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NEW REVISED AND
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OF WOMEN
EXPLAINED

ENLARGED EDITION
VOLiJA';: -A*
FORPC^!-' AR ;

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

THIS COMPLETE WORK

Embraces all of the Author's former Books.

The Marriage Guide.

The Male Generative Organs in Health and Disease.

The Female Generative Organs and Diseases of
Women Familiarly Explained.

The Matron's Manual of Midwifery and Childbirth,
etc., etc.

" It will be understood, therefore, that there is nothing in the
single volumes that is not in this one, and that it contains also an
amount of new matter fully equal to a new volume."

— Author's Preface.

THE

ORIGIN OF LIFE

AND PROCESS OP

REPRODUCTION

. IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS,

WITH THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF THE

HUMAN GENERATIVE SYSTEM,

MALE AND FEMALE,

AND THE CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE OF THE SPECIAL DISEASES
TO WHICH IT IS LIABLE.

% f Iain, fratitral featise, for f apter Is*.

BY

DE. F. HOLLICK,

THE AUTHOR AND LECTURER.

ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS AND COLORED PLATES.

NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS.

PHILADELPHIA:
DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER,

604-8 SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE.

Copyright
By F. Hollick, M.D.

iLL RIGHTS RESERVED

Copyright, 1902,
David McKay.

^■V. ^' ■=*-.,

■;*■

TO THE PUBLIC.

In the course of our business as dealers in and disseminators of use-
ful information, we have become aware, necessarily, of what kinds of
books the people are in need, by their being asked for. Among others,
especially in the last few years, there has been a constant and increas-
ing demand for a practically useful, popular, and unobjectionable book
on the Reproductive System and its derangements ; suitable for private
and family use. This demand comes from a most intelligent and
worthy class ; from a class fully capable of appreciating such a book,
and of profiting by it.

For many years Dr. Hollick's works in several books, on the separate
topics connected with this subject, have satisfied the demand ; but
at present there is urgent call for One Work, embracing the whole
matter ; and to this call we now respond.

We have requested Dr. Hollick to re-write all his works, and com-
pile them into one volume, with new illustrations, and comprising all
the newest information. This the Doctor has done in the present
book, which we venture to assert will be found, in every respect, the
very work that has so long been required.

No expense hns been spared in getting it up, for we were deter-
mined it should be complete. The illustrations especially, both en-
gravings and colored plates, are profuse, and done in the very best
style.

In regard to the matter it is sufficient to refer to the well-known
reputation and great experience of the Author. The public may rest

iv TO THE PUBLIC.

assured that he would not write, nor would we publish, a book which
was not, in every way, deserving of their approbation and support.

Without undervaluing the merits and utility of many books of a
similar character, by other physicians, we may be permitted to state
that the present volume differs in many ways from any one hitherto
published. It takes a wider range, and is more complete in every way,
being, in fact, an Encyclopedia of practically useful information, upon
matters which must ever be of the deepest interest and of the greatest
importance to the whole human race.

In regard to illustrations, and the general manufacture of the book,
our directions have simply been, make it perfect, and spare no expense!

The Publishers.

PREFACE

AND HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

At the commencement of my medical career circumstances led me into the study
of the Generative System, its Anatomy, Physiology, and diseases ; and this became,
subsequently, a specialty with me, both as a matter of scientific pursuit and as a
particular subject of medical practice. All my life since has been devoted to the
same pursuit, and my practice has been almost exclusively connected with diseases
of the Reproductive Organs, in men and women.

I have therefore had much opportunity for acquiring knowledge on such matters,
and have endeavored, as far as I could, to turn that opportunity to good account.
By means of careful observations, both in human beings and animals, and by dis-
sections and regular experiments in every practicable way, it has always been an
object with me to learn as much as possible of the great mystery of Generation !
This knowledge I sought not only as a medical man, to enable me to mitigate human
suffering, or to fulfill legitimate human hopes, but because it is intensely interesting
in itself, and of immense importance to the human race in many ways.

The further my study and practice extended, the more I became convinced that
this subject was one of the most important, medically and morally, that could
possibly engage our attention, and yet at the same time the most neglected, and the
least understood. The conclusion forced itself upon me that the prevailing ignor-
ance in regard to sexual matters, and the consequent errors of thought and conduct
thereupon, is the real cause of the most serious physical and moral evils that afflict
society.

Having come to this conclusion, it became at once a duty with me to try and
remove tbat ignorance, and then the question arose, how this could best be effected ?
I made it a point to consult all those whom I came in contact with, who took an
interest in human welfare, as to the best steps to be taken. I spoke with Lawyers,
Clergymen, experienced Judges, Teachers, and Medical Men of liberal views, and
tbey one and all agreed, with me, that a certain amount of knowledge concerning the
Anatomy and Physiology of the human body, in both sexes, was the first thing
needed. A celebrated professor in one of our colleges made the remark, "What is
the use of talking to a man about the proper care and use of that which he knows
nothing about ? " This is true enough, and all our moral teaching and appeals to

vi PREFACE.

the fears of people, in regard to sexual wrong-doing, will have but little practical
effect, in correcting sexual evils, so long as people are so shamefully ignorant in
regard to their own sexual natures. Another one made the equally true remark, that
" All human beings, from the necessities of nature, must be more or less occupied,
in thought, about sexual matters. It is impossible to prevent this, nor is it necessary
to do so ; all that is needed is to guide their thoughts aright, and to give early
enough, in a proper manner, that knowledge which is the surest safeguard against
errors of conduct."

A little reflection will show the common-sense value of this remark. The most
ignorant man is as full of thought about sexual matters as he who is well informed
about them, perhaps more so. The difference simply is that the well-informed man
has correct ideas — knows the truth — while the ignorant man has his mind filled with
all kinds of errors and absurdities.

