- %
>'■•;■*:' ft-
■ V| -'« -t j > f>r ■( ]t
^iB. 11
i-Cii
#^* V'
.H^)
j^ *M
*i *
i«4
*'■»,
■^ ,'<■
I* <».*
<.-*
'tfj?
^^^
This book
ORAL ENGLISH
DIRECTIONS AND EXERCISES FOR PLANNING AND DELIVERING THE COMMON KINDS OF TALKS, TOGETHER WITH GUID- ANCE FOR DEBATING AND PAR- LIAMENTARY PRACTICE
BY
JOHN M. BREWER
INSTRUCTOR IN" EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
FORMERLY TEACHER IN HIGH AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS
I.OS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY JOHN M. BREWER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
3'7-2
tElje gtftengum JPregg
CINN AND COMPANY- PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
TO
E. G. B.
4 ?_ 0 3 (o
PREFACE
Oral English is taking its place in schools and colleges as a subject independent both of literature and of written composition. Moreover, the study itself is changing, passing from practice in imitation of lofty masterpieces, with the elocutionary style, to direct, effective speaking without unnecessar)^ adornment. Many authors still make oral work subsidiary to written composition, whereas speaking should be primary. Others plan to drill stu- dents chiefly in vocal exercises, giving most of the time to prepa- ration for talking and little to the talking itself. Many emphasize reproduction and neglect production. Some ground their exercises on the theory' of general discipline, and neglect considerations of immediate utility and vocational needs. Few give the students the point of view of the modern, active man or woman of the world, who must talk a great deal and wishes to do it with businesslike simplicity and brevity.
To meet these needs this textbook has been prepared. It aims to furnish the student brief directions, detailed exercises, and sug- gestive topics of everyday interest and utility — the best that have arisen during several years of fortunate experience in a school which pioneered in developing courses in Oral English. The student is assigned a series of problems, each of which he must think out and then solve by giving a talk before the class. There is little provision for talking al'ouf talking, but there is omnipresent pro- vision for doing- in a thought-directed way the things that students are already trying — explaining, telling, and arguing.
The table of contents will show that the classification and arrangement are based on pragmatic and educational rather than on philological grounds. Part I — the first twelve chapters — ■
VI PREFACE
includes most if not all of the common kinds of talks, together with four chapters specifically devoted to the manner of speaking. Part II takes up two special subjects : debating and parliamen- tary law ; and the appendixes contain reference tables, lists of topics, and some miscellaneous exercises valuable to students of all ages.
The text may be followed consecutively, or the work may be varied at any time by allowing free choice and experimentation, by using the parliamentary organization, or by performing the exercises of Chapter XII.
Oral English is the only study which is used in the pursuit of every study, and the one study useful in every vocation and avocation of life. Hence its importance.
Acknowledgment is made to each of the persons who helped in making the book. G. A. Rice, Belle Parsons Clewe, C. P. Fonda, and Alice E. Craig, of the Los Angeles high schools, Martha Gaddis Todd, and Professor A. J. Todd of the University of Minnesota, read and criticized the manuscript or certain portions of it. Many students and fellow teachers helped in the preparation of the various revisions. Arthur Babcock assisted in the directions for improving the voice, and Hon. H. Stanley Benedict reviewed the chapter on parliamentary law, Grace A. Turkington improved the arrange- ment and the rhetoric of the entire manuscript by her searching criticisms and painstaking corrections. Edith Gaddis Brewer pre- pared the index and has given indispensable assistance throughout
the four years of labor on the book.
JOHN M. BREWER Cambridge, Massachusetts
CONTENTS
PART I. PLANNING AND DELIVERING THE COMMON KINDS
OF TALKS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. How TO Make axd how to Do 3
II. Argument for Beginners 25
III. The Speaker's Appearance "before the Audience 44
IV. Improving the Vocabulary 57
V. Narrations 77
VI. Descriptions ' 91
VII. Simple Business Talks 102
VIII. Style in Oral Composition 114
IX. Explanations : Additional Considerations . . . 136
X. Good Use of the Voice 163
XI. Speeches for Special Occasions 176
The Announcement, i 76 — The Nominating Speech, i 79 — The Introduction of a Speaker, 182 - — ^The Presentation and Response, 184 — The Toast or After-Dinner Speech, 186 — The Oration, 189 — Other Talks, igi.
XII. Additional Talks and Exercises 195
Reading, 195 — Current Topics, 201 — The Discussion, 203 — Impromptu Talks, 207> — Humorous Stories and Jokes, 209 — Interviews, 212 — Conversations, 216 — Extempore Plays, 220.
PART II. ARGUMENTATION AND PARLIAMENTARY LAW
XIII. Argument and Debate 225
XIV. Parliamentary Law 289
vii
viii CONTENTS
APPENDIXES PAGE
I. Arranging and Conducting Debates 339
II. Propositions for Debate 357
III. Plan for a Mock Trial 369
IV. Plan for a National Political Convention . . . 373 V. Lists of Topics for Reference 375
VI. Reference Tables 3^3
INDEX 389
ORAL ENGLISH
There can be no fairer ambition than to excel in talk ; to be affable, gay, ready, clear, and welcome ; to have a fact, a thought, or an illustration, pat to every subject ; and not only to cheer the flight of time among our intimates, but bear our part in that great international congress, always sitting, where public wrongs are first declared, public errors first corrected, and the course of public opinion shaped, day by day, a little nearer to the right. — Robert Louis Stevenson
PART I. PLANNING AND DELIVERING THE COMMON KINDS OF TALKS
CHAPTER I HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
Everyday Explanations. Suppose that a number of students are decorating their schoolroom. From time to time parts of the work will have to be explained to individuals or to groups of students, and many questions will be asked about points that are not clear. Either the teacher or one of the older students will have to answer such questions. Some of these directions or explanations may be put into two or three sentences, others will be much longer. Whether an explanation is given to only one student, or to several, its subject matter is essentially the same.
Again, suppose some boys are learning to play volley ball. A difficulty may arise, the game may stop, and one of the players who knows the game thoroughly may begin to explain the rules to the others. He will continue his ex- planations until the obscure points are made clear, and will address his remarks to one person, or to several persons, or to the whole group of players, as the occasion demands.
We might cite many other cases to show that the student who gives a talk in school is doing nothing essentially differ- ent from that which is done every day at play, at school, and at home. Of course the talk before a class should be
3
4 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
more carefully planned ; but any student who can tell an- other how to decorate a room, or who can tell his friends on the playground how to take part in a game, should have no difficulty in facing a class and giving an interesting talk.
There are innumerable situations in school and in every- day life where one person finds himself explaining some- thing to others. If several workmen are about to lift a plate of glass into place in a store front, one of them will direct the movements of the others. If a group of girls is planning a picnic or a party, probably not one of them will fail to express her ideas about the event. The quarter back on the football team gives directions for each play, using the technical language of signals. The foreman in a shop makes oral explanations to his men, and the men in turn explain details of their work to each other. The member of a committee explains his views to his fellow members. The boy on the street tells the stranger how to reach the railway station. And so we might continue indefinitely.
The Talk in Class. In spite of the fact that every person, young and old, every day explains, describes, and argues, many students have the idea that giving a talk be- fore the class or in the school auditorium is a difficult pro- ceeding. As strange as this, is the idea that those who can talk well cannot work well and that those who can do things cannot talk well. The athlete, when called upon to speak, will sometimes say, "Talking isn't in my line; it's my business to play baseball." Or the successful business man will say, as he begins his talk, " I realize that I'm not much of a speech maker." Yet these same persons, on the playground and in the business house, every day give talks which are clear, interesting, and enthusiastic. In order to
SIMPLE EXPLANATIONS 5
succeed in a more formal effort, all that anybody needs is to consider in advance the purpose of the talk, to plan an outline of the facts and ideas to be presented, to practice it alone, and to summon the aid of a little confidence born of the desire to succeed.
Every young person should have an earnest desire to be able to speak well before others. If any student has no such desire, he need only observe the life of street, store, home, playground, farm, school, and office to have it aroused in him. Without the ability to express himself well, no person can reach his highest usefulness.
What Explanations are. In the illustrations considered above we have spoken of the situation in which one person tells others how to perform some act or how to carry out a process. Such talks are called explanations. The kind of explanation most often heard is that in which a process or series of operations is traced through several steps to the accomplishment of a purpose. We have this kind of oral explanation when one person tells another how to solve a problem in arithmetic, how to play tennis, how to make a dress, or how to build a boat. It is with such explanations that we shall deal in this chapter, and we shall leave to a later chapter other and less simple forms. This book is itself an explanation, for it shows how to prepare and give talks ; this chapter also is an explanation, for it explains how to explain.
We shall now consider two phases of our subject : first, how to prepare for the explanation ; second, how to give the talk.
Studying for the Talk. It is obvious that to explain any- thing, the speaker must first understand it himself, and
6 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
this requires study. We shall therefore consider the study necessary for a successful explanation : ( i ) the extent of the study, (2) the sources of information, (3) recording the facts, and (4) making the outline.
The Extent of the Study. We shall discuss here the material actually needed for the talk itself. This may be summarized as follows :
1. The equipment (or the preliminary conditions) for the successful carrying out of the process to be explained.
2. The steps or parts of the process itself.
3. The result to be achieved or the uses to which the finished object is to be put.
Suppose, for example, we are to explain how to make and adjust a paper cover for a book. Our study must extend far enough to make us familiar with the following details :
COVERING A BOOK
1. Equipment and preliminary conditions.
a. Materials : suitable paper ; paste or mucilage.
b. Tools : scissors ; paste brush.
c. Other conditions : sufficient time ; care to prevent the
formation of wrinkles.
2. Process.
a. Cutting the paper the right size.
b. Making the cuts for the binding of the book.
c. Folding.
d. Pasting.
e. Pressing. f. Labeling.
3. Resuk.
a. Saving the wear of hard use.
I). Preserving the book for one's library.
PREPARING THE TALK 7
As indicated by this outline, the preparatory study for an explanation includes more than the familiarizing of one's self with the mere process or operation. Thus, if a person is to explain how to wax or paint a floor, he must inform himself about the kind of material to use, in what quantity and where to purchase it, and the like. He must also know the results to be obtained from the use of various kinds of materials. Further, it is important for him to remember that in certain cases special preliminary condi- tions are necessary for the carrying out of the process. For example, to varnish a floor requires skill ; to raise oranges requires special knowledge of soil and climate ; to cook or clean house presupposes proper dress ; to pitch in a game of baseball demands calmness and deliberation. All such qualities and conditions, as necessary parts of the equipment, must be taken into consideration in the study for the explanation.
We shall now turn to a group of exercises for practice in applying these principles. It will be best for the student, at least at first, to select subjects with which he is somewhat familiar. He should try to find interesting ones, however, and should avoid a subject which is an old story to the other members of the class. Unless it is otherwise understood, the students need not be confined to the subjects listed in the exercises, but may make a selection from the topics at the end of this chapter, or they may choose one suggested by their own experiences. Students should put interest and enthusiasm into the presentation of every exercise.^
^ In Table E, in Appendix VI, will be found a summary of the steps necessary to the preparation of a talk to be given in class. All the talks should be given at the front of the room.
8
HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
EXERCISES
1. a. What materials are necessary for making one of the articles listed below ? Plan an accurate, complete statement to give to the class.
b. Prepare a brief oral explanation of the making of one of the articles. Give the talk in class.
|
1. |
An apron. |
11. |
A drop curtain. |
|
2. |
An electric battery. |
12. |
A flytrap. |
|
3. |
A cement walk. |
-^13. |
Fudge. |
|
4. |
Plaster. |
14. |
Soap. |
|
5. |
A fireless cooker. |
15. |
A kite. |
|
6. |
Griddlecakes. |
16. |
Cement. |
|
7. |
Popcorn balls. |
- 17. |
Candles. |
|
8. |
Paste. |
18. |
An electric bell. |
|
9. |
A sled. |
19. |
Steel. |
|
10. |
A tent. |
20. |
An incandescent light, |
2. a. What tools or equipment are necessary for carrying out one of the processes named below ? Prepare a statement to give to the class.
b. Give the complete talk, explaining the equipment, the proc- ess, and the result.
1. Sharpening a knife.
2. Canning fruit.
3. Cleaning and pressing a suit.
4. Painting a picture.
5. Fishing.
6. Laying a water pipe.
7. Polishing silver.
8. Making cookies.
9. Washing clothes. 10. Painting a roof.
11. Cleaning a sewing machine.
12. Clearing up a back yard.
13. Planting a tree.
14. Washing dishes.
15. Mending shoes.
16. Making an excavation.
17. Harvesting a crop of hay.
18. Playing ball.
19. Cutting hair.
20. Cleaning a cistern.
3. a. Tell the complete equipment necessary for making one of the articles or for carrying out one of the processes given
PREPARING THE TALK 9
below. Include not only the materials and tools but also the conditions of environment and the personal qualifications. &. Give the complete talk of explanation.
1. Studying a lesson. 6. Entertaining a guest.
2. Planning a party. 7. Handling gasoline.
3. Camping out. 8. Stopping a runaway horse.
4. Stealing a base. 9. Raising hens.
5. Skating. 10. Making a speech.
4. a. Make a list of the steps in the actual performance of one of the tasks mentioned below. Be prepared to give an attrac- tive statement of these steps to the class. If necessary, you may use notes, but do not read your statements. Look into the faces of your hearers.
b. Give the complete explanation, including equipment, process, and result.
1. Making a cloth bag. 7. Making artificial snow.
2. Making a stool. 8. Sharpening a saw.
— 3. Finishing the surface of a desk. 9. Putting chains on automobile
4. Weaning a calf. wheels.
5. Making glass. 10. Preparing mashed potatoes.
6. Planting a lawn.
5. a. What would be the advantages (results) of learning to perform one of the following processes .'' b. Give the complete explanation.
_ 1. Making bread at home. 7. Using the forward pass in
2. Using the barometer. football.
3. Making a cold frame. 8. Making a muff.
4. Connecting batteries in series. 9. Learning to sing or to play.
5. Playing center in basket ball. 10. Taking gymnasium work.
6. Testing a water meter.
The Sources of Information. We have seen that in the study preparatory to the explanation we must include the equipment, the process, and the result. We have now to
10 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO ^
consider the sources of information upon which we may draw. Briefly, these are two : our own store of experiences and thoughts, and the experiences possessed by others, to which we have access througli books, magazines, and per- sonal interviews.
If a person is to draw upon his own knowledge for ma- terial, he should make sure that this knowledge is reliable, complete, and fresh in his mind. For example, if he is to explain a process in domestic chemistry, such as how to test soap, it would be well for him to go through the actual proc- ess in preparing for the talk. When this is not practicable he should observe the process or operation as performed cor- rectly and intelligently by someone else. In the case of such operations as the building of a table, for which it may not be feasible either to perform or to observe the actual work, the student should mentally review the equipment, the steps of the process, and the result, so that the necessary facts may be as accurate and complete as study can make them.
If the information is to be obtained by interviewing indi- viduals, the student should select those persons who are well informed on the subject, and should put his questions in such a way as to bring out all the points desired. In every community will be found men and women of experience who are glad to explain to earnest students what they know about the making of useful objects and the doing of inter- esting things. The knowledge gained from such interviews always makes good material for class talks, and will prove a valuable addition to the class's stock of usable facts and ideas. Notes may be taken by the interviewer, and some- times pictures or drawings may be obtained to use in giving the talks to the class.
PREPARING THE TALK il
If books and other printed matter are to furnish the needed information, ordinarily the study should extend to several accounts. Care should be taken to see that only trustworthy sources are consulted, for much that appears in print is far from reliable. Often the explanations given in newspapers are mere space fillers, and have not been care- fully tested. In all his reading, the student should test the facts presented by asking if they seem reasonable or pos- sible. Often an encyclopedia will be the first book to con- sult. Several references may need to be looked up before all the desired data are found ; for example, in trying to find out about bread, one may need also to look up flour, baking, bakery, wheat, and oven. Books of receipts, textbooks, household magazines, scientific and technical periodicals, nature books, and business journals contain excellent mate- rial for explanations. The student should frequently consult his teacher, a librarian, or some other well-informed person about possible sources of reliable information.
In gathering information from printed matter, notes, drawings, and diagrams may be made, and the dictionary should be consulted for the meaning of unfamiliar terms. Such helps as pictures and diagrams may be used in class if they will make the explanation clearer.
EXERCISES
1. a. Which of the explanations suggested below could you make without obtaining outside help ? Which could you study by performing the process or by observing it? Come to class prepared to make an attractive report, telling how you would prepare a talk on one of these subjects or on another subject selected by yourself.
12 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
6. Follow the suggestions given above in preparing the talk ; give the talk in class.
1. Running an elevator. 6. Breaking a horse.
2. Testing cloth for pure wool. 7. Operating an aeroplane.
3. Making paste. 8. Cleaning spots from a sink board.
4. Cleaning a bicycle. 9. Darning stockings.
^ 6. Hemming a handkerchief. xO. Making a toy windmill.
2. a. In preparing one of the following explanations, what person or persons in your community would you interview for the purpose of obtaining information ? Be prepared to state in class the reasons for your selections, and the plan you would use in the interview.
b. Carry out your plan, and come to class prepared to give the complete talk.
1. How to grow corn. 5. How to make salt-rising bread.
2. How to make jelly. 6. How to care for a pet rabbit.
3. How to determine if a soil 7. How to mix paint.
is fertile. 8. How to cover an ironing board.
4. How to make an extension 9. How to pack china for shipment.
ladder. 10. How to crate a sewing machine.
3. a. What printed matter would you consult in preparing for one of the explanations listed below ? State in class how you would go about finding information in books and magazines.
b. Follow out your plan, and give the complete talk in class.
"1. How to play lacrosse. 6. Growing alfalfa.
2, Cheese making. 7. How to use sour milk.
V3. Diamond cutting. 8. Transportation of fresh fruit.
4. How bricks are made. ^^. How to make artificial flowers.
5. How to make curtains. 10. How to build a beehive.
Recording the Facts. Notes should be made throughout the study, whether the information be gathered from books
PREPARING THE TALK 13
or persons or from one's personal experience. The memo- randa should be recorded on slips of paper or in notebooks, in such a way that they will be available for use in the speech itself. They may then be filed away for possible reference later. Statistics, measurements, diagrams, and pictures illustrating the subject should be carefully recorded and saved, even if all of them are not likely to be used in the talk. The purpose of the study is to know the subject, and if the student masters it he will have no difficulty with the talk, or with possible questions afterwards. The student who reads only enough for the talk itself will, nine times out of ten, if the subject is at all complicated, have diffi- culty in the presentation. We need an extensive back- ground of knowledge ; otherwise we have little right to speak. Time spent in exhaustive study of a subject will add to a person's experience and education that which may prove of value many times in his life.
Making the Outline. During the process of collecting and recording information, topics for an outline will begin to show themselves. As these topics present themselves, they should be used to classify the material collected. Then they should be arranged in a logical order. No doubt for most explanations the topics should follow the order sug- gested on page 6, namely, the equipment, the process, and the result. For the talk before the class, however, there should also be a sentence or two of introduction, which should make clear to the hearers exactly what the subject is, and a brief summary or conclusion at the end.
The following plan may be used in arranging the material for a talk on the construction of an ornamental lamp shade :
14 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
MAKING A LAMP SHADE (The Main Points of a Typical Outline)
1. Introduction : the reason for making the lamp shade.
2. Equipment.
a. Materials.
b. Tools.
c. Other conditions : time, skill.
3. Process.
a. Cutting out the parts.
b. Fitting the parts together.
c. Putting in the glass.
d. Attaching the shade to the lamp.
4. Conclusion : the result.
a. Use.
b. Beauty.
c. Cost.
It will be noted that we have omitted from the above outline many details, such as the exact list of materials and tools necessary, the different operations in cutting out the parts, and the detailed account of cost. These should be added to the growing outline as we study the subject, so that every needed fact will be included. When the explana- tion is given, however, a brief outline like the one above is all that the student will need to have at hand. If the subject is simple and the facts well fixed in mind, notes may be dispensed with altogether when talking. But in the prepa- ration for the talk, no matter how' simple and well known the subject, time spent in making a complete outline is not wasted.
PREPARING THE TALK
15
EXERCISES
1. a. Study one of the subjects below, or another of your own selection. Exercise special care in recording the facts. Bring to class all notes, drawings, figures, etc., which you have assembled. Be prepared to show these to the class, and to give an attractive talk about your methods of gathering and recording material.
b. Give the explanation in class.
|
1. |
How to make a canvas ham- |
—6. |
How to press and mount flowers. |
|
mock. |
7. |
How to make a stairway. |
|
|
2. |
How to shoe a horse. |
-~8. |
How to make a toboggan. |
|
^. |
How to set a dinner table. |
9. |
Felling a big tree. |
|
"M. |
How to make a toy boat. |
10. |
Loading a pack animal. (See |
|
—5. |
How to show magnetism |
Stevenson's " Travels with a |
|
|
with iron filings. |
Donkey.") |
2. a. Prepare outlines for five of the subjects below, making each outline at least as extensive as that on the lamp shade. Be prepared to read them, or to put them on the board, or to pass them around the class for criticism.
6. Prepare to give one of the explanations in class.
1. Repairing a leaky faucet. 6.
2. Using a vacuum cleaner. 7.
3. Staining a piece of furniture. 8.
4. Using a washing machine. ~9.
5. Preparing cbffee. 10.
Tempering iron.
Binding books.
Making an electric push button.
Making a toy wagon.
Making a salad.
3. a. Prepare and bring to class a complete outline for one of these topics, including all the details which will be touched upon in the talk.
h. Give the explanation in class.
1. Transplanting a rosebush. 6.
2. Making a camp fireplace. 7.
3. Making a handball backstop. 8.
4. Making grape juice. 9.
5. Making a box. "~10.
Hanging a screen door. Diving for pearls. Cooking a breakfast. Making a henhouse. How to play checkers.
1 6 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
Oral Practice. Having gathered and recorded the neces- sary information, and having prepared a satisfactory outhne, the student should next practice giving the talk. For this the full outline should be used, together with whatever notes, drawings, and other aids will be of assistance. The practice should be as nearly like the actual talk as possible ; the student should learn not to rely too much on his memo- randa, and should rehearse the talk in a standing position.
Introducing the Subject. The introduction, as we have suggested above, may announce the subject and state briefly why it is of interest. It may also connect an unfamiliar subject with ideas or facts already in the minds of the hearers. For example, in an explanation of how to make a stool, one might begin by saying : "I am going to ex- plain how anybody who can use carpenter's tools can make a stool. This is one of the articles of kitchen furniture that is often more serviceable than a chair."
Developing the Explanation. Having introduced the subject, the student must proceed to develop it, using a plan similar to that suggested above. He must keep his hearers constantly in mind, making all the points clear to them, and proceeding from one point to another so carefully that no one can fail to follow him. At the same time he must not become tiresome by going too slowly. Experience and a thoughtful regard for others will teach him the golden mean between too few words and too many. In some explanations the subjects are so common or so simple that many points may be omitted because they are obvious. Thus, it would be a waste of time to tell much about the tools necessary to make a box, or to discuss the usefulness of a screen door.
PREPARING THE TALK 17
Ending the Talk. Our discussion of the outline has in- dicated how the talk should be concluded. Any interesting bit of information about the object or process as a whole, but not about any part or detail, will serve to round out the talk and give it a good ending. In the outline of the lamp shade we suggested Use, Beauty, and Cost as topics of general interest. Other considerations sometimes appro- priate for conclusions are : importance ; comparison with other objects or methods ; improvements that may be ex- pected. For example, our explanation of a new type of aeroplane might end thus : " This is the latest and most efficient machine yet designed, but the experiences gained in the war may result in the invention of new types very different from any now in use."
EXERCISES
1. a. Select one of the subjects below, and plan your opening sentences for the explanation. Then practice this introduction until it goes smoothly and sounds well, but do not memorize or write down actual sentences. Give the introduction in class.
h. Practice the complete talk of explanation, and give it in class,
1. How to make lemonade. ""^T. How to make a rag dolL
2. How to magnetize a needle. 8. How to build a brick wall.
3. How to hang a hammock. 9. How to make a meat loaf.
4. How to play volley ball. 10. How to make a folding ironing
5. How to care for a cow. board.
6. How to preserve insects.
2. a. Prepare concluding sentences for a talk of explanation on one of the subjects given below. Give the conclusion in class in such a way as to show that you understand the whole process.
h. Prepare the complete talk — introduction, body, and con- clusion — and give it in class.
1 8 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
1. How to sharpen a plane. 6. How to blacken russet shoes.
2. How to cook beets. 7. How to use a fish net.
3. How to make a swing. 8. How to make a giant stride. "~-4. How to blow an egg. '^. How to mend gloves.
5. How to read a meter. 10. How to put on a gas mantle.
3. Study the following explanation and be prepared to discuss its merits or its defects in class.
HOW TO MAKE A BUNNIE OUT OF A COOKED EGG
Did you ever try to make a bunnie out of a cooked egg .'' When your egg is cooked, take some heavy white paper and cut from it two long white ears that fit the size of the egg. Cut also four little rounding legs. They need not be shaped carefully, but each must be the same in shape as the other. Take some good glue and paste bunnie's legs to the egg. Let them dry well. Do not touch them or lift the egg till all is thor- oughly dry. Then add bunnie's ears near the point of the egg. Make a crayon eye with a pink crayon on each side of the point of the egg. Cut a soft round of white cotton and stick this where bunnie's tail should go. Then stand your bunnie on his feet. He will be a pretty toy — one that you can play with, and one that you may eat. — New York Tribune.
The Use of Helps. If the students have taken an interest in their work, many of them, before this point has been reached, have used some of the common aids in explaining. Perhaps the most important helps are gestures, drawings, and the exhibition of actual objects.
Using the Hands. Gestures are so useful that we can hardly do without them. In many of the talks we find our- selves using simple hand movements to aid in the explana- tion. It is useless, however, to try to force the hands into the talk, for this would make for awkwardness and self- consciousness. Only remember that they need not be held back if they come naturally into play. And perhaps the
AIDS IN EXPLAINING 19
best way to accustom them to helping is to put them to work drawing and handhng objects.
Drawing Diagrams. Drawings are a necessity in some explanations, and every student should do his best, even if he has not had definite training for this. If we look for a moment at Exercise i on page 17, we shall see that subjects 4 and 10 could not be adequately treated without blackboard diagrams. Doubtless, also, the talks on subjects 2, 3, 7, and 8 would be greatly helped by the use of simple sketches. However, many explanations are of course better without drawings ; for instance, it would be a waste of time, or an exhibition of poor judgment, to attempt drawings for subjects I, 5, or 9, unless perhaps one were to sketch a cow's stall. The student, then, must in each case decide whether or not a drawing will be a real help, and act accordingly. In most cases the speaker should draw as he talks, taking care to make his diagram clear but not spend- ing too much time on it. He should always talk toward the audience and not toward the blackboard. The sample drawings on page 21 are sketches actually used in classes in Oral English.
#
Using Actual Objects. In some explanations the exhibi- tion of the objects themselves is much more effective than the use of drawings alone. Thus in Exercise 2 above, the explanations of i and 9 would be improved by the display of the blade of the plane and of the glove which needs mending. Probably 4 and 10 would also be greatly im- proved if the speaker could handle, as he speaks, an egg in the one case and a gas mantle in the other. If it is practicable the speaker should perform the operation itself before the class, talking as he works, just as would a
20 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
domestic-science teacher in explaining how to prepare beets for cooking. Sometimes effective use may be made of simple devices, such as a strip of paper to represent a fish net in explaining how the net is used, or a pencil to repre- sent the post for the giant stride. We must in every case study the subject to see what helps will be most effective.
EXERCISES
1. a. Plan an illustration to use in one of the explanations suggested below. Talking as you draw, give that portion of the explanation which should accompany the illustration.
b. Give the complete explanation in class, drawing the illustra- tion at the board.
r-. How to lay a brick wall. 6. How to make a pattern for a
^. How to lay out a tennis court. kimono waist.
3. How to stake a young tree. 7. How to connect two electric
4. How to trim a rosebush. bells to one button.
5. How to raise into place a tall 8. How to use a springboard.
flagpole. 9. How to make a child's bib.
10. How to make a picture frame.
2. Decide upon the proper objects, models, or other helps to use in giving a talk on one of the subjects below. Practice the explanation, and give the talk in class.
1. How to splice wire. 7. How to tie various knots.
2. How to load a camera. 8. How to make paper flowers.
3. How. to do a trick. 9. How to sew a baseball cover.
4. How to mend torn books. 10. How to make a folding lunch
5. How to use a pencil sharpener. box.
6. How to make a rosette.
*
Selecting New Subjects. We have now had opportunity to study and give many explanations, in turn concentrating attention upon each part of the talk, and learning to use
(ST
z:^
A
b.
Turbine Tombler'Tric^ niverTormotTon HQuDerricl\
|
^ |
p f |
ToLun-ba.!! Higqing OTDoaf DetroiT
SJ
Oujiss Onoiju-shecl Japanese God \A/< nd-cuaaon
(t
> 1
(«)
Gas Metcil-ctjtieir TelepJione DistiHo^on
n
SAMPLE BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS From students' sketches in Oral English classes
21
22
HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
various helps to clearness. We shall assume that we are prepared to select subjects of our own, to study these sub- jects thoroughly, to practice by ourselves, and to give successful talks. The possible subjects are as numerous as the activities of life itself. The list at the end of this chapter, which is made up of subjects already used in classes in Oral English, will furnish suggestions.
EXERCISE
Select a subject which has not yet been discussed in your class. It need not be a difficult or a complex one, but it should be inter- esting to the class. Prepare a complete talk of explanation, using all the experience you have thus far gained.
SPECIMEN SUBJECTS
1. Outdoor Crafts
How to make
a summerhouse.
a canoe
a canvas boat.
an ice boat.
a model of an aeroplane.
a galley.
a coaster, entirely of wood.
a fish trap.
a log house.
a sod house.
a summer camp.
a mud house.
a figure-four trap.
a top.
a homemade merry-go- round.
How to make a rat trap. a quail trap.
a steering gear for a coaster. a kite reel.
a camp stove, of rocks, a camp bedstead, of limbs
of trees. a sundial. a sling. a lobster trap, a toy balloon. a toy sucker, a skate sail. a rustic gate, a rustic fence, a rustic arch, a shelter tent.
SUBJECTS FOR TALKS
23
2. Games and Sports
How to play How to play How to
tennis. association football. put the shot,
rounders. marbles.
two old cat. cricket.
quoits. tag.
golf. spin-the-plate.
geography. hare and hounds.
handball. hockey.
basket ball. Rugby football.
bat.
stand when bunting.
pitch curves.
run 100 yards.
swim.
dive.
do the high jump.
3. Miscellaneous Useful Articles and Processes
How to make a hatstand.
a handkerchief holder, an emery bag. a reed basket, a letter case, a sleeve, a clay bowl. a food cooler, a needlebook. a rustic stool. a distillate burner, a letter scale. a sleeve board, a copper jewel box.
4. Household Processes
How to make cake, soap, butter.
Mulligan stew. Dutch cheese, bread, muffins, candy.
How to
remove ink stains.
rebind old books.
brush the teeth correctly.
decorate a room economi- cally.
color artificial flowers.
use a stencil.
sharpen scissors.
put up a picture.
repair a bicycle puncture.
half-sole a shoe without cobbler's tools.
cut stovepipe.
hang a gate.
How to
wash windows, clean a sink, sweep and dust a room, put up peaches, cook mush, buy meat, test eggs, wash lace.
24
HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO
5. Garden and Farm
How to make
a fireless brooder.
berry boxes.
a colony coop.
a hayrack.
a brace for a fence.
a chicken fence.
an automatic chicken
feeder, a gate.
a water tank. a feed box. a barn, an arbor. a rake. a seed box. a harrow, a grain bin.
How to
care for a lawn.
dry prunes.
plant a vegetable garden.
get rid of insects.
irrigate trees.
anchor a fence post.
grow cranberries.
grow sugar.
plant rose slips.
repair a wagon.
care for a horse.
care for hogs.
graft a tree.
repair harness.
hang a barn door.
care for a calf.
raise corn.
CHAPTER II
ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
Arguing is almost as common as explaining. We are constantly tr)dng to prove to another person that a certain opinion, act, or object is the better one. And arguing is not confined to older persons. Play life, home life, and school life are filled with earnest arguments, in which even young children do not hesitate to take a part.
Argument in Conversation. Most of our arguments are not in the form of talks before an audience, but occur in conversation with one or more companions. We argue as to whether we should have a picnic or a party ; whether the summer vacation should be longer or shorter ; whether or not Henry should be the pitcher for the next game ; whether this automobile or that is the better ; whether a business or a profession offers the greater opportunity ; whether or not government ownership of railroads would be advantageous. In these conversations the different per- sons are really arguing in much the same way that debaters do, only the remarks in conversation are much shorter than in a debate.
In such conversational arguments it is important that all persons concerned understand exactly what the question is. It will hardly do to talk "about" a thing, for some persons would surely be confused as to the real issue. The question should always be stated definitely ; for example,
25
26 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
'" If school closes the middle of June, should it begin again the first or the last part of September ? "
The more definitely the question can be stated by one of the speakers, the better. Thus, early in the conversation, one of the group may say, " The question is. Can a boy who has to work in a store after school hours do his best in school ? " or, " What we have to decide is. Should Henr)^ pitch in the next game ? " During the course of the conversation, if a person wanders from the subject, it may be necessary to remind him of the exact question. This may be done in some such way as this : "' You may be right about the value of business experience, but we are talking of the effect of extra work on the boy's scholarship." Or, in the case of the game : "Are you speaking about a regular game or a prac- tice game } " Such a question will bring the discussion back to the point, and will give the conversation a definite aim.
Many conversational arguments are carried on by means of questions and answers. Suppose, for example, that we are talking with a person who believes that all city schools should be built in the suburbs, the children being carried to and from school on the electric cars. We should ask him : " How could the car companies handle the children .? What is the matter with the schools as they are ? How would the schoolhouses be planned ?" In this way we should learn his ideas, and then could raise objections for him to answer. He would do most of the arguing until we began to understand his scheme. Then, if we disagreed with him, we should express ourselves more and more freely, until the talk became a real argument.
It is in arguments that we are most often tempted to monopolize the conversation, to exaggerate, and to be a
CONVERSATIONAL ARGUMENTS 27
little sharp toward those who do not agree with us. We need, therefore, to set a guard upon our tongues, and upon our manners. If anybody finds that he is allowing himself to be discourteous in his arguments, he had better stop until he can exhibit perfect self-control.
EXERCISES
1. Choose a partner for an argumentative conversation, on one of the subjects listed below, to be given before the class. Study the question and come to class prepared to hold the conversation with your partner at the front of the room, one of you taking the affirmative side and the other the negative. Remember (i) to^ sdck to the point, (2) to do your share of the arguing, (3) not to monopolize the time, (4) to be fair in your statements and in your manner. Tr}' to convince your partner that your side is the right one.
After the argument the class may vote on two points : (i) Which side of the question is the right one .? (2) Which speaker was the more effective ?
1. The school committee (or board) should vote sufficient money to equip this school building with a vacuum-cleaning system.
2. The phonograph is better than the .
3. In all ordinary cases a man should give his seat in a street car to a woman.
4. If any nation violates an international agreement, it is the duty of the United States to demand an accounting.
5. Housekeepers should learn to use butterine instead of butter.
6. Plumbing should be taught in this school.
7. It is better for a city to build subways than elevated railways.
8. The domestic-science department should organize classes in laundering.
9. Sawdust is better than sand for the jumping pits on the athletic field.
10. The school playground should be open on Saturdays.
28 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
2. Choose as a partner for a conversational argument some person who is more familiar than you are with one of the subjects below. You are to question him before the class, as to what are his ideas on the subject. The conversation may proceed as sug- gested in Exercise i . If none of the questions below prove suitable, those in Appendix II may be suggestive.
1. High schools should teach Esperanto.
2. Manual-training classes should be organized in this school to do the janitor work of the building.
3. The pupils of the school should be allowed to pass rules for a standard of student behavior.
4. The indirect-lighting system is better than any direct system.
5. Schools should be in session from nine until four.
6. This city should start a municipal dairy.
7. The typewriter (or sewing machine) is the best.
8. The horse will sometime be entirely supplanted by the motor.
9. Princeton University is wise in requiring every student to learn to swim before graduation.
10. A daily newspaper should be issued by our city (or town) government.
3. The class may be divided into groups of three or more for argumentative conversations. Each group may meet and select a question for discussion, and determine which members of the group shall take the affirmative and which the negative side. The aim of each group should be to see (i) that ever}'body sticks to the question, (2) that each side of the question has a fair amount of time, and (3) that each person has an opportunity to share in the talk. The following questions are suggested :
1. Athletics help school spirit.
2. The study of is harder than that of .
3. It is not worth while for a person to read the comic pages of the newspapers.
4. Hurdy-gurdies should be prohibited.
CONVERSATIONAL ARGUMENTS 29
5. This city should establish a zoological park.
6. The United States should substantially increase its army.
7. Woman suffrage should be adopted by all the states (or by the federal government).
8. The characters in " Ivanhoe " are truer to life than those in " David Copperfield."
9. A high-school student should earn his own spending money. 10. -Prohibition should be adopted in this city (or state or nation).
The Talk before the Class. Success in conversational ar- gument is important, but a person does not become efficient until he has had practice in making connected arguments. Such arguments are not different from those given in daily life ; for example, . probably many students have already had the experience of presenting at some length to the principal or a teacher an argument for some privilege in connection with his school studies, or of making to his father or mother an argumentative request for permission to carry out a certain plan. But even if the longer argu- mentative talk seems new and difficult, the work we have already done in making simple explanations is sufficient preparation. Explanation is much like argument ; in the latter, however, we not only explain but compare two ideas, and show^ that one of them is better than the other, or one true and the other false.
What we shall try to do in this chapter is to find out how to prepare and deliver a systematic argument. To make a complete, effective argument which proves an im- portant statement is a complicated task, and to try to cover the points fully by dividing the work between two or more debaters is more complex still. Therefore, we shall here attempt a simpler task — to see how a student may obtain a good start in systematic argument.
30 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
Using a Clear Plan. When a person begins a new task, he often follows closely the method or pattern successfully used by somebody else. Thus the boy who is learning stenography follows with painstaking care a system already worked out. In this chapter we shall confine ourselves to one good pattern of an oral argument, and shall ask the learner to follow the plan closely. After he has mastered this plan he will be in a position to decide whether he can succeed better by making changes in the method. More- over, we shall not here concern ourselves with detailed reasons for the directions we follow, but shall reserve such considerations for treatment in Chapter XIII.
In argument as in explanation the outline is of first im- portance. As a matter of fact the shortest speech should and does have an outline. Yet few persons who argue will take the trouble to prepare one, and many students seem to believe that such a help is unnecessary. But every talk has a plan, either good or bad ; even if the speaker neglects to prepare a good outline, he is nevertheless following some plan when he talks, and it is probably a poor one. Advance account, therefore, must be taken of one's points, and the best outline must be selected. It is an unusually gifted and well-trained person who can mentally arrange the topics as he is speaking. Nearly everybody, whether beginner or expert, needs to write down and study his topics before he can work out the proper order of points and be sure that his argument
is complete.
EXERCISE
Let us study the plan used by an experienced speaker. Listen to the arguments made in one or two of the following cases, and take notes, jotting down the topics in the order given. Study
PLANNING THE TALK 31
these topics to see if they are arranged effectively. Read the topics to the class and give your opinions and criticisms.
1. A lecture. 4. A business man's talk.
2. A sermon. 5. A political speech.
3. A talk by the principal.
Choosing and Stating a Subject. For practice in our arguing it is important that only those subjects which are of genuine interest to us be chosen. We cannot be earnest and convincing if we are arguing about a matter just because it is assigned to us. Whenever we have an argument to pre- pare, we should think over carefully the hundreds of events and facts in which we have a deep interest, and from these make a list of subjects which we can use. We must remem- ber, however, that for purposes of argument the subject chosen should be one on which the opinions of people differ.
When a subject has been chosen, it may be stated in the form of what is called a rcsohition, thus : " Resolved, that this city (or town) should establish a branch library," The statement should be so carefully expressed that its meaning will be perfectly clear.
EXERCISES
1. a. Write resolutions for five of the topics below. Make the /Statements brief and clear, and choose the words carefully, so that there will be two sides to each question.
h. Read your resolutions in class, for comparison and criticism.
1. A new school building. 6. School lunch rooms.
2. Requiring girls to take mathe- 7. Overcrowded schoolrooms.
matics. 8. Overcrowded street cars.
I 3. Frequent holidays. 9. Minimum age for drivers of
I 4. Uniforms for school pupils. automobiles.
5. Military drill in schools. 10. Newspapers.
32 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
2. Choose the subject which you wish to use in the exercises to follow. Choose also the side of the question you wish to de- fend. It will be simpler, for beginners, to choose a resolution which proposes to carry out some plan. Perhaps it will be well if no two students take the same subject ; therefore each should bring to class three or more subjects from which to choose.
In class, as each student reads his subject the others may criticize it according to the principles we have noted above.
Gathering the Material. Having chosen the subject, our next task is to collect the material for the argument. If the subject is a familiar one, much of the material may be found within our own minds, or within our daily observa- tion. But if the subject requires some investigation, as will almost always be the case, then the sources of infor- mation mentioned in Chapter I will be sufficient for our purposes : talks with well-informed persons, and material in magazines and books.
Let us first write on slips of paper, just as they occur to us, all facts, opinions, and questions that seem to have a bearing on the subject. Suppose, for example, that we are studying the question, '" Resolved, that the school board (committee) should enlarge our school grounds," and that we have decided to support the affirmative side. Probably some such thoughts as the following will occur to us :
POINTS GAINED FROM FIRST KNOWLEDGE
1. The grounds are too small.
2. Small boys are often hurt.
3. There is no room to play baseball.
4. The trees are in the way.
5. With more room we could have a garden.
COLLECTING MATERLAL 33
6. We could also have tennis courts.
7. The ground is now too rough for games.
8. The gymnasium classes ought to use the grounds.
9. Windows are sometimes broken.
10. The adjoining lot is not in use.
11. The boys often play in the street.
After talking with teachers and parents about the sub- ject, we shall be able to add to our notes. Perhaps we may obtain some such additional data as the following :
POINTS GAINED FROM FURTHER STUDY
12. The school has three times as many pupils as it had at first.
13. The manual-training shops have taken some of the play space.
14. The adjoining land would cost about six thousand dollars.
15. The expense could be provided for by the next bond issue.
16. The pupils will ask their parents to vote for the bonds.
17. The principal says that elementary agriculture could be taught.
18. It is against the law to play baseball in the street.
It is evident that some of these points need further investigation to determine if they are true, and that others need the addition of statistics or definite instances to make them effective. We shall therefore wish to add to our material by reading. For the present, however, we may use the points already collected, as they are, and proceed in the next section to the problem of arranging them.
EXERCISE
Gather as many points as you can in the time at your disposal on the particular subject which you selected in the preceding exer- cise. First write out those points which you already have in mind.
34 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
Next talk with others, make further investigations, read on the subject, and add to your stock of notes. Try to cover as many ideas about the subject as possible. Bring the notes to class so that they may be read and criticized.
Finding the Main Topics. Now we shall study the list of opinions and suggestions thus far collected, for the pur- pose of thinking out the main arguments to which our points naturally belong. For example, in our list of topics on the School Grounds, it will readily be seen that num- bers I, 2, 3, 4, 9, II, 12, and 13 help to show that the present grounds are not satisfactory; 5, 6, 8, and 17 deal with the benefits that would result from larger grounds ; 10, 14, 15, and 16 refer to plans for acquiring the grounds; 7 has no bearing on our question; and 18 tells an interesting fact about number 1 1 . According to this grouping, the main arguments may be expressed as follows :
THE MAIN POINTS OF THE ARGUMENT
I. The present yard is entirely too small. II. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the school. III. The needed land can be easily obtained.
We should always remember to state these main points in complete sentences. Further, we should see that they are arranged in the best order. For example, in the case of our three main points above, it would probably be better to transpose II and III, for the ways of obtaining the land should ordinarily be discussed before the benefits.
The main points must now be tested to see if the argu- ment is complete. The test is as follows : Will these three points, if proved, convince people that the school board
MAKING THE OUTLINE 35
should enlarge the grounds ? Are any other points neces- sary to the proof ? Can any of these three be omitted ? It will be seen that our whole argument will fall if any one of the three points above is unproved. It is plain, too, that no other points are necessary to the proof. It might be stronger if we could show that other schools have larger grounds, and we may add such a main point if we wish, but it is not a necessary argument. Our three points are sufficient.
It will usually be found that all the details of the argu- ment can be gathered under from three to six main topics.
Let us now write out the outline, giving the main topics in their natural order, and putting the subtopics in their proper places.
PROVISIONAL OUTLINE
Resolved, that the school board should enlarge our school grounds ; because
I. The present yard is entirely too small, y^-r
1. Small boys are often hurt.
2. There is no room to play baseball.
3. The trees are in the way.
4. Windows are sometimes broken.
5. The boys often play in the street.
6. The school has three times as many pupils as it had
at first.
7. The manual-training shops have taken away some of
the play space. II. The needed land can be easily obtained, y^r
1. The adjoining lot is not in use.
2. The land would cost about six thousand dollars.
3. This could be provided for by the next bond issue.
4. The pupils will ask their parents to vote for the bonds.
36 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
111. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the school, yL'/-
1. With more room we could have a garden.
2. We could also have tennis courts.
3. The gymnasium classes could use the grounds.
4. Elementary agriculture could be taught.
EXERCISE
Find the main points of your argument, using the method explained in the text above. Arrange these main points in a logical order. Then copy the complete provisional outline, put- ting the subtopics in their proper places. If it is possible to improve the wording, do so. Bring the outline to class, to be read and criticized.
Making the Final Outline. While we are working out the main topics and making the provisional outline, we are sure to think of new points which could be used in the argument. For example, it may occur to us that the land adjoining the school can be rented if it cannot be bought. Moreover, before we make the final outline, we shall need to investigate further certain points as suggested above, to find out exact figures and definite facts. For example, we should tell how many accidents due to overcrowding there have been ; how many windows were broken in a given time ; the exact number of pupils now in the building, and when the school was opened ; the actual cost of the additional land. Further, we shall need to enlarge certain arguments by adding subtopics which will illustrate or explain them.
Having done all that seems necessary in the way of completing our investigation, we may then prepare the final outline. Our main points, of course, will remain unchanged. The topics must be arranged in a sensible.
MAKING THE OUTLINE 37
clear order under each niain point. Let us suppose that we have enough material for our argument on the question of school grounds, and that we have arranged the sub- topics in a good order. We may now prepare our final outline, as follows :
FINAL OUTLINE
Resolved, that the school board should enlarge our school grounds ; because
I. The present yard is entirely too small, _/^r
1 . The yard is used now by three times as many pupils as
it was six years ago, although some space has been recently taken for a new building :
a. Enrollment December, 1908, 225 ; December, 19 14,
692.
b. Shops erected March, 19 12, on former basket-ball
court.
2. There is now no room to play baseball.
3. Boys frequently play in the street, in spite of the law
against it.
4. Accidents sometimes occur because of the crowded
conditions :
a. Three boys were knocked down last Thursday.
b. Two windows were broken by balls last week. II. The needed land can be easily obtained, for
1. There is an adjoining vacant lot, 200' by 300'.
2. The owner will sell for $6100.
3. It can at least be rented ; the rent is $30 per month.
4. Bonds can be voted to furnish the money ; pupils would
ask parents to vote for the bonds. III. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the S(^\.OQ\for I . There would be more room for play :
a. Tennis courts could be added.
b. A baseball field could be provided.
4 2-03 6
38 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
2. The gymnasium classes could use the grounds:
a. Open-air work is desirable.
b. This would not disturb other classes.
3. Elementary agriculture could and should be taught :
a. Such courses are practical and interesting.
b. According to the Report for 19 14 of the U. S. Com-
missioner of Education, 1677 schools already teach agriculture.
EXERCISE
Follow the directions suggested above, and prepare the final outline for your argument. Wherever possible improve it by changing the form of the sentences or the order of the sub- topics. Bring the outline to class to be read and criticized.
Practicing the Argument. The final outline should now be copied on slips of paper or on cards which will be con- venient to use before the class. On these should be in- cluded all the subtopics, and all the facts and figures that will be needed in giving the talk. The argument may then be practiced from these notes, the practice being made as nearly as possible like the actual talk before an audience. Here we shall give directions for the method to be followed in the talk, the outline being used as sug- gested above :
1. In opening your argument, state the resolution and follow this with the word ' because ' and the main reasons, naming them ' first,' ' second,' etc. For example, " I maintain that the school board should enlarge our school grounds ; because, first, the present yard is entirely too small ; second, the needed land can be easily obtained ; and third, larger grounds would be very bene- ficial to the school." This is a brief prospective summary, serving as an introduction to open the way for the real argument.
GIVING THE TALK 39
2. Now go back to the first main reason, and after restating it, proceed to prove it by means of the subtopics, ahvays remem- bering to back up these subtopics with the facts and arguments at your command. We may begin the proof of the first main point as follows : " First, then, the present yard is entirely too small. Sbc years ago, when the school was opened, there were but 225 pupils in attendance. Now there are 692. This means that the playground is used by over three times as many children as at first. Yet during this time there has been no corresponding addition to the play space. On the contrary, the grounds have actually been diminished in size, for in, March of 19 12 the basket- ball court was taken for the new manual-training shops. More- over, there is now no place for the boys to play baseball. Indeed, the present grounds are so crowded that some of the boys play ball in the street in front of the school, in spite of the fact that the law forbids street games." Continue the argument, covering all the points under I. Then conclude this main point with some such statement as this : " All these conditions show conclusively that the present yard is entirely too small."
3. State and prove the second main point in the same manner. For example, " Second, the needed land can be easily obtained. Adjoining the school is a vacant lot which can be purchased for $6100; or the owner stands ready to rent it for $30 per month. The size of this lot is — ," etc. After covering all the arguments under II, conclude somewhat as follows : " Thus, it is clear that the needed land may be easily added to the present grounds."
4. State and prove each of the other main points in a simi- lar way.
5. Finally, summarize the main points, and conclude with the word ' therefore ' and the statement of the proposition which has been proved. This conclusion might be expressed as follows : " We have seen, first, that the present yard is entirely too small ; second, that the needed land can be easily obtained ; and third, that larger grounds would be a great benefit to the school. Therefore, it is clear that the school board should enlarge our school grounds."
40 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
EXERCISES
1. a. Copy the final outline on slips of paper or cards. Use marks in the outline, at the proper places, to remind you of the fact that at the beginning and at the end of the talk the main points are to be summarized, and that at the end of the proof for each main point a sentence restating that point is to be given. Practice the talk according to the directions in the text. Perhaps you can get some friend to listen and give you criticism. Be seri- ous, businesslike, and forceful. Practice looking directly into the faces of your hearers, and try to convince each one that your arguments are sound. Give the talk in class.
b. After your argument has been given, perhaps the other members of the class will have questions to ask or arguments to make on the other side of the question. Listen to these points, and take notes as they are given. After all the pupils who wish to speak on the subject have taken part, choose several of the strongest points which have been made and reply to them. Try to make every answer complete and conclusive.
2. You have now prepared and given in class a complete argu- ment, and thus you have learned a method which can be applied to any argument. Choose another subject, prepare the material and the outline, practice the talk, and deliver it in class.
A Debate. Grammar-school pupils have frequently given excellent debates, and there is no reason why any class can- not arrange such a contest. We shall therefore state here, briefly, some general directions for a simple debate.
There should be two speakers on each side, and the points should be divided judiciously between them. For example, to take the question already used in the preced- ing section, the first afflrmative speaker may prove the first main point, " that the present yard is too small " ; and the other affirmative speaker may take the other two points,
DEBATING 41
"that the land can be easily obtained," and " that the larger grounds would be beneficial to the school." Let us suppose that after studying the negative side of the question we should find four main points, as follows: "first, the con- gestion is not serious ; second, the pupils can use the city playgrounds ; third, it W'ould be unfair to other schools which have small grounds ; and fourth, the money could be spent in better ways." Each of the two speakers on the negative side may take two points.
For beginners, each talk may be limited to five minutes, and the final talk by the affirmative speaker to two minutes. The speakers on each side alternate, and the first affirmative speaker opens and closes the debate. But a better plan will be to allow each debater two talks, the first one for a pre- pared argument, and the second for answering the argu- ments of the other side. The order of speaking should be the same for both rounds of talks, and the first affirmative speaker will have three appearances. The time allowed for each of the first speeches may be six minutes, for each of the second speeches three minutes, and for the final speech two minutes.
When each speaker appears for the first time, he should state the main points of his side, including both what he has proved or will prove, and those assigned to his partner ; that is, the hearers should be given a summary of the argu- ments of each side. It would be well to give this summary both at the beginning and at the end of each speech in the first round. The last speech for each side should conclude with a summary of the whole argument.
The debater should always listen to the points of his opponents, take n^tes, and try to give answers.
42 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS
Judges may be chosen as follows : Each side selects one student to act as judge, and the two judges thus chosen select the third. At the end of the debate each judge should write the word ' affirmative ' or ' negative ' on a slip of paper, without consulting the other judges. Two votes decide. Judges should remember that they are not to vote which side of the question they believe is right, but which two debaters gave the better argument.
EXERCISE
Choose a partner for a debate, and find two other students to oppose you. Then together select a question. Decide and write down on paper, so that there can be no misunderstanding, all such details as the exact wording of the question, the sides, the time for each talk, the number of talks, and the date for the debate. The teacher will plan a schedule for the contests.
Next, each side should study the question, gather material, find the main points, make the outline, divide the points, and study the arguments of the other side. Then each speaker should practice his part of the argument.
Below are some sample questions ; others will be found in Appendix II.
1. Resolved, that this school should adopt some form of student self-government.
2. Resolved, that smoking on street cars should be prohibited.
3. Resolved, that all girls should be required to learn dressmaking and cooking.
4. Resolved, that boys should learn how to cook.
5. Resolved, that the schools should give moving-picture enter- tainments.
6. Resolved, that football is a better game than baseball.
7. Resolved, that this city should own and operate an electric- lighting system.
DEBATING 43
8. Resolved, that the school year should be divided into four quarters of twelve weeks each.
9. Resolved, that the Monroe Doctrine has been a benefit to the United States.
10. Resolved, that the United States should operate a line of steam- ships between eastern and western seaports, through the Panama Canal.
11. Resolved, that students should decide on their occupations be- fore they leave high school.
12. Resolved, that the President of the United States should call a world convention for the establishment of a plan for universal peace.
13. Resolved, that every girl should study for an occupation other than that of a housewife.
14. Resolved, that the milk supply should be delivered by one central agency, rather than by several wagons with overlapping routes.
15. Resolved, that the Gary school plan should be adopted in our city. (See The Independent ioi December 13, 191 5.)
CHAPTER III THE SPEAKER'S APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
Thus far we have considered the preparation and the presentation of explanations and arguments, but in these discussions Httle has been said about the speaker's appear- ance before the audience, the use of his voice, his use of words, and the other factors which help to produce a pleas- ing effect. We shall consider some of these matters in this chapter. That the manner of our speaking is important we know, for it is common knowledge that many an unworthy business proposition and many a mistaken idea in political life have won recognition because of clever presentation, while many a worthy cause has failed for lack of effective speakers.
EXERCISE
Listen carefully to some speaker, preferably to one whom you have not heard before. Take notes if necessary, and come to class prepared to answer the following questions, and to give the reasons for your answers :
1. Was the speaker's subject matter well arranged.''
2. Was his manner pleasing?
3. Which was the better, his subject matter or his style of delivery ?
4. Would you have been interested in the subject matter of the speech if the speaker's manner had been poor?
5. If you knew the speaker well enough, what suggestions for im- provement could you give him?
44
THE STANDING POSITION 45
Repose before Speaking. All the recitations in Oral English classes should be given at the front of the room. When the student is about to speak, he should walk quietly and naturally to that part of the room, turn toward his hearers, and look into their faces an instant before be- ginning. If there is a chairman, the student should turn toward him when giving his opening words. Many a talk has been spoiled by the speaker's standing so far back from his audience that all could not hear him. Therefore, if the student is to speak on a stage, he s-hould come well forward.
If the speaker is to be introduced to the audience, he should sit at ease while waiting. Judgment is often passed upon a person before he begins to talk, and- even before he rises. Awkwardness in the chair, nervousness, and stiffness are quickly noted and remembered against him. Poise, ease, and naturalness all influence the audience favorably. This kind of prejudging is not fair to the speaker, but is common, and he must make the best of it by trying to win the good will of the audience from the first moment that he appears before it.
Standing Positions. Keep a natural standing position during the speech. A successful singer has said that while singing he has the feeling that his chest is extended for- ward and upward. This position gives erectness and free- dom. If the speaker is much in earnest, his body will tend to incline toward his hearers rather than to shrink from them. In a short speech, unless he is talking quite infor- mally to a small group, he will stand with the weight upon both feet. In a long talk he will use a variety of positions, all easily assumed and easily held. He will make the changes from one position to another as he goes from one
46 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
division of his speech to another, or as he gives special emphasis to certain ideas. And finally, he will do all these things unconsciously, either because they come to him natu- rally or because he has practiced them so faithfully that they have become fixed habits.
Avoiding a Support. Certain bad habits common to careless speakers should be guarded against ; for example, leaning over a table or chair or pulpit as one talks. There is no objection to such an attitude sometimes ; and there may be occasions where such a position can be maintained naturally throughout a talk. These occasions are rare, how- ever, and a student should not deliberately grow to need such a support. In his practice, therefore, he should learn to* be completely self-sustaining. It is good training for one to have to come into full-length view of an audience, with no object within reach.
Controlling the Feet and Hands. Poor control of the feet spoils many speeches. Listeners cannot follow ideas, no matter how attractively expressed, if they are made conscious of the nervous movement of the speaker's feet. Nervous- ness may show itself in a quick, jerky twitching of the feet, a repeated rising to the toes for no reason, a pendulum-like swinging of the body as the weight changes from one foot to the other, or a settling down on one foot with the other awkwardly placed in front. To recover from these habits one must remember that there is no sense or reason in such awkwardness ; the feet behave at other times, and there is no need for misplaced activities now.
The speaker must not finger the clothing, nor the knife and fork if he is conversing at the table. He must not look at the notes in his hand at times when it is not
THE STANDING POSITION 47
necessary. Let the body's activity be confined to the voice, face, and arms, and let motions that interfere with the object in view be ruled out. The speaker may practice at home alone or with friends ; then he may extend the confidence and control there gained to talks before larger groups, until success is won.
After the Talk. When the talk is finished, the speaker must not let his self-possession and ease fail him. He must close the talk with assurance, and without a suggestion of retiring to his seat. With the speech ended, the withdrawal comes — a step or two backward, an easy turn, and a dignified walk to the seat.
EXERCISES
1. Give a short talk, perhaps on a spbject which you have discussed before, and pay particular attention to the following matters :
1. Select the best place to stand.
2. Stand erect.
3. Lean forward slightly.
4. Keep the weight upon both feet.
5. Pause a moment before beginning to speak.
2. Let several students prepare a talk on any topic that inter- ests them, and let four or five others sit in chairs at the front of the room. One student may act as chairman, and briefly intro- duce each speaker. Give attention to the following :
1. Sit at ease.
2. Walk to the position for speaking with promptness and ease.
3. Pause, facing the audience, before speaking.
4. Address the chairman.
5. Change your position once or twice during the speech.
6. After the speech, return easily to your seat.
48 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
How Gestures Aid. The hands are very expressive. In many cases, as for example in making a diagram, in pre- senting a gift, in demonstrating the appHcation of a furni- ture polish, the speaker naturally and inevitably uses his hands. In fact in almost every kind of speech the hands take some part, either in actually doing things or in mak- ing gestures which help to emphasize the spoken words. For example, such talks as the following would certainly be better with the hands in use than with them passive : a description of a wireless station, the story of a boat race, the explanation of the process by which coal is mined, the introduction of a speaker. Almost never is a speech as effective as possible if the speaker makes no use of his hands.
In the speeches we have mentioned above, probably no student would find it difficult to use appropriate gestures. The hand movements would be almost spontaneous. In the case of some other speeches, however, particularly those which deal with opinions rather than with facts, the begin- ner may find difficulty. This is especially true of argument ; yet gestures should usually be used in arguing. Imagine a man speaking very earnestly, with his hands quietly at his side ! Because the student also must be enthusiastic in his arguments, he should use his hands ; and if he succeeds in argumentative gestures, he will have little difficulty with simple gestures in explanations, narrations, and descriptions. We shall therefore put the emphasis upon gesture as used in argument.
Practicing Gestures. How shall you begin ? Prepare a talk on a subject about which you hold a decided opinion. Find some room where you will not be disturbed, and there
USING GESTURES " 49
give your argument. Talk to an imaginar}^ opponent, har- angtringTiimin over-enthusiastic style, and as you speak, use your hands. Such a proceeding may seem ridiculous at first, but if you persist \ou will find that you are gradu- ally acquiring the spontaneous use of your hands as you talk, and that some of the gestures are good. More impor- tant still, you will obtain a new confidence in yourself and in your ability to appear well before an audience.
Helpful Criticism. Next, get criticism. The looking- glass — ■ the larger the better — will show certain faults in your movements. Some gestures will seem awkward, and must either be improved or discarded. Some will be ill- timed, like a false alarm, and must not be used unless they accompany a more appropriate idea. Since gestures are used to enforce ideas, if a commonplace statement is accom- panied by an extraordinary gesture the effect is the reverse of what is desired. Again, good gestures may be repeated too often. The frequent use of the same gesture is espe- cially objectionable if that gesture is an emphatic one. A powerful movement could seldom be used appropriately more than once or twice in a speech, while a simple one may recur many times. The looking-glass or a critical friend will be the judge.
After a little home practice the student should make use of gestures in his class talks, so that he may be helped by the criticisms of his classmates.
Good Judgment in the Use of Gestures. The practice just outlined will start the student in using his hands in speak- ing, and as a result he will know how to make at least three or four good gestures. Good judgment, however, needs to be exercised constantly. The student should never
50 - APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
use gestures merely for the sake of gesturing, at least not in a dignified speech in public. He must remember, too, that gesticulation, however appropriate, can never make up for deficiencies in subject matter : at best it can only add to the attractiveness of the presentation. He must not allow the swing of his arms and the appeal of his hands to hyp- notize him into thinking that a poor speech is a good one because it is adorned with gestures.
Further, gesticulation in any speech must be begun with moderation. No speech, however earnestly given, should be- gin with extraordinary action. Simple and restricted move- ments of the hands and arms should be used at first ; the hearers must be interested and made ready for enthusiastic speaking before the appearance of the sweeping gestures.
As between too much and too little gesturing, we should always choose the latter. Nothing, perhaps, makes a speaker more tiresome than a continual use of the hands. No speech requires constant gesturing. Another tiresome habit is that of representing ideas by gestures ; for example, a rainbow by a sweep through the air, generosity by the open hand, or an expression like " His schooling was cut off " by a chopping-like motion. Such gesturing should be entirely avoided.
We have already spoken of the control of the hands when they are not used in gesturing. There are times when even a slight movement would weaken the effect of a serious statement or a touching sentiment. The gestures of a rest- less person annoy the audience. Study the use of the hands made by successful speakers, and learn what to avoid and what to cultivate.
THE FACE AND EYES 51
EXERCISES
1. Look over the list of topics at the end of Chapter I, and select one which seems to have possibilities for gesturing. For this exercise gesturing means more than making drawings and handling objects ; it means free use of the hands. Practice the speech at home, and come prepared to give it in class. Do not be discouraged if gesturing is difficult for you : at least you can practice faithfully at home, and make an effort in class, even if you are but moderately successful. Try to make a definite gain over your previous ability.
2. Select an argumentative subject about which you can be- come enthusiastic : an athletic question, perhaps, or a question of school policy, an argument for a city improvement, or a political question. Practice at home, using the hands, until the gestures seem good. Ask one of your classmates to listen to your speech and criticize your use of gestures. Then give the speech in class.
3. Give a brief argument in class — one into which you can put some enthusiasm. Begin the speech with gestures which involve only one hand, and gradually increase the force of your argument and the scope of your gestures, until both arms come into free use.
The Facial Expression. If the speaker presents a dignified and natural appearance to the audience, his speech receives a more favorable hearing than it would otherwise. A sincere, pleasant countenance and a direct look also help to make a talk more attractive. The student must therefore study the management of face and eyes, so that both as he walks up to take his place before the audience and as he begins his speech, he may help to create an atmosphere of good will.
Manifesting Self-Control. The speaker's mental poise should be manifest in his expression. His face may show confidence, pleasure, and earnestness, for all these qualities
52 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
will appeal to an audience. The feelings must be under such control, however, that confidence does not become conceit, nor pleasure silliness, nor earnestness vehemence. Any sign of self-esteem, self-consciousness, carelessness, foolishness, disappointment, peevishness, disrespect, ridi- cule, scorn, or anger is sure to interfere with what the speaker is tr)dng to say, and with the meaning he wishes to convey to the hearers.
Suppose, for example, that a student is speaking in favor of adopting a system of self-government in his school, and an opponent has intimated that the only persons who ad- vocate the proposed plan are those who have had difficul- ties with their teachers. What shall be the expression on the speaker's face as he rises to answer ? It is evident that a careless laugh, a sneer, or a scowl might lead the audience to think that the statement were true of the speaker himself. The reply would better be accompanied by a pleasant smile, if it is intended to show that the accusations are not true, or by a look of serious deter- mination if it is to be admitted that there is dissatisfaction with some of the rules of the school but that such dissatis- faction may be avoided by the plan advocated. Thus the debater would have his thoughts under good control, and would inspire confidence in his hearers.
The student must not let bashfulness or nervousness or fear that the hearers will laugh keep him from earnestness of manner when the occasion demands it. His hearers will usu- ally meet him with the kind of thoughts he brings to them.
The speaker must restrain himself from emphasizing points by bobbing the head, a habit which easily becomes ridiculous. He must also guard against a stiff-necked habit.
