^be ©pen Court
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE
Devoted to tbc Science of IRelioion, tbe IReligion ot Science, an& tbe Extension ot tbe IRelioious jparliament UDea
Founded by Edward C. Hegeleh
VOL. XXXir(No. 1) JANUARY, 1918 NO. 740
CONTENTS:
PAGE
Frontispiece, Henri Dunant.
Henri Dunant, Founder of the Red Cross. Paul Grunberg 1
Hebrew Education in the Family After the Exile. Fletcher H. Swift 9
Fads in .Philosophy. Editor 30
The Constitution on the Defensive. Homer Hoyt 34
An Autonomous Ukraine. An Ukrainian 43
War Charms and Kindred Amulets. W. Ahrens 51
The Battle Amulet of the North American Indians. William Thornton
Parker 60
Book Reviews 63
XTbe ©pen Court IPubUebiiiG Compani?
CHICAGO
Per copy, 10 cents (sixpence). Yearly, $1.00 (in the U.P.U., 5s. 6d.).
Entered aa Second-Class Matter March 26. 1897, at the Post Office at Chicago, 111., under Act of March 3, 1879
Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Company, 1918
THE GOSPEL OF BUDDHA
By
DR. PAUL CARUS
Pocket Edition. Illustrated. Cloth, $i.oo; flexible leather, $1.50
This edition is a photographic reproduction of the edition de luxe which was printed in Leipsic in 1913 and ready for shipment in time to be caught by the embargo Great Britain put on all articles exported from Germany. Luckily two copies of the above edition escaped, and these were used to make the photographic reproduction of this latest edition. While the Buddhist Bible could not in any way be consid- ered a contraband of war yet the publishers were forced to hold back many hundred orders for the book on account of orders in council of Great Britain.
When the book was first published His Majesty, the King of Siam, sent the following communication through his private secretary :
"Dear Sir: I am commanded by His Most Gracious Majesty, the King of Siam, to acknowledge, with many thanks, the receipt of your letter and the book, The Gospel of Buddha, which he esteems very much; and he expresses his sincerest thanks for the very hard and difficult task of compilation you have considerately undertaken in the interest of our religion. I avail myself of this favorable oppor- tunity to wish the book every success."
His Royal Highness, Prince Chandradat Chudhadham, official dele- gate of Siamese Buddhism to the Chicago Parliament of Religions, writes :
"As regards the contents of the book, and as far as I could see, it is one of the best Buddhist Scriptures ever published. Those who wish to know the life of Buddha and the spirit of his Dharma may be recommended to read this work which is so ably edited that it comprises almost all knowledge of Buddhism itself."
The book has been introduced as a reader in private Buddhist schools of Ceylon. Mrs. Marie H. Higgins, Principal of the Musaeus School and Orphanage for Buddhist Girls, Cinnamon Gardens, Ceylon, writes as follows :
"It is the best work I have read on Buddhism. This opinion is endorsed by all who read it here. I propose to make it a text-book of study for my girls."
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO ILLINOIS
HENRI DUNANT, Founder of the Red Cross.
Frontispiece to The Open Court.
The Open Court
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE
Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea.
VOL. XXXII (No. 1) JANUARY, 1918 NO." 740
Copyright by The Open Cduii I'ublishing Company, 1918
HENRI DUNANT, FOUNDER OF THE RED
CROSS.^
r.Y PAUL GRUNBERG.
WE can hardly conceive of modern warfare without the Red Cross. When millions are being helped by this great move- ment, it seems fitting to review tlie life of Henri Dunant, its founder. He can rightfully be counted among the greatest benefactors of the race.
Dunant was born in Geneva. Switzerland, on jMay 8, 1828. His family was well-to-do and noted for public spirit. His means per- mitted him to de\ote himself wholly to scientific studies during his vouth ; as he never married, he was free to sacrifice his life and fortune to humanitarian labors. At eighteen he showed his benevo- lent trend by visiting the poor and prison convicts. He showed an early fondness for good literature, especially biography. The Life of John IVilliaiiis. missionary in the South Sea Islands, Uncle Tom's Cabin, and the Life of Florence XigJitingale moved him deeply. The example of this nol)le woman who labored so incessantly to improve sanitary conditions during the Crimean A\'ar (1854-55), inspired Dunant to go to the front during the Lombard War (1859). Xot as an idle loiterer did he go. nor as a war reporter, but as a neutral tourist, to bind up wounds and relieve sulTering. in the good Samaritan's spirit ! Ilie da}' of Solferino, June 24th. 1859, gave him abundant opportunity to witness the horrors of war. Impres- sions received on this day laid the foundations for his life-work.
When that memorable day broke, the French and Italians en- countered the .\ustrians on the lull of .Solferino. s(')Uth of Lake darda. Aliout ,^00,000 stood in line, and after long and furious
^ Translated from the German of Dr. Paul ririinberg, pastor of the New Cluirch in Strasburg, Alsace, bj' Miss Frieda Martini,
C THE OPEN COURT.
struggles the Aiistrians were beaten. About 40,000 dead and wounded covered the battle-field. Dunant, "the man in white," as the soldiers called him because of his light tourist's costume, realized the inadequacy of the available personnel and quickly gathered a corps of voluntary helpers from among the peasant population of Castiglioni, the center of the French position. He persuaded them to help the Austrians also and not only their allies, as they had at first planned to do. "Tutti FratelH," he said (all are brothers). After several sleepless nights and days of strenuous toil, he hastened to Brescia, to make himself useful in the military hospitals, pro- curing refreshments and surgical dressings from his own means.
The experiences of these frightful days of suffering strength- ened Dunant's purpose to bring about an extensive, thorough-going improvement in the care of war sufferers. So he published a record of his observations in a book entitled Vn Souvenir de Solferino (1862). This soon became widely known and was translated into several other languages. It contains true and graphic pictures of the scenes of horror on the battle-field, how the wounded are found and transported to emergency hospitals, how the most necessary operations are performed, and the wounds are dressed. All this is described not for sensational reasons, nor merely to tear off the mask from war's bloody face and make propaganda against it, but for more important reasons. We will quote from the book to show Dunant's definite and practical purpose :
"But why portray so many pictures of heart-rending woe and awaken painful feelings? In reply, let us ask another question: Why not organize voluntary relief societies whose aim should be to nurse sick and wounded warriors and relieve war-sufferers? If war can not as yet be abolished and men continue to invent new methods of destroying each other, with a persistence worthy of a better cause, why not utilize times of comparative peace to solve a question of such vital importance for humanity and Christianity?
"The activity of such societies would naturally be greatly re- stricted during peace, but in the event of hostilities breaking out, the organization Avould be complete and the helpers ready for action. They should collaljorate with the military authorities, eventually working under their direction. Not only should they nurse and relieve the sick and wounded on the battle-fields, but continue their care in the military hospitals until complete convalescence. Sporadic cases of such benevolence have proved more or less ineffectual be- cause they lacked the needed support and cooperation of others. Joint efforts, well directed, could accomplish wonders. How much
HENRI DUN ANT, FOUNDER OF THE RED CROSS. 3
could have been done, had such volunteers been present at Castig- lione. Brescia or Mantua on June 24-2hl The military personnel of the held hospitals never suffices ; recourse has to be taken to the untrained peasantry and the inhabitants of the neighboring towns.
"The next time military leaders of various nations meet in counsel, would it not be a fitting opportunity to set up an inter- national, sacred principle, uniformly accepted and ratified? With this principle as a foundation, societies could be organized to relieve the wounded of the difi^'erent nationalities. It is vitally important to make agreements before the outbreak of hostilities, for after that the contending parties would be too greatly at variance to come to any terms.
"Humanity and Christianity peremptorily demand these im- provements. It is of the most stupendous importance to take up this work at once and actually organize such societies."
Dunant's thoughts as expressed in this booklet were new, great and epoch-making. No one had ever thought of training the civil population to help assuage the horrors of war, and the idea of general international aggreements about medico-military matters was equally unheard of. Dunant's appeal struck home. In the words of the Genevese linguist Adolf Pictet : "Never has a work of genius taken hold of the public mind more than the book of our fellow citizen, Henri Dunant. It was an electric shock for philan- thropy." Not only did Dunant express his thoughts clearly, — that alone would have been meritorious, but he placed the entire weight of his forceful personality and influence in the scale during the next few years, to crystallize his ideals into concrete action. The Red Cross and the Geneva Con\cntion were to grow out of the seed- thought planted by Dunant.
Our hero fortunately found a society willing to attempt carry- ing out his plans ; for once a prophet had honor in his own country. The Genevese Benevolent Society, with Gustave Moynier as presi- dent, enthusiastically took up his ideas and resohed to carry them out. .A committee was chosen to develop the project, with Dunant as chairman. An International Benevolence Convention had been announced to meet in Berlin in September, 1863, and the committee considered this an appropriate occasion to make the scheme more widely known. For some reason the convention did not take place, but Dunant went to Berlin nevertheless, and attended the Fifth International Statistical Conference, which met there in .September. Here a group of physicians compared the health and mortality
4 THE OPEN COURT.
Statistics among the civil and military populace. Dunant was given a chance to address the gathering and told of his wish to have the medico-military personnel of all nations treated as neutrals during war. He was listened to with interest, and the delegates expressed their ho])e that the coming conference at (Geneva would serve its pur- ])0se in helping to lessen war's fearful sacrifices in life and health.
King William of Prussia and his queen sent their congratula- tions to Dunant ; the crown-prince Frederick William, later Frede- rick III, had a long talk with him. Prince Carl of Prussia, grand- master of the knights of St. John, promised the help of his order. The Prussian Minister of War, General von Roon. hecame an enthusiastic advocate of Dunant's plans.
Next Dunant sent a circular letter, stating his plans, to all the ministers of war in P^urope, requesting them to send official delegates to an international conference in (Geneva. For a man in private life this was an unprecedented act. P>ut nothing short of the partici- pation of the various governments was necessary before an inter- national adjustment of the all-important question could be ihought of. Dunant had the courage of his con\ictions and was brave enough to stop at nothing which might help his beloved plan to succeed. A question of the weightiest importance was at stake ; this simply could not continue to remain a matter of private and isolated voluntary eiTort on a small scale. He had visited several royal courts to arouse enthusiasm for the coming convention. The grace and ease of his manner, his aristocratic bearing, added weight to his influence with peo|>le in high standing. In Dresden he had a conversation with the King of Saxony and was graciously received. In this city he wrote t(j Napoleon III. another patron, telling of the cordial reception. Next he went to \'ienna where Archduke Rainer received him in the absence of the emperor. .Speaking of this event, Dunant writes: ''After telling oi my plan to call the helpless victims of war and their helpers neutral, and to have a 'humanity flag,' to be reverenced e\erywhere, his Imperial Highness thrice em])hat- ically uttered his approval in French: A\'hat a grand idea!' The archduke promised that Austria would be represented by a delegate."
In these various ways Dunant had prepared the way for the conference, with his characteristic tenacious persistence, and from October 26-29, 1863, this important event took place. Fourteen governments had sent official delegates. Several others had officially declared their willingness to approve of whatever international agreements would be |)ro])osc(l at this con\ention. Thirty-six people were present in all, the Knights of St. John being also represented.
HENRI DUXAXT, FUi;XL)EK OF Till-: Rl'.n (.'ROSS. 3
At this meeting a number of pro\'isional articles were drawn up, the most important being- :
1. Each country is to a])point a connnittee whose duty it is to assist the medico-military personnel with all available means during war.
2. During peace the central and local committees are to train a voluntary nursing staff, preparing the helpers especially for the exigencies arising during war ; they should prepare sup- plies of surgical dressings and the like.
3. At the outbreak of any hostilities these national relief societies are to offer their help to the military authorities and collab- orate with them in equipping hospitals and organizing groups of nurses, orderlies, doctors, etc.
4. In cooperation with the military authorities these committees are to send to the battle-fields voluntary workers, who, no matter what their nationality, are to wear a white arm-band with a red cross.
3. All ambulances, military hospitals and medico-military per- sonnel are to be considered neutral and are all to have a uni- form sign, the Red Cross. A flag with this sign is to be used by all different countries.
It seemed best to choose a red cross on a white back-ground, this being the reverse of the Swiss coat-of-arms, a white cross on a red back-ground. And so the Red Cross reminds one of its his- toric origin, Switzerland.
Before the conference adjourned, the following declaration was made: "Monsieur Dnnant, whose persistent efforts brought about this international conference in the interest of humanit3\ and the Genevese Benevolent Society, who supported him so loyally, deser\'e the greatest merit and immortal honor. The world owes them a lasting debt of gratitude."
The committee which had pa\ed the way for this conference developed into the permanent "Genevese International Committee," with the Swiss General Dufour as president and Dunant as secre- tary. Xow another great problem awaited its solution by this benev- olent body : not only how to direct and centralize the eff'orts of the various national committees, but to crown the work by an niter- national Agreement, acceptable to all civilized nations. The Genevese Conference had not been authorized to do this. Its official delegates had simply exchanged \iews on the subject under discussion and had aimed at a tem])orary understanding of the general principles
O THE OPEN COURT.
to be acted upon. So in Xoveniber 1863 the Committee asked all the European countries whether- they would accept the terms of an international agreement as drawn up at the Conference in October of that same year. In June of the following summer, after the adequate negotiations, the Swiss parliament invited twentyfive coun- tries to send their delegates to the Jntcniational Peace Congress to be held at Geneva in August 1864. Sixteen states sent official representatives. Twelve states officially expressed their agreement with the terms of the contract, namely : Baden, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Hesse-Darmstadt, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia. Wurtemberg and the Swiss Confederacy. The official docu- ment was drawn up in Geneva on August 22, fifty years before the outbreak of the present world w^ar. It consisted of ten articles, which tallied in general with those agreed upon during the previous vear. It is interesting, however, to compare them, showing the way in which the original ideas had developed ; the most important ones are the following:
1. The military hospitals and ambulances are to be respected and protected by the fighting armies as neutral, so long as sick or wounded are found therein.
2. The personnel of such hospitals and ambulances, as well as army chaplains also share this protection, while attending to their duties.
6. The sick or wounded soldiers of all nations are all to be im- partially protected and nursed.
7. A characteristic and uniform flag is to be accepted for these hospitals and ambulances; the neutralized personnel is al- lowed the use of an arm band, but this issue is left for the military authorities to decide. Both the flag and arm-band are to have a red cross on a white back-ground.
France was tlie first to endorse the terms of the agreement. Within four months twenty-two states had followed suit. To-day all civilized countries have national Red Cross Committees. At later congresses (Geneva 1868, Brussels 1874, Geneva 1907), other articles were added ; experience had shown the imperfections of the original contract, but it certainly laid the foundation of all subse- quent efforts along the lines referred to.
The Austro-Prussian war of 1866 ofifered the first bloody o])portunity practically to apply the Red Cross principles, although Austria had not yet endorsed them at the beginning of the war. (This did not take ])lace until after the battle of Koniggratz).
HENRI Dli.XANT, FOUNDKR OF THE Ri:i) CROSS. 7
King William of Prussia had generously declared that from his side the Geneva rules would be obeyed as conscientiously as if mutual obligation existed. The end of this war brought high honor to Dunant. He writes: "It was in September, 1866, when Queen Augusta wished to do homage to the Red Cross by honoring its founder. She invited me to the celebrations held in honor of the troops victoriously returning from Bohemia. T accepted and the honor shown me far exceeded my merit. On the evening when the troops entered Berlin I was invited to a big reception at the royal palace. King \\^illiam conversed with me for a long while and finally said : 'Well, Dunant, are you satisfied with me now ? I have put your ideas into execution.' Then he continued in a voice loud enough for the whole court to hear: T was the first European monarch who supported yom* ideas without reserve and timidity when you came to Berlin in 1863. At that time I certainly did not expect that this would be necessary so soon.'
"And Queen Augusta, turning to me, said: 'Do you know that I wore the Red Cross arm band and consider this an honor?' "
Strange to say. this man who dealt with crowned heads and statesmen, who stood at the head of a movement of the most vital importance for humanity, was temporarily forgotten before he reached the age of fifty. He spent several years in London, reduced almost to penury, and earned his meager living by doing clerical work. Then he spent some time in Stuttgart with pastor Wagner who had translated his Souvenir de Solferino. In July, 1887, he moved to Heiden near Lake Constance, where a modest little pension, granted him by relatives, supported him. After a short stav at Lindenbiihl in Trogen (1891-92) he returned to Heiden and re- mained there till his death. On April 30, 1892, he took up his abode in a quiet cell in the District Llospital which he did not leave again. The experiences which this far-traveled man went through in his lonely cell must have been painful indeed, more so because he was permanently kept away from his beloved home land. While the world was being blessed by the movement which he started, the man who had sacrificed life and fortune to his ideal disappeared from public notice in the gloom of lonely poverty. He eked out his existence as a journalist, praised by many, pitied by some, forgotten by most of his contemporaries.
In 1895, however, the editor of the Ziiricher Nachrichten, George Bamberger, rediscovered the neglected man. He visited him at Heiden and described his experiences there in a striking article, written for the Magazine Uehcr Land und Meer. He pictured
8 THE OPEN COURT.
Dunant's modest surroiiiidings, the tiny room Xo. 12, so much Hke a prison cell, in which Dunant lived for three francs per day. Then he described the man himself :
"A tine appearing man, in spite of his three score years and ten, with his noble, expressive face, pure complexion, silvery white liair and beard. He combines patriarchal dignity with the ingrained gallantry of a man of the world. The poverty-stricken surroundings cannot hide the man's aristocratic and noble disposition. These impressions grow deeper the longer you converse with him. Every expression is to the point and well chosen. From humorous pleas- antries he turns to deeper subjects, becoming almost inspired when the great movements were mentioned for which he had sacrificed so much. And with all that he is so unpretentious, with a childlike modesty characteristic of people who have forgotten themselves in their devotion to great causes. Do we not owe him a great, great deal? Does it not behoove us to make the last years of the founder of the Red Cross more pleasant and comfortable?"
This appeal had its desired effect. In 1897 the Russian dowager Czarina, Feodorowna, gave him a life pension. The twelfth Inter- national Physicians' Congress gave him a prize of five thousand francs. The Swiss Bundesrat awarded him the prize of the Binet-Fendt Memorial Fund. When the Nobel prize was awarded for the first time in December, 1907, the Norwegian Parliament urged dividing this amount between the Frenchman Passy and Dunant, "for the most meritorious endeavor to promote general brotherhood, for the abolition of standing armies and the setting up of an arbitration tribunal between the different states." For Dunant had not only been the "Red Cross man" but a zealous ad- vocate of ])acifism as well.