Unfortunately the view has been held, and is now, by many well-meaning people,
that this state of ignorance is in some way favorable to morality, and necessary to
the general well-being ! These people think ignorance and innocence are the same
thing, and that a man is more likely to walk straight if left in the dark than if you
give him a light.

My experience however has convinced me that the less we know about anything
which interests us deeply, the more active is the imagination about it, and that no ex-
planation of a natural function, if properly given, will ever injure any one either mor-
ally or physically. On the contrary, such explanations, very frequently, are the only
means by which we can correct the evils caused by insane fancy, urged on by blind
passion. As a rule, ignorance on sexual matters results in either prurience or
prudery, and is never either necessary or conducive to true innocence.

Kncwing however the prevalence of mistaken views on these matters, and fore-
seeing also the opposition of many whose interests would be imperiled, as they think,
by popular enlightenment on such subjects, I was well aware of the difficulties before
me. And let me remind my readers that these difficulties were much greater, even a
few years ago, than can well be conceived now. It was scarcely possible, then, with-
out obloquy, to speak or write of the stomach or bowels even, in a popular manner !
How then could the sexual system be popularly approached ? To attempt it was to
fly in the face of a very general popular prejudice, and to risk even legal penalties.
Nevertheless, I determined to make the attempt, having the promises of numerous
persons, eminent in many walks of life, to stand by me and support me in the under-
taking. Contrary to what was then feared, the open countenance of these liberal and
enlightened men was not required, but I shall ever hold their names in grateful remem-
brance. Many of them are since dead, but from those still living, as well as from
others, I constantly receive congratulations and encouragement.

The great practical difficulty in the way of popular instruction in Anatomy and
Physiology lay in obtaining suitable objects with which to make the requisite expla-

PREFACE. yii

nations understood. Mere verbal explanations are of small use, and pictures only half
explain. Something is required which will take the place of the dead body, as used
by the student in the dissecting-room ; actual dissection before a popular audience
being, of course, out of the question. Fortunately, during a visit to France, I became
acquainted with Dr. Auzou, and saw his wonderful models of the human body, made
of papier-mache, full-sized, and formed and colored to life — so exact, in fact, that it
might often be difficult to distinguish the model from the real body. Here, then, I
found just what was needed; and I at once purchased a complete set suitable for
my purposes, consisting of the human body, which could be taken to pieces, and
shown part by part, externally and internally, all molded and colored true to nature ;
and also separate organs of the male and female generative system, with a com-
plete series showing the development of the new being in the womb at every stage.
Besides these, I had a large number of paintings and plates, full size, and two com-
plete skeletons, male and female.

With these I undertook to give a complete course of Popular Lectures on human
Anatomy and Physiology in New York — the first ones of the kind, and the first ever
illustrated in this way. Many of my friends were doubtful as to how they would be
received ; but I felt quite sure, in my own mind, that if the subject were properly
presented, it would be properly received, and I had no misgivings.

The result more than justified my anticipations. The Lectures were received with
unbounded favor, congratulations and votes of thanks being given me repeatedly, and
request after request made for repetition ; so that I lectured in New York contin-
uously for over six months to crowded and enthusiastic audiences.

Private Lectures were given, both to ladies and gentlemen, on those topics that
could not well be spoken of before a promiscuous audience, and they were as well
attended, and as much commended, as the others ; perhaps even more so. During the
whole series I never heard a word of disapprobation, nor saw nor heard the slightest
indication of impropriety in any way whatever. In fact, as one gentleman remarked,
so far as lewdness was concerned, the Lectures were more repressive and corrective
than any sermons he had ever listened to. To show the estimation in which they
were held, I will here quote a few of the voluntary, unsolicited notices of them from
the New York Press, on their first delivery :

Db. Hollick and Physiology. — The second of a series of Lectures, by this gentleman, on hu-
man physiology and all the important truths connected with our physical constitution, was attended
by a full house, in National Hall, last evening . The time was well spent, and so appeared to think the
audience. On the delivery of the first of these Lectures on Tuesday evening, the speaker, in a
comprehensive and well-digested exordium, placed himself and the subject right with the public.
His manner, language, and style did the first ; his sound logic, his argument, his candor and
research accomplished the second. Apart from the interesting and apposite details of the wonders
of reproduction, the illustrations of the immutable wisdom of nature, which teem in the animal
and vegetable worlds — which

" Glows in each stem, and blossoms in each tree ;
Lives through all life, extends through all extent,
Spreads undivided, operates unspent — "

VH1 PREFACE.

apart from all this, Dr. Hollick's Lecture was excellent as a defense of truth, a vindication of the
right of free and unshackled inquiry, and as a convincing refutation of that silly, but far too-prev-
alent opinion that there are truths of which it is better to remain in a state of ignorance. Had
nothing else been imparted in the forcible and well-defined exordium of Dr. Hollick than this
judicious demolition of that fallacious, silly, but injurious twaddle which would forbid research tc
pass in advance of the old landmarks prescribed by custom, ignorance, or a spurious morality —
even that would well deserve the public patronage. Truths, well set forth, will make an impres-
sion, whether their investigation be fashionable or not. There is an affinity between the capacity
to learn, and the truths to be learned, which always results, when a fitting opportunity is pre-
sented, in a free inquiry; and the gentleman who is bringing, in a judicious and elevated manner,
a knowledge of those fundamental principles of our corporeal existence which are abused because
unknown, will accomplish more good than half a dozen teachers of higher pretensions and lower
ability. It was gratifying to observe the decorum, the sense of respect for both speaker and sub-
ject, that was observed throughout the evening, which evidently shows that those who go there
are actuated by higher motives than mere curiosity ; by desires more ennobling than a passing grati-
fication : in a word, it was clear that those who composed Dr. H. 'shearers, were men who know and
dare to think, and who will profit by these most useful discourses. — New York Herald. ■

The Ladies' Course was attended, among others, by Mrs. L. M. Child, the Au-
thoress, who, in one of her letters to the Boston Courier, thus speaks of them :

"LETTERS FROM NEW YORK.— NO. 11.

