall, Evaporation, Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and 6 Agricultural Books Published by number to the acre. With more than 100 Illustrations. By the Hon. Henry — F. Frencu, of New Hampshire. Fessenden’s (T. G.) Complete Farmer and Gardnere, $1 25 The Rurat Economist anD NEw AMERICAN GARDENER; Containing a Compen- dious epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural Econ- omy, with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, ,including Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. Fessenden’s (T. G.) American KitchenGardener, - 50 3 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES AND GARDEN ruits. Field’s (Thomas W.) Pear Culture, ce = a Tue PEAR GARDEN; or, a Treatise on the Propagation anc Cultivation of the Pear TREE, with Instructions for its Management from the Seedling to the -Bearing Tree. With Illustration.s Meee A teUrG, = Se ee - A TREATISE ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION oF Fisn, and the Construction of Ponds with the Description and Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most suit- able for Pisciculture. By Turopatus Garick, M. D., Vice-President of the Cleveland Academy of Nat. Science. 8vo. Flint (Charles L.) onGrasses, - - - - - = J5, A PracricaL TREATISE ON GRASSES AND ForaGE PLants ; comprising their Natural History, Gomparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut- ting, Curing, and the Management of Grass Lands. By Charles L. Flint, A.M. Secretary of the Mass. State Board of Agriculture. - Guenon on Milch Cows, . Uf os A TREATISE oN Mitcu Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of milk which any Cow will gi¥e may be acurately determined by observing Natural Marks or external indications alone; the length of time she will continue to give milk, &c. &c. By M. Francis Guenon, of France. Translated by Nicholas P, Trist, Esq. ; with Introduction, Remarks and Observations on the Cow and the Dairy, by John §. Skinner. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. 8yo. THE SAME, in neat paper covers,8vo.- = - - *- = = = 88 . Gunn’s (John C.) Domestic Medicine, - - - - 800 Or, Poor Man’s Frtenp, in the hours of Affliction, Pain and Sickness. This — points out in plain language, free from Doctor’s Terms, the Diseases of Men, Women, and Children, and the most approved means used in their cure, and is intended expressly for the benefit of l'amilies. It also contains descriptions of the Medicinal Roots and Herbs of the United States, and how they are to be used in the cure of Disease. 8vo., marble edge, sheep. Herhbert’s (Henry William) Hints to Horse-keepers. 125 A ComMPLETE MANUAL For HorsEMEN ; embracing, how to Breed a Horse ; how to Buy a Horse ; how to Break a Horse ; how to Use a Horse; howto Feed a Horse ; how to Physic a Horse, (Allopathy and Homopathy ;) how to Groom a Horse; how to Drive a Horse; how to Ride a Horse And Chapters on Mules and Ponies. By Frank Forrester. With additn.. «cluding Baucn- ER’s System or HorsEMANSHIP ; also, giving Directions~ + t.: selection and Care of Carriages and Harness of every description, TOM 4, git: “Turn Out” to the Farmer’s “Gear.” Illustrated throughout. r C. M. Saxton, New York. 7 ‘Hall’s(Miss E.M.) Am. Cookery,and Dom. Economy, $1 00 _ The Cookery contains 973 Recipes, relating to every Department, and is Illus- trated with 44 Engravings. The Domestic Economy contains 363 Recipes and _ important information relating to the Garden, the Orchard, the Wardrobe, the Laundry, ete, etc. Rueearor ana Gun, ee ee BO _ A kw Loose CHarrers on SHOOTING ; among which will be found some Anec- dotes and Incidents ; also, Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interesting tet ters from Sportsmen. By A Bap Suor. Johnston’s (James F'. W.) Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, - - 25 Wirn an Inrropucrion By Joun Pirxin Norton, M. A., late Professor of Scien- tific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, prepared expressly for this edition, and the use of Schools. Cloth back, paper sides. Johnston’s (James F. W.) 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This work i is, without doubt, the best work on the bee published in any language, whether we consider its sci- entific accuracy, the practical instruction it contains, or the beauty and com- pleteness of its Illustrations. : Leuchars’ How to Build and Ventilate Hot-houses, ‘125 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CoNSTRUCTION, HEATING AND VENTILATION of Hot-houses, including Conservatories, Green-houses, Graperies and other kinds of Horticultural Structures ; with Practical Directions for their Management, . in regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. By P. B. Levcuars, Garden Architect. ‘Liebig’s (Justus) Familiar Lectures on Chemistry, - 50 Anp its ReLation To CoMMERCE, PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. Edited by JOHN GARDENER, M. D Linsley’s (D.C.)MorganHorses, - - - - - 100 A Premium Essay oN THE OrtGIN, History anp Cuaracteristics of this re- _ markable American Breed of Horses, tracing the Pedigree from the Original _ Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. With numerous Portraits. To which are added Hints for Breeding, Breaking, and General Use and Management of Horses, with Practical Direo- tions for Training them for Exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D.C. Linstey, Editor of the American Stock Journal. 8 Agricultural Books Published by Milburn on the Cow and Dairy Husbandry, - - $ & (e) By M. M. Muinsurn, and Revised by H. D. Ricuarpson and Amprose STE With Lliustrations. Miles on the Horse’s Foot and how to Keep it Sound, ; 5 With Cuts, Illustrating the Anatomy: of the Foot, and containing valuable Hints on Shoeing, and stable Management, in Health and in Disease. ”4 Morfit(C.)on Manures, - - - - + = = - @ 3 THEIR CoMPosITION, PREPARATION AND ACTION ON Sorts, with the Quantities t¢ be applied ; being a Field Companion for the Farmer. 16 mo. g aq Munn’s (B.) PracticalLand Drainer, - - - - - § 0 Bein 4 TREATISE ON DRaininG Lanp, in which the Most Approved syst ems of Drainage are explained, and their Differences, and Comparative Meris Dis- cussed ; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with B marks upon the various Materials of which they may be Constructed. With many Illustrations. By B. Munn, Landscape Gardener, Nash’s(J.A.)Progressive Farmer, - - - - - §@ 0 | A Scrmytiric TREATISE ON AGRICULTURAL CurMisTRY, the Geology of Agric ; tare, on Plants and Animals, Mannres and Soils, applied to Practical Asters ture: with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture, WN eill’s Practical Fruit, Flower and Kitchen Gardener's Companion, - i Wirn a Catenpar. By Patrick Nem, Secretary of the Royal Caledor Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States, by G. Emerson, Editor of “The American Karmer’s Encyclopedia.’ With Notes and Additions by R. G. Parpuzs, author of “Strawberry Culture.” With Illustrations. 3 Norton’s (John P.) Elements of Scientific Agriculture, 6 s Or, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE ART OF PRACTICAL Far Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By Joun P. Nos M. A., late Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale ee pass to use of Schools. Olcott’? (Henry S.) Sorgho and Imphee, the Chinese and African Sugar Canes, A Complete TREATISE UPON THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, CULTURE their value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Mo Ale” cohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Cider, Vinegar, Paper, Starch da Dy: Stuffs. es Illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machine ith an Appendix by Leonarp Wray, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented: Process of .Crystalizing the Juice of the Imphee; with the Later —_ D Experiments. Our Farm of Four Acres, and the Money we made te it, From the Twelfth London Edition, with an Introduction by Pursr B. Esq., Editor of the Horticulturist. This little Work has had a rapid and extensive sale in England. Itisa written in the most interesting style, and filled with practical cng a Domestic Economy. WINVING SEUE. “oo 1 f 0 Pi PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY oe 2 4 x: SB Phin, John 389 Open air grape culture P5 BioMed aa} a rat fe Yon! 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