Such honors rejuvenated our hero for a time. He even con- sidered the plan of visiting Moscow, where the International Peace Congress had elected him honorary president ; of going from Mos- cow to Petersburg to thank the widowed empress personally for her pension ; then from Petersburg to the Norwegian parliament. It was an alluring dream, but Dunant realized that his waning strength was not e(|ual to the hardships and excitement of the trip.
Life became more and more lonely outwardly, but the satis- faction of having his life-dream realized gave him gratifying mem- ories. He gradually gave up all social intercourse, dealing only with the physician and the head nurse. Prof. R. Miiller of Stutt- gart, author of the valuable book History of the Red Cross and the
llKr.KKW F.DrCATKiX 1 \ T III-: IWMir.V Al'TI-.K TJIE F.XIT.K. V
Geneva Coiii'eiifioii. was one of Ihc few outside callers admitted to his room.
Once more before his death a hriyht ray of sunlight cheered the life of the aged man. On the eighth of May, 1908, he celebrated his eightieth birthday, and was overwhelmed with congratulations. The Swiss P)Undesrat, the widowed Emj^ress of Russia, the Czar, the crowned heads of Sweden and Xorway, the Russian, (German and Austrian Red Cross wired their congratulations. A year later our hero permitted a second edition of his Souvenir de Solferino to appear in ]:)rint.
Dtu-ing l')10 his strength failed ra])idl\', but he remained bright and fully conscious to the very last. ( )n ( )ctober 30, he peacefully passed away. 11 is remains were carried to the depot on the first of Xo\'ember, a dreary, stormy day. .\s quiet and unpretentious as his coming to TTeiden had been years ago, so was his exit, for Dunant had always an aAersion for a demonstrative demeanor ; it had been his express desire that no "fuss"" should be made about his departure, and the j)eo])le of Heiden res]:)ected this wish, no matter how thev would ha\e liked to show him all kinds of honor. lUit the ladies of tlie Red Cross had insisted upon at least decorating the inside of his railroad coach appropriately. Cremation took ])lace at Zurich at six in the e\ening, witnessed by a small number only. .At the express wish of the deceased, no speeches were made. A simple slab of black marl)le under the window of his room in the hospital marks the spot where he spent his closing days. His im- iterishable monument is the work of the Red Cross.
T1KP.RK\\' EDlTWTTrjX TN THE FAMILY AFTER
THE EXn.E.
V.V V\.KTeH\Ui ]1. SWll'T.
"Lo, children are a heritage of Jcliovah : And llie fruit of tlic wonih is his reward."
— Psahn cxxvii. 3.
"And thou shalt teach ihcm (hligenlly unto tli}' children. — I^euteronomy vi. 7.
HISTORICAL OCTIJXR.
IX the vcar ,^*'7 \'>. (A Xebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and carried as captives lo llaljylon King jehoiakim, his royal house- hold, a large number of nobles and many artisans. Not many years had jiassed before Xebuchadnezzar was forced to send an army to
10 THE OPEN COURT.
(|uell rebellious Judah. After a year and a half's siege Jerusalem fell. 586 B. C. The city and temple which had been spared in 597 were sacked and burned. About 23,000 Jews were deported to Babylon, and Judea was made a part of the Babylonian province ; the Exile had begun.^
The Jews in Babylon found themselves in the midst of a civili- zation far in advance of their own. Schools and libraries, some of them possessing thoiisands of works, were wide spread. A con- siderable knowledge of medicine, astronomy, mathematics, archi- tecture, engineering, and an elaborate code of laws dealing with every phase of life, bore witness to Babylonian intellectual develop- ment. Such an environment was bound to stimulate literary activ- ity. Further stimulus arose from the Jews' passionate desire to preserve their national laws, history, traditions and temple rites. Prior to the Exile, Jerusalem had been declared the sole lawful place of sacrifice. The priests now freed from their customary duties turned to instruction and writing, as did also the prophets. The result was a literary renaissance out of which came forth such original works as the prophecies of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah ; new editions of such already existing works as Amos, Hosea, Deuteronomy and Joshua ; compilations of codes and detailed records of rites, customs and ceremonies.
The Exile lasted only forty-eight years :- in 538 B. C. Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon. The Persian rulers permitted the resto- ration of the Jewish community at Jerusalem. The rebuilding of the temple followed (520-516 B. C.) an event of supreme importance to religion and religious education.
In 332 B. C. Alexander the Great of Greece defeated Darius, King of Persia, and then pushed his conquests south through Pal- estine and Egypt. Following Alexander's death in 323 B. C. Pales- tine became a bone of contention between the rival kingdoms of Egypt and Syria. For over a hundred and twenty years from 320 B. C. when Ptolemy I captured Jerusalem, Judah was in the pos- session now of Egypt, now of Syria. Finally in 198 B. C. the Seleucidae of Syria secured the supremacy, which they retained until the Maccabean revolt^ 167 B. C.
A part of Alexander's ambition had been to Hellenize the East. Wherever he had conquered he had planted colonies of Greeks and
1 H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, p. 297.
- By Jewish writers frequently considered to have lasted until the dedica- tion of the Second Temple 516 B. C, i. e., a total of seventy years.
" Judas Maccabteus victorious in his first battle with the Syrians. The period is commonly dated 175-163 B. C.
HEBREW EDUCATION IN THE FAMILY AFTER THE EXILE. 11
luul introduce J the Greek laiiijuaye, (ireek relij^ion, Greek political institutions and Greek schools. His efforts to Hellenize Judah were continued by his successors, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleu- cidae of Syria, who alike endeavored to wean or force the Jews away from their native religion, culture, institutions and education. The Seleucidae, not satisfied with the rapidity with which the Jews were becoming Hellenized, resorted to violent measures. A Greek altar was erected on the altar of burnt offering in the temple of Jerusalem. Possession of the books of the Law and Sabbath ob- servance were punished by death. Altars to Greek gods were erected everywhere and the heads of families were called upon to worship at them under penalty of death.*
As a result of these oppressive measures the Jews rose in revolt in 167 B. C. under the leadership of an aged priest Mattathias and his five sons, the PTasmoneans. Within two years religious liberty was restored. Successive Jewish leaders, by political intrigue and by playing off' one aspirant to the Syrian throne against another, succeeded in gaining concessions which ultimately restored to Judah a national independence that continued until the Romans took Jeru- salem in 63 B. C.
The rule of the Romans was attended by disastrous conse- quences. Roman conquerors on their way through Palestine plun- dered the temple, levied extortionate tribute and carried thousands of Jews away as slaves. Local aspirants for power kept alive in- ternal jealousies and strife. One of these, Herod, with the aid of Rome, captured Jerusalem in 37 B. C. and began his reign which continued till 4 B. C. His son. Archelaus, who succeeded to the throne of Samaria, Judea and Idumea, ruled in such outrageous fashion that after ten years the oppressed Jews appealed to Rome (6 A. D.). Augustus deposed Archelaus and placed Judea under the rule of a Roman procurator. Roman oppression and mismanage- ment resulted in continual efforts at revolt. These eff'orts culminated in the insurrection which began 66 A. D. and ended in 70 A. D. with the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman Titus. Later came the dispersion throughout the Roman world of the remnant of miser- able survivors. All hope of a national political existence was now at an end. The story of how in the centuries which followed, this wonderful people managed through their system of religious edu- cation to preserve their nationality belongs to medieval and modern history, and consequently has no place in the present account.
*H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 444-445.. George Adam Smitli, Jcrnsalein. . ..to 70 A. D., pp. 367-436.
12 THE OPEN COURT.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.
The six and a half ceniiries of contact with foreign powers outHned above were marked by many important changes. During this time the priesthood arose to a position of poHtical power second only to that of the foreign rulers. Carefully organized, protected and assured a generous competence by laws regarded as coming from \'ahweh, the priests grew in influence and numbers. Follow- ing \ain post-Exilic efforts to perpetuate this kingship, the high priest ])ecame the head of the Jewish state, recognized as such, not only by the Jews themselves. btU 1:)y their foreign masters. With the Jewish state a hierocracy, patriotism and piety were one. To be law abiding was to be religious, and to be religious one must be law abiding. The importance of this to the history of religious edu- cation can not be overestimated.
In contrast with the tendency fostered by the priesthood toward the creation of a caste-bound society, there were certain marked tendencies toward democracy, in part the outgrowth of the ideals and teachings of the prophets and in part the outgrowth of Greek influence. These include a growing autonomy for individual cities, and the reorganization of the senate or Sanhedrim.'"'
l*rior to the Exile, the Hebrews as an independent people, often as conquerors, had borrowed freely such elements as they chose from foreign nations. The Hellenized peoples with whom they came in contact from the time of the Exile onward were for the most part their conquerors. The effects of Greek influence were twofold : the intellectual and esthetic aspects of life were extended and enriched, but this intellectual enrichment was accompanied by religious and moral decadence. "The ricli Juda?ans soon copied the Greek customs, and callous to the promptings of shame and honor, they introduced singers, dancers and dissolute women at these festivals."'" Greek religious cults, including the orgiastic rites of Dionysus, were adopted by many faithless Jews. Skepticism, repudiation of Judaism and licentiousness followed.' Amid these conditions there arose among the Jews distinct parties: one, eager for political preferment who sought to curry favor with their for- eign masters by adopting Greek culture, institutions and religion f a second, endeavoring to exclude foreign innovations and to preserve
MI. P Smith. Old Testament History, pp. 417-418. « H. Graetz, History of the Jcz.'S, I. 428d. ■ Ibid., 426-428.
* Joseph, grandson of Simon the Just (d. 208 B. C), is a notorious repre- sentative of this type. See H. Clraetz, History of the Jews, I, 423-431.
HEBREW EDUCATION IN THE FA M 1 1 A' AFTER THE EXILE. 13
unsullied the customs and institutions of the fathers : a third, repre- senting a somewhat middle ground. It was the second of these three groups which fostered that attitude toward life commonly known as Judaism, which emphasized, often unduly, all rites and customs that marked the Jews as a peculiar and distinct people consecrated to the worship and service of Yahweh.
THE DIASPORA.-' From the time of the Uahylonian I'^.xile onward, verious foreign conquerors deported as sla\"es large numbers of Jews. Other Jews left Palestine voluntarily to escape oppression, to avoid conflict or to avail themselves of oiJjMjrtunities in foreign lands. Thus there gradually arose outside of Jalestine throughout the entire civilized world a vast multitude of Jewish communities.^" This movement which began with the Exile in the sixth century reached its climax in the Roman period." Strabo writes, even in Sulla's time, "there is hardly a place in the world which lias not admitted this people and is not possessed by it.^- Through the diaspora, then, as well as through the settlement of aliens in Judea. Jewish customs, beliefs and institutions were constantly threatened by foreign innovations.
EDLXATIOX IX THE FAMILY. The intensity of the FTebrew desire for children is revealed in such Old Testament narratives as those of the childless Sarah, Rebecca. Rachel and TTannali. The racial attitude is beautifully expressed in the \vell-kuown lines:
"Lo, children are a lieritage i>f Jeliovah : And the fruit of the wonih is his reward. As arrows in the hand of a mighty man. So are tlie children of youth, Happy is the man that hatli his quiver full of them."''^
Throtighout the entire history of the Flebrews the family was regarded as the fundamental educational institution. Parents were held responsible not only for the instruction of their children but for their conduct. In time the laws fixed thirteen as the age at which the boy became ])ersonallv responsiljle for the law;^^ up to this age
" Diaspora is the term collectively oppplied to the body of Tews living in communities scattered throughout the world.
^" There is evidence that flourishing Jewish communities existed in Egypt at Daphne and Elephantine as early a-; the sixth centurj^ B. C.
1^ A recent English work of much interest is, D. Askowith, I'lic Tolcra- lion and Persecution of the Jei^'s in the R<unan Empire.
^- Strabo, fragment 6. cited by Josephus, Aniiq., XIV, 7, 2.
13 Psalm cxxvii. 3-5. ^+ Baliylonian Talmud, Tract .\oth, V. 24.
14 THE OPEN COURT.
his father was held responsible not only for the boy's education but for his conduct. Even the rise of a system of elementary schools devoted to the task of daily religious instruction did not free the home of this its most important responsibility. It could not, for to parents direct from Yahweh came the command :
"And thou shalt teach them (the laws of Yahweh) diHgently unto thy children, And shalt talk of thcni when thou sittest in thy house, And when thou walkest by the way, And when thou risest up.
■'And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand, And they shall be for frontlets between thine eyes, And thou shalt write them upon the door-posts of thy house. And upon thy gates." (Deuteronomy vi. 7-9.)
The Mezuzah, tefillin and the zizit. show with what degree of exactness the Hebrews sought to carry out these commands.
"The ancient Hebrew family." writes Cornill, "was an absolute monarchy, with the father as absolute monarch at the head."^^ The evidences of this authority are many. The wife and children were upon the same basis as slaves. A father could sell his daughters into marriage or slavery, though not to foreigners.^" Infanticide was not 'permitted, as far as our records show, but it is probable that in early times upon certain occasions fathers offered up their sons and daughters as living sacrifices.'^'^ In historic times the mod- ern Rousseau ian theory that parents must win their authority over their children by convincing their offspring of the superiority of parental wisdom and goodness found no place in Hebrew thought. On the contrary, parents ruled by divine right :
"For the Lord hath given the father honor over the children And hath confirmed the authority of the mother over the sons.''^^
The Deuteronomic law provided that if punishment failed to beget obedience in a wayward intemperate son, the father and mother should bring him before the elders of the city and say, "This our son is stubborn and rebellious, he will not obey our voice; he is a riotous liver and a drunkard.'"^" No provision was made in this law for anv investigation nor for any defense by the accused child. The parents acted both as accusers and prosecutors, the elders
i^'Carl H. Cornill, The Cnllvrr of Ancient Israel, p. 87.
'" Exodus, xxi. 7-11.
I'This' inference seems justified from the Story of Abraham and Isaac, from that of Jephthah's daughter and from the evidence of the continuance of Moloch worship down to the reforms of Josiah 621 B. C.
i^Ecclesiasticus iii. 2. i9 Deuteronomj-, xxi. 20.
1IEBRE\\' EDUCATIO.X IN THE FAMILY AFTER THE EXILE. 15
were the judges.-*' If the parents' accusation was accepted by the elders of the city, thereupon "All the men of the city shall stone him (the gtiilty son) with stones that he die.'"-'
It should be noted, however, that the Deuteronomic law, severe as it is and significant as it is for the light it throws upon the degree of authority granted parents, is even more significant as a sign of the attempt to put certain checks upon this authority. In earlier times there had been no check upon the parents' authority. The Deuteronomic law made it impossible for the parents to do with their child as they pleased. Their act must be reviewed by elders of the city as a court : thus a higher authority, not the parents, im- posed the death penalty.
Many passages similar to Deuteronomy vi. 7-9 might be quoted in which the father is enjoined to instruct his son or his children in the divine laws,-- in particular rites such as Passover,-^ or in the significance of sacred monuments or landmarks.'-^ Both parents were held responsible for the religious education of the children, but the chief responsibility fell upon the father as head of the household. The mother is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures as a teacher, but generally in conjunction with and subordinate to the father.-"^ There is only one passage in \^•hich the mother is represented as acting independently in this capacity :-''• the first divi- sion of Proverbs xxxi is introduced with the title : "The Words of Lemuel, King of Massa,-' which His Mother Taught Him."
Proverbs and the apocryphal book Ecclesiasticus, both designed as manuals for religious and moral instruction, represent child nature as irresponsible, wayward, foolish and rebellious. Fathers are warned against playing with their children and are advised to preserve an austere countenance toward both sons and daughters :
"Cocker thy child and he shall make thee afraid. Play with him and he will bring thee to heaviness. "-^
"Laugh not with him, lest thou have sorrow with him And lest thou gnash thy teeth in the end.''-^
"Hast thou daughters? Have a care to their body And show not thyself cheerful toward them,"^*'
A child's will must he broken : "A horse not broken becometh
-oCarl H. Cornill, The Culture of Ancient Israel, p. 79.
-1 Deuteronomy, xxi. 21. -- Deuteronomy iv. 9-10.
- Exodus xii. 26-27. -* Joshua n-. 21-22. -••Proverbs i. 8.
-"Carl H. Cornill, Tlie Culurc of Ancient Israel, p. 92.
-' Massa located beyond the limits of the Holy Land, near to Dumah, one of the original seats of the Ishmaelites. See Genesis xxv. 14 and 1. Chronicles i. 30.
-8 Ecclesiasticus xxx. 9. -'■' Ibid. xxx. 10. •■" Ibid. vii. 24.
16 THE OPEN COURT.
headstrong: a child left to himself becometh wilful.""^ "Bow down his neck while he is young, and beat him on the sides while he is a child, lest he wax stubborn and be disobedient unto thee."^- Commendations of corporal punishment abound :
"He that sparctli his rod liatcth his son. But lie tliat lovetli him chasteneth him diligently.""'^
"Chasten thy son, seeing there is hope. . . .""-^
"Withhold not correction from the child, i'^or if thou heat him with the rod he shall not die."'^"'
That all Hebrew fathers were not of the austere type pictured in these passages is evident from the necessity felt by the authors for repeated admonitions to parents to be severe, and from passages in other books. Jacob's love for Joseph and the paternal love depicted by Jesus in the parable of the Lost Son undoubtedly were typical of many fathers. Hebrew poets wishing to picture the pity of Yahweh for Israel do so by a reference to earthly fathers : "Like as a father pitieth his children, so Jehovah pitieth them that fear him."
PERIODS IN CHILD LIFE AND EDUCATION.
The early age at which the boy assumed adult responsibility made childhood distinctly a period for learning and training. This was recognized not only in jjractice but in pedagogical literature :
"Hast thou children? Instruct them and bow their neck from their youth."""
"Train u\) a child in the way he should go, And e\en when lie is did he will not depart from il. "•'■''
The Talmud distinguished five periods in child life and educa- tion,'"- but though frecjtiently (|tioted this division does not apply to the i)re-Talmudic period. Edersheim discovers in the Scriptures eight "ages of man," seven of which are distinct periods in child- hood.'" 1'hc i)riestly code provided rites to maiT the opening and close of periods in child life. Probably many of these rites were in existence long before they were embodied in the Law. Some arose jierliaps in nomadism, InU their autiquit}- can not be determined. It must stiffice to descrilje them.
•■•' Ibid. x.\.\. 8. ■■^■^Ibid. xxx. 12. ■■■■ Proverbs xiii. 24.