THE FACE AND EYES 53
Looking at Persons in the Audience. It is a fact that if a speaker seems to talk first to one individual and then to another in the audience, all the listeners feel that they are being addressed. But if the speaker is looking at no one in particular, then everybody feels himself left out. The student should not deceive himself into thinking that he can get good results in speaking if he avoids looking directly into the faces of persons before him.
No speaker can expect his points to reach their mark unless he aims them. Imagine a "person trying to collect a bill from another without looking at him. This ability to look directly and steadily into a person's face is needed both for speaking and for listening. In classes in Oral English persistent attention should be given to the culti- vation of this habit. There is little opportunity for this in recitations where students recite at their seats, and as a result, young people often talk exclusively to the teacher, or let their eyes wander about carelessly. As listeners, they have no practice in looking at a speaker, except when the teacher is talking. It is for this reason that talks in Oral English classes should be given facing the audience.
A speaker has much to gain by using his eyes wisely. All experienced speakers testify to the stimulation which comes from the faces of attentive listeners. By looking at his hearers, the speaker may tell how his speech is being received : what points puzzle or antagonize, and therefore need more explanation ; what effect is being made by his gestures ; and whether or not he is talking too fast. What can a speaker possibly gain by looking at the floor, or at the wall, or at the ceiling, or at the desk, or out of the window .?
54 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
How can a speaker make his listeners feel that he is looking at each one ? Probably the best way with a large audience is to direct the eyes toward the center of the house, and then to look successively from one person to another. He should not talk exclusively to one or two, neither should he change too rapidly from one person to another. He should direct his talk for a few moments to each of as many different persons as possible. Some good speakers make it a practice to speak successively to each section of the audience ; others, in order to be heard well, talk to persons in the extreme rear. In a small group one may easily look at individuals in all parts of the audience.
The Use of Notes. Few persons object to the use of brief notes in the ordinary talk. Notes show careful prepa- ration and a desire to avoid, on the one hand, a senseless memorization, and on the other, a wandering from the subject. Care must always be taken, however, to see that neither the size of the papers nor the manner of using them attracts attention.
Large sheets of paper should never be brought before an audience unless they are original copies of letters or other documents. The paper or cards used for the outline of a talk should not be larger than four inches by six inches, and for most occasions three by four inches would be better.
The notes need never be concealed, but they should be used as sparingly as possible. To this end they must be written plainly. Typewritten or printed notes are best. Those made in pencil or red ink are hard to read by artificial light. If the cards are well made and well studied, a glance now and then will give all the help needed. The
THE FACE AND EYES 55
notes should be raised slightly each time, so that the face need not be lowered, and should be held in one hand natu- rally when not in use. In most cases the glance at the notes may be taken in one of the natural pauses of the speech. The student must not try to drive home an im- portant point and at the same time study the notes for the next point. The audience needs the speaker's eyes, and the important point needs the speaker's full attention.
EXERCISES
1. Come to class prepared to give a short talk upon a subject of your own choosing. In giving the speech, pay particular atten- tion to making your facial expression pleasing.
2. Come to class prepared to give a short argument, express- ing great earnestness, with strong disapproval of opposing ideas. Make the facial expression earnest, but do not scowl or frown.
3. Select an argumentative subject about which untrue and perhaps unfair statements might be made. Select one such state- ment to answer. Tell the audience what it is, and proceed to reply to it. Assume no vindictiveness of manner or of visage, but calmly and pleasantly show that the opinion is based upon a misapprehension of the facts.
4. Select one statement which seems to be in conflict with an opinion you hold, but which is true. Give the statement to the audience, and then proceed to make a dignified, serious answer, in which you admit the truth of the statement, but show that other considerations make it inconclusive.
5. Prepare to give a talk on a current topic or other subject. iJu not use notes. As you speak, look frankly and squarely into the faces of as many persons, one after another, as possible. Do not let your eyes move too rapidly, however. After your talk ask all those who are certain that you looked at them to hold up their hands. Note whether your attention was well distributed.
56 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE
Repeat this exercise until the eyes are trained to look at indi- viduals in the audience.
6. Arrange a conversation between yourself and a classmate and give it in class. Look each other in the face except when consulting papers or other objects necessary to the conversation.
7. Give in class a speech which requires the use of notes. Have the notes on slips of paper or cards not larger than three inches by four. Pay attention to the following considerations :
1. Hold the notes in view when you walk to your place.
2. When they are about to be used, raise them high enough to avoid bending the head to look at them.
3. Hold them with one hand most of the time.
4. Look at them only when necessary, and make each glance as brief as possible.
5. In most cases look at them only during pauses, giving your eyes to your hearers while you are speaking.
CHAPTER IV IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
W^ords are the elements which we put together to express ideas. The longer we study and the more we read and think, the more we shall need significant and precise words to express our thoughts. With a limited vocabulary we shall often be embarrassed because of the lack of the right word in our conversation. Uninteresting talkers usually belong to one of three groups: (i) those who are careless in pronunciation or articulation or both ; (2) those who have only a small stock of words at their command ; (3) those who have few ideas. Since the aim of our school work is to expand and develop our ideas and to help us express these clearly and attractively, we shall here con- sider how we may improve our speech and increase our vocabulary.
Pronunciation. No word is a part of a person's speaking vocabulary unless it can be correctly pronounced, clearly enunciated, and correctly used in sentences. Slovenly pro- nunciation must be avoided, and may be corrected by culti- vating the habit of accuracy. We must first know what is the correct pronunciation of a word before we can speak it properly, and we can acquire distinctness of enunciation only by a proper use of the lips and tongue. ' Singin' ' for 'singing,' 'feller' for 'fellow,' ' sor ' for 'saw,' are often due to lip and tongue laziness. Accuracy of pronunciation
57
58
IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
comes from an interest in taking care, an interest which it is hoped may be aroused by the considerations which follow.
The pupil should familiarize himself with the marks com- monly used by the dictionaries to show the sounds of the letters of the alphabet. For convenience in use they have been put into Table D in Appendix VI. These marks should be used in making a memorandum of words the pronunciation of which has for any reason proved trouble- some. When making note of new or mispronounced words, the pupil should respell each one, separating it into its proper syllables, marking the sounds of the letters when necessary, and indicating the accent.
The only guide to pronunciation that is always reliable is a recognized unabridged dictionary. Every person should speedily make intimate acquaintance with one such diction- ary and consult it about all words that present problems of any kind.
EXERCISES
1. Practice pronouncing correctly the following words, and come to class prepared to use any or all of them in sentences :
|
accept |
several |
library |
chimney |
|
except |
sword |
isolated |
again |
|
instead |
partner |
regular |
geography |
|
advise |
laboratory |
often |
history |
|
advice |
interesting |
government |
aeroplane |
|
catch |
apparatus |
generally |
aviator |
|
kept |
presentation |
horizon |
oasis |
|
influence |
statistics |
idea |
financier |
|
address |
theater |
athletic |
cucumber |
|
across |
toward |
Italian |
furniture |
|
get |
February |
literature |
inquiry |
|
genuine |
forehead |
probably |
blacking |
|
since |
perhaps |
maybe |
whether |
PRONUNCIATION
59
2. Practice carefully the pronunciation of the words listed be- low. Then practice reading" a short article of your own selection. Read it in class, making every syllable stand out clearly.
|
coming |
saying |
borrow |
burrow |
|
going |
playing |
window |
mellow |
|
doing |
nothing |
sorrow |
follow |
|
being |
jumping |
to-morrow |
hollow |
|
ringing |
something |
yellow |
wallow |
3. The words listed below may be pronounced in more than one way. If time and opportunity permit, study the pronunciations as given in the unabridged editions of three dictionaries. In any case consult one dictionary, and make memoranda of the author- ized pronunciations. Use the words in sentences, giving the pro- nunciation which you prefer.
|
access |
cruse |
juvenile |
reptile |
|
acoustic |
depot |
mamma |
sardine |
|
advertisement |
detail |
mistletoe |
scenic |
|
amateur |
either |
mobilization |
series |
|
apricot |
epoch |
neither |
servile |
|
banana |
every |
oasis |
simultaneous |
|
blouse |
franchise |
organization |
solder |
|
clarinet |
gooseberry |
patent |
survey |
|
combat |
hover |
pianist |
tomato |
|
comrade |
humor |
prelude |
virile |
Adding New Words. Not only must a student study to make the pronunciation of the words already in his vocabulary correct and distinct, but he must also appropriate new words. One who is standing still mentally may get along with only a few hundred words, but a person of widening experience and deep human interests will need several thousand.
The average person acquires new words only by having them forced into his consciousness. Perhaps he is reading
6o IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
an article which he wishes to understand, and finds a strange word. He must either go to the dictionary or ask some friend to help him out. Again, perhaps he is listening to a political speech, and not knowing the meaning of some expression used by the speaker, asks his neighbor to explain it to him. Later, in telling about the article, or in arguing the political question with a friend, he may find it neces- sary to use the unfamiliar term, and thus the word becomes a part of his vocabulary.
Such a person increases his vocabulary only under com- pulsion, and thus the permanent acquisition of each new word is dependent upon the repeated occurrence of the need for it. In contrast with this method, or lack of method, is the systematic manner in which an earnest stu- dent deliberately tries to increase his stock of words. As he reads letters, newspapers, magazines, or books, he writes down usable new words on slips of paper or in a notebook. He also makes a memorandum of spoken words that are new to him. By the aid of these he studies the meanings and uses of new words. And finally, he makes it a point in writing and in speaking to use each word often enough to make it completely his own.
If the student will follow some such plan as this, he will acquire great power in effective expression. If he will only appropriate some words that are new to him in each day's lessons, he will be sure to make great strides forward. He will be surprised to find how soon a word so recorded and practiced becomes his own. As he makes each of the new words a part of his speaking vocabulary, it may be canceled from his list.
NEW WORDS
6i
EXERCISES
1. Listen carefully to a speech in the school auditorium, or to some other talk by an experienced speaker, and note the words that you do not have in your speaking vocabulary. Select from these ten good words which you think are new to most of your classmates, and come to class prepared to pronounce, define, and use all of them in sentences.
2. The lists of words given below are worth knowing. Study them to see which you already use commonly. Then note those with which you are not thoroughly acquainted, and prepare to pronounce, define, and use in sentences all these words or as many of them as the teacher may think best. If any of the terms have more than one meaning, try to use them so as to show all the meanings.
|
1. abnormally 2. |
affability |
3. apologetic 4. |
authentic |
|
abrogate |
agitated |
apparatus |
authoritative |
|
absolutely |
alibi |
appearance |
ban |
|
accurately |
alien |
applicable |
benevolent |
|
acquaint |
allegation |
appropriate |
Biblical |
|
acquiescence |
allegorical |
aptitude |
blarney |
|
adequately |
allied |
aqueous |
cataclysm |
|
admirable |
alternate |
aristocratic |
chronological |
|
admittance |
annihilate |
astronomical |
circumlocution |
|
adult |
antipathy |
atmospheric |
coercion |
|
5. commend 6. |
defection |
7. duplicity 8. |
extirpate |
|
competence |
deficit |
draught |
extricate |
|
competitive |
deprecatory |
ebullition |
fabulous |
|
compunction |
destined |
engrossed |
fallacious |
|
conflagration |
deterioration |
enormous |
farcical |
|
congratulatory |
dexterous |
era |
fictitious |
|
contestants |
discrepancy |
erring |
financier |
|
contour |
discretion |
expunge |
fortitude |
|
crux |
dishonorable |
exquisite |
fortuitous |
|
culinary |
disquietude |
extraordinary |
frank |
62
IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
9. gentility gigantic grandiose grievously heed
Herculean hospitable humility hypocrisy hypothesis
13. monsieur multiplicity mystery necessarily negotiate numerical obliquity ominous ordeal ordinance
17. sovereignty spontaneity stirring strenuous structure sublime subsequent substantiate subvert succinct
10. ignition
immediately
inaugurated
incalculable
incomparable
indefatigable
indisputably
indissoluble
indubitable
inevitable
14. palatable participant patent patriot peremptorily perpetuity precedence precipitate prestige preventative
18. sufferance suitable sumptuous sundry
superabundant superfluous superintend supersede supreme sustained
11. inexplicable 12. jurisdiction
infamous
innocuous
innovation
innumerable
inquiiy
institution
interminable
intolerable
involuntary
15. prodigy puissant qualm quandary quietus remedial remit
remonstrate residual revery
19. symmetry taboo taciturn temporarily tenacious travesty tremendous ubiquitous uniformity uproar
kernel
lamentable
latitude
longevity
longing
magnanimity
metropolis
mischievous
momentarily
16. ruinous rustic sagacious salvage satisfaction schedule secondary serviceable severity simulate
20. utility vagary veracious versus vituperation vociferous warrant withstand wrangle
wry
3. In some good essay or article find ten words new to your speaking vocabulary and that of your classmates. Be prepared to pronounce, define, and use them.
Developing Fluency. Clear, accurate, and rapid thinking is the first requisite for fluency of speaking. A large vo- cabulary is also indispensable, but the fluent speaker must
ACQUIRING FLUENCY 63
have more than a mere knowledge of words ; he must have the famiharity which comes from continued use. Patient practice in speal^ing will enable the student to command the right words at the instant they are needed.
The Use of Synonyms and Equivalent Expressions. When about to use an important word in expressing an idea, the practiced speaker has perhaps five other words at his tongue's end, each ready to leap into place to supply the need : consequently there is no hesitation. With public speakers few of the instances of hesitation are due to slow- ness of thought ; the cause is usually the hunting for the right word. A help to the attainment of fluency, and to an avoidance of awkward breaks in delivery, is the study of synonyms and actual practice in using them.
Every good dictionary gives lists of synonyms, or words which have related meanings. When a person is in doubt as to the exact meaning of a word, or is perplexed about the appropriateness of its use in a particular connection, or is anxious to avoid an awkward repetition, he will profit by a study of the synonyms of the word. Suppose one is tempted to say, '" The parade was fine." Is it not obvious that if this were spoken to one who did not see the parade, the descriptive word would mean very little ? But if the speaker had used his dictionary in building up his vocabu- lary he would have at command many synonyms which would express his meaning more accurately.
If hesitation is due to lack of words, then the study of synonyms and practice with them should help to cure the habit which some speakers have of pausing and filling in the pauses with such sounds as cr, ah, etc. Ask a friend to keep account of these sounds in the course of some talk
64 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
that you give, and you will rouse yourself to the need of careful thinking, a full vocabulary, and distinct, incisive speaking.
A class in argumentation once felt the need of greater variety in opening, closing, and connecting words in debate. As a result, they prepared the following list :
SYNONYMS FOR DEBATING
Agai?i, moreover, further, furthermore, also, besides, in addi- tion to, likewise, once more, then too, more than this.
Because, for, since, as, inasmuch as, for the reason that, by reason of.
Therefore, hence, consequently, so, then, accordingly, wherefore, thence, on that account, for this reason, it follows that.
Hcnvever, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, still, notwith- standing, in spite of.
Prove, establish, show, substantiate, verify, see.
Maintain, assert, claim, allege, declare.
Finally, last, in conclusion.
Since our language has a wealth of synonyms, it should be possible for us to avoid repetitions which attract atten- tion to sounds rather than to the thought. Thus, instead of saying, " Our house is just large enough to hold the whole household," we should find it easy to say, " Our home is just large enough for all the members of the household."
Extempore Practice. The student should avoid in his practice all tendency to memorization. Memorizing crystal- lizes the vocabulary into a set form of words and thereby deadens the talk. What the speaker needs in almost every situation is a live, active vocabulary, one so varied
ACQUIRING FLUENCY 65
and so sensitive to external conditions that it can meet the needs of the moment and the temper of the audience. Such a hve vocabulary is to be acquired by practicing speeches in which a variety of expressions is used.
Suppose, for example, that you were to appear before a group of people to talk about a wave motor, that is, a machine designed to use the energy of the waves. You would need first, of course, to prepare a detailed outline. Then you would practice the talk, expressing the same ideas each time, but avoiding any attempt .to use exactly the same words. Suppose you should first express one of the ideas as follows : " No matter how bad the weather be- comes the machine will work." It would be foolish to use this rather commonplace expression each time, when any of the following would probably be better :
Even if it storms the motor will work satisfactorily.
This invention has been tested in all kinds of weather.
No matter what the disturbance, its effectiveness is unimpaired.
No heavy sea can put it out of order.
The construction is so good that it resists any wave force.
The waves will buffet it in vain ; its efficiency will not be diminished.
This appliance will be found intact after the hardest test which the elements can offer.
The result of having a wealth of words from which to choose in expressing an idea is that when you actually give a talk, the stimulus of the occasion will lead you to just the right expressions. You will not have to search for them. Perhaps a student thinks he would do well to select before- hand the best expressions to use in all cases, and then to practice the speech, using only these particular words and
66 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
phrases. If he is led into doing this he fails to take into consideration the fact that several unforeseen conditions may arise. He may find himself confronted by an audi- ence of well-informed people and have to use language of a technical nature ; or by an audience of uneducated people and need to use simple words. He may find his hearers intensely interested and thus be able to give de- tailed explanations ; or he may find them restive and be forced to hurry over certain portions of the speech. He may be faced by critical strangers and wish to use a care- ful, dignified manner of speaking ; or he may be met by sympathetic friends and be able to employ a familiar style. He may be interrupted, or questions may be raised before- hand ; in either case he will need to change his speech to meet new conditions. AH this shows that the speaker must have at his command the resources of a varied vocabulary, and that memorizing will not do.
Reading and Writing as Aids. It is a debatable question whether a person's speaking vocabulary is larger than his writing vocabulary. On the one hand, it is possible for us to write any word that we can speak, for we can verify its spelling by the use of the dictionary. On the other hand, it is possible for us to speak any word that we can write, for we may look up its pronunciation. In actual practice, however, we frequently avoid the oral use of a word be- cause we are not sure of its pronunciation ; and likewise, in our haste, we avoid the writing of certain words because we are not sure of the spelling. In most of these cases we are not entirely satisfied with the substitutions. To avoid such unsatisfactory expressions the student should form the dictionary habit as early as possible.
ACQUIRING FLUENCY 6^
Even if the student were to neglect other aids, however, writing would be a great help to the fluency of his speak- ing. When he is putting thoughts on paper, he has to search for the best words to express his meaning, and this is sure to have a good effect on his speaking vocabulary. In the case of any person, serious practice in speaking de- velops, tests, and clarifies the thought, and is thus good preparation for writing ; and practice in writing is good preparation for speaking. Many speakers make it a habit to write out carefully an entire sp'eech, and after revising and correcting it to lay it aside. They have thus thought out at least one rendering of the speech in dignified, appropriate language.
The student must remember, however, that the mere writing of words will not insure their becoming a part of his speaking vocabulary : it is necessary to use them re- peatedly in oral sentences before they really become his.
After all else is said, reading good books gives one the surest foundation for the development of fluency in speak- ing. Here we come under the sway of masters of diction, who give us the riches of the kingdom of thought and make us rulers over many kinds of expression. Uncon- sciously we appropriate words and phrases and tricks of speech. And to make the gain most rapid, we have only to read such writers aloud.
Most of us are particularly poor in words of description, but wide reading will help supply the deficiency. A student who is fortunate in having a large and discriminating vocabulary of adjectives says that he gained the use of these words by reading Cooper's "The Spy," "The Last of the Mohicans," etc.
68
IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
EXERCISES
1. Find as many synonyms as possible for each of the words below. Study the various meanings, and practice the words in sentences. Be prepared to use each word and each correct synonym in a sentence. Remember that synonyms do not often have exactly the same meaning ; therefore be ready to show the differences. The exercise may be divided as seems best.
|
1. boy |
2. dare |
3. angry |
4. happy |
|
duty |
discharge |
big |
hard |
|
fun |
earn |
brave |
jolly |
|
mercy |
examine |
careless |
nice |
|
might |
hurry |
clean |
quick |
|
mistakes |
live |
cordial |
sharp |
|
neatness |
surprise |
cute |
smart |
|
scholar |
work |
dark |
strong |
|
tact |
yell |
far |
tall |
|
villain |
yield |
friendly |
tiny |
2. Study the use of the italicized words in the sentences below. Find synonyms, and then revise the sentences so that the ideas are better expressed. Be ready to give these improved sentences in class.
1. He is very much in earnest.
2. His clothes are a// rigJit.
3. What a p)xtty tree !
4. Is n't this a ^Viff^?/ morning?
5. Hovfjzne you look !
6. Willie has a/res/i, bright smile.
7. He is a strict captain.
8. We had a very good meal.
9. This is my busy day.
10. She has an open countenance.
3. Express each of the following ideas in five other ways, and decide which is the best suited for classroom use :
1. I am very glad you came to see me.
2. I 'm pleased to meet you.
3. Allow me to introduce Mr. Williams.
4. It gives me great pleasure to present the name of Mr. Thomas.
5. How are you ?
SLANG 69
6. I am sorry to say I have n"t time.
7. I hope you will get along all right.
8. We have had a heavy rain.
9. Keep yourself busy.
10. Isn't it beautiful weather.''
4. Select a subject for an oral description, and practice the speech, paying particular attention to the choice of adjectives. Make the words fit the ideas perfectly, so that the hearers will get a complete, definite, exact, and attractive picture. Let the class criticize your descriptive words, and be prepared to defend your choice of words, or to accept the suggestions given.
5. Write a short (about 200 words) description of a person known to the members of the class, or of a building known to all. Be very careful in the use of adjectives. Read the description in class, and let it receive criticism as suggested in Exercise 4.
6. Select a paragraph or article of about 200 words, and study it to see how' it may be expressed in different words. Perhaps you may be able to improve it, particularly if it is a newspaper article. After reading the piece aloud many times, practice ex- pressing the same ideas without using any of the printed words except prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and the like. Do not write anything, but go over the thought many times with the printed paper before you, gradually developing the power to paraphrase more and more rapidly.
Read the article in class, and follow it at once with the render- ing in your own words.
The Use of Slang : What Slang Does. One day a student Qt college chanced to meet a member of the Board of Edu- cation of his home town. The greeting was cordial, and conversation was free and pleasant. But the student was more and more ashamed, as the talk proceeded, to find that try as he would to think of the right words to use, his college
yo IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
slang constantly came into the conversation. This, then, is the trouble with slang ; it crowds out other words ; it nar- rows the vocabulary. For example, the slang phrase in, ' No storm can put this wave motor out of commission,' casts its spell over us, and we do not exert ourselves to use diction- ary English. Perhaps we excuse ourselves by saying that " out of commission ' should be, and in time will be, in the dictionary, just as hundreds of such expressions already have entered the language. But you, a student, cannot put it into the language. Only use by recognized authors can do that, and meanwhile you, who should be learning to express solid ideas in reputable words, are squandering your chances to build up a good vocabulary, just for the humor of the slang.
Moderation and Good Judgment. However, we should not, and cannot, object to all slang, even if it does sometimes crowd out good words. Perhaps the safest course to pursue is to agree to the following policies ; first, not to spoil with slang the expression of an idea which is worthy of a dignified statement ; second, not to confine all our talking to ideas which seem to lead to slang ; third, to try to avoid associating constantly with persons who use slang to excess ; and fourth, whenever we use slang to try to use it appropriately.
The fourth aim, appropriate use, needs explanation. Have you not heard a speaker, in the course of a dignified and serious speech, without warning use a slang expression } The fact that his use of the slang surprised the audienc^ showed that it was not appropriate. It would have been possible for the speaker to lead up to the expression by a smile and a more informal manner of speaking. Some- times* slang may be introduced in the words of another
SLANG 71
person ; as, for example, " This machine is so strong that an auctioneer might say about it, ' Gentlemen, no matter what the weather, you will find this wave motor on the job.' " Writers of fiction often put slang into the mouths of their characters, but they so describe these persons that we should naturally expect such language from them. Appro- priate use, therefore, depends upon the subject, the time, the place, the audience, and the manner of the speaker. It is rare that any but a speaker of wide experience and of large knowledge of human nature can succeed in using slang fittingly in a public speech.
There are on record cases of boys in business who have failed of promotion because of their habitual use of slang and bad grammar. An errand boy in a bank perhaps fails to be promoted to one of the positions where he must meet customers because of his " swell " and " I seen." In business, slang habits are as unfortunate as untidiness of dress.
EXERCISES
1. Listen to the talk of persons on the athletic field, or in business, or on the street, or watch carefully your own conversa- tion. Select five instances of the use of slang. Study the words in question, and see if there is any justification for their use. Then prepare a list of synonyms, or of other expressions of the ideas involved. Come to class prepared to answer the following questions about each slang word or phrase :
1. Under what circumstances was the expression used?
2. Did the circumstances justify the use of slang.?
3. Was the slang picturesque, or expressive, or stronger than ordi- nary words?
4. What other expressions might have been used? Give at least five.
72 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
5. Is there any indication that the slang expression will ever become good English ? Do any of the dictionaries list it as " slang " ? Do any Hst it as " colloquial " ? Do any list it as authorized English, without comment ?
2. Come to class prepared to give a talk, or to take part in a discussion, upon the following subject : How can a pupil counter- act the bad influence on his vocabulary of the playground, the street, and his companions ?
Correcting Grammatical Errors : What Bad Grammar Does. No person who makes bad mistakes in grammar is likely to succeed as a public speaker. In fact he is not likely to be effective in any kind of talking. And since there is hardly an occupation at the present time which does not require intelligent speaking, the efficiency of a person's work in life depends largely upon his ability to use language correctly. Those who speak incorrectly are con- stantly suspected of ignorance, carelessness, eccentricity, or lack of ability. All these suspicions may be unfounded, but the fact remains that in both business and social relations human beings judge each other by the neatness of their dress and the correctness of their speech. Without this correctness of speech as a fixed habit, a person is likely to go through life underestimated and misjudged.
The Need for Oral Practice. Correcting mistakes by re- writing the sentences correctly will help but little ; it is the speech which must be changed. The ear must be trained to the correct words. To get this training there is no better way than by oral practice with the correct forms until the error is effectively driven out and the right form established. First try to see the absurdity of the wrong forms, and learn to avoid them as you would any other untidiness.
ERRORS OF GRAMMAR 73
Suppose, for example, that one is suffering from the habit of using 'ain't.' Let him consider the following facts : No such word exists in literature ; no person ever purposely uses it in a public speech ; no person who is at all careful of his speech ever uses it ; the word is univer- sally a sign of carelessness, hurry, or boorishness ; the dic- tionary calls it illiterate. Such considerations should show anyone the danger of accustoming the mind and lips and ears to 'ain't,' or any other grammatical error. In addition to such a study, practice of the right forms in sentences, which show as many different uses as possible, will be invaluable. For example :
SENTENCES FOR AVOIDING 'AIN'T'
I'm not going to the picnic.
You aren't as old as I am.
The other players say they 're not going to play because they are n't in condition.
We are n't in very good trim either, but we 're not afraid to play them.
Tom says he is n't going to play after this game.
Is n't that too bad !
Are n't they going to play us at all 1
Is n't every other date taken ?
Am I not on the team ? I am, am I not ?
If the student is in earnest he will soon find that the first step has been taken : he has arrived at the place where the use of the wrong form by himself or by others immediately arouses him. Thus he is on the road to recov- ery. His case would be more discouraging if he made errors in grammar without knowing it. He will find as he
74
IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
continues his practice that the correct sounds come natu- rally to the mind and lips, and do not seem so strange when they are used. In the end he will use the right forms without conscious effort.
Common Errors. Below is a list of fifty sentences which often show errors. If the student frees himself from any temptation to misuse the underscored words, he will have made progress in his speaking. Other common stumbling blocks are irregular verbs. To cure mistakes in the use of these, it is a good plan to compose sentences containing common expressions of time ; for example, "' Every day I ride to school"; "Yesterday I rode to school"; "I have already lidden to school." Stress of voice may be put on the correct forms to be learned,
GRAMMATICAL FORMS
|
Correct Form |
Incorrect For]\ |
||
|
1. |
I saw three rabbits. |
seen |
|
|
2. |
He has n't gone to school for a |
week. |
went |
|
3. |
Those fellows took it. |
Thetn |
|
|
4. |
Fni not going. He is fi't going. |
I ain't. He ain^t |
|
|
We are n^t going. We V(? not going. |
We aiivt |
||
|
6. |
I would n't have done it. |
of did |
|
|
6. |
I threw it away. |
throw ed |
|
|
7. |
He came here a year ago. |
come |
|
|
8. |
It was he. It was she. |
him, her ' |
|
|
9. |
It is I. It is we. |
me, us |
|
|
10. |
This lever is to start it. |
This here |
|
|
That lever is to start it. |
That there |
||
|
11. |
He ought not to have done it. |
hadn't ought |
|
|
12. |
I lay down on the grass. |
laid |
|
|
13. |
We were lying on the grass. |
laying |
ERRORS OF GRAMMAR
75
14. He can talk better than /.
15. He does n^t know me.
16. Each of the boats is ready.
17. I have n 't brought any pencil.
18. Where are you ^^m^ ?
19. I havenH any paper.
20. I have to do my lesson.
21. I said to him, " Come here ! "
22. I should like to go.
23. My school is different //w;; yours.
24. He can play as ivell as Tom.
25. Neither Jim nor John has come.
26. It looks as (fit would rain.
27. He rose up in bed.
28. I did it this morning.
29. If anybody wants an apple,
let h/m come here.
30. Since I am here, I '11 speak.
31. The harness is badly broken.
32. They can't explain the things
that are going on.
33. He was taken to jail.
34. This is strictly between you and me.
35. Where are they ?
36. They were all on time.
37. The boy sat on a chair.
38. May we go home ?
39. Whom did you call ?
40. I began it yesterday.
41. He behaved very badly.
42. Let me go.
43. When I heard the bell I ran all the way.
44. If I were you, I should come.
45. I don't know anything about it.
46. I don't understand your being here.
me
don^t
are
no
going to ?
have tiH got
I^ve got
says
would
than
good
have
like ; like as if
raised
done
them
Being that broke
that 's took I
are they at ? was set Can Who begun bad Leave run 2vas not hi tig you
'je IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY
47. Having a long time to wait,
/ 7vas very glad to sit. the seat zvas very welcome
48. I could see but a few feet in couldn't see only
front of me.
49. This will teach you to speak learn . . . correct
correctly
50. Have you eaten your lunch ? et
EXERCISE
Take the first ten correct forms of grammatical usage given in the above list. Practice the correct wording in as many sentences as are necessary to make the sounds perfectly familiar to you. Be prepared to use any of the forms in ten or more sentences in class. When other students give their sentences in class, listen carefully and do not let any error escape you.
Other groups of sentences may be used for additional exercises.
CHAPTER V NARRATIONS
The Four Forms of Discourse. If somebody tells us that a century ago people had to depend on candles and oil for lights, that later the value of gas .for illuminating was dis- covered, and that in 1880 the Edison incandescent light was invented, we are listening to a narrative. If we say that the incandescent light is a pear-shaped glass bulb with a brass support, inside of which is a looped wire, we have given a description. If we say that the illumination is caused by the electric current, which heats the wire to a white heat, we are making an explanation. And, finally, if we try to persuade another person that the incandescent light is better than the gas light to use in studying, we are making an argnment. Thus, in the case of the electric light, narration tells its story, description gives its appear- ance, explanation shows how it works, and argument passes judgment on it.
Combining the Four Forms of Discourse. Combinations of two or more of these four forms of discourse are com- mon. It is rare to hear a talk of any length which confines irself throughout to one form. At the least, some descrip- tive words will creep into the narration or explanation ; into the description will enter a sentence or two of explanation or argument ; and into the argument must necessarily come the other forms. The various conditions under which we
77
78 NARRATIONS
speak make these combinations inevitable. For example, the history of a country is incomplete without a brief de- scription of its physical features, an explanation of its form of government, and some argument as to the worth of its national ideals. The description of a city can often be better understood in the setting of a brief narrative of its past, an explanation of the forces of nature which have influenced its growth, and an argument as to its beauty or advantages. An explanation of the method by which we elect our presidents may be made more effective by a nar- ration of some of the complications in the past, a descrip- tion of the ballot sheets, and an argument on the worth of our method. An argument on the question of factory child labor should include a brief history of the entrance of children into factories, perhaps a description of a cannery or a cotton mill, and an explanation of the effects of child labor on both the children themselves and the community in general.
Often the narration, description, or explanation is the most effective part of an argimient, A well-told story of an accident given before a board of directors may save a man his position ; a vivid description of a room and its furniture may win a lawsuit ; a clear explanation of the workings of the commission form of government may win a debate.
Although combinations of the four forms of discourse are necessary and desirable, yet we must always keep clearly in mind what our main purpose is, — narration, description, explanation, or argument, — and every form used must be made to serve that particular purpose. In our school prac- tice it will be wise at first to confine each talk largely to one form.
THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 79
In Chapters I and II we have already considered ex- planation and argument ; in the present chapter we shall discuss how to prepare an oral narration.
EXERCISES
1 . a. Any one of the topics listed below may be made the basis of a talk in each of the four forms of discourse. Choose one of the topics, and decide how to make it form the subject of a narra- tive, a description, an explanation, and an argument. Come to class prepared to tell what ideas you would develop for each talk.
b. Prepare and deliver one of the talks.
1. An automobile. 6. A game.
2. A sewing machine. 7. A telephone.
3. A fountain pen. 8. Postage stamps.
4. A horse. 9. An aeroplane.
5. Writing paper. 10. A certain man.
2. a. Choose one of the following topics for a talk in which the four forms of discourse are used. Come to class prepared to explain to the others how you would plan such a talk.
b. Prepare and give the talk in class.
1. How education will improve citizenship.
2. The small college is better than the large college.
3. Will the aeroplane be of use in carrying mail ?
4. The advantages or disadvantages of the prepayment cars.
5. The tramp problem.
6. The European war.
7. How war interrupts business.
8. The cotton industry in the United States.
9. Laws about oil drippings from automobiles. 10. The " Camp Fire Girls " movement.
Choosing Subjects for Narrations. We never let a day pass without telling somebody about its happenings, or about events and incidents of other days. Yet many of
8o NARRATIONS
us use little discrimination in the choice of what we tell. Only significant events are worth recalling — events sig- nificant both to the tellers and to the listeners. It will be, worth while to remember this in the Oral English recitation, and to choose narrations which have meaning : those from which interest, entertainment, or profitable conclusions may be drawn. For this purpose there are many sources of good stories. All about us interesting things are happening which will be news to most of the members of the class. Magazines and newspapers are stocked with the records of events many of which are suitable for the classroom. One may also tell the stories of plays and books, provided they are not made long and tiresome.
Careful Planning. We should never attempt to tell a story without thinking over the whole narration first. If reading or study is necessary in preparing for the talk, this should be done painstakingly, memoranda being made of the essential points. If we are going to tell about a real happening, we may try to find out what event led up to the incidents with which we are concerned, and what the sequel or after-effects were. Then we should plan the out- line for the telling. The outline should be complete, in- cluding the introduction, the events to be narrated, and the conclusion. But all points not significant for the main purpose of the story must be excluded.
Opening Words. The introductory words should usually give the setting for the story ; that is, they should tell where, when, and under what circumstances the events took place. Ordinarily they should also introduce one or more of the characters of the story. Thus, if we were telling about a football game, we should preface the actual story
PLANNING THE STORY 8 1
with a statement of the schools playing, the place, and the date, and should explain, perhaps, whether or not the game was of any importance. The story of a summer vacation might begin with such a statement as the following : '" Three years ago last summer I was offered the oppor- tunity of spending the month of July with my uncle's family in a house boat on the Mississippi, I was to meet my uncle at St. Paul, and the trip was to cost me only my fare back from St. Louis."
Introducing New Persons or Scenes. As the story pro- ceeds new characters may be brought in, each being intro- duced by words which will make clear his identity and his relation to the other persons. Similarly, if the setting changes during the story, a few preliminary words of ex- planation will be needed at that point. The following expressions will indicate what we mean : ' A month later ' ; ' We must see what has been happening in Pittsburg ' ; ' When we came back to camp we found that all our blankets were wet.'
Indicating the Point of View. Sometimes the point of view used in the story is an unusual one, and must be indi- cated in the opening words. If you are one of the characters in the story, and are telling it as your personal experiences, the events of the narration should be given in the order in which they affected you. If you had no part in the story, then the order of narration should ordinarily be that in which you learned of the events. Or, if as an outside third person you are supposed to see into the minds of the actors and to tell about their motives and feelings, then you may arrange the events in whatever order will best serve the point or aim of the story.
82 NARRATIONS
Emphasizing Significant Details. In the stories which have plots, often something in the setting or the early happenings has prime significance for the climax. Thus, in the story of a mountain trip, the time of year might be the fact of most importance in the exciting part of the story. Or the point of the story might hinge on the fact that on the night preceding the events related one of the boys left his hat hanging in the schoolroom ; or that a tree had blown down ; or that a high fence prevented one from seeing beyond it. Whenever such points determine what is to happen later in the story, they must be so clearly given that no listener will miss them.
The introduction is frequently not a part of the narration itself, but consists of explanation or description, or both.
The Series of Events. After the introductory sentence or sentences, we begin the recital of the actual happenings. We must decide whether to have the action slow or rapid. Our recital must show the hearers the rate of this action. We accomplish this by expressions which show the passage of time, such as ' After a few minutes ' ; ' The next day ' ; ' In May ' ; ' At the end of vacation ' ; etc., and by the con- creteness with which we tell about actual events. Thus we give a better idea of the time involved by saying, "They dug a trench as large as the door and a mile and a half long," than by, "They dug a long trench."
We have hinted above that the point of view may deter- mine the order in telling the several events of the story. Some stories have for their climax the discovery of an event which has occurred earlier. Some books of fiction "begin in the middle," and do not tell about prior happen- ings until later chapters. As a rule, however, most of the
STORIES WITHOUT PLOTS 83
stories told in the Oral English class should follow the ex- act order of time in which the events themselves occurred. For this reason it is not difficult to prepare an outline for narration.
Two Kinds of Narrations. There are two kinds of narra- tives : those in which the events lead up to a crisis and then down to an adjustment or solution, and those in which a mere series of events without a crisis is chronicled. The story of a flood presents a crisis ; the story of a journey ordinarily does not. The presence of a crisis in a story makes a plot ; there is a complication which develops as the story proceeds and is solved before the end.
Stories without Plots. Stories with good plots are uni- versally interesting and entertaining, but those without plots are often attractive only to persons who already know some- thing of the characters and the circumstances involved. In any case the narration should be studied so thoroughly, and the telling practiced so well, that the story will be presented attractively. In arranging the outline for a narration with- out a plot, the events may be set down in their time order. An examination of this list of events will then show that they may be grouped under a few general topics. For ex- ample, the events of a trip or picnic might be grouped under the following heading :
THE EVENTS OF A PICNIC
|
1. |
The trip down the river. |
|
2. |
The swim. |
|
3. |
The lunch. |
|
4. 5. 6. |
The old fort. (Description) The games on the beach. The return. |
84 NARRATIONS
It is in stories without plots that so many speakers grow tiresome because they tell too much. Every story should have an aim or central thought, and if this central thought is kept in mind it will be easier to hold to the main thread of the story. In using the outline above, the narrator's pur- pose may be to tell what a good time he had, or to show what a splendid place for a picnic was found, or merely to share with a friend the renewal of the good times. In the case of any of these aims, he need not describe the boat they rode in, nor what they had for lunch, nor the exact order of the games, nor the detailed history of the fort ; in short, he should not exasperate his hearers with all the tire- some details which so often make listening to stories a bore.
Ask yourself why you are telling a story at all, and do not tell it unless you can find a good reason. With your purpose in mind, exclude everything from the narrative which does not bear on that aim.
EXERCISES
1. Study the story below, in the light of what we have discussed thus far. Come to class prepared to point out its merits as a narra- tion without a plot, and its defects, if you think there are any. In any case, discuss possible changes or improvements in the telling.
DAVID COPPERFIELD'S LESSON
I come into the second best pador after breakfast, with my books and an exercise book and a slate. My mother is ready for me at her writing desk, but not half so ready as Mr. Murdstone, in his easy-chair by the window (though he pretends to be reading a book), or as Miss Murdstone, sitting near my mother stringing steel beads. . . .
I hand the first book to my mother. Perhaps it is a grammar, per- haps a history or a geography. I take a last drowning look at the page
STORIES WITHOUT PLOTS 85
as I give it into my mother's hand, and start off aloud at a racing pace while I have got it fresh. I trip over a word. Mr. Murdstone looks up. I trip over another word. Miss Murdstone looks up. I redden, tumble over a half-dozen words, and stop. I think my mother would show me the book if she dared, but she does not dare, and she says softly :
" Oh, Davy, Davy ! "
" Now, Clara," says Mr. Murdstone, " be firm with the boy. Don't say, ' Oh, Davy, Davy ! ' That 's childish. He knows his lesson or he does not know it."
" He does not know it," Miss Murdstone interposes awfully.
" I am really afraid he does not," says my mother.
" Then, you see, Clara," returns Miss JVIurdstone, " you should just give him the book back and make him know it."
" Yes, certainly," says my mother : " that is what I intend to do, my dear Jane. Now, Davy, try once more, and don't be stupid."
I obey the first clause of the injunction by trying once more, but I am not so successful with the second, for I am very stupid. 1 tumble down before I get to the old place, at a point where I was all right be- fore, and stop to think. . . . Mr. Murdstone makes a movement of im- patience which I have been expecting for a long time. Miss Murdstone does the same. My mother glances submissively at them, shuts the book, and lays it by as an arrear to be worked out when my other tasks are done. . . .
But the greatest effect in these miserable lessons is when my mother (thinking nobody is observing her) tries to give me the cue by the motion of her lips. At that instant Miss Murdstone, who has been lying in wait for nothing else all along, says in a deep, warning voice :
" Clara ! "
My mother starts, colors, and smiles faintly. Mr. Murdstone comes out of his chair, takes the book, throws it at me or boxes my ears with it, and turns me out of the room by the shoulders. — Dickens, " David Copperfield "
2. Choose a subject for a narration without a plot, prepare the outline, practice the telling, and give the story before the class. Pay particular attention to the opening and the closing words. The following subjects are suggested :
86
|
• |
NARRATIONS |
|
|
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. |
A picnic. A banquet. A visit. A game. A celebration. |
6. An incident in class. 7. A trip. 8. An entertainment. 9. A current event. 10. An incident in business life. |
Stories with Plots. -When the narration has a plot, the incidents of the story must all be grouped about that com- plication, for the sole purpose of the story is to show the existence of the problem and the series of events which led to its solution or consequences.
The very first sentences of the story, the sentences of the introduction, should show the existence of a plot or the approach of a crisis. This may be done in some such gen- eral expression as the following : " One of the most excit- ing incidents of the year occurred yesterday at the public market."
Next should come the necessary information as to the setting, as we have suggested above.
Then will follow the series of events of the narration proper. The first events should deal, either directly or sug- gestively, with the plot ; for example, " Cassius decided that he would try to stir the Romans against Cassar " shows exactly what the complication or plot of the story is to be. " The engineer knew there might be danger ahead " sug- gests a complication but does not define it.
In planning the events of the story, it is necessary to work toward the climax in such a way as gradually to in- crease the interest and zest of the hearers. Each single event follows the hint given at first, until the actual crisis is reached. Each event is more absorbing than the one before it. The attention is gripped and held ; the hearers
STORIES WITH PLOTS 8/
begin to wonder how the solution can be made, how the com- pHcation can be resolved, "what will happen next." Sus- pense and expectancy come in to add to the interest and excitement. It is not difficult to see that just here great care is needed to hold the hearers in suspense just the right amount of time. This is where story-telling becomes an art.
Next comes the event or events which form the climax. These are the most exciting or interesting of all ; they are at the height of the complication, and at the very point where it is solved.
From this point the events which follow are concerned with the details of the solution and with the immediate con- sequences of the events in the climax. This part of the story should be brief but convincing. Brevity is important because the interest of the hearers cannot be maintained at the highest point very far beyond the climax. But the hearers will usually wish to know something of the after- effects or consequences of the exciting events of the story ; the narration would often be incomplete if it ended with the climax, even if this included the solution.
I'lots are often concerned with a struggle between two forces or sets of forces, or between two personalities. In- terest is aroused by showing the supremacy now of one force and now of the other. The story of the persons or forces which operate against the solution of the plot is called the counterplot.
In preparing stories for classroom telling, the pupil should remember that the best stories as well as the best plays often have unexpected solutions, an element of the unusual or of surprise, either in the manner of the solution or in the solution itself.
88 NARRATIONS
Conclusions. The story without a plot should usually have a sentence or two of conclusion. This ending should not be a part of the narration itself, but should rather concern itself with a general remark about the story, such as its value, its general interest, or its consequences.
The story with a plot may have a conclusion of the same kind, though sometimes a good statement following the climax, as explained above, will serve as the conclusion. Fables and some other stories end with morals which the stories have taught, but it is now thought best to let the listeners draw their own conclusions and to learn their own lessons from the stories.
Interesting the Listeners. In telling stories, more perhaps than in any other kind of oral exercise, the speaker needs to study the faces of his hearers, to see when the interest is keen, when to give more details, when to proceed more rapidly, and when to bring the story to an end. We give narrations for the benefit of our listeners and for no other reason. Sometimes we are tempted to give the chief con- sideration to the story, and to give the audience secondary attention. Rather we should know our story so well, through study and practice by ourselves, that we can put almost our whole thought on interesting and entertaining our hearers,
EXERCISES
1. Study the story below, and come to class prepared to dis- cuss its merits, and its defects if there are any. What changes do you think might be made with advantage ? Be prepared to point out (a) the features of the story which result in the rise of interest, (b) the climax of the story, and (c) the series of events which give the after-effects or consequences.
STORIES WITH PLOTS 89
HOW JOHN BINNS, FIREMAN, SAVED A BOYi
Thirteen years have passed since, but it is all to me as if it had happened yesterday — the clanging of the fire bells, the hoarse shouts of the firemen, the wild rush and terror of the streets ; then the great hush that fell upon the crowd ; the sea of upturned faces with the fire glow upon it ; and up there, against the background of black smoke that poured from roof and attic, the boy clinging to the narrow ledge, so far up that it seemed humanly impossible that help could ever come.
But even then it was coming. Up from the street, while the crew of the truck company were laboring with the heavy extension ladder that at its longest stretch was many feet top short, crept four men upon long, slender poles with crossbars, iron-hooked at the end. Standing in one window, they reached up and thrust the hook through the next one above, then mounted a story higher. Again the crash of glass, and again the dizzy ascent. Straight up the wall they crept, looking like human flies on the ceiling, and clinging as close, never resting, reaching one recess only to set out for the next ; nearer and nearer in the race for life, until but a single span separated the foremost from the boy. And now the iron hook fell at his feet, and the fireman stood upon the step with the rescued lad in his arms, just as the pent-up flame burst lurid from the attic window, reaching with impotent fury for its prey. The next moment they were safe upon the great ladder waiting to receive them below.
Then such a shout went up ! Men fell on each other's necks, and cried and laughed at once. Strangers slapped one another on the back, with glistening faces, shook hands, and behaved generally like men gone suddenly mad. Women wept in the street. The driver of a car stalled in the crowd, who had stood through it all speechless, clutching the reins, whipped his horses into a gallop and drove away, yelling like a Comanche, to relieve his feelings. The boy and his rescuer were carried across the street without anyone knowing how. Policemen forgot their dignity and shouted with the rest. Fire, peril, terror, and loss were alike forgotten in the one touch of nature that makes the whole world kin.
Fireman John Binns was made captain of his crew, and the Bennett medal was pinned on his coat on the next parade day. —Jacob A. Riis
1 From " Heroes who Fight Fire," 'Jltc Century, Vol. LV, p. 483 (Febru- ary, 1898). Copyright by The Century Company; printed by permission.
90 NARRATIONS
2. Choose a story with a plot, prepare the outline, and be ready to give the narration in class, paying particular attention to the development and solution of the plot. The basis for your story may be found in a paper, magazine, book, or play, or you may create the story yourself. The following topics may be suggestive :
1. The lost boy. 6. Timely help.
2. The trick that failed. 7. The capture.
3. A young hero. 8. Turning defeat into victory.
4. How the runaway was stopped. 9. Caught in a storm.
5. The race. 10. The escape.
CHAPTER VI DESCRIPTIONS
Purpose of Description. We have said that description aims to give the characteristics or distinguishing features of an object or a person. Descriptions in hterature are often elaborate and suggestive ; Scott's picture of the Dead Sea in the first pages of the "Tahsman" is an example of the wonderful power of carefully chosen words to affect the sensitive plate of the mental eye. The pupil in oral work may, after long practice, acquire the ability to make descrip- tions of real literary merit. He must begin, however, with the everyday descriptions such as he gives when telling a friend about a town he has visited, or about the appearance of a ship, or a scene at a celebration.
How the Senses aid Description. How does a person gather his material for the description of a town, a ship, or the scene at a celebration .'' Obviously, through his senses, for the ideas which he works into a description are based on sense impressions. Let us consider for a moment the gathering of information about a celebration. The sense of sight shows us forms, colors, and movements. The general shape of the whole place is perhaps revealed first, then the different details and the relative sizes and distances. The color of the sky, of the foliage, of the decorations, and of the costumes is impressed upon us, and the movements of the trees, conveyances, and people. Tlirough the other
9'
92 DESCRIPTIONS
senses we get the impressions of the stirring of the wind, and of the josthng of the merrymakers ; the sound of talk- ing and laughing, the cries of venders, and the noise of automobiles ; the smell of smoke, of gasoline, of grass, and of flowers.
Besides recounting the impressions which our senses have given us, we also weave into the description ideas which grow out of these sense impressions : beauty, curios- ity, friendship, patriotism, haste, pleasure. All these furnish the material for the essential parts of the description.
EXERCISE
a. Study one of the following subjects, drawing on the imagi- nation as much as may be necessary, to determine what descriptive material might be furnished by each of the five senses, or by the thoughts and feelings resulting from sense impressions. Be pre- pared to tell the class what impressions a person might gather as material for a talk.
b. Give the description in class.
1. A park. 6. A harbor.
2. A ship. 7. A pure-foods, exposition.
3. A farm. 8. A snowstorm.
4. An automobile race. 9. A kitchen.
5. A meat market. 10. A skating party.
The Outline for the Description. What order should a talk of description follow ? Description cannot follow the time order, for the mind receives many different impres- sions and feelings simultaneously, and neither in writing nor in speaking can we convey in an instant any such composite thought. In giving a description, therefore, as in all other talks, it is necessary to plan the order of topics.
THE OUTLINE 93
This list of topics, or outline, will usually include an intro- duction, a statement of the point of view, the statement of a central idea, the details of the description grouped under this central idea, and a conclusion.
The Introduction. The beginning of the talk should give the broader and more general ideas which lead up to the subject. These ideas may include the brief narration of the experience upon which the description is based, the reason for its interest, or its relation to objects with which the hearers are already familiar. ■ This may be done in some such way as the following : " Three years ago this winter, in a trip across the continent, I saw from the car window a blizzard on the prairie." Or again, " You have all heard of the dikes of Holland ; I am going to tell you of an island in a California river where a similar device
has been used." *
EXERCISE
a. Give the introduction to a description based upon one of the topics below.
6. Give the complete description.
1. The city -plan of Venice. 6. A view from a mountain.
2. A landscape. 7. An ocean steamship.
3. An iceberg. 8. Scenes at a field day.
4. Washington monument. 9. A picture.
5. A sunset. 10. A playground.
The Point of View. The sentence used above to intro- duce the description of a blizzard tells the point of view from which the blizzard is observed. The point of view of a person who happened to be outside the car would have been quite different. A traveler's impressions of the city of Venice depend upon whether he views it first from the
94 DESCRIPTIONS
land or from the sea, whether he observes it as he walks through the streets, or as he rides upon the canals, or as he looks down upon it from a height. It is therefore necessary for the speaker, in most cases, to indicate early in his talk his point of view.
Occasionally the point of view, changes during the talk. Such a change must be clearly indicated ; as, for example, ' Let us now get a closer view ' ; ' Passing inside the build- ing, we find ' ; ' Quite different is the view to the north.' The point of view, as we shall see later, also helps determine the order of details in the description.
The student must not think, however, that every descrip- tion should include a statement of the point of view. It is not always necessary in the case of a small object, such as a hat, a lace collar, a table ; nor in such cases as a description of the stars, of the facade of a building, or
of a picture.
EXERCISE
a. Give the introduction and enough of the description of one of the subjects below to show the speaker's point of view.
b. Give the complete talk of description.
1. A church. 6. A battleship.
2. A football game. 7. The Panama Canal.
&^
3. A mountain. 8. The city of San Francisco.
4. A railway station, inside. 9. The house you live in.
5. A railway station, outside. 10. A shop or store.
The Central Idea of the Description. As the description proceeds, one object, or one part of an object, or one idea, will probably stand out as the most important point in the talk. This must be brought out clearly, and if possible all the other parts of the description should be related to it.
THE ORDER OF THE DETAILS 95
In describing Venice the Grand Canal may be selected as the leading feature, in which case the railroads, stations, small canals, streets, squares, bridges, and buildings may be spoken of in their relation to it. Again, St. Mark's Square or the Rialto Bridge may be chosen ; or the talk may have running through it, as the central idea, the unique character of the city due to the absence of street cars, horses, and automobiles. The central idea in the description of a celebration may be the grand stand, or the entrance of the parade, or the sense of confusion, or the gayety of the people.
The Order of the Parts. Suppose we are standing in the torch of the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, looking northward. What do we see ? At first, water and ships, and land and high buildings. That is to say, the first impressions are of the larger or closer objects. The oral description must follow the same plan, giving the broad, general ideas first, and the details later. Soon after the eye first sweeps the scene, some one part of the view holds the attention and becomes the central idea. Perhaps it is the tall buildings or the busy harbor. Let us assume that it is the former, but our talk need not announce this central idea, for it will appear and reappear as we proceed.
Next come the details of the description : the separate buildings ; the Battery ; Brooklyn Bridge ; the many ferry- boats going to and from the city ; the ships entering and leaving the harbor ; the docks fringing the group of build- ings ; the two rivers and the two other cities, one on either side ; the big liner just passing on her way to the city. So the picture is completed, with whatever order of sights and sounds best suits the occasion and the purpose.
96 DESCRIPTIONS
If a person is moving through a building, the order of details is determined by the plan of the building. It is particularly helpful to the hearers for the speaker to show the connection between the parts of the description. For example, we might show that in a certain schoolhouse the main hall leads to the auditorium, that from the auditorium one may go to the gymnasium just below it, and from the gymnasium to the playground, then across the grounds to the new building opposite, etc. There should be no jumps between the parts of the talk : all should be bridged over.
Careful study of any subject selected will reveal an arrangement of the parts which might be called a natural order, an order which brings out clearly the central idea, and which makes it easy to connect the various parts, thus developing the clearest picture.
EXERCISES
1. Prepare a descriptive talk on one of these subjects, introduc- ing it briefly, stating the point of view, and grouping the elements of the description around a central feature or idea.
1. The city of Amsterdam. 6. A fruit orchard.
2. A college. 7. A factory.
3. A man, to be recognized at a station. 8. A storm.
4. An old-fashioned parlor. 9. A theater.
5. A library. 10. A harvest scene.
2. Prepare and give in class a description, making one of the following the central thought or feature :
1. A camp fire. 6. A man swimming.
2. Cold. 7. Hilarity.
3. Heat. 8. Activity.
4. A bareheaded man. 9. A tree.
5. A dog. 10. A bright light.
THE CONCLUSION 97
3. a. Prepare a complete outline for one of the following de- scriptions, taking particular care to arrange the parts in a sensible order. Bring the outline to class for criticism.
b. Give the complete description in class.
1. A new type of street car. 6. An aeroplane.
2. A bedroom. 7. A farmyard.
3. A certain animal. 8. A certain man or woman.
4. A playground. 9. A house.
5. A locomotive. 10. A city.
The Conclusion. The conclusion, may give in brief form a general impression of the object described. It may ex- press the thought we have as we look back for a final view in leaving. It may strikingly summarize the description, touching again the interest of the subject, the point of view, the central idea, and the important parts or charac- teristics. It may express the purpose or significance of the object, or the pleasure we have had in seeing it. Always it should be concerned with large features and not with insignificant details. For example, we might conclude a description of the Tower of London as follows :
My place on the bridge gave me the whole picture at once : the semicircle of buildings, the moat, the central building, the river in the foreground, and the city beyond. It was an impressive and satisfying picture, in spite of the horrible associations of the place. I shall always be glad that I saw it.
EXERCISE
a. Give the concluding sentence or sentences of descriptions based upon three of the following topics. If necessary, find out from friends or books what arc the disUnctive features or leading impressions.
98 DESCRIPTIONS
b. Prepare a complete talk of description on one of the subjects.
|
1. |
A lighthpuse. |
6. |
A parade. |
|
2. |
The boulevards of Paris. |
7. |
An auction. |
|
3. |
A monument. |
8. |
A wireless station. |
|
4. |
A Dutch windmill. |
9. |
A telephone stadon |
|
5. |
Antwerp. |
10. |
London Bridge. |
Helps in Description. Good description requires an appro- priate use of words. 'Fine,' 'nice,' and 'pretty' will not paint distinct pictures. (See Chapter IV, in which we have discussed how to increase one's vocabulary.) Another im- portant help in effective description is the use of draw- ings and pictures. Books of description are usually well supplied with these aids. Bring to class anything that will make the description more vivid : maps, blue prints, plans, charts, pictures, photographs, models, samples, or actual objects.
EXERCISES
1. Study the following description in the light of what you have learned. Be prepared to criticize it, pointing out its strong points, and its defects if there are any.
On my way to the Colosseum I crossed the Capitoline Hill, and de- scended into the Roman Forum by the broad staircase that leads to the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus. Close upon my right hand stood the three remaining columns of the Temple of the Thunderer, and the beautiful Ionic portico of the Temple of Concord — their base in shadow and the bright moonbeam striking aslant upon the broken entablature above. Before me rose the Phocian Column, an isolated shaft, like a thin vapor hanging in the air, scarce visible ; and far to the left, the ruins of the Temple of Antonio and Faustina, and the three colossal arches of the Temple of Peace — dim, shadowy, indis- tinct— seemed to melt away and mingle with the sky. I crossed the Forum at the foot of the Palatine, and ascending the Via Sacra, passed beneath the Arch of Titus. From this point I saw below me the gigan- tic outline of the Colosseum, like a cloud resting upon the earth. As I
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS 99
descended the hillside, it grew more broad and high, — more definite in its form, and yet more grand in its dimensions, — till, from the vale in which it stands encompassed by three of the Seven Hills of Rome, — the Palatine, the Caelian. and the Esquiline, — the majestic ruin in all its solitar)^ grandeur " swelled vast to heaven." — Longfellow, " Outre-Mer "
2. Prepare complete descriptions on one of the following sub- jects, and use in the presentation some of the helps to efficient description :
1. The Eiffel tower. 6. San Diego harbor.
2. Los Angeles harbor. -7. New York bridges.
t>^
3. The Boston subway system. 8. A collie.
4. The Chicago elevated loop. 9. The Dipper.
5. A park. 10. Mahogany.
Technical Descriptions. Some oral descriptions may be simplified and made more accurate by taking the technical point of view. For instance, if an architect is describing a schoolhouse to a contractor, he can use very different words from those which would be suitable for a school principal to employ in describing the same building. The differ- ence between a technical and a general description is not merely in the choice of terms ; it lies also in the purpose of the description : the architect desires to be exact, while the school principal aims to bring out general characteristics and impressions.
Technical descriptions can often be effective only with the help of written or printed records of some kind. The " description of the property " in a deed to real estate gives the lot, block, and tract number, and the name of the city, county, and state. It may include dimensions and references to bench marks and surveys. The specifica- tions which accompany the plans for a building contain an
lOO DESCRIPTIONS
interpretation of the plans, and show what is required in the quality of lumber, glass, hardware, brick, cement, electric and gas fixtures, plumbing, painting, finish, etc. The de- scription of a man, as kept by the register of voters, includes his age, color, dimensions, residence, occupation, and any peculiar marks of identification.
In most cases, to be useful, the technical description must be written, but the technical point of viezv is often serviceable in oral descriptions. Two questions must be considered in deciding whether or not to make the descrip- tion technical : Is it the purpose of the talk to give an exact description } Will the audience understand the terms
used }
EXERCISES
1. Study the following technical description, and come to class prepared to discuss its merits and defects.
A CALIFORNIA BUNGALOW
The location of the house under consideration is on Lot Four, Block Three, 243 Grove St., City of Marvin, County of Los Angeles, State of California. The lot is 50' by 160', sloping to the front. Street work is completed and paid for. Connections are provided for water, gas, electricity, and sewer. The soil is sandy loam. The place has ten fruit trees of standard varieties, four years old and bearing. There are also the usual vines and flowers.
The house is a California bungalow, cedar shingle roof. It is 24' by 28' in size, and has four rooms, bath, front porch, and screened sleeping porch. The living room is 14' by iS'. The dining room is partially separated from the living room by a fireplace set diagonally in the corner of the living room, and by a bookcase. The dining room is 12' by 14'. Back of the living room is the bedroom, 10' by 12', with a clothes closet 4' by 4'. The bathroom is 6' by &. Back of the dining room is the kitchen, i o' by 1 2'.
The house has several built-in features : window seats, bookcase, china closet, cooling shaft, folding bed, chiffonier, and cupboards.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS loi
The plumbing is first-class, with a 30-gallon tank and gas heater. The house is well lighted with incandescent electric lights.
The interior finish is natural redwood, unpainted. The kitchen and bath are finished in pine, varnished in natural color.
The house is one of the most convenient of its kind.
2. a. Discuss the circumstances under which a description of each of the following subjects should be technical.
b. Prepare and give a general description.
c. Prepare and give a technical description.
1. An oak tree. 6. A dress.
2. A gas stove. 7. A rneal.
3. An automobile. 8. The interior finish of a house.
4. A watch. 9. A piece of furniture.
5. A trunk. 10. A street.
3 . Give a technical description of one of the f ollow^ing :
|
1. |
An overcoat. |
6. |
A bellflower apple |
|
2. |
A typewriter. |
7. |
A camel. |
|
3. |
A garage. |
8. |
A cedar chest. |
|
4. |
A mountain range. |
9. |
A watch. |
|
5. |
A cornet. |
10. |
A book. |
4. Prepare a talk — narration or description, or both — to give in class, selecting the subject yourself. Try to find a topic that will be interesting to your hearers. If you select a travelogue, interesting combinations of narration and description may be made. The following may be suggestive :
1. Buildings. 6. Picnics, parties, and social events.
2. Parks. 7. Celebrations.
3. Ocean scenes. 8. Personal experiences.
4. Towns and cities. 9. Excidng events.
5. Streets, squares, and 10. Historical events.
crossings.
CHAPTER VII SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
The Need for Business Talks. More and more in busi- ness affairs a salesman or an agent or a manager has to appear before several persons, often a committee, to present a definite proposition. Thus an agent for books or maps may address a committee of teachers ; the . bidders on a fire engine may talk to the city council ; an automobile salesman may have to speak before the directors of a business corporation ; an architect may talk to the school committee in favor of a certain type of schoolhouse.
No matter what our occupation is to be, we shall some- times need to persuade others just as the business man does, even though the conditions may be somewhat different. Therefore in our school practice we should include the busi- ness talk. In a later chapter we shall discuss ther interview, but here we shall restrict our attention to well-arranged, complete talks. Imagine yourselves, therefore, each a repre- sentative of a certain business firm, or each an exponent of a business idea, and let the Oral English class act as the committee to which you are addressing your proposition.
The Appeal to Interest and Service. The speech pre- senting a business proposition should begin with an intro- duction which aims to interest the listener in what is to follow. Although the element of interest is very necessary, it should not be aroused by the cheap tricks of the street
I02
THE OPENING WORDS 103
seller, nor by any kind of exaggerated statement. What should we think of a man who began his talk, "' I come before you to offer you the opportunity of your lives," or, "This is the best piece of land on the face of the globe"? Even if doubtful methods are sometimes used by successful business men, the student must remember that he is build- ing for the future, and that questionable methods of adver- tising are rapidly passing. The man who uses such means has to meet suspicion instead of open-minded attention. There is left, then, only the same method for arousing interest which we have discussed in a previous chapter : connecting the proposition with thoughts already in the minds of the hearers. This connection may be made by showing the hearers that they have a need which you can satisfy. For example, if you were giving a talk in favor of a particular book on music, you might begin : " Almost all of you would like to become better acquainted with good music. Even if you are not interested in music, at least you have friends who are, and you would be doing them a kindness to call their attention to this book."
Good business is founded upon service rendered and mutual benefits, and the introduction may well take that idea as its basis. Thus the introduction to the business talk should call attention to the need that exists, and should then suggest that the proposition to be presented will satisfy that need.
Any attempt to sell goods when they clearly are not wanted should be avoided. People are less and less de- ceived by such methods, and more and more the salesman's aim must be to try to win a satisfied customer rather than merely to make a sale.
I04 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
EXERCISES
1. Criticize each of these opening sentences either favorably or unfavorably :
1. We intend to show you something new under the sun.
2. In presenting this plan for your approval, we guarantee that all who accept it will be satisfied.
3. Every person in this magnificent audience ought to interest himself in this splendid opportunity.
4. No person can afford to be without a pistol in the house.
5. Everyone wants to know about aeroplanes, and we think we have here the best book yet published on that subject.
6. Our stock of seeds and plants is so large and complete that we can meet all requirements.
7. Probably all of you believe in the saying, " See America first." I am here to tell you how you may accomplish this.
8. I am indeed pleased to have this opportunity to appear be- fore you.
9. No one can afford to be indifferent to the great political prob- lems confronting this nation to-day. This lecture has for its subject what has been called the problem of the hour.
10. We are here this evening representing three thousand citizens who are interested in having a high school built in our section of the city.
2. Give opening sentences for three talks the object of each of which is the selling of one of the following articles :
1. A map of the United States. 6. A book of puzzles.
2. Tickets to a football game. 7. An automobile.
3. An electric battery. 8. A bicycle.
4. An office desk. 9. A dictionary.
5. A dog or other pet. 10. Tickets for an entertainment.
The Description or Explanation. After the introductory words comes the presentation of the details of the propo- sition itself. These details will concern two main topics : first, a description or explanation ; and second, the terms.