«*-*** There have been several courses of lectures on Anatomy this winter, adapted
to popular comprehension. I rejoice at this : for it has long been a cherished wish with me that
a general knowledge of the structure of our bodies, and the laws which govern it, should extend
from the scientific few into the common education of the people. I know of nothing so well calcu-
lated to diminish vice and vulgarity as universal and rational information on these subjects. But
the impure state of society has so perverted nature, and blinded common sense, that intelligen t
women, though eagerly studying the structure of the earth, the attractions of the planets, and ths
reproduction of plants, seem ashamed to know anything of the structure of the human body, and
of those physiological facts most intimately connected with their deepest and purest emotions, and
the holiest experience of their lives. I am often tempted to say, as Sir Charles Grandison did io
the prude, * Wottest thou not how much m-delicacy there is in thy delicacy ! '

" The only lectures I happened to attend were those of Dr. Hollick, which interested and edified
me murh. They were plain, familiar conversations, uttered and listened to with great modesty ,of
language and propriety of demeanor. The manikin, or Artificial Anatomy, by which he illus-
trated his subject, is a most wonderful machine, invented by a French physician. It is made of
pwpier-mache, and represents the human body with admirable perfection in the shape, coloring,
and arrangement, even to the minutest fibers. By the removal of wires it can be dissected com-
pletely, so as to show the locality and functions of the various organs, the interior of the heart,
lungs, &c.

" Until I examined this curious piece of mechanism, I had veiy faint and imperfect ideas of the
miraculous machinery of the house we live in. I found it highly suggestive of many things to
my mind. * * * * L. M. C."

I could fill many pages with similar notices, given by the various New York
papers during my stay there, and the same approval met me in other places, as the
following notices will show:

Dr. H.'s style of lecturing is exceedingly plain, lucid, and intelligible. He relies on no trick or
art of oratory — no effort to surprise or startle — to obtain or keep up the interest of his lectures.
But they are deeply interesting. They a^e listened to in silence and with enchained attention — an
attention that would feel annoyed at any fictitious arts of the speaker. The reason of this is obvi-
ous. The entirely novel character of the lectures, the deep and pervading interest of the subjects
discussed — subjects embracing all that is mysterious and of momentous importance in the matter

PREFACE. ix

of man's reproduction and existence in this world — give to the lectures a solid and inestimable
value as well as enchanting freshness and interest.

We believe Dr. Hollick is the only man in the country who has devoted years of study to this
important but too-much neglected branch of human knowledge, or rather, of human ignorance, and
who is now trying to extend the lights of wholesome understanding on the subjects embraced
among the people.

In this matter we recognize in Dr. H. a public benefactor, and we owe it to the welfare of our
fellows to commend him as such in this decided manner. We give utterance to no formal or paid-
for puffin this matter. Our readers know us to be incapable of such a prostitution of our columns.
The large numbers of ladies and gentlemen who have attended Dr. H.'s lectures know that we do
but speak of this subject as it merits. — St. Louis Intelligencer.

Messes. Editors : — The most scientific and useful lectures of the present day, which should claim
the attention of every one, are now being delivered at Masonic Hall, by Dr. Hollick, on the subject
of Paternal Physiology and Health. The writer of this heard his first course, delivered during the
last week, and, having been educated to the medical profession, is, perhaps, capable of judging of
their usefulness. There is no doubt that the general feeling of the medical faculty, and of an
enlightened community, toward itinerant lecturers has been one of disapprobation and apprehension
of quackery; but in the present instance there is certainly an exception.

Dr. Dunbar (formerly Professor at the Washington College), who attended Dr. H.'s last lecture,
on Friday evening, was so well pleased with the manner and matter of the lecture that he came out
openly at the close of the lecture, and stated, before the audience had dispersed, that he had come
there at the request of a patient, prejudiced against the lecturer ; but on hearing him, he thought
it his duty to say that the lecture was perfectly fair, scientific, calculated to do a vast amount
of good, and that every man, young or old, should hear and would be benefited thereby. His
illustrations are complete and beautiful, and his explanations couched in such delicate lan-
guage that the most fastidious can find no fault. Those of your numerous readers who may
devote an hour to his remaining lectures will thank you for giving this publicity. — Baltimore
American — Communicated.

Dr. Hollick's Lectures. — These Lectures continue to attract much attention, and are com-
mended by all who hear them. During the past week Dr. H. has given a private Lecture and
exhibition of his models to many of our prominent senators and public men, all of whom expressed
themselves highly gratified, and desirous that another class should be formed to accommodate
their friends who had not attended. — National Intelligencer, Washington, D. C.

Dr. Hollick. — This distinguished lecturer had a crowded house at the Apollo last evening, and
his delighted audience expressed their approbation at the close of his discourse by loud applause.

Dr. H. is indeed a most entertaining and instructive lecturer. We heard a medical gentleman
say last evening, after listening to him, that he would not fail to hear the whole series, even if he
should have to sell his coat to raise the means. The information imparted by Dr. H. must be
truly invaluable to every one who possesses it. — Louisville Journal.