•"•■• Ibid. xix. 18. ■■■"• //'/'(/. xxiii. 1,3. ■■" Ecclesiasticus vii. 23.
"' Proverbs xxii. 6. ■"■'* 15abylonian 'i'ahnud, 'rracf Aboth V, 24.
•■•■'Alfred Edersheim, /;; //;<• Hays i>f Christ, pp. 104-105, makes the fol- lowing divisions: (1) newbm-n infant, m. jclcd; i. jaldah; (2) suckling, joncli; (3) and eating suckling, olel; (4) a weaned infant, ganiul; (5) "one who clings," taph; (6) "one who has become firm and strong, m. clcm\ f. (lUiuih: (7) youth, naar; (8) "ripened one," bachiir.
HEBREW EDUC'ATIOX 1,\ THE EA.Mll.V AFTER THE EXILE. 17
Upon birth the newborn infant was bathed in water, rubbed in salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes.*" If the child was the first born son he belonged to Yahweh and must be redeemed by an offering of five shekels.*' On the eighth day after birth every boy was circumcised*'- and named, receiving his name from his father*" or from his mother.** Peritz found that out of forty-four cases of naming children mentioned in the Old Testament, four were ascribed to God, fourteen to men and twenty-six to women.*'"'
A mother after the birth of a son was regarded as unclean for a period of seven plus thirty-three days ; in the case of a daughter the numbers were doubled, making the period fourteen plus sixty- six days. During this period the mother was not allowed to touch any sacred thing or to enter any sacred place. She regained her ceremonial cleanness at the end of this time by making two offerings : (1) a burnt offering, a first-year lamb (in case the mother was poor, a pigeon or dove) ; (2) a sin offering, a pigeon or a turtle dove.*"
Mothers generally suckled their own children.*' although nurses are sometimes mentioned.** Children were ordinarily weaned at the end of two or three years,*" the completion of the weaning was sometimes celebrated with a feast. "^^
The Talmud states that at thirteen one should assume the responsibility of the commandments, i. e., become responsible for the Law."'' The Scriptures give no positive information concerning any special system of education provided for' adolescence, never- theless in legends, traditions, customs and rites of later times there are many indications that even from tribal days adolescence was recognized as a period of peculiar social and religious significance, and that it was set aside as a time for definitely assuming political and religious obligations and was introduced with special religious ceremonies. It was when Jesus had reached the age of twelve that his parents felt the time had arrived for taking him to the temple in Jerusalem.^'- Many a Jewish tradition and legend represents the
*" Ezekiel xvi. 4; Luke ii. 7. •*! Exodus xxxiv. 12 ff; Numbers xviii. 15.
*2 Genesis xvii. 12-14. *^ Ibid. xvi. 15; xvii. 19; Luke i. 59; ii. 21.
*♦ Ihid. xxix. 32 ; 1 Samuel i. 20.
■*■"' L T- Peritz, "Women in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Ut.. XVTT, pp. 130-131. note .36.
"'Leviticus xii. 1-8. '^ Genesis xxi. 7.
•»■•* Ibid. xxiv. 59; 2 Kings xi. 2.
^» Maccabees vii. 27; cf. 1 Samuel i. 22-24.
•"'*'H. A .White. "Birth," HasHng's Bible Dictionary, I, p. 301a.
■^' Babylonian Tahnnd. "Tract Aboth," V, 24. ■"'- Luke ii. 42.
18 THE OPEN COURT.
hero as having made his first great decision in Hfe at the opening of adolescence. According to legend, it was at twelve that Moses left Pharao's daughter's house, and that the boy Samuel heard the voice of God in the night. ^^
The rite of circumcision offers perhaps further evidence of immemorial recognition of the social and educational significance of adolescence. The earliest Biblical account of this rite°* cannot be accepted as an explanation of its origin but only as an attempt to explain its origin as an infancy rite."''^ If, as is believed by some, circumcision was originally a tribal, not a family rite and formed part of the ceremonies by which youths were initiated into the tribe,'''' then the inference seems justified that in the earlier stages of their development, the Hebrews in common with other primitive peoples provided special rites for adolescence, and, in conjunction with these special rites, special training. Assumption of respon- sibility for the Law is to-day accompanied by changes in costume whereby the significance of adolescence is recognized. Two of these changes, the zizit and the phylacteries, will now be considered.
The early Hebrews appear to have worn as an outer garment a large piece of cloth of the shape of a Scotch plaid generally called simlah, to the four corners of which were attached blue and white tassels or twisted threads. The Deuteronomic law reads: "Twisted threads ( Hebr. ::;i.ait, incorrectly translated "fringes") shalt thou make thee upon the four corners of thy mantle wherewith thou coverest thyself."''' The custom seems to have been a very ancient one with magical or superstitious associations. In time it took on a spiritual significance, and the garment with twisted threads came to be chiefly a reminder of the obligation of the Jews to walk in the Law of Yahweh and to keep all his commandments.""'* Dispersion, persecution and changes in costume resulted in post-biblical times in substituting for the simlah an under-garment with twisted threads, known as the tallit which is still worn by orthodox Jews.
The tcfillin ( sing. tcfillaJi ) , or phylacteries, are two ritualistic objects worn by males oxer thirteen years of age when praying. Itach consists of a small parchment case with a loop attached through which a strap may be passed. By means of these straps the worshij)er binds one tefillah on the forehead between his eyes,
•''•'' B. A. Hinsdale, Jesus as a Teacher, p. 16.
•"-t Exodus iv. 24-26. -'^ H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, p. 67.
■"'" Cheyne and Black, "Circumcision," Biblical Encyclopcedia.
"' Deuteronomy, xxii. 12.
^'^ A. R. .S. Kennedy, "Fringes," Hasting's Bible Dictionary, II, 68-70.
• HEBREW EDUCATION IX THE FAMILY AFTER THE EXH.E. 19
tlie other on the inner side of his left arm. The ease of the head tefiillah is di\ided into four eonipartments in each of which, is one of the four following passages of Scripture: (1) Exodus xiii. 1-10; (2) Exodus xiii. 11-16: (3) Deuteronomy vi. 4-9: (4) Deuteron- omy xi. 13-21. The same passages of Scripture are placed in the case of the arm tehllah which, however, consists of only one com- partment.^"
The anti(juity of the custom of wearing tefillin cannot he de- termined. The Xew Testament contains many references to them."" Tradition ascrihes their origin to the command given in Exodus xiii. 16: "And it shall be a sign for thee upon thy hand and for frontlets between thine eyes." It is possible that the foundation of the custom may have been laid in tribal days in some custom of branding or tatooing members of the tribe to distinguish them or to protect them against magic. "Originally the sign was tatooed on the skin, the forehead (between the eyes) and the hand naturally being chosen for display. Later some visible object worn between the eyes or bound on the hand was substituted for the writing on the skin.''*'^
From the time when entrance upon adolescence was first ac- cepted as the period for assuming adult religious, political and social responsibilities, it is probable that the youth was ushered into his new rights and duties by some period of special preparation and by special religious ceremonies. It was apparently not until the four- teenth century"-' that the present ceremonies connected with the bar mizwah became current, but there is every reason for believing that between the tribal ceremonies and those of the bar mizwah there was no break, only continuous development. In the absence of any description of earlier adolescent rites it may not be amiss to describe here those of the bar mizwah. remembering, however, that they belong to a much later time.
By bar mizwah"'' (tr. "son of command") is meant a male Jew who has reached the age ( thirteen years ) when he himself is responsible for fulfilling the Law. Some time before his thirteenth birthday the boy enters upon a period of special prei)aration and religious instruction. ( )n the Sal)bath following his l)irthday he
■'''^William Rosenau, Jc-ccisl! Ccmnoiiial I iisii/iili(/iis ami (. iishniis. pp. 59- 60, gives a most excellent ciccotint, witli illust rations (if rnrn-nl iiracticcs.
•■■" Matthew xxiii. 5,
'■1 Emil G. Hirsch. "Phylacteries, Critical \'ie\v," Jcicis/i liiiryc. X, 28c. • "-' K.' Kohler. "Bar Mizwah." Jcz.-ish Eiicyc, TI. 509h.
*^" W. Rosenau. Jei<.'isl! Ceremonial Iiistilitlidiis ami Ciislnnis. Chap. X, 149-154, contains a most excellent and clear accnimt nf present practice.
20 THE OPEN COURT.
goes to the synagogue accompanied by his father. There in the presence of the congregation the father formally renounces his responsibility for his son's conduct in the following benediction :
"Blessed art thou ,0 Lord, our God, King of the universe That Thou hast set me free from the responsibility of this child."
The boy is called upon to read portions of the Scriptures. He may also lead in the benedictions and may even deliver the address following the close of the scripture lessons. A family festival with gifts may be held at home after the conclusion of the synagogue service.*^*
Such ceremonies as those described above gave fo each period in the child's life a distinctly religious significance. Every member of the family was impressed with the fact that the child belonged to Yahweh and that the parents were directly responsible to Yahweh for insuring to the child his religious education. Family pride, public opinion, religious beliefs and observances reinforced this sense of responsibility.
?Vior to the rise of schools festivals, rites, the home and such religious and social institutions as existed at any particular period were the means through which recognition was given to the different j^eriods in child life. After the rise of schools the transition froin home to school marked a distinct change in the child's environment and occupations. But the school included little else than religion. The following outline represents approximately the educational periods in a boy's life after the rise of the elementary schools.
OUTLINE OF JEWISH BOYS' EDUCATION AFTER THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
Subjects and Activities
Shema or national creed. Bible verses and p'overbs F'rayers, hymns, Bible stories
Memorized portions of Old Testament, especially the I'entateuch.
Advanced religious and theological literature, written and oral
'■'William Roscuau. Jcwis/i Ceremonial Institutions and Customs, X, 149- \F>4. The practices given here are for the most part modern.
'■••'' Most boys finished attending school at twelve or thirteen and took up their trade or vocation. Some few went to higher schools to prepare to be- cr)nie scribes and rabbis.
|
Years Periods |
Institut ons Teachers |
|
|
1 — 6 Infancy. |
Family. |
Parents and other member of the family. |
|
6 — 12 Childhood. |
Elementary |
Hazzan |
|
School. |
(Elementary teacher) |
|
|
12^ Adolescence. |
Scribe's |
Soferim |
|
School ''■' |
(Scribes) |
HEBREW EDUCATIOX IN THE FAiNrH.Y AFTER THE EXILE. 21
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.
The industrial occupations which had arisen during the Native Period continued after the Exile. That every boy learned some handicraft seems evident from the fact that the most highly educated of all classes, the scribes, supported themselves if nevessary by plying a trade. It was left for the Talmud to direct every father, regardless of his social position, to teach his son a trade."" But here as in many other instances it seems probable that the Talmud merely formulated as law what had been common practice for cen- turies, perhaps from time immemorial.
In absence of definite information, the question of how the boy learned his trade must be largely a matter of conjecture. It seems reasonable to assume that in most cases he followed his father's occupation and acquired his earliest training by assisting his father or elder brothers in shop or market place. As he grew older he would assist more and more until at length he would enter upon a regular apprenticeship, -\fter elementary education had been made compulsory, the major part of this training would necessarily be postponed until the boy had finished his studies at the elementary school. Then, unless he continued his studies at some higher pro- fessional school for the sake of preparing to become a scribe or rabbi, he would take up serious prepartion for some commercial or industrial occupation.
MUSIC.
The important place occupied by religious music in the temple service"^ could scarcely have failed to make it a prominent feature of the religious life of the home. Partly as the result of direct in- struction but largely merely by hearing his elders chant or sing, the child during infancy would begin learning the religious songs of his race. Later on perhaps he would be taught some musical in- strument.
DANCING.
Dancing which had occupied a prominent place in early Hebrew worship, came to be looked upon with increasing disfavor as a re- ligious act. It continued, however, as a festive activity at weddings and other secular festivities. There is nothing to show that it found any place in the schools which apparently devoted all their energies
'■•*' Babylonian Talmud, "Tract Kiddushin," 30b.
"' C. H. Cornill, The Culture of Ancient Israel, pp. 125-132. For vivid description.s see 2 Chronicles xxix. 26-30 and Ecclesiasticus i. 15-21.
22 THE OPEN COURT.
to the study of the sacred writings. Therefore it was probably for the most part learned at home.
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.
No sharp distinction can be made in post-Exilic Jewish educa- tion between the intellectual, moral, religious and civic elements. Practically all literature studied at home and in school was religious literature, but this literature contained not only religious teachings but moral teachings and laws. The most important task of parents was to teach their children religion and for many centuries this responsibility rested entirely upon the home. Even after the rise of the elementary schools the education of girls remained almost entirely within the family as did also that of boys up to about their seventh year. The religious ideal of this period may be summed up in the word holiness. Holiness meant "set apart unto Yahweh," i. e.. consecrated. Prior to the prophets the term had been devoid of any ethical content but through their teachings it came to mean set apart through purity of heart and of conduct.
The religious education of the child really began with the rites of infancy already described by which he was marked as belonging to a race set apart unto Yahweh. As he grew older, this ideal was gradually built up within his consciousness by the words and actions of those about him. Even before the child could speak he began unconsciously to receive lessons in reverence and love of the Law. Long before he could understand language his attention was at- tracted by members of the famiK' pausing before the doorway, touching reverently the Mezuzah, a small shining cylinder of wood or metal, kissing the hand that touched it and then passing on."^ Later on he would learn that the Mezuzah was placed upon the door- post in obedience to the divine command : "Thou shalt write them (the laws) upon the doorposts of thy house and upon thy gates.""'' Within the cylinder written on a small piece of parchment were two passages: Deuteronomy ^i. 4-0 and xi. 13-20. .About this time also the child must have begun to notice the phylacteries and the bright twisted threads hanging from the four corners of his father's simlah.
As soon as children began to speak their parents began teaching them P)ible verses. Possibly in the childhood of Jesus or even
•■'* "The antiquity of the Mezuzah is attested by Josephus (c. 37-100 A. D.) who speaks of its employment (Ant., TV, p. 8, sec. 13) as an old and well- established custom." I. M. Casanowicz. "Mezuzah," JcTt'ish Encyclnp(vdia. VIII, 532a.
•''^ Deuteronomy vi. 9.
HEHREW EDUCATIOX IN THE EAMILV AI'TER THE EXIEE. 23
earlier it was already the custom to begin this teaching with the lirst verse of the shema.'" the national confession of faith: "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, "^'ahweh alone. '^ Other verses from the Law. the Prophets, the I'salms and Proverbs would be learned one by one. Long before he started to school the boy woidd be taught the never-to-be-forgotten stories of the adventures, calamities and glories of his ancestors.
There was scarcely a ({uestion childish lips could frame for which the answer was not waiting in the sacred writings. The story of Adam and Eve'- answered the child's (juestions, '"Who made me and what am I made of?" ; "Why don't all people speak the same language?" was answered by the story of the Tower of Babel. '•'■ And when he asked who made the sea and the stars his father recited the majestic poem of creation : "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."'* No matter what the question, in its last analysis and in its final effect upon the child the answer was always, "God." It was God who formed man out of the dust of the earth. — it was God who confused the tongues of men, — it was God who divided the waters from the land and placed the sun, moon and stars in the sky, — it was God who wrote the laws with his finger upon the tables of stone, and who had laid down the hundred regu- lations governing every day and hour. In this atmosphere, pervaded by a continuous sense of the reality, holiness, purity and dominion of Yahweh the religious consciousness of the child was awakened, stimulated and nurtured.
In the home, as in the temple and in the synagogue prayer was a conspicuous and important channel of religious expression. The life of every member of the family was a life of prayer. Before and after meals a prayer of thanksgiving was offered.'-^ Besides this, prayers were offered three times each day. morning, afternoon and evening."'' One of the first things taught to children was to pray."
FESTIVALS L\ THE HOME.
Two dift'erent classes of festivals were observed in the home :
■^'^ Though the definite provision belongs to the Talmudic Period it is pos- sible the custom was much older. Babylonian Talmud, "Succah," 42a.
'1 Deuteronomy \ i. 4. ^- Genesis ii. 7 fF.
■ ••'• Ibid. xi. L9. -* Ibid. i. 1 ; ii. 3.
'■'' Inference based upon such passages as Matthew xv. 36 and Acts xxvii,35.
"^^ Inference based upon such passages as Psalm Iv. 17 and Daniel vi. 10.
"" By Talmudic law the child was "to be enforced by the father so say the benediction after each meal and to invoke a blessing before tasting any kind of fruit." N. H. Imber, "Education and the Talmud," Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-95. II, 1814d.
24 THE OPEN COURT.
(1) festivals celebrating ^ome event of family life, such as the infancy festivals already described; (2) festivals celebrating some historical, religious or social event of national importance such as the Passover or the Feast of the Dedication. Some festivals such as the Sabbath,'^ originally seasons of rest, gradually became days of religious observance, study of the Law and training in ritual and religious customs.'^'' Every religious festival ofifered parents an opportunity for giving impressive religious instruction. Many fes- tivals were definitely set aside as seasons for instruction in national history and religion. Within the home the parents in obedience to divine commands explained to the children the origin of the festival and the meaning of each symbolic act. How far this tendency to make religious instruction an element of every festival was carried is well illustrated by Purim, the carnival of the Jewish year. Purim was originally merely a festival of merriment and is to this day marked chiefly by unbridled jollity. In time, however, the custom arose (which finally became a universal obligatory part of the day's observance) of reading or hearing the story of the book of Esther.
The Passover celebrated in the evening of the fourteenth day of the month of Abib, or Xisan, was followed immediately by the seven days Feast of Unleavened Bread which began on the fifteenth and continued through the twenty-first. During all this time only unleavened bread was eaten. In every household on Passover eve a lamb, a year old or a kid, free from all blemish, was roasted whole and eaten with bitter herbs. The manner in which the feast was celebrated aimed to recall vividly and dramatically the situation to which its origin was traced, namely the flight from Egypt : for the Law directed that those partaking of the feast should eat it in haste, standing and dressed ready to march, their loins girded, their shoes on their feet and staff in hand.^** Perhaps no festival illustrates better than the Feast of the Passover the manner in which festivals were used as occasions for religious instruction and training.
"At a certain part of the service it was expressly ordained that the youngest at the paschal table should rise and formally ask what the meaning of this service was and how this night was distinguished from others: to which the father was to reply by relating in lan- guage suited to the child's capacity, the whole national history from the calling of Abraham down to the deliverance from Egypt and the giving of the Law."^^
'8 T. G. Scares, The Social Institutions and Ideals of the Bible, pp. 168-170.