THE DETAILS 105
Telling the Advantages. If a person is giving a talk for the purpose of interesting someone in gas stoves, he must, as soon as his introduction is finished, give a careful description of the particular stove for which he is agent. If he is selling a new kind of cement, he must tell how it is used. Thus, in presenting a business proposition, he must both describe and explain. To do this well the stu- dent should study the principles of good description and explanation.
Showing the Goods. Above all, for a business talk, he should make use of the aids to presentation already dis- cussed (Chapters I and VI) : diagrams, models, etc. No business man would think of tr)ung to sell books, rings, horses, or automobiles without showing the goods. The architect in selling plans for a house has something tan- gible to aid him. The seed merchant shows pictures of the grown plants ; the inventor, diagrams and printed circulars ; and the manufacturer, tables of figures. So the student should, when possible, show the actual article, pointing out its characteristics and demonstrating its operation, even offering it to the audience for their personal inspection.
Emphasizing Special Details. Attractive details should receive special attention. Many an automobile purchaser has selected his car largely because of some detail of con- struction which caught his attention and held it. Such details often seem insignificant to one familiar with the subject, yet companies learn to make them special features of their advertisements because they attract attention, and because they offer a means of contrast with a Competing proposition. Business talks constantly use the idea of con- trast. An agent can be more than fair to opponents, and
Io6 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
yet show how his plan avoids the disadvantages of other plans, and how it is better than any other. Thus a speaker who advocates a special kind of roofing paper may point out the defects of roofing papers in the past, and the efforts made by his company to obviate these difficulties.
References. Actual instances of success should be enu- merated. The speaker may tell about the tests the article has already had, and the results. Testimonials, names, and addresses may be offered, so that anybody may obtain disinterested information.
EXERCISES
1. Give a business talk on one of the topics below. Make use of concrete helps in your presentation.
1. A clothes tree. 6. A painting.
2. A particular kind of gloves. 7. An encyclopedia.
3. Tickets for an excursion. 8. Accommodations at a hotel.
4. Subscription to a magazine. 9. A special kind of paper,
5. A house and lot. 10. Seed for hay or grain.
2. Demonstrate one of the following as a business proposition, making your talk as convincing as possible :
1. A camera. 6. A hinge.
2. A cultivator. 7. A cornet or other instrument.
3. A letter file. 8. An electric alarm.
4. A glove cleaner. 9. An egg beater.
5. A music stand. 10. A printing frame.
3. Make inquiry among the stores of your town about articles which you might describe and demonstrate. Ask permission to borrow samples to use in class. Find out all you can about char- acteristics, processes, distinctive qualities, successes, etc. Select one article and prepare yourself to describe and explain it. The following are suggested :
THE TERMS OR AGREEMENT 107
|
1. |
A typewriter. |
11. |
An ice-cream freezer, |
|
2. |
A typewriter desk. |
12. |
An electric iron. |
|
3. |
Furniture polish. |
13. |
An alarm clock. |
|
4. |
A window fastener. |
14. |
Shoes. |
|
5. |
A motor cycle. |
15. |
A folding umbrella. |
|
6. |
A baseball (show the inside). |
16. |
A raincoat. |
|
7. |
A washing machine. |
17. |
A lock. |
|
8. |
An ice chest. |
18. |
A sewing machine. |
|
9. |
A phonograph. |
19. |
A trunk or valise. |
|
.0. |
A gas range. |
20. |
A rug. |
The Terms of the Proposition. -After the listeners thor- oughly understand what the article is and how it works, they must be told the terms of sale. Often, however, there are times when it might be an advantage to give some hint as to the price at the beginning of the talk. Suppose, for example, that a speaker is advertising a set of thirty books of the world's best literature for ten dollars. He should hint in his introduction, as an added reason for interest, that the books are offered at a greatly reduced price. On the other hand, there is justification for exactly the opposite procedure. The low price of the books may be kept as a pleasant surprise for the end of the talk ; or in the case of some expensive article, the price, which might seem a disadvantage, may be held in reserve until the description and explanation have shown that it is not excessive. Tact and judgment must therefore be used. The speaker must present the conditions and terms at the moment that they will be most favorably received by the hearers. He must especially avoid giving the impression that the terms are purposely withheld until the last possi- ble moment; this would be fatal to the confidence upon which good business is built.
I08 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
Being Definite. The terms of agreement are always to be made definite, so that the prospective buyer will know exactly what he may expect, and what is expected of him. In the case of machinery, real estate, and, indeed, of many things purchased, exact descriptions are furnished by the salesman. These descriptions are called specifications, and cover every detail of construction and appearance. The statement of the terms may include the price, the time of payment or payments, the time and manner of delivery, and the rate of interest. In the case of real estate, the speaker should follow the example of the best dealers by telling what assessments will fall due for improvements made or planned. In the case of a piano or other large article, the time of delivery should be specified, and by whom the freight is to be paid. In the case of a piece of work, the time for beginning and for completing it must be included. Sometimes it may be stated that an article can be returned if it proves unsatisfactory. When the offer to sell holds good for only a limited time, this should be definitely understood.
Suppose, for example, that a man has been demonstrating a vacuum cleaner. He may state the terms as follows :
We agree to lend this machine and all these parts for a week's trial, with no expense to you. If you decide to keep them, you are to pay us one dollar a week, without interest, for thirty-five weeks. If for any reason you wish to return the machine within one year from the time you make your first payment, we will allow you seventy-five per cent of the total payments you have made on it. We agree to keep it in working order for two years.
THE TERMS OR AGREEMENT 109
EXERCISES
1. a. Frame sentences for use in the early part of talks on three of the following propositions, and hint that the price charged is not a low one.
6. Give one of the talks, complete.
1. A bookcase. 6. Orange trees.
2. A Bible. 7. A fountain pen.
3. A piano. 8. An automobile tire.
4. A piece of velvet. 9. Gasoline.
5. Butter. 10. A trip to South America.
2. a. A contractor nearly lost a street contract because his bid was so much lower than the others that the city council thought he could not be a " responsible bidder." He explained that his company was in the habit of rushing work and could therefore save time and money. He got the contract and made good his word. In a similar way be prepared to state before the class good reasons for low prices in three of the following cases.
b. Give one of the talks, complete.
1. A secondhand violin. 6. Furs.
2. A diamond ring. 7. Breakfast food.
3. Point lace. 8. Tickets to a concert.
4. A cow. 9. Eggs.
5. Paint. 10. A baseball glove.
3. a. Decide, in three of the following cases, whether or not any hint about the price should be given at first ; be prepared to give your reasons.
b. (Vive the complete business proposition for one topic.
1. A low-priced suit. 6. A high-priced building site.
2. A low-priced set of carpenter's 7. A high-priced blanket.
tools. 8. A high-priced ostrich feather.
3. -V low-priced table. 9. A high-priced chair.
4. Low-priced pencils. 10. High-priced music lessons.
5. Low-priced tea.
no SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
4. a. Prepare and state before the class the terms of some proposition suggested by one of the following. b. Give one complete talk.
|
1. |
A dozen photographs. |
11. |
Wall paper. |
|
2. |
A fruit orchard. |
12. |
A turning lathe, |
|
3. |
Shares in a mine. |
13. |
Digging a well. |
|
4. |
A ship. |
14. |
A windmill. |
|
5. |
A correspondence course. |
15. |
Making a dress. |
|
6. |
Renting a house. |
16. |
An excursion. |
7. Painting a house. 17. Life insurance.
8. A set of literature. 18. A motor boat.
9. A motor cultivator. 19. Floor space in an exposition. 10. Subscription to a telephone. 20. Service as a chauffeur.
Concluding the Talk. We have so far considered three parts of the business proposition : the introduction, the description or explanation, and the terms. The talk may now be ended with a sentence summarizing the attractions of the proposition, followed perhaps by directions for ob- taining further information. The summary should be clear and crisp like the following :
These trees are evergreen ; they have a rapid growth ; they require little attention ; they withstand the wind and weather ; and, on account of fortunate circumstances, we are able to offer five hundred of them for immediate delivery at twenty-five per cent below the usual price.
The directions for obtaining further information must depend on circumstances. The speaker may arrange for a trip to see the property, or he may obtain the names and addresses of those who wish literature on the subject, or he may announce opportunity for immediate personal inter- view. Telephone numbers, addresses, hours, etc, must be given with great distinctness. To the sentence of summary
ANSWERING QUESTIONS III
given above, something like the following may therefore
be added :
We should be glad to have any or all of you call at our nursery, 3327 Broadway. Or if you will let us know in advance, we shall be glad to call for you. We can also show you some of the streets which were planted with these trees two years ago. Our telephone number is North 229.
EXERCISE
Give conclusions for two of the following propositions :
1. Selling a pair of skates. 6. Renting tents for a camp.
2. Installing gymnasium apparatus. 7." Installing speaking tubes.
3. Furnishing a hotel with ice. 8. Selling a motor truck.
4. Wiring a house for lights. 9. Selling a set of Shakespeare.
5. Selling a gas heater. 10. Selling a set of knives and
forks.
Answering Questions. Always before the speaker with- draws, he should say that he would be glad to answer any questions about the proposition. The talk should be so well planned, of course, that most questions will have been anticipated. If a great many questions about the proposi- tion itself are asked, it shows that the speaker has failed in his presentation. For example, a fire-hose contractor should have anticipated the question : " How soon can your company deliver the hose ? "
But there are other questions which indicate a great interest aroused, an interest which demands wider infor- mation. A tree expert, who was once presenting a park proposition to a city council, was asked to explain why it is that tree trunks sometimes grow out in knotty bunches ju.st where they meet the ground. Such questions show a speaker's success, because they prove that real interest has been awakened.
112 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS
EXERCISE
In each of the following propositions should the speaker have anticipated the question ? Talk them over with older people, if you wish. Give reasons for your opinion.
1. (Building a boat) " What metal do you intend to use for the fittings?"
2. (Repairing an automobile engine) " What kind of lubricating oil do you use ? "
3. (Building a barn) " What color shall you use for the priming coat?"
4. (Furnishing transportation for a picnic) " Will the car be kept at the picnic grounds all day ? "
5. (Putting a handle in a shovel blade) "What kind of wood is most often used for shovel handles?"
Choosing Subjects. Business propositions vary in com- plexity from the oral advertisement of the newsboy shouting, " Papers, one cent ! Full account of the election ! " to the speech and demonstration made by an agent selling a fire engine to a city board of trustees. In the school work begin with something simple, such, for instance, as an offer to sell a secondhand book. Later, try a more ambitious proposition. Select the subject carefully ; study the article or process ; practice the parts of the speech — introduction, description and explanation, terms, and conclusion — and theri be prepared to give the complete proposition. Refuse to present a proposition which you cannot wholly indorse.
Many subjects will suggest themselves to you in your daily observation. You should also try others entirely out- side your experience for the purpose of widening your vision. If you are studying the various occupations so as to decide which you shall take up, you will find it helpful to select for a talk some proposition suggested by this study.
CHOOSING SUBJECTS
113
EXERCISE
Prepare and deliver a business talk on one of these subjects, or on another of your own choice.
|
1. |
An emblem watch fob. |
21. |
A jewelry business. |
|
2. |
A wireless receiver. |
22. |
A furniture store. |
|
3. |
A chest of drawers. |
23. |
A hardware business. |
|
4. |
Poultr>\ |
24. |
A restaurant business. |
|
5. |
A baking pan. |
25. |
A barber shop. |
|
6. |
A gas engine. |
26. |
A candy store. |
|
7. |
A bell. |
27. |
An option on a lot. |
|
8. |
Wire fencing. |
28. |
A bathhouse business. |
|
9. |
A potted plant. |
29. |
A business building. |
|
10. |
An oven. |
30. |
A lease 'for an apartment house. |
|
11. |
An aquarium. |
31. |
A truck garden. |
|
12. |
Hoisdng apparatus. |
32. |
A wheat crop. |
|
13. |
Weighing scales. |
33. |
Plowing a field. |
|
14. |
Field glasses. |
34. |
Cutting hay. |
|
15. |
An induction coil. |
35. |
Installing an elevator. |
|
16. |
A load of firewood. |
36. |
Building a garage. |
|
17. |
Subscription to a magazine. |
37. |
Stock in a shoe factory. |
|
18. |
An adas. |
38. |
Stock in a real-estate company. |
|
19. |
An advertisement in the |
39. |
Stock in a bank. |
|
school paper. |
40. |
Municipal bonds. |
|
|
20. |
Planting a lawn. |
CHAPTER VIII STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
Style is as important a consideration in oral as in written composition. Many of the principles of good expression are common to both spoken and written English, Only the mechanics differ, and even these, as we shall see, are closely related. The treatment in this chapter will emphasize some of the principles which are of special significance in making the style of a speech attractive, forceful, and clear. How the voice can help will be reserved for Chapter X.
How to avoid Awkwardness. The speaker must think ahead as he talks even more carefully than does the writer as he writes. If an error is made on paper, it is possible to correct it easily. But an oral error, even if it is at once corrected, is noticed by the hearers. An earnest effort must therefore be made to avoid errors of speech, and to this end the student must cultivate a ready mind which will grasp the whole sentence before the opening words are spoken. The speaker who stumbles through his sentences, making his way only by means of awkward expressions and errors of construction, is often one who starts his sentences without thinking how he will finish them.
The student must develop this power to think ahead. He may begin on short sentences. He may think that he can easily hold in mind the thought expressed by six or
114
CLEARNESS 1 1 5
eight words, but language plays queer tricks even in short sentences. For instance, consider the following sentences :
1. Only Jane fried eggs to-day.
2. Jane only fried eggs to-day.
3. Jane fried only eggs to-day.
4. Jane fried eggs only to-day.
5. Jane fried eggs to-day only.
6. Jane fried eggs to-day.
It is obvious that although stress, pitch, and pause may help to determine the meaning, the speaker must also arrange the order of his words beforehand if he is to avoid being misunderstood. Into the sentence which has not been planned ambiguities slip. ' Send us both books ' may seem clear to the speaker, but his hearers may interpret it in two ways : ' Send both of us books, ' or ' Send us both of the books.' Each of the following sentences is somewhat awkward because the speaker has not thought out the best order of words :
1. He, followed by his dog, climbed the hill.
2. He is one of the men we may well always be proud of.
3. The only way is to everlastingly keep at it.
4. It is, barring accidents, certain that we shall be done in a month.
5. We probably shall in a few days plant a hundred acres.
6. In order to cook dried peaches, they should be soaked beforehand overnight.
7. When he once decides to do the work, he can be depended upon after he begins.
In each of these cases the speaker probably had a clear idea in mind, but he failed to plan the best way to express that idea.
Ii6 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
EXERCISE
Decide what meaning was intended to be expressed in the sentences quoted above and in those given below, and revise them so that there can be no misunderstanding. Give them in class.
1. I have written neither to mother nor father.
2. We are going to hardly be able to get there on time.
3. The umpire threw Will and Fred both baseballs.
4. We will only come once more.
5. He is a man who, whenever he had a chance, has, so far as possible, helped the poor always.
6. I like to swim very much.
7. This is a bad law ; we have too many of them already.
8. Our subscription list contains more than any paper.
9. I wish to talk to you about the football situation in my room. 10. We not only saw London, but Paris also.
Variety in the Sentence Structure. Variety in length and form of sentences must be the aim of the student speaker in his practice. If he will experiment along this line in his schoolroom talks, he will find that his speaking becomes more pleasing.
Varying the Length of the Sentences. Short sentences are suited to the expression of vivid ideas. Excited con- versation and rapid narration will illustrate :
" Now is our chance," I shouted. " They can't make it," said a boy at my elbow. " Can't they ? " said I. " Watch them do it." Then we began. First Jack stole second. Then Ed bunted. The ball rolled toward third. The pitcher got it. He glanced at Jack on third. He threw to first, and Ed was out. Then the catcher made a wild jump for a high throw and landed in a cloud of dust. Jack had scored !
Long sentences are suited to more involved thoughts ; they are necessary for the explanation of complex matters.
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES 117
Simple facts may be expressed in short sentences ; the explanation of these facts may require longer ones. Too many short sentences give the impression of abruptness of speech ; too many long ones strain the attention and easily make a talk tiresome. Variety is the spice of composition.
For the person who, child fashion, strings his statements into long sentences by the use of 'and,' there is no surer cure than to give talks in which he forces himself to use short sentences, emphasizing the sentence endings with the decisive down stroke of the voice. •
Varying the Form of the Sentence. Consideration must be given also to the form of the sentence. Let us illustrate the emphasis given to the various ideas by the use of the periodic, the loose, and the balanced sentence, and by parallel structure. Sometimes a speaker wishes to hold the attention of his hearers in suspense — to emphasize the thought by holding it until the completion of the sentence :
For wear, for looks, for price, for cheapness of operation, for general road work, in fact for all the desirable qualities which any man may ask, this car is the best.
This is the so-called periodic sentence. At other times the loose construction is better. It often gives the effect of piling up and strengthening the evidence :
This car is easily the best for the money, because it is strongly built, it has a good appearance, its price is reasonable, and its cost of operation is small.
In some cases the balanced sentence is more effective than any other :
The proposal of the Liberal Party involves a new expense ; the proposal of the Conservative Party guarantees an added income.
Ii8 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
In other cases, merely to give parallel structure to similar parts of a sentence is effective. Note that this sentence is also an example of climax :
This man has been industrious in his business ; he has been faithful to his family ; he has been loyal to his country ; he has . been true to his God.
It will be helpful to use all these forms in practice work. But do not try them in public until they become your own. In your listening and reading notice the variations in structure, and study to see in what ways they make the style attractive.
EXERCISES
1. Prepare yourself to give two short talks, one made up chiefly of short sentences, and the other of long ones. Select your subjects carefully, and practice faithfully. Do not strain after effect, but let the style be decided by the necessities of the subject. Give the talks in class.
2. Practice composing periodic sentences, but do not write them out ; give them orally without notes. Try to get in mind the peri- odic idea, which is to hold the thought uncompleted till the end of the sentence. Then prepare a short talk which consists of several periodic sentences. The preparation should be made by going over the talk orally, using only an outline. Practice until the talk goes smoothly. Give it in class.
3. Select a subject which deals with contrast, such, for example, as the difference between two schools, colleges, persons, cities, parks, or countries. Make an outline of topics, and practice with it. Then give the speech in class, using some balanced sentences, but avoiding the monotony of a long series of such sentences.
Concrete Examples and Illustrations. Examples and illus- trations serve to connect abstract or theoretical ideas with matters of common experience. Suppose we are trying
EXAMPLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 1 19
to convince a baseball captain that his team needs more practice. We point out case after case of fumbles, wild pitches, awkwardness, slowness, and errors of judgment. Or again, suppose a statesman is explaining the direct primary law. Somewhere in his address he will take an actual case ; he will show in detail just what a certain man would have to do in order to become a candidate for governor.
Both explanation and argument are chiefly concerned with ideas, whereas narration and description deal largely with actual evejits, objects, and facts. And when explana- tion and argument have to do with abstractions, there is special need of examples. The mind grasps concrete thoughts about places, persons, sizes, numbers, times, move- ments, and happenings much more easily than it does abstractions.
To establish the fact that it pays to buy good material, we argue not only from a theoretical standpoint but from a practical one as well. We tell what would happen to a dress put together with cheap thread ; or we cite an actual case, such as one man's experiment with lumber of poor grade and another man's success with a better grade.
Sometimes the example is so well chosen and clearly put that the abstract truth does not need to be formulated in words : the idea intended to be conveyed is at once apparent. For example, suppose the speaker is relating some of the problems of a housewife. If he says, " Even when a person must pay sixty cents a dozen for eggs, almost all those on sale arc more than three months old," he will not need to state the more general truth that the reason eggs are high is that fresh ones are scarce. Similarly,
120 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
if a person is giving a talk on tliouglitfulness and considera- tion for others, and wislies to bring out the idea that most boys are apt to be kind when they think about it, he need only say, " When John is not absorbed in his paper or book he can be depended on to give his seat in the car to a woman."
Figures of Speech. We use figures of speech when we employ striking or imaginative comparisons, or unusual constructions, or, in general, whenever we depart in a radi- cal manner from ordinary matter-of-fact methods of talking. Thus we use figurative language in such sentences as the following :
This ship is plowing across the ocean. That clock is a faithful friend. His face was a puzzle.
The room was so full of old paper that it looked like a huge wastebasket.
The shot fired at Sarajevo was heard throughout the world.
If we are explaining that the man who starts an orange grove must have money enough to keep up the place until the trees begin to bear, we may illustrate this by means of some such comparison as, '" The person who crosses the desert must take plenty of water," Or again, we may show the need for keeping the mind alert, fresh, and clear by instancing the value of proper adjustment, lubrication, and cleanliness in the case of a delicate piece of machinery.
Many of our proverbs are concrete statements of abstract truths, and most of them are used as striking comparisons to explain or prove a general proposition. We have grown so accustomed to these common figures of speech, however, that they have lost most of their original vividness. When
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 121
the proverb, " A rolling stone gathers no moss," was first formulated to illustrate the truth that a roving, aimless man cannot acquire friends or worldly goods, it was undoubtedly very effective ; but it has now become so trite that we never think of the actual stone, any more than we think of hay when " Make hay while the sun shines " is spoken. So if we wish to make effective the rolling-stone thought we may perhaps succeed better by the use of a concrete instance : " The salesman who changes his position every month can hardly acquire the good will of any of his employers." Or we may use an analogy : " The ship which merely drifts •with the tide and wind will never reach any port."
Other proverbs furnish good examples of the contrast between the abstract and the concrete. " The unexpected always happens " is so broad a statement of the abstract thought that it covers hundreds of instances. The effective- ness of the larger truth involved might be made more appar- ent by selecting one of the concrete instances for statement ; for example, " When you expect a laugh you may meet with a frown."
On the other hand, the proverb, '" One swallow does not make a summer," is a concrete instance of a general truth. If we seek for the abstract statement which includes this instance, we might find it in the following expression : "A sweeping conclusion should not be drawn from but one fact."
The best public speakers make liberal use of figures of speech, tor they know that these add vividness and strength to their thoughts. They try to develop a keen imagination, so that pictures, comparisons, and analogies will occur to them at the right moments. The ability to dream dreams
122 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
is a prime necessity to one who would make bright, inter- esting speeches. And the dreams must be more than ordi- nary day dreams. Can you imagine yourself walking down a street of Petrograd ? Can you experience the sensations of riding across the Atlantic in an airship ? Can you put yourself at Gettysburg and hear President Lincoln deliver his address ? Can you think out how you will look and what you will be doing when you are sixty years old ? Can you find yourself in the future when the trusts may be owned by the government, and think what the conditions will be ? Can you imagine yourself speaking in Congress ? We Americans would become not only better speakers, but better citizens, if we should occasionally become as little children in the matter of the imagination, dreaming some- times of flying with the birds, of living in the clouds, of talking with the animals, and of doing the deeds of heroes.
The student will profit by referring to books on written composition for examples of the uses of figures of speech, particularly of similes and metaphors in description.
Finally, a person who wishes to improve his style of speaking by the use of imagery must delve into literature. A page of Dickens or Scott will show how common in fic- tion is the use of figures of speech. Poetry is packed with comparisons, witness "" Snowbound " or " Hiawatha." The Bible is rich in proverbs, parables, metaphors, and other figures of speech.
EXERCISES
1 . Bring to class at least five examples of each of these genera} statements :
1. This school has good school spirit.
2. The athletic activities of the school might be improved.
USING EXAMPLES AND FIGURES 123
3. The school building is in need of repairs.
4. There will be many things for future citizens of this city to attend to before it will be an ideal place in which to live.
6. We can learn several things from foreign countries.
2. Tell an incident (either an actual event or a story of your own construction) to illustrate the satisfaction which comes from the possession or exercise of one of the following good qualities. Do not have the story concerned with mere material rewards.
1. Education. 6. Tact.
2. Quickness. 7. Honesty.
3. Persistence. -8. Loyalty.
4. Ability to debate. 9. Endurance.
5. Kindness. 10. Good reputation.
3. Bring to class instances of five of the general statements below-. Let the example in each case be of such a nature that the general statement need not be given. Let the class decide which concrete instance best brings out the meaning.
1. When the agricultural interests prosper everyone is benefited.
2. When the times are hard, crime increases.
3. If the nations would only put more friendliness into their rela-
tions, the cause of universal peace would be aided.
4. Liars use figures (statistics).
5. One needs to be ready when opportunity knocks.
6. There is a world of wealth in unexpected places.
7. Small things decide great issues.
8. There are times when a person must use his authority.
9. If everybody should do as he pleases anarchy would result. 10. " Early to bed, and early to rise,
Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise."
4. Frame analogies to illustrate the truth of five of these statements :
1. Every school needs a head.
2. Horses should be treated kindly.
3. Boys will be boys.
124 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSmON
4. A person should not have to work so hard or so long that he
loses his efficiency.
5. No one can enjoy a home that is not kept clean.
6. Manufacturing concerns cannot expect to succeed with out-of
date machinery.
7. Women should not be made slaves to the welfare of their chil-
dren ; they should have their share in life's activities.
8. Those who use the roads should pay for them.
9. Young people need frequent advice and admonition. 10. Voters should find out more about their candidates.
5. Below is a list of proverbs and familiar expressions, which have been used so frequently that much of their original vividness is gone. Select ten of them for special study. Decide what is the abstract truth which each is supposed to illustrate, and think out other instances of this general truth. Then select for each of the ten statements a concrete instance so typical that it suggests the general truth, and so vivid that it is more effective, if possible, than the original proverb itself.
This exercise may be turned into a competition to find the best statements.
1. Make hay while the sun shines.
2. A stitch in time saves nine.
3. Spare the rod and spoil the child.
4. Horse sense.
5. Letting the cat out of the bag.
6. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
7. Killing two birds with one stone.
8. The early bird catches the worm.
9. A penny saved is a penny earned.
10. Feathering one's nest.
11. Sour grapes.
12. In a nutshell.
13. Look before you leap.
14. An ax to grind.
15. Burning his bridges behind him.
16. Every cloud has a silver lining.
USING EXAMPLES AND FIGURES 125
17. The worm will turn.
18. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.
19. Covering one's tracks.
20. The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
6. The following proverbs are abstract in greater or less degree. Each of them is a broad statement which includes many instances. Select ten of these for study, and consider carefully several of the instances of the truth of each. Then find for each the best pos- sible illustration. Try to find examples so good, and to make the statements so vivid, that your expressions are as effective as the original proverbs.
1. Seeing is believing.
2. Circumstances alter cases.
3. Discretion is the better part of valor.
4. Easy come, easy go.
5. All things come to him who waits.
6. A place for everything, and everything in its place.
7. Coming events cast their shadows before.
8. A word to the wise is sufficient.
9. Make haste slowly.
10. \'ariety is the spice of life.
11. There is nothing new under the sun.
12. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day.
13. Least said, soonest mended.
14. All is fair in love and war.
15. Figures never lie.
16. A soft answer turneth away wrath.
17. One thing at a time.
18. What is worth doing is worth doing well.
19. Opportunity knocks but once.
20. Honesty is the best policy.
7. The following proverbs are concrete in greater or less de- gree. Select ten of them for study. Decide for each what general statement will best express the abstract thought involved. Make the statements as broad as possible.
126 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
1. Birds of a feather flock together.
2. What is fun for the boys is death for the frogs.
3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise,
4. As the twig is bent the tree is inclined.
5. The longest way 'round is the shortest way home.
6. A chain is no stronger than its weakest link.
7. The mill will never grind with the water that has passed.
8. All is not gold that glitters.
9. Penny wise and pound foolish.
10. Time and tide wait for no man.
11. You cannot get blood out of a turnip.
12. Showing the white feather.
13. Locking the stable door after the horse is stolen.
14. Never cross a bridge before you reach it.
15. Lightning never strikes twice in the same place.
16. It is a long lane that has no turning.
17. It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
18. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
19. He reckoned without his host.
20. Barking dogs do not always bite.
Arrangement of Parts — Outlines. Many directions for the preparation of an outline have already been given, so that we shall here consider the further matters which apply to all outlines, especially the need of unity and coherence. As the student studies his subject in preparation for a talk he may write out every topic on which he intends to touch, and perhaps the best plan will be to use a separate card or slip of paper for each topic. This method is useful in the case of all speeches, long or short ; it may be used when one is familiar with the subject and needs only main topics, or when one must use full and extensive notes, or even when the whole material of the speech is on slips or cards.
Classifying the Topics. With all the topics recorded, the student is ready to classify them. It will at once be noticed
MAKING OUTLINES 127
that some of the topics belong with certain others, and that the speech has several main divisions. Further inspection will make these groupings stand out more clearly. If the speech is to be the story of a vacation experience, some slips will be concerned with the preparatory plans for the vacation, others with the return home, etc. If a city is to be described, some topics will be concerned with the busi- ness streets, others with the recreation centers. If a law raising the maximum height for buildings is to be advo- cated, some slips may bear topics dealing with the evils of the present restrictions, some may quote laws of other cities, and others may note the benefits to come from the change proposed. In most speeches there will be from three to six of these groups, corresponding to the different parts of the talk.
Stating the Main Points. Each of the main points may be expressed in brief statements. A word or two will be satisfactory for labeling the main divisions of most kinds of talks, but there is distinct gain in definiteness and clearness of thought if each main point is expressed in a complete sentence. Note the difference between topic and sentence in the following :
1. The party. Our party consisted of twenty-five members of the senior class.
2. The view. We were able to see the lights of twenty cities.
3. The terms. The terms are very reasonable and liberal.
4. The benefits. This law will make possible several improve- ments.
Arranging the Order of Points. Having formulated the three main topics, the next task is to arrange these in the order in which they are to be delivered. In most cases this
128 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
order is determined by the nature of the subject, and the topics will fall into their proper order as the study proceeds. Thus in narration the time sequence of events is usually followed. In description the guide to follow is the relative position in space of the various parts of the object being described. In explanation the topics may follow the time order of the process, or the order of the operation of cause and effect, or that of the appearance of various problems and their solutions. In argument the way must sometimes be prepared for new proposals, and sometimes the order of parts depends upon the occasion and the audience. This we shall discuss in Chapter XIII.
Coherence in the Outline. The best way of determining whether topics are arranged in a proper order is to look through the points to see if they can be easily developed, as they stand, into a connected speech. This connection between topics we call coherence, or transition from one topic to the next. If each thought prepares the way for the succeeding one, then the outline is well arranged. Thus if a person were advocating that a city purchase a triple combination piece of motor-driven fire apparatus, he must first show that the present apparatus is inadequate. Having convinced his hearers that some change is necessary, he may next state and discuss the possible solutions, showing that none of them is so satisfactory as the one under consideration. He may then come back to and discuss his proposal. He first asks, Is it practicable .■' And under this topic he considers the method of appropriating the money to pay for the apparatus, and the superiority of such parts as hose carrier, chemical engine, and water pump. Having thus shown how it may be bought and how it works, he
MAKING OUTLINES 129
may cite instances of the successful operation of these engines in other cities. He may close by summarizing the benefits which the city will derive from the possession of this .apparatus. In such a talk each topic seems to grow out of the one before it, and to lead naturally to the next.
Arranging the Subtopics. Now to go back to the slips. We have arranged them in several piles, each pile repre- senting one main division of the talk, and we have just seen how to determine the order of these divisions. We have now to arrange the slips or topics within each division. This we do in exactly the same way as we arranged the main parts. Taking each group separately, we study all the cards to find the divisions into which they fall, arranging them in a natural, logical order. The same process may be repeated again if necessary, making two sets of subtopics. In the end the complete speech will be outlined consecu- tively, with subtopics properly indented on the paper. The student is now ready for oral practice, according to the plan suggested in Chapter IV.
Coherence of Details. The principle of coherence must be applied in passing from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph, and from subdivision to subdivision, as well as from one main topic to the next. There must be no sudden breaks of thought. All the way through the speech there must be fitting use of the means of connec- tion : repetition of significant words, use of pronouns or other words referring to terms already named, repetition of the thought in different words, connection by a thought which is related to an idea which has gone before, and connection by adverbial expressions — words used for the purpose of forming links. On page 64 is a list of words
I30 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
useful in making connections. Here are some others : ' in spite of this,' ' as a result,' " as might be expected,' ' indeed,' 'in fact,' 'of course,' 'now,' 'but,' 'on the contrary.'
Unity. The principle of unity dictates that the thoughts expressed under each head shall all relate to that head, that there shall be no outside ideas introduced. Each sen- tence, each paragraph, each subdivision, each main division, and each whole speech must possess unity, that is, each must deal with but one thought. The greatest danger is the temptation to wander from the subject with an idea that seems interesting and worth while. The speaker must not yield to this temptation. Careful outlining and rigid following of the outline will prevent this.
EXERCISES
1. Choose as your subject for a possible speech a description of your school or your city. Write on the blackboard the main topics for the description, in the order you think best. Compare your topics and your order with those of other students, and decide which is best. The class may recite in two sections, one for the school outline, and one for the city outline.
2. Prepare a detailed outline for a speech on an interesting and complex subject. Avoid narration. Take successively the following steps :
1. Write down, on slips of paper of uniform size, the topics and thoughts which occur to you, using one slip for each item.
2. Study the subject thoroughly, and add to the collection of slips.
3. When enough material is collected, spread the slips on a large table or desk. Then study them to determine the main groups. When this has been done, gather the slips of each group into a pile. Next write on a slip for each pile the sentence which expresses the general thought of the slips in that pile.
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 131
4. Take these topic sentences as the main divisions of the speech and arrange them in correct order.
5. In a similar way sort the slips in each pile.
6. See that all the slips are in proper order.
7. Copy the outline on paper, supplying main headings, if needed, and making the appropriate indentations.
8. Copy the outline on cards.
3. Practice the speech outlined above. Follow the outline rigidly. Whenever a new topic appears make the connecting links as strong as possible. Tr}' to make good connections, also, between the smaller units of- the speech. Deliver the speech in class.
Introductions. We have already indicated many of the principles to be observed in the making of introductions and conclusions. Here we shall briefly restate them and call attention to a few other considerations.
The introduction gives an opportunity to the speaker to make his subject attractive to the audience. He may em- phasize the value and importance of the topic, and wherein it will be valuable to the audience to hear it discussed. He may try to connect a new or strange subject with facts already in the minds of the hearers. The subject of the talk must be announced unless it has already been intro- duced, and it will be helpful if the speaker will give a broad, general idea of the scope of the talk. Let us illus- trate by means of a few introductory sentences from a description of the University of California :
Every citizen of California should be informed about his state university. It is an institution which has attained a world-wide reputation. You, as citizens of the state, support it with your money, and it exists to serve you and your children. It has de- partments which stand ready to advise any resident of the state
132 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
about his affairs, whether he be laborer, banker, merchant, miner, or farmer. The value of the common schools and of the high schools to the children is well appreciated. The university is but a continuation of the free educational system of the state : the state offers its children a training which extends from the kinder- garten through the university. My object in this talk is to make you acquainted with the university at Berkeley. I shall describe its location, its grounds, and its buildings.
Then would follow the description itself: "The city of Berkeley, the home of the University of California, is situated," etc.
Introductions must be brief without being abrupt. Unless the speaker wishes to shock or surprise his hearers he must not begin too suddenly. The listeners must have time to get their attention adjusted to the subject and to the in- dividual style of the speaker. When you are sure of two things, — that your hearers know definitely what you are going to talk about, and that they are interested, — then you may begin with the main part of the speech.
Conclusions. For the concluding sentence or sentences a summary is necessary in the case of an argument, and is very effective in most other kinds of speeches. The summary is valuable because it quickly reviews the entire subject : it carries the listener back and illumines the whole picture at the same time. For example :
The university furnishes an ideal place for intellectual endeavor. Built at the foot of a row of hills, on the slope facing the Golden Gate, with grounds of rare variety and beauty, and with a group of buildings arranged according to an impressive and convenient plan, it is faithfully preparing for useful citizenship thousands of the sons and daughters of the state.
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 133
The conclusion may thus repeat or suggest an idea which was mentioned in the introduction, and so help to make the speech a unified whole.
Whether or not a summaiy is used, and whether or not an introductory thought is suggested by the closing words, the last words spoken must deal with a broad, compre- hensive idea rather than with a detail of the subject. This is a prime necessity if the speech is to be ended well, with the hearers satisfied. One of the worst faults of beginners is the mistake of thinking that a speech is finished when the last detail is given. Notice these closing sentences of four different speeches :
1. We reached home at nine o'clock.
2. The workbenches are always kept clean.
3. This house plan provides for wide eaves.
4. The machine is easily stopped by means of this lever.
JS'o matter how good the talk is, if it ends with such a sentence, it is like a picture without a frame. The subject itself may be complete — that is not the point. The last sentence is the one most prominent in the minds of the hearers, and therefore they carry away the memory of an un- important detail rather than a large impression of the whole subject. The frame is not a part of a picture ; it encircles it and sets it off. Just so the conclusion is not a part of the subject matter of the speech ; it includes the whole subject, and sets it forth again more clearly. Such a frame is neces- sary, if only to hide the ragged edges, to push back the details into their proper places. To the foregoing false concluding sentences should be added, then, some such sentences as these, the numbers corresponding :
134 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION
1. Everybody was glad to welcome us, and to hear about our fine trip.
2. I could not help thinking what good carpenters this school would turn out.
3. No house in the whole city could be more attractive.
4. Ever}' detail is arranged for convenience and safety.
But perhaps a frame wider still would be best of all. If the student will now read consecutively the sentences numbered alike above, and add to them the corresponding ones below, he will see the value of a final summary :
1. We never tire of thinking and talking about our excursion — the preparations for the journey, the difficulties on the way, the camp on the mountain top, the view, the hurried descent, and, best of all, the welcome home. This trip was one of the big events of my life.
2. Grant School has a beautiful location, fine buildings, and a good course of study, and is well equipped to teach boys trades. It is worth a visit.
3. It provides for a substantial construction, for a convenient interior arrangement, for all the modem space-saving and labor- saving devices, and for an attractive exterior appearance.
4. You have seen that the machine is easily connected, that the expense is surprisingly small, that the clothes are thoroughly washed without any handling, and that anyone can learn to operate it. Why not try it ?
Even for a speech of ten sentences think out beforehand how to begin and how to end. This forethought will save some awkward stumbling at the start, and some ungraceful ■ and ineffective endings. It has frequently been said that the most important words in an entire speech, so far as the effect upon the audience is concerned, are the concluding ones ; and that the next most important words are those with which the speech begins.
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
135
EXERCISES
1. Choose one of the subjects below, make yourself familiar with the general ideas, prepare an introduction to a speech on the subject, and deliver the introduction in class.
1. The city of Honolulu.
2. Niagara Falls.
3. Ancient Athens.
4. The sinking of the Lusttani'a.
5. Crossing the Atlantic by air.
6. How eggs are stored.
7. Coal in Alaska.
8. Washington's success in war.
9. Would socialism fail ? 10. Athletics for everybody.
2. Plan, practice, and deliver an appropriate conclusion for a speech on one of the following subjects :
1. The United States Depart- 6. How rubber is produced.
ment of Agriculture.
2. The causes of the European
war.
3. The city of Hongkong.
4. The Roman Colosseum.
5. The discovery of America.
7. Buying an automobile.
8. How mines are ventilated.
9. Should all boys learn a trade.'' 10. How phonographic records
are made.
CHAPTER IX
EXPLANATIONS: ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In Chapter I we considered the most common kinds of explanation : those in whicli we tell how to make an object or how to perform an act or series of acts. In the present chapter we shall discuss three other kinds of explanations : first, that in which the definition of something is given, as when we tell the meaning of the word ' neutrality ' or the difference between a band and an orchestra ; second, that in which the purpose of something is given, as when we tell the reason why the name of St. Petersburg was changed ; and third, that in which a complex process is made clear, as when we tell how a law operates or how sea currents affect climate.
Defining. To define any term is to show its meaning in words and ideas already familiar to our hearers. The short- est definitions are mere synonyms, as when we say that ' unsightly ' means ' ugly.' Often definition by means of a synonym is adequate to our needs. In other cases, however, a synonymous expression will not be satisfactory. The defi- nition should do two things : it should tell on the one hand how the term is like other terms, and on the other hand how it has a special meaning of its own. For example, an ostrich may be defined as a very large, two-toed bird of Africa and Arabia ; or a street-railway franchise as a privi- lege given by a city to a company, permitting it to use the
136
DEFINING 137
streets for huing tracks and operating cars ; or calcium carbide as a lumpy, cinderlike substance which generates an illuminating gas when brought in contact with water.
Interpreting. Sometimes we are required to explain the meaning of a sentence or whole passage, such as a selection from the Declaration of Independence. In a case of this kind the best plan is usually to give the complete sense of the passage in simpler words. To do this it may be neces- sary first to explain briefly the meanings of certain words and expressions, and then to weav-e these into a connected explanation. The chief task of the speaker is to decide what ideas in the passage need explanation, and to give .emphasis to these. For example, if we are to explain the sentence, " It would be puerile to ignore defects and imper- fections still existent in the national and municipal life of the United States," the word 'puerile' may be defined by using the synonym ' childish,' and the sentence as a whole may be made clear by some such paraphrase as this : "It would be childish to say that there are no faults in the national and city governments of the United States."
Distinguishing Differences. Frequently we are asked to explain the difference between two expressions or between two objects. Tw^o synonyms will sometimes make the differ- ence clear, but often we shall need to give more. For ex- ample, in explaining the difference between an automobile and a cycle car it might be necessary first to define one or both, next to point out some important points of likeness, ♦■hen to tell the differences, and finally to give the essential difference — that of size and weight.
Analyzing. Again, ■ we sometimes explain an idea by analyzing it. To do this we show what the expression
138 EXPLANATIONS
includes, as when we explain the term " government ' by naming the kinds of governments. Or we show the parts and the relations between parts, as when we explain a merry- go-round. Or we expand and illustrate, as when we explain the meaning of the sentence, ' The beginning of the history of the United States must be looked for in Europe.' This last method often goes beyond mere definition, for it ex- plains reasons and processes also. It is the method used by most of our textbooks in explaining the principles of their subjects.
EXERCISES
I. Define five of the terms below. Make use of the dictionary and such other helps as you wish. Ask yourself the following questions : What is the best way to explain the meaning of each expression .-* Is a drawing needed ? Is a complete explanation of a process necessary ? Is any analysis or illustration needed ? Then use what seems to you the best method and come to class prepared to give interesting explanations. Be brief.
1. By-product. 17. Speculation.
2. Fagade. 18. Palmetto.
3. Hydroplane. 19. Siphon.
4. Felling (the seams of a dress). 20. Pilaster.
5. Hydrographic charts. 21. Prize court.
6. Before the mast. 22. Glacier.
7. Ultimatum. 23. Pigment.
8. Firebreak. 24. Crescendo.
9. Nihilism. 25. Denouement. 10. Overproduction. 26. Escapement.
II. Inundate. 27. Ballot.
12. Proclivity. 28. Middleman.
13. Ovation. 29. Armistice.
14. Inventory. 30. Caucus.
15. Legerdemain. 31. Unconditional.
16. Misappropriate. 32. Unifiable.
DEFINING 139
33. Longshoreman. 37. Wholesale.
34. Irreconcilable. 38. Sedentary.
35. Legendary. 39. Utilitarian.
36. Profuse. 40. Involuntary.
2. Explain the meaning of three of the following sentences :
1. Conservation of natural resources will be the subject under discussion.
2. The forecasts given in the meteorological bulletins arc of tre- mendous service to the farmers.
3. Reduction works arc not always near the mines.
4. The nonsuccess of our proposals compelled us to extend our military precautions.
5. I have the honor of applying for your kind intervention in order that the boats in question may be allowed to leave for Germany.
6. The industrial and commercial progress of the South in the last generation is one of the most remarkable facts in our history.
7. We are alive to-day to the dangers of unrestricted immigration.
8. The constant criticism directed against us by foreign nations is that America is the land of dollars, and that we care little for the encouragement of letters, art, science, and scholarship.
9. The motor car has taken its place in the complex scheme of life, widening the scope of that scheme and at the same time becoming necessary to its successful working.
10. Nothing contained in this convention shall be construed as requiring the United States of America to depart from its traditional policy of not intruding upon, interfering with, or entangling itself in, the political questions or policy or international administration of any foreign State.
Note. Other passages for explanation may be selected from school textbooks.
3. Explain the difference between the two terms in three of the following pairs :
1. Socialism, anarchy. 5. Book, pamphlet.
2. Brain, mind. 6. Town, village.
3. Bolt, lag screw. 7. Flag, pennant.
4. Chair, stool. 8. Hatchet, ax.
I40
EXPLANATIONS
9. Cornet, trumpet.
10. Violin, viola.
11. Civilized, barbarous..
12. Dignified, serious.
13. Barbarous, savage.
14. Defective, abnormal.
15. Administrative, executive.
16. Politician, statesman.
17. Real property, personal property.
18. Butter, oleomargarine.
19. Fear, cowardice.
20. Courage, daring.
4. Explain the meaning of three of the terms below by telling the kinds of things included by each, or the parts and their rela- tions ; that is, explain by analyzing.
13. Play.
14. Cooperation.
15. Lighthouse.
16. Skill is necessary in the trades.
17. War is harder on women than on men.
18. The negro has made great prog- ress.
19. Modern improvements lighten the work of housekeeping.
20. Necessity is the mother of in- vention.
1. Bank.
2. Kitchen.
3. Public-service corporation.
4. Patriotism.
5. Fuel.
6. The professions.
7. Trade.
8. Dressmaking.
9. Vocation.
10. Vegetarianism.
11. Work.
12. Religion.
Explaining Reasons and Purposes. When we come to deal with the reasons and purposes of things we are forced to study causes and their effects. Thus, if we ask why the name of St. Petersburg was changed, we must recognize that the change of name was the effect of a cause, and must proceed to find that cause or group of causes. Often causes are universal and sweeping laws. For example, the outbreak of a war leads to hatred between the opposing nations. We know that this is an almost universal law of human nature, and have now only to show that this cause was operating in the case of the change in the name of St. Petersburg to understand the reason for that change.
GIVING REASONS 141
Thus our explanation consists of two parts : ( i ) an expo- sition of the cause ; and {2) the concrete appHcation of this cause to the case to be explained.
Similarly, suppose that we are asked to explain the importance of the occupation of the teacher. We should discuss the necessity of giving children a careful prepara- tion for life, and then should show that the teacher helps to provide these opportunities.
In making an apology, or explaining why we did a certain thing, we are explaining purposes and causes. All explanations of behavior are of this kind.
In dealing with causes, the explanation closely approaches
argument. This requires a high order of thinking, but it
gives good returns.
EXERCISE
Study the causes involved in two of the cases given below. Then plan a brief talk to explain each. Practice the talks and give them in class.
1. Why is it important for every high-school pupil to know how to t}'pewrite at least as fast as he can write.'*
2. Why is aluminum used for kitchen utensils?
3. Why is baseball so popular?
4. Why do not -Americans like cricket more than they do ?
5. W^hy do not the English object to the idea of a monarchy ?
6. Why is gingham better than calico for work aprons?
7. Why is it better to have a definite time each day for study than to study only when in the mood for it?
8. Why was a good president ?
9. Why is best for shortening?
10. Why did Germany declare war before the other nations ?
11. Why is the occupation of the street cleaner an important one?
12. Why arc dictophones useful?
13. Why did Brutus decide to help in the conspiracy against Caesar?
14. Why did Rebecca help Ivanhoe?
142 EXPLANATIONS
15. Why do we have cement sidewalks ?
16. Why do we allow street cars to become overcrowded?
17. What are the conveniences of having electricity in the house?
18. Why are laws necessary.?
19. Why should every pupil take manual training ?
20. Why is it important to study occupations ?
Explaining Processes and Operations. We now come to the explanations which make clear processes and operations, such as the laws -of nature, mechanics, politics, business, and society. The same general principles are involved in the explanation of all processes, and these principles we have already considered in an elementary way in Chapter I. We shall here briefly review these principles, and consider some of the more complicated explanations.
Collecting the Material. As pointed out in Chapter I, all material collected should be carefully tested, and should not be accepted as true upon insufficient evidence. Thus, if we are to explain why Germany invaded Belgium, we should not accept any statement as final until we have examined all accessible material on the subject. So, in explaining a process such as that involved in making dyes, we should be likely to fall into error if we based our talk on information contained in one article of a popular maga- zine. The means of testing the accuracy of any information are as follows : ( i ) Extend the study to include information from several different sources. (2) Compare the groups of facts so obtained, and ascertain the points of agreement, or the agreement of those from the most reliable sources. (3) Depend for the most part on printed matter approved by acknowledged experts, or accepted by persons known to be well informed on the subject in question. (4) Talk with experts. (5) Observe or perform the process.
MAKING THE OUTLINE 143
Having collected, recorded, and tested the material, we shall have data upon which to build our talk. All memo- randa should be preserved and brought to class for use if facts are questioned.
EXERCISES
1. By way of review, collect material for one of the explana- tions suggested below. Pay special attention to testing the mate- rial. Use none which is not above question. Bring all notes to class, and be prepared to give an attractive talk describing how you collected your data.
1. How a diving bell works. 6. How taxes are fixed.
2. How to make an attractive 7. How to knit.
bouquet. 8. How milk bottles are cleaned.
3. How rubber is made. 9. How salt is mined.
4. How canal locks work. 10. How flour is made.
5. How linen is made.
2. Prepare, practice, and give the talk of explanation.
The Introduction. The first words of the talk should in- troduce the subject clearly. A listener often gets a wrong impression from the opening remarks of a speaker, and so fails to understand the explanation. It is therefore impor- tant to tell directly and clearly at the start the nature of the subject. If it is new or strange, we must try to introduce the subject through ideas that are already familiar to our hearers. For example, suppose we wish to explain the installation in a house of an apparatus for the production of acetylene gas for illuminating purposes. The name "acetylene" may mystify many of the hearers, and perhaps even lead them to think that a chemical experiment is to be explained. Misunderstanding may be prevented by speak- ing of a problem that all will appreciate : that of furnishing
144 EXPLANATIONS
lights to a house which cannot be suppHed with electricity or ordinary gas.
Another valuable aid in introducing a difficult subject effectively is a brief statement in outline form of the points to be treated. Such an outline, like the table of contents of a book, gives an advance view of the subject. This out- line may be presented in some such way as the following : "In explaining how to make a sleigh, I shall speak first of the materials needed ; second, of the shaping of the parts ; third, of the actual construction ; and fourth, of the finishing." Or again, " In explaining how the law provides for the recall of city officers, I shall speak first of the present methods by which the people remove their public servants ; next, of the methods of the recall ; and last, of the results which may be expected." The student will notice that only the most important divisions of the talk are given in the prospective outline, and that they are so brief and clear that the listener can easily keep them in mind during the talk.
Every introduction should arouse interest. Often the state- ment of the prospective outline or a sentence connecting the subject with familiar ideas will be sufficient to arouse interest. In other cases a statement of the use, purpose, or helpfulness of the process may form part of the introduction.
EXERCISE
a. Come to class prepared to give the opening sentences for one of the explanations below. Make the nature of the subject clear by relating the explanation to familiar things ; give a brief prospective outline, and add whatever else is needed for an at- tractive introduction.
MAKING THE OUTLINE 145
6. Give the complete explanation.
1. How city life differs from 6. The working of the party
country life. caucus in Congress.
2. How to print pictures. 7. How Oliver Twist was re-
3. How- to make ice. . captured by the thieves.
4. How to set a pane of glass. 8. How to play a game.
5. How to mend a tear in 9. The laws of the pendulum.
clotlyng. 10. Why some birds hop and
some walk.
The Body of the Talk. What we have called the equip- ment in Chapter I is the setting in some explanations. For example, if we examine the topics in the exercise above, we shall see that there is no equipment for 6 or 7- In explaining .the party caucus we shall need to tell of the situations in Congress which lead to the caucus. In talking about Oliver Twist we shall have to state the condition of affairs which ltd to the desire of the thieves to recapture him. In some such explanations, however, as for example, that of the operation of a bread-mixing machine, we should do well to give a brief description of the machine and its setting.
In all explanations of processes the statement of the actual process is the vital part, and we shall need to ar- . range with special care the topics covering this part of the talk.
Arranging the. Topics by the Time Order. In most expla- nations the topics will follow the time order. Thus, in tell- ing how to cover a book with paper, or how to develop a film, our explanation of the process may follow the steps of the actual process in the same order that- they take place. -Again, in explaining the method of dry farming in the Southwest, • the .natural order, for both the process and the . talk, would be : the long, dry summer and the consequent
146 EXPLANATIONS
baking of the soil ; the breaking of the crust with the disk- plow in the autumn ; the pulverizing of the topsoil after each rain ; the deeper plowing ; the sowing of the grain ; the smoothing of the surface.
Outlining by Causes and Effects. Often, however, there is no such obvious plan to follow, and the sequence must be determined by cause and effect, or by problem and sohttion.
Thus, an explanation of the relation between poverty and drunkenness requires a discussion of the causes which are operating at the same time. We must therefore arrange our material according to a cause-and-effect plan.
MAIN TOPICS FOR A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT OUTLINE
Poverty and Drunkenness
[The outline should be read horizontally, each effect following the cause bearing the corresponding number.]
Causes Effects
1. The sordidness of the home 1. Desire for change and excite- ■ life of the very poor. ment, to escape sordidness.
2. Long hours of monotonous 2. Fatigue.
work.
3. Fatigue. 3. Breaking down of the power
to resist temptation.
4. Desire for excitement ; and 4. Drinking ; and drunkenness.
lack of power to resist temptation.
In giving the talk we should do well to follow the topics as numbered here.
Outlining by Problems and Solutions. If we wish to ex- plain how motion pictures are taken under water, we may arrange our topics according to the problem-and-solution method.
MAKING THE OUTLINE 147
MAIN TOPICS FOR A PROBLEM-AND-SOLUTION OUTLINE
Motion Pictures under Water Problem :
1. How to protect the operator and the camera.
2. How to provide an outlook.
3. How to illuminate the water.
Solution :
1. Making an extensible, pliant tube strong enough to resist the
water pressure when lowered from a boat.
2. Providing a closed room at the bottom of the tube, with a plate-
glass window.
3. Providing a ventilating and a signaling system.
4. Arranging for a cluster of electric lights to illuminate the water.
5. Operating the machine.
Let US remember that these outhnes concern the actual process only. For the complete talk we shall need intro- duction and conclusion, and often a statement of the equip- ment, setting, or preliminary conditions.
EXERCISES
1. a. Choose one of the subjects below, and determine what should be said about equipment, preliminary conditions, setting, or problem. What would be necessary before the actual process is explained ? Prepare that particular portion of the talk.
b. Give the whole explanation in class.
1. Cleaning the streets. 6. How trees are cared for.
2. How David Copperfield's aunt 7. What baking does to food.
helped him. 8. How a volcano acts.
3. How an eclipse takes place. 9. How a telegraph instrument
4. How to harmonize the colors works.
in a room. 10. How the use of submarines
5. How factories are being im- raised new questions in
proved. international law.
148 EXPLANATIONS
2. a. Examine the subjects below to determine the best methods for outlining the actual processes. Select one subject for each of the three methods of outlining which we; have discussed : the time order of topics, the cause-and-effect order, ' arid the problem-and- solution order. Prepare the three outlines, and bring them to class. • • ■ ' ,
h. Use the subject outlined by the time-order plan, and prepare, the complete talk of explanation. Give the-talk,-in class.
1. How the schoolyard "should 11. How to clean windows. .
be improved. 12. Kydraulic mining.
2. Why the mail-order business 13. Operation of a gas engine.
is successful. 14. Manufacture of gasoline.
3. How a faucet works. 15. How an electric bell works.
4. How the direct primary is 16. What causes summer and
carried out. winter. •
5. How an election takes place. 17. How styles in dress change.
6. How to simplify housekeep- 18. "How bonds are issued and
ing. '. sold.
7. How the pyramids were built. 19. How Chinese education is
8. Why imitation fur is being carried on.
used. ' ■ 2G, How a store takes an in
9. The operation of a time lock. ' ventory.
10. A'entilating a mine. . .
3. Prepare and give in class the complete talk of explanation on the subject in Exercise 2 which you have outlined according to the cause-and-effect plan.
4. Prepare and give in class the complete talk on the subject in Exercise 2 outlined according to the problem-and-solution plan.
The Conclusion. Little needs to be added to what has already been said on pages 17 and 132 about conclusions. Just as the introduction arouses interest, the conclusion points out the justification of that interest.' This is done by a brief general st?tement of • summar}' ■ or emphasis. No talk of explanation should be concluded with any detail of
GIVING THE TALK 149
the explanation itself; the subject should be completely ex- plained before the conclusion begins. For example, suppose we have just explained the operation of the hydroplane by showing how' the dri\er climbs out of his seat. We may conclude the talk in two sentences, as follows: "This invention makes the aeroplane a veritable sea bird, able to alight on land or water. -It is an indispensable step in man's
conquest of the air.''
EXERCISE
a. Give the concluding ^vords for .a talk of explanation on one of the subjects suggested below.
b. Give the complete talk.
_1. How a suspension bridge is built.
2. How salmon are caught.
3. How the big corporations water their stock.
4. How to build a teriiporary dressing room for swimmers.
5. How apartments are changing family life.
6. Why Russia wants Constantinople.
7. How a street-sweeping machine works.
8. How a pump works.
9. How. real-estate speculators get an unearned profit. 10. How to make a quill.
Giving the Explanation. In practicing an oral explana- tion, we must make it as much as possible like an actual talk before the class. If we find that we need to use copious notes in the first practice, we must continue our practice until the memoranda are reduced to a few cards or slips of paper appropriate for use in class. At all times the prepared outline should be rigidly followed.
Making the Outline Clear. Not only must the outline be followed, but it must be made clear to the hearers. This does not mean that we need to tell them when each new
150 EXPLANATIONS
topic appears. If our outline is a good one the steps will show themselves, although occasionally a new step may be indicated by such a statement as, " Let us next see how to put on the cover," or, " The body of the boat is now finished and we have next to put in the centerboard and the rudder."
Giving Larger Ideas First. Again, it is important to re- member to give larger ideas before the details, so that the hearers may see where the details belong. Just as the whole talk itself must begin with an introduction and end with a conclusion, so each main topic should begin with the sim- pler, more obvious facts, then proceed to the intricacies of the explanation, and finally end with a larger statement. For example, in explaining how to build a boat, the general size and shape should be mentioned before telling how to cut out the pieces of wood for the various parts. The details, then, will naturally fall into their places.
The listener should never be left in doubt as to when one topic is finished and another begun. If there might be any doubt, the speaker may indicate the completion of a topic in many different ways. Such remarks as the following are sometimes used : " Now that the framework is completed " ; "When the framework is in place"; "After giving the finishing touches to the framework."
Showing Connections. In most explanations the later topics have important bearing on the topics already given, and such relationships should be made clear either by care- ful references or by definite statements. For example, in explaining how to lay out a baseball field, suppose the size and position of the diamond has been shown and the home plate described. The speaker may then show that the pointed side of the plate is toward the catcher's position
GIVING THE TALK 15 I
because the plate itself fits inside the corner of the dia- mond. Thus he establishes a connection between the shape of the plate and the base lines of the diamond. Again, after stating that the pitcher's box is sixty feet six inches away from the point of the home plate, he may state that this position is about three feet (one pace) in front of a line joining first base with third. The relation between two parts of an explanation should always be brought out in such a way as to make the talk a consistent whole.
Finally, it should be clear to the hearers how each step helps in the completion of the process. Thus, in telling about the coloring of potter}^, one may refer frequently to the process of baking which is to follow, pointing out what effect this will have on the tints w^hich are being used. Thus the parts of the explanation are connected with the whole result to be attained, and the speech is made a unit.
EXERCISES
1. a. Each of the topics below is supposed to be one step or part of a process. Choose one topic, prepare the talk explaining that particular step, and give the talk in class. Make the opening and the closing statement as broad and simple as seems appropriate.
h. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation.
1. How the current is supplied, in explaining how an electric car works.
2. How the machine is oiled, in telling how to care for a sewing machine.
3. How to prune trees, in explaining the care of trees.
4. The stacking of the hay, in explaining how hay is harvested.
5. How to make a drop kick, in explaining how the ball is kicked in football.
2. a. Each of the topics below gives two steps in the explana- tion of a process. Choose one of the subjects, or another that you
152 EXPLANATIONS
like better, and give the sentence or sentences which will connect the two steps.
b. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation.
1. Making a screen door (connect the step of tacking the wire onto the frame with that of nailing on the molding).
2. The influence of the saloon (connect the cashing of pay checks for the workingman with the treating habit).
3. Making a rag rug (connect cutting the rags with the thickness of the rug).
4. Making muffins (connect the use of* soiir milk with the use of soda). ■ .» • '
5. Using a. plow (show tjie connection betwee¥),tbe'way tq hold the handles and the proper depth of plowing).
3. a. Each of the subjects given below indicates one of the steps of a process. Choose one subject, and -give the sentence or sentences which will show how the proper performance of this ' step will help to bring about the result desired. \ i
b. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation- of the largei '• subject.
1. Saddling a horse (how the tightening of the girth affects the safety and comfort of the rider and the horse).
2. Preserving fruit (how the thorough cookiiig of .thd fruit affects the keeping quality).
3. Planting potatoes (how deep plowing affects the crop).
4. Making a cotton dress (how the preliminary shrinking of the goods affects the fit of the completed dress).
5. Making bricks (how the drying of the clay bricks affects the final quality of the product).
Aids in Explanation : the Use of Drawings. The ability to make diagrams and rough sketches while talking has so great a practical value that every student should stnve to acquire"" it. Both in school and in life, situations in whicfi the use of the ohalk or pe:acil is almost- indispen-sable are of frequent occurrence? Even without special training or ability ^
DRAWINGS AND DEMONSTRATIONS 153
we should make the attempt and do our best. We shall be surprised to find how rapidly skill is gained with practice.
Of the explanations given in class a large part require diagrams. We could hardly explain the making of a dress, the laying out of a baseball field, the building of a boat, the making of an electric bell, or the installation of a hot- water system, without drawings of some kind. And draw- ings would certainly help us in explaining how to make a lamp shade, the cause of earthquakes, how to carry on dry farming, the setting of a dining table, and so forth.
How to make the Diagrams. In a rough freehand sketch, such as we make while speaking, it is best to use few lines and as little detail as possible. We should make the draw- ing as large as will be appropriate, and should be sure that the lines are heavy enough to be seen by all. Before turn- ing to the blackboard, we should state the reason for the drawing. The first few lines should show the general shape of the article, and its position in relation to the ground or other objects. Thus, in sketching an aeroplane, we must not fill in the details of motor, seat, and rudder until we have shown the general size of the planes and the direction in which the machine flies. In drawing a reflectoscope, we should indicate at the start the direction of the screen. Again, it is advisable, if the subject is a new one to the audience, to give some hint as to the real size of the object. A boy once gave an explanation of a drill for an oil well. Some of the members of the class gathered from his first remarks that the drill was about the size of a clothespin, whereas it was really thirty feet long — twice as high as the schoolroom. What the boy might have done first was to sketch a derrick, remarking as he did so that
1 54 EXPLANATIONS
it was a big frame for hoisting machinery, about as high as a four-story building.
Using Objects. Demonstrations and the exhibition of pictures, maps, or other objects are frequently even more important than the making of drawings. Would it not be foolish for a person to confine himself to words or to drawings in attempting to explain a potato peeler, when he might easily bring to class the object itself, or even show it in actual operation ? When demonstrations are made, it is important that everyone have a good view of the speaker. Sometimes an explanation outside the classroom can be arranged, as in the case of an exercise in surveying, the workings of a spray pump, or the use of a machine in the shops. Often, when it is impossible to show the actual process, the finished product may be brought to class and used in the talk. Thus, we might show a violin w^hile telling how the instrument is made. Or, as suggested in Chapters I and VII, we may bring models, pictures, or prepared diagrams.
We may profit by observing the methods of business people, and of the teachers of mathematics, science, cook- ing, sewing, and shop work ; and by trying to acquire the ability which they have to work and explain simultaneously.
Cautions in using Aids. It frequently happens that one needs to make an explanation when it is inconvenient to draw or to demonstrate. We should therefore cultivate the use of vivid language so that we can make clear word pic- tures, and should give ourselves much practice in explaining without any other helps.
Both in making drawings and in using articles before the class we must not overdo these helps, nor rely on them
TECHNICAL LANGUAGE 155
to take the place of careful preparation and good speaking. And we must remember to talk to the audience, and not allow the helps to interfere with our proper attitude toward our hearers.
Using Technical Expressions. Technical terms are often a great help in explanation, but they must be used with discretion. Their value lies in the fact that they have meanings much more definite than ordinary words, as well as in the fact that they save time. The musical term ' etude ' is much more definite, than the more common terms ' study ' or ' musical exercise.' The term ' peristyle ' is shorter and more definite- than the expression ' system of columns around a building.'
Technical terms can be used effectively only when they will be understood by our hearers. Our language must always be adapted to the audience. Thus, an explanation of an electric engine to men familiar with electrical appa- ratus will be expressed in quite different terms from those that would be appropriate in explaining the machine to a group of school children. If we are talking about athletics, and know that our hearers will understand us, wc may use the technical terms 'punt,' 'off side,' 'foul,' 'error,' 'puck,' 'tape,' 'shot,' 'guard,' etc. But if tlie majority of our hearers might not follow us if we used such terms, we should discard them all for simple language that could not fail to be within the experience of the average person.
There is no objection, however, to the use of a moderate number of technical terms in a talk to an average audience, provided the unfamiliar words are carefully and clearly ex- plained. For example, in telling how a telegraphic key works, we might use the word ' contact,' defining it when
1 56 EXPLANATIONS
first brought into the talk somewhat as follows : " The pur- pose of the key is to make contacts for very short periods of time ; that is, to bring two pieces of metal together for an instant in such a way as to allow the electricity to flow through the wires." After such a definition the word may be safely used.
If the speaker is thoroughly versed in his subject, he may be misled into using, without explanation, many terms which need defining, thereby confusing his hearers and spoiling his speech. For instance, a person could not suc- ceed in explaining a cake receipt to an average audience of boys and girls if he let the expression " cream the
butter" go undefined,
EXERCISES
I. Choose one of the subjects below, or another equally good. Prepare a complete talk of explanation, and in the talk use a dia- gram which you draw while you are speaking.