At a meeting of the class attendant upon Dr. Hollick's Select Lectures on the Physiology and
Philosophy of the "Origin of Life" in Plants and Animals, held at the Lecture Room of the
Museum, Wednesday evening, George G-. West, Esq., was called to the chair, and Samuel W.
Black appointed secretary.

Resolved, That we have listened with unfeigned pleasure and interest to the Course of Lectures
delivered by Dr. Hollick, and now brought to a close, and that we deem it an act of justice to him
and the community, to express our entire confidence in his character, ability, and the manner of
illustrating his subject, which, to use the words of a daily journal, "is couched in such delicate
as well as perspicuous language, that the most fastidious could find no fault, nor the idlest
curiosity go away unimproved."

Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to tender to Dr. H. the thanks of the class for
his courtesy to the members in affording them every facility for obtaining information upon the
subject of his Lectures, and that he be requested to repeat the course at the earliest period con-
sistent with his other engagements.

x PZEFAC&

Published in all the Philadelphia daily papers, and signed by one hundred and forty of the most
respectable and influential inhabitants.

(See similar resolutions, with over two hundred names attached, in the Philadelphia daily
papers subsequently.)

From the Philadelphia Daily Papers.

At a meeting of the ladies composing Dr. Hollick's Class, held on Wednesday afternoon, in the
Lecture Room of the Museum, the following resolutions were unanimously adopted, and ordered
to be published in one or more of the city papers :

Resolved, That we have listened with great pleasure and interest to Dr. Hollick's Lectures, and
are happy to add our testimony to the many already recorded in behalf of such Lectures ; and re-
garding Dr. Hollick as a benefactor of his race, and especially of our sex, we cordially wish for
him abundant success, and ample reward in the consciousness of doing good.

Resolved, That we will exert ourselves to induce our female friends and acquaintances to avail
themselves of the great and rare privilege of obtaining the valuable instruction imparted in these
Lectures in so chaste and dignified a manner.

Signed on behalf of the meeting by SUSAN WOOD, President.

Sarah Webb, Secretary.

$W With over fifty names attached thereto.

(See also similar resolutions, with over three hundred names attached, subsequently.)

These are but a very few out of an immense number of similar notices, North,
East, South, and West ; and I can truly say that I never asked nor paid for a single
one of them. They were all freely and spontaneously given.

Besides these I had a vast number of letters from individuals, thanking me for
the lectures, and was presented by my audience, on one occasion, with a handsome
writing-desk and gold pen, and on another occasion with a commemorative gold
medal.

These reminiscences are introduced to show how the lectures were received by
those who heard them. Many persons, in all the cities where I lectured, still re
member them, and often write to me to know if I shall ever resume tuem. This
however, I cannot now do. The exigencies of my practice are such that I cannot
leave -New York.

It gives me great pleasure, however, to see that my example has been extensively
followed. Popular lectures on Physiology, illustrated in various ways, are now com-
mon everywhere, and anatomical museums are established in most of our principal
cities, open to the public at large. No one is offended at such things now ; and a
man would be laughed at to-day who should say that the people ought not to see and
hear such things. But when I first began to lecture, this sentiment was quite com-
mon, and had to be met. One of the first anatomical museums established in New
York City was complained of to the authorities, as an indecent exhibition, and an
effort was made to have it suppressed. Public sentiment, however, was then some-
what enlightened, and the attempt failed. Among those who volunteered their
evidence in favor of such establishments, and argued for their utility, nay, even
necessity, was a celebrated Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, since dead.

The same gentleman also gave me great encouragement, and once remarked to

PREFACE. Y\

me : "Doctor, if you live to be old, you will see the most orthodox physicians and
surgeons of the day following your example. They will give popular lectures, and
write popular books on the very subjects you are lecturing upon. They will have to
do it, or the people will turn their backs on them, and get such information else-
where."

The result has shown how well he forecast the future. Professors in colleges do
write such books, and eminent men connected with the profession give popular lec-
tures, such as they dare not have thought of a few years ago.

To me it seems a waste of time to argue further the advantage of knowledge over
ignorance, nor is it necessary ; for the public mind now sees that advantage clearly
enough.

It is equally unnecessary to contend for the right of the people to the possession
of knowledge of any kind which they may desire. And yet I have formerly heard
this right denied, and the assertion made that all knowledge such as given in my
lectures should be confined exclusively to professional men; that the common
people had no right to it ; and that any one trying to impart it to them should be
punished by law.

Such sentiments prevail, even at the present day, among a very few ; but the
great public voice is heard so unmistakably demanding knowledge as a right on every
subject interesting to humanity, not asking it as a favor from any one, that no one
dare openly say that demand shall be refused.

It used to be contended as one argument against popular instruction on anatomy
and physiology, that the amount of it which could be given was too small to be of
.any use. This, however, is a great mistake. The smallest amount is useful, and
better than none ; but setting aside this, and the obvious fact that we must begin by
little to arrive at more, it is not true that the instruction given is so very small.
The means of illustration we possess now, and the extent to which such subjects
have been simplified, enable us to give an amount of real practical information to
& non-professional audience, such as even medical men could not get a generation
back. Yes ; some of the greatest medical men, even a few years ago, would have
been glad of the advantages, in the way of instruction on the topics we are speaking
of, that are now possessed by twenty-five-cent audiences of common people !

For myself, I rejoice at this, and trust, the day will come, and soon too, when all
restriction, and all mystery, and all fear in regard to knowledge of any hind shall be
ewept away into the limbo of the past !

It has always been a consolation to me that I have been able to do something, even
if it be but little, towards enlightening the popular mind, especially on those much-
neglected subjects which have more especially engaged my attention. While I live,
my labors shall be continued in the same direction ; and with greater experience, and
more extended research, I trust my present and future efforts may be more effective
•than those I have made before.