79 Ihid., pp. 170-171. ^^ Exodus xii. 11.
81 A. Edersheim. In the Days of Christ, p. 110; cf. Exodus xii. 26-27 and Exodus xiii. 8.
HEBREW EDUCATION IN THE FAMH.Y AFTER THE EXH.E. 25
MORAL INSTRUCTION.
Through the prophets Yahweh had been revealed as a God of righteousness whose first demand of his worshipers was pure hearts and upright hves. Direct from Yahweh of Hosts came the com- mand to truthfuhiess, mercy, honesty and purity. The moral respon- sibility of the individual was not merely to his family and the com- munity but to Yahweh. Consequently there could be no separation between morality and religion. It was impossible to be religious unless one were first righteous.
In the Native Period moral education like every other type of education had been received almost entirely through training. Such training in no sense ceased after the Exile ; nevertheless, the Jews became ever increasingly a people of the book, and written literature became more and more important as a channel of education in morals and manners as well as in religion.
No people has ever produced a body of literature so rich in moral teachings or so wide and so varied in its possible application. In the earlier writings and in those passages in the later ones de- signed for children, moral precepts are stated dogmatically. But in many portions of the later writings dogmatic precepts give way to principles. Consequently the Old Testament is equally well adapted for the primitive and the highly developed mind, for the moral in- struction of the child and the meditation of the philosopher.
Absolute obedience to parents was regarded as the cardinal vir- tue of childhood and was presented as such in the earliest as well as in the latest writings :
"Honor thy father and thy mother that thy days may be long In the land which Yahweh thy God giveth thee."^^
"He that feareth the Lord will honor his father And will do service unto his parents, as to his masters."^^
"Honor thy father with thy whole heart And forget not the sorrows of thy mother. Remember thou wast begotten of them : And how canst thou recompense them The things they have done for thee?"^*
Children are specifically enjoined to respect the old age of their parents :
"My son, help thy father in his age And grieve him not as long as he liveth."^^
82 Exodus XX. 12. «■"• Ecclesiaslicus in'. 7.
8* Ibid. vii. 27-28. s-' Ibid. iii. 12.
26 THE OPEN COURT.
"Hearken unto thy father in his age And despise not thy mother when she is old."**"^
The remaining moral virtues taught to the Jewish children were those which are known and honored to-day throughout Chris- tendom. They were presented in part through proverbs, moral pre- cepts, psalms and prayers, in part through biographies and historical narratives, in part through the symbolic rites, customs and festivals already described. It must sufifice here to name briefly the more im- portant of these virtues, bearing in mind that they "were taught line upon line, precept upon precept," in season and out of season.
1. Obedience 8. Chastity 14. Patience
2. Reverence 9. Truthfulness 15. Meekness
3. Brotherly love 10. Industry 16. Loyalty
4. Charity 11. Thrift 17. Diligence
5. Compassion 12. Prudence 18. Perseverence
6. Hospitality 13. Patriotism 19. Mercy
7. Temperance
MANNERS.
Manners were regarded as matters of religion and morality. This is well brought out in the command to the young to rise in the presence of the aged: "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honor the face of the old man, and thou shalt fear thy God: I am Yahweh.'"*' Here we have a command to perform an ordinary act of politeness made correlative with fearing God and followed by the most authoritative and binding of all divine utterances, "/ am YoJnveh."
No descrii)tion of any system of training in manners employed by the ancient Hebrews is available. However, the patriarchal organization of the home, the implicit obedience exacted of children, the respect reqtiired of them for all their elders, the emphasis placed by the Hebrews upon form in every aspect of life are sufificient reasons for believing that training in manners constituted a most important part of the education of children. The soundness of this inference is amply stipported by many lessons in politeness contained in the Holy Scriptures. Some of these lessons are given in the form of narratives which relate in detail the conduct of some great national character. Genesis xviii gives, under the guise of the story of Abraham entertaining angels unawares, a beautiful lesson in hos- pitality and detailed instructions as to the proper manner of treat- ing guests. Genesis xix gives a similar lesson in connection with
^^' Proverbs xxiii. 22; Ecclesiasticus iii. 1-16 js of marked interest. ^" Psalm cxvi. 6.
Ili:i'^RI':\\' EDUCATION IN TIIK I'A.MILY AFT1<:K THK EXILE. 27
the story of Lot. Elsewhere lessons in courtesy are given in the form of ])receijts and admonitions relating to the treatment of strangers, the aged, topics of conversation and conduct in general or upon particular occasions. These lessons vary in length from terse proverbs to comparative!)- long passages such as that on table manners in Ecclesiasticus.
Breeding expresses itself outward!}' and concretely in acts, but the essence of good l)reeding is the spirit which prompts and per- vades the acts. Simplicity. meel<ness, liumility, gentleness and kind- ness, the earmarks of good breeding, and the foundations of all genuine courtes}- are repeatedly presented as (jualities which bring divine favor, care and reward. "Yahweh preserveth the simple. "^^ "The meek shall inherit the land :'"'■' "He will adorn the meek with salvation;""" "I ( Yaliweh ) dwe!! in the high and holy place, with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit, to revive the spirit of the humble and to revive the heart of the contrite ;"^^ "Now the man Moses w^as very mee!<, above all the men who were upon the face of the earth. "^-
Boasting, ostentation and conceit, the most patent evidences of \ulgarity, are condemned in narrative and in precept : "Let another man praise thee, and not thine own mouth : a stranger and not thine own lips;"" "Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, neither let the mighty glory in his might, let not the rich glory in his riches ;""* "Be not wise in thine own eyes ; fear Yahweh, and depart from evil :"^^ "The way of the foolish is right in his own eyes, but he that is wise liearkenetli unto counsel."""
Whispering and whisperers are to be shunned: "A whisperer separateth chief friends.""'^ Loquacity is condemned and reserve in utterance commended: "In the multitude of words there wanteth not transgression, but he that ref raineth his lips doeth wisely i""^ "A fool's vexation is presently known : but a prudent man con- cealeth shame ;""" "A fool uttereth all his anger but a wise man keepeth it back and stilleth it;"^"" "Death and life are in the power of the tongue ; and they that love it shall eat the fruit thereof."^
Stinging and bitter retorts are to be avoided: "A soft answer turneth away wrath: but a grievous word stirreth up anger ;"^"2
•^■^ Psalm cxvi. 6. ^» Psalm xxxvii. 11. '■>" Psalm cxlix. 4.
»i Isaiah Ivii. 15. "- Numbers' xii. 3. "■" Proverbs xxvii. 2.
*** Jeremiah ix. 23. '■'■> Proverbs iii. 7. s" Proverbs xii. 15.
9' Proverbs xvi. 28. -'^ Proverlis x. 19. »!> Proverbs xii. 16.
100 Proverbs xxix. 11. "'i Proverbs xviii. 21. io2 Proverbs xv. 1.
28 THE OPEN COURT.
"The north wind bringeth forth rain : so doth a backbiting tongue an angry countenance."^'*"
Nothing more readily betrays breeding than the character of conversation. The book of Proverbs contains numerous exhorta- tions to proper conversation and denunciations of rash or perverse speech.
"A wholesome tongue is a tree of life : But perverseness therein is a breaking of the spirit. "i*'*
"A word fitly spoken Is like apples of gold in network of silver."io5
"He that giveth answer before he heareth, It is folly and shame unto him."i"'''
Wisdom, righteousness, and the laws of Yahweh are to be made the constant topics of conversation :
"And (thou) shalt talk of them, (the laws and words of Yah- weh), when thou sittest in thy house. "^'^'^ "And ye shall teach them your children, talking of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up.""'*
"And my tongue shall talk of Thy righteousness, And of Thy praise all the day long."io9
''The mouth of the righteous talketh of wisdom. And his tongue speaketh judgment. "^i"
The inseparability of religion, morals and manners has been dwelt upon sufficiently to make it unnecessary to point out that the fact that the passages just quoted bear primarily upon religious in- struction, does not to the slightest degree exclude them from the field of manners.. If tact is the test of a thoroughbred, curiosity is equally the betrayer of the illbred. Curiosity is linked in the Scrip- tures with irreverence and disobedience. It was inevitable that the Hebrews should apply to commonplace experiences and situations the frightful warnings contained in the story of Lot's wife,^^^ and in the story of the fifty thousand and seventy men of Beth-shemesh destroyed because they looked into the ark of Yahweh."-
Among the most important occasions for display of breeding are the times when one sits down to eat. Gluttony is branded as a disgrace to one's own self and a shaining of one's parents: "He that
10.3 Proverbs xxv. 23. ^^* Proverbs xv. 4. '''"" Proverbs xxv. 11.
lOG Proverbs xviii. 13. ^^" Deuteronomy, vi. 7. ^'^^ Deuteronomy xi. 19. '"» Psalm XXXV. 28. ii" Psalm xxxvii. .30. m Genesis xix. 26.
HEBREW EDUCATION IN THE FAMILY AFTER THE EXILE. 29
is a companion of gluttonous men shameth his father.^^^ The prin- ciples, precepts and moral qualities presented and extolled in the Scriptures if applied to conduct at the table would have made any specific directions unnecessary. Nevertheless Ben Sira, like the authors of chivalric courtesy books, felt it incumbent upon him to give specific rules of table conduct which he did in the following interesting and, to the modern mind, curious passage:
"Eat, as it becometh a man. those things which are set before thee ; and devour not lest thou be hated. Leave ofif first for manners' sake ; and be not unsatiable lest thou ofl^end. When thou sittest among many, reach not thine hand out first of all. A very little is sufficient for a man well nurtured. Sound sleep cometh of moderate eating: he riseth and his wits are with him."^^*
However important may be the command, "Thou shalt not bear false witness against they neighbor," it represents merely the be- ginning of Hebrew custom with respect to the treatment of neigh- bors. In the Levitical code, as well as in the teachings of Jesus/^^ stranger and neighbor are to be treated with the same love that one bears toward his own flesh and blood : "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thy self."'' Neighbors are to be treated with generosity when they come seeking to borrow : "Say not unto thy neighbor, 'Go and come again, and to-morrow I will give," when thou hast it by thee.""^
Hospitality is a religious obligation and brings divine rewards. Many details of a host's conduct are clearly and beautifully set forth in the two stories already referred to, of how Abraham"^ and Lot"" entertained angels unawares. Abraham, sitting in his tent, beholds three men. He runs forth to meet them. He bows himself to the earth and then entreats them in terms of unsurpassable courtesy to be his guests. He orders water fetched that their feet may be washed. His wife Sarah makes fresh bread and a feast is pre- pared. When they depart, as a last act of hospitality, Abraham goes with them "to bring them on their way." The acts of hospi- tality performed by Lot as host are almost identical with those per- formed by Abraham. Abraham is rewarded by a promise of a son ; Lot. by being saved from the destruction that overtakes the other inhabitants of Sodom.
1^' 1 Samuel vi. 19. i'" Proverbs xxviii. 7. ii* Ecclesiasticus xxxi. 16-21. 115 Luke X. 29-37. "'■ Leviticus xix. 18. "^ Proverbs iii. 28.
''•■^ Genesis xviii. 3-18 ^i-' Gencsi.s xix.
30 THE OPEN COURT.
FADS IN PHILOSOPHY.
BY THE EDITOR.
f]^ADS are now the fashion in the philosophical world. When the old dogmatism hegan to hreak down, people acquired the habit of evading philosophical problems of a religious nature by saying that the questions as to the existence of God, the nature of the soul, free will and immortality, lay beyond the scope of science, and this philosophy of nescience is commonly called in Huxley's term agnosticism. It is understood that those who call themselves agnostics are really infidels ; as a rule they do not believe at all, but prefer the more modest and non-committal name of "not knowers," for it is more convenient not to take a definite standpoint in order to avoid controversy on a topic which they do not care to discuss. TiUt agnosticism bears on its face the stamp of transition ; it char- acterizes a stage which is transient. It is too obviously a mere make- shift to prevent its negativism from being replaced by some positive affirmation.
In the course of events agnosticism led to pragmatism which promised a new conception of truth, but this new conception is practically a denial of truth as an objective authority. It degrades truth to a mere subjectivism. F'ragmatists contend that if an idea works within my own experience, if it serves my ends, it is to be accepted as true, at least for me and pragmatists assume that that is all there is to truth.
On this basis real science becomes obviously impossible, for science would be a consensus, not of those who know anything about the subject in question, but of the most powerful and most influential minds of the age. In the meantime those views of Continental luirope which are also anti-scientific, have reached both England and .\nierica, and among them Nietzsche's philosophy has been most prominent. Nietzsche preaches a contempt of science, pro- claiming the sovereignty of the ego and the coming of the over-man. f lis view developed from Schoi)cnhauer's pessimism by inversion, and it also is acceptable only to those who reject an objective norm of truth and believe that the will should exercise control irrespective as to what the truth may be. The will is deemed supreme and the intellect is its handmaid who has to adapt herself to the wishes of her master. It proclaims the ])rinciple of unmorality, which means
I-ADS FX PHIl.OSOPin'.
31
an absolute irresponsibility and tbe coming of the overman who is not a higher and nobler type of man, but a powerful ruler who would unscrupulously tread under foot his fellow beings and sacri- fice them to his superior interests.
Nietzsche is very ingenious, and his books, especially Thus Spake Zarathtistra. are very pleasant reading, but he has contrib- uted nothing to the solution of any philosophical problem of the philosophy of science. His philosophy is purely a philosophy of attitude, and it is the attitude of noisy bluster which is apt to thrill immature minds with enthusiasm.
Very different, but in agreement with the principle that science is not a reliable nor desirable guide in life, are other recent tend- dencies which have produced a number of philosophies of a reac- tionary nature, basing themselves mainly on sentimentalism. It is noticeable that the representatives of this kind of thought are not so much thinkers and philosophers as prophets or leaders of certain tendencies, and do not take their stand upon investigation. Thus their success is mainly among the masses, who demand the satis- faction of certain individual needs and do not care for reliable scientific arguments, but wish to hear what will satisfy the needs of their longings. Most prominent among these leaders is Henri Bergson, and he is welcomed because he combines in his philosophy a certain liberalism with reactionary tendencies. ?Ie does not sub- mit it to the traditional authorities in religion, yet clings to the antiquated principle underlying the outworn dogmatism, and so he revives some views long abandoned by science, such as belief in vitalism as well as a teleological interpretation of nature.
The most recent innovation in philosophy is more subtle and more ingenious than any of its predecessors. It is the proclamation of the principle of relativity with some bold paradoxical postulates, perplexing the unsophisticated masses but presenting a delightful spectacle to the trained mathematician who has here full opportunity to admire the acrobatic feats of an intellectual gymnastic of abstract reasoning accomplished in the mid-air of purely mathematical argu- mentation, which has little or no foundation in fact. The inner structure of the relativist expositions is logically and mathematically correct, but when applied to real facts their conclusions are bold assertions and lead positively to contradictions. The principle of relativity is proclaimed under a great show and with much pretense, and yet it seems to have been a mere fad that will soon be a matter of history.
We ask. "What next?" but we do not propose to answer this
32 THE OPEN COURT
question. We prefer to suggest that all these passing phases in recent times have been due to the lack of comprehension of the nature of science. Science is plodding on its way. Scientists use the thought-tools of science as if they were perfectly reliable, and most scientists do not care to investigate the philosophical problem of science. They leave its settlement to philosophy. They act as if there were a philosophy of science and as if science rested on a solid foundation, and we claim that it does. In our opinion the principles of science are reliable and the scientist may safely use his tools.
The philosophy of science that underlies scientific method and justifies its work is not a mere dream or assumption or hypothesis ; it is well grounded on a rock; it is the rock of experience and the consistency of all experiences, which can be discovered on a close investigation ; but the philosophical world has neglected a study of the philosophy of science and has preferred to give heed to the passing fads which have come and gone in a kaleidoscopic change.
The present age is an age of unrest. Much solid work has been done in all branches of life, in art. in science, in industry and in the social improvement of mankind. Rut we of the present gen- eration seem to have lost our composure and equanimity. The mass of mankind seems unbalanced, and so there is a search for some- thing startling, unheard-of and novel. We want to be original and prove that before us the world was absolutely wrong, that real life begins with us, that our predecessors have done nothing worth considering — we had best forget and ignore them ; and the ex- ponents of these tendencies propose new principles, new proposi- tions, new postulates, new philosophies which are absolutely original, with the distinction quite common that what is absolutely original is absolutely erroneous.
We wonder whether the show is over and whether philosophical mankind will settle down in sober earnest to establish and accept the philosophy of science.
The philosophy of scienoe is the philosophy, the only one, of which all scientists consciously or unconsciously are co-workers, and all who deny the possibility of its construction are its enemies.
The word philosophy may be taken either in a loose way or in the rigid sense of its meaning. Tt may denote the science of truth in general, the object of which is the foundation of science and its significance, or it may be contemplation of life, an attitude toward the world, an emotional disposition or a sentiment that sways us, the mood of our mind. Tn this latter sense every one has a philos- ophv of his own, yea this philosophy is not one and the same for-
FADS IN PHILOSOPHY
33
ever. The philosophy of every one will chanoe with the disposition of his character, with the changes in his destinies, with his age and with his surroundings. I'hilosophy in the strict sense, however, will not change. Philosophy in the strict sense is a systematized ex- planation of existence : and in this sense there is only one philosophy as there is only one truth, and this one philosophy is the philosophy of science.
Philosophy of science is ohjective, philosophy as a mood or attitude is suhjective. The former exists in the singular only; it has no peer; the name of the latter is legion.
There is no (juarrel between the two ; they may exist peacefully side by side, just as mathematics will find no fault with a sonata or a picture or a poem. The many philosophies are like literary prod- ucts, pieces of art, and why should they not exist? In the face of the same facts and living in the same world, in the world that alone has become and probably alone could become real, Leibniz proclaims his optimistic view that this world is the best possible because it can not be better, and Schopenhauer says it is the worst possible, because if it were a little worse it could not exist at all.
There need be no quarrel between the two kinds of philosophy except when any one of the philosophies of mood rebels against the authority of science and declares science to be an ignis fatiiits, when it has no place for truth, the ideal of science, and does not admit the possibility of knowdedge.