1. The cause of the earth's rotation.
2. How to make a collar.
3. The principle of the vacuum cleaner.
4. How a car controller works.
5. How a water wheel works.
6. The internal structure of the pyramids.
7. The convenient arrangement of a kitchen.
8. The principle of the silo.
9. The principle of the electric motor. 10. How to make a clothes bag.
II. How an oil cup works.
12. How to make a sofa pillow.
13. How the block system works.
14. How an electric-light switch works.
15. How to brace a fence post.
16. How to make a hand bag.
17. How an electric stove works.
TECHNICAL LANGUAGE 157
18. How to show that a fire needs oxygen.
19. How a street is paved.
20. The different kinds of aeroplanes.
21. A convenient arrangement of kitchen utensils.
22. The structure of a flower, nut, or seed.
23. The meaning of some Egyptian hieroglyphics.
24. How the blade of a mowing machine works.
25. How to run a mowing machine.
26. How to make a clotheshorse.
27. How a snowplow works.
28. How to make a wall pocket.
29. How a valve works.
30. How a furnace works.
2. Prepare a complete talk of explanation on one of the sub- jects listed below. Use the best helps available. If possible, per- form the actual process in class, speaking as you work. If this is not feasible, use models or pictures, or bring and use com- pleted articles.
1. How to mix colors to produce certain shades or tints.
2. The principle of the lever.
3. How the earth acts as a magnet.
4. The different strokes used in fencing or swimming.
5. How to crochet.
6. How to spin the diabolo.
7. How to correct the reading of a compass.
8. How to take a time-exposure picture.
9. How the gyroscope works.
10. How to feather oars.
11. How to make the notes on a cornet (zither, clarinet, violin, etc.).
12. How to tie a string onto a kite.
13. How piano keys produce sounds.
14. How to make the strokes in tennis.
15. The plan of a cathedral.
16. How the stereoscope works.
17. The half-nelson hold in wrestling.
18. What Millet means by his picture " The Man with the Hoe."
158
EXPLANATIONS
19. How to make a cloth bag for a broom.
20. How to show the composition of light.
21. How to splice a rope.
22. How to do a trick.
23. Plaster of Paris.
24. The various kinds of arches.
25. The difference between the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade thermometers.
26. How books are bound.
27. How to make a cloth cap.
28. How the siphon works.
29. The principle of the microscope.
30. How to carve wood.
3. Prepare an explanation suggested by one of the technical terms given below. In some cases an explanation of the meaning may be sufficient, but in others a statement of a process will be required. When the expression is first used in the talk, give its meaning. It may then be used repeatedly, without further definition.
|
1. |
Semaphore. |
11. |
Conservation. |
21. |
Apperception. |
|
2. |
French knot. |
12. |
Depreciation. |
22. |
Binding post. |
|
3. |
Reenforced concrete. |
13. |
Mayonnaise. |
23. |
Reduction works, |
|
4. |
Initiative. |
14. |
Nave. |
24. |
Gore. |
|
5. |
Separator. |
15. |
Sinking fund. |
25. |
Credit. |
|
6. |
Induction. |
16. |
Cupola. |
' 26. |
Electromagnet. |
|
7. |
Bias. |
17. |
Totem pole. |
27. |
Baste (a fowl). |
|
8. |
Zodiac. |
18. |
Psyche knot. |
28. |
Frill. |
|
9. |
Hemstitch. |
19. |
Armature. |
29. |
Broil (meat). |
|
10. |
Water glass. |
20. |
Stew. |
30. |
Gears. |
Subjects for Explanations. It is desirable that every sub- ject on which we talk shall be of interest to our hearers. With this end in view we shall now practice thinking out new subjects for explanations. In making" up these lists there should ordinarily be no objection to the use of such
SUBJECTS FOR PRACTICE 159
helps and suggestions as can be obtained from dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and other printed matter. Per- sonal observations of the daily life around us will also furnish topics. Lists of subjects will be found on pages 22-24 ^iid ii^ Appendix V.
EXERCISES
1. a. Think out the possible subjects on which you could talk, suggested by six of the topics below. Write down five topics for explanations from each of the six fields — f/ii/iy topics in all. Bring the list to class, to exchange with another student.
h. Choose one of the topics in your list, and prepare a talk of explanation.
1. School affairs. 6. Amusements.
2. Business. 7. Science.
3. Household schemes. 8. Work with tools.
4. Land transportation. 9. Government.
5. Water transportation. 10. Business meetings.
2. a. Write down and bring to class five topics for explana- tions in each of six of the fields listed below. Let the subjects be those which you can, if given time, prepare for explanation to the class. Further, let them be subjects more difficult than are usually selected, so that the members of the class would make a real gain by hearing them. Bring the list for comparison.
h. Prepare one of the subjects for an explanation in class.
1. Farming. 6. Army and navy.
2. Manufacturing. 7. Architecture.
3. Caring for animals. 8. Traveling.
4. Library affairs. 9. Sports.
5. Art. 10. Camping.
3. a. Think out five possible subjects in six of the fields listed below — subjects which you know little about, but which you
i6o
EXPLANATIONS
would like to have explained in class by other students. Bring the list to class. When the lists of other members of your class are read, note how many of their topics are those on which you might, with a moderate amount of preparation, give explanations. b. Exchange papers with another student and choose a topic from his list. Prepare and give the explanation in class.
1. Mining.
2. Electricity.
3. Chemistry.
4. Sciences of the household.
5. Etiquette.
6. Astronomy.
7. Post-office affairs.
8. Vocations.
9. Politics. 10. Inventions.
4. Prepare a talk of explanation, using all the experience you have thus far gained.
SPECIMEN SUBJECTS!
1. Government
Electoral college. Preferential shop. Preferential voting. Ward system. Nomination by petition. Nominating convention. Proportional representation.
2. Classroom and Shops
How to
prove addition, study history, measure curved distances, run a planer, run a band saw. turn wood, sterilize dishes, center a machinist's hammer.
Habeas corpus. Direct primaries. Bonds.
Assessment district. Naturalization. Pairing votes. Referendum vote.
How to make a trial balance, a hatpin.
a hammer handle, a chisel handle. a bookcase, iron bars, a chair.
a rocking chair, a large bolt.
1 This list has been largely taken from actual Oral English lessons.
SUBJECTS FOR PRACTICE
i6i
|
3. jSIanufacturing |
|
|
Macaroni. |
Maple sirup. |
|
Concrete piling. |
Glass. |
|
Rifle barrels. |
Hydraulic elevator. |
|
Electric signs. |
Pencils. |
|
Matches. |
Silk. |
|
Wooden shoes. |
Rugs. |
|
Cloth. |
Shingles. |
|
4. Technical |
|
|
How to |
How to make |
|
test milk for water. |
• a time alarm. |
|
enlarge kodak pictures. |
a fire alarm. |
|
prepare canvas for |
raised doughnuts. |
|
painting. |
electric alarms. |
|
take freak pictures. |
a transformer. |
|
find one's way without a |
an ariel. |
|
compass. |
a solar heater. |
|
find the North Star. |
a fire extinguisher. |
|
find the poles of a |
a weather vane. |
|
magnet. |
The working of |
|
show air pressure. |
a brick kiln. |
|
collect spilled mercury. |
an arc light. |
|
splice a cable. |
a floating dry dock. |
|
paint china. |
a swimming machine. |
|
How to make |
a dredger. |
|
blue prints. |
a steam shovel. |
|
electric batteries. |
a carburetor. |
|
a hair hydrometer. |
a water-power washing |
|
an electric motor. |
machine. |
|
a thermometer. |
a geyser. |
|
hydrogen. |
a lumber chute. |
|
a weather indicator. |
an automobile brake. |
|
a simple searchlight. |
a mimeograph. |
|
a telegraph instrument. |
a steam engine. |
|
an enlarging frame for |
a typewriter. |
|
drawing. |
a lightning rod. |
|
a camera. |
an adding machine. |
l62
EXPLANATIONS
5. Camp Fire Girls (The handbook gives over 700 topics.)
How to
care for birds.
dye cloth.
prepare a well-balanced
diet, use a chafing dish, organize a card system, manage a canoe, prepare a fowl for the
table, detect adulterations, buy meat economically, put away clothing for
the summer, clean aluminum, care for an ice chest, prepare milk for a baby.
How to make
sandals.
a headband.
a camp bed.
a hat.
lace.
an expense account.
a flag.
a weather record.
a stencil. How to
tell the weather signs.
do china painting.
tell the different kinds of cloth.
care for a setting hen.
organize a celebration.
|
do camp cooking. |
ride a horse. |
|
|
protect food in a camp. |
decorate a float. |
|
|
Boy Scouts (The handbook |
gives over 350 topics.) |
|
|
How to |
H |
ow |
|
test seed. |
plants use soil. |
|
|
get rid of weeds. |
the governor is elected, |
|
|
read a weather map. |
a planer works. |
|
|
find important |
H |
ow to make |
|
constellations. |
flies for fishing. |
|
|
handle bees. |
a bow and arrow. |
|
|
dispose of camp garbage. |
a target. |
|
|
lay shingles. |
an iron hook. |
|
|
use the steel square. |
a raft. |
|
|
sterilize milk. |
a cement flowerpot. |
|
|
splice and tape wire. |
a boat. |
|
|
help up a fallen horse. |
CHAPTER X GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
The speaker's mind should be so full of his subject and of his belief in its importance to the audience that there will be no thought about the process by which the voice is produced. Yet in our school practice we need to give the voice some intelligent training, so that it will be ready to respond to all reasonable demands. There are few voices that cannot be made more responsive by care and drill.
Ease in Speaking. In the use of the voice, exercises can be of secondary importance only ; a right attitude of mind is primary. Experienced speakers tell us that no organs reflect nervousness more quickly and obviously than do the organs of speech. We must banish, therefore, all the wandering thoughts that suggest fear and failure. We must summon to our aid all the qualities of mind that produce quietness, confidence, alertness, enthusiasm. A favorable state of mind is essential to the successful use of the voice.
In training the voice, every speaker will aim to attain ease, distinctness of enunciation, and variety of tone, and so to combine these qualities that the voice will be an efficient medium of forceful expression.
Control of the Breath. Let the throat and the breath do their work naturally. The speaking tubes must not be made tense, for a hard, harsh sound would be the result. The voice should be round and open in shape — if one can
163
1 64 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
imagine it having shape — rather than flat or small. This applies to all tones, high or low.
To breathe correctly while speaking, the student must assume an active standing position ; that is, he should feel the same strength and readiness of body that he would feel if preparing to lift a heavy weight, or to strike a heavy blow. The lungs should be filled by an outward, lateral expansion of the trunk in all directions.
Talking is easiest and most satisfactory when there is a
large reservoir of air back of the tones ; one cannot do
heavy physical work or extensive speaking with exhausted
lungs. Two common causes of loss of breath are the failure
to fill the lungs in the first place, and incorrect phrasing, that
is, wrong grouping of words, which leads to breathing at the
wrong time. It is not difficult to learn to group words between
the natural punctuation marks so that the lungs can be kept
well filled.
EXERCISES
1. Practice reading a short selection at home, striving for calm- ness of mind and ease in using the throat. Try to make the tones as smooth as possible, eliminating all nasal quality and harshness. Read the selection in class, and show the effect of the practice.
2. Assume the standing position described above, and practice deep breathing. As the air is inhaled and exhaled, the body immedi- ately above the waist line should expand and contract. After practic- ing faithfully, read a selection, using the same position and manner of breathing. Study the selection so that you can make groupings of words which will allow you to use natural pauses for inhaling. It may be well to mark these places. Read the selecdon in class.
Note. The object of this exercise is not to require any student to change a good style of speaking which is natural to him, or to make him conscious of what he ought to forget. It is solely to help those who need help.
DISTINCTNESS 165
Use of Tongue and Lips. If the student will read a few sentences aloud, letting the tongue lie inactive in the mouth and making the lips do most of the work, he will see how important for distinct speaking is the use of the tongue. Then by reversing the process, keeping the lips still and using only the tongue, the assistance rendered by the lips will be clear. Foreigners, especially the French, make large use of the muscles of the face and lips in speaking. Many of us do not open the mouth enough to make it possible for the lips to do any work. The difference between tire- some, indistinct talking and bright, clear speaking is fre- quently the same as that between unresponsive lips and active, expressive ones. Some speakers who have very little strength of voice have become successful on account of the distinctness of their enunciation.
A little practice each day with the tongue and lips will result in great improvement. Observation in a mirror will be found helpful. The object of the following exercises is to make the muscles of expression of the face, the tongue, and the lips so responsive to the mind of the speaker that his talking will be more effective.
EXERCISES
1. Read a short selection aloud at home, keeping first the lips and then the tongue as inactive as possible. Next practice using both tongue and lips as much as possible. Do you notice a differ- ence in distinctness ? Which helps more, tongue or lips ? Read the piece in class, making distinctness your special aim.
2. Practice at home the following sounds, for the purpose of bringing into greater use tlie lips and other facial muscles of
expression :
00-ee-oo-ee-oo-ee
l66 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
Practice a short selection, paying particular attention to the greater use of the lips. Read it in class.
3. Practice at home the following sounds, for the purpose of using the tongue more effectively. Let the jaw and lips be left inactive.
kla-khx-kla
kala-kala-kala (Sound a as in ' father.')
Practice a short selection, paying particular attention to the sharp, accurate sounds made by the tongue. Read the selection in class.
4. Practice these lip sounds, allowing the lips to relax as much
as possible :
btib-biib-bub
Prepare a talk to give in class, emphasizing the lip sounds.
5. Practice these sounds, keeping the lips and the jaw as inactive as possible :
Gay little daJidelion
Prepare another talk for class, emphasizing the tongue sounds.
6. Practice these sounds for the simultaneous use of lips and
tongue
blub-bhcb-blub
7. Prepare another reading to give in class, using the lips and tongue effectively. Make no special effort to exaggerate. Let teacher and classmates judge whether or not your enunciation is distinct and otherwise satisfactory.
Variety and Emphasis. A voice without variety would have no attractiveness, and could not show the relative im- portance of the ideas expressed. The speaker who would make his spoken thoughts effective, therefore, must vary the quantity and quality of his voice. This he may do in at least three ways : he may change the rate of speaking, or the loudness of tone, or the pitch of the voice.
RATE OF SPEAKING 167
The Rate of Speaking : Variety in Speed. A change in the rate of speaking naturally emphasizes a thought. Thus, we may call attention to certain thoughts by clearly separat- ing one word from another and enunciating each with ex- treme distinctness. We can show the approach to the end of a paragraph or to the end of a speech by the same method. By the opposite method, that of changing to a faster rate, we can indicate the plunge into a new thought or a new line of argument.
Most of us should learn to speak faster : there is too much slow, tiresome talking. Of course a person who speaks fast must speak very distinctly. He must also watch the faces of his hearers to see that they can follow him. In general, intricate or very important parts of the talk must be spoken slowly, while sections which are simple or uniform in thought — narrative, for example — may be given more rap- idly. In any case, one should begin the talk slowly and dis- tinctly. The first words of a speech are too often missed.
Punctuation in Speaking. Almost every punctuation mark in written composition has its counterpart in oral composi- tion. Short pauses show commas ; and successively longer ones show semicolons, colons, and periods. Paragraph end- ings are indicated by much longer pauses, and perhaps by changes in the position of the speaker's body. Quotation marks may be shown by an abrupt pause before the quota- tion and another at the end, as well as by a change in the pitch of the voice. The dash may be shown by an abrupt stop, and the exclamation point by increased speed or force toward the end.
The Judicious Use of Pauses. Most inexperienced speakers are afraid to use pauses ; they feel that the talking must be
i68 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
kept going else they will lose either the attention of the hearers or confidence in themselves. These fears are usu- ally groundless.
The proper use of pauses accomplishes two things : it breaks up monotony, and it allows time for the hearers to get the meaning. Too many speeches, even by experienced talkers, have a machinelike monotony. Such a style of speaking distracts the attention. Again, on a serious sub- ject listeners need time to grasp an important or novel idea. Often we like to turn away from a book to think out what we have just read, but in the case of a speech the hearer has no opportunity to do this. For these reasons, the speech which is characterized by haste is usually void of results. By making no pause after a question, or after a challenge, or after an important statement or summary, the succeeding ideas crowd into the consciousness before the first have had time to make the proper impression. The student need never think that his hearers will suppose that he is hesitating ; hesitation produces a different effect.
EXERCISES
1. Select a short paragraph to read in class. Practice it at home, reading it, first, very slowly, then, as fast as you can. In class read it once each way. Which is more effective ?
2. On a subject about which you know a great deal, prepare a short talk ; give it in class, speaking as rapidly as possible. This exercise is to cultivate the power of rapid thinking and talking.
3. Prepare and give in class another talk, speaking very slowly.
4. Prepare to read a selection in class, giving the opening and closing sentences slowly, and the other sentences as rapidly as you think the audience can follow. In the reading, make pauses where necessary to show the sense.
DIFFERENCE IN STRESS 169
Loudness of Tone. Theoretically, no words in a sentence are spoken with exactly the same stress. Practically, we use perhaps three degrees of loudness. In the preceding sen- tence the words 'practically,' 'three,' and 'degrees' have chief stress ; ' use,' ' perhaps,' and ' loudness ' have only mod- erate stress ; while ' we ' and ' of ' have the least. We must be careful not to emphasize unimportant words. Debaters sometimes wrongly emphasize such words as ' resolved,' ' and,' and ' should.'
Above the level of being heard by all, there is a wide range of stress from which to choose. Important statements may be given with full strength ; difficult analysis may need a serious, quiet presentation. Words which would be printed in italics can be made to stand out in speaking. Words may be put into parenthesis by dropping the voice and by pauses before and after the parenthesis.
Making Everybody Hear. The worst of all faults in pub- lic speaking is failure to make every listener hear, and hear comfortably. No other combination of virtues and graces will make up for this fault. Failure to be heard is in rare instances due to circumstances which cannot be controlled, but oftener it is due to lack of consideration or effort on the part of the speaker ; he does not put himself in the hearer's place. If a speaker talks too loudly or too softly he is not thinking of his audience. A good plan is to select some person in the rear of the hall, and see that he hears. Sometimes even the most experienced public speakers talk only to a portion of the house near the front, utterly ignoring the others. Sympathetic regard for others is the best cure for this difficulty. Do not allow yourself the excuse that yon cannot make yourself heard, lliere is
I/O GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
hardly a girl who cannot learn to make an audience of fifteen hundred people hear her. It is all a matter of the right use of the voice, together with a belief that you can. Never allow the last few words of a speech to be lost ; make the finish a strong one.
EXERCISES
1. a. What words should receive the strongest, the medium, and the weakest stress in the following sentences ?
1. Aren't you ready to do your duty?
2. Make hay while the sun shines.
3. Ignorance of the law is no excuse.
4. Jesus said, " Father, forgive them ; for they know not what they do."
5. There is no possible reason why we should n't succeed.
h. Compose or select five other sentences, and read them in class. Exaggerate the stresses slightly, so that the differences will be evident.
2. Read a short selection of poetry, bringing out clearly the appropriate differences in stress. Careful practice will be neces- sary. (Try to apply, also, what you have learned about variations in the speed of reading.) Selections from Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar," Act III, are suggested, particularly Antony's speech in Scene i, beginning, " O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth," and those in Scene ii, beginning, '^ If you have tears, prepare to shed them now," and " Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up."
3. Prepare a prose reading to give in class. Study it thoroughly, noting the sentences which should be read more loudly than others. Pay attention also to differences of stress within each sentence, and to differences in the rate of reading. Practice faithfully, and read the selection in class.
VARIETY OF PITCH 171
4. Prepare a speech to give in class, preferably a brief argu- ment on a business proposition. Practice it repeatedly, making it show striking and appropriate differences in loudness. There is no objection to a little exaggeration. Remember to make the conclusion strong.
5. Prepare an announcement. If possible, the class should meet in a room which will seat 200 people, then in one seating 1000 or 1500, and again in the open air. Let the members of the class station themselves at some distance from the platform and in various directions from the speaker. Make the announcement so clearly that no word can possibly be "missed. Perhaps you may be able to practice with a friend beforehand. After your speech ask how many missed even a word of the announcement.
This exercise should be repeated until satisfactory results are obtained. At each trial the speaker should look over the place and the audience before he speaks, deciding how to adjust his voice to fiU the space.
The Pitch of the Voice. A third element of variety in the use of the voice is that of pitch. Though no one can be expected to use in speaking the range of tone that a singer uses in singing, yet the instrument employed in both cases is the same. If the sentence, "You are a hero," be spoken, one could determine with a delicate musical in- strument the pitch of each sound. Every sound one makes has its place in the musical scale. Since the voice has a wide range of tone, just as any other musical instrument has, why should not every person learn to use a greater range in his speaking? Some speeches are tiresome be- cause all the tones are between two notes of the scale. On the other hand, a lawyer pleading for a life will use a full octave of tones, low tones for solemn warning and pleading, and high tones for questioning and denouncing.
1/2 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
Learning to use a Greater Range of Tone. How may the beginner learn to use a greater range of tone in his speak- ing ? Let him choose a sentence, perhaps one expressing excitement, and practice varying the pitch of the different syllables. In this way he will find out which are his best tones for ordinary speaking. There are many persons whose speaking would be greatly improved by lowering the ordi- nary voice a tone or two. Again, the student who practices faithfully will develop the power to use high and low tones when either are needed in his speaking. Repeated trials will show how far up or down the scale he can safely go in expressing various shades of meaning.
Change of pitch is used also to help mark parentheses, new paragraphs, quotations, and different speakers in dia- logue. We use the sudden high pitch at the end of a question expecting a ' yes ' or a ' no ' answer. A common error is the use of this up stroke at the end of declarative sentences or even at the end of a speech. Hesitation or lack of confidence is usually at the bottom of this fault. If one has this habit, he should learn the down stroke of the voice by cultivating a positive and emphatic style of talking.
EXERCISES
1. Poetry approaches singing, and difference in pitch is obvious. Practice a selection, and rfead it in class, using as great a range of voice as possible. Thus, you, may get an insight into the wonder- ful power of the voice. The selections mentioned in the previous exercises would be acceptable ; also the following from the same play: Act III, scene ii, Antony's speeches beginning, "Friends, Romans, countrymen," and " But yesterday the word of Cassar" ; and those of Cassius, Act I, scene ii, beginning, " I know that
FORCEFUL SPEAKING 173
virtue to be in you, Brutus," and " Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world."
2. a. Practice the following sentences, speaking them with the voice pitched as high as is natural to you. Try each sentence in a low voice also, and then in what you think should be its correct pitch.
1. Aren't you coming.?
2. How dare you say so ?
3. It is impossible to do what you ask.
4. We shall be there as soon as you will.
5. I will not have anything to do with your schemes.
6. We will not submit.
7. How can a man be unkind to his mother.?
8. This is a sad and solemn occasion.
9. This cave is as dark as night. 10. How dare you speak to me.?
b. Prepare five other sentences to read in class, using the higher pitch.
c. Prepare five other sentences to read in class, using the lower tones.
3. Select an ordinary piece of prose, such as a paragraph from a periodical, and practice reading it with as great a range of tone as possible. Study it thoroughly to determine what words and sen- tences need the higher tones, and what the lower. Read the selec- tion in class. Pay attention to differences in speed and in loudness.
4. Prepare a talk upon a subject of your own choosing. Make a special effort to pitch the voice slightly lower than you usually do. At the same time use a variety of different tones. Oive the speech in class.
Enthusiasm and Force. It is of little use to speak at all unless it can be done with .some vigor. It is desirable to speak with ease, to talk distinctly, and to have variety of speed, stress, and pitch. But the proper combination of
174 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE
these good qualities should lead to forceful use of the voice. Just how and when to be in earnest with the voice is a matter for judgment and good taste to determine. The student must learn that sometimes he is most forceful when talking slowly, that there are times when subdued tones are more forceful than loud ones, and that frequently notes in a low pitch express more force than high-pitched ones. Adapt the emphasis to the subject, to the thought being expressed, and to the time, place, and particular audience addressed.
Be careful that enthusiasm is not overdone ; that you do not make an exhibition of force run to waste. Over- emphasis is bad because the audience will pay attention to your manner of speaking and little to what you say, and because they may suspect you of insincerity. Never give the impression of spending yourself to the utmost ; always have a reserve of force.
EXERCISES
1. Study a piece of literature expressing serious, quiet thoughts ; such, for example, as Lincoln's " Speech at Gettysburg," Wash- ington's " Farewell Address," Portia's speech on mercy in " The Merchant of Venice," the Twenty-third Psalm. Try to get into the spirit of the thoughts of the author. Then practice the selec- tion, putting into the reading all the quiet earnestness which will make it effective. Read it before the class.
2. Find a selection which may be appropriately rendered with vigorous emotion, such as an extract from Patrick Henry, Wendell Phillips, or William Lloyd Garrison. Practice the selection, and read it in class with great enthusiasm.
3. Select a partner for a conversation. Choose for argument a question upon which you disagree. Hold the conversation before
FORCEFUL SPEAKING 175
the class. Speak with great enthusiasm, but with the quiet manner appropriate to a friendly conversation.
4. Prepare an argument upon an interesting, stirring subject. Practice it carefully, paying attention to posture, gesture, and good management of the voice. Deliver the speech in class with as much vigorous force as is appropriate.
5. For the purpose of exercise in emphatic gesturing, facial expression, and voice, arrange an extempore play with some ex- citing conversation in it. It may be an attempt to collect rent, with an eviction following. Such a scene might have four characters: landlord, tenant, lawyer, and policeman. Put all the force possible into the play.
6. Prepare a talk requiring a quiet, earnest manner, such as the principal of the school would assume in telling the students about the value of thinking about their life-careers. Give the talk in class.
CHAPTER XI SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Occasions requiring talks to fit particular needs frequentty arise in student life, as, for example, when a member of the graduating class, in a speech at assembly, presents to the school a picture or other gift. Furthermore, announce- ments are often to be made, nominations for school offices are common in many schools, and in some schools student officers preside at auditorium calls and introduce speakers. This chapter is devoted to the discussion of the needs aris- ing out of such occasions. It may be that years will pass before the student will be asked to give a toast or an oration in real life ; nevertheless, the practice in such talks is of such value that all the talks outlined below should be tried. If the real occasions do not arise in school life, possible situations may be dramatized by the members of the class.
I. THE ANNOUNCEMENT
When a person appears before an audience to give a notice or to speak of a coming event, he is making an announcement. Since announcements are frequently given in school as well as in public meetings, we shall here study how they may be made most effectively.
Preparation for the Announcement. The first require- ment is that the speaker should thoroughly understand what he is going to announce. Nothing essential must
176
THE ANNOUNCEMENT 177
be allowed to escape him. Thus, if the event is a game or an entertainment, the following items must be included : the occasion and the purpose of the event, the participants, the date, the hour, the place, the terms of admission. If any other information might be needed by the audience, as, for example, how a place is to be reached, or how the money received is to be used, the announcement must include these items also.
Next, a WTitten outline should be prepared, so that the details will be presented in the. best order. The speaker must first arouse the interest of the audience, and therefore he must select for his first item one of great interest. Thus, in announcing the laying of a corner stone, one might begin, ""This city is at last to have a new high-school building." Other details may follow in the order which the speaker thinks will serve best to hold the interest of the audience, and to impress upon it the leading points.
Notes to use while speaking must next be prepared. It is not safe to trust to the memory in the case of a compli- cated announcement, for it is fatal to success to misstate the time, the date, or the place. It may not be necessary to include all the items in the notes used before the au- dience, but dates and other figures should invariably be set down.
The Speech. In presenting the announcement, accuracy of information and distinctness of speech arc of first im- portance. In the case of a printed notice, if the reader overlooks or forgets any detail, he can turn back to it later. But since with the oral announcement there is no oppor- tunity to do this, the speaker must see that nothing essen- tial is neglected. To this end he sliould repeat important
178 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
facts at a suitable opportunity, perhaps by a summarizing sentence at the close of the talk. He must also emphasize the important points. To show emphasis printed notices frequently make use of several different kinds of type, but the speaker must accomplish the same result by the voice. The following announcement may serve as an illustration :
The second annual junior exposition^ for the exhibition of the products and interests of the children of this city, will be held on next Friday afternooft and evening. Last year's success is to be repeated on a larger and more comprehensive scale. The section devoted to children's pets has been greatly enlarged, and sections for kites and for home decoration have been added.
The exposition is to be held in Conventiott Hall, on Williamson Street, and will be open from three to ten p.m. The admission to everyone is ten cetifs.
Reinember : Friday next; Convent io7i Hallj three to ten P.M.j the jim ior exposition .
EXERCISES
1. Prepare and deliver an announcement for one of the
following events :
1. A football game. 6. An election.
2. An exhibit of farm products. 7. A business meeting.
3. An entertainment. 8. A candy sale.
4. A concert. 9. A band concert.
5. An excursion. 10. A mass meeting.
2. Announce one of the following as an approaching event, and give directions for those who wish to sign, buy tickets, enter, or take part :
1. A debate. 6. A new club.
2. A petition to the faculty. 7. A school play.
3. A track meet. 8. A subscription or collection.
4. A tennis tournament. 9. A try-out for the orchestra,
5. An initiative petition. 10. A picnic.
THE NOMINATING SPEECH 1 79
II. THE NOMINATING SPEECH
Most of the world's work is done by means of organized endeavor, and the officers in the organizations have usually been chosen by nomination and election. It is therefore important that anybody who is to take an active part in life should know how to make a good nomination speech.
The public naming or recommending of some person to fill an office is- called a nomination. If such an indorse- ment is to accomplish its object, .it must be both intelligent and enthusiastic.
The Outline. For the speech of nomination the speaker must use some such outline as this :
OUTLINE FOR A NOMINATION SPEECH
1. The requirements of the ofifice. (If not already stated.)
2. The name of the candidate.
3. The candidate's qualifications for the office.
4. What he may be expected to do if elected.
5. The appeal for votes.
Although an outline should be prepared and carefully mastered, notes should not be used during the speech, however long or complicated it may be. Written notes would give the impression that the speaker was not suffi- ciently acquainted with the qualifications of the person nominated.
Announcing the Name. Should the name of the candi- date be announced at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the speech.? There are reasons for each posi- tion. A common place is at the close ; we have all heard a speech end, "Therefore it gives me great pleasure to
l8o SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
nominate Mr. Blank." There are good reasons, however, for giving the name of the candidate at least as early as the middle of the speech. Suppose the speaker withholds the name during the first part of the speech, but tells the audience that one of the candidate's qualifications is prac- tical business experience. At once many in the audience begin to guess who the candidate is, and may be so dis- tracted that they fail to hqar some of the important details. If the name comes early in the speech, the hearers are able to follow each point intelligently, and to test the accuracy of the statements by their own knowledge.
From a parliamentary standpoint, when the name is given it should be addressed to the chairman of the meeting, so that the secretary will record it. Thus, at whatever point in the speech the speaker desires, he may turn to the chair- man and say, " Mr. Chairman, I nominate Mr. Blank for the office of president."
Appeal for Votes. The other topics of the outline above should need no explanation, except perhaps the last. The appeal for votes should be based on the evidence presented under the other topics ; for example :
We see that this office is a responsible one, and it is therefore our duty to vote for the best candidate. The young man that I have nominated has the necessar}' ability, and I have shown you what we may expect him to do for the club, if he is elected. I am sure he is the best person for the office, and I hope you will vote for him.
The appeal should not be too long, for to bore one's hearers means failure. Neither should the appeal be based on minor considerations ; for example, that because William is popular, or jolly, or an athlete, he should be elected
THE NOMINATING SPEECH i8i
treasurer of the club. The opponents are hkely to seize upon these statements and to claim that such arguments show how hard it is to find good reasons for recommend- ing the candidate. In any case, the candidate's principles are far more important than his personal qualities.
It should not be necessar)' to remind anybody that par- liamentary rules prevent adverse comments about candidates.
Originality. Nomination speeches must be attractive. Therefore avoid tiresome, worn-out expressions. There are many good ways of saying, "It gives me great pleasure."
Humor has no place in a nominating speech unless it applies to the argument. The joke that is told "just for fun " or "to get the ear of the audience " merely clouds the real issue. Such methods do not deceive intelligent voters.
Win votes by nominating the right candidate, by giving clear reasons for his election, by sincere enthusiasm, and by making the appeal for the good of the society.
EXERCISE
Prepare a nomination speech, choosing from the list below or selecting your own subject. For duties of officers, see Chap. XIV.
1. Baseball captain. 11. Treasurer of a union.
2. Track manager. 12. Librarian of an orchestra.
3. Treasurer of the school. 13. (irand marshal of a parade.
4. Yell leader. 14. Master of ceremonies at a
5. Manager of the lunch room. celebration.
6. Secretary of a literary club. 15. Chairman of a convention.
7. President of a social club. 16. Chairman of a mass meeting.
8. President of a business or- 17. Manager of your city.
ganization. 18. Mayor of your city.
9. Sergeant at arms. 19. Governor of your state.
10. Secretary of a chamber of 20. President of the United commerce. States.
1 82 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
III. THE INTRODUCTION OF A SPEAKER
In public meetings the necessity of introducing a speaker to the audience is very common, and we shall find it worth while to learn how to do it.
The Outline. To make a speech of introduction it is necessary to have a definite plan in mind. First, perhaps, the occasion and its meaning may be noted ; and next, the name of the guest, and for what he is known. Then may be mentioned the speaker's subject ; and finally should come an expression of the pleasure of the audience in the opportunity of listening to their guest. Then the chairman may turn to the speaker, who steps forward, and formally introduce him to the audience : " Ladies and gentlemen, Mr. Blank."
Announcing the Name. The chairman must be careful in announcing the name. Not one person in the audience should be allowed to miss it. The speaker will respond, "Mr. Chairman," either as he rises or as he reaches the front of the platform. The person presiding remains standing for this response, and bows in reply. Then he takes his seat on the platform, or perhaps with the audi- ence, if the meeting is in a small room.
Naturalness. The chairman must not embarrass the speaker by flattery, or by a flourish of oratory. The introduction should be brief. Let the chairman remember that the audience did not come to hear him.
No notes should be used in an introduction speech.
Thanking the Speaker. Usually the speaker should be thanked when he has finished. If there is prolonged applause, the chairman should not come to the front until
INTRODUCTION OF A SPEAKER 183
it begins to subside. It is a good plan to rise as the speaker returns to his seat, perhaps shaking hands with him and bowing him to his seat. The chairman may stand a moment at his seat, and then come forward to express, on behalf of the audience, the pleasure which the speaker has given them. He will be talking in two directions, and should look from the audience to the speaker.
EXERCISE
The best practice in giving introductions will be gained if each member of the class will choose a partner. Suppose, for example, that some member of the class is to give an explanation on a sub- ject in electricit}^ Let him play the part of an expert from another city. As his partner, you may consult him beforehand to find out his name, position, honors, etc., and to get his exact subject. Then introduce him to the class, and thank him after his speech is finished. Make the occasion as nearly like a real situation as possible. The following introductions are suggested :
1. A returned soldier. 11. A labor-union leader,
2. An expert in agriculture. 12. A manufacturer.
3. A noted traveler. 13. An army officer.
4. An agent for plows. 14. An inventor.
5. A candidate for office. 15. A noted chemist.
6. A celebrated athlete. 16. A noted architect.
7. A hero. 17. A statesman.
8. A mayor from another city. 18. A foreign diplomat.
9. A visiting teacher. 19. A king.
10. A clergyman. 20. An explorer.
In case the person introduced is presented for the pur- pose of honoring him rather than for the purpose of having him give a set speech, the situation is similar to that in which a gift is presented. This we shall consider next.
1 84 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
IV. THE PRESENTATION AND RESPONSE
Many situations arise in which it is necessary for some one to make a presentation speech, and for the recipient to respond. No kind of speech requires -greater poise, and there is none in which awkwardness is more noticeable. Faithful practice will help to make one at ease in such situations, if this is reenforced with the sincerity and kind- liness which should go with the gift and the giving.
The Presentation. The outline for the speech is simple. It may include four topics: (i) the good qualities of the person honored ; (2) the reason for presenting the gift ; (3) the good wishes of the givers ; and (4) the words of presentation. The recipient will be standing with the speaker in the case of the presentation of an emblem or a medal, since such an occasion involves no surprise. But when the person who is to receive the gift has not been informed of the event, he will probably be seated in the audience.
Tr)^ to avoid causing the recipient embarrassment. You may, of course, take him by surprise, but put him as much at ease as possible. Talk directly to him, as naturally as you can, and hint at what is to follow. Do not overdo the compliments. Allow time for him to collect his thoughts before vou finish.
The Response. In accepting a gift or an honor pre- sented in public, make your speech sincere and short. By no means refer to your own qualities or to past accom- plishments, even indirectly by means of an apolog}' or by a show of humilit}\ Such remarks spoil the gladness of the giving, because they cannot be sincere.
PRESENTATION AND RESPONSE 185
An outline like the one following may be used, in such cases as when a gavel is to be presented to a retiring president of an organization : (i) sincerely thank the givers; (2) tell how deeply the honor is appreciated ; (3) thank the members for their cooperation and friendship ; (4) ask their support for the new officers ; (5) say that the gift will always call to your mind your loyal friends and your help- ful experiences in the society.
EXERCISES
1. Below is a list of gifts, some of them with suggested recipi- ents. Select one of these and prepare a speech of presentation, first requesting somebody to stand with you and accept the gift, either for himself or on behalf of an organization, as the case may be.
1. A medal to an athlete. 6. A flagstaff to the school.
2. A school emblem to a debater. 7. A tree to a city park.
3. A gavel to a retiring officer. 8. Diplomas to a class.
4. A prize to the winner of a 9. A picture to a club.
contest. 10. A piano to a society.
5. A scholarship.
2. Select a gift to present to some person in the class who does not know of the honor until your talk begins. Let it be •understood that the recipient is to respond. The following are suggested :
1. A clock. 6. A sewing machine.
2. A fountain pen. 7. A set of dishes.
3. A watch. 8. A pet dog.
4. A pocketknife. 9. A sum of money.
5. A book. 10. A deed to a house and lot
1 86 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
V. THE TOAST OR AFTER-DINNER SPEECH
The Occasion and Purpose. A toast is a dinner speech designed to honor or express appreciation of an organiza- tion, individual, or sentiment. The dinner and the program which follows are arranged by a committee, who choose the toastmaster, the speakers, and the subjects. Thus if a com- pany of former Panama Canal workers should hold a ban- quet, there might well be toasts on these subjects : The Republic of Panama ; The Chief Engineer ; The P^ific Coast ; The Suez Canal ; Sanitation ; Uncle Sam.
Toasts are usually a mixture of serious and witty thoughts. Some of the topics are assigned by the committee with the idea of humorous treatment throughout, while others neces- sarily require a serious style. A toast which is wholly seri- ous, however, is rare. Every speaker must present his subject attractively, and it is probably for this reason that appropriate, bright sayings and funny stories are introduced.
Plan. No fixed outline for a toast can very well be sug- gested here. If a story or a humorous incident is to be used to begin the toast, it should be one that clearly applies to the subject. The hearers may gradually be led from the lighter thoughts to the serious consideration of the subject. If the speech is a eulogy of a person, the treatment must be candid, sincere, and unaffected. The ending may be a summary, or possibly a happy look into the future. Originally the speech ended with a cup held aloft and some such words as, "I pledge you, friends, our country, the fairest," etc., that is, a well-worded descriptive sentence or a quotation of poetry. The banqueters then drank the toast. The actual drinking is now often omitted.
THE TOAST 187
There is no need to memorize a toast ; a little practice with an outline, either alone or before a helpful critic, will be preparation enough. A small card at the place, with a few words to aid the memory, will not be objectionable. A memorized wording will almost always spoil the pleasure of the hearers.
The Toastmaster. The person chosen toastmaster of the banquet has an entirely different task to perform. The president of the society, or the chairman of the committee of arrangements, will turn the program over to him and he becomes master of ceremonies ; that is, he gives an opening talk about the occasion and its meaning, which is somewhat like a toast itself, and also introduces each of the speakers and announces his subject.
The good toastmaster has a fund of apt stories. He leads from one toast to another by appropriate comments on the subject just finished, and by remarks or a story introducing the next. The more closely the remarks apply to the speaker or the subject the better.
The Guest of Honor. If the banquet is in honor of a person, he should be the last speaker. Let us suppose that the Chamber of Commerce is banqueting the Secretary of State. The guest may be introduced by the toastmaster, though often the preceding speaker, who may be the presi- dent of the society or the mayor of the city, is asked to do it. The Secretary's speech is of his own choosing. He may express appreciation for the good words and the honors, happiness in the occasion, and good wishes for the organi- zation. He may then talk about the affairs of the country,' or the policies of the administration, or our trade with other countries, or on any other topic of general interest.
i88
SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Suggestions for Practice. The occasion may be a simple banquet of the class, or a dinner of "notables" in which each student takes the part of some personage. The follow- ing are suggestions : Chamber of Commerce ; Republican Central Committee ; Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ; Civic League ; Improvement Club ; Athletic Club ; Football Team ; the workers of a store ; the heads of departments of a business house ; the annual banquet of any other of the innumerable societies which help to carry on the world's work and play. For other examples, see the suggested events on page 191.
EXERCISES
1. Make arrangements with other members of the class, and jointly prepare a program of toasts. Use the sample programs below as suggestions. If cooperation seems impracticable, let each student choose one topic and prepare an appropriate speech.
I. A School Banquet
II. A Civic Organization
|
1. Student activities. |
1. Our schools. |
|
|
2. After school, what.? |
2. The ladies. |
|
|
3. The fun we have. |
3. The churches. |
|
|
4. The faculty. |
4. Our neighbors. |
|
|
5. Music. |
5. Prosperity. |
|
|
6. The taxpayer's standpoint. |
6. The look ahead. |
|
|
III. A Merchants' |
Asso- |
IV. A Political Organi- |
|
CIATION |
zation |
|
|
1. The advertiser. |
1. The glorious past. |
|
|
2. The salesman. |
2. The classes and the masses, |
|
|
3. The show window. |
3. Graft. |
|
|
4. The public. |
4. Hard times. |
|
|
5. The future. |
5. Progress. |
THE ORATION 189
2. Arrange with tlie required number of your classmates for a
program similar to the following, and let each prepare to give one of the toasts :
I. A Dinner to a Professor 11. A Banquet to a Labor
OF Agriculture Leader
1. Welcome to our guest. 1. The movement.
2. The old-fashioned farmer. 2. What we are trying to do in
3. The price of hogs. this city.
4. Modern methods. 3. The ballot.
5. Politics. 4. The larger patriotism.
6. Introduction of the guest. 5. Our guest.
7. Address : Scientific farming. 6. Address : The outlook.
'&•
VI. THE ORATION
The Real Use of the Oration. Graduation speeches are often called orations, although they are usually nothing more than explanations or arguments, or simple combina- tions of the two. The typical speech of the so-called ora- torical contest also is not a real oration, at least in the proper sense of the term. It is usually a series of argu- ments or an explanation of events, with perhaps an appeal at the end. Often these speeches are given in an artificial, strained style which may do a young speaker harm ; they are a bad mixture of dramatics and debating. The student would do better to confine his attention either to dramatics or to debating, and not to mix the two.
Strictly speaking, an oration is the chief speech of the program of exercises held to celebrate an important event, such as the founding of a college or the birthday of a statesman. When the exercises are planned, some person conspicuous for good citizenship and for his experience and ability in speaking is selected as tlie chief orator.
I90 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Although the student may not be called upon to deliver an oration until many years after his graduation, the train- ing involved in planning, studying, and delivering a simple oration will prove of value to him now. No other kind of speech offers so good an opportunity for effective speaking, except perhaps the debate. Its use is so restricted, however, that we shall consider it only briefly.
Preparation. Material for the oration may be obtained only by a thorough study of the subject, which may include research into both history and biography. The scope of the speech must be indicated by the topics of the outline. The following is a typical plan :
OUTLINE FOR AN ORATION Celebration of Independence Day
1. Introduction: The reason for to-day's celebration.
2. History : The events leading up to the Declaration of Independence.
3. Eulogy : Praise of the men concerned in that event.
4. Explanation : The historical importance of America's free- dom ; and the probable effect on the future.
5. Conclusion : An appeal to the audience to aid in carrying forward the ideals of the nation.
In the oration greatest emphasis should be put on such topics as the third and the fourth in the outline above. The first two should be restricted to a brief treatment.
The outline should be memorized, for the orator usually should hold no notes. The old-time orations were often written out and memorized, but the modern way seems to be to avoid learning the actual words. The movements and the manner of an orator should be deliberate and dignified.
OTHER TALKS
191
EXERCISE
Prepare an oration. Choose any subject you wish ; the topics below may suggest an acceptable occasion. Arrange to have somebody act as chairman and introduce you. (Perhaps a whole program may be arranged and carried out, including vocal and instrumental music, reading, the introduction, and the oration.)
1. Independence Day.
2. Labor Day.
3. Birthday of Washington or
Lincoln.
4. Thanksgiving.
5. Columbus Day.
6. Memorial Day.
7. Christmas.
8. Fifdeth anniversary of the
opening of the Panama Canal.
9. Opening of a park or play-
ground.
10. Completion of a harbor.
11. Laying the corner stone of a
museum.
12. Launching an ocean liner.
13. Opening a canal.
14. Opening an irrigating system.
15. Signing a treaty.
16. Establishment of world peace.
17.
The invention of printing or of the telephone.
The discovery of electricity or of aviation.
The anniversary of the found- ing of Boston.
The state of Illinois.
Dedication of a library.
The Pilgrim Fathers.
The discovery of the north pole.
The Knickerbockers.
The pioneers of California.
Unveiling a monument.
Unveiling a fountain.
Signing an old-age pension bill.
29. Breaking ground for an ex-
position.
30. Breaking ground for a na-
tional university.
18.
19.
20. 21. 22. 23.
24. 25. 26.
27. 28.
VII. OTHER TALKS
The Commemoration or Celebration or Dedication Speech will usually be an oration, as indicated in the exercises above.
The Eulogy is a speech in praise of some individual. It is like an oration, though the outline must be somewhat changed — perhaps as follows : the occasion ; what the man
192 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
has done ; his value to his fellows ; the influence he will exert on the future ; the appeal. The praise should not be exaggerated.
The Farewell Speech, addressed to one who is leaving, may touch upon the occasion, the appreciation of friends for the person and his accomplishments, and the good wishes for the future. The response to such a speech resembles a valedictory (see below).
The Speech of Gratitude is similar to the speech of acceptance (see page 184).
The Inauguration Speech, or Speech of Installation, is made when one assumes an office. It resembles the speech of acceptance, but includes, in addition, an appreciation of the good efforts of the retiring officers and a statement of the policies and plans of the new administration.
The Invitation Speech expresses good fellowship or mutual interest ; it states accurately the event to which the invitation is given, tells how the invitation may be accepted, and expresses cordial hope that the response will be favorable.
The Rally Speech purposes to arouse enthusiasm for a good cause or a coming contest, and must express optimism. In form it may follow the outline of the oration, especially emphasizing the importance of the cause and the appeal for support. It must be spontaneous and informal.
The Valedictory is a speech of farewell by a person who is taking leave of some place, organization, or the like. It is made use of chiefly by a representative of a graduat- ing class of a school. It may include words of apprecia- tion for friendships, regret at parting, and good wishes for the future.
OTHER TALKS
193
The Speech of Welcome is in honor of visitors or return- ing friends. If a visiting committee of citizens from an- other city is welcomed in our city hall by the mayor, the speech might include these topics : the occasion, our regard for the visitors and their city, the plans for the visit, pleasure in the welcoming, hope for the success of the visit. The response to such a speech is like an acceptance. It may express thanks for the greeting, pleasure in having come, anticipation of good fellowship, and the friendship between
the two cities.
EXERCISE
Prepare and deliver a speech on one of the subjects in each group given below. When possible, cooperate with other students who will give introductions or responses.
I. Eulogy
1. Washington.
2. Lincoln.
3. Lee.
4. Longfellow.
5. Gladstone.
6. John Harvard.
7. Henry Clay.
IL Farewell
IV.
14. President of a college.
15. Mayor.
16. Governor.
17. President.
Invitation
18. To a celebration.
19. To a banquet.
20. To a school or college.
III.
|
8. To a teacher. |
V. Rally Speech |
|
|
9. To a friend about to leave. |
21. |
A game. |
|
10. To an explorer. |
22. |
A debate. |
|
Inauguration |
23. 24. |
Interest in athletics. Interest in debating. |
|
11. President of the student |
25. |
Interest in the school |
|
body. |
paper. |
|
|
12. President of tlic debating |
26. |
Interest in the orchestra. |
|
club. |
27. |
Contributions to charity. |
|
13. Athletic manager. |
28. |
A political campaign. |
194
SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
VI. Valedictory
29. Leaving school.
30. Leaving a social club.
31. Graduating from college.
32. Leaving a business firm.
VII. Welcome
33. A visiting teachier.
34. A new principal.
35. A peace delegate from a
foreign country.
36. A mayor.
37. A labor convention.
38. A convention of scientists.
39. A committee of investiga-
tors.
40. A committee of business
men.
CHAPTER XII
ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
We have now discussed in detail the most important kinds of talks. There are still to be considered, however, some special talks and exercises, which, for convenience, we have grouped together in this chapter : Reading ; Cur- rent Topics ; The Discussion ; Impromptu Talks ; Humorous Stories and Jokes ; Interviews ; Conversations ; Extempore Plays. Several of these are closely related to those already studied, but we shall here briefly concentrate our attention on each of these special topics.
I. READING
Whether the subject matter be an exciting bit of news, an interesting description, a serious speech, a poem, or an essay, the power of multiplying thought in the printed page by means of the spoken word is a fascinating process.
What to read in Class. To get the best results we must make a careful selection of the material to be read. If all the selections brought to class were interesting and new to the hearers, there would be little difficulty in learning to read successfully. There is not much incentive to a student to read well when he knows that few of the others care about hearing him.
In our consideration of reading, therefore, we shall not discuss drill in expression, repeated reading, or dramatic
195
196 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
reading ; these may be reserved for special classes. We shall assume at the outset that each student makes his own selections and that every item read in class will, under ordinary circumstances, attract and hold the listeners. Selec- tions should be made with this end in view, and books, magazines, and papers should be searched for appropriate reading material. Incidents, current events, and other short articles will usually be most interesting. Occasionally a piece of business English, such as a circular or an adver- tisement, will be useful. When a long selection is chosen, it should be divided among several readers.
Preparation. The selection given below, clipped from the magazine section of a newspaper, is the kind fre- quently used in class.
A ROCK-SALT RAILWAY STATION
Writing of the wonderful Wieliczka salt mines near Cracow in Austrian Poland the Alanchester (England) Guardian gives an inter- esting description of a railway station in the mine. There are 65 miles of pony tramways, says the Guardian, and 22 miles of railway. All these lines and the principal passages or " streets " meet in a sort of central cavern. Here is a central railway station, with spacious waiting rooms, offices, and an excellent refreshment room all complete, all hewn out of rock salt, and looking, according to one description, " more like a summer pavilion than a railway station, with its latticed galleries and stately pillars gleaming white and iridescent." This is comparatively modern, of course. The oldest " building " in the mine is the chapel of St. Anthony, dating from 1691. It contains three altars, a pulpit, and much statuary, all elaborately carved out of rock salt. But services are now held only in the more modern but equally elaborate chapel of St. Cunigund, which is entered down 46 salt steps. The ballroom is a huge room, where miners' festivals are often held. A miners' orchestra plays regularly in this hall not only for the dances, but for the enter- tainment of visitors, for the mine is one of the wonders of the world and is much visited by tourists.
READING 197
In preparing to read such an article, we need first to make the thought our own. Repeated reading, with what- ever study is necessary, will give us the sense of the article. The dictionary should be used for meanings and pronunciations. Failure to make proper preparation may lead to awkwardness and to the recital of mere words. The class may well protest if its time is wasted by such reading. Oral practice is the best preparation, and we shall discuss below some principles to be observed in this practice.
Reading at Sight. Sometimes, however, we may find it necessary to read an article without any preparation. Since it is important for us to have practice in such an exercise, we shall make our directions apply to both kinds of reading, but we may here consider a word or two of warning for the sight-reading exercise. Do the best you can, and then do not worry if your reading is imperfect. If you are asked to read an article similar to that given above, you should make a sincere attempt to pronounce the difficult names without hesitation and without asking anybody else. Do not spell words to your hearers or to the teacher. A guess at the pronunciation is better than that, unless a possible mispronunciation would destroy the sense of the article.
The Beginning. When about to read a prepared article, do not make a long statement before you begin. If the selection is complete, it will usually have its own introduc- tion. At most, if some remark seems necessary, tell the source of the article and its general purpose. For example, a selection without a definite title might be prefaced by such a remark as, " This is the description of an English school in the early part of the last century. It is from Dickens's ' Nicholas Nickleby.' "
198 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
Announcing the Subject. Be exceedingly careful to make the subject perfectly clear to your hearers. Many times it happens that because the speaker himself is familiar with the printed subject, he assumes that it will be sufficient for him to talk in his usual tone of voice. He forgets that the thoughts of his hearers may be far from his topic, and must be brought to it definitely. For example, unless you announce the topic, ""A Rock-Salt Railway Station," slowly and distinctly, probably nine out of ten of your listeners will imagine that the word before ' railway ' is the name of a place. It is good practice to select a newspaper item, with its brief, condensed headlines, and to read these topics so carefully that nobody can miss them. The title is printed large ; make it sound large. It is separated from the body of the article ; separate it in the reading by means of a definite pause after the title. This pause is essential for a clear beginning.
The First Words. The opening words of the selection itself must also be read slowly and very distinctly. The reason for this is the psychological fact that it takes time for the minds of the hearers to put aside present thoughts and fall into the spirit of the new ideas. As you go to the front, for example, some of your classmates may expect from you an article on the temperance cause. They hear, however, something about Mars, and at once think of classic myths and ancient Greece and Rome. Instead of that, they begin to hear of millions of miles and of canals, and finally realize that you are trying to tell them about the great planet. Because of the danger of being mis- understood at first, every word must be made to reach the thought of the hearer.
READING 199
Some Fundamentals. It is fundamental to success to learn to give more attention to the listeners than to the paper. Hold the book or paper fairly high. This will help you to look up without having to raise your head ; more- over, it will give a full view of your face and better direc- tion to your voice. Develop the ability to look ahead and grasp the sense of words yet to be spoken.
In the body of the article where the thought is well connected the reading may proceed much faster than at the beginning or at the end. The Jast few sentences should be given slowly, but the reading must not be allowed to diminish in force. Make the finish a strong one.
EXERCISES
1. There is hardly a limit to the variety of topics possible for reading. Any of those suggested below will be interesting if care in the selection is used. Choose a short article, make the proper preparation, and read the selection to the class. Be on the alert to hold the attention of every person present.
1. Political news. 8. Newspaper interviews.
2. Business news. 9. Scientific articles.
3. Doings of Congress, state 10. School news.
legislature, or city council. 11. Editorials.
4. Foreign events. 12. Business circulars.
5. Notes on plays. 13. Selections from textbooks.
6. City affairs. 14. Political circulars.
7. News of clubs, lodges, or 15. A poem.
societies.
2. Make a selection which requires exact reading, one that does not proceed smoothly from beginning to end. An article containing figures would be best. Make the appropriate preparation, arid read the selection in class. The following are suggested :
200 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
1. A daily weather report. 6. A bill.
2. A business letter containing 7. A cooking receipt.
an order. 8. A stock-exchange report.
3. News of ships and shipping. 9. A notice of a meeting.
4. A market report. 10. A treasurer's report.
5. A table of current prices.
3. Select an advertisement, preferably a large display adver- tisement with few details, but one using several different kinds of type. Study it for the purpose of determining just how the emphasis shall be placed. Practice for proper emphasis, and for clearness throughout. Read it in class.
4. Select a short poem to be read in class. Be sure of the meaning of every phrase. Practice faithfully. Remember that you do not need to force rhythm : if you read naturally to bring out the sense, the rhythm will take care of itself. Try to make a definite gain in your ability to read poetry.
5. a. Select such an article as has been suggested in the first exercise of this group. Bring it to class, cutting it from the periodical if convenient, so that it may be easily handled. Let one of the pupils collect all the selections, and place them face downward on the desk or table. As your turn comes, choose one of the articles and read it, doing the best you can at sight. (If you draw your own piece, return it and draw again.)
h. Carry out the same exercise for such a selection as is sug- gested in Exercise 2 above.
c. Carry out the exercise with an advertisement.
d. Carry out the exercise with a poem.
6. Let the teacher select a story of some length to be read in class, at sight. Here every student is a link in a chain, and the whole chain — the story — ■ breaks if one student fails to read successfully. Begin at the first new paragraph on the page shown you, and read to the beginning of a new para- graph on the next page.
CURRENT TOPICS 20I
II. CURRENT TOPICS
Conversations are full of discussions on current topics, and our thoughts deal largely with them because they have a vital relation to the things we are doing. To acquire the ability to talk intelligently and interestingly on the happen- ings of the day, we must learn to read accurately and broadly, to listen attentively, and, above all, to practice faithfully by ourselves and to talk with our friends.
The Choice of Topics. In selecting current topics to present as Oral English recitations, avoid subjects so tech- nical that your listeners cannot readily understand them, and also those so simple or obvious that your audience will be bored. This does not mean that common subjects must be shunned if you have something fresh and interesting to say on them. Select topics which are concerned with the world's progress. Do not waste the time of the class with the recital of events which never should have happened, unless you have a cure to propose.
Preparation. Make yourself thoroughly familiar with your topic by reading and conversation. In this study, as in the case of other recitations in Oral English, the student might well use for his preparation the time so often wasted in idle thinking or careless talking — on the street car, or when eating, dressing, walking, etc.
In order to give the talk well, its outline must be planned in advance. This plan should include a sentence of intro- duction and one of conclusion. The introduction should aim to arouse interest in the subject, and the conclusion may touch upon the significance, the effect, or the probable outcome of the event. Thus, a talk about Belgium might
202 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
begin as follows : " Americans are intensely interested in watching the attempts of the Belgians to restore normal con- ditions in their country. Yesterday I read an article," etc. Then would follow the gist of the topic. Be careful to in- clude every necessary detail, such as time, place, and names of persons. Perhaps a picture or a map would help the talk. The conclusion might be worded somewhat as fol- lows : "This article indicates that the Belgian people are making valiant efforts to hold together, and that within the near future- great changes for the better may be expected."
In the preparation, unless the subject follows a simple and obvious order of topics, the outline should be written out in detail. Such a written outline may not be needed when the talk is given, but it should be used in preparation.
After each talk has been given, other members of the class may want to ask questions or tell something further about the topic. Such informal discussion will be con- sidered in the next section.
EXERCISE
Come to class prepared to give a current topic — an item of present interest to the members of the class. Perhaps you had better come prepared on several topics, so that if somebody speaks on one of them you can use another. If, however, you find it necessary to speak on a topic already given, try to add something new to what has been said. Make the topic vital and the treatment attractive. The fields of interest suggested below, and those given in the exercises on reading, above, may be searched for good subjects. Newspapers and magazines will be found rich in good topics, but your own experiences and observations will often be the best source.
THE DISCUSSION •-.• ' 203
1. Science. 6. New books.,'
2. Invention. 7. National and international affairs.
3. Politics. 8. School happenings.
4. Labor questions. 9. Celebrations and conventions.
5. Business changes. 10. Recreations.
III. THE DISCUSSION
We are constantly discussing topics of interest. Every group of children talking on the street, in the halls, or on the playground is having a discussion. In order to give directions here for all such discussions we should have to consider many of the things already treated and some that will appear in later sections. We shall therefore limit our present treatment to informal discussions which arise in the course of a recitation in the Oral English class, and to formal discussions which are planned in advance for the express purpose of considering all sides of a question.
The Informal Discussion. Whenever an interesting talk has been given in class, there should be an opportunity for questions, remarks, and the giving of additional information, unless lack of time makes such discussion impracticable. In this discussion every member should have complete freedom to speak, but should limit himself to the subject and be brief.
What shall decide, or who shall decide, when each person who desires to speak shall have the privilege ? Of course, if the teacher is in charge of the class, anybody who wishes to take part in the discussion will apply for permission in the usual manner. But if the class has a chairman, then the requests for the privilege of the floor may be made
204 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
by the method used in hterary or business meetings. In the early part of Chapter XIV is outhned a simple plan for the organization of an Oral English class into a parlia- mentary society. Such an organization is of great advantage in conducting a discussion. Even if it seems impracticable to carry out that plan, however, one of the students may be elected or appointed chairman of the meeting, and may sit at the front for the purpose of recognizing those who rise to ask permission to speak. A person so chosen should give the privilege of speaking according to the rules set forth on page 322. If the class has a time limit for each talk or discussion, the chairman should enforce that rule.
The Formal Discussion. Sometimes a set speech or a whole meeting for the consideration of a question is called a discussion. Suppose the superintendent of schools dis- cusses the question of a junior high school for the city. Or suppose a meeting is held for the discussion of the question of a new high-school building. In either case the use of the word ' discussion ' means that both sides of the question are to be presented. Thus the superintendent would summarize all the facts and arguments. The meet- ing would listen to persons holding varying opinions. The difference between a discussion and a debate is that the debate is still more formal, with prearranged sides and with a decision of a committee of judges afterward.
How the Discussion is Conducted. A meeting for a dis- cussion may be conducted according to a definite plan. Thus, some literary societies use a plan which would be an excellent one for a class in Oral English to follow. The teacher, or a committee of students, or the vote of the class may choose a subject to be discussed at a future meeting.
THE DISCUSSION 205
The subject should be one about which there is a differ- ence of opinion, and its treatment by the class will be largely argumentative. The principles we have studied in Chapter II will therefore apply to the discussion. The subject selected may be stated in the form of a topic, a resolution, or a question.
It is a good plan to appoint one member to open the discussion with a talk of from five to ten minutes in length, depending on the total time for the meeting. Several short talks may then follow, the speakers being appointed in advance or volunteering and being recognized by the chair- man. These should each be limited to from two to five minutes. Finally, the person who opened the discussion should be allowed to close it with a talk of from four to six minutes.
The Opening Talk. The opening speech, if one has been planned, should be a general survey of the subject. It should first state the problem to be solved, or the ques- tion to be setded, and should then touch upon the various solutions proposed. If there are two" or more clearly defined opinions, every side should be presented carefully and fairly. Finally, the speaker's own conclusions may be presented, with his reasons. For example, suppose the question of a building for the high school is under discussion, and the superintendent of schools has the opening talk. He first presents the problem, perhaps the overcrowding of the school. He next discusses the solutions proposed : putting the ninth gi'ade into a junior higli school ; changing the time program of the high school so that some pupils will come early in the day and others late ; getting along with conditions as they are ; and building a new building. In
2o6 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
discussing these proposals he should give them the best statement he can. Finally, he should make a strong, brief argument in favor of the plan he believes best, showing how each of the others is an inadequate solution compared with the true one, the construction of the new building.
The other talks would of course present other opinions, and the final speech by the leader of the discussion would answer the other arguments and make a summary.
EXERCISES
1. Let each student select a current topic to present in class. After each person gives his talk, let the teacher or a student chairman conduct a discussion on the subject.
2. Six or seven students should be selected to conduct a formal discussion during a recitation period. One should be asked to give the opening talk, and the others to present other opinions. The subject selected should be one about which the members of the group differ. A list of subjects is given below ; others are given in Appendix II.
1. What is the cure for war.?
2. Is municipal ownership a good thing?
3. Sliould we indorse the general principle of labor unions ?
4. How can poverty be prevented.''
5. Would the junior high school be a success?
6. How may athletics be improved ?
7. Does the Monroe Doctrine help this nation ?
8. Should capital punishment be abolished ?
9. Have modern inventions made people happier? 10. Is student self-government a good idea?
IMPROMPTU TALKS 207
IV. IMPROMPTU TALKS
Extempore and Impromptu Speaking. Suppose that in preparing his lesson in the exercise above, a student selects the question of the cure for war, studies his subject, outlines it, and practices it faithfully but without memorizing it word for word, and then gives the speech in class. He is making an extempore speech. If, on the other hand, he ex- presses himself on the question of the cure, without opportun- ity for preparation, his speech is impromptu. For the purposes of this book, then, the impromptu speech will be taken to mean that for which there has been no definite preparation.
Practically all the directions in this book are for extem- pore speeches, yet some excellent practice in quick thinking and ready talking may be obtained in impromptu work.
Thinking Rapidly. In impromptu speaking the student will be assigned a topic upon which perhaps he has never talked with anybody, and will be called on without time for study. When placed in this situation the speaker must do his best. He must not apologize or talk about himself. He should be decisive, clear, and explicit in stating what he docs know and does believe about the subject. No harm will come from tr^'ing. Unless he tries to say too much there is little danger that he will be led into insincerity, conceit, or false opinion.
The speaker should start making the outline before he says a word ; at least he ought to decide what will be his first and his second topic. Then as he begins speaking he should think ahead to the other topics, and before he nears the end he should plan a strong conclusion. Practice will show that it is possible to do this successfully.
2o8 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
EXERCISE
Topics can hardly be listed here, for they would provoke thought and preparation, and this would make the talks extempore instead of impromptu. The topics following, therefore, are rather to suggest the kind of work that may be undertaken. How may the topics be selected ? An excellent way is to have a committee or the teacher select a number of subjects, writing each upon a slip of paper. Each student, as he is called upon, draws a topic and makes his speech. Topics may be selected from the exercises of Chapter II, and from the debate questions and the lists in Appendix II. Better still, they may be chosen from the daily experiences and problems of the students and of the world. The following have been used :
1. Are white lies ever justifiable.''
2. Should churches adopt entertainment features ?
3. Do you think that the United States will ever have complete prohibition ?
4. What kind of tree is best for streets ?
5. When should men take their hats off in an elevator?
6. Have you any objection to eating cold-storage eggs ?
7. What is the cure for the large number of automobile accidents.''
8. Do you approve of fashionable weddings .''
9. How can insanity in the United States be lessened?
10. If you had the necessary time and money, what trips would you take?
11. How can schoolrooms be made more attractive?
12. Should a father watch a son to prevent his smoking?
13. Should " strap-hangers "' pay less fare?
14. In what ways can a person learn to save time?
15. Is coeducation beneficial to the student ?
16. Why do people wear hats ?
17. W^ill Mexico ever be a real republic?
18. Do you think the scientists will ever learn to control the weather?
19. Would Southern California be more prosperous if it raised alfalfa instead of oranges ?
HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES 209
20. Should a person who is going into business have a college education ?
21. Will there always be a great number of poorly educated people to do the manual labor of the world .''
22. Will electricity ever replace steam ?
23. Tell the uses of petroleum.
24. Tell something about the natural resources of Russia.
25. Tell the advantages of the occupation of farming.
V. HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES
Any person can become a reasonably good story-teller. All that is required is a little courage ; practice will do the rest. It is true that some persons need more practice than others, and many good story-tellers have become successful only after arduous practice. Here, as in the other exercises in oral work, the student is to be judged not so much by the talent he has as by the gains he makes. Nobody who is gaining in his ability to tell stories need be discouraged. Progress, as we have said, requires courage and practice. Courage is needed because the story-teller has to face the close attention of his hearers, and has to make good their expectations. Practice enables him to see his mistakes and his successes, and to make each attempt a little better than the preceding one.