Xll PREFACE.

My books originated from the lectures. Many people who could not attend the
lectures wished for the information they gave, and many who did attend were de-
sirous of having that information always by them, in an available form. I was there-
fore repeatedly requested, by my audiences and by others, to write out the Lectures,
and publish them, which I eventually did.

The first book I wrote was a small treatise called "The Origin of Life in Plants
and Animals." It obtained immediately an immense sale, and I soon had to revise
and enlarge it. It was then published in the new form as " The Marriage Guide,"
which became still more popular, running to 200 editions !

The next work was one for men, called "The Male Generative Organs, in Health
and Disease." This was sought for with avidity from the first, and has gone through
numerous editions.

One for women followed next, called " The Diseases of Woman familiarly ex-
plained," which was equally popular.

For married women there was still another, called " The Matron's Manual of
Midwifery and Childbirth," also for private and popular use. This has become a
standard book, always in demand.

These books were all written for popular and private use, by non-professional
people. They were intended to give just that kind of information, on the topics
treated upon, which all intelligent people desire to possess, and which my experience
has shown me is the most practically useful.

I said to myself, " Here are men and women constantly coming to consult me on
these matters, either as suffering patients, or as earnest seekers after knowledge, and I
have to satisfy them all individually. Now, why cannot I publish my consultive ex-
planations in a plain, practical form, so that they may satisfy those who do not wish
for a personal interview, or who cannot, for one reason or another, have one ? "
And this was my leading idea in the manner of writing these several books. I wished
to consider my readers as so many patients, or seekers after knowledge, coming to con-
sult me, and I spoke to them, in these works, just as I should have done in my office.
In the books, in short, I merely consulted with, instructed, and advised a large num-
ber at once, speaking to them in the same way, and prescribing for them just as I
should have done had they all come in separately, and paid me five dollars each as
patients.

This, then, is how the books originated, and this sums up their character. I
will venture to assert that nothing can be found in one of them that is not scientific
cally true, or in any way whatever offensive to either morality or good taste. Not*
withstanding they are strictly scientific, however, they are so written that any one
can understand them, and they are all made practically servicable for private use.
In a word, they are people's books, such as American citizens desire, and even de«
mand, from those that they consider popular teachers.

Of the success of these books it is necessary for me to say but little. They have

PREFACE. xiii

gone through hundreds of editions for many years, and are in demand to-day just
as they were at first. They have been commended in all ways, publicly and privately,
and I have yet to hear of the first well-founded objection to them. The commenda-
tory letters and notices I have received about them would fill a large volume, and,
as an agent wrote me from the "West, "They have become, over a large part of
the country, household iooJcs, so that not a house, cabin, nor miner's camp can be
found without them for hundreds of miles. There are few men more extensive,
known than you are, or more appreciated. "

The number of the books, although convenient for those who wished for infor-
mation on one special matter only, was, nevertheless, not so well for those who
wished the information contained in all of them, but who did not want to buy
several separate works. And this led to the issuing of the present volume, which
contains the matter of all the separate works, and much more besides ! thus giving
an opportunity for any one to possess in a single volume, and in a compact form,
the whole series, with all the new information in addition, at much less cost.

It will be understood, therefore, that there Is nothing in the single volumes
that is not in this one, and that it contains also an amount of new matter fully
equal to a new volume. The old matter has also been revised and corrected, and
all brought down to the latest date. Any persons, therefore, purchasing this book
may feel assured that they possess, in a plain, practically useful, and popular form,
all the information on the special topics it treats upon that is now available.

Among the new matter will be found a full and plain account of the new dis-
coveries, opinions, and investigations relating to the origin of life, spontaneous gen-
eration, and evolution. This matter I had intended to publish separately, as a new
edition of my first book, " The Origin of Life " (long since out of print, and super-
seded by " The Marriage Guide "); but, upon second thought, it seemed best to make
it a part of this new and complete issue, which thus comprises all I have written on
these matters.

I need scarcely say that the original book on the Origin of Life was necessarily
incomplete, because, at that date, most of the interesting and important facts now
known on that subject were not discovered. In fact, since I first wrote that book,
the whole science of Biology (life) has been remodeled, and the views of scientific
men, on many topics concerning man, and life in general, are completely changed.
This is especially the case with regard to the primal origin of life, and the evolu-
tion of living organisms from simple original forms.

It is now well established that man is, in no sense, apart from nature, but only a
portion of it ; and, to understand him properly, he must be studied in connection
with other beings. I have, therefore, commenced this work with an explanation of
man's true place in nature, showing how he is related to the animals below him,
and how both he and they, probably, first began. This is followed by a further

xiv PREFACE.

explanation of the manner in which all individual life commences now, and how it
is maintained.

This includes the relations between living beings and inorganic material,, cell-life.

and spontaneous generation. Afterward follows the various modes of reproduction

in plants and animals, with full details in regard to human beings, including all the

: s incident to the generative organs in both sexes, with rules for their prevention

y i sore.

The whole book is so illustrated with cuts and plates that any one can readily

understand every topic. It is, therefore, a reliable private instructor for those who

wish to understand themselves, and a confidential hygienic and medical adviser, to

which all can refer at need.

DE. F. HOLLICK,

P. 0. Box 3606,

New York City.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS ON MAN, MATTER, AND FORCE.

CHAPTER I.
GENEEAL CONSIDERATIONS OX THE CONSTITUTION OE MAN 15

CHAPTER II.

DIEFEEENCE BETWEEN WHAT ABE CALLED LIVING BODIES AND INOEGANIC

ilATTEB IS

PART II.