Strang-e that science exists and that we relv on science. Never in historv has there been a religious faith which has justified trust in its authority or authoritative revelations as firmly and unequivo- cally as has science. We may become victims of error, we may make mistakes, we may be surprised one day that what we deemed to be true was not so. that we have misinterpreted facts or that our observations were faulty. P>ut are there any scientists who believe that science did ever or will ever fail them, that a law of nature will change, tliat the constitution of the world, its lawdom, was ever different in the past or will ever be dift'erent in the future? If our trust in science is justified, science is established, and we claim that it is justified. If science rest on postulates, if the foundations of science are mere assumptions, if our trust in an approved hypoth- esis, our faith in science not well grounded — then we have no science, but what we call science is mere sciolism, mere ])seudo-sciehce and all our knowdedge mere opinion.
34 THE OPEN COURT.
THE CONSTITUTION ON THE DEFENSIVE.
BY HOMER HOYT. I.
A WRITERS in the September number of The Open Court voices a kind of dissatisfaction with the Constitution of the United States that is receiving more attention now than ever before. It is characteristic of the thought of an age of rapid scientific progress to approach to the inner shrine which shields our most sacred in- stitutions and to demand that those very articles of faith be sub- jected to the impartial testing of the scientific laboratory. No longer are we content to accept basic institutions upon faith alone. The value of the Constitution of the United States must be tested, not by its original purpose and results, not by its antiquity, and not by the benefits it confers u])on a few, but by its present service to democracy. If the Constitution was designed to protect the special interests of an autocracy of wealth, and if its purpose throughout its long history has been to raise the few into power by the sacrifices of the many, then no reverence for its antiquity, and no sentimental regard for its patriotic origin should deter us from abolishing it. If the Constitution "has fostered corruption, graft and exploitation"- we should strip it of authority until it has no more power in our national counsels than the traditional scrap of paper, and the final sentence rendered against it should be all the more severe because it has so long imposed upon us by assuming the guise of a sacred and patriotic institution.
The attack on the Constitution does not stop with the charge of corruption. Ancillary to this main indictment is a charge which is sometimes made the basis of an independent indictment and some- times the cause of the main indictment, but which invariably ac- companies the cry of "corruption" and "special interests." This charge is made by the writer previously referred to when she says that the Constitution binds us to the customs and habits that existed in 1787. It is probable that she regards conservatism as an evil per se in this restless age of changing fashions and changing laws. It is certain that she regards the conservatism maintained by the Constitution as the chief means by which it produces an unjust result to-day, because the Constitution has thus perpetuated the in-
1 Mrs. Lida Parce.
- Mrs. Lida Parce, "Democracy and tlie Constitution," Open Couvt, Sept., 1917, Vol. XXXI, p. 560.
THE CONSTITUTION ON THE DEFENSIVE. 35
justice which she thinks entered into its formulation. The issue is thus raised as to whether or not there is any merit in an iron law that never changes. We must also bring to the fore another issue that lies back of that, namely whether or not the Constitution is an iron law that never changes.
These charges against the Constitution cut deep and no swift or biased judgment should be ])assed. So serious an indictment must be considered in all its aspects. The Constitution is so deeply imbedded in our national life that it affects almost the whole range of our social relationships. In order to make a decision upon the charges against the Constitution, we must consider whether its good qualities outweigh the bad. This kind of an assay is no easy task, because we are not all agreed upon what constitutes pure social gold. Only a study of economic, political, psychological and socio- logical factors that are intertwined in the complex grouping we call society can throw light upon this problem. Manifestly it is by far too large a problem to be considered in the scope of this paper. The writer can only muster some facts within the circle of his acquaintanceship for the purpose of defending the Constitution at the points of attack.
n.
Upon three questions part of the battle between the defenders and challengers of the Constitution must be fought. These three questions are : First, whether or not the Constitution fosters graft and corruption ; second, whether or not there is any value in the unchanging character of the Constitution ; and third, whether or not the Constitution is in fact an unchanging organ of government. These three points of controversy by no means indicate the whole contour of the battle line, but they do seem to be stategic points. The writer would therefore like to direct the attention of the reader to the forces that may be mobilized to support the defenders of the Constitution.
It must be frankly admitted at the outset that there is a cause for the dissatisfaction which has thus been expressed against the Constitution. That cause is undoubtedly a tendency of recent de- cisions of the Supreme Court of the United States to strengthen the position of the propertied classes in their struggle with the laboring classes. 1lie writer feels a strong sympathy with the movements for the minimum wage for women, for the shorter working day, for sanitary regulations in factories, for the abolition of the com- pany store, and for the various measures designed to safeguard the interests of trade imions and thereljy iiicrease the l)argaining power
36 THE OPEN COURT.
of labor, but he does not believe that the most serious impediment to the enactment of these reforms is the Constitution of the United States. Admitting that there is an evil to be remedied, the writer believes that there is not sufficient evidence to hold the Constitution responsible for that evil. C)n the contrary it is submitted that the forces in the Constitution which are the most maligned are in fact productive of much good. This brings us directly to a considera- tion of the points of controversy.
We are told first that the Constitution serves special privileges and that it is a bulwark of vested wrongs. The charge is not spe- cific, and the answer can therefore only meet the prevalent types of discontent which "special privilege" suggests.
The Constitution has always had a very special regard for the vested rights of property. It has shown its solicitude for the in- terests of the owners of property by throwing up bulwarks to pro- tect them against the arbitrary forfeiture or seizure of private property without just compensation. The protection of the special interests of property however is not usually regarded as unworthy of a democracy unless there is discrimination in the treatment of various persons holding property. The Constitution guards the interests of the owner of the humble cottage as zealously as the lord of a mansion on Sheridan Road or Riverside Drive. The value to our civilization by the protection of property rights per se can best be seen by comparing conditions in countries with shifting constitutions like Mexico with the conditions that obtain in coun- tries where the right of property is regarded as fundamental.
Perhaps the critics of the Constitution have another thing in mind, however, w\rtv\ they attack the Constitution for protecting special interests. Perhaps they refer to the conflict between the property interests of a few capitalists and the health, morals and general welfare of the many laborers. In spite of our ethical scheme of values in which we regard life as worth more than meat, and the welfare and happiness of a people worth more than material wealth, it is asserted that the Constitution places property above llie health, morals and even the life of the individual laborer. In truth, however, there is ample authority in the Constitution for sacrificing property interests to the interests of morals, health and life, and this authority has been frequently exercised. Of course there must be a balancing not only between absolute property rights and absolute rights of health and happiness, but between various amounts of property rights and various amounts of health rights. A great projjerty interest should not be destroyed to protect a very
THE CONSTITUTION ON THE DEFENSIVE. 37
small health right. The ui)])cr stories of a sky-scraper should not be torn oil merely to decrease the danger of hrc. It is significant, however, to note that the Supreme Court has refused to allow equal property interests to stand above ecjual health interests when it clearly saw the issue. It may be that the Supreme Court has not gone far enough. It is probable that the members of that body have not comprehended the connection between the health and happiness of workers and the measures designed to secure those results. They may not have made enough allowance for the increasing com- plexity of industrial society, whereby the result of legislation con- ducts itself through many channels before it reaches its intended destination. They may have overlooked the growing interdepend- ency of the human family whereby the good or evil that is brought to bear against one man communicates itself by a series of widening circles to the whole of society. ^lany social workers are feeling that the property rights should give the right of way to the broader human rights on all occasions, and that property rights should be forced to yield not only when they conflict directly with the interest of health, morals and life, l:)ut also when they conflict with any legislation which indirectly or by roundabout means promotes health, morals and life. It is not the fault of the Constitution, however, that the judicial reaction toward social legislation has been rather narrow, because it is not unconstitutional to confiscate property when it is being used for a purpose that is detrimental to health and morals.
It is probable that the critics of the Constitution have still another conception in mind when they charge the Constitution with fostering special interests. They would hold the Constitution re- sponsible for permitting if not actuallv encouraging the growing concentration of wealth into the hands of a few. Admitting that the establishment of an aristocracy of wealth is a serious evil under any form of government, it still remains to be seen whether the Constitution is the cause of the widening gulf between the rich and the poor. It is true that the Constitution has prevented and will continue to prevent the breaking up of large fortunes by confisca- tion. It has stood guard over the property of millionaires who have plundered the people when the people in turn would have plundered the millionaires. In thus j)rotecting the \ested interests of the few. not for the sake of the particular ])ersons who happened to own the vested interests, but for the sake of the institution of private property, the Constitution has saved us from evils far worse than those which we sought to cure. It has saved us from the repetition
38 THE OPEN COURT.
of the shock to credit that resuhed from wild-cat banking and the repudiation of state bonds. It has saved us from the disorders and demoraHzation that followed the sudden forfeiture of crown lands in Russia. It has sa\ed us from the panic and utter collapse of our whole financial structure that rests upon the security of property rights. It must be remembered too that this panic would be felt all the more severely because of the delicacy of the parts that bind our financial machinery together.
The Constitutional guaranty of property rights has been of great importance to our nation, because it is founded upon prin- ciples of justice to the individual. Property originally acquired wrongfully soon becomes divested of its evil character and it is then unjust to restore the status quo that existed before the wrong was committed. The gain of robbery, fraud and oppression soon mingles with the stream of property produced by honest efifort and loses its identity completely. That part of the value of a share of stock that is due to railroad rebates cannot be distinguished from the part of value that is due to honest production. The purchaser of the stock on the market parts with money that is usually earned by honest elTort, and to confiscate the \alue due to railroad rebates would be a monstrous injustice to him. The old saying that two wrongs cannot make a right applies here with great force. The cure for the e\il of vested interests lies not in the confiscation of property, for that would be akin to burning down a house in order to disinfect it. The only just method is to prevent the proceeds of graft extortion and monopoly from ever becoming property in the first place by striking directly at the evil practices themselves. By prohibiting the evil practices of unfair competition, railroad re- bates, price discrimination, franchise grabbing, legislative lobbying and all the other hydra-headed forms in which graft displays itself, we would prevent the canker of corruption from ever becoming a \ested right of property. We would apply the policy of locking our barn before the horse is stolen, instead of leaving the door open and protecting ourselves after the catastrophe by stealing a horse from a malefactor of great wealth to replace the horse that was stolen from us.
Probably the critics of the Constitution have many other rea- sons not here ad\ertcd to for believing that it is a fortress of special jjrivilege. If so, they owe it to their cause to reveal the secret of their discontent. Their specific proof has failed to disclose any basis for an indictment against the Constitution as a traitor to the general welfare.
THE CONSTITUTION ON TlIK DEFENSR'E. 39
• III.
The second serious indictment against the Constitution is based on the assumption that it has not changed since the days of our grandfathers and proceeds to expound the evils of adopting the mummy of the eighteenth century as a model for the life of to-day. Without admitting the whole charge that the Constitution has not changed, the apologist for the Constitution insists that some elements of our modern life should be patterned after the days of old and that any considerable change in these elements is not desirable. The apologist refers particularly to the necessity of maintaining the stability of property rights.
There is every reason for maintaining stability of property rights. The chief incentive to thrift is the prospect of an assured income from property. The stimulus to the undertaking of a new enterprise consists in the probability of profit from the venture. The business man balances the risk against the prospective profit, and if the risk is great compared with the expected profit, he will not extend his i)lant or start a new business. The greatest of all possible risks is the risk of losing the whole of the principal as well as the interest through capricious changes in the laws of private property. Society progresses through the action of individuals striking out into new fields of endeavor, and hence it is to the interest of society to stimulate and not discourage individual initia- tive. The chief spur to progress is the knowledge that property rights will remain stable.
Even as it is economical so also is it just to maintain the stability of property rights. An individual who has labored long to accjuire property would surely have a grievance if he was suddenly divested of his title because of a changed rule of law. The only way to assure a man that he will be allowed to enjoy what he has bargained and paid for is to make the laws governing tlic title to property as uniform and stable as possible.
Stability is a virtue in more ways than one. The stability of the Constitution is of inestimable importance in protecting the rights of a minority when they are threatened by the brute strength of a majority. When gusts of popular passion dominate the sentiment of one locality or e\en of one state, the objects of public disfavor can appeal to the broader principles of right and justice guaranteed by the Constitution. When even the whole nation becomes stirred with wrath and in a moment of forgetfulness would do something for which it would afterward be ashamed, the Constitution holds
40 THE OPEN COURT.
up a warning hand. Thus a minority, whether it be composed of an unpopular race, an unpopular rehgion, or unpopular business interests, has found a refuge against the rage of the mob. The Con- stitution has brought to bear a force for the protection of life, liberty and property that the furious power of a temporary majority could not beat down. However much the majority has been momen- tarily exasperated by the steadiness with which the Constitution has resisted its purpose, in many cases its members have later honored the instrument that restrained them. When there was a real griev- ance against the Constitution, its very stability compelled a clear statement of the reason and necessity for its amendment. It did not give way to the first wild rush, and hence the Constitution has blocked hasty legislation, the mass of which has been a plague to this country. The Constitution has thus been more than a scrap of paper in the past when the changing current of public opinion has left its channel, and if our nation in the future is ever swept along l)y a ])owerful jxsychology that threatens to overturn individual rights, the Constitution will doubtless again prove to be a precious instrument.
IV.
Although the Constitution is essentially stable, it is by no means as hard to change as most of its critics believe. In addition to the process of external amendment there is a process of internal adaptation that is no less dynamic because it is not heralded by the clamor of debate and the roar of the cannon. Notwithstanding the common belief that the whole constitutional law of the United States is to be found in the original document itself, in fact our Constitution to-day consists of a library of bulky volumes. Not to mention the thousands of cases in the lower federal courts, the deci- sions of the Supreme Court of the United States alone fill 250 large books. The celebrated words and phrases of the Constitution have been so interlined, amended, interpreted, expanded, and an- notated by the courts of the United States, that even a magician might be astounded to see so many twentieth-century products drawn out of an old beaver hat of the eighteenth century. The process of judicial interpretation is entirely different from the process of casting plastic material into an iron mold. The rules of the Constitution are not drawn tightly over each detail of conduct, but they are broad and loose, giving opportunity for fresh definition and specific application in thousands of concrete cases. The law laid down by the Constitution was confined to principles which centuries of experience had demonstrated to be universal in scope
THE COXSTlTrriON ON THE 1)1'.1'1':.\ SI \K. 41
and therefore least subject to change. Thus the constitutional phrase "Congress shall have power to regulate commerce" was framed in the days of the stage coach, yet it has been extended to meet the needs of the steamboat, the railroad, the telephone, the telegraph, the wireless and the aeroplane. It was conceived at a time when transportation was regarded as a private enterprise, it has lived to see transportation brought within the domain of public regulation, and it will be ade(|uate for the needs of public owner- ship if that ever becomes necessary.
Some clauses in the Constitution are purposely elastic. Phrases like "due process of law" and "cruel and unusual punishment" adapt themselves to the views of each successive age. The right of every man to be tried according to "due process of law" does not require that he be tried according to the conceptions of due process that pre^•ailed in the eighteenth century. On the contrary it guarantees to the citizen all the protection of modern notions of a fair hearing in addition to those essentials of a fair hearing that have existed since the days of the Magna Charta. Similarly with the constitu- tional prohibition of "cruel and unusual punishment." Manifestly what one age would regard as ordinary punishment, another would regard as cruel and unusual. The fundamental change in our theory of punishment as witnesssed by the movements for prison reform and the psychological study of crime demonstrates that the social attitude on these matters progresses from one age to another. The Constitution accepts this fact of change and allows the average ethical standards of the time to judge whether a given kind of pun- ishment is "cruel and unusual" or not.
In addition to all the elasticity provided for by the terms of the Constitution, there is a rule of interpretation which gives still greater leeway for progress. This rule was stated by Chief Justice Marshall in the famous case of McCulloch ^•s. Maryland. In referring to a situation not expressly covered by any language in the Constitution he said: "Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but are consistent with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional." By this principle, which has been subsequently followed, the people are not hampered by obsolete machinery when they seek to attain an end that is clearly within the spirit of the Constitution. They can devise new methods for meeting new problems. The Constitu- tion is thus a living instrument which is responsive to the needs and wishes of each successixe age.
42 THE OPEN COURT.
The same liberality of spirit is shown toward social legislation. The Constitution does not attempt to make each legislative act fit into an iron bed of Procrustes, but it only sets up broad limits be- yond which the legislature may not stray. These limits are not absolutely rigid. There is a twilight zone or No-man's land where the legislative power meets the restraining hand of the Constitution. A broad interpretation of the Constitution would extend the legis- lative power over most of this disputed ground ; a narrow inter- pretation of the Constitution would drive it back. The gains that might be made for social legislation on this border line would be sufficient to meet the needs of progress. That these gains have not been made is due to a conservative attitude on the part of the judges of the Supreme Court and not to the Constitution itself. The mem- bers of the Supreme Court who have felt the pressure of the public opinion of this age have been willing to grant as much power to the laboring masses as it would be wise to give at present. The judges who have declared social legislation unconstitutional because they did not appreciate its significance would probably emasculate an amendment to the Constitution covering the same subject-matter. The problem lies deeper than any form of words. It consists of the lack of understanding of modern industrial relationships. That problem cannot be solved by a recall of the Constitution nor even by a recall of judges, but as Roscoe Pound suggests only by a recall of law professors and much of the judicial thinking of the past generation.^
The writer does not believe that the Constitution is without faults. There is need for some reforms. Such reforms, however, must be based not only upon a thorough analysis of our industrial situation, but also upon a thorough knowledge of the Constitution, because we cannot reform either unless we understand them thor- oughly. Before we invoke the cumbersome process of amendment, we should also understand what is the most that could be accom- plished without amendment. Before we relegate the Constitution to the limbo of historical documents, we should be sure that our new Magna Charta does not leave us as helpless as of old. The sudden uprooting of a long-cherished ideal w^ould undoubtedly dis- turb our whole social structure and bring about a panic even in quarters where there was no cause for a panic. The element of morale is a factor in our national life that must be reckoned with,
1 "Social Prol)lems and the Courts." American Journal of Sociology (1912), Vol. XVIII, pp. 331-341. Also cited in W. H. Hamilton, Current Economic Problems (1915). pp. 651-653.
AN AUTONOMOUS ITKRAIXE. 43
however, and it is folly to frighten jjeople when notliing is to be gained by it. The snl)stitution of new and tmtried maxims of government for those which ha\e been defined by a process of court decision might vevy well complicate instead of simplifying our legal problems. L'nless we are sure that we have something better we may well hesitate to throw overboard the results of one hundred and thirty years of judicial experience. In changing constitutions our motto should be "Safetv first."
AN AUTONOMOITS UKRAINE.
RY AN UKRAINIAN.