The Beginning. Narrations have already been discussed in Chapter V. Since what has been said there applies also to the funny story we shall here add only some special directions.
In beginning the story or joke, one must bring out clearly the attending circumstances which arc necessary to the point. These may include, as suggested on page So, the persons, the time, and the place. In the case of some
2IO ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
humorous stories, facts mentioned at the first are neces- sary to the understanding of the points involved. For ex- ample, the story told of the boy who wrote " have went " for " have gone " depends for its success upon the hearers' knowing that the boy was being punished for that mistake. Include all necessary preliminaries.
Details which are not essential to the point of the story should by all means be omitted ; it is these which make so many story-tellings tiresome.
The Point. The point in a funny story usually lies in three or four words. The speaker must not let his listen- ers miss even one of these. The story-teller has failed if it is necessary for any person in the audience to ask his neigh- bor the point of a joke. Score the point roundly, but do not repeat it ; repeating a joke or attempting to explain it puts one in a hopeless position as a story-teller.
The Kind of Jokes to Tell. A recent writer remarks that the greater part of the humor of certain European countries is based on brutality or vulgarity. It seems true, unfortu- nately, that many people take pleasure in repeating stories that ought to die out — stories that lower one's self-respect in the telling. On the other hand, the world is full of good jokes and wholesome fun. Why not, therefore, leave out of our lives and conversations the stories not altogether decent .'' The habit of appreciating and transmitting the best kind of fun, with kindness and healthiness of mind, is an asset to one's self and to others. Cultivate it in your reading, conversation, and public speaking.
Application of the Joke. Many stories are given as a part of another talk, told for the purpose of illustrating an argument. Thus, a political speaker used this story to show
HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES 21 1
the position of the Southern sugar planters on the Under- wood tariff.
The Louisiana Democrats had voted for \\'ilson. But after he took office and began to advocate free sugar, they began to do a great deal of worrying and complaining. The speaker said that the situation reminded him of how Willie got the wasp. A mother, her small son, and nurse were traveling in a train ; the boy and the nurse together, and the mother comfortably reading a novel across the aisle. The boy had noticed a wasp flying along the window, and was reaching up a hand to it. Suddenly the mother heard a cry. Looking up from her book, she said, " Nurse, let Willie have what he wants." The nurse replied, " Please, ma'am, he 's got it."
Using Stories in Arguments. Three special cautions are necessary in applying stories to arguments. First, do not tell stories which have nothing to do with the argument. Many a debater or lawyer wins applause by a rapid fire of fun, but the stories do not appeal to the judges and juries when it comes to the decision. Second, so tell the story that its application will be perfectly clear. Third, do not attempt to point out the application of the story ; the audience will apply it themselves with much better effect.
EXERCISES
1. There are certain weekly and monthly magazines and a few newspapers which make a business of collecting and publishing the best humorous stories and jokes. Find one or two good stories, study them well, practice them, and come to class prepared to give them successfully.
2. Every person has had many funny experiences — funny at the time or funny as he looks back at them. The writer will always remember with a smile the day when he was learning to ride a bicycle and met his teacher and proudly tried to raise his
212 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
hat. Think over some experiences which are funny and which will be worth telling. Come prepared to tell one or two in class. Some of the following situations may be suggestive :
1. The street car. 6. In stores.
|
2. |
At church. |
7. |
On the street. |
|
3. |
On the school grounds. |
8. |
Tricks. |
|
4. |
In the schoolroom. |
9. |
Trips or camping, |
|
5. |
Games and sports. |
10. |
Work. |
3. Think of an argumentative point to which a story might apply. Find a story which helps to prove it. Then prepare to give very briefly the statement or argument and the story which helps to enforce it. You must think over very carefully just what should be said. The following topics may suggest arguments :
1. School discipline. 6. Social affairs.
2. School studies. 7. Politics.
3. City affairs. 8. Scientific questions.
4. National affairs. 9. Newspapers.
5. Foreign affairs. 10. Work and methods of work.
VI. INTERVIEWS
An interview is a conversation for a definite purpose ; for example, seeking information, or persuading a person to agree to a business proposition. Over and over again men and women, young and old, must go through the give-and-take involved in such conversations, no matter what their callings or life interests.
Courtesy and Directness. The chief requisites of a suc- cessful interviewer are courtesy and directness. The Golden Rule is the best possible rule, for interviews. Anything else is short-sighted and must eventually fail. If you wish suc- cess, therefore, you must invite it. You must not intrude into a person's home or office unannounced, hurriedly, or
INTERVIEWS 213
disrespectfully. You may send in your card to the person you wish to see, or present it to him as you come face to face. Otherwise, you must tell your name at the beginning. You must wait to be asked to sit, and must care for your own hat. A carelessness about one of these little things may easily create a prejudice against you that will make your interview absolutely fruitless. The person you approach may judge you by the first little impressions of manner and dress. Be open in your manner, but reserved at the same time. If there is to be joking or an informal style of conversation let the person being interviewed begin it.
State your business as soon as you conveniently can. If you have a complicated proposition to present, preface it with a hint as to its general nature ; for example, " I called to try to interest you in a new device for starting auto- mobiles," or "The high school sent me here to ask you to act as a judge in the debate next month." Unfortunately, it is true that some people seem to try to hold back the true nature of their business, intending, evidently, to attract the listener by means of irrelevant matter, and to mention the disagreeable points at a more favorable time. Such evasions are always less effective than straightforwardness.
The chapter on Business Talks gives suggestions that will be helpful in preparing the outline to follow in the interview.
Following the Lead of Interest. Having presented your request or proposition, wait the pleasure of your hearer. Do not keep up a steady flow of words. Be as ready to listen as to talk. If your companion has interrupted with questions, these will show you the direction of his interest. Put aside your outline for the moment, and follow where
214 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
he leads. Be ready to meet all questions, admitting disad- vantages and answering objections. Do not allow anything said to rufifle your good humor. Constant courtesy is your part, regardless of the other person's behavior. Preserve the best of good feeling, even if you disagree with him. Sometimes the objections your companion urges give the best possible clue to the interest he has in the subject. Then you must try to see the proposition from his point of view, and show him by tactfully appealing to these inter- ests that he should agree to do what is best for himself.
Care in making Agreements. If the interview leads to an understanding or agreement, make this as definite as possible. If you have documents to present, have them well labeled and arranged, and state their nature or purpose as you show them. Many interviews lead, of course, to the signing of papers, others to the paying of money, others to the transfer of goods. Let whatever is done be done with no hurry, but with complete understanding and agreement. Perhaps you should make out and give to the person you are interviewing a memorandum of some sort. For example, the man who is to be a debating judge should be handed a card stating the date, time, and place of the contest. Your interview may then end with some conversation of a social or general nature, or at least with the usual expression of thanks and good day.
A Plan for Schoolroom Practice. It will be excellent practice for the students to group themselves into pairs for interviews. Each pair should talk over the details before- hand : how the interview shall begin, how it shall proceed, how it shall end, etc. The interview should not be re- hearsed, for the chief value of the exercise comes from the
INTERVIEWS 215
impromptu and somewhat unexpected nature of the ques- tions and replies. For each interview the students concerned may appropriately arrange the chairs and table at the front, and may tell the audience what the place is supposed to be. The speakers must talk to each other a little louder than they would naturally, for now there is an audience present to listen.
Some interviews need three or more persons. It will afford excellent training for students to arrange scenes with persons entering and leaving, as -in a real office.
EXERCISES
I . Choose a partner, decide with him what interview to arrange, talk over how the conversation is to proceed, and then give it in class. Arrange your positions so that both of you will face the audience, and speak at all times loud enough for everyone to hear. The following may afford good suggestions:
1. Giving a grocery order. 12. Offering an apology.
2. Asking information about 13. Asking for an explanation.
colleges. 14. Arranging for repairs.
3. Securing a speaker for a 15. Buying concert or theater
meeting. tickets.
4. Renting a house. 16. Buying a motor cycle.
5. Insuring a building. 17. Asking for a recommenda-
6. Telephoning an order. tion.
7. Asking advice about going 18. Securing an umpire for a
into business. baseball game.
8. Asking for a higher position. 19. Department-store manager
9. Asking an increase in salary. instructing one of his 10. Serving a notice to vacate buyers.
a store. 20. Joining a club or association.
II. Selling an adas.
See the exercises for Chapter VII.
2l6 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
2. Choose a partner for an interview in which one person has objections to acceding to the other's wishes. Do not talk over together what the objections or arguments may be, but let each person separately think very clearly about his own course of thought and action ; the one, what objections he has to the pro- posed request, and the other, what objections may possibly be urged and how they may be answered. Do not, however, tr}^ any false salesmanship, attempting to make a person do what he does not wish to do. Rather have so good a proposition that he will gladly change his mind. The following are only suggestions :
1. Collecting a bill. 6. Securing a singer for an
2. Selling a knife sharpener. entertainment.
(Demonstrate its action.) 7. Soliciting an advertisement.
3. Applying for a position. 8. Asking a person to be a busi-
4. Asking for credit. ness partner.
5. Arranging for a football game. 9. Asking a loan.
10. Interviewing for a newspaper.
See the exercises for Chapter VII.
VII. CONVERSATIONS
We are always practicing conversations, yet we rarely try consciously to improve our abilities as conversationalists. If we can talk with others helpfully and attractively, we shall find valuable friends and add to the store of mutual under- standing and happiness.
This book cannot attempt to explain the complete eti- quette of the subject ; it can only indicate some important common principles.
The Need for Good Topics. If you choose a partner from the class and take the floor for a social conversation, you will soon learn the need for the ability to '" keep the con- versation going." It is decidedly helpful to have in mind
CONVERSATIONS 217
three or four topics which will be interesting to your partner. A person can have an enjoyable and profitable talk with almost anybody if he deliberately tries to lead the conversa- tion to the interests and activities of the person with whom he is talking. Once get good topics of conversation and the rest is not difficult. Try to avoid depending on school affairs, or on ""What have you been doing.?" or "'Where have you been keeping yourself.?" even for opening a talk. Carlyle laughs at trite and tiresome topics of conversation, and calls the weather ""that great boon to society."
Listening. A common fault in conversation is the failure to listen. Have you ever had the experience of saying something to another, and finding by his reply that he was only using that time to think up a remark of his own ? There can be no good conversation without willingness on the part of each participant to listen to what the other says.
Ending. Ending a conversation is often as hard for some talkers as coming to the point in an interview. Perhaps the best way is frankly to rise at a convenient pause and then to make your adieus. '" I must be going," or '" It's getting late," or "" I have another engagement," are not much more sensible than is, ""I thought I would write to you " for opening a letter. Your rising will indicate that you must go, and your parting remarks might better indicate the pleasure you have had in the conversation: ""Well, I've enjoyed this talk " ; ""I hope to talk with you again soon " ; "We haven't exhausted these questions; I hope we shall soon have another chance to talk " ; ""I wish you would come and see me."
Introducing Persons to Each Other. It is excellent prac- tice to introduce two persons to each other. In doing this
21 8 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
be sure to speak both names distinctly. Remember, if you are introducing a man and a woman, that you should address your introduction to the woman : " Miss Thomas, this is Mr. Williams." When one of the persons has some interest which may appeal to the other, it is a great aid to their conversation to mention it just after the introduction : "Mr. W'illiams is a violinist" or "Mr. Williams studied the violin in Vienna ; Miss Thomas has been studying music in the East."
Large and varied interests, wide information, judicious reading, worth-while experiences, broad sympathy with those one meets, and a readiness in the expression of one's ideas — all these are necessary to the making of a good conversationalist.
EXERCISES
1. Make a list of twenty topics about which you are sufficiently informed to hold conversations. Then write another list of twenty topics about which you are not informed, but about which you would like to talk for the purposes of friendly conversation and general information. In class compare notes with other students, and in this way find partners for two conversations, one in which you lead and one in which you question. Give the conversations in class. Face the audience and try to make everyone hear.
2. Below is a list of topics. First we have a general subject, and next one of the specific questions of interest in that field. Choose a partner, and hold a conversation on one of these topics, or on another suggested by one of them.
1. Art. What kind of pictures do you like?
2. Music. What is the advantage to be gained by studying good music?
3. Architecture. Is a street more attractive with buildings of uniform design.''
CONVERSATIONS 219
4. Books. Do we read enough works of fiction, or too many?
5. Magazines. Which have the best short stories.''
6. Plays. What kind should the school give?
7. Science. What gains have been made by soil analysis?
8. Travel. Should you like to see South America?
9. Aviation. Will aeroplanes ever carry passengers and make regular trips?
10. Athletics. Is " indoor baseball " better than basket ball ?
11. City parks, streets, or schools. Which is our most attractive park?
12. Peace and war. Does a war indirecdy help to make a lasting peace possible ?
13. Poverty. What can the city do to help the poorer people of this city?
14. Political prospects. Who should win in the next election ?
15. American cities. Which would be the most interesting to see?
16. Financial affairs. Are the banks as safe as they can be made?
17. Business affairs. Is this city a good place for a young man or woman to start business ?
18. Newspapers. Should the papers be controlled by the city government to see that they do not print anything objectionable?
19. Mexico. What can be done to help improve the conditions of living in Mexico ?
20. Colleges. Which college should you prefer to attend ?
3. Choose a partner to act the part, and hold a dignified, friendly conversation with one of the following persons :
12. A locomotive engineer.
|
1. |
An elderly man. |
|
2. |
An elderly woman. |
|
3. |
A small boy. |
|
4. |
A little girl. |
|
5. |
A labor-union member. |
|
6. |
A capitalist. |
|
7. |
A statesman. |
|
8. |
A politician. |
|
9. |
A teacher. |
|
10. |
A preacher. |
|
11. |
A farmer. |
|
13. |
A ditch digger. |
|
14. |
A member of the Industrial |
|
Workers of the World. |
|
|
15. |
A tennis champion. |
|
16. |
An Englishman. |
|
17. |
A German. |
|
18. |
A housing expert. |
|
19. |
An artist. |
|
20. |
A policeman. |
220 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
4. Choose one or more of the situations named below. Select a partner or partners, decide what part each will take, and give the conversation.
1. Inviting somebody to a party or game or entertainment.
2. Friends waiting for an entertainment to begin.
3. Friends meeting on the street after twenty years.
4. Waiting in line at the box office.
5. At a dinner or a banquet.
6. Strangers conversing on the street car.
7. Christmas shopping, or Christmas presents.
8. At a celebration.
9. In a train ; on an aeroplane ; on a steamer. 10. Guests arriving for a dinner.
5. Introduce the following persons to each other, and hold a conversation with them :
1. A newspaper man and a musician.
2. A schoolboy and a business man.
3. A mayor and a Civil-War veteran.
4. A blacksmith and a teacher.
5. A personal friend to your partner.
6. A stenographer to an office boy.
7. Two speakers at a lecture, just before the lecture.
8. A Democrat and a Republican.
9. Your school principal and yourself.
10. The guests arriving at your house for a dinner.
VIII. EXTEMPORE PLAYS
The purpose of this section is to give directions for simple one-act plays, the plots of which may be readily planned by the students, and the words made up as the play proceeds. We shall not deal with memorized dramatics.
How to Begin. It will be possible for any students to give an extempore play if they have had some practice in the work of previous sections. Since an interview, as proposed
EXTEMPORE PLAYS 221
above, • involves assuming and carrying out the role of an- other person, the extempore play may well begin with inter- views. Suppose, for example, that three instead of two persons take part in a conversation, one of them entering the room after the other two, a motor-cycle agent and the manager of a newspaper, have started a discussion on the purchase of a new machine. The newcomer recognizes the agent as an old friend whom he has not seen for a long time. It develops that the newcomer also wishes to sell the manager a motor cycle. The manager insists on hearing about the latter's machine, and decides to order one at once. The first agent is naturally disappointed, but is made happy by the invitation of his rival to become a partner in the agency for the better machine.
It does not require "dramatic ability" to begin in this way. The purpose in this section is to present a plan which may be followed by anybody determined to succeed, and not merely by the few who may have exceptional talent.
The extempore plays should grow out of the other work. The plot is the new element added to the ordinary inter- view ; and the plot may be defined as a centering of the interest around a problem which appears as the story pro- ceeds — a problem which is solved near the end.
Selecting the Plot : Some Examples. In selecting the plot, students must have in mind interest, simplicity, and good taste. Usable plots are as numerous and as varied as are the problems of life itself. We give here a few examples, to encourage students to think out plots of their own.
1. Real-Estate Office. A man who wishes to rent a six-room house in a certain locality enters a real-estate office. Details are discussed and several houses proposed, but none suits. The agent asks the man to
222 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES
copy down addresses and look at the houses. While he writes, another man enters. He wishes to list just such a house as the first man wants. The agent steps out to consult his partner in another room, and the first man asks the second about the house and agrees to take it. The agent is surprised and disappointed, but is offered and accepts half the usual fee.
2. Hotel. During a rush of business the hotel clerk and a bell boy assign rooms until the house is filled to its capacity. Various guests come to the office and complain of the noise and poor accommodations, but there is no relief. Finally, the manager is sent for ; he listens to the complaints, then asks the clerk for his resignation, and sends some of the guests to another hotel.
3. School of Dramatics in a Crowded Tenement. Various persons are receiving lessons. Neighbors of several nationalities complain with- out results. A policeman is sent for and ejects the actors.
4. Impossible Policeman. The police sergeant drills a new policeman and instructs him in his duties. When sent out to enforce the laws, he makes all sorts of errors and foolish arrests. The sergeant scolds, and gives him copies of the laws to read. Continued failures lead to his resignation.
5 . Too much Automobile. A man has no sooner bought an automobile than he is interviewed by agents for speedometers, self-starters, tires, rugs, pumps, etc. An insurance agent proposes various kinds of insurance, and the tax collector and an auto-club agent call. In great disgust the man decides to sell his car.
6. Millinery Store. Two women enter a store and tire the clerk by trying on all the hats without making a decision. Since they interfere with other customers, the clerk finally tells the floorwalker, who instructs the head saleswoman to ask the two customers to leave. She comes and asks the women if they cannot find what they want. They try all the hats again, the head saleswoman growing more and more impatient. Finally she tells them the store has nothing which will suit them. As they start to leave, the floorwalker recognizes one as a friend whom he has not seen for a long time.
7. Collecting the Rent. A woman's caUing day is disturbed by a rent collector. The hostess tells the collector the rent has been paid ; he tells her that eviction is imminent, the rent being sixty days overdue. He threatens to call an officer and remove the furniture. She telephones to
EXTEMPORE PLAYS 223
her husband, who says he will bring a lawyer. Some guests leave; others arrive. Husband and lawyer arrive. The lawyer demands that the agent show his papers, and finds that the latter has made an error in the house number. The agent apologizes ; the husband threatens arrest. The lawyer charges ten dollars.
A beginning may sometimes be made with impromptu dramatizations of stories or parts of works of fiction.
Assigning the Parts. Perhaps the best way to prepare a play is to have a group of from three to eight students think out a plot, such as a scene in a railway station. The teacher may help with suggestions at first. The assignment of parts may begin at once, even before the story is worked out. Let the group decide who will act as ticket agent, who as traveler, and who as gatekeeper. Then, as the many suggestions for the story are considered, the plot is gradually developed, and all the parts assigned.
Preparation. The amount of preparation for a play varies with its purpose. If the group is to give it for practice in speaking merely, or for amusement, then carefully discuss- ing the plot beforehand should be sufficient. Every par- ticipant should understand how the play is to begin and end, when he is to enter, approximately what he is to do and say, and when he is to leave.
If the aim is a careful presentation, then it may well be rehearsed. The repeated practices will lead to the use of more appropriate words, just as does such repetition for a debater's speech, or for any other speech. After a little practice, any group can plan out a story, talk over the plot, and give the play successfully.
Properties. The costumes and the properties should be simple. I'^laborate costumes are not at all necessary ; the
224 ADDITIONAL STORIES AND EXERCISES
ordinary clothes are best in most cases, but the simple change of a coat or a different hat will often help a person to assume a different personality. Facial decorations should be omitted, since these plays are not so much for an audience as for the players themselves. The front of the room may have a table or desk and a few chairs. A few additional stage properties may be useful : broom, duster, books, bench, and other mis- cellaneous articles. Signs posted on the wall or door to act as hints to the audience are particularly useful. Members of the group can easily bring the small properties needed.
The Presentation. Little more need be said about the presentation. Players must remember that as much of the talking as is possible should be directed toward the audi- ence. When two players are supposed to be talking to- gether they must glance occasionally at each other, but most of their sentences should be spoken towards the audience. Better still, the speakers should arrange them- selves in such a way that they can easily face the audience when they are speaking. In a small room, of course, these considerations are not so important.
Success is attained by forgetting one's self and by acting the part to the best of one's ability. The greatest tempta- tion for new players is to laugh at the wrong time. The student should leave the laughing for the audience unless it comes in the part he is playing. Care and interest in the work in extempore plays will result in a great deal of fun, and in good practice in speaking.
EXERCISE
Divide the class into several small groups, and let each group plan and give an extempore play.
V
PART II. ARGUMENTATION AND PARLIAMENTARY LAW
CHAPTER XIII
ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
Chapter II gives condensed directions for preparing an argument ; this chapter aims to amplify those directions for older students and to offer suggestions for debating. No attempt is here made to help students analyze classic orations and arguments ; the purpose is rather to prepare them to discuss in reasonably good style the subjects upon which the opinions of men and women of to-day differ.
Many students seem afraid to try argument and debate ; yet in their classes in history, English, mathematics, science, and the languages they are constantly dealing with evidence, and presenting more or less complete arguments. What these students need is to learn how to make a brief : to learn to group items of evidence under the several heads which prove the proposition, and to express these heads in simple sentences instead of in topics. These things we shall discuss at the proper time, but first we must consider some fundamental principles.
The Nature of Argument. Argument convinces, — it shows truth and error, — and to accomplish this, narrative, descriptive, and explanatory material must be used as evi- dence. With this material reasons are developed to prove
22 C
226 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
some one position in regard to the question. Thus, if we were discussing the question of giving the PhiHppine Islands their independence, we should study their history, resources, customs, opinions, activities, and the forces at work among them ; and from these facts we should reason as to their rights, desires, abilities, and the probable effect of independ- ence on them. Narration, description, and explanation fur- nish facts which give evidence ; argument attempts to prove that one of two contrary opinions is true.
The Correct Spirit in Argument. The reason for carry- ing on an argument is the desire to find the truth. In most arguments the truth lies somewhere between two opin- ions, and for this reason no speaker should be too sure of his position or too insistent in his enthusiasn. Let him always give the other opinion a full and patient considera- tion, and assume the other speaker's sincerity.
Should a person ever argue on the side of a question which is against his own beliefs ? Yes, and no. Yes, if it can be done with no moral hurt to himself or to others. There are many questions about which sincere and good men disagree. At the school age one has and should have opinions on these questions ; yet what student knows whether or not these will be his final opinions ? Should the Philippines be free .? Would complete free trade be a good thing.? Do athletics injure scholarship.? Should American cities own their street railways ? It would be of real value to a person in the case of such questions to study and speak on the side in which he does not believe. By so doing he will learn much, and in the end will be- come a better advocate of the side which he finally takes.
PRELIMINARIES 227
In many cases, however, injury might be done the speaker's character and the opinion of his hearers if he argues against his honest convictions. Suppose, for exam- ple, the question has to do with "preparedness," and the student strongly believes that it would be a positive wrong for our government to increase its standing army and its navy. In such a case, it would be unwise for the student to uphold the affirmative, because of the effect on him of practicing what would be insincerity, false enthusiasm, and wrong argument.
I. PRELIMINARIES
If the student could see the amount of planning a lawyer makes for each case, he would realize that skillful debaters attach great importance to definite preparation for each effort. The debater, like the lawyer, usually speaks but once on any given question. Accordingly, he must prepare for the argument in a manner worthy of his subject, him- self, and his audience. We shall deal in this section with the preliminaries to the argument, and in the following section with the building up of the argument itself.
Selecting, Stating, and Testing the Subject. If the speaker is a beginner in systematic argument, he should by all means select some topic about which he is already in- formed. In any case let the topic be an interesting and important one. Few would care to debate about the justice of a revolution in Portugal, or about the relative abilities of Alexander and Napoleon. When the argument is to be made in public, it will be a distinct advantage if the hearers also are somewhat familiar with the subject.
228 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
After the general topic is selected, great care should be exercised to frame a concise, clear statement, called the prop- osition. In most cases the proposition for debate should be affirmatively stated. It should be definite, and should be restricted fo~a single question which has two sides. The following question seems to satisfy all these tests : " Postage on letters sent within the United States should be reduced to one cent."
The following statements of questions have faults as in- dicated : " The commission form of government is not adapted to the requirements of large cities." Among other faults, a negative statement like this is apt to cause con- fusion if, for instance, the affirmative should win. (There seems to be no objection to the negative statement of the question, " Children under twelve years of age should not be allowed in moving-picture theaters unless accompanied by adults," though the use of the word ' not ' may easily be avoided by using 'prohibited.') "The West is more progressive than the East," is indefinite in its three im- portant words, and thus no sensible debate could result, at least not until both sides agreed as to the meaning of the words. "The term of the president of the United States should be restricted to a single period of six years," raises two questions : that of the single term as against the reelec- tion, and that of six years as against any other number of years. "American cities should own their water supply," is hardly a debatable question ; it would be too difficult to maintain the negative.
There are other dangers to be avoided. Such a question as " Every American city should own its own water sup- ply," should be avoided, since the negative need only find
PRELIMINARIES 229
one city which has better reasons for a privately owned supply. " The size of the United States army should be increased," is a dangerous statement in that technically the affirmative side wins if it be proved that ever so slight an increase is necessary.
It is usually understood, in the case of such a question as " American cities should acquire their own street-car systems," that the affirmative must prove the resolution true of most American cities (or of American cities as a class), and that the steps involved in the acquisition would , j begin at once and be completed as soon as practicable.
Before deciding^on- a proposed question then, the debater should see_-.that it is interesting, important, affirmative (usually), definite, single, and debatable.
EXERCISES
I. Applying the above tests, criticize the topic and the wordingW of each of the following propositions as subjects for debates, and ' put each into acceptable form :
1. Swimming is a better sport than rowing or skating. (/^.,
2. A business man does not need a college education.
3. Strikes are detrimental to the workingman.
4. Good roads are a necessity.
5. The way President Roosevelt acquired the canal zone.
6. Vivisection.
7. The extension of commerce will end wars.
8. The profession of the teacher is nobler than that of the lawyer.
9. The policy of the United States toward Cuba is justifiable.
10. The Philippines should be promised their independence within ten years.
II. Every student should choose his occupation before reaching the age of sixteen.
12. Coasting on the streets should be more carefully regulated than it is at the present time.
230 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
2. Frame a debatable proposition on each of the following topics :
— 1. Child labor. 6. Playgrounds. - "
2. The street-car system 7. Athletics.
3. The tariff. 8. The war.
4. The trusts. "^^9. Aviation. ^_
5. The railroads. 10. Automobiles.
The Introduction : Analyzing the Subject. Before the argument can begin, the real significance of the question must be understood. The debater must therefore analyze the proposition ; that is, he must carefully examine the wording, and must study to find out the full meaning of the question. This study will make clear to him what is meant by the question and what is involved in it. And if he is to be the first speaker, he must give the audience the benefit of the analysis, so that they too will know exactly what the proposition means.
Let us now note the steps in analyzing a question, and let us assume that in the ordinary speech each of these steps will correspond to one of the topics of the introduction.
1 . The Opening. The introduction may open with one or more sen- tences to win the interest of the hearers. The speaker may call atten- tion to the timeliness or importance of the question, or to the great effect a decision will have. Suppose the question is, " The Monroe Doctrine should be continued." Unless the question has been pre- viously stated, the speaker must announce it. This may be done at the outset or after the first step has been stated. The speaker may word the first step as follows :
The purpose of this debate is to examine the Monroe Doctrine, the policy of almost a century of our national diplomacy. No subject can command a more serious consideration, for, upon the decision of the United States to maintain or discard this policy depends the good of our country, the welfare of the southern republics, and the peace of the world.
PRELIMINARIES 231
2. The History. It will often be necessary to tell briefly the main historical facts of the subject. Thus one might tell of the revolts against Spain in the southern countries, of the formation of the Holy Alliance to help Spain, of the origin of the Doctrine, and of the various occasions upon which it has been used.
3. Definitions. Some of the words or phrases in the proposition may need defining. Dictionary definitions are not always helpful, for they define disconnected words, while the words in the proposition have a special context. Thus the dictionary would be useless for the words ' small ' and ' large ' in the question, " The small high school is better for the pupil than the large high school." The best definiuons are (a) those derived from the writings of experts on the subject, {l>) those which give exam- ples of the idea, and {c) those which show the parts, characteristics, or mode of operation. For example, the terms ' small ' and ' large,' in referring to high schools, may be explained by giving examples of small and large high schools in one's neighborhood or city. The Monroe Doctrine may be defined by reading passages from the original docu- ment, and by quoting from the four or five statements officially given by subsequent presidents and their secretaries. The term ' irrigating system ' may be defined by telling of its various parts : the water sources, the reservoir, the dam, the aqueduct, the distributing system. ' Indus- trial school ' may be defined by describing the equipment and the activities of such an institution.
4. The Real Question. The exact meaning of the question may now be restated in simpler words and the real difference of opinion be made plain. Thus, " The real question is. Shall we continue our objections to interference by European powers in the affairs of the western hemi- sphere? The affirmative maintains " that we should continue this objection ; the negative, that we should discontinue it."
To show just what the exact issue is, it is often necessary to state the points which should be Ic/i out of the discussion, for example : (a) all questions which are irrelevant to the main question ; (b) all ques- tions agreed upon or waived by both sides. Thus :
We are not concerned in this debate with our relations with the United States of Colombia, nor with Mexican affairs except as they involve Euro- pean powers. It is apjreed by both sides that our interest in the Philippine Islands has violated the original intent of the Monroe Doctrine; but it has been agreed to waive any question of the bearing of this fact upon
232 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
the present status of the Doctrine. Thus the question is narrowed down to this : Shall European nations be allowed to interfere in the affairs of the western hemisphere ?
5 . The Issues Involved. Finally and most important — and this must be a part of the introduction even if nothing else seems necessary — the speaker must point out clearly the different phases of the dis- cussion. These phases are called the issues, and the step in the analysis is called finding the issues. As a matter of fact, finding the issues of an argument is practically the same as making an outline. We have discussed outhning in Chapter VIII, and in Chapter II we have shown how the material for a simple argument may be arranged under several heads. Here we shall illustrate the process of finding the issues in the case of other arguments.
If two boys from different cities were talking about their schools, each arguing that his was the better, with what facts would their con- versation be concerned? If a third person were listening, would he not hear them speak of grounds, buildings, equipment, courses, students, teachers, athletics.? These topics, then, would show at once that the issues were as follows : Which school has the better grounds ? which the better buildings? which the better equipment? etc. Again, one who proposes the erection of a new school building must discuss some such questions as these: Is the present building satisfactory? Is it practi- cable at this time to provide the money? Is there any other solution to the problem? Will the new building be of great benefit? And, to recur to the question of the Monroe Doctrine, the issues might be stated : Is the Monroe Doctrine in accord with sound international relations? Is there danger connected with it? Has it benefited the United States and other countries? Will the benefits continue?
To find the issues, therefore, the student tries to determine what are the questions which must be answered in order to prove or dis- prove the question. These he presents to his audience in the intro- duction. The sequence of the issues will be discussed below, under the topic, " The Brief of the Argument."
6. The Points to be Proved. The issues having been stated, the speaker must next indicate the answers which he intends to make to these issues. For example, the statement, " We maintain first, that the Monroe Doctrine is in accord with sound international relations ; second, that there is no danger connected with it ; " etc., marks the end of the
PRELIMINARIES 233
introduction, and the speaker then proceeds to argue the first point. That is, he tries to prove that the Monroe Doctrine is in accord with sound international relations.
Up to this point in the speech there should be no argument given ; the introduction should contain only explanation, with possibly a little narration and description. In fact, the introduction to an argument should be so fair that those who uphold the opposite opinion will agree that everything said is true. In other words, there should be no dispute as to the importance or the history of the question, the meaning of the words, the real issue in the debate, or the statement of the issues that the question raises. The difference of opinion comes in the answer to these issues.
In assembling material for an argument or debate, the data for the introduction will be collected at the same time as the argumentative ammunition. It is not necessary to complete the introduction before the argument is studied.
The above six steps should be followed in the prelimi- nary preparation for any argument. It will not always be necessary, however, to show every step in the introduction as it is delivered to the audience. For example, in the case of the question, " The use of toy cap pistols should be prohibited by city ordinance," it might be best to omit any mention of the importance or history of the question, because these are already sufficiently known ; to omit defi- nitions, as being unnecessary ; and to omit the restatement of the issue because it is already so clear. The introduction, then, wcjuld consist of the steps numbered 5 and 6 above.
All introductions must be greatly condensed. In a ten- minute debating speech not more than three or four minutes should be devoted to the whole introduction.
234 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
EXERCISES
1. This exercise is based on the step numbered i above. If a debate were to be given on one of the subjects listed below, decide what should be said to arouse interest. Prepare a memo- randum of notes and practice this part of the introduction.
1. Goods made by child labor should be denied interstate commerce.
2. The president should be elected by direct vote.
3. The unanimous verdict in jury trials should not be required.
4. Student cooperation in school government should be greatly extended.
5. Fourth of July should be celebrated without fireworks.
2. Choose one of the topics listed below, and decide what should be said on the history of the subject. Look up the subject in the library, and take notes. Practice your talk aloud, and come to class prepared to give this part of the introduction. Be brief.
1. The recall of judges. 6. The condition of the roads.
2. Capital punishment. 7. Conservation.
3. Income tax in the United States. 8. Fireproof buildings.
4. Immigration. 9. The Senate.
5. The building of a playground. 10. The Democratic party.
3. Write an exact definition of three of the terms below. Make a careful search for the proper definition, using the reference books in the Hbrary, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, reports, etc. Decide carefully what form of definition to use.
1. Local option. 11. Labor unions.
2. The small college. 12. Skilled labor.
3. Protective tariff. 13. Tenements.
4. Neutrality. 14. Sabotage.
5. Arbitration. 15. Freedom of the seas.
6. Crime. 16. Progressive.
7. The alien. 17. Reactionary.
8. The yellow race. 18. Newspapers.
9. Aviation. 19. Socialism.
10. Education. 20. International law.
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 235
4. Turn to the list of debating questions in Appendix II. Read propositions 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 32, and 37 in section A. Choose one for careful consideration. Decide what the real issue is, and practice saying it aloud, using your own words and restating the question in simple, forcible language. Decide also what irrelevant or waived issues might be wrongly brought into the discussion, and practice the sentences which would show that they are not to be considered. Give the state- ments in class.
5. Turn to the propositions for debate, and read 3, 8, 12, 15, 25, 33, 35, 36, 39, and 42 in section A. Select one of them for special study. Try to find the issues involved in proving or dis- proving this proposition. Comparisons and criticisms, and votes to find out the preference of the whole class, should bring out a satisfactor}^ set of questions for each proposition.
6. Suggestions for an introduction to an argument on the Monroe Doctrine have been given throughout the steps explained above. Write on cards an outline of a complete introduction for an argument on that question. Practice this introduction, and give it in class.
7. Prepare and deliver an introduction to an argument, choosing your own subject.
II. BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT >
Collecting the Evidence. Material gathered for the argu- ment is called evidence. Evidence consists of the facts on which the proof of a proposition is based. Thus a student who wishes to prove that the city should build a subway cites as evidence certain facts, such as that the street cars and streets are overcrowded, that necessary funds can be provided, and that other cities have reaped great benefits from subways. These facts make up the evidence.
236 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
We have to consider three things in reference to evi- dence : (i) where to look for material; (2) how to know which items are of value ; (3) how to record them. We shall now proceed to answer these questions.
The Sources of Evidence. The most common source of argumentative evidence is printed material, and the debater will chiefly depend on such books, magazines, and reports as the following :
REFERENCES FOR ARGUMENTATIVE MATERIAL
Bliss. New Encyclopedia of Social Reform.
Lalor. Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and United States History.
Earned. History for Ready Reference.
New International Encyclopedia.
Annuals : Statistical Abstract ; World Almanac ; Statesman's Year- book ; American Yearbook.
Magazines, indexed in Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature.
Handbooks for Debaters.
Reports : Senate, House of Representatives, Congressional Record, Departments, Census, State or City, Associations and Societies.
Many state universities and other colleges have officers who prepare bibliographies on important questions, copies of which may be obtained on application. Students should learn the essentials of the system used for classifying library books.
How to read for a Debate. The first reading for a debate should be chiefly for the purpose of acquiring a wide knowl- edge of the subject. Such a broad outlook is obtained primarily from histories, textbooks, and encyclopedias. In looking up a subject, try all the likely headings in order to be sure to find complete information. For example, in seek- ing material about the tariff one should look also under the
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 237
words 'free trade,' 'protection,' 'customs,' 'duties,' and ' taxation.' After getting general information on the ques- tion, the student may commence his special reading. Sta- tistics and reports may be studied, and exact, minute details mastered. Care should be taken to learn the latest thought on the subject as given in the magazines.
Suppose we are discussing the question, Resolved, that the United States is justified in the manner in which it acquired the canal zone. One might go first to the histories to familiarize himself with the treaties, the activities of other countries, the in- vestigation of the two routes, the negotiations with Colombia, the Panama revolution, and the agreement with Panama. He will then have the broad facts on which to base the argument. Let him next read reports of the State Department, together with reports of congressional committees and of debates in Congress. These will give him accurate information as to the point of view of this country. If he could obtain reports from Colombia, he might get the opposite opinions. Finally, he may turn to magazines. The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, under ' Colombia,' ' canal,' ' Panama,' ' United States,' or ' treaties,' will list the magazine articles on these subjects, and the debater must judge from the titles, or by glancing through the articles them- selves, which he will select for reading. For the subject under dis- cussion, he should certainly read Colonel Roosevelt's articles in justification of his acts and also articles giving the case for Colombia.
Should debaters use the handbooks in which material is carefully collected, arranged, recorded, judged, and outlined.? Yes. A woman would be foolish to make a pattern for a dress if she could find a satisfactory pattern already jDre- pared. No debater should grow to depend upon prepared debating material, for in life he will have to put together
238 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
arguments in which he must do the whole work himself ; but in his practice there can be no harm in occasionally using another's work on which to build. By so doing the student will find himself well on his way, and may there- fore spend more time on the advanced preparation of the speech.
Interviewing. Another source of evidence is conversation with persons who are intelligently interested in the subject. Interviews may be arranged by letter or by telephone. Persons who represent both opinions should be visited. It is best to have a list of definite questions to ask. Besides such formal conversations, the student should have as many talks as convenient with parents, teachers, companions, and other friends, asking questions which trouble him, and test- ing on others the items of evidence which occur to him.
Personal Observation. In all his study the debater must not underestimate the value of his own observations. In the case of subjects concerned with school or city or country, and many others, the student will be able to study conditions at first hand, and to bring the result of his investigations into the argument.
Thus, if a speaker is to argue that his city should purchase a strip of land along the river or seacoast for purposes of rec- reation, he might collect valuable evidence by making an investi- gation of present facilities for boating, bathing, and the like. He might then determine, from his own experiences and from observation, how people substitute other and less wholesome amusements for recreation that would become possible if water were accessible. Finally, he might look over the situation for the purpose of finding a suitable location for the proposed recreation grounds. Thus his own observations would have furnished him valuable evidence. ^
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 239
We have seen thus far that the material out of which an argument is to be built is called evidence, and that the sources of evidence are three : reading, conversation, and personal observation.
Testing the Evidence. In collecting the material for the argument the student must constantly use his judgment in deciding which of the items that he reads, hears, or observes are good evidence, and which are of little or no value.
In the first place, he must select and use only such evidence as applies directly and definitely to the issue. All other material, no matter how interesting, must be ruled out. Thus evidence about canal slides would have little bearing on the question of our treatment of Colombia in acquiring the canal, and it should therefore be discarded.
We have already seen that trustworthy definidons may be ob- tained from the writings of experts. The first five references on the list above are generally recognized as giving reliable informa- tion, though it is always well to judge the standing of the author of any particular article. Reports must be critically examined, as they may be biased. The student must know who made the report, how the information was gathered, and whether the pur- pose of the report was to furnish information or to prove a case. A congressional committee, for example, a majority of whom are Democrats, may issue a report on the cost of producing a certain article in this country and in Europe ; but this report may be biased by the desire to help the Democratic argument on the tariff question, this argument being that the difference in cost is small. Similarly, the value of reports of various societies must be considered in the light of the membership, the purpose of the society, and the manner of compiling the report.
Magazine articles, although they furnish splendid evidence, must be critically reviewed. It is worse than useless to rely on the mere fact that a certain opinion is found in a magazine, no matter
240 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
how reputable it may be. Some magazines make it a point to have articles on both sides of an important question. In case a particular article is written by a recognized authority on the sub- ject, it may be referred to as having the weight of expert opinion. In all other cases the opinions in magazines have no more weight than those in newspapers. However, they all show the debater possible lines of argument which he may follow if he can secure adequate evidence.
The most effective evidence is that which the opponents recog- nize as true. If the student can succeed in finding enough of such evidence, actual argument may be dispensed with. Suppose a speaker were trying to induce a city council to purchase land and erect houses for workingmen. He might present as evidence the experience of the German city of Ulm, and then show clearly how the land and the funds could be obtained in his own city. He would not then need to draw any conclusions, for the listeners themselves would be led to ask, " Why don't we do that ? " The best kind of argumentative speech contains little real argument, but a great many indisputable experiences. The value of facts and examples is shown in this statement recently made: "The modern man does not argue ; he illustrates." The accurate state- ment of known facts and of well-selected illustrations of the truth to be established inevitably lead the hearers to the conclusion desired.
To sum up the tests, good evidence must be applicable to the issue, and must come from sources which are well qualified to give facts or opinions, which are not prejudiced toward either side, and which are recognized as trustworthy.
The fact that no evidence to prove a particular contention can be found, sometimes is good evidence that the proposition is not true. Suppose it is contended that the abolition of capital punishment would increase murder. If this proposition is true, the statistics of crime in the states and nations which have abolished capital punishment should exhibit a noticeable increase in the number of homicides directly after
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 241
the abolition of the death penalty. If no such increase is shown, the contention that the number of murders would increase can hardly be maintained.
^ Recording the Evidence. Evidence from all sources, — reading, conversation, and observation, — if it promises to satisfy the tests, should be recorded in convenient form. Proper recording from the start will save a great amount of labor when one comes to arrange the material for the speech. The first requisite is a supply of paper of con- venient size : the quarter sheet of foolscap or of typewriter paper is satisfactory. A space should be left blank at the top of each sheet, so that the paper may receive its proper label and numbering after the complete outline is prepared. (When the first evidence is being collected, it may not be possible to tell in advance under which head each item will come.) The second line should bear the title of the particular article which contains the evidence. Next should come the author's name and the name of the book or maga- zine or other source of information, with the exact reference. Finally, comes the evidence itself, either written out as an exact quotation, or condensed to give the substance of the thought. The papers should be written on one side, in ink, and no sheet should bear more than one item of evidence.
The " Form for Recording Evidence, with Examples," shows how the cards may be filled out.
Arranging the Evidence. With the evidence collected and properly recorded, the slips of paper may be arranged in order. This is done as explained on pages 126-129.
Using Graphic Methods. We have spoken in previous chapters of tlic use of diagrams and drawings in speak- ing, and we have seen how effective they are. Debating
242
ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
evidence may often be put into a similarly graphic form. In a debate on the independence of the Philippines, a student used a colored map of the Islands for the purpose of showing that there are eighty or more different tribes and three different religions among the people. Another stu- dent used a chart with six or more heavy black lines of different lengths, to represent the proportion of the popu- lation attending school in the Philippines as compared with similar figures for the republics of South and Central America. Whenever a bit of evidence can be recorded in graphic form, the thought will be made more effective.
FORM FOR RECORDING EVIDENCE, WITH EXAMPLES
American Cities should main- Form TAIN Employment Agencies
|
Outline numbers. |
|
|
Debate topic the item |
concerns. |
|
Title of article, chapter |
or book. |
|
Author. |
|
|
Source. |
|
|
The quotation or |
thought |
|
forming the evidence. |
Individuals cannot solve the problem.
" Unemployment, a World Prob- lem, and the Congress at Ghent."
Katharine Coman.
T/te Snr%>ey, Vol. XXXI, No. 22; Feb. 28, 1914; p. 667.
" The causes of unemploy- ment are not merely individual, — physical incapacity, lack of training, inefficiency, and un- willingness to work, — ■ they are usually general and quite be- yond the control of the indi- vidual workman."
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT
243
Los Angeles Harbor should BE Fortified
\'-2
Useless to fortify.
Answer to our questicfh, Would such fortification protect the city adequately?
Colonel , of the U.S. Army.
Letter to us.
Substance —
Not unless a chain of forts were placed along the coast; otherwise an enemy could land and approach the city from the rear.
Athletics furnish as Valua- ble Mental Exercise as do THE Usual Studies
I^'-3 Self-control.
Introduction to " Practical Track and Field Athletics," p. 1 2.
Graham (Harvard instructor) and Clark (Boston School Dept.)
Substance —
Track and field athletics are thoroughly democratic in char- acter, and teach a man how to control himself and how to con- duct himself toward his fellows.
EXERCISES
1. Turn to the questions in Appendix II and read the following in B : i, 2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 23, and 26. Select one of them for study. Decide first what are the best sources of evidence for your proposition : what reading to do, what people to interview, what personal investigations to make. Go to the library and make out a list of references for reading. Then, using the complete list, prepare yourself to explain to the class how you would go about studying for the argument. Let them criticize your plans, compare their lists with yours, and discuss which plans are best. Those who select the same subject may meet in committee and draft a composite set of directions.
(This exercise may be repeated, each student choosing a subject of his own. Or it may first be broken up into its several parts to make
244 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
four different exercises: (i) plans for general reading, (2) plans for special reading, (3) plans for obtaining evidence from persons by inter- views or letters, and (4) plans for personal observations.)
2. Test the items of possible evidence listed below, for the purpose of finding out whether each satisfies the requirements. Be able to give good reasons for your opinions, and come to class prepared to tell the result of your study. •
(The exercise may be divided, if the class or the teacher so decides, each student handling one or more of the statements.)
1. From personal observation I know that there are but three good grocery stores on this street.
2. Robert Evans, the late admiral, was in favor of fortifying the Panama Canal.
3. Four thousand citizens of San Francisco have petitioned Con- gress to have San Francisco bay dredged.
4. Carnegie states that a tariff on steel is no longer necessary.
5. Colonel Roosevelt says that practice in shooting will be a benefit to schoolboys.
6. Judge Lindsey says that economic conditions are largely respon- sible for the crimes of children.
7. Victor Berger says that the protective tariff does not help the workingman.
8. Secretary Redfield says that if the American nianufaccurer will keep up to date he will not need a protective tariff.
9. Arnold Bennett, the English author, says that New York City is attractive.
10. The county assessor says that the single tax would be unfair.
3. Study the statements given below, for the purpose of decid- ing whether they offer any real evidence. Do they make state- ments which appeal to most persons as true, or do they make unsupported statements which need further evidence ? Come to class prepared to give your criticisms.
1. A person who intends to choose a business career should begin at the bottom.
2. It is safe to assume that the world is getting better.
3. A house divided against itself cannot stand.
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 245
4. The important part of roofing is its waterproofing.
5. Our advertisers tell the truth.
6. A healthy baby is a good baby every time.
7. Soap is a universal necessity.
8. A good lock is your best protection.
9. Advertising talks. 10. Holding public ofiice is a thankless job.
4. Choose your own proposition for an argument, decide on the possible sources of evidence, and bring to class five slips con- taining items of evidence. In preparing the five slips, get a reliable item from each of the following sources: (i) a book of general reference, (2) a report, (3) a magazine, (4) a conversation or letter, (5) a personal investigation.
5. Study the following facts and figures. Then select one of the items for graphic representation. Consider all the possible ways — map, chart, curve, lines, blocks, picture, or diagram. Make the representation large enough to be seen by all. Make use of this in a short talk.
1. Japan's commerce in 1 900 : 2. Sugar per capita used :
United States 24 per cent 1875 . . . 43 pounds
Great Britain China . All others
3. Approximate area of certain states :
Massachusetts 8000 square miles
New York 49,000 square miles
Virginia 43.0°° square miles
Pennsylvania 45'000 square miles
Rhode Island 1000 square miles
Oregon 97,000 square miles
4. The result of the Mexican War, 1 846-1 847, was that the United States acquired over half of Mexico.
5. Street cars can easily be built so that only one step for entering will be necessary.
|
I 7 per cent |
1885 . |
48 pounds |
|
1 3 per cent |
1895 . |
63 pounds |
|
46 per cent |
1905 . |
72 pounds |
|
1910 |
. 80 pounds |
246 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE ^
d
Reasoning. We have spoken of the collection of signifi- cant facts and experiences as being the gathering of evi- dence, and we have shown that the most effective evidence is found by obtaining facts that are so convincing that they cannot be denied, and so pertinent and clear that the hearers themselves will be forced to draw the conclusion desired by the speaker. We have tried to distinguish between /<a:^/j and reasons, calling the former evidence, and the latter reasoning. In actual practice, however, much of the material we gather for evidence contains also a great many conclusions and opinions which can hardly be called facts in the strict sense of the word. Thus evidence and reasoning are apt to be bound together in much of the material gathered for an argument or debate.
Even if the cards of evidence were full of reasons, it would still be necessary to bind together the several minor conclusions. We need, therefore, to know something of the processes of reasoning.
While any person may reason, and reason well, without knowing very much about the process by which he draws conclusions, the few explanations which follow will prove helpful in systematizing our practice. They will show also how to make an argument clearer to the audience, and how to go about the proof of a proposition from several different points of view.
We shall first put into the briefest possible space an explanation of each kind of reasoning ; next, we shall give illustrations of each ; then we shall discuss how each may be tested ; and finally, we shall see how each method of reasoning may be applied to an actual debate.
There are five chief kinds of reasoning :
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 247
. THE KINDS OF REASONING
1. From known facts to the general law about, or the cause of, these facts. Induction.
2. From a general law or cause to a resulting fact or effect. Deduction.
3. From an example either of the operation of a law, or the effect of a cause, to the law or cause itself. Example.
4. From an effect of some cause to another effect of the same cause. &gn.
5. From a resemblance one thing bears to another to the operation of a similar law upon them both. Analogy.
These modes of reasoning are not wholly separate ; we shall see that the first two are primary, and the others secondar}\ Let us now examine and illustrate each.
r 1. Induction is the method of reasoning common to natural ^ science. For example, we have seen that when objects are lying in the sun those that are black seem to get more heated than those which are lighter in color. And if we have examined enough of such objects, we finally come to formulate the law that black objects absorb the heat of the sun more than do objects of a lighter color.
We use induction also when we make a series of observations about the school building and then conclude that the present build- ing is inadequate. Or we collect wage statistics from many boys who have gone to work at the end of the eighth grade, and from many others who have continued their education through the high school, and from a study of these we conclude that the higher education is the cause of greater earning power. Thus induction leads to general laws. ^y 2. Deduction is used when we call to mind such a general law as that the French are leaders in science and invention, and from this law conclude that it will pay a scientist to learn to read
248 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
French. We use deduction when we assume that poverty exists in all large American cities, and conclude that if our city grows big, it too will have problems of poverty to face. Again, we use the same method when we try to show that if a new school building is built, certain benefits will result. Thus deduction leads to specific truths, while induction leads to general laws.
3. Argument from example is a kind of induction in which a striking instance or illustration is used to prove a general law or cause. Thus a person might show a beautiful picture painted by a Japanese artist, and use this to prove the artistic abilities of the Japanese. Again, one might instance the success of Dayton with the city-manager form of government as a reason for concluding that the plan is a success. Example leads from an important fact to a general law or cause.
4. Argument from' sign is a combination of the two processes of induction and deduction ; or, in other words, it is the successive use of example and deduction. We say that the falling of the barometer is a sign of rain. We mean that the falling of the barometer is an example of the operation of the law that low pres- sure of the atmosphere causes a falling of the barometer; and that this same condition of the air also makes it probable that rain will fall. Thus we reason from one effect of a law to another ; that is, we use an example (induction) to find the law, and then we use deduction to find the other effect. Let us examine one more instance of argument by sign. If Dayton succeeds with the city- manager plan, Duluth ought to adopt it. This is reasoning by sign, for Dayton's success is taken as a sign that the plan is good for other cities, and then Duluth is reached by deduction.
5. Argument from analogy is like argument from sign because we reason from one effect to another ; but in the case of reason- ing by analogy there are two similar general laws, instead of one law back of both effects. Thus, if we say that every army has its commander and therefore a road-building gang must have a fore- man, we are reasoning that there is a resemblance between the characteristics of an army and those of the road builders, and that
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 249
the need for mastery and obedience which exists in the one exists also in the other. Again, we may reason that since weeds spring up on idle land, useless thoughts will spring up in idle minds. The argument for the city-manager government is reasoning by analogy — the comparison of the business of a city with that of a corporation. Thus reasoning by analogy leads from a result of the operation of one law to a result of the operation of a similar law in another field of thought.
The Tests of Reasoning. Tests should be applied to all reasoning, for only by careful thought can the right reasons be found and expressed. The reasoning of our opponents in argument must also be analyzed and tested, so that error may be pointed out and truth be found. The following is a brief statement of the tests for the five kinds of reasoning :
TESTS FOR REASONING
1. Induction. Are the facts cited sufficient in number and in force to prove the general law ? Could there be any other inter- pretation of the facts ? Are there enough other facts to prove the opposite ?
2. Deduction. Is the supposed cause strong enough to bring about the effect said to follow ? Is there any other cause or law which might prevent the operation of the law ?
3. Example. Is the example so clearly typical that it may be used to prove the existence of the general law ?
4. Sign, Does the fact said to be a sign lead inevitably to the cause, and does this cause in turn lead to the alleged result ?
5. Analogy, Is the comparison a fair one and the resemblance close enough ? Are the statements in the argument all true ones .'
We shall later have more to say about tests for reason- ing (see under Refutation).
250 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
Applying Reasoning to the Debate. The chief value of the study of reasoning is that it teaches the student to decide how to go about proving a proposition. He may try first to find out if there are facts which will aid in proving it by induction ; second, to see if it is itself a result of a larger law ; third, to see if there are good examples which might help to prove it ; fourth, to seek out any signs that indicate the truth of the contention ; and fifth, to think out one or two good analogies which might add force to the argument.
Let us conclude our discussion of reasoning by noting the five ways in which one might attempt to reason that the Philippine Islands should be given their freedom :
First, by induction seek out the facts of education, loyalty, interest, desire, participation, success, and reliability, and from these facts, con- clude that the people should be free. Second, by deduction show that this question is but a part of the larger one of justice to the oppressed, of the consent of the governed, and of the right of any people to be free from the domination of an alien race. If these causes operate, we may conclude that these reasons should apply to the Philippines. Third, as an example cite the success of Cuba. Fourth, cite the celebration held in Manila when President Wilson was elected, as a sign that the people want freedom, and their earnest debates in the assembly, as a sign that they will use their independence wisely. Fifth, study the resemblances between the Philippines and the man whose house was captured by robbers and who was assisted in driving them out by a strange man who then took possession of the house.
Finally, let us suggest some possible tests for the above lines of argument :
First, are the facts on education, loyalty, etc., of themselves sufficient to prove that independence is desirable.? Do not these facts prove that we should continue our present plans.'' Do not other facts, such as the variety of races and religions, justify the conclusion that these people should not be independent, at least for the present .'' Second, do the
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 251
laws of abstract justice apply to this practical problem? Does not the law of the "big brother" and his duty take precedence? Third, is small and unified Cuba a fair example to use in proving fhat we should give freedom to the Philippines? Fourth, do these signs lead us to any solid conviction that independence would be well used? Fifth, is the resemblance between the Philippines and a robbed house sufficiently close? Who owned the house in the first place? Did the so-called owner claim all the house? Is the so-called owner capable of using the house in the right way ? Did not the " strange man " have an additional duty to perform ?
EXERCISES
1. Examine the statements below, and decide what method or methods of reasoning are used in the case of each. Be prepared to give accurate and correct answers to each of the statements, and to explain your reasons for deciding as you do. Are the statements true?
1. If I find the strawberry bed scratched up, I look to see if the berries have been eaten.
2. If the moon has a ring around it, there is likely to be rain soon.
3. The United .States should have control of the city of Panama, for a person cannot have a pleasant home with a strange man hanging around the front door.
4. Small countries are very patriotic ; look at Switzerland.
5. Princeton beat Yale, and Yale beat Harvard; therefore Princeton can beat Harvard.
6. The man had been drinking ; I could smell his breath.
7. Pepper trees are good shade trees because they spread well and keep green.
8. One who is successful in his own business ought to be a good manager of the city's business.
9. Drivers are frequently overworked ; we should remember this when the milkman is late.
10. A storm drain ought to be built ; at the time of the last rain we could n't get across the street.
2. By which of the five methods of reasoning would you at- tempt to prove the statements below ? In each case be ready to
252 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
tell which method would be best, and which other methods might also be used. Give reasons, and be able to show how the reasoning might be done.
1. All the presidents of the United States have come from Eastern states.
2. Street-car rails make pavements rough.
3. The pay-as-you-enter cars delay the traffic.
4. The income tax will be a success.
5. The form of government of the United States has been copied by other countries.
6. Revolutions in Mexico are hard to prevent.
7. Impeachment proceedings against judges usually fail.
8. Recall of judges will have bad effects.
9. The world is speed-mad.
10. You will enjoy your play more if you do your work first.
3. Study the reasons for the association of the ideas put to- gether in each of the items below. Is one the cause of the other ? Are they both effects of the same cause ? Is there a common cause back of them ? Is there the connection of a supposed cause which does not exist ? Have they no real connection ? Be ready to make a complete explanation of each.
1. Shortage of money and a financial panic.
2. Woman suffrage and prohibition.
3. Preparedness and war.
4. A dry season and high prices.
5. Labor unions and high wages.
6. Did you hear that snap? It was a mouse.
7. I hear the bell ; we shall be late.
8. Here is a marble ; let 's look for another.
9. The weather man says rain ; no picnic to-day. 10. There goes the whistle ; Happy New Year !
4. Make a collection of significant facts which you observe about some one feature of your school — its grounds, buildings, students, teachers, or studies. From these facts try to draw up a general statement which will include all of them, or find a law which will
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 253
account for all. Using simple notes, practice giving a large num- ber of these facts, ending the talk with the conclusion to which they lead by induction.
5. Think out a general statement which is true of all towns the size of yours, or a law, rule, or condition which is true of all. Then think out and write down as many results of the existence of this law as you can. Practice giving the talk, beginning with the statement which is recognized as true, and following this with an interesting list or series of consequences which are deduced from the law.
6. Compose a statement advocating a change or improvement, such as the following : " The United States should cease building battleships." What results would follow if this should be put into actual operation ? Decide what can be deducted from the proposal, and come prepared to give the statement and its applications.
7. Prepare a bright, attractive argument by example to give in class. You are to choose a fact which shows the existence of a general truth or the operation of a law ; and the example given should be so strong and so evident that it will point at once to the truth of the general statement.
8. Prepare an argument from sign. Practice the reasoning by which you show that one fact is the sign that another is true. Be prepared to explain the causes which lie back of the sign, and the result to which your reasoning leads.
9. Think over the points of resemblance in the cases men- tioned below. Then prepare an argument based on the analogy between the members of each. Be ready to indicate to the class the line of reasoning you would use in the comparisons. Then practice the oral argument for two of these analogies. Liken :
1. War to a nightmare. 6. Business to a race.
2. A school to a family. 7. A country to an individual.
3. A child to a plant. 8. Life to a fight.
4. A thought to a seed. 9. City government to housekeeping.
5. A writer to a carpenter. 10. The tariff question to a puzzle.
254 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
10. Test these statements from the standpoint of correct reason- ing and truth, and be prepared to give oral criticisms :
1. The schools are the cause of the superior morality of the American people.
2. Saloons have helped us ; see how fast the city has grown.
3. In the last ten years divorces have greatly increased in number; this is no doubt due to the spread of suffrage.
4. My cake is n't good, for I forgot to use the eggs. 6. Pupils, like soldiers, should obey without question.
6. Rockefeller was a success because he started as a poor boy.
7. The ticking of that clock keeps me awake.
8. All wages should be equalized, for there is no reason why one man should spend more than another.
9. People would n't be so poor if they would stop drinking.
The Brief of the Argument. The outline of an argu- ment is called a biief. The brief is made up of complete sentences, and its points may be read downward consecu- tively. All the main topics serve to prove the truth of the proposition for debate ; and, in turn, all the subtopics under each main topic serve to prove the truth of that main topic.
A Short Example. Following is an example of a brief, with the evidence omitted :
THE UNITED STATES SHOULD INTERVENE IN MEXICO
Negative Brief A. Intrflditdion
1 . A right solution is of supreme importance.
2. Intervention means temporary armed control to establish peace.
3. The issues are: Would intervention be just.? and, Would it be
expedient ?
4. The negative maintains that the United States should not inter-
vene in Mexico, because First, Intervention would be unjust, and Second, Intervention would be inexpedient.
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 255
B. Argument
I. Intervention in Mexico would be unjust, y2;/"
1 . It would \'iolate Mexico's right to independence.
2. It would violate the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine. (Summary : i and 2, therefore I.)
II. Intervention in Mexico would be inexpedient, y^r
1 . No satisfactory method has been proposed.
2. Mexico would resist.
3. We are not in a position to improve Mexico.
4. Intervention would have bad effects. (Summary: i, 2, 3, and 4, therefore II.)
C. Conclusion
1 . Summary : We have proved
First, Intervention would be unjust, and
Second, Intervention would be inexpedient.
Therefore, The United States should not intervene in Mexico.
2. We appeal to all loyal Americans to uphold the honor of
our country and to let Mexico work out its own problem.
How the Points are Read and Summarized. The above brief would do for the speaker to hold in his hand if the speech were to be very short, and if he were very familiar with his subject. But it is much too short for the use of one who is to give a detailed argument. It does show, how- ever, how the brief may be read, with the subpoints prov- ing the main points. It shows also that when one has finished with his main points, he must summarize ; and that the summaries are given with the subpoints first, and that they lead through the word ' therefore ' to the main point in each case. Let us note the two forms for the first main point of the brief above. The brief reads, " Intervention in Mexico would be unjust, for it would violate Mexico's right to independence, and it would violate the spirit of the
256 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
Monroe Doctrine," The summary may be read, " Interven- tion would violate Mexico's right to independence, and it would violate the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine ; therefore intervention would be unjust." We shall speak further of these summaries under the section below on practicing the argument.
How the Brief is Expanded. It was remarked above that the brief here given is very short. Let us see how it is expanded for the purpose of an extended argument. Some lawyers' briefs are as long as this book. Such briefs in- clude full reasons for every statement made, and incorporate under each reason a memorandum of the facts — evidence — upon which each statement depends. The debater must do these two things so far as it is feasible.
Take our unsupported statement at the beginning of the argument, that intervention would violate Mexico's right to independence. This in itself might become the subject of a whole debate. If it were debated it might read, " Re- solved, that intervention in Mexico would violate Mexico's right to independence." And the brief on this question might include such main points as the following: "Inter- national law recognizes no right of a nation to interfere in an internal quarrel ; intervention would weaken Mexico in the eyes of the world ; Mexico would be permanently de- pendent upon the United States." These three points are the supports of the statement in the brief, and may be written therein. In the same way the other statements of the brief may be expanded almost without limit. But if we go far enough in expanding the point upon international law, we shall soon come to the place where we shall write down actual facts in history which show concrete instances
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 257
of the application of international law. We should then begin to \mte down actual evidence — facts which are backed by history and by indisputable authority. Like the lawyers, we may write into the brief these actual facts and their references. We shall accordingly have done the two things suggested above : we shall have included full reasons for every statement, and we shall have incor- porated actual evidence.
In studying for an argument or a debate it will be found advisable to make a rather full brief ; but in the delivery of the speech before the audience, much detail may be so familiar that it may be omitted. All exact quotations and all statistics used must be included ; they should be read and not recited from memory.
Analysis, as used in making the Brief. The finding of the issues and the making of briefs is called analysis, and the process of analyzing is one of the highest activities of the mind. The student need not be discouraged, there- fore, if he becomes expert only by slow degrees. Most writers and speakers find it necessary to make outline after outline, changing the points and the order of the points as growth in understanding comes. So the student must work out his briefs, writing down every plan that suggests itself and then trying to better it. No brief will spring from the mind full grown. It must be the product of hard labor. It must expand internally.
Let us note some further suggestions which will make the work of analysis more intelligent. In the section about the intro- duction we have seen that the issues are found by studying the proposition to find out what questions arise and must be answered. Thus, whenever a proposition advocates a change of policy, four
258 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
questions usually arise : Are the present conditions satisfactory ? Is the proposed change feasible ? Will the change bring good results ? Will any other plan serve as well ? The affirmative, accordingly, must prove that present conditions are unsatisfac- tory, that the proposed change is workable, that it will be bene- ficial, and that no other plan will do as well. These points may be the main sections of the affirmative brief, and the negative side may shape the brief to deny these four points.