LIFE; WHAT IT IS.— PROTOPLASM, THE MATTER OF LIFE.— PRIMARY OR

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL.— THE

DIFFERENT KINDS OF LIFE.— SIMILARITY BETWEEN

PLANTS AND ANDIALS.

CHAPTER LH.

WHAT IS LIFE ? 23

CHAPTER IV.

OBIGLN OF PEOIOPLASH. ITS USES. AND LIS FEOGEESSION FEOJI THE LNOE-

GANIC TO THE OEGANIC WOELD5 25

CHAPTER Y.

SPONTANEOUS GENEEATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE ALL THROUGH NATURE . 28

XV

XVI

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OP LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS 40

CHAPTER VII.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER, AND THE RE-
LATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 47

PART III.

CELLS AND CELL LIFE.— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE CELLS, AND THE

DIFFERENCE IN THEIR COMPOSITION.— THE LOWEST FORMS

OF LIVING BEINGS : THEIR UNIVERSAL DIFFUSION

AND VARIETIES.— THE GERM THEORY OF

DISEASE.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS— VESICLES AND CELLS 63

CHAPTER IX.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES 71

PART IV.

AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.
CHAPTER X.

AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COLONIES AND COMPOUND ORGANISMS 93

PART V.

EVOLUTION.— ORGANIC AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER XI.

EVOLUTION 101

A Change of Species 109

CONTENTS. Xvij

PART VI.

CLASSIFICATION OP ANIMALS, AND THEIR DIFFERENT TYPES.

CHAPTER XII.

PAGE

THE VARIOUS FORMS OF LIVING BEINGS, OR TYPES 113

CHAPTER XIII.

IHE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS 115

CHAPTER XIV.

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS 118

PART VII.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS, SEXUAL AND NON-SEXUAL,
INCLUDING HERMAPHRODISM.

CHAPTER XV.

REPRODUCTION 123

CHAPTER XVI.

NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 125

CHAPTER XVII.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 132

Hermaphrodism 132

The Two Sexes united in One Individual 13?

PART VIII.

DIOECIOUS GENERATION.— THE TWO SEXES DIVIDED.— THE FEMALE EGG

AND MALE SPERM.— CONJUNCTION OF THE SEXES.

—IMPREGNATION.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE SEXES DIVIDED, THE MALE ORGANS BEING IN ONE INDIVIDUAL AND

THE FEMALE IN ANOTHER 141

xyiji CONTEXTS.

PAQK

Diaecious 141

The Ovarium or Ovary, with the Ovum or Egg 141

The Ovary or Ovarium, and the Ovum 143

The Testicles and the Semen 161

Anomalies in the Size and Apparent Number of the Testes 164

The Semen and the Seminal Animalcules 170

CHAPTER XIX.

IMPREGNATION", EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL 184

Pouchet's Ten Fundamental Laws which Govern the Process of Fecun-
dation 184

When Conception is Possible and Impossible 191

Manner of Impregnation 194

CHAPTER XX.

SEXUAL UNION, OR COPULATION 203

PART IX.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN BOTH SEXES, AND IN THE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF ANIMALS.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN QTIPAROUS ANIMALS 211

CHAPTER XXII.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS 220

Human Female Organs 220

Proofs of Violation 228

The Fallopian Tubes 230

The Womb 244

The Vagina 238

Human Male Organs 241

Absence and Malformation of the Penis 247

Want of Development, or Congenital Small Size of the Penis 248

Generative Organs of the Marsupials 258

Monotremata 2G1

Non-Sexual Generation 263

Sexual Generation 263

Manner of Development 263

CONTENTS. xix

CHAPTER XXIII.

THEORIES OF GENERATION 264

PART X.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS IN PLANTS, AND THEIR CORRESPONDENCE
WITH THOSE OP ANIMALS.

CHAPTER XXlV.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS 271

PART XL

PARTHENOGENESIS, OR VIRGIN GENERATION ; AND THE ALTERNATION
OP GENERATIONS.

CHAPTER XXV.

VIRGIN GENERATION 285

PART XII.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING.

CHAPTER XXVI.

FIRST CHANGES OBSERVED IN THE OVUM AFTER FECUNDATION, AND THE WAY

THE EMBYRO BECOMES CONNECTED WITH THE MOTHER 299

CHAPTER XXVII.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. . 302

CHAPTER XXVIII.

J7CETAL NUTRITION 323

Peculiarities of the Foetal Circulation 325

Xi_ CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXIX.

EXTRA- UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATUBAL OB MONSTROUS GROWTHS 329

Formation of one Child withiD Another 330

False Conceptions 334

Deformities and Monstrosities 335

Remarkable Case of a Foetal Monstrosity 33?

Monstrosity. — Deficiency of Parts 338

Redundancy of Parts 340

Origin of Monstrosities 343

Double People 344

Twins and Superfoetation 345

Plural Births 347

Miscellaneous Matters Connected with the Foregoing Topics 350

CHAPTER XXX.

DURATION OF PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN THE CHILD CAN LIVE 353

CHAPTER XXXI.

MENSTRUATION 359

CHAPTER XXXII.

CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SEX, AND PRODUCTION OF SEX AT WILL 370

Production of Sex at Will 37-1

Rules to Insure Either Sex 377

CHAPTER XXXIII.

DOUBTFUL OR DOUBLE SEX. — HERMAPHRODISM 379

Mr. Wright's Free-Martin, five years old 385

Mr. Arbuthnot's Free-Martin 386

PART XIII,

MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS CONNECTED WITH MARRIAGE,
CHAPTER XXXIY.

ON CONNECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 389

CHAPTER XXXV.