WHEN in 1863 a Russian minister of state declared that "there never has been and never will be an Ukrainian language or nationality." he did not foresee the tragedy of the last Romanoff and the a])parently accomplished disintegration of the empire of the Czars. In point of fact the Aery arrogance of his utterance was but a reflex of that will to conquer which has characterized the house of RomanotT from the time when it first took control of Great, or better. IMuscovite Russia and added one subjected people after another as jewels to its crown. Among these was a former nation once of great power, later an object of contention between medieval Poland and Muscovy until in 1654 a political blunder on the part of its ruler, the Hetman Bogdan Chmielnicki, put this wealthy but politically weak state first under Muscovite tutelage but later under the conqueror's heel of the Czars, so that it preceded its enemy Poland which fell a A'ictim over a century later.
For one hundred and fifty }ears the wrongs of Poland have aroused and obtained the sympathies of the non-Russian world, but rarely has the voice of justice been raised in behalf of a people whose only crime has been the misfortune of its undefended geo- graphical situation between rapacious neighbors. The English world has forgotten the stirring Ma.ccppa of its greatest nineteenth-century poet. Lord Byron, and the }:)resent political situation will hardly allow any Englishman to take up the pen in defense of a nation whose rebellion seems to jeopardize the cause of the Entente by weakening the aggressive strength of Russia against her enemies of Central Europe. But putting aside the question of abstract justice, is such a stand even ])olitically expedient? Cannot the aims of the new L'krainian nation be utilized to the advantage of a strong Russia, so as to make her a potent force once more in the
44 THE OPEN COURT.
cause of democracy? Would it not be better to conciliate an op- pressed people and win tbeir grateful cooperation than to wear away the strength of Great and Little Russia in civil war? The anomalous position of the western democracies in alliance with autocratic and despotic Czarism was immeasurably strengthened by the triumph of the people in Russia, which was acclaimed nowhere with more pronounced satisfaction than in the great Re- [)ublic of North America, whose distinguished President has made himself the champion of the little nations. But the Ukraine is more than a little nation. Allow us, please, to state our claims.
In the first place, we do not ask for armed intervention. After asking the Great Russian government, or succession of governments, for an autonomy which was denied, our country set up the standard of independence and established a government and a state which we expect to maintain unless the interests of the Entente or of the Central Powers at the final peace congress should sacrifice us as was the fate of Poland after the fall of Napoleon. In the name of a people of 33,000,000 souls for whom the sacred bell of liberty is now pealing like the one which sounded for a new republic in 1776, we implore the present citizens of that great republic to take us into the family of nations.
Take your map and draw a line from Brest-Litowsk to Przemysl and the Carpathians for the western boundary, from Brest-Litowsk along the Pripet River to the Dnieper, roughly along parallel 50° 30' to a point one hundred miles east of the Don River, from thence to the mouth of the Don, leaving the Black and Azofif seas, the Dniester and the Carpathians to the south, and the included terri- tory, which may be called Ukrainia, is equal in area to the states Wisconsin, Illinois. Michigan, Indiana and Ohio, or as large as the German empire plus Illinois, certainly enough for a seventh or eighth power in Europe's future concert.
P)Ut what of the Ukrainian people? you ask. Are they not Russians, dialectically diflierent from the Great Russians to be sure, but still Russians? No, we answer. Our language is as dififerent from Great Russian as Portuguese is from Spanish, and Portugal has a long history as an independent nation. It is as remote from Polish as Spanish or Portuguese are from Erench, notwithstanding that the Pole claims for his fatherland all of Austrian Galicia, including and east of Przemysl where the Ukrainians form 66 % of the population. In all the territory claimed by Ukrainians, they form on an average 72 ^'/<, of the population, and the figure is 98 % for the large areas along the Dnieper. And yet this suggested state
AN AUTONOMOUS UKRAINE. 45
does not include debatable areas on all its borders, where the per- centage of Ukrainians is considerable, even large. It is a compact, homogeneous territory, possibly more uniformly Ukrainian than any state of the American Union is uniformly Anglo-American.
A brief historical survey of the projected state will be of in- terest. In the ninth century the princes of Kiev united most of the present Ukrainian-speaking lands under their scepter and prob- ably owed their suggestive appellation, Russij, or the Red, to their blond Scandinavian inheritance, forming as striking a contrast to the blackhaired. dark Ukrainians as redbearded Frederick of Hohen- staufen did to the dark Italians who gave him the nickname Barba- rossa. Their power increased steadily until they fell before the onslaughts of the Tatars in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Kiev losing its power and the I'krainian rulers being succeeded by the princes of Halicz, a city which gave its name to what is now the Austrian crownland ( ialicia. The rise of Lithuania in the four- teenth century was followed by the absorption of independent Ukrainia. but the new double state soon came under the yoke of Poland, and its eastern half did not regain independence until the middle of the seventeenth century, and then only as the result of a bloody revolution. L'nder the Ukrainian Hetman Bogdan Chmiel- nicki. the greatest Ukrainian general and statesman of modern times, the country came, to be sure, under Russian protectorate but with the retention of complete political independence including the control of its foreign policy and its army. It took but a year to disillusion the patriot ruler as to the crafty purposes of his "pro- tector." and he concluded an alliance with Sweden and Siebenbiirgen as a check against both Russia and Poland. Unfortunately death prevented the fruition of his great plan. His successor, Ivan Wyhowski, concluded a treaty of union with Poland and Lithuania in 1658, declared war on the Muscovite Czar and annihilated a large Russian army at Konotop. Russia now resorted to the use of money to create a i»arty favorable to her interests which she finally supported with large forces of troops. Hetman Wyhowski was forced to abdicate in favor of a successor who renewed the alliance with the Czar. Ukrainia endured this state of vassalage until the accession of Hetman Ivan Mazeppa whose administration, at first successful, met disaster at the battle of Poltava in 1709, which also ruined his ally Charles XII of Sweden. Czar Peter ravaged the Ukraine with fire and sword, crucified the Ukrainians by thousands, nailed them to rafts and sent them drifting down the rivers. This victory established for two centuries the ascendency
46 THE OPEN COURT,
of Muscovite Russia. Ukrainia became the spoils of Muscovite officials, and the last semblance of autonomy vanished in 1783 with the abolition of the military organization. Nevertheless the Ukrainians did not give up their agitation for freedom, but con- tinued their efforts with obstinate determination. Peter the Great forbade them the use of their language, and every effort was made for two hundred years to relegate it to the position of a peasant patois under the claim that it was but a dialect of Great Russian, that the people themselves were but a branch of the Muscovites. At last in 1905 the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg answered the government's demand for a decision on the case with the judgment, of which the concluding sentence reads : "The argu- ments given above bring the Academy of Sciences to the conviction that to the Little Russian population is due the same right as to the Great Russian — to use their mother tongue publicly and in print." Their committee established the fact that the linguistic differences between the two languages are traceable back into the eleventh century. Litt-le Russian is as distant from Great Russian as Holland Dutch is from German.
How great are the anthropological differences between Ukrain- ian and Muscovite can be illuminatingly seen in Prof. W. Z. Ripley's Racial Geography of Europe, in his chapter on the Slavs. These differences extend to social customs as well. In the Russian family the father is a despot, in the Ukrainian the wife is his equal. So- cially, the Russian is communistic, especially in his attachment to community of land, but always ready to yield to the will of his superiors in everything, whereas the Ukrainian is individualistic and democratic. In family life the Muscovite is more backward and physically repulsive to the Ukrainian who is more inclined to cleanliness and good conditions of life. So far does this sentiment go that Ukrainians along the the frontiers painfully a\oid all mar- riages with Great Russians. The Ukrainian is artistic and has fur- nished a large share of Russian musicians, artists and poets.
How irreconcilable is this racial antipathy, is demonstrated by the absolute failure of the Russian government to bring about a fusion of the two peoples after 'all its persecution and oppression of the resistent race, which is to-day more determined than ever to attain its freedom. This was realized in the session of the Russian Duma of the 24th of February, 1914. when Professor Milukoff", who later i)layed such a prominent role in the dethronement of the Czar, made this admission : "The I4<rainian particularism intrudes into all the forms of life. The Russian army, the Russian school,
AN AUTON(.)MOUS UKRAINE. . 47
the Russian officials do nothing but arouse national friction and spur on the national feeling of the Ukrainians. In addition the Ukrain- ian movement is deeply democratic, it is. you may say, conducted by the people itself : for that reason it is impossible to crush it. But to fan it into flames and to turn it against ourselves is easily pos- sible. ..."
Ukraine means "borderland," and the name was originally applied to that part of the ^'steppes" along the southern Polish frontier to which the Little Russian peasants fled from the tyranny of Russian "boyars" or Rolish nobles. In constant conflict with hos- tile neighbor, the Tatars, they formed roving bands of splendid horsemen accepting the Tatar appellation of Kazak, which the Eng- lish spell Cossack. As Cossacks they haAe formed in recent times, along Avith those from the Don, in whom there is a more or less prevalent Mongolian strain, that redoubtable cavalry which has been the most faithful reliance of the Russian Czars. In Galicia they are called Ruthenians. but wherever they dwell they prefer to be called Ukrainians.
The Russian Czars have pursued a consistent policy of de- nationalization of the Cossack-Ukraine state from the edict of Peter the Great in 1720 which prohibited the use of Ukrainian in print, follow^ed by the abolition of the office of Pletman later on, and the abolition of the se])arate military organization in 1783. But the sternest of measures did not stifle nationalist aspirations, and in 1831 the Czar yielded to a demand of the Ukrainian peas- antr\' for the formation of Cossack corps after the old model. When it was seen that the renewed organizations were fanning the agitation for political freedom they were banished to service in the Caucasus and kept there for eighteen years. In the previous century the land had been divided into a number of governments of which Kiev and Cherson came so near to a revolt in 1855 that the agitation could only be put down by armed force.
In the forties the idea of Pan-Slavism led to the formation of the "Brotherhood of Cyrillus and ^Methodius" among our people, who now hoped for a grand federation of vSlavic peoples, one of which should be an autonomous Ukraine. To this brotherhood belonged all of that class to whom we may be allowed to give the name of "'intellectuals," including the poet and martyr, the illustrious Schevtchenko. who had returned from his exile in the Ural after 1847. Chapters of a secret organization sprang into life immediately all over the Black Earth Region, of which the most important was that of Kie\'. which found able support in a similar union in the
48 THE OPEN COURT,
capital. Their activities alarmed the Czar's government and brought down the Ukas of 1876 w^hich prohibited the printed use of Ukrain- ian, dispersed the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev and banished its most prominent members to Siberia, but it could not destroy the success of a movement, now become the passionate expression of a people's longing.
Disappointed in their realization that Russia had been using Pan-Slavism merely as a cunning cloak for Pan-Muscovitism the Little Russians commenced to see their hope only in absolute inde- pendence, and the new century saw a separatist movement of great proportions which culminated in the Peasant uprising of 1902, es- pecially in the governments Charkov and Poltava, followed by the election of fifty-two Ukraine Nationalists to the first Russian Duma in 1916. The eft'orts of Stolypin, however, merely reduced this showing in the next Dimias. but the movement had caused the prosecution of about two hundred members of the Ukraine Revo- lutionary Organization in 1907, on the ground that five governments had organized the elections to the Duma with the aim to a separatist agitation. Though they were driven from the next Dumas, the work of the patriots went on just the same.
In 1904 Lithuanians and Poles had been granted the right of instruction in their own language, but not so the Ukrainians, al- though they obtained the permission to print newspapers and books, a concession which was soon so hampered by censor and public prosecutor that but little good came from it. Since instruction was given only in Russian, w^iich was not understood, there were over fifty percent of Ukrainians unable to read or write before the war, and yet the twenty newspapers, of which the strongest was the Rada, ajjpearing in Kiev, and the great circulation of Ukrainian books, demonstrate the devotion of the people to their mother- tongue. The Ukraine l;aders used the occasion of the funeral of the composer Lissenko in 1913 to stage a great political manifesta- liun in Kiev, which was attended by over 200.000 people from all the governments, b'or not preventing this the Governor of Kiev was punished by removal.
In 1905 the Ukrainians deluged Count Witte with petitions con- taining the certainly modest request for a single Ukrainian pro- fessorship in the university of their capital Kiev, and when the General Association of Llementary School-Teachers for all Russia met in St. Petersburg in 1914, the numerous Ukrainian representa- tives succeeded in getting the adoption of a resolution calling for the introduction of the native language into all Ukrainian schools.
AX AITU.XO.MOLS IKKAINK
49
Thereupon the assembly was officially dispersed, and Count Meu- schikoff wrote in the Novoje f^revija that the entire teaching body of the Ukraine was affected with nationalistic sentiments and would therefore have to be replaced by Russian teachers.
With such a history, it will cause no surprise if we admit that all opposition to Russian aggression has had to l)orrow the cloak of secrecy, helped by vigorous and resolute organization. The clergy, the industrials, the tradespeople, and the most of the nobility, who have but lately seen the light of duty and right, belong to the National Ukrainian Party, whose principal association is in Kiev with local branches in all the larger cities, of which the Rada is the official organ. This party has established a scientific Schevtschenko- Union which ])ublishes a literary-scientific monthly magazine, and has founded educative clubs for the peasantry in all the larger towns, though these with few exceptions have been suppressed by the Russian government.
It may be noted that the lesser nobility are rather numerous east of the Dnieper — that the industrials are especially represented in the South, that e\en a whole railroad in Kuban is in the hands of Ukrainians, and finally that the clergy is strongly represented in \\'estern I'krainia. especially in Podolia. The growth of nationalist sentiment among the younger clergy is due especially to secret societies in certain theological seminaries, where, however, many have been discovered in recent years and suppressed by the Russian ecclesiastical officials. P>ishop Parfeny of Kamenetz in Podolia, who was secretly especially active was removed because of his nationalist sentiments, and his ])lace assigned to a Pan-Russian.
The "intellectuals'" are ably supported by the very numerous and strong agricultural societies, granges we might call them, or cooperatives, to whom they supply able leaders. These usually carry on their correspondence in L'krainian and they also publish their local organs in that language. The Kiev Exhibition, or Fair, of l')13 brought them a consciousness of their power, and since then their opposition to the Great Russian societies, to whom their aims are no longer a secret, has been ])ronounced.
Finally, there is the Union of Industrial Laborers, who are organized as Social Democrats with their own press. They are strongly represented in Kiev and Jekaterinoslav, where the im- portant iron works are.
Tn view of the organized potentiality of these various socio- political bodies, not to speak of the "Bond for the Liberation of L^krainia" operating across the border in the Austrian crownland
50 THE OPEN COURT.
Galicia, it will be readily seen why the events of the last weeks have resulted in the establishment of a Republic of Ukrainia, even though it be but for a brief time. The republic is a reality, but can it last? This raises the question of its relation first of all to Great Russia, second to Europe in general. An Ukrainia independent of Russia must always be en vedette, ready to defend its liberties. It will by force of circumstances be driven into the arms of Ger- many and Austria. Will the rest of Europe tolerate this? Would such a solution not amount to holding a lighted fuse near a powder- keg? Is not Ukraine so valuable to Russia that she would always strive to get it back? Let us see.
The limits of the new republic would be practically conterminous with the "black earth belt" of Russia, a land literally flowing with milk and honey, the granary of Russia, indispensable to the sub- sistence of Great Russia's teeming millions, producing not less than one-third of all the agricukural produce for the 175,000,000 of 1914. This explains the persistence and weight of all Russian offensives along Eastern Galicia and Bukowina during this war.
In 1912 seventy percent of all Russian coal was raised from the Donee Baisin in the heart of Eastern Ukrainia. The same figure applies to the production of pig iron, while the figure for iron and steel together is still sixty percent.
The sugar industry of Ukrainia produces eighty-eight percent of the Russian total, and the tobacco production is about the same.
Eor foreign export the surplus streams to the great Ukrainian r>lack Sea ])ort of Odessa, from which it may pass to the outside world especially through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Russia must either hold Ukrainia as a vassal state or at least control through a customs alliance, similar to the Zollverein which founded the union and the industrial greatness of the German federation. It is inconceivable that Russia would ever allow the only other alter- native, that its former subjects should strengthen the economic alliance of Central Europe. Therefore, in the interest of justice to a numerous and capable but downtrodden people, in the name of that humanity which we hope has not disappeared as the result of this war, for the purpose of future peace and security, we urge our claims to such an autonomy within the Russian federation, which must replace the old Muscovite despotism of the departed Czars, as shall conserve the full rights of Great Russia while at the same time bringing freedom, nationalistic development and economic prosperity to a people who are destined to be second to none in the reconstruction of the new Europe.
W AR ClIAKMS AND KINDRED AMULETS. 51
\A'AR CHARMS AND KINDRED AMULETS.'
BY W. A II REN S.
** "^E sais ccrtaincuient que hi reviendras:' A Bavarian aviation
I
officer when driving- over a battlefield read this legend on a golden amulet found on the body of a dead French soldier. An anxious mother or fond sweetheart must have bestowed the charm with her parting tears and blessings upon this scion of a noble house. It is said that talisman letters written in Arabic characters are often found on fallen Turcos, and it accords with the irony of a merciless fate that the deadly lead sometimes reaches the very spot where the protective letter is lying, piercing through it to the breast of the wearer. Since the diplomats and stategists of the Entente Powers have chosen the ancient historic ground of France for the location of their ethirological exposition, a collector and antiquarian in this locality could make an interesting collection, or at least a varied one, on the battle-fields of to-day.
From times immemorial superstition has flourished in war- time, and the same is true again to-day. and on one side as much as on the other. For instance, in some localities in Saxony there is said to be a busy trade in "letters from heaven" (Flimmelsbriefe) at prices ranging from twenty to twenty-five marks each, and even in the very first days of the war in 1914 the press took occasion properly to brand the recommendation of protective charms as a conscienceless exploitation of superstition and ignorance. All these tools of occultism and magic must have existed in secret for many years and decades hidden away in chests and shops. As soon as the fanfare of war sounded these also hastened to the colors to join the standards of every belligerent army. It has been the same in all European wars of the last century, not excepting the War of Liberation nor that of 1870-71. In the Crimean War every French soldier from the simplest puihi to General Canrobert carried his charm with him. In those days physicians found whole collections of the most various kinds of amulets combined in the closest intimacy on many a fallen Frenchman ; next to a Christian charm a Turkish one and sometimes CAcn a Hebrew one besides. Two French generals carried fragments of the holy cross with them, and Prince Napoleon, the well-known "Plon-Plon" who was in the
^ Translated from Das JVcltall of January, 1915, by Lydia G. Robinson.