It will be noticed that the affirmative speakers in the debate have more to prove than the negative ; for it is certain that we should need to know that all four affirmative points are true before we finally decide to make the proposed change, while we should refuse to change if any one were not true. Hence the negative would win the argument if it could be shown that any one point is untrue — that present conditions are not unsatis- factory, or that the proposed change is not workable, or that the results will not or would not be good, or that there is another way fully as good as the one proposed. This explains why the affirmative in a debate has the opening and closing speeches.
In outlining such a question as, " A new school building should be erected," the debaters should avoid the word ' needed ' or ' necessary ' in their briefs. If we say that a new school building is necessary, we mean that the present building is inadequate, that the new building would relieve conditions, and that no other plan will solve the difficulty. The word ' necessary,' there- fore, covers almost the whole proposition. As a single point this issue is too large for use in the outline of the argument.
The Order of the Points. Careful thought must be given to the order of the points. We have discussed the prin- ciples of outlining in Chapter VIII, and those principles apply in the main to the drawing up of the brief. There are two or three other considerations worthy of note. The first point undertaken in the brief should be a telling point,
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT " 259
one that will go a long way in winning the good will and confidence of the audience.
It often happens that one audience requires a different order of points from another audience. If a peace society were listening to a speaker who was advocating intervention, for example, thfe members would wish first to hear about the ethical aspect of the question; and they would be antagonistic toward a person who began his speech with trying to show the expediency of inter- vention. On the other hand, to an audience of congressmen one might reverse the order, discussing expediency first and justice second. In the argument for a new" school building a women's club might receive most favorably the point that present condi- tions are bad ; and an audience of children, the argument that benefits will come from the new building. An audience of school committeemen, however, might be impatient with either of these arguments until they were shown that the plan to build was feasible both as to place and as to money.
As a general rule it may be said that when there seems to be no apparent reason for any special order of the points in the brief, these points may be arranged just as are the runners in a relay race — the strongest point last, the next strongest first, and the others between the two.
EXERCISES
1. Choose a proposition, — about your school or town, perhaps, — and think out the issues of the question. Write the statements of the main points as complete sentences, each of which helps to prove or deny the proposition. Next decide upon the best order of the points. In class several students at a time may go to the board, each writing his proposition, and following it with the main points. (Do not forget the word ' because.') The class should look over each of these short briefs, criticizing the wording of the
26o ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
proposition, the choice of issues, the statement of the points, and the order of the points. The board work should then be revised. This revision may go on while other briefs are being considered.
2. Examine the items below for the purpose of using them in a brief to prove, " A state university should be established in the
city of ." Add any other points which you think necessary
to construct a brief of the argument (without the introduction and conclusion), including the main points and subpoints. Bring the brief, and compare it with those of the other students. As a class exercise, a composite brief on the question may be made.
Colleges are too far away.
There would be students enough.
Teachers may easily be found.
Parents wish sons and daughters near home.
Present facilities are inadequate.
A location has been found.
Colleges are too large.
More persons would have an education.
It would relieve the other colleges.
High-school work would be improved.
Money can be raised.
3. Assuming that all the points below are true (some of them are not), draw up a brief on the proposition, " The United States should continue its Chinese exclusion laws."
Other nations restrict immigration.
The Chinese take money back to China.
Exclusion is a just policy.
Exclusion has had good effects.
The Chinese are undesirable.
We have the right to say who may enter.
The Chinese are unsanitary.
They take away American jobs.
Exclusion has prevented race riots.
The Chinese cannot understand American customs.
They have a different religion.
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 261
4. Consider the proposition, " Military drill should be required of high-school boys," or some other proposition selected by the class as a whole or assigned by the teacher. Construct a brief, including the introduction, argument, and conclusion. Make it at least as full as the brief upon the Mexican question given in the text above. Choose either side of the question you wish. Students who have briefs on opposite sides of the question may compare their papers. Criticisms and corrections may be made, and the briefs then handed to the teacher for further suggestions.
If there is time, the class may discuss this question : What should be the opening point, on the affirmative and the negative, for each of the following groups of hearers : school trustees ; high- school boys ; teachers of athletics or physical training ; teachers of the common subjects ; army officers ; congressmen ; mothers ; fathers ; high-school girls ; taxpayers ; business men ?
5. Consider such a question as, " This city should build a municipal street railroad," or, " This town should use all reason- able efforts to secure another railroad." Suppose one of the main points reads, " Our transportation facilities are inadequate." Ex- pand this point, writing under it the subpoints, and under each subpoint the further reasons or items of evidence which support that statement. Get down to concrete facts. If any fact is not well known, write into the brief the authority. Be ready to read it and to defend the proposition.
6. In the brief on intervention, the last subpoint reads, " Inter- vention would have bad effects." Using this statement, or its opposite, expand this point to include several statements which will support it. Make the support strong and complete ; include actual concrete conditions which you think would become facts in case of intervention. Use instances in history if possible, and in any case have the foundation details so carefully selected that their truth is as nearly obvious as may be possible.
7. a. Draw up a brief on a proposition of your own selection. Make it include the supporting reasons and facts for the subpoints
262 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
under the main statements, with authorities. Include the introduc tion and conclusion. Write and rewrite the brief, and endeavor to make it faultless as to both form and matter. In class exchange papers, and take them home for examination and criticism. Write out a short criticism of the brief handed to you, and bring both the brief and the criticism to the next meeting of the class.
b. In class, or for an additional outside exercise, each student may rewrite his brief in the light of the corrections and suggestions. Revised briefs may then be examined by the teacher. Save them for later use.
The Conclusion. As indicated in the brief above, the conclusion may embrace a summary of the argument and an appeal to the hearers. The summing up may include two parts — a review of the case of the opposite side, and a restatement of the main points which have served to prove the proposition under discussion.
Reviewing the Opposing Case. The review of the case of the opposition may or may not deal with refutation. If there are important opposing arguments which have been advanced and not yet answered, they may be briefly handled here. In most cases, however, these detailed points will have been covered already, and the conclusion will deal with the main points which have been advanced by the opposition, or with the main objections which are commonly urged. In order to do this, the issues of the question may again be stated, following which the speaker may tell what must be proved before the opposite case can be established.
Let us illustrate. Suppose one has come to his conclusion in the Intervention question. He may begin as follows : " The issues in this discussion, as we have already seen, are. Would interven- tion be just ? and, Would intervention be expedient ? In order to
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 263
establish their case, those who advocate intervention must prove that it w^ould be both just and expedient." Next, the speaker may call the attention of the audience to the weakness of the opposition. He may show that one of the necessar)^ issues has been ignored ; that a vital support for one or more indispensable points is missing ; that the attempt to prove one or more points has been weak and ineffective ; that one or more of the alleged points have been dis- proved and that therefore the argument falls. Successes may safely be admitted or allowed to go unanswered ; failures should be made clear. Then may follow a challenge to those who oppose, calling upon them for adequate proof, demanding that they discuss certain points, asking why certain arguments "have been left unanswered, and pointing out that these errors are evidence that the opposite of their position is true.
Reviewing One's Own Case. The summary of the propo- sition itself, as has been indicated above, involves merely a recital of the main points, followed by the words, ^^ therefore it must be resolved," or words to that effect, and then by the proposition itself. The theory is that the most inclusive idea must come last, for the last ideas given to the audience have most effect.
The Use of an Appeal. The appeal is often called per- suasion. It is not at all necessary that every argument end with an appeal ; many talks may profitably be finished with the summary of the main points. But an appeal often adds to the argument because it rouses the feelings of the hearers and makes them want to take an active part in the further- ance of the idea under discussion. The sermon, the busi- ness argument, the oration, and the political address are incomplete without such an appeal. So the student should practice using persuasion in his arguments. It forces him to think about the feelings of his hearers, to put himself in
264 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
their place, and it arouses enthusiasm for his cause. The speaker may base his appeal on any of the emotions which are uplifting. Do not use the appeals to greed, fear, or hatred.
EXERCISES
1. You have saved fhe briefs drawn up in connection with pre- vious exercises. Examine one of them now for the purpose of making the conclusion as good as possible. Draw up a complete outline. Bring it to class for comparison and correction. Be ready to give the conclusion of the argument.
2. Choose partners and opposite sides of propositions for argu- ment. Independently of your partner, prepare a complete brief, including introduction and conclusion. Exchange briefs, and com- pare. After careful study of the other brief, rewrite your conclu- sion, paying particular attention to the review of the case of the other side. Together compare the reviews and criticisms. The original briefs may then be revised, if the alleged weaknesses can be strengthened or circumvented. The two briefs may be folded together and handed in for the teacher's suggestions.
3. Study the following propositions of Appendix II, section B: 9, 10, 12, 17, 18, ig, 22, 29; section C: i, 7, 8, 9. Think out for each of them a few sentences of persuasion. Prepare to give this appeal for one of the propositions. Make the appeal strong and worthy.
Refutation. Up to this point we have barely mentioned refutation, for it seemed best first to gain a systematic and complete idea of the argument as it is given constructively, and to leave the destructive features for later consideration. We have thus far seen how to handle evidence, how to rea- son, how to draw the brief, and how to conclude. It must now be understood that refutation (rebuttal) should go along
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 265
with, and be a part of, the actual argument, and should therefore be put into the brief.
Using Rebuttal in the Brief. Thus, in the Intervention brief, under the point that no satisfactory method has been proposed, this entry might be written :
Refute : Blockade the coast to cut off supplies. Internal resources are abundant.
The above entry indicates to the speaker that opponents may claim that a blockade would be a satisfactory plan, and that in answer it will be sufficient to call attention to the well-known fact that Mexico's internal resources are varied and abundant. Such answers may be fully outlined in the brief, with subpoints supporting them, together with facts and authorities. Refutation in the brief should always be labeled as such.
The above example will show that one who is to give an argument must try to anticipate the objections that may be urged. Many a well-constructed argument has failed because the hearers were allowed to go away with a few objections in their minds — objections which might easily have been answered. Therefore, a feature of the study of any question must be the consideration of opposing points.
Collecting New Points to Answer. But even when the debater has done his best to anticipate arguments, many new thoughts will occur to him as he listens to an oppos- ing speech. The arguments given by an opponent should be noted down, as we shall see in a later section. These points should then be tested, according to the plans out- lined in the section on reasoning., One must be alert every moment that an opposing speech is being given. Are there
266 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
any false or incorrect definitions, mistaken causes, mis- taken effects, c|uestionable authorities, mere statements with no evidence, false or misleading illustrations or analogies ? Such matters should be pointed out when the speech is answered. If one's opponents avoid the main issue, or descend to ridicule, or use personal remarks, or state points unfairly, or refute what never has been claimed, or resort to cheap humor, the speaker should not reply in kind. Let him point out what has been done, state that such methods prove nothing about the point at issue, and demand actual proof. Special Methods of Refutation. The one thing to do is to lay bare the error, to let it destroy itself, and then to state the true position. Besides the methods suggested above, there are two or three special helps.
Frequently the opponent may be involved in a dilemma ; for instance, he may have taken a position which leads to conclusions that are bad for his case. Thus, the man who assumes that woman suffrage would take women from the home, involves himself in this dilemma : he must hold either that some activities outside the home are good for women, or else that theater, shopping, visiting, social work, club, and church are also bad. Again, sometimes an argument may be shown to contradict itself. Thus, one who objects to voting bonds for a new library building, on the ground that the city cannot afford it, and later advocates renting rooms in a building, involves himself in a contradiction of points, for the rent would ordinarily cost more than the bonds. Again, sometimes an argument proves more than the speaker intends to prove, and thus hurts his case. The speaker who advocates a blockade of the Mexican coast comes very near admitting that a land movement against Mexico would be difficult and costly.
Attacking in More than One Way. Often it is good policy to attack a point from several angles. Thus the truth of the
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 267
point may be denied, and proof may be offered to show its falsity. Then it may be shown that even if the alleged statement were tme, it would not lead to the conclusion claimed for it.
Outlining an Item of Rebuttal. In order to accomplish its full effect, refutation must be carefully outlined. The following is a suggested form :
OUTLINE FOR REFUTATION
1. What our opponents claim.
2. Our reply.
3. Proof that our position is correct.
4. How the issue stands now, and its application to the main
question.
What Points to Answer. Many debaters, pressed for time in a speech, try to handle too many points in refuta- tion ; by actual count sixteen points were mentioned once in a five-minute rebuttal. When less than a minute is given to a point it is impossible to do it justice, except in rare instances.
Only the most important considerations should be refuted. It is a waste of good time to give any attention to little points which have only a remote bearing on the main point at issue. The attack should be centered on the most im- portant statements of the opponents ; the others may safely be ignored.
Preparing and using Refutation Cards. Refutation cards may be prepared for a debate, l^^ach opposing argument that promises to be formidable may be written on the top of a card, and the card may then be filled out according to
268 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
the above outline, ready for use should that particular point be raised by the opponents. If cards referring to similar phases of the subject are kept together, one may be selected as needed and slipped into its proper place among the cards containing the notes for the debate. An X in the margin of a regular card will show the place to introduce the refutation into the speech.
Where in the speech shall refutation be introduced ? Wherever it most nearly touches on points in one's own speech. In the case of other refutation, however (upon subjects not referred to in the speech), probably the very first part of the speech is the best place. Here we at once accept the issue raised by our opponents, and clear the way for our own constructive material.
Summary of Rebuttal Methods. Below we give a brief summary of the possible methods of refutation :
METHODS OF REFUTATION
1. Show that the statement has nothing to do with the issue.
2. Admit the truth of the statement, but draw a different conclusion.
3. Show that the authority quoted is unreliable.
4. Show that no real proof has been advanced for the statement.
5. Offer evidence to prove the contrary.
6. Show that the argument involves a mistake in reasoning.
7. Show that it leads into a dilemma.
8. Show that it involves a self-contradiction.
9. Show that it contradicts another point.
10. Show that it proves too much.
11. Show that the statement is unlikely or absurd.
BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 269
EXERCISES
1. Examine a brief which you have drawn up in connection with a previous exercise, and see if it can be improved by intro- ducing into it some memoranda for refutation. Rewrite the brief, putting into it four or more such points for refutation. Label them properly, make the notes sentences, and make them so full that anybody would understand them. Bring the brief to class for criticism.
Practice one or two of the refutations orally, and come pre- pared to give one before the class. Keep the briefs for use again.
2. Consider the statements given below. Choose two of them for refutation. Write each statement at the top of a card or slip of paper. Follow it with the reply, the proof, and the conclusion. If two replies might be made, prepare the notes for both lines of attack. Practice the refutations and give them orally. If there is time, get criticisms and answers from the other students.
1. The reason that people drink intoxicating liquors is that they seem to have a craving for strong drink.
2. The Mexican peons are hopelessly ignorant, therefore it is useless to try to improve their political condition.
3. Since the tramps won't work, they ought to be put in jail.
4. My opponent has worked himself into a rage on this question, which proves that he is wrong.
5. The library building will be of untold benefit ; this reason alone is sufficient to make us decide to build it.
6. It is a good thing for children to work, for then they can help support their parents.
7. Little chicks do not scratch for the mother hen ; why therefore should children work for parents "^
8. There is Sr 0,000 left in the treasury; therefore we may as well build the fire house.
9. Prohibition has increased ; this must be due to the progress of education.
10. This alarm clock is cheap and good ; everybody here should buy one.
2/0 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
3. Let the class choose a question for general debate, half taking the affirmative and half the negative. A familiar subject should be chosen, such as prohibition, smoking on cars, govern- ment ownership, two rival candidates for an office ; and time for study should be allowed. At the appointed meeting the students may take opposite sides of the room, and alternate in speaking on the proposition; The order of speaking may be decided before- hand, or the seating may determine it. Each speaker may be limited to two minutes.
The purpose of this exercise is refutation. When your turn comes, take up one point and attempt to cover it according to the suggestions in the text.
III. PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH
A person who wishes to become successful in debate should carefully practice the exercises of the earlier chap- ters which have to do with posture, gesture, the use of the eyes, the use of the voice, the improvement of the vocabu- lary, fluency in speaking, and good style in composition. Much of the material there given has been related directly or chiefly to argument ; we shall here add only a few special considerations.
Preparing Notes to use in Speaking. When the brief is complete it may be put on cards for use before the audience. A careful plan of indentation is indispensable, for this will show the relative importance of the points. These cards should con- tain not only the actual brief, but also the necessary summa- ries. As we have seen above, all the main points are stated at the end of the introduction and repeated in the conclusion.
Each main point, in turn, should have its prospective and retrospective summary ; and the cards should have
PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 271
these subpoints written at both the beginning and the end- ing of the notes on each main point, so that the speaker will not have to look at other cards for them. It may be objected that the speaker who knows his subject will not need these helps. In a way this is true, but having the topics at the right place is a convenient reminder, and it is therefore best to include them. The prospective sum- maries are given with the becmise or for reading, and those at the end of each main point with the therefore reading, as explained on page 255.
Extempore Repetition of the Speech. With the cards fully prepared, the student may practice the speech, choosing his words as he proceeds. He must avoid such awkward, ob- vious expressions as, "I think," "We believe," "We feel sure," "I shall now take up the next main point," "We now come to our conclusion." Repetition of the main points in the same words or in equivalent language is nec- essary for clearness.^ In spite of the repetitions, however, the transitions from one idea to another must be skillfully made. Practice will develop smoothness. Summaries should be given slowly, so that the full meaning of what is to be proved and what has been proved may be appreciated. The speaker must remember that sincere enthusiasm is much needed in debate ; he should therefore make himself familiar with his brief, so that the references to the notes will not interfere with the attractiveness of his presentation. Eight or ten practice speeches will accomplish wonders toward ease of speaking. The words will come easily, the eyes will be free for the audience at critical points in the argument, and natural gestures will be used.
1 For example, see Lincoln's " Cooper Union Speech."
2/2
ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
HOW CARDS ARE FOLLOWED IN SPEAKING
(Resolved, that the Monroe Doctrine . . .)
Colleague :
I. The Monroe Doctrine is not in accord with sound international relations.
II. It has dangers con- nected with it.
My Part :
III. It has ceased to be a benefit to the Amer- ican republics.
World? Self-respect? United States ?
III. The Monroe Doctrine has ceased to be a benefit to the American republics, for
1. It belittles them in the eyes of other nations.
2. It lowers their self- respect.
3. It hinders their normal relation with the United States.
I. // belittles them in the eyes of other natio)is.
Shall the Monroe Doctrine be continued? My colleague, the first speaker on the negative, has already shown that the Monroe Doctrine is not in accord with sound interna- tional relations ; and, second, that grave dangers are connected with it. It will be my part in this debate to prove, third, that this Doctrine has ceased to be a benefit to the American republics.
Let us look at the question of possible benefits from three points of view: (i) Has the policy of the United States dignified the Amer- ican republics in the eyes of the world? (2) Has it increased their self-respect? (3) Has it helped the friendly relationship of these coun- tries with the United States? We shall maintain that the Monroe Doc- trine has ceased to be a benefit to the American republics, in three particulars : first, it belittles them in the eyes of other nations ; second, it lowers their self-respect; and third, it hinders their normal relations with the United States.
The continuance of this policy on the part of the LTnited States, then, is a detriment to the southern re- publics of the western hemisphere in that it belittles them in the eyes of other nations. Promulgated nearly a century ago, when these republics
PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH
273
They are spoken of as wards of this counti'y.
We are called their guard- ians.
They are compared to Cuba and the Philippines.
They are not treated as real nations.
Quotations to prove these statements :
were in their infancy, and when greed for conquest was rife in the world, this Doctrine still stands, a brand of continued infancy upon these prosperous and growing nations. They are still spoken of as our wards, and we as their guard- ian. We have here evidence to prove that in European magazines and newspapers they are frequently compared, in their relationship with this country, to Cuba and the Phil- ippines, and that in many diplomatic affairs they are not treated as real nations. I shall now turn to some quotations to prove these statements.
Following the Notes. The graphic scheme will show at a glance the manner in which the speech grows out of the cards held in the hand. We have supposed that a debater is beginning the constructive part of the second negative speech on the question, Resolved, that the Monroe Doc- trine should be continued.
Attending to the Time Limit. The matter of time limit must be attended to in practice. A debater need never be discouraged if he has to cut down his speech, for this means that the strongest arguments will be left. Ordinarily it is better policy to cut out whole points or subpoints than to cut down the time for each argument. Two subtopics well proved are worth more than four that are hurriedly and in- conclusively handled. At all events, the speech should be brought safely within the limit, with time to spare for the introduction of refutation material. Nothing spoils the effect
274 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
of a good speech more than being called to time before finishing the most important part — the conclusion.
Using References and Quotations. The notes should bear exact references to evidence which might be called into question, and these references should be stated. Short quo- tations should be read verbatim from the cards ; longer ones may be read from larger papers or from books. In case maps or charts are to be used, the student should practice handling them as they will be used before the audience.
Avoiding Changes of Plan. Having practiced the argu- ment faithfully, the student should not allow himself to make the mistake of changing radically either the plan or the notes. Changes to new and untried cards may mean lack of confidence, and may result in confusion.
Good Will in the Contest. The debater must remember what has been said about the spirit of fairness to oppo- nents. He should direct no charges against his opponents, but should concede that they are sincere in what they advance as argument. Arguments, not persons, should be attacked.
Fill your mind with the thought that your speech ex- presses a point of view which is an attempt to reach the truth. Remember that the truth can hardly be found with- out the presentation of the two sides and the testing of opinion. If you are in a debate with the idea of winning, remember that the contest is for the purpose of seeing which side can best express its points of view. The debate is legitimate only when there is truth on both sides, and when the speakers on each side try to bring out the most truth. Rightly used, one may make his skill in argument serve all his better qualities — patience, sympathy, kindness, and helpfulness.
PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 275
EXERCISES
1. Use a brief made in the work of former exercises. Copy the brief, with all the details — introductions, conclusions, refuta- tion, summaries, references, etc. — on slips of paper or cards. Number the cards, and head the first with the statement of the proposition. Be sure that the subtopics are properly indented.
In class look over the cards of other students.
2. Using the cards prepared for the exercise above, practice giving the speech. Say it over at least four times before giving it in class. Make the speech come within reasonable time — say within from eight to sixteen minutes. It would be a good exercise to cut down the speech if that seems advisable.
3. Select a point which can best be proved by reference to a wall map, chart, or blackboard drawing ; for example, the best route for a railway, the best location for a building, a necessary improvement, an advantageous place for a fortification, a harbor, or a dock. Practice at home. Give the argument to the class, mak- ing your use of the help as natural, clear, and effective as possible.
4. Select a point which can best be shown by reading quota- tions from books and other sources ; for example, the foreign trade of the South American countries, the causes of the Revolu- tionary War, the benefit of labor unions to the worker, the unre- liability of newspapers, the growth of the peace movement, the purpose of the boy-scout movement. Choose three or more books containing good quotations to read, and mark the places with slips of paper. Decide on the order of the quotations, giving the best one last. Practice the talk and reading several times, first stating the proposition to be established, then picking up successively the books from which the selections are to be read. Give the titles, names of authors, and page references before reading the selections.
5. C'hoose a classmate who will debate against you. Decide on the proposition, the side each will defend, and the amount of time
2/6 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
to be allotted for each speaker. The following are suggested : affirmative, six minutes for opening argument ; negative, eight minutes ; affirmative rebuttal, four minutes ; negative rebuttal, four minutes; affirmative closing, two minutes. Classmates may be selected as judges if desired. Arrange the debate a few days ahead, so that you may make proper preparation.
IV, TEAMWORK IN DEBATE
Preliminaries. Up to this point we have had exercises in w^hich one person gives the entire argument. We shall now discuss the ordinary debate, in which the work is divided between two or more speakers on each side. For con- venience in giving these directions we shall assume that there are two speakers on each side, and that there are two rounds of speeches — a second appearance for each speaker. This would mean a constructive argument of from five to fourteen minutes for each of the four debaters, then a rebuttal speech of from three to eight minutes for each, and finally a closing rebuttal of from two to five minutes for the first affirmative speaker.
Dividing the Points, The division of the points between the two speakers of a debating team will be determined by the order of the points and the relative abilities of the speakers. For the affirmative side, the better speaker usu- ally comes first, for he then opens and closes the debate. For the negative, the better speaker is usually placed so that he will have the last negative speech ; he begins just as the case for the affirmative has been completely presented. Other considerations may change this plan, however ; for example, it may happen that one speaker is particularly strong on the practical aspect of the question, and it therefore
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 277
seems best that he lead off in the debate, even if his col- league is the more experienced.
Ordinarily the complete brief is drawn up by the two speakers, and is then divided into two parts of about equal length. If the question has three issues requiring arguments of about equal length, the affirmative speakers may divide the work so that the first speaker will handle the introduc- tion and the first point, and the second speaker the other two points. The first negative speaker may deal with the first two issues, or the two which seem to require least time, and the second speaker may take the third point, with extra time for rebuttal and conclusion. Often, however, one issue may require eight minutes and another but three ; hence the relative importance of the issues, as well as their number and logical order, must be taken into account in apportion- ing the part of the debate each speaker should cover.
Preparing the Debate Together. Both speakers on each side must have a good grasp of the whole case. Both must study the other side of the question. Any one of the four speakers, if he is properly prepared, should be able to give the reasons for any main point in the debate, affirmative or negative. When the debate is first planned, the two stu- dents on the same side should begin the general reading for the debate together, both reading the articles which give the larger ideas about the question. When this reading has reached the point where the issues become apparent, the two colleagues may make out their brief. They may then make a provisional division of the points. As the study proceeds, the brief may be enlarged and amended, and the division of work may thus become more definite. The read- ing of each student may now be confined to the part he is
2/8 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
to handle, although he must constantly be on the lookout for good material for his -colleague, and for points to use in refutation.
We have already discussed how the debater should record his evidence. He may carry with him a number of cards or slips of paper of convenient size, and may take down evidence for his colleague, or may make brief memoranda which will tell his colleague where the material may be found. Each point for refutation should be written at the top of a blank card, and handled as explained in the section on refutation.
The two students may profitably go together for inter- views ; they should also do a great deal of informal talking together about the points of the debate. As the time for the debate draws near, they may cooperate in drawing up the final briefs, in deciding where to enlarge and where to omit, in working out the introduction and conclusion, in pre- paring the refutation cards, and in practicing the speeches.
When the time for the debate arrives, the two speakers on each side sit together, having at hand all their notes and necessary references. The rebuttal notes should be spread out at the farther side of the table, so that they may easily be found when needed. Books, maps, letters, etc., may be placed at one side where they can be consulted easily. There should be a number of blank cards and a few sheets of paper, and each speaker should be provided with pen and pencil.
First Affirmative. The first speaker must of course begin with the introduction. We have already seen that this introduction should contain no statements which will be disputed by either side. It is supposed that the ideas
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 279
advanced about the importance of the question, the history, the definitions of terms used, and the statement of the issues will be so fair that on them both the affirmative and the negative may build up their arguments. Unless disputed by the negative, this interpretation of the proposition will stand throughout the debate.
After the statement of the issues the speaker outlines what the affirmative side intends to prove ; he indicates at once, also, which of these points he will undertake to prove, and which will be handled by his colleague. He is then ready to proceed to the proof of his first point.
The first speaker will have no refutation except what he has incorporated into his speech, unless he chooses to anticipate some of his opponents' arguments. This is sometimes called " taking the wind out of the opponents' sails," for the speaker tells the audience what the chief claims of the negative speakers will be, and attempts to show the fallacy or weakness of these claims. It seems best to anticipate in this way only when the opposing arguments have to do with the issues raised in the first speech.
Sometimes it is a good plan to draw up and submit to the opponents a question on some definite phase of the proposition. The question may be read to the audience and handed to the opponents at any convenient place, provided the opponents are given time for a careful answer. The speaker's colleague must be ready to refute any possible answer. If no answer is made, attention should be called to that fact later in the debate.
After the speaker has finished the last point assigned him, he should make the summary of the case of the afifirmative so far as it has been given. He should then state again the points to be proved by the second affirma- tive speaker, and should end by leading, by means of the word therefore^ to the proposition for debate.
28o ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
First Negative. A large sheet of paper should be used by one of the negative speakers to outline the case of the affirmative. As soon as the first speaker begins, his intro- ductory material should be examined to see if it is perfectly fair. If he seems to give inaccurate or misleading defini- tions, or. to state the issues wrongly, careful notes on what he says should be taken. His main points should then be noted as they are first given, with a space after each in which to write the subtopics. If the prospective summary is omitted, or is given so poorly that the points cannot be recorded, this will probably mean that the hearers will not •get a clear idea of what the speaker is trying to prove. The negative speakers, in any case, should do their best to analyze the affirmative argument and to make the recorded notes as full as convenient. Whenever a strong point is made, it should be noted at the top of a blank card ; or a card already prepared for refutation should be used if it contains an appropriate answer. Answers to matters of interpretation should be prepared first, if any are needed. Points written on cards may be followed by brief answers, by references or notes indicating the proof of these answers, and by memoranda on the meaning of, or the conclusion to be drawn from, these answers. All such cards as are to be used may be put among the cards which coniain the brief of the speech.
Matters of interpretation must be cleared up first ; the very first sentence should deal with errors in definition and mis- statements of the issues, if there are any. It is useless for the argument to proceed if the subject is not agreed upon, for it is impossible to argue upon an indefinite or changing subject. Sup- pose the subject for debate is, " Resolved, that the protective
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 281
tariff is a benefit to the nation," and that the first affirmative has taken the term ' protective tariff ' to mean the schedule of rates in force at the present time. If the negative side understands ' protective tariff ' to mean the principle of the protective tariff, regardless of the present detailed set of rates, then it will be useless to proceed with the debate until meanings are agreed upon. The first negative speaker, then, before he refutes any argument or proceeds with his own points, must show that ' pro- tective tariff' does not mean the present rates, but the general principle of protection.
In most debates no such misunderstandings will occur, and no mention of the introductory matter should be made by the negative speakers unless serious correction is needed. ]f the issues are misstated, the negative speaker may state them correctly, and show the audience what points the aflfirmative side must prove in order to establish its case.
These matters being disposed of, the first duty of the negative speaker is to attempt partially or wholly to break the force or the strong points of the afhrmative. He must not fail to say something in reply to those two or three points which seem to have made an impression on the audience. If he does so fail, many of the hearers are sure to think that no answer can be given, and will score a large burden of proof against the negative, no matter how strong the subsequent argument may be.
The best way to break the force of an opposing point is to accept the issue at once. If the point raised will be answered either in the present speech or in the second negative speech, this should be stated, so that when the point comes up again the hearers will be prepared for it. If the point will be handled in one of the rebuttal speeches,
282 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
that fact should be stated. If the point can profitably be disposed of at once, it should be refuted before the regularly planned portion of the speech is begun.
If the first speaker for the affirmative has tried to do any advance refutation, point out to the hearers that this shows that he recognizes these points as formidable arguments.
Having cleared up questions of interpretation, if there are any, and having refuted, or shown how they will be refuted, the leading contentions of the affirmative, then, and not until then, the prepared outline of points for the first negative speech may be followed. The full case for the negative should be outlined to the audience at the out- set, and the hearers must be told which parts of the case each speaker will try to establish. The debater must remem- ber, when he comes to that part of the speech in which he covers a point that he is refuting, to call attention to the exact point the argument answers. The speech should end with a summary of what has been proved, and of that which will be proved by the other speaker.
Second Speakers. While the first negative speaker has the floor, an outline of his argument should be recorded by the affirmative debaters. Matters of interpretation, notes for answers, and refutation cards may be handled in the manner already explained. The constructive argument of the second affirmative speaker should open with a statement- of the points which were proved by the first affirmative speaker, following which the prospective summary for the present speech is given. The conclusion may include a review of the contentions of the negative, so far as given or indicated ; a complete summary of the case of the affirma- tive ; and an appeal for adherence to the principles advocated.
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 283
The second negative speaker should be guided by the same general plan. He should call attention to the faults in the argument of the affirmative speakers, particularly where important issues have been omitted or otherwise avoided ; and the consequences of these faults should be pointed out. His review of the opposite case, and the sum- ming up of the case for the negative, should be clear and conclusive. Both should deal with large issues, and not with details of the argument. Then may come the appeal for the principles advocated by the negative.
The second negative speaker may propose other solutions of the question, in place of the one for debate. This the negative has a right to do, and the affirmative is obliged to show that its own proposition, as stated in the debate, is better than any and all put up for consideration by the negative. Where should this proposal of alternate plans be made .-' Some debaters seem to think that the right place to introduce this is at the end of the speech, " so that the afiirmative will not have time to think up an answer." Such a trick is both stupid and unfair. One may be sure that the audi- ence and the judges will not sympathize with such a scheme. It is best to put forth the alternatives early, so that they may have the test of refutation and the advantage of later repetition and fortification.
Rebuttal Speeches. Four speeches will now have been given, and the debate might end with the affirmative re- buttal. But it is far better that each speaker should have another chance to appear, especially to discuss disputed points which have arisen during the debate. In common fairness it is understood that rebuttal speeches shall not contain new evidence or new lines of argument unless these are used for purposes of refutation.
284 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
Debaters on each side should cooperate in the selection of the disputed points to be refuted. This selection is the most impor- tant task the debaters have. They should note down all the points which might be answered, and then select as many of the impor- tant ones as there will be time to consider. In many debates there will develop, as the argument proceeds, one leading issue which overshadows in importance all the others, and the argument must be concentrated on this point. Two such issues which often out- weigh the others are the practicability of the affirmative contention, and the value of an alternative plan presented by the negative.
Under ordinary circumstances, each debater will handle in his rebuttal speech those points which relate to the issues he handles in his first speech.
Communication between team mates should be limited, for four reasons: (i) the debaters are likely to disturb others; (2) they are likely to appear discourteous to the other side ; (3) by even a moment's conference they may miss a remark made by the oppo- nents, which, if unanswered, might mean the loss of the debate; (4) by talking to his colleague at a critical moment there is danger of confusing him. A briefly worded suggestion written at the top of one of the cards can be given to one's colleague at any time without interfering with his thoughts, and this same card may be used in the talk before the audience.
When the debater steps before the audience for his rebuttal speech, the order of the cards held in his hand will indicate the outline he is to follow. Generally stated, the first point handled should be the one most in the minds of the hearers. It is unneces- sary' to give a prospective outline for a rebuttal speech. As the speech draws to an end, there may be given a review of the whole case of the opposition, as it then stands in the light of the refuta- tion. The last negative speaker should again sum up the case for the negative, and may finish with a sentence of appeal. The last speech of all will be the third speech for the first affirmative speaker, who may spend most of his time in refutation, but should also end with a review and a summary, and perhaps an appeal.
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 285
Rebuttal speeches should of course proceed at once to the answering of opposing argument. In this answering, two duties will be found necessary : direct refutation of arguments advanced by the opponents, and the fortification of one's own arguments which have been attacked. The negative speakers will spend most of the time of their rebuttal speeches in ordinary refutation ; the affirmative will spend most of theirs in strengthening positions which have been disputed. This strengthening may be accomplished by stating carefully the point that has been attacked, by stating the attempted answer, by reviewing and amplifying the evidence in support of the point, and, if possible, by offering new evidence in its support. In any case, the speaker may attempt to show that although the opposing arguments have weight, they are of less importance than those offered on his side.
Debaters must use their combined efforts to break down the force of such striking arguments as are made by means of analo- gies, other figures of speech, illustrations, jokes which apply to the issue, charts, or maps. A clever use of one of these devices, unless it is answered, may easily win the debate.
Cooperation. Both in practice and in the debate the two speakers may help each other plan their talks so that they will not run over the time allotted. One's partner can be of most help in looking over the cards to be used in a rebuttal speech, for he can judge how long the various refutations will take, and can urge that not too much be attempted.
If the debaters have had an opportunity to practice giving their refutation from the cards they have prepared in ad- vance, these cards may each be marked with the approxi- mate time it will take. Each debater may arrange with the timekeepers to give him a signal two minutes before his time is up. He may mark on his cards where he should be when the two-minute signal is given. If the debater is
286 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
pressed for time, he had better be sure of his conclusion, even if he has to slight the proof of his final argument. A speaker should never be guilty of running past his time, except to finish a sentence. One who steals time in a debate makes an error similar to that of a hundred-yard runner who purposely "breaks" and has only 99 yards to run.
In Appendix I are plans for simultaneous debates. If four per- sons work together in the preparation of a debate, there can be added to the teamwork the following items : striking pieces of evidence and argument on one side of the question may be written in duplicate, and one copy handed to the team which is to take the other side of the argument at the opposing school ; the four de- baters may do a large amount of discussing and arguing with each other ; the two sides may practice against each other ; and the four debaters may work together in preparing for the refutation, the arguments of one side forming the points to be refuted by the other side.
Teamwork means helpfulness. Let the cooperation of the debaters be a competition of service. Let the one make it a practice to keep the other's needs in mind as he searches for his own material ; let him patiently aid in the planning and the practicing of his colleague's speech ; and during the debate let him be an inspiration in calmness, good judgment, and confidence.
EXERCISES
1. Choose a partner, and with him find two other students who will agree to debate against you. Decide on the question and the sides. Study the proposition with your colleague, and decide on the division of points. Be ready to tell what plans have been made for the teamwork in the division of the argument, and in the study
TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 287
for the debate. Let the first affirmative speaker tell his plans, then the second affirmative, and finally the two negative speakers.
2. Plan to give the debate for which you have just made prepa- ration. So far as possible try to keep in mind the main principles which this chapter has set forth. Use the following time schedule : first speeches, eight minutes ; rebuttal speeches, four minutes ; final speech, two minutes. Judges may be selected if desired.
3. Let four students meet and agree on a question, the sides, the length of speeches, and the date. Then let the two sides study without consultation, and hold the debate before the class.
4. Let eight students meet and agree on a question. Let four of them take the affirmative, and four the negative. Two from each side should constitute themselves a team for a simultaneous debate against the other four. The date, the length of speeches, and the two places for the separate contests should be decided. The four team mates should then prepare for the debates. The debates may be held at the same time.
5. Draw up an agreement for a debate witli another school. Make it as definite as possible, yet at the same time do not make it longer than necessar}\ Bring it to class for criticism and comparison. (See Appendix L)
Two or more students may each represent a different school, and, comparing their plans, may come to a joint agreement. These joint agreements should be read and criticized.
6. Draw up a notice for a try-out, and bring it to class for comparison and criticism. If this exercise is based on an actual debate, so much the better.
7. Prepare a judge's blank for a debate. See that it is neatly done and attractively arranged. Bring it to class for criticism.
8. Serve as chairman, or timekeeper, or member of a com- mittee of arrangements, or judge, and prepare a short talk about the experience gained. If it is impossible to get the actual expe- rience, make close observation of the work of someone else, and then base the report on that observation.
288 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE
9. Come to class prepared to contribute something vital to a discussion on this topic : " The best plan for a debating league."
10. Draw up a notice which may be posted to announce an interclass tournament. Make it such that it will attract pupils to enter the contest. Bring the notice to class for criticism.
11. Prepare a speech to be given before students not yet inter- ested in debating, telling of the value of debating, and how one may begin. Arrange to give the talk in one of the other classes. If any of the students have shown interest, they should be seen personally and invited to visit the debating society and to take part in a try-out.
12. Prepare a speech to give in class on the following topic: " How debating in the school may be improved."
CHAPTER XIV
PARLIAMENTARY LAW
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The books on parliamentary law are necessarily so com- plete and technical that the subject is uninteresting to the beginner, whereas it ought to be attractive to students of all ages. The purpose of this chapter is to give the necessary first information in condensed form. We shall deal here with the general directions for practice in business meet- ings, and later with necessary tables and forms, together with suggestions for their use.
The Origin of Parliamentary Law. For many centuries the rules of public speaking have been gradually developed. They reached a high plane during the eighteenth century in the English House of Commons, whence the name par- liamentary. The rules of our American House of Repre- sentatives were borrowed from England, but have been changed to meet our needs. Jefferson's Manual is the basis of all American practice. Books of rules used in or- dinary societies are simplifications of these rules of govern- mental bodies.
Why Parliamentary Law is Needed. Parliamentary law is important in Oral English because it formulates the rules that are used to manage public speaking. It is needed in school and college meetings, in social clubs, in athletic
289
290 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
leagues, in literary societies, in religious organizations, in educational associations, in political clubs, in labor unions, in the meetings of boards of directors, in city councils, in state legislatures, in national congresses, in international conferences — in almost all organizations in which people work together.
When rightly pursued, practice in business meetings gives valuable training in (i) readiness in speaking, for many questions must be debated without time for preparation ; (2) efficiency iii speaking, for one must summon to his aid all the powers of persuasion at his command ; (3) a sense of order in a public assembly, for each speech and motion and act must have its proper place if it is not to be ruled out of order ; (4) control of temper, for heat and anger lead one into rule-breaking, with its consequent loss of respect ; (5) fairness to opponents, for the rules of order require it, and the freedom of debate exposes misstatement and makes it react upon the speaker. Again, if the motions are well chosen, parliamentary practice will help to make the stu- dent acquainted with city, county, state, and national affairs, and to increase his interest in economics, politics, and soci- ology. Moreover, it gives him practice in serving as chair- man, as secretary, and as committee member. He will be a valuable help to any society if he can preside well, or write the minutes correctly, or work up a good committee report. And best of all, the business meetings should help to develop true democracy of spirit ; for parliamentary law is based on equality of members, officers as servants, and the rule of the majority. It trains not solely in leading but in following also, and it has the great advantage that the person who at one meeting is leading and may rule, at
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 291
another is following and must obey. This ability both to lead and to follow will make for the best American citizenship.
When Parliamentary Law is Used. Parliamentary law is employed whenever it will give system and good order to a gathering. So small a group of people as four or five may need rules of procedure in order to carry on debate. Ram- bling discussion, disputing, and interminable talk are likely to characterize a meeting held without rules. With rules two things will be at once accomplished : only one topic will be under consideration at any one time, and only one person at a time will be speaking.
Probabh' in most meetings the will of the majority is found only after earnest debate and definite vote. In other meetings, however, the members of even a large audience may be in such harmony of thought that neither debating nor the passing of motions is needed. Here the strict rules ot parliamentary law may be dispensed with. The rules should be avoided when they interfere with quick action desired by all. See Robert's "Rules of Order," pp. 161, 188, 194 (rev. ed. pp. 198, 202, 241); and Gregg's "Parliamentary Law," pp. 10, 50, 63, 90. The will of the society is legal regardless of parliamentary law, so long as any informal action is not protested at the time it is taken. The rules form the best guide for finding out and expressing the will of the meeting when there is a conflict of opinion, and they may be set aside for any act about which there is complete agreement.
Courtesy in Business Meetings. Occasionally there is a person who is discourteous in business meetings, on account of his habit of correcting the chairman or others whenever a possible chance offers itself. Such a person has studied
292 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
up a few points, and is anxious to display his knowledge. He may not always mean to be rude, but he makes the mistake of placing the rules and his knowledge of them above the good of the society. It is possible that in our parliamentary classes in Oral English it will be an advan- tage to see that no actual error escapes us. But no student should obtain from his school study the idea that parlia- mentary law is a set of hard-and-fast rules. It must guide and serve the purposes of a meeting, but not interfere with these purposes. And even when corrections are to be made in the classroom, they should be made with all the defer- ence and politeness of the Golden Rule. '" Mr. Chairman, you made a mistake," is both impolite and unparliamentary. " Mr. Chairman, I think we are not following the correct rule about closing nominations," or " Mr. Chairman, my point is that the rule about closing nominations is being violated," is satisfactory.
The members of a business meeting need to exercise care to control their feelings and their " tone of voice." An angry or anxious sound in the speaker's voice may unintentionally breed discourtesy and misunderstanding. Modesty, coolness of temper, and a pleasant countenance, together with a proper regard for the feelings of others and a willingness to ignore little errors which do no harm, are important assets for members of any society.
How to use Parliamentary Law.^ It is the purpose here merely to make some suggestions for the use of parlia- mentary law in school and college classes, and to outline a
1 To THE Teacher. The teacher is responsible to the school and to the citizens for the good conduct of the class and for the good use of time. He cannot, therefore, unreservedly give over all supervision. He will need,
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 293
method which has repeatedly succeeded in furnishing the right situations for studying the rules and for learning the lessons of good speaking, fairness, and democracy.
How to organize the Class. When it is decided that the class may organize, the steps outlined on page 296 must be taken. Perhaps the name and purpose of the society are of such importance that the whole class will wish to decide on them and to instruct the constitution committee to write them into the report. The name given the society should indicate the subjects about which motions are to be made in the business meetings. For example, if " The Speakers' Club " is selected, the range of motions would be unlimited : politics, education, business, civics, etc. " The West Side Improvement Association," however, would be concerned almost solely with the civic affairs of one section of the city. Civic affairs usually form the best-known field of inter- est, and the organization selected for beginners may well be one supposed to legislate for the city. Other good names may be suggested by the following, which have been used in Oral English classes : Senate, House of Representatives, State Assembly, President's Cabinet, Republican Central Committee, City Council, City Board of Commissioners, Civics League, Panama Literary Society, American Scientific Society, Hague Peace Conference. It is profitless, however, in choosing the offices and rules, to pattern closely the constitution and rules of a real organization. The maze of
first, to prescribe somewhat the form of the constitution and rules ; second, to see that officers and members use these rules; third, to give helpful guidance to the class and to individuals ; fourth, to interfere if serious errors are made ; fifth, to take complete charge if the students fail to make a success of the society. The teacher may act as a member of the society, debating and voting with the others.
294 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
technical forms in city, state, and national organizations offers hard and unprofitable traveling.
The Programs. For the program of the business meet- ings it is recommended that only a brief time be given each day to practice with motions. Ten or fifteen minutes of parliamentary law each recitation day accomplishes more in a semester than the same amount of time taken in longer periods. It is well, therefore, to have a program of five to ten talks, covering perhaps half the period, and to follow the program with the motions. These programs may be made up by the teacher, who may each day list the names of students expected to take part in the next meeting, and hand them to the secretary. Or a committee on program may select those who are to take part, and assign a topic or topics for the meeting. Or the chairman may arbitrarily call upon members to come forward and take part. The topics may be chosen from the various exercises suggested in this or any other book. Some of them may consist of explanations of points in this chapter. By having the pro- gram occupy the first part of the recitation period, the members get practice both in making definitely prepared speeches and in parliamentary law, and thus follow the example of many organizations which combine program and business in the same meeting.
Studying the Precedence of Motions. ^ The student should study thoroughly Table B (the table of seven motions) in Appendix VI. When he has mastered these he may use
1 No formal exercises have been provided for this chapter. Perhaps the best plan to follow will be to assign to individual students points which need illustration, and then for each student to study the item assigned him, to explain its principles in class, and finally to apply the point in the midst of a business meeting.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 295
the larger list, Table C. He should next study the brief explanation of each motion, pages 306-320 below, asking questions of classmates and teacher, and referring to other books on parliamentary law if there are any disputed points. Students should try to apply all they read, regardless of mistakes that may be made. Fortunately, mistakes in par- liamentary law are easily corrected and do not injure any- body, and we often learn more from our mistakes than from our study.
The Kind of Motions to Make, Occasionally, perhaps twice a year, it is interesting to have a burlesque meeting ; but meetings of this character will not teach parliamentary law as it should be taught. Nothing is learned from the motion that each member be required to sing a song, or from raising a question of privilege to have a window closed. Such motions have no purpose, and needlessly complicate the society's business without arriving anywhere. Every motion placed before a meeting should be introduced because the mover feels that it ought to be passed. If he moves to lay on the table the question before the house, he should have a definite reason for this motion. If he does this merely "for practice," he is not learning the real pur- pose and use of the motion. Every motion should be the result of a definite need. If the meeting seems to lack good subjects for the main motions, turn to the debate sub- jects. Appendix II, or to the lists of topics in Appendix V. Almost any of these should start some good discussion from coming American citizens.
Fair Play. The use of a sergeant at arms or the exer- cise of the authority of the teacher should not be necessary in an Oral English society, and will not be needed if
296 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
evetybody will try to live up to the rules. If a player enters a baseball game he submits to a complicated system of rules ; so a person in a business meeting must submit to the con- stitution, by-laws, and other rules of the society. The will of the majority must rule. There is no need for shouting "Aye" or "No," for if the chairman mistakes the volume of sound, any member may call for a division, which the chairman must grant. If he rules wrongly, anyone may raise a point of order, and m.ay appeal if opposed.
The most unfortunate thing that can happen is that the person who refuses to do his part fairly occupies the chair. In such a case perhaps a revolution is necessary, but it may be without force or noise, by withdrawing to another room or another part of the hall. Anything short of this catastrophe can be settled by ordinary, quiet debate and majority rule.
" All things in good order " is the first and last word in parliamentary law — government by appropriate and reason- able rules backed by a spirit of fairness, cooperation, and mutual respect, and expressed by the rule of the majority.
II. STEPS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF A SOCIETY
First Meeting
1. Any interested person takes charge and moves (or someone
else may move) that Mr. be made temporary chairman, and
then a vote is taken.
2. The temporary secretary is appointed or elected.
3. Speeches about organizing may be made.
4. A motion to form an organization may be moved, made, and voted.
5. A motion to appoint or elect an organization committee is made and carried.
CONSTITUTION AND RULES 297
6. The committee to draw up a constitution and by-laws is selected.
7. Instructions for the committee may be voted: name, object, dues, etc.
8. The meeting adjourns.
Second Meeting
1. The temporary chairman calls the meeting to order.
2. The minutes are read and accepted.
3. The organization committee reports, proposing a constitution and by-laws.
4. The chairman of the committee, or any other person, moves the adoption of the constitution.
5. The chairman of the meeting, or the secretary, reads the first section. Amendments may be proposed and voted on. The other sections may be amended in the same way.
6. The motion to adopt the proposed constitution, as amended, is voted on and carried.
7. The members may take a recess to sign the constitution. (This is not usually required.)
8. The proposed by-laws are adopted, following the process in Nos. 4, 5, and 6.
9. The permanent officers are elected, and take their places. The organization is then complete, and may proceed to business.
III. CONSTITUTION, BY-LAWS, RULES OF ORDER, AND STANDING RULES
The constitution of an organization consists of the rules which determine its very existence. The constitution con- tains those permanent rules which are intended to stand substantially unchanged during the life of the society. The by-lazvs are the next most important rules. They are not important enough to be put into the constitution, yet they
298 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
are usually permanent. The rules of order are the guide for carrying on the meetings of the society. Some par- ticular published rules should be adopted. Standing ndes are the petty understandings made for the comfort and convenience of the members ; they are usually matters of agreement which may easily be changed or set aside by vote. The sample sets of laws which follow are intended for the organizations formed in Oral English classes. Their general form, however, will suggest the plan by which the rules of all organizations are constructed.
The Constitution for a Class Organization
constitution of the lincoln club
Article I. Name The name of this organization shall be The Lincoln Club.
Article IL Object
The object of the club shall be to practice public speaking and parliamentary law.
Article IIL Membership
All students who are enrolled in class No. 47 shall be considered members of the club.
Article IV. Officers
Sec I. The officers of this club shall be a president, secretary, and critic.
Sec. 2. The president shall be elected at the beginning of each meeting. The president of the previous meeting shall conduct the election, which shall be without ballot.
Sec. 3. The secretary and the critic shall be appointed by the president.
Sec. 4. The duties of the officers shall be those indicated by their titles and prescribed by the by-laws.
CONSTITUTION AND RULES 299
Article V. Meetings
Meetings shall be held every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at 1.45 P.Ji., in Room 63.
Article VI. Amendments
This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote, provided written notice has been given at a previous meeting.
Article VII. Authority
It is understood that the acts of this organization are subject to the approval of the teacher, who may at any time take charge of the meeting.
'&•
The constitutions of other organizations may vary from the above form in several particulars :
The name and object may be written into a preamble (see the Constitution of the United States).
The article on members may be divided into sections, defining active, associate, and honorary members.
The article on the officers may designate many other officers which will be necessary to a real society. Other sections will fix the manner of nomination and election, and the term of service of the officers.
Article V may provide for regular meetings and special meetings, the latter to be called by the president, or at the request of five or more members.
Other matters should be left to the by-laws and the standing rules.
300 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
By-Laws for a Class Organization
BY-LAWS OF THE LINCOLN CLUB
Article L Officers
Sec. I. No person shall serve in any one office for more than one meeting.
Sec. 2. A majority of the votes cast shall be necessary to elect the president. If the first vote does not yield a majority, the second vote shall be taken on the two candidates who have received the highest number of votes.
Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the president or the chairman to uphold the constitution, laws, and rules of this organization. He shall declare out of order and suppress any acts and motions not in harmony with the purposes of the organization. He shall have the right to appoint a member to act as sergeant at arms whenever he deems such an officer necessary.
Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to assist the chairman by keeping a record of all business proposed, and to write the minutes of the meeting. He shall see that the records of the organization are properly kept on file.
Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the critic to criticize the meeting. He shall commend the good talks, and offer suggestions to individuals and to the organization as a whole.
Article IL Meetings
Sec. I . The order of business shall be as follows : choice of officers, roll call, minutes, critic's report, program, reports of committees, old business, new business. This order may be changed for any meeting by a two-thirds vote.
Sec. 2. The programs presented by the members may be deter- mined by vote of the organization, by an authorized committee, or by the teacher. In all other cases each member taking part shall be allowed to select his own topic.
Sec. 3. The rules contained in shall govern this organization
and its meetings in all points not provided for by the constitution, by- laws, or standing rules.
CONSTITUTION AND RULES 301
Article III. Miscellaneous
Sec. I . Standing rules of this organization may be passed, amended, suspended, or abolished by a majority vote at any meeting.
Sec. 2. One half the number of regular members shall constitute a quorum.
Sec. 3. The by-laws of this organization may be amended by a majority vote at any meeting, provided written notice has been given at a previous meeting.
Two other matters will appear in the by-laws of most organiza- tions: the amount and manner of collection of dues, and the names of the standing committees. ■
Standing Rules for a Class Organization
STANDING RULES OF THE LINCOLN CLUB
1. It shall be the duty of each member to come to each meeting prepared to speak before the organization.
2. Unless otherwise provided for, reports and old and new business shall become the order of the day at ten minutes before the time for adjournment.
3. The business considered by this organization shall involve useful questions only.
4. Motions of over twenty words in length must be written and handed to the secretary.
5. At the request of the chairman any member debating a question shall come to the front of the room.
6. The chairman of the meeting may adjourn the meeting without a motion at the end of the recitation period.
7. No member shall be allowed to decline an office.
8. The critic's report shall be in writing.
Other standing rules may deal with such matters as the follow- ing : the time for receiving reports of officers and committees, the regulations for vouchers and payment of bills, rules for speaking, rules for attendance and tardiness, and any rules of order in which the society deviates from the authority adopted by the by-laws.
302 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
IV. THE ORDER OF BUSINESS
The Usual Plan the usual order of business
1. Minutes.
2. Reports : officers and committees.
3. Old business.
4. New business.
This is the basic program for the meetings of all organizations. The student should make this information his own, and should note that the other forms which follow preserve the same order but include other items. On pages 321-326 are explained the duties of the officers in calling the meeting to order, presenting the minutes, and making reports. Committee reports are treated on page 327. Old business includes questions brought up but not voted on or disposed of at the previous meeting, and questions postponed to the meeting under consideration. New business con- sists of principal motions proposed at the present meeting.
An Order of Business for a Literary Society
SPECIAL ORDER OF BUSINESS
1. Roll call.
2. Minutes.
3. Critic's report.^
4. Reports of other officers, and of committees.
5. Old business.
6. New business.
7. Program.
^b'-
1 This arrangement provides for a careful review of each program, by the critic, at the folhnving meeting. Nevertheless, there are advantages in the plan of reserving two or three minutes just before adjournment, and having the critic's report at this time, directly after the program which is to be criticized.
THE ORDER OF BUSINESS 303
This order of business is useful when the parliamentar}^ law is of minimum importance and the society wishes to give most of the time to the program of speeches, lecture, plays, or discussion. By common custom the business of the society is transacted as rapidly as possible, so that the speakers will not be kept waiting. This order, minus the roll call and the critic's report, is used by city clubs which meet at dinner and listen to speeches afterward. Such societies usually have an executive committee to transact most of their business, and when a large amount of business is planned for any meeting, such as an election of officers, the program is omitted.
It is possible to use the above order for school classes, the parliamentary practice being cut short at the expiration of an agreed time limit.
A Suggested Order for School Classes
ORDER OF BUSINESS FOR AN ORAL ENGLISH CLASS 1
1. Choice of officers.
2. Roll call.
3. Minutes.
4. Critic's report.
5. Program.
6. Reports of committees.
7. Old business.
8. New business.
The officers may be chosen as indicated in the plan proposed on page 298. During the program the chairman may keep time, announcing the program completed when about ten or fifteen minutes is left for parliamentary practice. As has been indicated in the first paragraph of page 294, the program may be made up
1 The teacher's report, whether actually in the posted order of business or not, may come directly after the program. It may include general criticisms, proposals for future work, instructions, and the list of students for the next program.
304 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
of any and all kinds of Oral English recitations. It may be used for the explanation and discussion of parliamentary principles.
Some societies have an order of business called " Good of the Order," or " Good of the Society," which comes at the very end of the meeting, just before adjournment. This consists of informal suggestions for the improvement of the organization.
V. PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS
Classification of Motions. Table C, Appendix VI, includes all the motions commonly used in business meetings, except the motion to reconsider, which is explained on page 330, The motions of Table C are classified as follows :
1. Privileged Questions. These concern the welfare and pro- gram of the meeting, and do not relate to other motions before the house. Time for next meeting, adjournment, recess, question of privilege, and orders of the day are privileged questions.
2. Incidental Questions. These arise out of other motions. Appeal, point of order, objection, reading papers, withdrawal of a motion, and suspension of a rule are incidental questions.
3. Subsidiary Questions. These change, dispose of, or bring to vote some motion previously made. Lay on the table, previous question, postpone definitely, refer, amend, and postpone indefi- nitely are subsidiary questions.
4. Principal Questions. These introduce business before the assembly. Ordinary motions considered in old and new business are main or principal questions.
Illustrations in the Use of the Tables. The three rules under Table B, in Appendix VI, will govern the chairman and the members in using the various motions. When we say that a question or motion has precedence or priority over another motion, we mean simply that the question
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 305
which has precedence must be settled first. Then the one of lower order is decided, if at all, only after the vote on the higher motion has been taken. The combinations are countless in number. A very simple one is given in the secretary's minutes, page 337. The following is an illus- tration of the correct use of six of the motions of Table B :
If it has been tnoved and seconded to purchase an automobile, and if no vote has yet been taken, somebody may move to refer the matter to a committee. While this too is undecided, the motion to postpone the whole question one week may be moved. This, in turn, may be supplanted by the motion to lay the whole matter on the table, and this last motion again by a motion for adjournment. The chairman then secures a vote on adjournment. Let us suppose that adjournment is voted down, that lay on the table is then lost, that postpone one week is also lost, that previous question (previous question stands above refer in the table, and therefore takes precedence over it) is then moved and carried, and finally that refer to a committee is carried. The automobile question then goes to the committee, and is not further considered until the committee reports. The house is now open for further new business — for a principal motion on another subject.
It will be seen from this illustration that a member may at any time propose a motion of higher position than the one at that time pending (before the house and about to be voted upon), and that the chairman must endeavor to secure a vote first on the highest motion of those pro- posed, and proceed downward until all are disposed of or until the meeting adjourns. Thus the members may go upivard in proposing motions in Table B or Table C, while the chairman proceeds dozvnward in securing votes on the pending questions.
The motions in the larger table obey the same general rules as do those of Table B, and are used in the same manner. Some special rules and exceptions are noted in
3o6 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
the directions for Table C, and in the directions which are to follow.
Brief Directions for the Use of Each Motion. We shall now repeat the motions of the larger table, inserting under each the necessary information for its use in a business meeting. The student should recall that in the case of all motions other than those inclosed in quotation marks it is necessary for the mover of the motion to rise, address the chairman, and be recognized before he may speak further. For those inclosed in quotation marks, no recognition is required.
|
KEY |
|
|
D = A = |
= debatable NS = no second is required = amendable Quotation marks (" ") = in order when another person has the floor |
|
2/3 = two-thirds vote necessary to carry |
A— Time for Next Meeting
" I move that the next meeting of the club be held at TO A.M., Wednesday, May 13."
" I move that when this meeting shall adjourn, it adjourn to meet again at 10 a.m., Wednesday, May 13."
" I move that the time to which this meeting shall ad- journ shall be fixed at ... "
This motion is in order at any time during the meeting. It does not adjourn the meeting, nor decide when the meeting shall adjourn ; it merely determines in advance when the next meeting of the society shall take place. Its principal use is that the members may all know when to assemble again. In protracted meetings or sessions of conventions and the like, it is useful in preventing an
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 307
adjournment which might end the entire session, and in providing for another meeting to which business may be deferred.
The motion to determine the place for the next meeting has the same rank as that to fix the time.
Adjourn
" I move we adjourn."
" I move that the meeting do now adjourn."
" I move that the meeting stand adjourned."
Note that the motion to adjourn cannot interrupt a speaker, and that recognition is required.
This motion is entirely unlike the motion, " I move that we adjourn at 1 1 p.m." The latter motion is a principal motion (see below), and cannot be moved when any other question is pending.
If the motion to adjourn is carried, the chairman at once de- clares that the motion is carried, and that the meeting is adjourned. Between these two statements there should be opportunity for the call of a division.
A— Recess
" I move that a recess of ten minutes be declared." '" I move that the society take a recess of ten minutes." " I move a recess of ten minutes or less, for the purpose of signing the constitution."
Amendments to the motion may apply only to the length of the recess. After the recess, business proceeds as if there had been no interruption.
D— A— " Question of Privilege "
(treated as a main motion)
" Mr. Chairman, I rise to a question of privilege," '" I rise to a question of privilege, Mr. Chairman." " A question of privilege, Mr. Chairman."
3o8 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
The mere address " Mr. Chairman " may fail of recognition, because it contains no hint that the member has a right to inter- rupt the speaker. If, however, the chairman hears the words, " question of privilege," he is forced to interrupt the speaker if somebody happens to be engaged in debate on a pending question, and to ask the one who has risen to state his question. Questions, requests for information, parliamentary inquiries, and motions for the comfort or rights of members are considered of such great importance that they must be settled before any other business can be considered, except the three motions above.
The chairman responds, " State your question of privilege," and the member then briefly states his request or motion. If the request is a matter easily and rightly granted, the chairman should grant it at once, or should put it to a vote if he thinks best. If the chair- man believes that the request is not a proper question of privilege, he so rules and the member may appeal (see below). If the mem- bers or the chairman decide that the request is a proper question of privilege, but that a vote is necessary before it can be granted, the question goes before the house. When it thus becomes the question before the house, it becomes for the time being like a main motion, and as such may be amended, referred, postponed, tabled, etc., like any other main motion. When disposed of, the business goes back to that which was pending before the question of privilege was raised.
Following are a few illustrations of proper questions of privilege : to have the question before the house stated ; to suppress disturb- ances in the meeting ; to stop noises outside ; to move the meeting to another room ; to improve ventilation ; to ask for more chairs. A question relating to a few of the members of a society must give way to one involving the rights of all the members.
Note that this is the first of the five motions inclosed in quota- tion marks. Any of these must be recognized at once by the chairman, even if another member is talking.
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 309
" Orders of the Day " NS
" Mr. Chairman, I call for the orders of the day." " I call for the orders of the day, Mr. Chairman." The chairman states the call : " Shall the meeting now proceed to the orders of the day .'' "
The purpose of this motion is to call for the regular program for the meeting or for the special business which has been planned ; its aim is to set aside the matters which bid fair to delay the more important proceedings and to call up .these proceedings at once. The motion is in order as soon as the meeting begins, and it may interrupt the usual order of business. Frequently the members have voted at a previous meeting to consider a certain matter at a designated time (see Suspension of Rules, below). In this case the call is in order when the designated time has arrived.
If the call for the order of the day is voted down, the inter- rupted business proceeds ; the call may be renewed, however, when any business has been transacted. If the call is carried, the matters designated come up for consideration ; after which the business which was interrupted proceeds.
"Appeal"
" I appeal from the decision of the chair," The chairman puts the question : "" Shall the ruling of the chair stand as the decision of the society } Those in favor say, 'Aye' . . . ," etc. Or, "Those who sustain the chair say, * Aye '...," etc.
An appeal comes before the house when the chairman has made a ruling with which a member takes issue, as, for example, when the chairman has ruled against a ]ooint of order (see below). Any member who is not satisfied with the chairman's interpretation of the rules may appeal to the society, and the matter is then decided
3IO PARLIAMENTARY LAW
by a majority vote. Before the vote brief reasons may be stated by the member and by the chairman, and, in certain rare cases, unlikely to occur outside a legal organization, others may debate the appeal.
A motion to lay the appeal on the table is in order, and if it is carried the chairman's ruling stands.
"Point of Order" NS
" I rise to a point of order."
The chairman responds : " State your point of order."
The member : " My point of order is that the constitu- tion is being violated in that . . . ," etc.
The chairman : "Your point of order is well taken " (or, " not well taken ").
If the chairman holds that the point of order is well taken he proceeds at once to correct the error. In case he does not so agree, the one who raised the point, or any other member, may appeal from the decision of the chair.
Points of order may be raised whenever a member thinks that a rule is being broken, an unfairness being done, or a wrong pro- cedure being followed. These are some examples : wrong motion stated, motion stated wrongly, speaker off the subject, personal remarks being made, wrong person recognized, order of business not being followed, undebatable question being debated, rules of precedence violated, by-laws disregarded.
It should be specially noted that while the point of order and appeal may be superseded by the questions above them in the table, yet points of order and appeals may be raised in connection with any of these higher motions, and in such cases supersede these higher questions themselves.
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 31 1
" Objection to Consideration " NS— 2/3
" Mr. Chairman, I object to the consideration of this question."
The chairman responds : " Those who sustain the objec- tion say, 'Aye,' " etc.
An objection is in order only when it is raised before the ques- tion has been debated, and it can apply to principal questions only. The one who objects may briefly state his reason. A two-to-one vote is needed to rule the motion out, as otherwise a bare majority might prevent free speech.