INFLUENCE OF THE IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS, AT

EVERY PERIOD 394

CONTENTS XXj
CHAPTER XXXVI.

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OP THE GENERATIVE POWER 406

CHAPTER XXXVII.

INFLUENCE OF DRUGS OVER THE SEXUAL POWERS 420

CHAPTER XXXVIIL

ON THE PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION 425

CHAPTER XXXIX.

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST 431

Influence of Food and Drink over the Sexual Powers 431

Proper Time for Sexual Indulgence 433

Effects of Over-Excitement and Abstraction of Mind 434

Duration of the Sexual Power 435

Proper Age for Marriage 438

Advantage of Temporary Separation 439

Precautions at the Time of Marriage 439

CHAPTER XL.

PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE INDULGENCE 440

CHAPTER XLL

INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN OVER THE GENERATIVE POWERS 447

CHAPTER XLIL

STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION 451

CHAPTER XLIIL

A.GE WHEN BOTH SEXES BEGIN TO BE CAPABLE OF BEING PARENTS, AND WHEN

THEY CEASE TO BE SO 456

On the State of Mind in Females at the Time of Delivery 460

CHAPTER XLTV.

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE 462

Intermarriage and Pairing 473

Improvement of Breed , 478

wii COXTEXTS.

CHAPTEE XLY.

HTBEIDS. HTBBIDIZATIOK. AXD CEOSS-BBEEDIXG 4S1

Hybrids 481

PART XIV.

SPECIAL DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS, MALE AND FEMALE.
CHAPTEE XLYL

DISEASES, MALFOEMATIOiS'S, AXD DEBASEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM 489

Hydrocele, or Dropsy of the Testicle 489

Sarcocele, or Chronic Fleshy Swelling of the Testicle 495

Fungus of the Testicle 497

Ossification of the Testicle 502

Arrest of Development and Wasting of the Testes 502

Tuberenlar Disease, or Consumption of the Testicle 505

Foreign Bodies in the Scrotnm along with the Testicles 506

Xervous Affections of the Testicles 506

Spermatocele, or Swelling of the Testes from Engorgement of Semen . . 509

Scrotocele, or Eupture of the Intestines or Omentum into the Scrotum. 510
Varicocele and Circocele, or Swelling of the Veins of the Scrotum and

Spermatic Cord 511

Haematoeele, or Swelling of the Scrotum and Spermatic Cord from the

Effusion of Blood 513

Prurigo, or Itching of the Scrotum 513

Elephantiasis Scroti 514

Falling of the Spermatic Cord 516

Eelaxation of the Scrotum 517

Diseases of the Vasa Deferentia 518

Diseases of the Seminal Vesicles 519

Hypospadias 519

Epispadias 521

Phymosis 522

Paraphimosis 522

Paralysis of the Muscles of the Penis 523

Priapism, or Involuntary Erection 523

Diseases of the Urethra and the Parts contained therein 526

The Prostate Gland 529

Excessive Sensibility of the Genital Organs 531

CHAPTEE XLVIL

aPEBMATOBBHCEA, OB EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEX 533

Causes of Spermatorrhoea 536

CONTENTS.

YYlll

PAGE

Symptoms by which the Spermatorrhoea may be Detected 553

Impotence from Involuntary Emission 555

Treatment of Sperm atorrhcea 565

CHAPTER XLVIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES IN PRODUCING AND CUEING IMPOTENCE AND

SPEEMATOEEHCEA 570

CHAPTER XLIX.

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES 576

CHAPTER L.

EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS 501

CHAPTER LI.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION OF THE SEXUAL

POWERS 598

PART XV.

DISEASES OP THE FEMALE ORGANS.
CHAPTER LIL

MALFORMATION, OR IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE

ORGANS 603

Cohesion of the External Lips 603

Union of the Nymph ae 604

Unnatural Growth of the Nymphae 604

Unnatural Growth of the Clitoris 604

Closure of the Vagina 605

Partial Closure, or Narrowness of the Vagina 606

Closing of the Mouth of the Womb 607

Absence of the Vagina, or "Womb, or both 607

CHAPTER LIII.

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS 609

Prolapsus Uteri, or Falling of the Womb 609

The Pessary 615

Treatment and Probability of Cure 619

XXiV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Anteversion and Retroversion of the Womb 622

Anteflexion and Retroflexion of the Womb „ 627

Obliquity of the Womb 62?

Inversion of the Womb 627

Fixture of the Womb, or Immobility 628

Hysterocele, or Hernia of the Womb 630

Cystocele, or Hernia of the Bladder „ 630

Vaginal Enterocele, or Hernia of the Intestine into the Vagina 632

Inversion and Swelling of the Lining Membrane of the Vagina 632

CHAPTER LIV.

VIT.n, AND ORGANIC DISEASES 634

Inflammation of the Vulva and External Lips 634

Prurigo of the Vulva, or Itching of the External Parts 635

Vaginitis, or Inflammation of the Vagina 636

Metritis, or Inflammation of the Womb 636

Engorgement, or Enlargement of the Womb 640

Scirrhous, or Cancerous Engorgement of the Womb 641

Rheumatism of the Womb 642

Leucorrhoea, or Fluor Albus 643

Polypus of the Womb 648

Hydrometra, or Dropsy of the Womb 650

Hydatids of the Womb 651

Calculus, or Stone in the Womb and Vagina 654

Inflammation of the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes 655

Dropsy of the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes 657

CHAPTER LV.