52 THE OPEN COURT.
forefront of the expedition, was likewise said to have carried a charm supposed to make him invulnerable.
The formula in which we invariably find this superstition ex- pressed in all occult writings is "To make proof against blow, shot and thrust" (hicb-, schiiss- und stichfest machen). An executioner in Passau, Kaspar Neithart by name, is said to have discovered this art three centuries ago, so it was called after him the "Passau art." It was defined as a secret art wdiose adepts "could not be wounded by rapier nor dagger, and who could receive musket balls in their sleeves and catch them with their hands," in the words of Bartholemew Anhorn in his Magiologia, a work of the year 1674. To tell the truth, the priority of Master Neithart may well be con- tested, as Gustave Freytag, among others, has justly observed in his Bilder aus der deitfschcn Vergangenheit. For this war super- stition is much older ; it was current in ancient Egypt, and in Ger- man antiquity Tacitus tells of tiny images representing boars which the Aestii carried with them as war charms.
In modern times during the seventeenth century this superstition reached its zenith in the long wars. Executioners and monks especially plied this trade and sold the famous "Passau slips" which the superstitious warrior either wore upon his person or even, for greater security, swallowed. For the most part the dealers found willing and grateful customers, and that duke who was so cautious as to try the efficacy of the highly commended amulet on the vender himself and thoroughly test its merits was probably almost the only skeptic of his time. In contrast to him Charles XII regarded him- self as immune, and the old Duke of Dessau and Frederick the Great were surround;d by halos of invulnerability in the eyes of their soldiers.
The Croatians were obliged to invent a special mode of death for a certain equerry of IJernhard of Weimar who likewise bore tiie rei)Utation of being proof against shot or thrust. Since he could not be killed by gun or sword they buried him in the earth so that only his head showed above and then they bowled him to death. Xor did the peoi>le in those days stop with man but also turned their magic arts upon the animal that is preeminently the beast of war. Thus we hear of invulnerable horses and occasionally also of dogs, and one chronicler even tells about a herring that was immune, so that it could not be sliced and therefore could not fulfil the purpose of its existence.
.Special salves ( IVaffeiisalben ) were also used by soldiers to make them inxulnerable, and "magic shirts" served and still serve
WAR CHARMS AND KIXDRl'.H AMULETS. 53
a similar purpose in the Orient. .\ magic shirt of this kind is pre- served under glass in the municipal armory in \^ienna. It was worn by no less a person than the Grand \'izier Kara Mustafa who laid siege to Vienna in 1683. Another Turkish dignitary, a certain Beg who had been taken prisoner at Warna in 1828, was of the firm conviction that he owed his rare good fortune in surviving this battle unwounded to the magic shirt he wore, and this same shirt is preserved to-day in the Xeukloster monastery at W'iener-Neu- stadt. The famous Orientalist Josef von Hammer-Purgstall has described these two magic shirts in detail — by no means a simple task, especially in the case of the latter. This one is completely embroidered over with the longest and most strenuous formulas of conjuration, prayers, talismanic numbers and symbols, so that it represents a whole prayer book, a regular encyclopedia of talismanic utterances from the Koran, and benedictions whose mere repetition would fill an imposing pamphlet.
These magic shirts were made in Arabia and for the most part in Bagdad, and very definite prescriptions must be observed punc- tiliously in their manufacture if the talisman is really to serve as a positive protection. The shirt must be made from start to finish on one certain definite night in the year, to be determined by magi- cians and astrologers. It must be completed by sunrise from the spinning and weaving of the cotton to the embroidering of all the countless prayers, etc. Forty pure virgins must perform this entire labor, which is no slight task, and if afterwards the magic shirt should fail to afl:'ord its wearer the expected protection, this only proves that some one of the indispensable prescriptions and con- ditions for its manufacture has not been obeyed or carefully ful- filled.
Coins have also been utilized as war amulets to a large extent. In the Thirty Years' War the Mansfeld dollars with St. George and the Dragon, especially those of 1609 to 1611, were greatly in demand, and soldiers gladly paid twenty or thirty current dollars for one of them. A well-founded report relates how one ofificer succeeded in escaping with his life from an engagement only because he had carried a St. George dollar ( Gorycntaler) of this particular kind. Then, too, medals with the figure of the grim and warlike Mars and often covered with cabalistic names and symbols served warriors as amulets of ofifense and defense, and since this particular class of war amulet arouses a greater interest on account of its relation to astrology and often to arithmetic as well, we have here set our- selves the task of illustrating and explaining some of this sort of
54
THE OPEN COURT.
medals. Figures 1- and 2 represent two such Mars amulets. The originals are to be found in the history of art department collection of Austria Hungary at \^ienna in the division of coins and medals, which is probably the richest collection of amulets in the world.
Fig. 1.
Turning now to describe the two amulets the first thing that strikes us is the figure of an armed warrior with sword, helmet and shield. It is impossible to have any doubt about the personality of the warrior. He carries his visiting card with him, so to speak, in both instances. In Figure 1 at the left below the sword we recognize the well-known symbol which stands both for the planet and the planetary deity Mars and in Figure 2 we find the same symbol above the head of the warrior in the center of the star sup- posed to represent his planet, and then too between its rays we can even read the name Mars The Hebrew word to be seen on either side of the war-god's head in Figure 1 reads "Camael," and
according to the strange teachings of the Cabala it denotes the tutelary angel of Mars, just as Gabriel for instance was the angel of the moon. The animals that we see on both amulets at the feet of Mars are a ram and a scorpion. These denote the two constella- tions of the zodiac which have a place .on our Mars amulet, because Aries and Scorpio are regarded by astrology as the mansions of Mars, just as Leo was the -mansion of the sun and Taurus and Libra
WAR CHARMS AND KlNDRl'".!) AM ULl^I'lS. • 55
the mansions of X'enus. The animal above Mars's head on Figure 1 may be similarly accounted for. It is a goat and belongs here be- cause according to a strange teaching of astrology it is in this con- stellation of Capricorn that Mars attains his elevation, his so-called v\f/(ofia. Most of the other strange names and signs to be seen in our Figure 1 have also some special reference to Mars. Here, to select at least one instance, we read in the letters around the edge of the obverse the word Annap.it., and the same word is also found on the reverse. It is probably a corruption of Amabiel which in the writings of the Cabala was the name of one of the angels of the day of Mars, i. e.. Tuesday {mardi = Martis dies). Likewise the magic squares to be found on the reverse of both of our amulets bear a special relation to Alars, since each contains the numbers from 1 to 25 in magic construction.
So everything on these two amulets refers to the god of war and is definitely dedicated to Mars and war. The first one is in- tended to be worn around the neck as is shown by the hole, and its possessor, some soldier or other, must have worn it in the confidence that this trinket inspired by Mars would give him the power to slaughter the enemy and yet to remain himself unharmed by any hostile "shots, blows or thrusts."
Through the traditionally close relation between Venus and Mars in Grecian antiquity the goddess of love also furnishes amulets of protection to fighting men. To be sure most Venus amulets are not thought of as war charms but as love charms. I shall here take
Fig. 3.
the liberty of presenting in Figure 3 a specimen of Venus amulets from the collection of medals in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. On the obverse we see the goddess of love pictured in the usual way with long streaming hair, though apparently covered with
56 THE OPEN COURT.
a sort of veil, a long arrow in her right hand and in her left a flaming heart. At her feet we find a balance, Libra being one of the two mansions of Venus, as was incidentally mentioned above. The numerical square on the reverse is given in Hebrew characters, as is often the case in these charms. It is of course the planetary
Fig. 4.
seal belonging to \'enus, that is, a magic square of 49 cells. Figure 4 translates it into our own numbers, each row, each column and each of the two diagonals all yield the sum 175.
\'ienna and Paris, friend and foe, have furnished us the speci- mens of war charms which we have discussed and illustrated hitherto, so now in conclusion a neutral country offers an amulet which is very remarkable and certainly unique in its way. The royal collection of coins and medals in Copenhagen possesses an amulet of gilded silver which we reproduce in Figure 5. Its dis- tinctiveness lies in the fact that its obverse and reverse sides are of entirely unrelated character and of absolutely different origin. On the obverse we see St. George mounted on a charger and before him the mangled form of his conquered foe. The picture shows the battle scene at the moment in which the knight is thrusting his lance down the dragon's mouth while poisonous fumes are issuing from the monster's yawning throat.
We have already mentioned certain sorts of Mans f eld St. George dollars that have been used as war amulets, and although our special picture of the knight is not found on any of the Mans- feld or Kremnitz. coins, yet this St. George, together with the astrological and cabalistic character of the reverse side of the medals, leaves no doubt that we have here to deal with an actual amulet, and it is equally certain that it is a war amulet. The maker of the charm evidently wished to heighten the efficacy of the miracle-working trinket and so combined the St. George motive with a reverse borrowed from a certain astrological charm, as we
WAR CitAK.MS AM) KINDKICl) AMULETS.
57
shall soon see. I was most kiiully informed by Colonel von Kretsch- mar in Dresden, the owner of the richest collection of St. Greorge coins and medals, that the representative of St. George on the ob- verse of our amulet was taken from one of the lead models for goldsmiths so plentiful in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and that this medal was in the old museum at Berlin as late as in
'f/'Vr f 'i '
Fig. 5.
the seventies, although I cannot say anything about its further whereabouts except that it is not to be found in the collection of placques in the Emperor Frederick Museum. So much for the obverse of our St. George amulet.
Its reverse, on the other hand, is taken from an astrological cabalistic amulet which we reproduce in Figure 6 for purposes of
58
THE OPEN COURT.
comparison. To discover the nature of this medal we must first of all study its obverse which shows a crowned king sitting on a throne with his scepter in his right hand and in his left hand an image of the sun. This together with the symbol of the sun near
Fig. 6.
by at the right and the name Sol above at the left show that the king represents the sun-god in a favorite treatment. Many of the other names and symbols refer to the sun, but we will not enter into them more closely here, since this entire amulet is of only incidental interest to us on account of its connection with Figure 5.
Let us mention only one more point here in connection with an earlier observation. We have already said incidentally that Leo was selected by astrology as the mansion of the sun. This choice is exceptional in having — in contrast to the other decrees of astrology — a certain astronomical and meteorological justification, for in the dog days when we are most intensely conscious of the sun it actually stands in the constellation of Leo. So it is a matter of course that the lion should form an essential element of our medal. We see a lion below the sun-god's feet ; the familiar sign of its constellation is to be found on both sides of the amulet; the name Verhiel (on the obverse) denotes the angel that controls the Hon. According to all these indications Figure 6 depicts a typical sun-amulet. Since gold was regarded by alchemists and astrologers as the metal sacred to the sun the strict rules of magic decreed that our sun should be produced only in gold, and indeed this particular amulet, which is by no means rare, is found in gold for instance in the royal Saxon coin cabinet in Dresden (two specimens), in the Germanic national museum at Nuremburg and also in two specimens in the Vienna collections mentioned above. The numerical square on the reverse is of course corresponding to the character of the whole, the typical tabula solis, the 36-celled magic square which in all its rows, columns
WAR ClIAKMS AND KINDRED AAFULETS. 59
aiul tliagonals yields the .sum 111. Now this reverse, or possibly that of another closely related sun-amulet, has served as a model for the reverse of the Copenhagen war-charm in Figure 5, little as one" can regard a sun-amulet as usable for war purposes. The only difference between the two reverse sides is that the two -central columns of the numerical square are interchanged, a variation which in no wise disturbs its magical properties, that is, the ec[ual summa- tion of the various rows.
These are strange and curious doctrines at which we have briefly glanced : science and superstition bound together into a strange hybrid formation, arithmetic and astronomy in league with magic and astrology. Indeed these services which science and her representatives were compelled to render to superstition in past centuries and which are nevertheless only too easily comprehensible in the setting of a period in which scholars were often forced into such by-paths in the struggle with the material necessities of life — furnishes a picture in the history of civilization which is by no means a gratifying one. T\ven a Kepler was forced to complain of the unworthy dependence of astronomy upon her degenerate daugh- ter, astrology. "Indeed this Astrologia is but a foolish daughter, but, good Lord ! where would her mother, the highly reasonable Astronomia, be if she did not have her foolish daughter? The world is much more foolish, so foolish in fact that the sensible old mother must be talked over and deceived by her daughter's folly. -Vnd the mathcmaticonim salaria is so small that the mother would certainly suffer hunger if the daughter earned nothing."
Such astrological amulets as we have here described may not be found among soldiers to-day or only in isolated cases, but instead of them there are war charms of every other possible form. Gen- erals of all times, even when themselves entirely devoid of super- stition, have willingly given free rein to such follies, for the more firmly the soldier trusts in his secret remedies the greater bravado will he show in plunging into the tumult of battle. Of course in a war that is waged with the weapons of the most advanced tech- nique not much success can be expected of soldiers whose courage is rooted in superstition and brutal savagery. Among modern soldiers, and particularly Germans, proficiency and valor rest upon a strict sense of duty, upon virile training and above all on a good education in military and other affairs, and it is exactly these things which must deliver them from all superstition.
60 THE OPEN COURT.
THE BATTLE AMULET OF THE NORTH AMER- ICAN INDIANS.
BY WILLIAM THORNTON PARKER.
* * "" I ^ II E symbolic tendencies of the North American Indians and ^ especially the Indians of the Great Plains have been very hig-hly developed."
When we begin to study the influences which operate in the de- velopment of the Indian warrior we come at once upon that re- markable term well understood by the Indians and known as "Medi- cine." It is impossible to make any investigations 'concerning the Indian warrior without coming in contact with the magic and the medicine which influences so deeply his military career. What the medicine man has to say about good or bad medicine is of the highest importance in initiating the beginning of hostilities, in post- ]:)oning or preventing them altogether.
We are indebted to Dr. Harrington's scientific and interesting work on the sacred bundles of the Sac and Fox Indians, that mentions "the use of objects which are supposed to have mysterious power in influencing the affairs of life among the tribes of the North Amer- ican Indians. Sacred bundles, signs and symbols occupy a prom- inent position in the so-called *|)Owerfur agencies known as 'medi- cine.' Apparently the objects themselves 'are endowed with a certain degree of supernatural power by which this can directly or indirectly influence the phenomena of life in the interest of the owner.' "
Dr. Harrington states that the sacred war bundle is one con- taining "charms, amulets, fetishes or often a collection containing objects of all these classes, together with sacred paints and offerings and ceremonial paraphernalia." The Indians regard these emblems of mysterious power with the greatest reverence and even fear. They believe them to contain a consciousness of their own and to understand what is said to them. Harrington eloquently sums up the matter when he says, "\\'ell may the Indian view these mysteri- ous agencies with reverence and respect, for within them still lingers the spirit of yesterday, the days he loved, the days of freedom of forest and prairies and the glory of war." All these mysteries the Indians believe were the direct gift of the Manitous, the Great Powers of the world, "The glorious powerful sun, the terrible thun- ders whose wings darken the sky, whose roar shakes the prairie
Tllli LIATTIJ': AML'LKT OF THE NORTH AMKKICAN INDIANS. 61
and whose dazzling fiery darts shatter the trees of the forest, the bold eagle, the swift hawk, the night-seeing owl, the sturdy buffalo, the tireless wolf, the sly weezel apjjroaching his prey by stealth, and the snake slipping unseen through the grass."
The most superficial student of Indians, their manners and customs must be struck by the continual exhibition of devotion to native traditions. How can we find in any people a more fixed and determined loyalty to national methods and customs than among our North American Indians?
These facts were most emphatically brought to the notice of the writer in his personal experiences among the North American tribes. In 1879 the writer reported for duty at White Earth Indian reservation. Minnesota. The flags of revenge were still flying over the grave of the famous war chieftain "Hole-in-the-day" who had been murdered but whose death had not been avenged. Hole-in- the-day was a war chieftain of great influence and superior sagacity. One of his pictures in the possession of the writer represents him with his eagle-feather decorations, his gleaming tomahawk, and what is of greater interest, his arm-band amulet. Such arm-bands have been described as made of buckskin decorated with porcupine c|uills, with thongs at the four corners for tying the ends together about the arms. Where the buckskin joins the band there are foiu- little packets of magic medicine and paint. At the point where the eagle feather is attached are two packets : such an amulet seems to be formed from the buft'alo tail bent over to form a loop. While often worn on the belt these amulets could be used as arm-bands by simply passing the hand through the loop. Hole-in-the-day 's arm-band was of fur worn on the left arm and was a remarkably fine specimen of decorated arm-band amulet of an Indian.
The grand medicine bag or "^vle-Shaum" is a parcel or bundle which is decorated with knots, strings, stones etc.. and also with hieroglyphical figures of their wars in ancient times. Here are some of the ordinances of the "Me-Shaum": to fast every morning in the wintery season : to fast ten days to obtain signal revenge upon an enemy ; to invoke and sacrifice every time a man has killed a bear or choice game; that no woman shall come near the lodge at certain seasons or eat anything cooked in the same lodge ; to give away property to the poor for the good of departed relatives to the land of the shades. If an Indian fulfils in his lifetime the requirements of the "Me-Shaum" he believes he will go to Chi-pah-munk or the Happyland, but if bad. he will fall into the waters of Mah-na-so- no-ah, or river of death. "The Happyland is far at the west and
62 THE OPEN COURT.
abounds in everything that is pleasing to sight or taste." This is quoted from Dr. Harrington also.
These bundles and fetishes and sacred amulets must always be treated with respect, never opened except for a good cause, nor must they ever be allowed to touch the ground, and one of the strictest rules provides that no woman shall ever touch them or any part of them when open, or when in a periodic condition she shall not even approach them when closed. Should this be allowed it was believed that the powers of the medicine would be spoiled and that the woman would be likely to bleed to death.
Those who are followers of the theory of Lieutenant Totten of the U. S. Army and others, that our North American Indians are remnants of the lost tribes of Israel, will find in the laws of hygiene governing Indians and in those relating to the sacredness of medi- cine or magic, very much to confirm such theories. "Every pre- caution was taken to care for the medicine, the war bundles, the war amulets and every night they were hung on a lance thrust into the ground so they might not touch the earth. When the enemy came in view, and not until then, was it opened and distributed to the warriors who, stripping themselves, put on the medicine head- bands and the protective amulets and painted themselves with the magic paint. With the shrilling of the war whistles and the sound of the rattles they joined in the war dance.