Objections may be raised on the grounds, among others, that the question proposed is improper for the assembly to vote upon in that it involves personal, religious, or political issues ; or that it has no value to the meeting; or that it is not related to the purposes of the organization.
If the objection is sustained, the motion is ruled out, without debate or vote.
Reading Papers
'" I move that I be allowed to read this article."
" I move that the member be allowed to read the article
in question."
" I move that the by-law in question be read by the
secretary."
" I move that the visitor be asked to address us."
" I move that the gentleman be allowed ten minutes to
address the meeting."
If a member wishes to read or have read any written or printed matter bearing on the question in hand, to have a section of the rules read, or to have a non-member address the meeting, he moves that permission be given for such act.
312 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
Withdrawal of a Motion
" I move that the motion be withdrawn." " I move that the maker of the motion be allowed to withdraw it."
Before a motion has been stated by the chairman, either the maker or the seconder may withdraw his indorsement. After it has been stated, however, it becomes the property of the meeting, and cannot be withdrawn by the maker of the motion if any member objects. In such a case the mover or somebody else may move that the motion be withdrawn.
Suspension of Rules 2/3
" I move that the rules be suspended in order to hear the report of the committee."
Neither constitution nor by-laws may be suspended.^ Rules of order and standing rules may be set aside temporarily when they stand in the way of a desired action. Suppose, as in the above quotation, the chairman of a committee has entered the meeting late, and the members wish to turn back the order of business to reports of committees in order to hear his report. In such a case the society may decide by a two-to-one vote to suspend the rules. The motion must state the purpose of the proposed suspension.
1 Even legal organizations sometimes find it necessary to suspend specific sections of their constitutions. For example, a state legislature may, in case of grave public need, waive constitutional formalities in ref- erence to voting appropriations. Again, a governor may declare martial law. Such a suspension of the fundamental law, however, is legal only when provided for by a specific article of the constitution itself. School societies will probably never have need of such a provision in their constitutions.
If a society deliberately ignores or violates its constitution, it thereby, in effect, temporarily suspends its own existence as a society. Such a proceeding is possible, but indiscreet. It opens the way for indiscriminate irregularities.
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 313
Other illustrations will make the object of this motion clear: to allow a member to continue speaking when his time has expired •, to allow a member to speak for a third time upon the question ; to abandon the regular program ; to set aside for a special occasion the restrictive rules of the regular meetings.
To set a particular topic as a special order for a future time sus- pends the rules in that it changes the regular order of business for that future meeting ; it therefore has the same rank as suspension of the rules and requires a two-thirds vote.
Lay on the Table
"' I move the matter be laid on the table." " I move that the whole question be laid on the table." " I move the motion (amendment, appeal, question of privilege) be laid on the table."
" I move that the motion be tabled."
This motion was originally devised to put a motion aside tem- porarily, but in recent times it is often used to rid the meeting permanently of a motion. If the latter is the intent, however, the maker of the main motion should have the right to speak briefly in favor of his motion before lay on the table is put to vote.
A motion laid upon the table is disposed of until it is renewed (see p. zzi)^ o^ ^"^^^ ^ motion is made to take from the table the motion in question. Take from the table has the same character- istics and place in Table C as lay on the table.
When a motion is tabled, all other motions attached to it — such as amend, postpone, refer, and previous question — are car- ried to the table with it. The motion to take from the table, if carried, brings these back before the house in the exact condition they were in at the time the motion was tabled.
Technically, an amendment to a motion may be laid on the table, but as this carries the motion to the table with the amend- ment, the effect is the same as tabling the motion itself.
314 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
There is no such motion as " to lay the matter on the table till next meeting." This should be either '" to lay the matter on the table," or " to postpone the matter till next meeting."
Previous Question = Stop Debate 2/3
" I move the previous question."
" I move debate be stopped."
" I move we proceed to the vote."
" I move the previous question on the motion to postpone."
" I move we stop debate on the amendment."
This motion does not refer to any previously mentioned ques- tion, as its name would seem to indicate ; it refers only to the question or questions now pending, and it seeks to cut off debate and bring to vote one or more motions. If the motion for the pre- vious question specifies the motion concerned, and is carried, then the debate on only that motion is closed. If, however, the motion for closing debate is unrestricted, it is usual to proceed to vote on all the pending questions, without further debate.
It should be noted that at any time in the process of voting, a motion of higher precedence may intervene.
The motion for the previous question should not be confused with the expression, " I call for the question," spoken by a mem- ber from his seat. This call indicates merely that one or more of the members is ready and anxious to vote ; it is a signal to the chairman, if no one has the floor, to ask, "Are you ready for the question ? " and to take the vote if everybody is ready.
The motion to limit each speech to a certain tirne, or to limit the debate as a whole, has the same precedence as the previous question.
The motion for the previous question may be applied to any debatable question. If carried, the debatable question is simply changed into the undebatable class.
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 315
D— A— Postpone to a Definite Time
" I move that this question be postponed for one week." '" I move to postpone the motion till next meeting."
This motion is useful when more time is needed. Debate on the advantage of delay is in order, and the time of postponement may be amended. When the time of postponement has elapsed, the matter again appears, under old business, in exactly the form it was left. It may, however, be called up as the order of the day for the meeting to which it was postponed ; or it may, by a two- thirds vote, be taken up at any intervening meeting.
Postponement may be applied to principal motions only ; not to the motion to amend or refer.
D— A— Refer to a Committee
" I move that this matter be referred to a committee."
" I move that the motion be referred to the finance committee."
" I move that the question of a banquet be referred to a committee of three, to be appointed by the chair, and to report at the next meeting,"
"' I move that the motion to join the town of Blank in an Independence Day celebration be referred to an elected committee of three persons, with power to act."
This motion is useful when more investigation is needed, or when a matter proposed in a motion can best be handled by a smaller body. The motion must not be confused with the main motion to appoint a committee, which will be considered below ; the present motion aims to give to a committee a main motion which has already been placed before the house.
Debate on the motion may concern the advantage of referring the motion, and the pros and cons of the main motion itself, so
3i6 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
that the committee, if one is appointed, may be informed as to the views and wishes of the society. By amendments the size of the committee, the manner of its selection, and the time for its report may be determined or changed. If no specification is made, it is usually understood that a committee of three will be appointed by the president or chairman, and that the committee will report as soon as convenient.
Committee reports and how they are handled are discussed on page 327.
D— A— Amend
Let us assume as the main motion : " White Street shall be paved and sidewalked, from First Street to Twentieth Street."
1. "I move to amend the motion by striking out the word ' Twentieth ' and inserting in its place * Twelfth.' "
2. "I move to amend the motion by substituting for it the following : ' The property owners on White Street shall be asked to be present at a hearing on the question of the improvement of that street.' "
3. "I move to amend by dividing the question into two questions : paving and sidewalking."
It will be seen that amending a motion may change its wording, or substitute a different motion in its place, or divide it into two distinct motions.
I . The usual purpose of an amendment is to change the word- ing of the motion so that it will be more nearly acceptable. If an amendment which the maker of the original motion believes in is proposed, he and the person who seconds it can accept it, and, if there is no objection, it is then incorporated into the motion itself without the need of a vote. Otherwise the proposed change of wording is put to vote. These changes may include adding, inserting, striking out, or striking out and inserting. While the
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 31/
proposed amendment is before the house, the debate must be confined to the advantage of the change in wording; the main motion itself cannot be debated. If the proposed change is carried, the chairman then reads the main motion as it has been changed, and the debate proceeds on this main motion as amended, which must finally be voted on in order to carry- it. Carr^'ing an amend- ment never carries the motion it amends.
\\'hile an amendment is pending, it in turn may be amended. Be sure, however, that the proposed new amendment applies directly to the first amendment and not to the main motion itself, for of course it would not be possible to have two amendments to a motion pending at the same time, any more than there could be two main motions before the house at once. The process of amend- ing an amendment is the same as that of amending a motion as explained above.
An example will make the whole process clear. It is moved and seconded, and stated by the chair, " that a new librar}^ build- ing, at a cost of not more than $500,000, be erected by the city at the corner of High and Green streets." During the debate an amendment is moved, seconded, and stated that the words, " at the corner of High and Green streets," be struck out and " in Liberty Square " be inserted. Then comes discussion about the question of location. At this point if somebody should propose to amend by changing $500,000 to $750,000, his amendment would be declared out of order. But if a member wishes to add to the amendment the words, " facing Hill Street," it would be in order for him to " move to amend the amendment " to that effect. Debate now occurs on the way the building shall face if put in Liberty Square. Let us say the amendment to the amendment is carried. The amendment as amended now reads, " to strike out ' at the comer of High and Green streets,' and insert ' in Liberty Square, facing Hill Street.' " After further debate, suppose this amendment to the motion is carried. This means simply that if the librar)' is built, its location will be as voted. The main motion, as amended, now reads, " that a new library building, at a cost of
3i8 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
not more than $500,000, be erected by the city in Liberty Square, facing Hill Street," and this motion is of course now open for debate. It is also open for further amendment just as if it had been stated this way in the beginning. Nothing conclusive is decided until the final vote on the main motion. This process may be clearly shown as follows :
1. Proposed inotion : A new library building, to cost not more than
$500,000, shall be erected by the city at the corner of High and Green streets.
Proposed atnendment : Strike out the words, " at the corner of High and Green streets," and insert "in Liberty Square." Proposed amendment to the amendment : Add the words, " facing Hill Street."
If the proposed amendment to the amendment is carried, we have pending the following :
2. Proposed motion : A new library building, to cost not more than
$500,000, shall be erected by the city at the corner of High and Green streets.
P7'oposed atnendment as amended : Strike out the words,
" at the corner of High and Green streets," and insert
" in Liberty Square, facing Hill Street."
If the amendment as amended is carried, we have pending :
3. Proposed motion, as amended : A new library building, to cost
not more than $500,000, shall be erected by the city in Liberty Square, facing Hill Street.
2. The substitute motion, another form of amendment, proposes to strike out all the words of a motion or amendment, and to put in their place a new motion to cover the same need. For example, " I move to amend the motion by substituting for it the following : ' that the city enter into a ten-year lease, for library purposes, of the second, third, and fourth floors of the First National Bank Building.' " The process is the same as explained above ; the vote on the amendment can only change the wording of the question before the house.
PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 319
3. Amending to divide the question cuts a motion which covers two topics into two separate main motions. For example, in the case of the question, " I move that the Secretary of State enter into negotiations for treaties with Cuba and Panama," if the amendment to divide is carried, the first main motion would be, "that the Secretar)^ of State enter into negotiations for a treaty with Cuba " ; and after this question is disposed of, the next main motion would be, " that the Secretary of State enter into negotia- tions for a treaty with Panama."
4. Blanks may be left by the mover of any motion : " I move that we appropriate blank dollars for the relief of the war suf- ferers." Members nominate various sums and they are all voted upon, arranged with the smallest first, until one gets a majority. If the blank concerns a period of time, the longest time is arranged to have first vote.
5. Bear in mind that anywhere in the above processes, any motion of higher precedence — above ' Amend ' in Table C — may be moved, and may temporarily or permanently set aside the whole question.
D— Postpone Indefinitely
" I move that the motion be postponed indefinitely." " I move that the matter be postponed."
This motion is bracketed with ' Amend ' in Table C because each motion has the same precedence : neither may supplant the other.
When the motion to postpone indefinitely is before the house, debate may concern itself with both the question of postponement and the main question itself. If the motion to postpone indefinitely is carried, it usually disposes permanently of the motion to which it is applied.
320 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
D— A— Principal Motion
" I move that this society hold a debate."
" I move that the city build a swimming pool."
" I move that this society adopt the following resolution :
' Resolved, that foreign immigration should be restricted.' " " I move to amend the constitution as follows : . . ." " I move that this society rescind its action in voting to
have a banquet."
The ordinary motions which introduce topics for consideration are called principal motions. Usually they concern new proposals and are called 7nain motions. They also include motions to take back former acts (revoke, repeal, rescind), and motions to cancel (expunge) objectionable statements from the minutes.
The following, among others, are treated as main motions : an amendment to the constitution, by-laws, or rules ; a motion to appoint a committee to carry out a stated action or to investigate a stated matter ; a motion to discharge a committee or to accept or reject a committee's report ; a motion to adjourn at a specified time ; a question of privilege.
The main or principal motion is subject to the application of any of the other motions in Table C, and cannot be finally voted until all other pending questions are settled.
Pages 330-333 deal with miscellaneous motions and special processes. The niotioti to reconsider will be found there.
RIGHTS AND DUTIES 321
VI. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF MEMBERS AND OF
OFFICERS
The Introduction of Business
1. The member who desires to introduce a motion rises and addresses the chairman. " Mr. Chairman " or " Madam Chairman " should be the address, unless the person in the chair holds the office of president or has some other executive title, in which case that title may be used.
2. The chairman responds with the name of the speaker.
3. The member states his motion, and resumes his seat.
4. The chairman calls for a second ; a fair chance for a second should be given ever)' motion.
5. If no second is offered, the chairman announces : " The motion is lost for want of a second." Even then a second may be offered.
6. If a second is made, the chairman states the motion and calls for debate : " It has been moved and seconded that, etc. Are there any remarks on the motion?" (See p. 335.)
7. One who seconds a motion or calls for a division need not rise or ask for recognition.
8. One who moves any of the following need not wait for recognition ; it must be given, even if the motion interrupts another speaker (note the quotation marks around these motions, in section Y, above) :
a. Question of privilege.
i. Call for the orders of the day.
c. Appeal.
d. Point of order.
e. Objection to the consideration of a question. /. Notice of a reconsideration.
9. At the request of the chairman, the maker of a motion or an amendment must hand the text of the motion or amendment to the secretary in writing.
322 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
The Rules of Debate
1. If two or more persons ask for recognition at the same time, preference should be given in the following order:
a. The maker of the motion.
b. One who has not spoken on the motion.
c. One who seldom speaks.
d. One opposed to the last speaker.
e. In other cases, the one who addresses the chair first.
2. Recognition should not be given to one who remains stand- ing while another is speaking, or who rises before the speaker has finished, or who approaches the chairman, or who otherwise disturbs the meeting.
3. A speaker must restrict his remarks to the question before the house ; he must not discuss personalities or motives.
4. In referring to an officer or member the speaker should avoid using his name.
5. A member may speak only twice on any motion, not longer than ten minutes each time.
6. The speaker is entitled to a fair hearing.
7. All parliamentary law is based on equality of members, and on the principles of courtesy and gentlemanly behavior.
The Chairman
Whoever is in charge of the meeting is the chairman. The next paragraph deals with suggestions for a president. See the forms on page 335.
1. See that all is in readiness for the meeting, and call it to order at the appointed time : " The meeting will now come to order."
2. Have at hand for reference : the constitution, by-laws, rules of order, standing rules, and the program for the meeting.
3. Know parliamentary law ; know also how to avoid compli- cations ; any short cut is possible by common consent.
RIGHTS AND DUTIES 323
4. Stand when calling for a second, stating a question, taking a vote, announcing a vote, and answering questions. Remain seated during debate.
5. Talk loud enough for every word to be heard.
6. Be decisive, and do not mind being overruled.
7. Keep the question clearly before the assembly until it is finally disposed of. After each vote announce the next question pending, and restate the motion immediately before the vote is taken.
8. If while chairman you wish to discuss a question, yield the chair temporarily to another member. Never leave the chair for any other purpose.
9. Request the secretary or another member to state and put a motion which refers to the chairman.
10. As chairman you may vote with the other members when the vote is by ballot or by roll call. You may vote after the others in an Aye and No vote or in a division, provided your vote will change the result (carry the motion by breaking a tie, or defeat it by creating a tie).
11. Adjourn a meeting you cannot control.
12. Be absolutely fair and impartial. If a question divides the meeting into two sides, do not favor either.
The President
1. Study the suggestions for the chairman, above.
2. Study the constitution, by-laws, and rules, and see that they are enforced.
3. When appointing a committee, select persons who are inter- ested, who will work, and who represent various points of view. The maker of the motion to refer should usually be appointed chairman of the committee.
4. Keep posted on the work of other officers, and of committees, and help them when possible.
5. Represent the society to the outside world : attend to the affairs of the society between meetings, and report such trans- actions at the following meeting.
324 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
6. Plan the meetings :
a. See that notices are sent out in good time.
b. Make reports, with suggestions for action.
c. Keep a memorandum of topics for business.
7. Carry out the good suggestions of officers, committees, and members.
8. Be a leader as well as a servant.
The Vice President
1. Be ready to fill the president's place.
2. Help the president and other officers, particularly in regard to arrangements for the meetings and planning the programs.
3. Make the office of vice president amount to something.
The Secretary
1. In the absence of the chairman, president, and vice president, call the meeting to order and hold an election for chairman pro tem.
2. Notify members about special meetings, appointment on committees, etc.
3. Call the roll when necessary, and keep a record of the attendance (see Roll Call, p. 338).
4. If necessary, keep a record of the recitations in the class.
5. Be ready to read aloud all communications, reports, laws, etc. whenever required.
6. Assist the chairman in counting the vote in divisions.
7. Report to the society in regard to all correspondence and other activities of your office.
8. Be ready to tell the chairman about postponed and unfinished
business.
9. Keep a memorandum of the exact wording of all motions proposed. Make the notes so clear that the chairman can refer
to them.
10. Know what is the question before the meeting at any
moment, and what comes next.
RIGHTS AND DUTIES 325
11. Write the minutes (see the forms on page 336)
a. Include name of organization, place, date, time, and name of chairman.
b. Make a separate paragraph for each order of business, and for each general subject considered under the old and new business.
c. Include a list of those who took part in the program.
d. Sign the minutes ; when reading the minutes read the signature.
e. If they are corrected, make the necessary changes at once. When they are approved, indorse them " Approved," with the date and your initials.
12. If the constitution, by-laws, or rules are amended, or if additions are made, see that the proper changes are made in the original copies.
13. Keep carefully all the records of the organization: minutes, constitution, laws, reports, communications.
14. The secretary is free to take part in the meeting, just the same as any other member.
The Critic
Below are some of the things in a meeting that a critic may watch and report upon. He must not fail to commend the good points.
1. The president: his manner of presiding and his ability.
2. The minutes and other work of the secretary.
3. The critic's report.
4. The program : members taking part, with criticisms on : look- ing at the audience ; opening sentence ; announcement of topic ; arrangement of talk ; use of hands ; voice ; clearness of diagram, if any ; closing sentence ; answering questions, if any ; correct- ness of speech ; enthusiasm ; interest ; the program as a whole.
5. The work of the committees.
6. The transaction of bu.siness : knowledge of the rules of order; attitude of members toward the officers and toward each other ; value of the business carried out.
7. The meeting as a whole ; and general suggestions.
326 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
The Other Officers
Treasurer. This officer keeps safe the funds of the society, and pays them out only by vote of the society and on a written order signed by the president or secretary or both. If the work of the society is at all complicated, he had best consult a bookkeeping teacher about the best way to keep the accounts. His books should show the record of each member in payment of his dues, and the amount of money received on any given date. Record of dues may be kept in columns, with names of members at the left, and dates at the top of the columns. It is desirable that the totals and balances in each of the various funds should be easily figured at any time. At any meeting he should be able to tell the approximate amount in the treasury. He should make frequent written reports to the society. School classes will of course need no treasurer. If a small assessment is voted, the secretary or any other member may be instructed to collect and handle the money. The treasurer of a society, for the protection of his own reputation, should insist that his accounts be audited by a committee representing the society. Accounts may be audited quarterly, and in every case when the books and money pass into the hands of a new treasurer.
Sergeant at Arms. A school class should not need a sergeant at arms. One is needed when arrangements are necessary as to furni- ture, ventilation, errands, care of spectators, etc., or where the meeting is large and apt to be disorderly. The sergeant at arms is under the direction of the chairman or president, whose orders he carries out.
Historian. This officer keeps a book containing the story of the progress of the society, together with press notices, programs, pub- lications, photographs, and other documents of historical interest.
Various combinations and divisions of offices and duties are made : financial secretary, to collect the dues and turn the money over to the treasurer ; recording secretary, to keep papers and minutes ; corresponding secretary, to attend to communications ; secretary-treasurer, to cover the duties of both offices.
COMMITTEES 327
Special duties are sometimes given to persons with special titles : curator, who has charge of clubrooms and library ; superintendent or manager ; librarian ; doorkeeper ; timekeeper ; marshal ; cash- ier; inspector; engineer; attorney. Many of these are paid, and often are not members of the organization. A paid clerk often takes the heavier work of the secretary, and sometimes altogether takes the place of a secretary.
VII. COMMITTEE WORK AND REPORTS
Need for and Kinds of Committees. Committees are appointed either iyi} to carry out some action, as, for instance, to arrange for and manage a lecture ; or (2) to carry on some ifwestigatio?i, such as, for example, to see if conditions at the city jail need improving. In either case the organization as a whole is too big and too busy to handle the problem, and therefore a smaller group is chosen. Selection is usually made by the president, though upon motion the society may nominate and elect the members of a committee.
Some of the duties which must be performed by committees need continuous attention, and for such duties standing committees are chosen, which have regular meetings and a more or less fixed membership. If the officers are elected annually or semiannually, each incoming president makes up the list of names for these committees. The names of the committees should be listed in the l)y-laws, or, if they are of great importance, in the constitution. Common standing committees are these : membership, program, legislation, clubhouse, finance. Large organizations often have an " executive committee " or " board of managers " or " board of control " which is made up of the officers of the society and a few other members elected by the society. Such a committee acts for the society itself, and the society then votes only on matters of great importance.
Temporary duties are handled by special or select committees, which go out of office as soon as their reports are made to the society. A select committee may be created by a principal motion,
328 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
or by a motion to refer to a committee a matter already before the house.
How Committees Work. If no one is designated as chairman of a committee, the first person named or the one receiving the high- est number of votes acts as chairman, though the committee itself in such a case may choose its own permanent chairman. The meetings of the committee may be exactly like the meetings of a small assembly except that they usually avoid the more complex motions. Indeed, in most of the committees to which young peo- ple will belong, no motions should be needed. Informal discussion and agreement should be enough. The chairman may delegate to each member of the committee some special section of the work to be done or a part of the investigation to be made. Such indi- vidual or subcommittee work should be under the direction of the chairman of the committee, and reports should be made to him. Then the committee prepares its report. If the committee is ap- pointed to carry out some action, the report will give merely the statement of what has been done, together with a financial account if any money has been handled. If an investigation has been carried on, a more complicated process will be necessary. The committee numbers will need to agree on a statement of the prob- lem and on the recommendations they intend to make. The chair- man, or an elected secretary, or a subcommittee, may be directed to prepare and bring to a meeting a proposed report, and the various ideas suggested may be debated and voted on. Reports should be carefully and clearly arranged, according to some such plan as this :
SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR A COMMITTEE REPORT
1. The reasons for the appointment of the committee.
2. The manner of investigation.
3. The results of the investigation.
4. The recommendations of the committee.
What is voted by a majority of the members of the committee constitutes the report of the committee. Any member or group of
COMMITTEES 329
members of the committee may, however, write out a different report, and may propose it as a minority report.
What is done with the Reports. The report of the committee is usually read at the meeting by its chairman. When the time comes for reports in the order of business, he may rise and an- nounce that his committee has a report to make. If any objection is made, a motion to receive the report will be necessary. When the report has been read, it is handed to the secretary, and if no further action is necessary, the chairman of the meeting may direct that it be " placed on file," which means that it be kept among the records. But if it is a financial report which needs to be approved, or if it contains definite recommendations, then the chairman of the committee or somebody else may move that the report be approved, accepted, or adopted, all of which terms mean the same thing — • that the accounts are satisfactory and shall be paid, or that the recommendations shall be carried into effect. Before this motion is voted upon, the minority report or reports may be pre- sented, and an amendment may be moved to substitute for the motion before the house the motion to adopt the minority report. In either case, any member of the society may move to amend the recommendations of the committee, and of course the amendment may be amended, or the whole matter may be referred back to the same committee or to another committee, or it may be postponed, or laid on the table, etc.
Sometimes a motion to accept a report includes a clause that the committee be discharged, but it is usually taken for granted that with its final report a committee is automatically dissolved. When a committee report is called for but is not ready, the chair- man may report " progress," or he may tell informally what has been done so far and what is planned. When there is dissatisfac- tion with the work or the report of a committee, a motion may be made to discharge the committee, or to reject its report, or to con- tinue the committee for a further investigation, or to require a report upon a certain date.
For committee of the whole, see below.
330 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
VIIL SPECIAL POINTS IN PARLIAMENTARY LAW Some Special Motions
1. Closing Nominations. This motion is neither debatable nor amendable, and requires only a majority vote.
2. Limiting Debate. See Previous Question, above.
3. Making a Special Order. See Suspension of Rules, above,
4. Reconsider. Suppose that in a society which holds weekly meet- ings, a motion is voted on, July i. Any person who voted on the winning side may on the same day move a reconsideration of the ques- tion, provided no other business is before the house. Or he may make this motion at the next meeting, July 8, but not at any later meeting. The motion to reconsider is debatable if the original motion was de- batable, and may have the motion to stop debate and lay on the table applied to it. If reconsideration is carried, the former vote on the motion is canceled, and the question is before the house in exactly the shape it was before the vote was taken.
If the person who wishes a reconsideration finds other business before the house, or if he does not wish the new vote at once, he may give notice of a moiion to reconsider. This notice is in order at any time, even when another speaker has the floor, and the secretary must make record in the minutes that the notice was given. Such a notice might be given, in the case we were supposing above, on July i or July 8, but not at any later meeting. The person giving the notice may call up the motion to reconsider, to be debated and voted on, the same day he gave notice, provided the way is open for a main motion. Another person than the one giving the notice may not call the reconsideration till the next meeting after the notice.
To sum up for a motion decided July i : Notice of a motion to reconsider, or the motion to reconsider, are in order July i and July 8. The motion is in order July 1 5, provided notice was given on the 8th.
Reconsideration cannot be applied to the motion to adjourn, suspend the rules, reconsider, lay on the table, and stop debate. If applied to motions which hold up the reconsideration of the main question, such as postpone, refer, reading papers, etc., it must be voted upon and settled at once, and no notice or other delay is possible. Reconsidera- tion cannot be amended. Other rules on reconsideration — the most
SPECIAL PROCESSES 331
technical of all motions and processes — will be found in Robert, pp. 73, 184 (rev. ed. p. 156), and in Gregg, pp. 35, 84. The above is a mere outline of its use. The student is advised to try simple problems in reconsideration first.
5. Rescind. This is a principal motion (see above).
6. Rise. This motion is used in committee meetings, and is exactly the same as adjourn.
7. Take from the Table. See Lay on the Table, above.
Some Special Processes
1. Committee of the Whole. Whenever the motion to refer to a committee or to appoint a committee is in order, it is allowable to make the motion to go into the comtnittce of the whole. This means that the whole society changes itself temporarily into a committee for the consideration of the matter specified by the motion. If the motion carries, the chairman usually appoints somebody as chairman of the committee of the whole. The meeting then proceeds to talk over the subject in an informal way, just as would any other committee. Only the motions to recommend to the society, to amend, to postpone in- definitely, and to rise (adjourn) are used. Upon the rising of the com- mittee the meeting of the society is called to order by its president or chairman, and the chairman of the committee of the whole gives its report, which is then acted on as explained on page 329.
2. Executive Session. A secret session of a society, or a short secret consultation, may be voted for by a majority of the members. All visitors must then retire. Executive sessions should rarely be neces- sary. This motion should be in order whenever the motion for the pre\aous question is in order.
3. Filling Blanks. See Amend, above.
4. Informal Action. The need for and value of informal action have been explained at the beginning of this chapter.
5. Methods of Voting. The usual way is by saying " aye " or " no " as the affirmative and negative votes are called for. This is called viva-voce voting.
When there is doubt a division may be called for : " Mr. Chairman, I call for a division." This means a counted vote, usually accomplished by standing or by raising the hands. Anybody may call for a division (discussion may be renewed), and the chairman must take the vote.
332 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
Voting by ballot gives secrecy. The ballots are small, uniform pieces of paper on which the members write " yes," " no," or the name of one or more of the candidates. The papers are folded once and handed to the tellers, who count the vote and report to the chairman. Scoring should always be done by means of four marks and the tally. Just before any vote is to be taken, the motion to vote by ballot is in order, and the majority decides, without debate.
Elections for office should be held by ballot unless there is a law or rule to the contrary. When there is but one candidate the chairman may declare the person elected, or, if the rules require a ballot, the motion may be made that the secretary be instructed to cast one bal- lot for the one candidate. This the secretary does by writing the name of the candidate upon a slip of paper and handing it to the chairman. The chairman then declares the member elected.
The roll-call vote gives a permanent record of each person's vote. He answers " aye " or " no " as his name is called ; the secretary keeps the record, and counts and announces the result. This is called voting by yeas and nays. A majority may order a roll-call vote upon any question ; in some societies one fifth of the members or even one member may demand the yeas and nays.
Whenever any vote is by division or by yeas and nays, any member has the right to change his vote before the final result is announced.
A straw vote is an unoflficial test vote to show what the members believe ; it cannot decide anything.
6. Nomination and Election. On the day for an election it is cus- tomary to announce the election in order as the first thing under new business. One who makes a nomination has a right at that time to make a speech (see Chapter XI). Nominations do not need seconding. The secretary should record the names in order of nomination. A member who makes a nomination must not neglect voting for that person, at least on the first vote. Some societies have a committee to propose nominations, but their report should not prevent other indorsements. Some organizations nominate by secret ballot — the two or three persons receiving the highest number of votes are placed in nomination. Again, other societies have nominations by petition ; a person may be placed in nomination if a certain fraction, perhaps ten per cent, of the members sign a request that he be a candidate. Names should be put on the blackboard or published in some other
SPECIAL TERMS 333
way. When voting by ballot, the vote for all offices should be on the same ballot, as is customaiy in governmental elections. In case a majority vote for any office is lacking, a new vote must be taken. The society may rule to drop out all but the two highest candidates for the second election, as many cities now do, otherwise all the names stand for the second vote. The constitution may specify when the terms of office begin, otherwise the new officers take their places at the con- clusion of the election.
7. Renewal of a Motion. A defeated main motion or amendment cannot be again moved at the same session. Other questions may usually be renewed whenever debating or voting has taken place in such a way as to make the situation different.. That is to say, it is not in order to renew a motion just after it has been lost and before condi- tions have changed.
Technical Terms
1. At Large. One is said to be " member at large," or to be elected at large, when he is chosen from among all the members, instead of from any one group, or locality, or on account of his holding any office.
2. Call of the House. An attempt to find absent members and to compel them to attend. It is used to obtain a quorum, or to get a full vote on a measure before the hoase.
3. Commit. Same as 7-efer.
4. Credentials. A written document, signed by at least two officers, stating that the person mentioned has a certain office or authority, as, for example, that he is a duly elected delegate or representative of the society.
5. Division. A counted vote (see p. 331).
6. Ex-of&cio. On account of the office; for example, the president of a society may be ex-officio a member of the finance committee.
7. Majority and Plurality. A candidate is said to have a majority when he has over half the total number of votes cast ; he has a plurality if he has more votes than any other candidate.
8. Meeting and Session. In ordinary societies these two terms have the same meaning — a gathering of members for the consideration of reports and the transaction of old and new business. In Congress, however, in conventions, and in many other societies, a gathering is often adjourned in the midst of the order of business, and the next
334 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
gathering goes on with the same business just as if a recess had taken place. Each assembly is called a meeting ; while a completed, rounded-out convention or a series of meetings is called a session. Thus a session may last all day, three days, or three months ; while a meeting will hardly last more than three hours, unless perhaps the lunch or supper time is called a recess. If a new meeting hears the minutes, reports, and old business, it is a new session also.
9. Pending. A motion is said to be pending when it has been moved, seconded, and stated, and has not yet been voted on, post- poned, referred to a committee, or otherwise disposed of. Again, a motion is pending if it has become due after a postponement or is reported on by a committee. A motion is said to be itntnediately pendifig when it is the motion then before the house for vote.
10. Plurality. See Majority and Plurality, above.
11. Priority. Same as precedence. A motion is said to have priority over another motion when it can supplant it, that is, when it takes precedence over the other motion.
12. Pro tem. When an officer is absent, some other person is put in his place temporarily. For example, in the temporary absence of the regular secretary, a member may act as secretary pro tem : he serves " for the time " only.
13. Proxy. A written statement, -signed by a member, by which he gives his right to vote at a certain meeting to another member. Proxies are usually voted only in the case of very important matters, such as elections and constitutional amendments.
14. Quorum. Enough members to hold a meeting. Half the mem- bership is the usual rule, although each society may have its own rule.
15. Session. See Meeting and Session, above.
16. Sine die. At the end of its session a convention adjourns sine die; that is, it adjourns " without a day" set for meeting again. Ordi- nary societies simply adjourn till the next regular meeting.
17. Teller. A person appointed by the chairman to distribute the blank ballots and to collect and count them. The chairman must see that the tellers are not actively interested in the election, and that they represent different opinions in the society. Tellers must not electioneer.
18. Two-thirds Vote. A two-to-one vote; for example, lo to 5, or 25 to 1 2. But I 2 to 8 is not a two-thirds vote, because i 2 is not at least two thirds of 20, the total number of votes cast.
SPECIAL FORMS 335
19. Viva-voce Vote. The vote taken by answering in unison first " aye " and then " no."
20. Warrant. A document authorizing a person to perform some act. such as a paper allowing him to collect a sum of money from the treasurer of a society. Such a paper is also called an " order on the treasurer."
Special Forms
1. Calling for Business. "What is your (further) pleasure?"' "Is there any further business to come before the meeting.?" "Are there any other motions ? " " The house is now open for new business."
2. Calling for a Second. " Is there a second to the motion? " " Do I hear a second? " " Is the motion seconded? "
3. Calling for Debate. "Are you ready for the question?" "Is there any debate?" "Is there any discussion?" "Are there any remarks ? "
4. Taking a Vote. "Those in favor say 'aye.' Those opposed, ' no.' " " Those favoring the motion respond by the usual sign," etc. " As many as are in favor of the motion please signify the same by say- ing ' aye,' " etc. " Those who favor the motion will give their assent by responding ' aye,' " etc. In calling for the vote on every motion, the chairman should always state briefly but exactly just what the question is.
5. Committee Reports. See page 327.
6. Communications. These are read under reports of officers, by the secretary ; he reports having received the communications. They should be brief and businesslike, else they may not be read at all, on account of lack of time. If a communication to a society is to contain a statement and a request, see page 102. If it is to contain an announcement, see page 176. Communications may be "placed on file," referred to committees, or agreed to by means of an ordinary main motion.
7. Critic's Report. See page 325. The following is an actual report of an Oral English class, with initials for the names :
Critic's Report, Sixth Period Oral English Society,
May 29, 19 —
At the beginning of the period a great deal of trouble was caused by the negligence of Mr. K. in not writing his critic's report, but this was soon straightened out by Mr. S., the president.
336 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
Mr. B. was the first to begin the program, and he gave a very interest- ing account of his visit to a gold mine.
Mr. D.'s talk on the necessity of city ownership of city railways was well given but short.
Next Mr. F. told us how hay is baled. His account was not very clear, and if he had more nearly faced the class instead of the blackboard, we should have understood him a little better.
Miss G. gave us some good reasons why girls should take a little manual training, and why boys should know a little about domestic science.
A joke was given by Mr. H., but no one laughed.
Mr. J.'s announcement regarding the Marathon race was not very clear, and he did not emphasize the time and place of the race.
Mr. G. talked about the formation of coal from a college professor's theory. His account was good.
Mr. M. gave us a few reasons why he thought that girls should be taught fencing, but he was not very enthusiastic in his argument.
A description of the Sierra Madre Mountains was given us by Mr. K. His description was good, but short.
Mr. S. and Mr. M. had a small battle of words on the ability of Mr. M. to handle a meeting, but our honorable president quelled the uprising and continued with the meeting.
I do not think that the recall bill, that was passed at the last meeting, is fair to the members of the class who cannot handle a meeting as well as some others. They will never learn how to conduct a meeting unless they are given a chance.
Mr. S. conducted the meeting very well.
(Signed) R B
Critic
The critic's report need not be accepted or amended, as it is but the
opinion of one individual.
8. Minutes. See page 325. The following is an actual report of a
secretary of an Oral English class :
Minutes of the Intermediate Parliamentary Club,
May 28, 19 —
The meeting was called to order by Miss A., and Mr. V. was elected chairman. Mr. V. chose Mr. A. for secretary and Miss N. for critic.
The minutes of May 27 were read and approved ; then the critic gave his report.
SPECIAL FORMS 337
The chair then called for committee reports. The following reports were given :
Mr. P., Dangers to school children from reckless drivers.
Miss I., Having wires put underground.
Miss M., Having more factories in Los Angeles.
Mr. B., The school study-hall system.
Miss K., A proper lighting system.
Miss W., Student government.
Miss S., Whether or not Los Angeles should own its own street railways.
Old business was called for, and the motion was that there should be a sidewalk from the auditorium to the main walk. It was moved and seconded to amend it to read " to the study hall." The amendment was lost. Then it was moved and seconded to lay the matter on the table ; the motion was carried.
Under new business it was moved and seconded that we have a boys' handball court. It was moved and seconded that the motion be amended to read " a court for the girls and a court for the boys." The amendment was lost. It was moved and seconded that the motion be amended to read " a large gymnasium for the girls." The amendment was carried. The motion, which now read " a large gymnasium for the girls," was voted upon and carried.
It was moved and seconded that the boys and girls of the school should be allowed to leave the yard at noon. It was moved and seconded that the motion be amended to include the boys and girls of all schools. The amendment was carried. The motion as amended was now voted upon and lost.
It was moved and seconded that when a pupil is tardy he should make up the exact time that he misses. The motion was voted and carried.
It was moved and seconded that a big cafeteria be built in the yard. It was moved, seconded, and carried to lay the matter on the table.
It was moved and seconded that no teacher should be allowed to leave the yard at noon.
The meeting was adjourned by the chairman at the end of the period.
(Signed) R. V. A
Secretary
After the minutes have been read, the chairman says. "Are there any omissions or corrections?" If none are offered, the chairman de- clares, " The minutes are approved as read." (A motion is not neces- sary, except in very important organizations.) When a correction is
338 PARLIAMENTARY LAW
proposed, if it seems obviously just and no objection is raised, the chairman says, "The secretary will please make the change." If the propriety of the correction is in doubt, a motion to amend the minutes may be made. This is treated as a main motion. Finally, when the necessary charges are completed, the chairman announces, " The minutes stand approved as corrected."
The motion " to dispense with the reading of the minutes " in effect suspends the order of business, and should therefore require a two- thirds vote.
9. Notices. See Communications, and Reconsider, above.
10. Resolutions. These usually include two parts, the reasons and the conclusions. The following is the common form :
Resolutions
Whereas, our friend Mr. W. O. .Smith has been a member of this organ- ization from its beginning, and has served the society in several important offices ; and
Whereas, Mr. Smith has now signified his intention to withdraw from the society on account of his removal to another city ;
Now, therefore, be it
Resolved, that we hereby signify our sincere appreciation of the per- sonal character and high abilities of Mr. Smith, and that we heartily wish him well in his new field of work ; and, be it further
Resolved, that we recommend Mr. Smith to the fellowship of similar organizations in other cities ; and, be it finally
Resolved, that these resolutions be spread upon the minutes, and that copies be sent to Mr. Smith and to the press.
11. Roll Call. The secretary should list the members' names at the left of a page in the front or back of the minute book, ruling columns for the dates. Marks should be made for the absentees. If the rules allow excuses, the secretary must indicate which absences have been excused. Care must be taken to cancel the marks opposite the names of those who come late.
12. Treasurer's Records. See page 326.
APPENDIX I
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES
1. AN INTERSCHOOL DEBATE
THE AGREEMENT
1. A double or simultaneous contest shall be held, each school upholding the affirmative of the proposition in the debate at its own school and- the negative in the debate at the school of its opponents.
2. The proposition for debate shall be, " Resolved, that . . ." When the two schools have agreed to have a debate, the school which proposed the contest submits two propositions to the other school. The school receiving the proposition selects one of these for the debate, and notifies the first school within one week from the time the two propositions were received.
3. The date shall be on . . ., at . . . p.m. In most cases there should be from six to ten weeks allowed for preparation, though debates may often be prepared in much shorter time.
4. The number of speakers on each side shall be two.
5. The time allowed each speaker shall be as follows :
Constructive Speeches
1. First affirmative lo minutes
2. P'irst negative 12 minutes
3. Second affirmative 12 minutes
4. Second negative 12 minutes
339
340 APPENDIX I
Refutation Speeches
5. First affirmative 6 minutes
6. First negative 6 minutes
7. Second affirmative 6 minutes
8. Second negative 6 minutes
Final Rebuttal
9. First affirmative 4 minutes
If it seems best to have shorter speeches, the opening speech may be six minutes, each of the next three may be eight minutes, the refu- tation speeches each four minutes, and the final speech two minutes.
6. Judges shall be selected by the principals of the tv^o schools. Each principal may send to the other the names of ten persons who would be acceptable as judges at his own school. The other principal indicates his preferences, and from the returned list the first principal chooses the judges for the debate at his school, and communicates with them. Requests should be sent at least two weeks in advance. In case a person asked cannot serve, another on the list is tried. Judges should be reminded a day or two before the contest.
Teachers are the best judges for school debates. Lawyers pay too much attention to technicalities. If the judges are men who sel- dom hear girls debate, there may be some unfair favor shown. Ministers may show favor in questions based on moral issues.
7. Other officers of the debate should be as follows: At each debate the president of the debating society of the home school may be the chairman. Two students, one from each school, may act as timekeepers for the debaters.
8. Expenses of the judges are met by the school at which they serve. Debaters' expenses are met by themselves, or by the school to which they belong.
9. The decision in each debate is found by the independent votes of the three judges. (If scoring is desired, see section 2.
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 341
below.) Judges should be instructed as follows : Favor those who use the extempore style of speaking. Subject matter is to be con- sidered two or three times as important as delivery and diction together. Teamwork should be considered — cooperation in argu- ment between the two speakers, as shown by the division of the points, summaries, absence of overlapping, etc. The award should be made only upon arguments presented and arguments met, and not upon the merits of the proposition as believed by the judges. 10. General rules :
a. No school shall submit a proposition for debate which it has debated with another school within the two previous years.
b. Undergraduate students, who have not completed the work required for graduation, who are each doing the full amount of work as regular students, and who are each satisfactory at the time of the debate in three fourths of their work, shall be allowed to take part in a debate. Princi- pals shall exchange credentials.
c. No applause shall be allowed during a speech.
d. Nothing shall be done or said to the judges, outside the actual debate, which might in any way influence their decision.
e. No prompting shall be allowed. No signaling of any kind shall be allowed, except the rapping of the timekeepers, of the chairman, or of a colleague.
f. In case any map, chart, diagram, or other graphic aid is used by any debater, such aid shall be on display only during the time allotted to the school using it, and in such a manner that it is distinctly visible to the opposing team. (By mutual agreement, either or both of these provisions may be waived.) Such map or other aid shall, after the speech in which it is first displayed, pass into the keeping of the chairman during the remainder of the debate, and may be used thereafter by any debater.
TREPARATION OF THE DEBATERS AT EACH SCHOOL
1. Announce the contest and appoint a time for the trials. This time should be from seven to fourteen days after the announce- ment.
2. Post the conditions for the trials :
342 APPENDIX I
a. Each contestant prepares a speech not to exceed six minutes in length, on either side of the proposition to be used in the debate.
b. The teacher will prepare from five to ten questions or statements, a copy of which will be handed each speaker six minutes before his speech is to begin. Two of these questions or statements must be answered or refuted by the speaker.
c. The contestants draw lots for the order of speaking, and each remains outside the room until called to speak.
d. Three teachers act as judges. They should have before them the topics for refutation, and should watch for the answers. The four best debaters should be selected, regardless of the side taken. If the judges wish it, candidates may be recalled to undergo further tests or questioning.
e. Places on the two debating teams are assigned by the debating teacher, or may be chosen by the debaters, beginning with the speaker who is awarded first place in the trials.
3. The four debaters compare notes, prepare briefs, and con- sult with the teacher about briefs, division of points, study, practice, etc. Debaters must expect only criticism and general suggestions from the teachers ; the debate is between students, not teachers. The following policies for teachers are worthy of consideration : Debaters may interview teachers or other persons for opinions and arguments. Teachers may suggest sources, and may give debaters books or other printed matter containing material on the question. Teachers may criticize briefs which have been prepared by students, but such criticism should not involve the teacher's doing work for the student. No teacher, or other person, should write or make an abstract or brief of any argument for a debater. Short written answers to specific questions may be obtained from authorities who are to be quoted in the debate. Teachers may argue with students, and give them oral arguments to refute. Teachers may hear prac- tice speeches, and criticize the work of the debaters. They may work with, but noty^r, the debaters ; no teacher should in any way allow himself to substitute his own activity for that of his students. In order that the debate may be fair, and the issues squarely met. and that all tricks, quibbling, and mere cleverness may be avoided,
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 343
the teachers in the two schools, in case any doubt arises as the study proceeds, should correspond in regard to the interpretation which should be put upon the proposition.
IMMEDIATE PREPARATION FOR EACH DEBATE
1. Advertise the debate, and arrange for handling the audience.
2. Prepare blanks for the judges. These should contain the statement of the proposition, the names of the speakers and their order, and the necessars^ directions for judging.
3. Arrange for music after the debate, if desired.
4. Arrange the room :
a. Tables and chairs at each side of the stage, for the debaters.
b. Table and three chairs at back of stage, for chairman and time- keepers.
c. Stand or small table at front of stage, for speaker.
d. Water for the debaters ; paper for the timekeepers.
5. Receive visiting debaters and judges. Pay each judge's expenses ; give the judges their blanks and sheets of blank paper. Have a quiet place ready for visiting debaters if they wish to consult. Introduce all debaters to the judges. Show the judges to their seats.
THE DEBATE
1. The chairman announces the proposition, the schools, the sides, the debaters' names, and the judges. He may speak of the debate which is going on at the other school. It is the duty of the chairman to keep the meeting in order, to introduce the speakers, and to aid in enforcing the rules and conditions of the debate. If a debater fails to observe the signal of the timekeepers, the chairman should use the gavel until he stops. I'he chairman announces the decision of the judges.
2. Any debater or any other person officially connected with either school may " rise to a point of order " if there is a misst£u;;e- m'ent of the proposition or a gross breach of the rules.
344 * APPENDIX I
3. Timekeepers keep time for every speech. They should keep independent record of the times, and these records should be so clearly labeled and recorded that any person can understand them. To avoid any mistake they should compare notes as the time for a signal approaches. The signals for each team may be given by the timekeeper from that school or by the chairman. In case of disagreement the matter should at once be referred to the chairman for decision. The debaters should be consulted in reference to the kind of signal desired. Generally two taps given two minutes before time is up will serve as a warning, and three or four taps will signal the expiration of the time allotted. The taps should be loud enough so that they cannot possibly be missed.
4. Judges should each write " Affirmative " or " Negative " on a slip of paper.
5. A teacher should collect the ballots of the judges, open them with a representative of the other school, and send the result to the chairman. If word has come from the other school, that too should be announced.
2. DEBATING LEAGUES
The Advantages to be Gained. The benefit of a debating league is that it offers a regular time and a known method for holding the debates, as well as a goal for consistent effort and an incentive for careful preparation. The league debaters, in the eyes of the students interested in debating, will stand at the top of the ladder, and if they are patriotic, will help many others to climb upward.
The championship incentive may be made a helpful one, though no doubt its importance will dwindle as our debating comes to have a better basis. If the winning school must be found, how- ever, scoring becomes necessary, and winners must be matched with winners. The plans outlined below will serve for these pur- poses, although other schemes are treated in section 4, below.
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 345
Organization and Features of a League. Anybody may send out letters calling a meeting of representatives of schools or societies interested in forming a league. Each school may have one teacher and one student representative. A meeting may be held soon after school begins, to arrange the first series of debates, and other meetings may be held just after each series, and an annual meeting a few weeks before the close of the year. Three series each year are recommended. The by-laws should provide for annual dues, duties of officers, and auditing, and may deal with a method of securing a post-card vote, a plan for paying transportation of delegates, and other details of policy. The rules of debate may or may not be a part of the by-laws ; they should deal with the plans for arranging and conducting the debates.
Below are given some further suggestions for league regula- tions : Schools matched may draw lots to determine which school is to submit propositions. These propositions should be submitted within one week from the meeting at which the schools are paired. Schools which are very small may be permitted to use the debaters of the first series in the second contests ; medium-sized schools may be allowed to use only two of the four debaters ; while large schools should use no debaters of the first debates in the second series. (The figures for this rule may be taken as follows : small, less than 500 ; medium, 500 to 1000 ; large, over 1000.) In case the number of schools in the league is an odd number, the last three schools may conduct a triangular debate. The rules should provide for hearing and acting on protests. Half the proceeds of each of the debates of the championship contest should go to the league treasury. If it is feasible, a pamphlet should be printed each fall, giving the constitution, by-laws, rules, names of schools belong- ing, names of delegates and officers, and a report of the league's activities and the standing of the schools for the previous year.
Scoring. Let us suppose that we have a debating league of eleven schools, and that these schools are matched in pairs for
346 APPENDIX I
simultaneous debates, except that three of them will hold a tri- angular debate in order that all the schools may be included.
The debate at each school is complete in itself, without refer- ence to the debate at any other school. Each of the three judges marks each debater, considering all his speeches throughout the debate, on a basis of loo per cent — 75 per cent for argument, and 25 per cent for delivery and diction. Each judge then adds the marks of the two debaters on each side, and divides between the two sides a total of five points for teamwork, making any division of the points he thinks best; as, for example, four points to one side and one point to the other. He then adds these points to the previously obtained sums, and the resulting figures stand as the final marks of that judge for the two schools. He may finally sub- tract the smaller score from the larger, and fill in a blank stating :
" The debate is awarded to the side, by a difference of
points."
Teachers, acting as tellers, should collect the reports of the judges and send the result (the number of decisions for each side) to the chairman of the meeting to be announced.
Various methods of determining the standing of schools in a league are discussed in section 4, below. The plan here proposed is based on the number of judges who award the debate to each school. Let us tabulate a possible outcome of a debating series, based on eleven debates, one at each school, all occurring at the same time.
In the tabulation opposite the scores are obtained as follows : School A won the decisions of four judges in all, winning one debate. We shall therefore credit School A with the number of judges' decisions won in its two debates, plus the number of debates won. Its score is therefore five points. School B has two judges and one debate ; its score is therefore three points. School C has four judges and two debates ; therefore its score is six points. The other scores are easily determined. The purpose of arbitrarily adding one point for each debate won is to avoid unfair
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 347
tie scores ; for example, schools A and C would be tied in the number of judges, but C has won two debates to but one by A.
In case any judge calls a debate a tie, half a point should go to each school. If the points for judges' decisions in any debate are tied (i^ for each school), the one point for winning the debate should likewise be divided, making the score two points for either school.
In case a debate is defaulted, the school defaulting receives no points, the other school eight points.
A PLAN FOR SCORING Number of Judges' Decisions won by Each School
|
At School A — A, 3 |
udges. |
At School B — B, 2 judges. |
|
B, 0; |
udges. |
A, I judge. |
|
At School C— C, 2 |
udges. |
At School D — D, I judge. |
|
D, I. |
udge. |
C, 2 judges. |
|
At School E E, 2 j |
udges. |
At School F — F, li judges. |
|
F, I J |
udge. |
E, 4 judges. |
|
At School G — G, 3 |
udges. |
At School H — H, I judge. |
|
H, 0 judges. |
G, 2 judges. |
|
|
At I — I, 3 judges. At J - |
— J, 0 judges. At K — K, 0 judges |
|
|
J, 0 judges. |
K, 3 judges. I, 3 judges. |
|
|
Scores |
Standing |
|
|
School A — 5 points. |
I. School I — 8 points. |
|
|
School B — 3 points. |
2. School G — 7 points. |
|
|
School C — 6 points. |
3. School C — 6 points. |
|
|
School D — 2 points. |
f School A — 5 points. \ School E — 5 points. |
|
|
School E — 5 points. |
||
|
School F — 3 points. |
6. School K — 4 points. |
|
|
School G — 7 points. |
^ J School F — 3 points. \ School _B — 3 points. |
|
|
School H — I point. |
||
|
School I — 8 points. |
9. School D — 2 points. |
|
|
School J — 0 points. |
10. School H — I point. |
|
|
School K — 4 pc |
)ints. |
1 1 . School J — 0 points. |
348 APPENDIX I
The purpose of asking each judge to use per cents in his rating of the speakers is that this method gives a better basis for detailed comparison of the four debaters. The judges are likely to do more careful work than if they are required merely to write the name of the winning side on a slip of paper. Furthermore, in case of a tie score, it is a satisfaction to examine the reports to ascertain the margins by which the different judges decided. But the fact that one judge awards the debate by a difference of twenty-five points while another sets the difference at five has little significance, and should not be used in determining the official standings. It is almost useless to compare the scores of two judges, because of the fact that there is no lower standard from which to proceed. It is impossible to say what kind of speech is worth o per cent, lo per cent, or 50 per cent. (It is difficult enough to estimate what is worth 100 per cent!) As a consequence of this difficulty, one judge will separate the best and the worst speakers by forty points, and another by ten.
Matching the Schools. The schools in the league may be matched by lot for the first series of debates each year. For the second series those schools which have the nearest scores are matched, beginning with the highest two. In the case of the eleven schools ranked above, schools A and E will draw lots, one of them debating with C and the other with K ; and schools D, H, and J may hold a triangular contest. Matching for a third series is accomplished by a similar plan, the scores of the year to date being added. If a championship debate is held, the highest two (or three) schools should be the contestants.
3. DEBATING WITHIN THE SCHOOL
A School Debating Society. Every school should have a debating society. It can become a great help in making students realize the importance and value of debating, and its members can constantly be on the lookout for new students to join the club. If it seems
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 349
best, active membership may be secured by participation in liie debating activities of the school. The society may vote on propo- sitions to be submitted or to be accepted, select the judges for the trials, select the student delegate to the debating league, appoint committees of arrangement and of entertainment for the debates, hold social meetings, and act in such other matters as shall be acceptable to the teacher of debating. Its president acts as chair- man at the debates at the home school. He appoints the time- keepers, one to act at each school. The secretary may help with the correspondence.
Unless the w^ork of the school furnishes enough debating activity for all the members of the society, debates should be arranged to give the members training and development. For this purpose a committee may be given power to arrange so that every member shall take part in at least one debate each semester.
An Interclass Tournament. An interclass series of debates may be held during a short space of time if all the debates are on the same proposition. The proposition should be carefully selected ; it should be one of great interest, and if possible, one of large meaning, so that the hearers of the last debate will still be inter- ested in the subject.
The first duty is to select four representatives from each class. Let us suppose that all four classes are to compete. Trials may be held for each year separately. In arranging the dates, the lower classes may be given the benefit of coming last, so that they may hear the talks of the upper-class students. There is no need of excluding from the room where a trial is being held any except those students who are yet to speak at that particular meeting.
Let us consider a hypothetical arrangement for the trials. Sup- pose the tournament and the proposition are announced on Mon- day, October i. The senior speeches may be set for Monday, October 8, after school. Each senior student who wishes to try may prepare a four-minute talk on either side of the question.
350 APPENDIX I
Refutation statements may be required, as suggested earlier. The junior trial may be held on the next day, Tuesday, the 9th, that for the sophomores on Wednesday, and that for the freshmen on Thursday. Sides are arranged as explained in connection with the interschool debate.
The first debate may be held on or about Monday, October 29, between the senior affirmative team and the junior negative. Se- lection of judges is to be made by the debaters ; the scoring should be done as directed above under the heading, Scoring; and the time limit for the speeches should be determined by the average ability of the school's speakers and the amount of time available. On Tuesday, the 30th, may be held the debate between the junior affirmative team and the senior negative. On Thursday, the 31st, the sophomore affirmative team meets the freshman negative ; and on Friday, November i, the freshman affirmative team meets the sophomore negative.
The four preliminary debates have now been provided for, and the addition of the scores will show that one of the two lower classes has won over the other, and that one of the upper classes has likewise won over the opposing class. Tet us say that the fresh- man and junior years are the winners. Next, then, two final debates must be held. On Tuesday, November 5, the junior affirmative team may debate the freshman negative ; and on Thursday, the 7th, the freshman affirmative team may meet the junior negative. Perhaps these final debates may be held before the whole school, or before the interested classes. The winning class may hold an exhibition debate, its affirmative team against its negative team.
If there are three, five, six, or eight classes entered in the tour- nament, instead of four, it will be necessary merely to eliminate one class after another to find the best class.
If the losing teams will only continue their interest, they can hold some excellent debates against other classes, or among them- selves, and so obtain a large amount of practice.
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 351
A Class in Debating. A school which hopes to develop good debaters should have a class in argumentation meeting three, four, or five times a week, for at least a semester. Almost any school will organize such a class if enough students ask for it.
During half or two thirds of the course, three days a week (per- haps Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays) should be devoted to study, recitations, and explanations on the principles of argument and debating, and to exercises on particular phases of the subject. During the latter part of the term these three days may be used in practicing and delivering arguments and in holding debates.
On Fridays the class may hold a debate on a proposition previ- ously selected. The class may divide into two sides, and the debate may be conducted according to the plan proposed on page 270. If any students find difficulty in deciding which side of the proposi- tion to uphold, let them hear the first few talks on the subject be- fore deciding. If it seems desirable, the students on each side may choose a leader to determine the order of speaking. The teacher may act as chairman, and may note down on slips of paper suggestions for improvement to give to individual students. The teacher may leave till Mondays his general criticisms of the debates.
Mondays may be used in holding informal discussions on topics of current interest. The subject should be known at least a few days ahead, and everybody should come prepared to speak on it.
If a second semester of argumentation is given, the principles of argumentation may be reviewed in the light of experience gained, and formal discussions and debates may be held.
4. OTHER PLANS FOR DEBATING
Following the order of topics used above, we shall now consider some variations in the arranging and conducting of debates.
Triangular Debate, 'i'hree schools, instead of two, may hold simultaneous debates. Each school keeps its affirmative team at home. School A sends its negative team to School B ; School B's
352 APPENDIX I
goes to School C ; and School C's goes to School A. The direc- tion of traveling of the negative teams, unless there is a different agreement, may be from left to right.
The proposition may be selected at a conference of representa- tives of the three schools. If such a conference is impracticable, either of two other plans may be used. Schools A and B may each send a proposition to School C, and School C may select one of them, and notify the other tv^^o schools. Or each of the three schools may mail to the other two schools two propositions ; and each school, using the six different propositions so collected, may vote its first, second, and third preferences, and send this vote to the other schools. Counting five points for a first choice by any school, three points for a second choice, and one point for a third choice, the proposition receiving the highest score is chosen for the triangular debate.
All other arrangements may be the same as those outlined above for a double debate.
Single Debate. The proposition for a single debate must be selected by one school and the sides chosen by the other. The proposition must be so evenly balanced that neither school will be at a disadvantage. This is difficult in view of the fact that events may happen to upset the balance. Arrangements, scoring, etc. may be the same as for a simultaneous debate.
Sides chosen before the Audience. The two schools concerned may agree on the proposition, and all debaters prepare to speak on either side of the question. Ten minutes before the debate is to begin (this time may be longer if desired), lots are drawn to determine the sides. This plan may be used for a simultaneous debate, by having the drawing at one of the schools and telephon- ing the result to the other, at which the debate is conducted with the sides of the two schools reversed.
Proposition selected shortly before the Debate. The general topic of the debate, such as Mexico, Tariff, Poverty, etc., is
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 353
selected from sLx to ten weeks before the time of the debate. Some person connected with neither school is asked to formulate a proposition, and to send it in one, two, or three sealed enve- lopes, according as the debate is single, double, or triangular. The envelope is opened at each school at the agreed time, all debaters having the same amount of time to prepare outlines and otherwise make ready for the debate. The sides may be drawn, or the home teams may take the affirmative if the debate is simultaneous.
Three Speakers on Each Side. The strongest debater of a three- man team should come first on the affirmative side, and the next best last. The best negative should be last, and the next best first. If each debater appears twice, the plan may be as follows. The first six speeches are limited to ten minutes each. After the third negative speech in the first round of speeches, the rebuttal speeches begin with the first negative, followed by the second affirmative speaker, then the others in this order — second negative, third affirmative, third negative, first affirmative. This arrangement brings two negative speeches together, but it brings the affirm- ative side last, and it cuts down the whole number of speeches from thirteen to twelve. The rebuttal speeches may be limited to five minutes each.
No Special Rebuttal Speeches. The first speaker may be given fifteen minutes, each of the others eighteen, and the first affirmative five minutes for rebuttal.
Time Division Optional. Each speaker may be allowed a total of eighteen minutes for his two speeches. Not more than ten minutes should be allowed for the rebuttal speech. Regardless of the time used in the first two speeches, the first affirmative should be allowed four minutes for final rebuttal.
No Decision. The interesting debates held in classes, in which no decisions are rendered, show that judges are not a necessary part of the equipment of a debate. The best of debates can be held without any decision, the debate being over when the debaters
354 APPENDIX I
have finished. If it is desired, persons in the audience may be allowed to speak on the question after the debate is over, or to ask questions of the debaters.
Trials to select Debaters. Ability to think quickly and to adapt the argument to the exigencies of the occasion may be developed by requiring the candidates for the debate to study a general topic, and by giving them a definite proposition just before their speeches. This proposition should be closely related to the propo- sition for the debate. Each speaker should be allowed to choose either the affirmative or the negative side. Another method is to put the candidates into actual contests on the subject for the debate. In groups of four, they may be required to carry out complete debates, with the speeches half as long as they are to be in the interschool debate.
Other Methods of Scoring. Some leagues allow 60 per cent for argument, and 40 per cent for delivery and diction ; others make the division 90 per cent and 10 per cent. Even if judges are told to mark on argument entirely, fluent speaking would make the argument seem better. It is difficult to separate the matter from the style. Perhaps the only good way is for each judge to take notes on the argument of each side, and to compare these notes before making his decision.
The following is a different method for tallying the judges' reports. Beginning with the method of scoring explained above, follow that plan through the rule where each judge adds the points for teamwork and thus obtains the final marks for the affirmative and for the negative. Let the teller take each report in this form. He then compares the four marks given the individual speakers, and adds enough points to the highest of these marks to make the record of that debater read 100 per cent. The marks of the other three debaters are then raised by the same amount. (This raises the marks given by the three judges to a common standard.) The teller next adds these revised marks on each judge's report for the affirmative and for the negative, and adds the credits for teamwork as indicated by the judge. Next these scores given by the three judges are added together for the affirmative and
ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 355
for the negative. Each score is now divided by three, to obtain the average. This may stand as the final score of the debate. In case the marks of one judge outweigh those of the other two, enough points should be added to the score of the side winning the decision of two judges to cause that side to win by one point.
Sometimes ten points are added to the side winning the decision of two judges ; this insures matching of winning teams for the next series of debates. In case of defaults the scores may be awarded by a system of averages. Some leagues disregard the report of a judge whose marks outweigh those of the other two judges, and make up the final scores from the reports of the two " good " judges.
The Debating League of California .has a plan of scoring which avoids marking individual debaters. The judges are each instructed to distribute between the two teams sixty points on argument, twenty points on delivery, ten points on teamwork, and ten points on composi- tion. The tellers add together the points given to the affirmative and negative respectively, and divide by three. A judge's report which outbalances the other two reports is thrown out. Five points are added to the score of the winning team.
In all the cases considered above the standings of the two schools for both of the simultaneous debates are obtained by adding the scores of the two teams belonging to each school.
Selecting Judges by Lot. The league members from each school may bring to the meeting before a debating series the names of five persons who are willing to serve as judges. All the names are put on slips and drawn by lot, five names by each school. If a school draws a name it proposed, that name is put back, as are those of persons who for any reason are not satis- factory to either of the two schools concerned. Objection may be raised on the ground of residence near one school, or of connec- tion with one of the schools in a way which might influence the judge. The first three persons whose names are so drawn and approved shall be asked to serve as judges at the school by which the names are drawn, and the other two shall be asked in case of refusals.
356 APPENDIX I
The Same Resolution for all the Schools. A system of prefer- ential voting, as explained above under Triangular Debate, may be used to select a proposition for all the schools of the league.
The Same Proposition for Successive Debates. If a league is composed of several schools situated near each other, a tourna- ment may be held on the same question. Simultaneous debates in eight schools, for example, may be held on one Friday ; on the following Friday the four winning schools may hold debates ; and on the third Friday final simultaneous debates may be held. The matching may be made by lot, and the propositions selected by preferential vote.
Individual Competitions. A debate is sometimes held for the sole purpose of finding the best speaker. The places may be assigned by lot. Each speaker should appear twice. Each judge should mark his first, second, and third choices, and the five-, three-, and one-point system may be used.
No Special Help by Teachers. The Debating League of Cali- fornia has a plan by which all the propositions to be used in each series of debates are selected some time ahead, and from this list a committee assigns the resolutions by lot to the various pairs of schools. This assignment is made not more than six weeks before the date of the series. The principals exchange the following statement : " After the schools were paired the contestants re- ceived no assistance in organization, correction of manuscript, or rehearsal from any paid coach, the faculty, or any member thereof." It is understood that this statement is not to prevent the holding of a practice debate not more than five days prior to the contest in the presence of the students and faculty of their own school, on which debate public criticism may be offered.
APPENDIX II
PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE
Many of the resolutions in this list will be found suitable for debate at almost any time and place. Many others will need rewording. A few will soon be out of date ; a few others are ahead of their time. Some are debatable propositions in one section of the country, but are one-sided in other sections. The " Recall of Judges," as a debatable question, traveled from West to East ; it is now hardly debatable in the West, and may before long cease to be debatable anywhere.
Some such propositions as the building of a new schoolhouse and public purchase of street-car lines may seem to be easier for the affirmative than for the negative until it is seen that the financial argument favors the negative.
Almost any topic may be narrowed if desired ; for example, " The private ownership of the street-car lines is detrimental to the interests of the people of this city."
To test whether or not any given proposition is really debatable, try to find the issues involved in the proposition and see if they are evenly balanced.