It is interesting in this connection to consider how early in life the Indian comes in contact with the mysteries of Indian medicine. "When a child is four years old it is then entitled to a name ; dog feasts are prepared and ceremonial war whoops and prayers are employed. Some old man is asked to pray for a blessing ; he prays for the child's name and for the one who gave him his name." Now the sun must know the child's name so in the morning they pray to him to take care of the child until he is gray. A man's life, they say, goes like the sun; it rises and sets to a certain height and then begins to decay ; so they tell the sun they want this child to grow and live to old age until like the sun he finally goes down. Make this child live to old age and believe in the Indian teachings. Let him then live until he is like some one with four legs, meaning, that he walks with two canes, and until his hair turns from gray to white."
In Schreivogel's splendid painting "A Sharp Encounter," the mysterious symbol of the open hand is pictured on the left fore- quarter of the warrior's horse in the battle charge. This symbol of the open hand seems to express profound meaning to the Indian
THE BATTLE AMULET OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDLWS. 63
leaders. Mee-shee-kee-gee-shig (whose name in English is "Dark- lowering-day-clouds-touching-all-around") was the war chief of the Chippewas and a personal friend of the writer. One evening, sitting smoking together, as an act of personal regard and as a token of his sincere concern^ he drew for the writer a picture of an open hand and impressively stated that should trouble ever attend him he was to seek out the most influential Indian chief and show him this symbol and all possible protection would be afforded to him.
In the writer's collection of Indian books, numbering quite one hundred, he has failed to tind any reference to this symbol of the open hand. A recent letter from the Bureau of Ethnology states, in answer referred to Mr. James Mooney of the bureau, the following information. "There is nothing secret or sacred about the Indian hand symbol. Painted on the breast, pony or tepee of an individual, it signifies among the Plains tribes that he has met an enemy in a hand-to-hand encounter.
"In the instance noted it may be that the Indian who drew the picture could claim such honor, and hence the picture served as his card of introduction."
With all respect to Mr. Mooney's opinion Mee-shee-kee-gee- shig who wore suspended from his skunkskin garters four eagle feathers, for Sioux he had killed in battle, was by no means the only warrior among the many valiant warriors of Avhom he was the war chief. We must look for a deeper meaning in the symbol of the open hand. As the writer had the honor of being initiated into the rights of grand medicine he witnessed much which reminded him of the Masonic ceremonies, and he fully realizes that powerful secret organizations existed among the Indian tribes and that the open hand symbol represented a very high and exclusive degree in Indian secrecy. Study the North American Indians from whatever point we may, they are a wonderful people, strong, 'keen and tre- mendously influenced by their belief in mysteries. The half of the Indian story has not been told and from before our very eyes are passing away traditions and customs more interesting than those of any other primitive people in the world.
BOOK REVIEWS AND NOTES.
The Social Legislation of the Primitive Semites. By Henry Schaeffer.
Yale University Press: New Haven, 1915. Pp. 245.
This book contains a survey of social conditions of the primitive Semites
as known at present to Semitic scholars. It is a careful summary of the results
of a large number of investigations made by European and American scholars,
64 THE OPEN COURT.
and the work has been done with care and discrimination. It points out how the original and nomadic Semites lived under matriarchal conditions and how they necessarily and naturally changed to the recognition of paternal relation- ship and paternal rights. The Bible reader will be greatly benefited by a perusal of this book, because the Bible stories presuppose so much knowledge of prevailing social conditions that many references, transactions or settle- ments of differences are only understood if we acquire an insight into the prevalent notions of rights and privileges, of the position of women, of in- heritance, of slavery, the interest paid on loans, etc. For instance the Sab- batical year is explained as an influence exerted on the conditions of the agricultural state of later times with regard to the original ownership of the land of the clan. To us who live under radically different conditions it is difficult to understand how in ancient times religious ideas could have so large a part in social troubles, the indebtedness to the poor, and the changes that took place in the readjustment of laws of property and the ownership of the soil. Dr. Schaeffer presents a clear picture of these social conditions, thus giving the American public a synopsis of this large field of historical investi- gation which demands a fair knowledge not only of the Biblical books in their original Hebrew, but also of the Hammurabi code, Arabic institutions, and all kindred fields of investigation. k
JoHANN Gottfried Herder .a.s an Educator. By /. Mace Andress. New York: Stechert, 1916. Pp. 316. After introductory chapters dealing with the purpose of the book and the historical setting of its subject, six chapters are devoted to biographical material, after which Herder's relation to education and its methodology is taken up. Chapters are devoted to his views with regard to the teaching of religion, history, geography, one's native language and the classics. On the last subject Mr. Andress treats at some length of Herder's view of the value of the classics in its relation to the tendency to-day to minimize their im- portance. Herder did not think we should strive to be able to write in Latin and Greek, but to become sufficiently familiar with those languages to learn how the ancients thought and wrote. He says : "The man who takes the an- cients as models may write letters or sermons or receipts, but he will never express himself in lame, slovenly, crude German." p
At Yale University a collection of rare prints has been made by William .'\. Speck, of Yale University LiWrary, and the description of it has been pub- lished in The Collections of Yale University, No. 3. under the title Goethiana, by Dr. Carl F. Schreiber.
Besides some rare autographs of Goethe and title-pages of books, pictures representing Faust, the witch in the witches' kitchen in water color, and Mephistopheles, all three by A. Kretchmer, and facsimile letters of Goethe, etc., there is also a strange document which will prove of general interest to Americans. It is an American ten-dollar bill bearing a German inscription and issued l)y the Northampton bank of Northampton, Pennsylvania, in 1836. The town was populated by the Pennsylvania Germans and must have had a considerable portion of German inhabitants. The bill bears the portraits of Goethe, Klopstock, Haydn and Herschel.
WANDERSHIPS
Folk-Stories of the Sea with Notes Upon Their Origin
By 125 Pages WILBUR BASSETT Price, $1.50 Net
^C^^f^^i
Thrilling Tales of Haunted Vessels, Spectre Derelicts and Grewsome Ships of Death
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
CHICAGO
IMPORTANT NEW BOOK ON MATHEMATICS
Lectures on the Philosophy of Mathematics
By
Cloth, 193 pages JAMES BYRNIE SHAW Price, $1.50 net
Is mathematics a realm apart from human hfe, fitting daily experi- ences in places closely enough to be of use, but still not at all identical with it ; or is it, indeed, the very same as the realm of human life ? Is the differential equation only a refinement upon the real law of physics, the irrational only an approximation to the actual number of nature? Is the universe stable or will it some day disappear, wind its way back into chaos, leaving nothing but the truths of mathematics still standing? Is it true that chance does not exist really but only in seeming, or is every- thing purely chance, and are the laws of the universe merely the curves which we have drawn through a random few of an infinitely compact set of points?
The consideration of these problems is what is meant by the philosophy of mathematics. Whatever problems the ages may bring forth as to space or its measurement, or, indeed, as to its companion — time — we know to a certainty that mathematics will meet the situation, create a set of notions and relations sufTficient to explain and manage the problems. And these solutions will come in time, for all science is approximating a mathematical statement.
James Byrnie Shaw's book. Lectures on tJie Philosophy of Mathematics. does not limit its readers to those few who have dared to explore far into the boundless realms of numbers. It" is an inspiration to any man who appreciates the pure pleasure of exercising the imagination.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 South Michigan Avenue CHICAGO
Germany in War Time
Personal experiences of an American woman in Germany from 1914 to July, 1917
By MARY ETHEL McAULEY
Pp. 300. 150 photographic illustrations of actuGL scenes. Cloth, $1.50
Tlie author of this book. Mary Ethel McAiiley of Pittsburg", Pa., was an art student who studied in Germany before 1914 and she left there when the war began. She returned to Germany in 1915 to remain until July, 1917. During- these years of close intimate life in Germany, she has been able to get the facts of how Germany manages her food question so as to defy the world's blockade.
Germany's civil population is living- on less than half the usual amount of food. How this is accomplished by means of food substitutes, food stretchers and food restrictions in prices and quantities, is told in this book.
A text book on military service for women could not give more accu- rate accounts of the work to be done by women.
This book is a panorama of a nation in arms. The lesson for us is obvious. If Americans are g'oing to beat the enemy, they must learn how he does things and then do them even better. Victory is won by a food route. Man power calls for food as well as powder.
"Accurate accounts" is what the New York Herald savs of this work.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 SOUTH MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO - - . . ILLINOIS
The
American Mathematical Monthly
OFFICIAL ORGAN OF
The Mathematical Association of America
Is the Only Journal of Collegiate Grade in the Mathematical Field in this Country
This means that its mathematical contributions can be read.- and under- stood by those who have not specialized in mathematics beyond the Calculus.
The Historical Papers, which are numerous and of high grade, are based upon original research.
The Questions and Discussions, which are timely and interesting, cover a wide variety of topics.
The Book Reviews embrace the entire field of collegiate and secondary mathematics.
The Curriculum Content in the collegiate field is care- fully considered. Good papers in this line have appeared and are now in type awaiting their turn.
The Notes and News cover a wide range of interest and information both in this country and in foreign countries.
The Problems and Solutions hold the attention and activity of a large number of persons who are lovers of math- ematics for its own sake.
There are other journals suited to the Secondary field, and there are still others of technical scientific character in the University field: but the Monthly is the only journal of Collegiate grade in. America suited to the needs of the non- specialist in mathematics.
The Mathematical Association of America now has over eleven hundred indi- vidual members and over seventy-five institutional members. There are already nine sections formed, representing twelve different states. The Association has held so far two national meetings per year, one in September and one in December. The sections, for the most part, hold two meetings each year. All meetings, both national and sectional, are reported in the Official Journal, and many of the papers presented at these meetings are published in full.
TJie slogan of the Association is to include iti its membership every teacher of collegiate mathematics in America and to make such membership worth while. Application blanks for membership may be obtained from the Secretary, Professor W. D. Cairne, Oberlin, Ohio.
The
Origin and Philosophy of Language
By Ludwig Noire
Cloth, $1.00
"All future philosophy zvill be a philosophy of language." — Max Muller.
' ' Whoever wishes to explain humanity must understand what is human ; he must know the points upon which everything else turns, and from which everything else must be derived. Language con- tains the key to the problem, and whoever seeks it elsewhere will seek in vain."
" Here," continues the author, after showing by a number of well chosen instances to what curious self-deceptions reason is exposed through her own creations, "a large field is open to the student of language. It is his office to trace the original mean- ing of each word, to follow up its history, its changes of form and meaning in the schools of philosophy, or in the market-place and the senate. He ought to know how frequently the same idea is expressed by different terms. A history of such terms as to know and to believe. Finite and Infinite, Real and Neces- sary, would do more than anything else to clear the philosophical atmosphere of our days."
Note. — This edition of Noire's valuable treatise on lan- guage is a reprint of the edition published by Longmans, Green & Co. in London in 1879 to which are added two additional chapters published in Chicago in 1889 by The Open Court Publishing Company.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO ILLINOIS
Collected Logical Works
VOLUME II
By GEORGE BOOLE
445 pages Cloth Price, $3.00
The design of Collected Logical Works is to investigate the funda- mental laws of those operations of the mind by which, reasoning is per- formed ; to give expression to them in the symbolical language of a Calculus, and upon this foundation to establish the science of Logic and construct its method ; to make that method itself the basis of a general method for the application of the mathematical doctrine of Probabilities ; and, finally, to collect from the various elements of truth brought to view in the course of these inquiries some probable intimations concerning the nature and constitution of the human mind.
That portion of this book which relates to Logic presupposes in its reader a knowledge of the most important terms of the science, and of its general object. Some acquaintance with the principles of Algebra is also requisite, but it is not necessary that this application should have been carried beyond the solution of simple equations. For the study of those chapters which relate to the theory of probabilities, a somewhat larger knowledge of Algebra is required, and especially of the doctrine of Elimination, and the solution of Equations containing more than one unknown quantity.
To the occupants of responsible positions where decisive and logical thought is essential, to scholars of mathematics and philosophy, and to all thinking men, this book is recommended.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 South Michigan Avenue CHICAGO
A MODERN JOB
An Essay on the Problem of Evil
With a portrait of the author and an introduction by Archdeacon Lilley. 92 pp. Cloth, 75c. By ETIENNE GIRAN. Translated by FRED ROTHWELL
PRESS NOTES
"A Modern Job" is a work which cannot fail to interest the clergy and Bible students, and, no doubt, is destined to attract attention in such quarters." — Los AngcJcs Examiner.
"A powerful essay by Etienne Giran which presents clearly and cogently in impressive language the problem of evil." — Mili^'aitkcc Evcubig Wisconsin.
"Perhaps this work is inferior to the original Book of Job, but, though we do not claim to be experts, we like this Dutch Job better than his ancient prototype." —Nczv York Call.
'"A cleverly conceived essay on the prol)leni of evil." — London Spectator.
"Tlie volume is worthy of careful reading, for it presents various tendencies found in our world today. It is clear and inspiring." — International .Journal of Ethics.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
122 S. Michigan Avenue CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The Contingency of the Laws of Nature
By Emile Boutroux of the French Academy. Translated by Fred Roth- well. With a portrait of the author. Pages, x, 195. Cloth, $1.50.
COMMENTS OF THE PRESS
"There are some startling statements in tlie liook, and various incidental dis- cussions of great value. — The Oxford Magax;ine.
"M. Boutroux wrote this hook in 1874 as a thesis for a doctor's degree and expresses surprise at the attention it receives after this interval. The explanation seems to be that the central idea of the thesis, deemed paradoxical at the time of its first presentation, is receiving careful consideration of today's philosophers." — The New York World.
"Prof. Emile Boutroux's "Contingency of the Laz\.'s of Natnre," reveals the action of the keen modern intellect on the ancient problem of freedom versus necessity." — Boston Herald.
"An accurate and fluent translation of the philosophical views of nearly a half a century ago." — Nezv York Tribune.
"A valuable contribution to the literature of philosophy." — Loudon Review.
"He closes his essay with w^ords wdiich can be counted upon not only to astound the determinist, but to make even the average scientist feel uncomfortable." — Boston Transcript.
"Thouglitful analysis of natural law." — Xci^' York Times.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
122 S. Michigan Avenue CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Are the ills of society to be righted by an early and sudden destruction of the present world, or is perma- nent relief to be secured only by a gradual process of strenuous endeavor covering a long period of years?
READ THE ANSWER TO THIS QUESTION IN
THE MILLENNIAL HOPE
A PHASE OF WAR-TIME THINKING
By SHIRLEY J. CASE
Prof essor of Early Church History andA^ezc Testament Interpretation, the Utiiversity of Chicago
(To be published in January)
The stirring events of recent times have given new point to the question. The author does not mince words in his vigorous and effective answer. The general interest in the theme of the book and the author's reputation assure this volume a wide reading.
Advance Orders Received Now $1.25, Postage Extra
The University of Chicago Press
CHICAGO 5832 Ellis Avenue ILLINOIS
Dawn of a New^ Religious Era
By DR. PAUL CARUS
Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. Cloth, $i.oo
PRESS NOTES
"The entire conduct of Dr. Carus's life has been animated by the spirit evidenced in these papers — that of a scientific search for truth." — Review of Reviews.
"The useful work which Dr. Carus has carried on for so many years in The Open Court organization and its publications causes him to deserve well of the reading public." — The Baltimore Evening Sun.
"Here is the whole religious problem in a nutshell." — Pittsburgh Post.
"Because the author understands that which is passing away, we feel confidence in his leadership into the untrodden ways which open before the constructive thinker." — New York Call.
"The volume should be recommended to all such as find themselves struggling between religious heredity on the one hand and the freedom of spirit on the other." — Bookseller, Newsdealer and Stationer.
"This book, the most able religious statement of recent months, is one which, as we have said, sums up a life-work, puts on record the motives of the whole Open Court Publishing House." — Fresno Republican.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY 122 S. Michigan Avenue CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Early Philosophical Works
By DENIS DIDEROT
Translated and edited by Margaret Jourdain
2U pages PRESS COMMENT Price, $1:25 net
"Diderot's range is extraordinary and is worthy to be studied by all readers of literary tastes." — Book Review Digest.
"Perhaps the most comprehensive mind in France before the outbreak of the epoch-making revolution was that of Diderot." — Rochester Post Express.
"This book will be appreciated by all who have philosophical leanings." — Brook- lyn Eagle.
"Miss Jourdain has done a most useful piece of work in presenting a good translation of Diderot's essays with careful introduction, appendices, and notes." — London News Statesman.
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY 122 Sout±i Michigan Avenue - CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
THREE MEN OF JUDEA
By
HENRY S. STIX
Pp. 112. Price $1.00
In a letter to the publishers the author says:
"It is my hope that this little book may in a small measure diminish the prejudice against my people. It is not written for scholars but for those honest and simple minded folk who have never read their Bible nor thought much on the subject of religious history, accepting their religion like their politics, as a sort of parental heritage-
"It is this ignorance that has created a wall of antagonism between Jew and Christian. If I could break down this barrier between two great religions and help to reconcile their differences, I would consider my humble efforts a great reward for many thoughtful hours I have spent in seeking out the true history of "Three Men of Judea" who have had most to do with the founding of the Christian religion."
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
122 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO ILLINOIS
Geometrical Lectures of Isaac Barrow
Translated and annotated, with proofs CloiK $1-25 By J. M. CHILD Pp. 215
"Isaac Barrow was the first inventor of the Infinitesimal Calculus; Newton got the main idea of it from Barrow by personal communication ; and Leibniz also was in some measure indebted to Barrow's work, obtaining confirmation of his own ideas, and suggestions for their further development, from the copy of Barrow's book he bought in 1673."
This is the conclusion that forms the premise from which Mr. Child works in the consideration of Barrow and his predecessors, and his advance over their work, which accompanies the translation. Besides the work of Barrow's predecessors, is considered the life of Barrow, his connection with Newton and their mutual in- fluence, his works, his genius, the sources of his ideas, the original from which the translation is made, and how Barrow made his construction. It is a careful and thorough working over of the material,
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. 122 S. Michigan Avenue CHICAGO, ILL.
4 #
^^^
jk:..M
■f^ -^rf -^^
i^.
•■| 3^»^*»^*.
■^.^^.
# ^^ .i # ■*;
I %3.^:
^ '1 '#
l^i>^.
w ' f f^t,,^.
^■ia^
€ m %
^ ' k'- ■■:& @
m€
|
1 |
t.m.;lj-
r^.
i: t.
^,.^..-rf ->^
^J^.^^^.
,1 'J ■.•..;
|
■ ■■iH |
|
a ■ ■ H^ |
|
■■■■ 1 |
i ^■" ^
i^/ .'^v '^^ if? ^'
fjf.-^^.
"if'^'i'l.^f /^:t