The propositions are divided into the following groups : A. Educational; B. National affairs; C. Local interests; D. Civics, economics, and sociology ; E. Science; F. Athletics; G. Humorous; H. Miscellaneous.
A. EDUCATIONAL
1. Algebra should be taught in the grammar school.
2. English grammar should be required in the high school.
3. Arithmetic should be required of all high-school pupils.
357
358 APPENDIX II
4. Studies in secondary schools should be completely elective.
5. The principles and progress of international brotherhood should be taught in all schools.
6. Esperanto should be taught in the public schools.
7. Public schools should teach trades.
8. Economics should be taught in the high schools.
9. Lessons in the fundamental principles of economics should be given in the grammar school.
10. The vaccination of pupils in the public schools should be compulsory.
11. The honor system of conducting examinations is practicable only in small schools.
12. The training of American boys in military tactics is against the best interests of the nation.
13. Self-government in school is a success.
14. Coeducation in the ■ grades should be abolished.
15. The giving of prizes for scholarship promotes the best interests of the students.
16. Home study should be required of pupils in the grade.
17. A college education is of greater advantage to a business man than the same amount of time spent in business experience.
18. A state university should be established in this part of the state.
19. The commercial course of school should be four years in
length.
20. school should have a swimming tank.
21. school should have a printing press.
22. Printing should be taught in the high schools.
23. Tennis courts should be provided by the Board of Education.
24. Athletic materials should be paid for by pupils using them.
25. High-school pupils should be furnished with free textbooks. . 26. Lunch rooms should be provided for schools.
27. Athletics are beneficial to a school's scholarship.
28. The Boy Scout movement should be managed by the schools.
29. Physiology, with special attention to the effects of intoxicants and narcotics on the system, should be taught in all the schools.
30. Military drill should be a part of every high-school course.
31. School savings banks should be established.
32. Dances on school premises should be prohibited.
PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 359
33. A broad course of study in the high school is preferable to vocational training.
34. Colleges should offer courses to fit men and women for public positions.
35. Vacation schools should be established.
36. Gymnasium work should be required of all students.
37. This school should have a band.
38. French [German, Italian, Spanish] is the most useful foreign language.
39. The study of Greek in the high school should be discontinued.
40. Student self-government is a better means by which to prepare pupils for citizenship than are the studies of history and civics.
41. Shakespeare's " Merchant of Venice " condemns the Christians more than it does the Jews.
42. Pupils who steal in school should be dealt with by the citj authorities.
43. Final examinations should be abolished.
44. Music lessons are as important as school studies.
45. The study of algebra is a waste of time for most girls.
46. A training in blind obedience is beneficial.
47. Schoolhouses in the city of should be built of fireproof
materials.
48. Secret societies in high schools should be prohibited.
49. Small high schools are preferable to large schools.
50. Small colleges are preferable to large colleges.
51. The work of students on the school paper should count toward their graduation.
52. The lists of the Simplified Spelling Board should be generally adopted in the United States.
63. Married women should be allowed to teach in the public schools.
54. Secret societies in the high school should be regulated rather, than prohibited.
55. One large building for a high school is preferable to several smaller ones.
56. Jim Hawkins, in " Treasure Island," was foolhardy rather than brave.
(Write propositions based on other books.)
36o APPENDIX II
B. NATIONAL AFFAIRS
1. The United States is justified in excluding Chinese laborers.
2. The United States government should own and operate all rail- roads doing an interstate business.
3. The United States government should own the telegraph lines within its boundaries.
4. The United States should gradually abandon the protective tariff.
5. Trade between the United States and Canada should be free.
6. Raw materials should be on the free list.
7. Sugar imported into the United States should be on the free list.
8. A high protective tariff helps to keep wages high.
9. The Philippine Islands should be given their independence within ten years.
10. Postage on letters should be reduced to one cent.
11. The president should be elected for a term of six years, and should not be eligible for reelection.
12. The national government should force the Southern states to allow the negro to vote.
13. Woman suffrage should be adopted by an amendment to the federal constitution.
14. The president should be elected by direct popular vote.
15. The judges of the Supreme Court should be subject to the recall.
16. To own territory in the tropics is disadvantageous to the United States.
17. The system of pensions fostered by the Republican party is wise and just.
18. The Democratic party is more worthy of support than the Republican party.
19. The interests of laboring classes require their allegiance to one national party.
20. The present policy of the government toward the American Indians is justifiable.
21 . The old battleships should be used for fortifications.
22. The Pacific coast should be better protected against attack.
23. The Panama Canal should be more strongly fortified.
24. It is for the best interests of the United States to maintain a large navy [army].
PROPOSITIONS "^FOR DEBATE 361
25. The United States should maintain fewer navy yards than at the present time.
26. The Progressives were justified in forming a new political party.
27. An easier method of amending the United States Constitution should be adopted.
28. Cuba should be annexed to the United States.
29. The United States should establish an old-age pension system.
30. The white citizens of the Southern states are justified in passing laws to maintain control of state governments.
31. Corporations should not be allowed to contribute to campaign funds.
32. The United States acted with justice in acquiring the canal zone.
C. LOCAL INTERESTS
1. The city should erect a new library building [city hall, fire house, schoolhouse, public baths, bridge, jail, power plant].
2. The land at the comer of and streets should be used
for a new playground [park].
3. The city should have a union station.
4. The river should be improved by .
5. The railway should be compelled to erect a new
station.
6. The railway should be compelled to pave its right of way.
7. Theaters in the city should be closed on Sunday.
8. Billboards should be abolished.
9. The city speed limit should be fixed at ten [fifteen] miles an hour.
10. No automobiles should be allowed to stand on the main streets (name them) more than half an hour at a time.
11. Vehicles should be required to pass the center of the cross street before making a turn to the left.
12. Owners of vacant lots should be required to keep them clear of weeds.
13. The height of buildings for this city should be fixed at 200 feet.
14. Five-cent theaters should be closed.
15. Saloons should be closed on Sundays.
16. City firemen should not be on duty more than twelve hours per day.
17. City employees should have a weekly half-holiday.
362 APPENDIX II
18. Bonds for city improvements should be written in small denomi- nations and sold directly to the public.
19. The city streets should be sprinkled every other day.
20. Smoking on street cars should be prohibited.
21. All trolley wires should be put underground.
22. Laws should be made to suppress unnecessary noises.
23. This city should provide better fire protection. (For example?)
24. Garbage should be collected more often. (How often ?)
25. Laws should be passed to abate the smoke nuisance.
26. Citizens should not be allowed to keep pigs inside the city limits.
27. Laws restricting the keeping of chickens [horses, cows, pigeons, dogs, etc.] should be passed.
28. No billiard halls should be allowed in this city.
29. The number of policemen should be increased. (By how many ?)
30. Slaughterhouses should not be allowed inside the city limits.
31. All brickyards should be removed from the city.
32. Buildings should be forced to provide more fire escapes than are at present required.
33. street should be paved.
34. Improving streets by means of oil and rock is the best method.
35. The city should adopt motor-driven fire apparatus.
36. The electricity [gas, water] generated by the city's plant should be sold to surrounding towns.
37. The present rate for electricity [gas, water, street-car fare] should be lowered.
38. Bonds should be voted by the state for the construction of an extensive system of good roads.
39. The city should annex the town of .
40. Baseball should be prohibited [allowed] on Sunday in the play- grounds of the city.
41. The Board of Education should have offices in the city hall.
42. The city should build and maintain a public swimming place [theater, dance hall].
43. The city should maintain public markets [ice plant, laundry].
44. The city should buy out the gas [water, electric, street-railway] company.
45. The city should own and operate a municipal ferry [docks, warehouses].
PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 363
46. The city should build a paved boulevard along the harbor [river, lake] front.
47. The city should build a subway [elevated railway].
48. A canal should be built from the river [lake, harbor] to street.
49. The pay-as-you-leave street cars should be adopted.
50. The street-car companies should be required to give every passenger a seat.
51. Street-car fares should be reduced to three cents [three cents for those required to stand].
52. Street-car companies should not be allowed to have the terminus of any route in the business district.
53. More cars should be placed on the line.
54. The street-railway company should extend the time [age] limit on all car books for students.
55. A cross-town street-car line should be built.
56. The city should receive a percentage of the profits of the street- railway [gas, water, electric, etc.] company.
57. A curfew ordinance should be passed.
58. The city should build and rent model tenements.
59. Boxing contests should be prohibited.
60. All franchises for public utilities should be limited to 21 years.
61. The indeterminate franchise plan should be adopted by the city.
62. This city should be fortified.
63. The street-car fare to should be reduced.
64. The rotary system of street traffic should be adopted at the corner of .
65. The city should establish a municipal newspaper.
66. Jitney lines are a benefit to the city.
D. CIVICS, ECONOMICS, SOCIOLOGY
1. Labor organizations promote the best interests of the workingman.
2. Labor organizations are a menace to industrial peace.
3. Government employees should be allowed to organize and strike.
4. Strikes are a benefit to the workingman.
5. A state board should be created to arbitrate labor disputes.
6. The city government should provide work for the unemployed.
364 APPENDIX II
7. The English system of government is more democratic than the American system.
8. Postmasters should be elected by the people.
9. A small property qualification for the exercise of suffrage would be desirable.
10. States should provide a penalty for persons who continually fail to vote.
11. Organized labor should take no part in politics.
12. Capital punishment should be abolished in this state.
13. The open shop is more desirable than the closed shop.
14. The poll tax should be abolished.
15. The right of suffrage should be granted only after an educational test.
16. The federal government should regulate marriage and divorce.
17. Organized labor should form a political party for municipal elections.
18. Nomination by petition has been a success in state [city] elections.
19. Provision should be made for voting by mail.
20. All lobbyists at the state legislature should be required to regis- ter their purpose and source of support.
21. Socialism offers the only practicable solution of our economic difficulties.
22. Newspapers should not be allowed to print details of crime.
23. A representative should vote as his conscience dictates, rather than as his constituents desire.
24. The commission form of government is adapted to the needs of the smaller American cities.
25. War has caused more harm to the world than drink. •
26. High license is preferable to prohibition as a means of control- ling the liquor traffic.
27. The eight-hour working day should be adopted throughout the United States.
28. The principle of excess condemnation should be adopted by the state.
29. Proportional representation should be adopted by American cities.
30. Preferential voting is better than the double-election system.
31. A higher rate of taxation should be put on land than on other property.
PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 365
32. Church property should be exempt from taxation.
33. The amount of property that may be inherited should be limited by law.
34. Pensions for mothers should be adopted by the state legislature.
35. Drink is the cause of poverty.
36. Poverty is the cause of drink.
37. The fundamental interests of capital and of labor are the same.
38. The publicity of the juvenile court destroys its good effect.
39. The city-manager plan is preferable to the commission form of government.
40. The purpose of prisons is best served by making the inmates comfortable rather than uncomfortable.
41. This city should have the right to use vacant lots for the pur- pose of giving work to the unemployed.
42. The laboring class would gain more by united industrial action than by united political action.
43. The organization known as the Industrial Workers of the World is a benefit to American workingmen.
44. The right to vote is of more value to the American workingman
than the right to strike.
E. SCIENCE
1. Polar expeditions are a useless waste of lives and money.
2. The United States government should adopt the metric system.
3. The use of tobacco by minors should be prohibited by law.
4. The government is justified in restricting amateur wireless operators.
5. The dirigible is more practicable than the aeroplane.
6. All cities should be required to dispose of their sewage within their own city limits.
7. A vegetarian diet is better than one containing meat.
8. Mars is inhabited.
9. Niagara Falls should be used for commercial purposes.
10. The locomotive with the cab in the front is better than the present pattern.
11. The monorail system is practicable.
12. Cooking by electricity is preferable to cooking by gas.
13. Oleomargarine is a good substitute for butter.
14. American railways should be operated by electricity.
366 APPENDIX II
F. ATHLETICS
1. Interscholastic athletics promote the best interests of schools.
2. Playing for money should debar an athlete from school games.
3. Rugby football is a better game than American intercollegiate football.
4. Boxing should be introduced as a high-school sport.
5. College football is detrimental to the best interests of the insti- tution.
6. The competition afforded in athletic contests is a good prepara- tion for life.
7. Adequate facilities for the teaching of athletics in high schools should be provided by public funds.
8. Field events are better for the contestants than races.
9. The hammer throw should be abolished.
10. The mental training furnished by baseball is superior to that given by any of the regular studies.
11. The two-mile race should have no place in high-school athletics.
12. The high jump is the most scientific of the field events.
G. HUMOROUS
1. The pin is more useful than the match.
2. The horse is of more benefit to humanity than the cow.
3. The earth is flat.
4. Tipping should be abolished.
5. All squashes growing on a vine belong to the owner of the vine, even if parts of the vine grow through a fence onto a neighbor's land.
6. Success in life is measured by financial standing.
7. The moon is made of green cheese.
8. Buttermilk rather than grape juice should be adopted as the national drink.
9. An irresistible force would be stopped by an immovable body.
10. The world is getting laetter.
11. School pupils should be required to wear uniforms.
12. The city should be torn down and rebuilt.
13. Bricks are more useful than nails.
14. A perpetual-motion machine is a scientific reality.
15. Housewives should be limited to an eight-hour day.
PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 367
16. The discovery of the peanut has been more beneficial to humanity than the discovery of America.
17. Pawnbrokers should be abolished.
18. Mistakes in spelling should be punishable by fine and imprisonment.
19. The potato is more ornamental than the tomato.
20. A has-been is more useful to society than a never-will-be.
21. The necktie is a useless ornament.
22. Brutus was justified in killing Caesar.
23. The ladybug is more useful than the spider.
24. The seniors of the school should control the other classes.
25. Newsboys should be granted pensions.
26. It takes more braver)' to be bad than to be good.
27. Practical ideals are better than daydreams.
28. Christmas giving should be discouraged.
29. The United States should annex Europe.
H. MISCELLANEOUS
1. The Russian revolutionists are entitled to the help of Americans.
2. The ■ automobile is the best for the price.
3. The aeroplane is more important in war than the submarine.
4. A boulevard should be built from this city to .
5. Country boys should stay in the country.
6. Stone curbs are better than those of cement.
7. Raffles should be prohibited by law.
8. The use of dice should be prohibited.
9. Courtesy is necessary for success in business.
10. Preparation for war is a guaranty of peace.
11. Julius Caesar was one of Rome's greatest men.
12. The location of the city of is a favorable one.
13. The Athenians were justified in putting Socrates to death.
14. The use of cards leads to gambling.
15. The United States should dominate the Pacific.
16. Internal enemies are more dangerous to the welfare of our country than external enemies.
17. The United States will in time control all of North America.
18. The harbors of the state should be under state control.
368 APPENDIX II
19. The use of fireworks should be prohibited.
20. American newspapers are unreliable.
21. Loyalty to one's friends is of greater importance than loyalty to one's school.
22. Loyalty to one's country is of greater importance than loyalty to humanity at large.
23. Hard work is necessary for the proper development of character.
APPENDIX III
PLAN FOR A MOCK TRIAL
Court procedure should not be followed too closely. The direc- tions given here apply to criminal cases ; if a civil case is chosen, change " district attorney " to " attorney for the plaintiff," and let one of the witnesses be the plaintiff." Avoid murder trials, divorce suits, etc., as being too serious to mock. A humorous charge is better. Since the testimony in a mock trial is often invented, it is better to alternate the witnesses, one for the prosecution and then one for the defense. If the defense begins after the prosecution has finished, it is too easy for the defense to win. If the trial can be finished at one sitting, or if it is based on a real event, the usual order may be followed. The total time needed for a simple mock trial is from two to five hours. It may be shortened by leaving out some of the steps.
CHOICE OF OFFICERS
A district attorney and a defendant must be chosen by the class, but the latter chooses his own attorney. Each attorney selects an assistant, or counselor. The class elects the judge, a clerk, and if desired, a bailiff.
PRELIMINARY PLANS
1 . Charge and Answer. The district attorney writes the charge and gives it to the clerk. The attorney for the defense then prepares and gives to the clerk an answer to the charge. See examples below.
2. Witnesses. The lawyers may select witnesses, four or five for each side, choosing alternately. Lawyers of each side then meet with
369
370 APPENDIX III
their respective witnesses, and discuss with them the parts they are to take and the testimony they are to offer.^
3. Jury. The judge may decide the case if the lawyers agree to have it so, or the lawyers or judge may select any convenient number of persons for a jury. Or, if time permits, a jury may be chosen by panel and examinations.
4. Lawyers and Judge. The teacher may instruct the lawyers how to ask questions, and the judge how to rule on objections. Two classes of questions are barred : those having nothing to do with the case, and those which lead to an answer obviously suggested by the question. Hearsay evidence is not admitted. A lav\7er may rise and object to the question of an opposing lawyer, and the judge sustains or overrules the objection. The judge may hear reasons for and against the question before he decides.
5. Arrangement. The judge sits at a desk in front, facing the audi- ence, the lawyers are at tables at sides of the room, the prosecution and the defense facing each other. The witness stand is next to the judge. The clerk and jury occupy front seats. The defendant is with his lawyers. If there are plenty of chairs and space enough at the front, the jury may be placed in one of the front corners of the room. If only one desk or table is available, let the judge sit at it, and the lawyers occupy front seats at either side of the room, with the jury in the middle seats.
PROGRESS OF THE TRIAL
1. Opening. The bailiff or the clerk calls the court to order. The judge reads the charge and calls upon the defendant to plead. The defendant pleads not guilty.
2. Evidence. The first witness for the prosecution is called and sworn in by the clerk. The prosecution examines the witness, bringing out by a series of questions the facts proving the guilt of the defendant, together with his motive in the act. Defense cross-examines the witness
1 As an observant student puts it : " In order to be a good witness a person must listen to what is being said by the other witnesses and make the story hang together, telling only what will agree with what the others on his side have^told. He must take time in thinking what he is going to say."
MOCK TRIAL 37 1
to see if he tells a consistent storjf. Next, the first witness for the de- fense is called and sworn. The defense examines him and the prose- cution cross-examines. The lawyers ask questions enough to make all necessary facts perfectly clear. The judge may question witnesses ; and so may the jurors, with the judge's permission. The lawyers protect their witnesses from unfair or irrelevant questions. Witnesses are called alternately by the two sides, until all have given their testimony ; they may be recalled by either side with the consent of the judge. The clerk or reporters keep a memorandum of the evidence presented. The clerk keeps all papers and exhibits.
3 . Argument. The lawyers argue or " plead " the case, each trying to show the jury or the judge how the evidence presented proves his side of the case. Speakers alternate, as in a debate, the prosecution opening and closing. The time for each speech is as agreed upon. There may be two rounds of speeches if desired.
4, Closing. The judge charges the jury. They stand while he tells them about the law involved and charges them to do their duty and decide the case according to the law and the evidence. The jury retires, elects a foreman, and decides the case. A two-thirds vote may decide. The jury returns and the foreman gives the verdict. The jury may make a recommendation to the judge. If the defendant is found guilty, he is sentenced by the judge ; if he is found not guilty, he is discharged.
EXAMPLES AND FORMS
1. Criminal Cases. Stealing, assault, resisting an officer, smuggling, kidnapping, disturbing the peace, vagrancy, careless driving (see also Appendix II, section G, nos. 5, 15, 17, 18, 22).
2. Civil Cases. Damages for injuries, libel, breach of contract, injury to or by cattle, damaged fences.
3. Charge. "The people of the State of California hereby charge one John J. Wills with cruelty to animals, in that he did on the 24th day of February, 1914, at about 3.15 p.m., willfully and cruelly injure a dog, said dog being at the time in the front yard of its owner, Mrs. L. A. Derby, residing at 2453 West Rowland St. in the city of Los Angeles, State of California."
4. Answer. " Defendant John J. Wills herewith respectfully answers the charge of the people of the State of California, and admits having
372 APPENDIX III
injured the dog at the time and place named ; but claims that said dog was a vicious and dangerous dog, that defendant had a legitimate reason for being upon the said premises, that the said dog made an attack upon the defendant, and that the defendant acted in self-defense."
5. Outline of Case for Prosecution. "The defendant has a violent temper ; the defendant had no right upon Mrs. Derby's premises ; the defendant attacked the dog without provocation; the dog is harmless."
6. Outline for Defense. " The dog is unsafe ; defendant was attempt- ing to read the gas meter ; defendant tried to escape ; the injury was necessary and unavoidable ; the injury was not cruel or serious."
7. Possible Answers for Defense. No motive for the crime; charac- ter and reputation good ; legitimate explanation of the alleged circum- stances. (Alibi and mistaken identity should not be used in a mock trial, because the two sides merely present two totally different cases, and the trial loses interest.)
8. Illegal Questions to a Witness. "Are you a church member?" " The dog bit you, did he not ? "
9. Objection. "Your honor, we object to the question on the ground that it is incompetent, irrevelant, and immaterial," or " that it is a lead- ing question," or " that it has nothing to do with this case."
10. Answer to Objection. "Your honor, we ask this question in order to find out if this witness has a good character and reputation."
11. Motions. "Your honor, we move [or "we ask"] that the case be continued [postponed] two days," "that the testimony of this witness be ruled out," " that a recess of ten minutes be granted." The judge decides.
12. Judge's Rulings. " The court sustains the objection," " The ob- jection is overruled," " The motion is granted [allowed]," " The motion is denied."
13. Clerk's Oaths. " Do you solemnly swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth ? " " that you will tell a consist- ent story .'^" "that you will act your part to the best of your ability.^" " that you will do your best.? " or, if fun is appropriate, " that you will tell the truth, the whole truth, and everything but the truth ? " that you have never been late to school 1 " " that you have never told a lie ? " etc.
14. Discipline by Judge. " I hereby judge you guilty of contempt of
court, and suspend you from taking part in the trial for minutes."
Lawyers may be disbarred from the case for repeated offenses.
APPENDIX IV
PLAN FOR A NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTION
Each student represents a state, and should have papers showing him to be the legal delegate for that state. Disputes are settled by the committee on credentials.
A state or local convention may be planned with the help of teachers or parents. Each student should represent a particular city, district, county, or society.
THE OPENING
1. Registration of delegates.
2. Call to order by chairman of national committee.
3. Report of chairman, with temporary roll call.
4. Election of temporary chairman.
5. Appointment of temporary clerk.
6. Appointment of preliminary committees : credentials, organi- zation, rules.
7. Recess; committee meetings.
8. Reports of preliminary committees : permanent roll call, offices, rules.
MAIN BUSINESS
1. Election of chairman and clerk.
2. Appointment of committees : platform, notification (two).
3. Nomination for nominee for president of the United States.
4. Balloting for and election of nominee for president.
5. Nominations for nominee for vice president of the United States.
6. Balloting for and election of nominee for vice president.
7. Report of committee on platform.
8. Debate upon and amendment of the planks of the platform ; adoption of platform.
373
374 APPENDIX IV
CLOSING
1. Election of campaign committee.
2. Election of chairman national committee.
3. Adjournment.
4. Notification of nominee for president ; address of acceptance.
5. Notification of nominee for vice president; address of acceptance.
APPENDIX V
LISTS OF TOPICS FOR REFERENCE
The following are suggestions for explanations, arguments, investigations, committee reports, and parliamentary motions:
Advertising
Agriculture
Algebra
American history'
Amusements
Analytic geometry
Architecture
Arithmetic
Art
Athletics
Auditorium
Automobiles
Baseball
Basement
Batting cage
Bells
Bicycles
Blackboards
Bookkeeping
Books
Botany
Boundaries
Boxing
Cafeteria
Calculus
SCHOOL AFFAIRS
Candy
Ceilings
Chalk
Chemistry
Civics
Civil engineering
Clocks
Closets
Clothes
College recommendations
Colleges
Commercial geography
Commercial law
Commercial work
Composition
Costume design
Costumes
Curtains
Dancing
Debating
Deportment
Desks
Detention
Detention room
Dogs
375
Domestic art
Domestic chemistry
Domestic science
Doors
Dramatics
Drawings
Dress
Dressmaking
Dues
Dust
Economics
Electricity
Elevator
English
Entertainments
Entrance requirements
Erasers
Ethics
Expression
Fence
Fencing
Fire department
Fire drill
Flies
Floor
376
APPENDIX V
Flowers
Football
Forge
Foundry
Fraternities
Freehand drawing
French
Furnace
Games
Gas
Gas engines
Geography
Geometry
German
Globes
Graduation
Grammar
Graphics
Grass
Greek
Grounds
Gymnasium
Halls
Handball
Harmony
Hatracks
Hats
Heating
High jump
High school
History
Home decoration
Home furnishing
Ice
Ice cream
Ink
Ink stains
Italian
Janitors
Journalism
Latin
Lawn
Lectures
Library
Locker rooms
Lockers
Lunches
Machinery
Machine shop
Manners
Manual training
Maps
Mechanical drawing
Mechanics
Millinery
Morals
Motor cycles
Moving pictures
Mud
Music
Neighbors
Night school
Noon hour
Notices
Office
Office practice
Oral English
Orchestra
Paint
Paper
Parliamentary law
Pattern making
Pencils
Penmanship
Physical training
Physics
Physiography
Physiology
Pictures
Plastering
Plumbing
Pottery
Principal
Promotions
Punishment
Pupils
Rainy days
Reading
Refuse
Roof
School limits
School paper
Science
Shop mathematics
Shops
Shot-put
Sidewalks
Skating
Smoking
Snow
Sn(.)wballing
Social affairs
Soils
Solid geometry
Spanish
Spelling
Sports
Stage
Stairs
Stenography
Stereopticon
Storm signals
Stoves
Strength of materials
Street cars
Streets
Student government
Studies
Study hour
Surveying
TOPICS FOR REFERENCE
377
Swimming
Teachers
Textbooks
Track Trash
Trees
I'rigonometry
Turning
I'ypewriters
Typewriting
Vacuum cleaning
Varnish
Ventilation
Vines
Volley ball
Walls
Waste paper
Wastebaskets
Water
Water polo
Windows
Wiring
Wood turning
Woodworking
Writing
Writing on desks
Writing on walls
Yard
Yard rules
Zoology
Amusements
Animals kept in city
Annexations
Aqueduct
Art gallery
Automobiles
Bathing beach
Baths
Bicycle riding
Billboards
Bonds
Boulevards
Boxing contests
Bridges
Building restrictions
Canals
Celebrations
Chamber of Commerce
Charities
City hall
City ownership
Coal yards
Curfew law
Dairy ranches
Dance halls
Defense of harbor
Dog licenses
CITY AFFAIRS
Drinking fountains
Elections
Electric lights
Electric power
Electric wires
Elevated railway
Engineering
Factory regulation
Fares
Ferries
Finances
Fire escapes
Fire limits
Fire prevention
Fire protection
Fireproof buildings
Flood waters
Fountains
Franchises
Gambling
Garages
Gas company
Gasoline
Good roads
Harbors
Ilay stores
High schools
Home for orphans
Homes for aged
Hospitals
Hours of labor
Ice
Lakes
Laws
Levees
Library
Licenses
Lighting
Lights for vehicles
Livery stables
Manufacturing
Markets
Milk
Motor cycles
Motor fire apparatus
Motor trucks
Moving pictures
Music
Newspapers
Noise
Parking automobiles
Parks
Peddlers
Penny arcades
378
APPENDIX V
Playgrounds
Police
Police court
Poultry
Prison farm
Prisons
Public markets
Races
Railway crossings
Railway signals
Railway to harbor
Railway tracks
Recreation
River
River bed
River front
Safety devices
Saloons
Sanitation
School bonds
Schools
Sewers
Sidewalks
Signboards
Signs
Single tax
Slaughterhouses
Smoke
Smoking on cars
Snow
Speed laws
Stables
Storm drains
Street cars
Street cleaning
Street improvements
Street lights
Street sprinkling
Street trees
Street-car extension
Street-car tracks
Subways
Summer camps
Surveys
Swimming
Tax on vehicles
Taxation
Taxes on business
Telephone rates
Telephone wires
Tenements
Theaters
Three-cent fares
Traffic rules
Transfers
Trees
Trolley wires
Tunnels
Union station
Vacant lots
Wages
Water supply
Weeds
Weights and measures
Wharves
Zoological gardens
Assessments
Bridges
Charities
Constables
Courthouse
Detention home
Elections
Engineering
Finances
COUNTY AFFAIRS
Franchises Grand jury Hospital Jails
Juvenile court Libraries Lighting Poor farm Prison farm
Recording
Roads
School tax
Schools
Sheriff
Speeding
Storm waters
Surveys
Taxes
Agriculture
Asylums
Capital punishment
Child labor
STATE AFFAIRS
Cigarettes Courts Divorce Dredging
Education Eggs Elections Engineering
TOPICS FOR REFERENCE
379
Finances
Fisheries
Forests
Gambling
Game
Harbors
Highways
HoHdays
Industrial accidents
Irrigation
Labor laws
Library
Liquor
Militia
Mothers' pensions
Prize fights
Racing
Railways
Recall
Reform schools
Rivers Schools Single tax Speed laws Suffrage Surveys Sweat shops Taxes Voting Women's wages
Agriculture
Alaska
Anarchists
Arbitration
Army
Banking
Battleships
Cabinet
Canada
Capitol
Census
Child labor
Chinese
Coastwise trade
Coinage
Congress
Conservation
Constitution
Consuls
Cotton
Courts
Crop reports
Crops
Cuba
Currency
Customs
Debt
NATIONAL AFFAIRS
Diplomatic relations
Direct elections
District of Columbia
Education
Federal steamships
Fisheries
Floods
Food laws
Forest fires
Forestry
Fortifications
Freight rates
Highways
Homestead laws
House of Representatives
Illiteracy
Immigration
Income tax
Indian affairs
Industrial accidents
Inheritance tax
Internal revenue
Interstate commerce
Inventions
Japanese
Labor
Lands
Lighthouses
Lumbering
Manufacturing
Merchant marine
Mexico
Mining laws
Mints
Mississippi
Money panics
Monroe Doctrine
National highway
Natural resources
Naturalization laws
Navy
Negro
Neutrality
Panama Canal
Parcel post
Parks
Patent medicines
Patents
Patronage
Pensions
Philippines
Political parties
Post offices
Postage rates
38o
APPENDIX V
Prohibition
Race question
Railway mail service
Railway regulation
Reclamation
Rivers
Seals
Senate
Shipping
Ship subsidies Socialism Soldiers' homes South America States' rights Strikes Sugar
Supreme Court Tariff
Telegraphs
Treasury
Treaties
Trusts
Unions
Wages
War
Weather Bureau
Wireless
Air craft
Armaments
Astronomy
Boy Scouts
Canals
China
Colonization
Derelicts
Epidemics
Esperanto
Expositions
Extradition laws
Fisheries
Hague Conference
Icebergs
WORLD AFFAIRS
Industrial relations
Japan
Longitude and time
Mexico
Military service
Modern ships
Monroe Doctrine
Navigation laws
Neutralization
North pole
Old-age pensions
Olympic games
Peace
Pirates
Quarantines
Radium Red Cross
Russia
Sabotage
Sailors' rights
Sanitation
Seals
Shipping laws
Standards
Submarine cables
Syndicalism
Trade routes
Turkey
War
Wireless
Abstract of title Act of God Amazon River Amortization Ant eater Arson Banks Barometer Black list Blotter
OTHER TOPICS
Booker T. Washington
Boycott
Bricks
Building materials
Burglary
Butter
Camera
Celluloid
Cement
Child welfare
Citizenship
Clearing house
Common carrier
Consumers' League
Contract
Copyright
Corporation
Cremation
Dartmouth College Case
Deed
TOPICS FOR REFERENCE
381
Diving bell
Divorce
Dred Scott
Eminent domain
Excess condemnation
Fly
Game of cricket
German Empire
Grafting trees
Grand opera
Habeas corpus
Habit
Helen Keller
High seas
Horticulture
Hull House
Hyde Park
Income tax
Ink
Insurance
Karl Marx
Ladybug
Lard
Laws
Log of a ship Luther
Mariner's compass Masons
Minimum wage Moonshiners Mormonism Mortgage Naturalization Newspapers Night riders Nile River Obsolescence Oleomargarine Original package Partnership Poverty
Preferential voting Printing press Proportional repre- sentation Pump
Pyramids
Railway systems
Real estate
Religious liberty
Rubber
Salvation Army
Scientific management
Seeds
Shoes
Short ballot
Socrates
Soils
Spectrum
Spider
Sports
SubpcEna
Thermometer
Tobacco
Trade-marks
Vocational guidance
Volcanoes
Weather forecasting
Windmill
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
1. Cities of the state.
2. Cities of the United States.
3. Foreign cities.
4. Countries.
5. Vocations.
6. Famous people.
7. Famous books.
8. Famous inventions.
9. Important events.
10. Great industries : their development ; their present status.
11. The best magazines or newspapers.
12. Some interesting books of to-day.
13. Needed reforms in social or political life.
14. How the city may be beautified.
382 APPENDIX V "
15. How our school or college may be improved.
16. How the school may prepare for life.
17. Inventions that should be made.
18. The customs of foreign peoples.
19. Significant topics in art, architecture, music, painting, commerce, agriculture, manufacture, travel, recreation.
20. Opinions and discussions upon ethical questions.
APPENDIX VI
REFERENCE TABLES
A. SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL ENGLISH RECITATIONS
This summary will aid the student in finding interesting topics : Narration : current events, stories, jokes, fables, experiences. Description : cities, parks, landscapes, natural wonders, pictures, animals, costumes, people, technical descriptions. Explanation :
1. How to make and how to do useful things : furniture, decora- tions, clothing, cooking, household helps, building, gardening, care of animals, farming.
2. Technical operations and articles : commercial methods and customs, scientific processes, electricity, automobiles, transportation, chemistr)^, photography, manufacture, shop work.
3. Civic affairs : laws, plans for improvement, reforms, politics.
4. Others : value of specific occupations, art, music, education, games, tricks, puzzles.
Argument :
1. Business: selling, advertising, soliciting, collecting bills.
2. Politics : parties, candidates, foreign relations, railroads, labor unions, socialism, suffrage, liquor, poverty.
3. Other arguments : school affairs, social questions, vocations. Special Talks : introduction, welcome, farewell, presentation,
acceptance, gratitude, toast, oration, eulogy, nomination, inaugura- tion, announcement, committee report.
Conversation : interviews, social conversations.
Dramatics : memorized or extempore plays, mock trials.
Reading : clippings, advertisements, poems, stories, speeches.
5^3
384 APPENDIX VI
B. PRECEDENCE OF PARLIAMENTARY MOTIONS
BRIEF LIST FOR BEGINNERS
Not Debatable f Adjourn.
and < Lay on the Table.
Not Amendable |^Stop Debate = Previous Question. 2/3
Debatable
and Amendable
Postpone to a Definite Time. Refer to a Committee. Amend. Main Motion.
Directions for Table B
1. When any motion in Table B is before the house (moved and stated but not yet voted upon), any other motion which is above it in the table may be regularly moved, and will tempo- rarily supplant the first motion.
2. Any motion which is below the motion before the house is out of order and may not be moved.
3. When the motion of higher rank is decided, the meeting proceeds to the consideration of the motion which was sup- planted, unless the vote already taken disposes of both.
Directions for Table C
1. Amend and Postpone Indefinitely are bracketed ; neither may supplant the other.
2. The six incidental motions are bracketed :
a. Any motion of the group may supersede any motion below the group.
b. The Objection to the Consideration of a Question may be applied only to a principal motion.
c. Any motion within the group, except the objection, may be applied to any other motion within the group.
d. Any incidental motion, except the objection, may be ap- plied to any other motion outside the group, whether such motion be above or below the group in the table.
3. In all other points Table C is used as is Table B.
REFERENCE TAl'.LES
3^5
C. PRECEDENCE OF PARLIAMENTARY MOTIONS
A— Time for Next Meeting.
Adjourn. A — Recess. D— A— "Question of Privilege" (treat as a principal motion). " Orders of the Day." NS f" Appeal." " Point of Order." NS
"Objection to the Consideration of a Ques- tion." NS — 2/3 Reading Papers. Withdrawal of a Motion. Suspension of Rules. 2/3 Lay on the Table.
Previous Question = Stop Debate. 2/3 D— A— Postpone to a Definite Time. D— A— Refer to a Committee.
D — A — [" Amend (change wording, substitute motion, divide ques- \ tion). D — [^ Postpone Indefinitely. D — A — Principal Motion (main motion, rescind, expunge, etc.).
|
KEY |
|
|
D = |
= debatable NS = no second is required |
|
A = |
= amendable Quotation marks (" ") = in order when |
|
another person has the floor |
|
|
2/3 = two-thirds vote necessary to carry |
|
|
See directions under Table B |
Chapter XIV deals with parliamentary law. Pages 304- 320 give the general classification of motions, illustrations in the use of Tables B and C, and brief directions for the use of each motion. Reconsider may be found dh ixi<;c 330.
386
APPENDIX VI
D. PRONUNCIATION KEY
• [This table is to be does not know how to
used by the student in marking words which he pronounce, as suggested on page 58.]
|
a bake (bak) |
1 |
time (tim) |
ou, ow |
town |
|
they (tha) |
ply (plT) |
out |
||
|
fail (fal) |
eye (!) life (llf) |
mount |
||
|
a cat |
g |
go |
||
|
sad |
i |
It |
get |
|
|
hat |
tin lid |
game (gam) |
||
|
a care (car) |
busy (bisi) |
J. g |
jet |
|
|
bear (bar) |
gern^ |
|||
|
there (thar) |
0 |
old |
angel |
|
|
their (thar) |
no |
|||
|
air (ar) |
blow (bio) |
k, € |
king cat |
|
|
a arm |
V 0 |
not |
cost |
|
|
far |
what (wh6t) |
|||
|
father |
was (wos) top |
s, 9 |
site (sit) city (9iti) |
|
|
a ask |
9ent |
|||
|
dance (dan9) |
u |
mule (mul) |
||
|
last (last) |
few (fu) tube (tub) |
z, s |
zinc his J. |
|
|
a all |
was (w6§) |
|||
|
walk (wak) |
u |
but |
||
|
nor (nar) |
tub |
sh |
shiit |
|
|
jaw |
son (siin) |
nation (nashiin) machine (mashen) |
||
|
e be |
U, 00 |
full |
sure (shoor) |
|
|
meat (met) |
foot (fut) |
|||
|
machine (mashen) |
put book (buk) |
th |
thin think |
|
|
e net |
pith |
|||
|
end |
00 |
food |
||
|
beg |
rule (rool) boot |
th |
they (tha) thine (thin) |
|
|
e term |
then |
|||
|
firm (ferm) |
oi |
oil |
smooth |
|
|
fern |
boy (boi) |
|||
|
urn (ern) |
toil |
|||
|
worm (werm) |
REFERENCE TABLES 387
E. STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARING AN EXERCISE IN
ORAL ENGLISH
1. Study the exercise to discover exactly what is required.
2. Select the particular subject which is to be used for the talk.
3. Review the text for the purpose of gaining a thorough understanding of the principles involved in the exercise.
4. Obtain the necessary experiences : thinking, observing, read- ing, experimenting, interviewing, discussing.
5. Study and classify the material which is to be used.
6. Prepare the outline : find the main topics ; complete the out- line ; prepare the cards which are to be used in giving the talk.
7. Practice the talk : repeat the talk just as it is to be given in class. Do not memorize.
8. Face the class with the desire to contribute something useful and interesting.
388
APPENDIX VI
F. A SCALE FOR MARKING ORAL ENGLISH RECITATIONS
DIRECTIONS
Mark an X in the appropriate column after each item which apphes to the particular speech being examined. Thus, if the talk is obviously a descrip- tion, and its treatment of details is fairly good, put an X in the column labeled " Fair," after the topic, "Details well handled." The marks maybe connected down the page, to show graphically the general quality of the talk. Scoring by percentages is not very reliable. If it is desired, however, the following plan may be used : Call excellent 9 points (or 90 per cent), good 8 points, fair 7 points, poor 6 points. Suppose a student gains three 9's, four 8's, six 7's, and two 6's, he would then have 27 + 32 + 42 + 12, or 1 13 points in all. Since he has been marked on 15 items, his average would be 75 per cent.
For all talks :
1. Value and interest of the subject selected . .
2. Value of the details selected for the talk .
3. Outline of the talk
4. Outline made clear to the hearers ....
5. Use of illustrations and other helps ....
6. Opening words — introduction
7. Closing words
8. Vocabulary — appropriate, correct, and varied
9. Fluency
10. Variety and emphasis in tone, pitch, and speed
11. Enthusiasm
1 2. Control of body, and gestures
13. Use of face and eyes
For unclassified talks :
14. Naturalness and adaptation to purpose .
15. General effectiveness
For explanations : 14. 15. Clearness
For arguments :
14. Evidence well handled
I 5. Effectiveness of reasoning ....
For narrations :
14. Details made interesting throughout
15. Plot or point well brought out . .
For descriptions :
14. Details well handled . .....
15. Vividness of effect
Knowledge of material
E G F P
X
X_
X
X
X
x^
x^ ~
x
X
X
X
X
X ~
X
X
INDEX
Accepting a report, 329
Additional talks and exercises, 195- 224; reading, 195; current topics, 201 ; discussions, 203; impromptu talks, 207 ; humorous stories and jokes, 209; interviews, 212; con- versations, 216; extempore plays, 220. Exercises: 199, 202, 206, 208, 211, 215, 218, 224
Adjourn, motion to, 307, 3S4, 3S5
Adopting a report, 329
Affirmative, first speaker of, 278; second speaker of, 282
After-dinner speech, 186
Aids, in explanations, reference books as, 11, 236; drawings as, II, 19, 21, 152; diagrams as, 11, 153, 241 ; gestures as, 18; use of objects as, 18, 19, 154; simple devices as, 20 ; in acquiring a vocabulary, 66 ; in description, 98; technical terms as, 155; maps as, 202 ; in collecting evidence, 237
Amend, motion to, 306, 316, 331,
384, 385 Analogy, 121 ; reasoning by, 247,
248 ; tests of, 249
Announcement speech, 176 ; prepa- ration for, 176; importance of detail in, 177
Appeal, in debate, 263 ; uses of, 264; by second negative, 283, 284; parliamentary, 309, 321, 385
Appearance of speaker, 44-56 ; be- fore speaking, 45 ; as to standing position, 45 ; as to hands and feet, 46 ; after speaking, 47 ; as to facial expression, 51; as to head, 52; as to use of eyes, 53. Exercises :
44, 47, 5'' 55 Argument, for beginners, 25-43 ; everyday, 25, 225; preliminaries
to, 25; definiteness in, 26; con- sideration in, 26 ; subjects for, 27, 31, 32; and explanation, 29; outline for, 30, 35-38 ; preparing for, 32-3S; practicing, 38, 39; gestures in, 48; abstract, 119; summary for, 132; use of stories in, 211. Exercises: 27,30,31,33, ■36, 38, 40, 42
Argument and debate, 225-288; nature of, 225 ; correct spirit in, 226; preliminaries for, 227; in- troduction and analysis of, 230, 257 ; building up of, 235; reason- ing in, 246; brief of, 254, 270; rebuttal in, 265 ; practice for speech of, 270; good will in, 274 ; teamwork in, 276-286. Ex- ercises : 229, 234, 243, 251, 259, 264, 269, 275, 286. See specific topics in Index
Arranging and conducting debates, 339-356; interschool, 339; in debating leagues, 344; within the school, 348; triangular, 351 ; single, 352 ; with sides chosen before the audience, 352 ; with proposition selected shortly be- fore the debate, 352 ; with three speakers on each side, 353 ; with- out special rebuttal, 353; with time division optional, 353 ; with no decision, 353 ; with same resolu- tion for all schools and for suc- cessive debates, 356
At large, 333
Body of explanatory talk, 145
Hrief, example of, 254 ; expansion
of, 256; analysis for, 257; order
of points in, 258; concliLsion of,
262 ; rebuttal in, 265 ; use of, in
389
390
INDEX
making speech, 270 ; teamwork in preparing, 277
Business, meetings, 291 ; order of, 302 ; introduction of, 321
Business talks, 102-113; need for, 102 ; appeal to interest and serv- ice in, 102; description or expla- nation in, 104 ; telling the advan- tages in, 105; showing the goods in, 105 ; emphasizing details in, 105; giving references in, 106; giving terms in, 107 ; definiteness in, 108; conclusion of, no; answer- ing questions in, in; choosing subjects for, n 2. Exercises: 104, 106, 109, III, 112, 113
By-laws, 297 ; sample, 300 ; amend- ing, 301
Call, for the orders of the day, 309, 321, 385; of the house, 333
Calling, for business, 335 ; for a second, 335 ; for debate, 335
Cards, sample note, 242 ; refuta- tion, 267 ; use in speech, 270 ; sample, 272; placing, for debate, 278 ; order of, for rebuttal, 284
Chairman, importance of, 296 ; tem- porary, 297 ; duties of, 322
Charts, use of, in debate, 242
Class, debating, 351
Climax, in narration, 86; in sen- tence, 118
Coherence, in outline, 126, 128, 149; in details, 129; in speech, 150
Commit, 333
Committees, need for and kinds of, 327; standing, 327; special, 327 ; report of, 328; of the whole, 331
Communications, 335
Conclusion, of explanation, 14, 17; of argument, 39 ; of narration, 88 ; of description, 97; of business talk, no; in form of summary, 132 ; broad and comprehensive, 133; illustrative sentences for, 133, 134; importance of, 134; of explanation, 148; distinctness in, 170; of current topics, 201; make sure of, 28C ; of brief, 262
Consideration, objection to, 31 1 , 32 1, 385. See Courtesy
Constitution, of an organization, 297 ; sample, 298 ; amending, 299
Control, of hands, 46, 50; of facial expression, 51, 52; of thoughts and feelings, 52 ; of tone of voice, 292
Conversations, 216; in argument, 25
Courtesy, in interviews, 212 ; in argument, 26, 274; during debate, 284 ; in using time, 2S6 ; in use of parliamentary law, 290 ; in business meetings, 291 ; as fair play, 295
Credentials, 333
Critic, report of, 302, 303, 325 ; sample report of, 335
Criticism, of gestures, 49 ; teacher's, 303 ; of talks, 388
Debatable motions, 306, 384, 385 Debate, and simple argument, 25, 29; simple, 40; exercises on, 42; synonyms used in, 64; and formal discussion, 204; steps in prepara- tion for, 230; brief of, 254; team- work in, 276 ; motion to stop, 314, 384, 385; rules of, 322; interschool, 339. ^1?,? Argument Debating, leagues, 344 ; class, 351 Deduction, 247 ; tests of, 249 Definition, 136; by interpretation, 137 ; by distinguishing differ- ences, 137; of technical terms, 155; of oration, 189; in debating, 231, 239 ; in rebuttal, 266 ; of par- liamentary terms, 333 Democracy in parliamentary prac- tice, 290-296 Demonstrations, 18, 19, 154 Description, gi-ioi ; purpose of, 91 ; aid of senses in, 91 ; outline for, 92 ; point of view in, 93 ; central idea of, 94 ; order of parts of, 95 ; conclusion of, 97 ; helps in, 98 ; technical, 99 ; concrete character of, 119; as evidence, 226. Exercises : 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 100
INDEX
391
Diacritical marks, 5S. 386
Dictionar)-, use of, for pronunciation, 58 ; for spelling. 66 ; in prepara- tion for reading, 197
Dilemma. 266
Discussion, of current topics, 202 ; informal, 203 ; how conducted, 204; in parliamentary society, 295
Divide the question, 319, 385
Division, vote of, 331, 333
Drawing diagrams, 11, 19, 21, 152,
153' 241 Duties of officers, 321-327
Elections, 332
Equipment for doing and making, 6
Eulogy, 191
Evidence, 225; collecting, 235; sources of, 236-239 ; testing, 239 ; recording, 241, 242 ; arranging, 241 ; distinguished from reasoning, 246. Exercise: 243
Example, reasoning by, 247, 248 ; tests of, 249
Examples and illustrations, 118
Executive committee, 327
Executive session, 331
Ex-officio, 333
Explanation, 3-24, 136-162; every- day, 3 ; defined, 5 ; preparation for, 5-17; outline of, 6, 13; of process, 6; helps in, 11, 13, 18- 20; logical order of, 13 ; subjects for, 20, 22-24, i5<*^-i62, 375-382; abstract, 119; additional consider- ations in, 136-162 ; kinds of, 136; defining in, 136; analyzing in, 137; of reasons and purposes, 140; of processes and operations, 142 ; collecting the material for, 142; introduction of talk in, 143; out- line of, 145-149; as evidence, 226; in debate, 233. Exercises: 8, II, 15, 17. 20, 22, 138, 141, 143, 144, 147, 149, 151, 156-162
Expunge, 320, 385
Extempore plays, 220; evolved from interviews, 220; plot of, 221; preparation for, 223; pres- entation of, 224
Extempore practice, 64 ; of debate speech, 271
Extempore and impromptu speak- ing, 207
Eyes, use of, in speaking, 53
Farewell speech, 192
Filling blanks, 319, 331
Fix time for next meeting, 306, 385
Floor, obtaining the, 321, 322, 385
Fluency, 62-68
Forms, for evidence, 242 ; for de- bater's cards, 272 ; parliamentary, 335; for mock trial, 371
Forms of discourse, "]"]
Gestures, 48 ; in debate, 270
Grading talks, 388
Grammar, correction of, errors in,
72-76 Gregg's "Parliamentary Law," 291,
Helps. See Aids
Historian, 326
History in debate, 231, 279
How to make and how to do. See
Explanation Humor, in nomination speech, iSi ;
in toast, 186; in argument, 211 Humorous propositions for debate,
366 Humorous stories and jokes, 209
Imagination, use of, 122 Impromptu speech, 207 ; rapid thinking in, 207; in interviews, 2 1 5 Inauguration speech, 192 Indefinite postponement, 319, 385 Individual competition in debate,
356 _ Induction, reasoning by, 247, 250;
tests of, 249 Informal action, 291, 322, 331 Interclass debating tournament, 349 Interpretation, of passages, 137 ; of
questions in debate, 231, 279, 280,
343 Interschool debate, 339 ; the agree- ment, 339 ; preparation at each
392
INDEX
school, 341 ; immediate prepara- tion, 343 ; the contest, 343
Interviews, courtesy and directness in, 212 ; agreements made in, 214 ; teamwork in, 278
Introduction, of explanation, 14, 16, 143; of narration, 80 ; importance of, 131 ; of a speaker, 182 ; of cur- rent topics, 201 ; of one person to another, 217; of debate, 230, 233 ; given by first affirmative, 278; of business, 321
Introductory outline, 144
Issues, of debate question, 232, 257 ; restated, 262 ; divided between members of a team, 277 ; fair statement of, 279 ; acceptance of, 281
Jefferson's Manual, 289
Jokes, 209; point of, 210; kind to tell, 210; application of, 211
Judgment, of helps in explanations, 19 ; of speaker by appearance, 45 ; in use of gestures, 49 ; in use of slang, 70 ; of person careless in speech, 72 ; in giving terms in business talks, 107 ; in the use of pauses, 167 ; in forceful speaking, 174; in choice of current topics, 201 ; in debate refutation, 267, 284
Key, for use of motions, 306, 385; for pronunciation, 386
Lay on the table, 313, 384, 385
Leagues, debating, 344
Limit, of time in debate, 273 ; marked on cards, 285 ; fairness in observing, 286 ; of parliamen- tary debate, 330
Lists of topics for reference : school affairs, 375; city affairs, 377; county affairs, 378 ; state affairs, 378 ; national affairs, 379 ; world affairs, 380 ; other topics, 380 ; general suggestions, 381
Main motion, 320, 384, 385 Majority and plurality, 333
Marking talks, 388
Meeting and session, 333
Memoranda, of new words, 60 ; of material preserved, 143 ; of facts in brief, 256; for team mates, 278
Memorization to be avoided, 64, 66, 187, 190, 271, 387
Minority report, 329
Minutes, 302, 303, 325, 336; dis- pensing with, 338
Mock trial, 369-372 ; choice of offi- cers for, 369 ; preliminary plans for, 369 ; progress of, 370 ; ex- amples and forms of, 371
Motions, precedence of, 294, 384, 385 ; kind to make, 295 ; classi- fication of, 304 ; illustrations in use of, 304; pending, 305; direc- tions for use of, 306 ; withdrawal of, 312; tabled, 313; substitute, 318 ; principal or main, 320; spe- cial, 330; to reconsider, 330; re- newal of, 333
Narration, 77-90; subjects for, 79; planning, 80 ; introduction for, 80; point of view in, 81 ; details in, 82 ; kinds of, 83 ; without plot, 83 ; with plot, 86 ; climax in, 86 ; conclusion of, 88 ; concrete, 1 19 ; in humorous stories, 209 ; as evi- dence, 226. Exercises : 79, 84, 88
National political convention, 373
Negative, first speaker of, 280 ; second speaker of, 282
Nominating speech, 179, 332; ap- peal for votes in, 180; originality in, 181
Nominations, closing, 330, 332
Notes, taking, 13 ; may be dispensed with, 14, 16; use in a speech, 54, 55 ; in announcement speech, 177 ; in argument, 242, 270, 272 ; on opponent's speech, 280, 282 ; secretary's, 324
Notice for reconsideration, 321, 330
Objection to consideration, 31 1, 321,
385 Obtaining the floor, 321, 322
INDEX
393
Officers, rights and duties of, 321 ; chairman, 322 ; president, 323 ; vice president, 324 ; secretary, 324; critic, 325; treasurer, 326; sergeant at arms, 326 ; historian, 326 ; combinations of duties of, 326; special duties of, 327; re- ports of, 335-338 ; for mock trial,
369 Old business, 302, 303, 315 Opening words, of narration. So ; of business talks, 103. See Intro- duction Oration, 189; appeal in, 263 Order, of points, in description, 92, 128; in narration, 128; in expla- nation, 13, 128, 145 ; in argument, 34, 128, 258 ; rules of, 298, 300 ; of business, 300, 302, 303 ; point of, 310, 321,385; special, 313, 330 "Order, Rules of," Robert's, 291,
Orders of the day, 309, 31 5, 321. 3^5 Outline, for explanation, 6, 14; for simple argument, 30, 35, 36; for description. 92 ; unity and coher- ence in, 126, 128; introduction of, 131; conclusion of, 132; by cause and effect, 146; by prob- lem and solution, 146; making a clear, 149; for announcement speech, 177; for nominating speech, 179; for speech of in- troduction, 182; for presentation and response speech, 185; for oration, 190; for current topics, 201 ; for impromptu speech, 207; equivalent to finding issues, 232 ; equivalent to brief, 254, 2 58; for refutation, 267 ; of opponent's speech, 280 ; for committee re- port, 328. See Brief
Parliamentary law, 289-338 ; gen- eral considerations of, 289-296; origin of, 289 ; need of in Oral English study, 289; value of, 290; when used, 291 ; how used, 292; precedence of motions in, 294 ; society for use of, 296; order of
business in, 302 ; precedence of questions in, 304 ; rights and duties of officers and members under, 32 1 ; committee work and reports under, 327 ; special points of, 330; special processes in, 331 ; technical terms in, 333 ; special forms of, 335. Exercises : 294. See specific topics in Index
Parliamentary society, 204 ; organi- zation of, 293, 296; name of, 293; programs of, 294 ; constitution and rules of, 297 ; order of busi- ness in, 302 ; rights and duties of members and officers in, 321 ; m'inutes of, 336
Pending, 305, 334
Place for next meeting, 307
Plays, extempore. See Extempore plays
Plot, in narration, 83, 86 ; climax in, 86; in extempore plays, 221
Plurality, 334
Point of order, 310, 321, 385
Point of view, in narration, 81 ; in description, 93
Position, of body, when speaking, 45; unsupported, 46; after the talk, 47 ; of head, 52 ; active in standing, 164
Postpone, to a definite time, 315, 384, 385; indefinitely, 319, 385
Practice, in explanations, 16; in arguments, 38 ; in control of feet and hands, 47; of gestures, 48; of extempore speaking, 64 ; for correcting grammar, 72; of ex- planatory talk, 149; of tongue and lips, 165; for range of tone, 172; of toasts, 1S8; for reading, 197 ; in impromptu speaking, 207; of interviews, 214; of de- bate speech, 270; for refutation, 285 ; of parliamentary motions, 294 ; parliamentary, 303
Precedence, of motions, 294; moan- ing of, 304 ; tables for, 384, 385
Presentation speech, 184
President, 323
Previous question, 314, 384, 385
394
INDEX
Principal or main motion, 320, 384,
385
Priority, 294, 334, 384, 385
Privilege, question of, 307, 321, 385
Privileged questions, 304
Program of meeting, 294, 302, 303
Pronunciation, of new words, 57 ; exercises in, 58, 59 ; key for, 386
Proposition, statement of, 227 ; analysis of, 230 ; issues of, 232 ; proof of, 235
Propositions for debate, 357 ; edu- cational, 357 ; national affairs, 360; local interests, 361; civics, economics, sociology, 363 ; sci- ence, 365 ; athletics, 366; humor- ous, 366; miscellaneous, 367
Prospective outline, 144, 270, 279,280
Pro tem, 334
Proverbs, concrete, 120; abstract, 121; exercises with, 124-126
I'roxy, 334
Punctuation in speaking, 167, 169, 172
Putting the motion, 321, 335
Question, the real, 231 ; issues of, 232; of privilege, 307, 321, 385; objection to the, 311, 321, 385; previous, 314, 384. 385
Questions, in argument, 26 ; in busi- ness talks. III; in interviews, 213; to be avoided, 228; inter- pretation of, 280 ; precedence of, 304, 384, 385; privileged, 304; incidental, 304 ; subsidiary, 304 ; principal, 304, 384, 385. See Motions, Propositions for debate
Quorum, 301, 334
Rally speech, 192
Reading, as aid to fluency, 66 ; in class, subjects for, 195 ; prepara- tion for, 196; at sight, 197; for a debate, 236 ; quotations, 274 ; teamwork in, 278; papers, 311, 385. Exercises: 199
Reasoning and evidence, 246; kinds of, 247 ; tests of, 249, 250 ; apply- ing, 250
Rebuttal, 265 ; notes for, 265 ; sum- mary of methods for, 268 ; placing of notes for, 278. See Refutation
Recess, motion for, 307, 385
Recitations, See Subjects, Program of meeting. Marking talks
Recognition by chairman, obtaining, and immediate, 306, 321, 322, 385
Reconsider, motion to, 330
Refer to a committee, 315, 384, 385
Reference, books, 11, 58, 66, 197, 236, 239 ; tables, 383 ; suggestions for Oral English recitations, 383 ; precedence of parliamentary mo- tions, 384, 385 ; pronunciation key, 386; steps in preparing an exercise, 387 ; scale for marking talks, 388
References, and quotations, use in debate, 274; topics for, 375; tables, 383
Refutation, 264 ; special methods, 266 ; outline for, 267 ; centering attack in, 267 ; cards for, 267 ; by first affirmative, 279; by first nega- tive, 281; speeches, 2S3. See Re- buttal
Renewal of a motion, 333
Report, committee, 328 ; minority, 329; disposal of, 329; critics, 302,
303.325' 335 Reports of officers, 302, 303. 325,
326, 335, 336 Repose, before speaking, 45 ; of
facial expression, 51 Rescind, motion to, 320, 331, 385 Resolutions, sample, 338 Response, 184 Reviewing, opposing case in debate,
262 ; one's own case, 263 Rights of members and officers,
321-327
Rise, motion to, 331
Robert's " Rules of Order," 291, 331
Roll call. 302, 303, 338
Rules, parliamentary, use of, 291 ; when dispensed with, 291 ; of parliamentarv society, 293 ; sub- mission to. 296; permanent, 297; of order, 298, 300 ; standing, 298,
INDEX
395
301 ; amendments to, 301 ; sus- pension of, 301, 312, 338, 385 ; of debate, 322 ; for debating, 339
Scale for marking recitations, 388
Scoring in debates, 345, 347, 354
Second speakers in debate, 282
Seconding a motion, 306. 321, 385
Secret meeting, 331
Secretary, 324, 336
Selection of debaters, 354 ; of judges, 42, 340, 355
Senses, aid of, in description, 91
Sentences, variety in, 116
Sergeant at arms, 295, 326
Session, executive, 331 ; and meet- ing- 333
Setting, for story, 80 ; in explana- tion, 145
Sign, argument by, 247, 24S; tests of, 249
Sine die, 334
Slang, 69-72
Speeches, forspecial occasions, 176- 194; announcement, 176; nom- ination, 179; introduction of a speaker, 182 ; presentation and response, 184; toast, 186; ora- tion, 189; eulogy, 191; farewell, 192; inauguration, 192; invitation, 192; rally, 192; valedictory, 192; welcome, 193. Exercises: 178, 181, 183, 1S5, 188, 191, 193
Standing committees, 327
Standing position, 45
Standing rules, 298 ; amending, 301 ; sample of, 301
Statement of question, 227
Stating motions, 306-320
Style in oral composition, 1 14-135 ; importance of, 114; awkward- ness in, 114; variety in sentence structure, 116; in length of sen- tence, 116; in form of sentence, 117; concrete examples and illus- trations, 118; figures of speech, 120; outline for unity and cohe- rence in, 126, 128, 130; used in debate, 270. Exercises: 116, 118, 122. 130, 135
Subjects, for explanations, 22, 15S; for narration, 79 ; for business talks, 112; for reading, 195; an- nouncing, 198; for discussions, 205; for debate, 227; analyzing, 230 ; for parliamentary class, 293, 295; for debates, 357-3^8; for recitations and motions, 375-382, 383. See Propositions for debate, Questions, Topics
Summary, in debate, 39, 262, 270, 279, 282, 283 ; in description, 97 ; in business talks, iio; in most talks, 132 ; and appeal, 263 ; of rebuttal methods, 268 ; on cards,
■ 270 ; prospective and retrospec- tive, 270
Suspension of rules, 301, 312, t^t^,
385 Synonyms, 63 ; for debating, 64 ;
exercises for, 68
Tables, use of, 294, 304 ; reference, 383-3^^8
Take from the table, 313
Teacher, place in parliamentary class, 292, 294 ; report of, 303 ; as judge for debates, 340, 342 ; as teller, 346; help of, in debate, 342, 356
Teamwork, in debate, 276; in read- ing, 278 ; in judging points to be refuted, 284; cooperation for, 285 ; benefits of, 286
Technical descriptions, 99
Technical parlimentary terms, 333
Technical terms defined, 136, 155
Tellers, 334, 346
Time for next meeting, 306, 385
Time limit for debate speeches, 41, 273, 276, 285, 286, 314, 330, 339,
353
'I'oast, 186
'I'oastmaster, 187
'I'ongue and lips, exercises for, 165, 166
Tfjpics, classifying, 126; expressed in sentences, 127; arrangement of, 129, 150; announcing, in reading, 198; current, 201; for
396
INDEX
conversations, 216 ; in briefs, 254. See Propositions for debate, Ques- tions, Subjects Treasurer, 326
Undebatable motions, 306, 384, 385 Unfinished business. See Old busi- ness Unity in outline, 126, 130
Valedictory speech, 192
Variety, of speaking, 64, 116, 117, 166; through speed, 167 ; through loudness, 169; through pitch of voice, 171; in reading, 199; in methods of refutation, 266
Vice president, 324
Vocabulary, improving, 57-76; in- creasing, 59 ; use for fluency, 62 ; synonyms for, 63 ; suited to audi- ence, 66 ; reading and writing as aids in acquiring, 66 ; use of books for, 67 ; slang, 69 ; correctness of grammar, 72 ; used in debate, 270. Exercises: 58, 61, 68, 71, 76
Voice, good use of, 163-175; ease in using, 163; importance of mental attitude, 163 ; control of breath in, 163; tongue and lips as aids to, 165; variety and em- phasis, 166; stress, 169; pitch, 171; enthusiasm and force, 173; in debate speech, 270. Exercises : 164, 165, 168, 170, 172, 174
Vote, two-thirds, 334; viva-voce, 335; taking a, 335
Voting, methods of, 331
Warrant, 33 5 Welcome, speech of, 193 Withdrawal of a motion, 312, 385 Words, defined, 57 ; pronunciation of, 57 ; adding new, 59 ; appro- priated, 60 ; for fluency, 63 ; expressive, 65 ; descriptive, 67 ; opening. So, 103, 131; appropri- ate, gS
Yeas and nays, voting by, 332
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
W1AY3 1 195^
OCT 2 2 1959
SEP 2 7 19tt
OCT 1 1 1962 OCT 1 9 mi
NOV 11 1963
DEC 2 1963
DEC 31963
APR 1 1 1984
Form L9-7m-7,'56 (C1107s4)444
UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
ml III |{ll|l||lll|l| |l|l|"'"||1'||'|l'll'|{
I 111 ml II! Illllllllilln lilHiMnlliliililiiii
AA 000 410 572 2
iiiii|i|Mi|iiii !i>|l>>iili||i>ii|i||
3 1158 00929 8505
\J
i:
■■.,,<s^
iXfLM.
i
«,tM..
■♦''#-!» 'IK
*'"-'^'*U&t
•» n:^
'^'n * j^:
i
|
*«• ? |
|
|
'.T |
* It 4 ^ |
|
r |
>A€o |
|
1^4. . |
^4
•-V'd
|
jR |
.rSij^^fl |
R |
|
|
1»« ■ ^p |
i |
^ 1 |
:»-.«
|
t.^iNia |
f^tNfu |
1. |
mm^ |
|
|
WM- |
||||
|
1 >4j ; ^OiJ*, |
:*^ |
IJ^^^v |
^S!iSrf^iuo@lflj |
|
|
^p ■.fj<\f%r |
<w>^i |
|||
|
^B IVili 4^ |
p. \ n |
TCif |
^-IfLUit f4j04;it viJiMMl |
|
|
1 \^'m |
L/tiC*.jvl!I^J |
\ > Ah) w^K aXJQ* »^ |
||
|
wk/ |
'i^l\^\ |
.^' 0'
fV;f^^H
«^.^" W
.^•/ .!■
»; i!' S ' i
J
c^'f^^^
|4S|r;%l|.
^W '-Wf*!
n^'U
J '.I
il^rfr
t'-i:
91^1*^ tfT
■s. .'».,» •'i_ Si. 'A'i-m. -s
^V:,^ S.
^«
*f-»
*.«
'Ji^f, "■
|
1 |
'^■:A:
^^a
ift #'.1S :^S
\a:i
M :€.^
I