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS, AND OF THE

NERVES 660

Amenorrhcea, or Non-appearance, or Stoppage, of the Menses 660

Dysmenorrhoea, or Painful Menstruation 666

Profuse Menstruation, or Flooding 670

Chlorosis, or Green Sickness 673

Hysteria , 678

Hysteralgia 687

CHAPTER LVL

8ENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE HEALTH AT EVERY PERIOD OF LIFE, AND
ON CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OF FEMALE DISEASE, AND ITS TREAT-
MENT 689

Puberty and Menstruation 689

The Change of Life 693

Useful Hints for all Ages 695

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER LVIL

XXV

PAGE

ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES „ . 705

CHAPTER LVIII.

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP 712

CHAPTER LIX.

MARRIAGE, AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN, AMONG DIFFERENT PEOPLE, AND

AT DIFFERENT PERIODS 722

PART XVI.

MIDWIFERY, AND THE DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS PECULIAR TO
PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH.

CHAPTER LX.

STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS 757

The Womb 757

The Vagina 759

The Vulva 759

The Perineum 759

The Pelvis 759

CHAPTER LXI.

THE BREAST 764

CHAPTER LXII.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT 767

Presumptive Signs „ 767

Probable and Certain Signs 772

CHAPTER LXIII.

FORM AND SIZE OF THE FOETUS AT FULL TERM 783

Size and Form of the Body 783

Size and Form of the Head 783

Attitude of the Foetus at the Full Term 785

XXVi CONTENTS,

CHAPTEK LXIV.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE FffiTUS AT TEEM 737

The Membranes 787

The Placenta 787

The Umbilical Cord 788

CHAPTER LXV.

PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FOETUS 789

Presentations 789

Positions 789

Mode of Ascertaining the Presentation and Position 791

CHAPTER LXVI,

THE MECHANISM OP DELIVERY, IN A PRESENTATION OP THE HEAD 794

The Left Anterior Occipito-Iliac Position 794

Mechanism of Delivery in all other Positions of the Head 796

General Remarks on the Different Positions of the Head. 797

CHAPTER LXVIL

MECHANISM OP DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. . . 799

Delivery in a Breech Presentation in the Left Anterior Sacro-Iliac Posi-
tion 800

Delivery by the Breech in the Right Posterior Sacro-Iliac Position 801

Delivery by the Breech in the Pull Posterior, or Sacro-Sacral Position . . 801

General Remarks on the Presentations of the Lower Extremities 803

CHAPTER LXVIIL

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE FACE 803

Delivery in the Right Posterior Mento-Iliac Position of the Face 803

Delivery in Other Positions of the Face 804

CHAPTER LXIX.

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE TRUNK 805

Mechanism of Delivery in Presentations of the Trunk by Spontaneous

Evolution 806

CONTENTS. XXVli

CHAPTEE LXX.

rHB PHYSIOLOGY OJ SPONTANEOUS DELIVERY, OB CHILDBIRTH, AND THE

MANNER OB CONDUCTING A NATURAL LABOR 808

Of Delivery in General 808

Different Kinds of Delivery 808

Causes of Labor , . . 808

Signs of Delivery 809

CHAPTER LXXI.

THE PROGRESS, PHENOMENA, AND DURATION OB NATURAL LABOR 810

First Period , 810

Second Period 810

Duration of Natural Labor 813

CHAPTER LXXIL

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OB A NATURAL LABOR 814

Preliminary Requisites 814.

Preliminary Proceedings 814

Preparations for the Delivery 816

Attendance after the Preparations are Made, and During the Delivery. . 817

Delivery of the After- Birth, or Placenta and Membranes 821

Attentions to the Female after the Delivery of the After-Birth 822

Attentions to the Child 823

Accidents which may Happen 824

Subsequent Attentions to Mother and Child. 825

Concluding Remarks 828

Protracted and Difficult Labors 829

CHAPTER LXXHI.

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES, TO BOTH MOTHER AND CHILD, OP PRO-
LONGED LABOR 830

The Consequences of Prolonged Labor 830

Causes Connected with the Mother which may Impede Labor, or Make

it Difficult 830

Inertia, or Want of Sufficiently Powerful Contraction in the Womb 830

Rigidity of the Mouth of the Womb, Vagina, and Yulva 832

Obliquities of the Womb 833

Prolapsus Uteri 833

Smallness, and Deformity of the Pelvis 834

Tumors in the Tel^s 838

Tumors Externally • 839

Obstructions in the Vagina, and Narrowness or Obstinate Resistance of

the Vulva and Pe.iueuin 840

xxviii CONTENTS.

PASS

Causes connected with the Child, or Children, which may Impede De-
livery, or make it Difficult and Dangerous 840

Procidentia of the Umbilical Cord 840

Shortness of the Cord 842

Descent of Other Parts with the Head 842

Twins and Triplets 843

Excessive Size of the Foetus, or the Diseased Development of Certain

Parts 843

Ossification of the Head 844

Various Presentations and Positions of the Foetus, from which the Labor

may be Difficult or Protracted 844

Presentations of the Lower Extremities 845

Presentations of the Shoulder 847

CHAPTER LXXIV.

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR 849

CHAPTER LXXV.

ECLAMPSIA, OR CONVULSIONS > : 859

CHAPTER LXXVI.

RUPTURE OF THE WOMB OR VAGINA 862

CHAPTER LXXVII.

OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS 864

The Forceps 864

Other Instruments 868

CHAPTER LXXVIII.

OPERATIONS WITH THE HAND 869

Turning 869

CHAPTER LXXIX.

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY, AND IN CHILDBED 872

The Diseases of Pregnancy 872

Sympathetic Diseases occurring during Pregnancy 872

Sickness and Vomiting 872

Ptyalism, or Excessive Salivation 873

Odontalgia, or Toothache 874

Derangements of the Appetite 875

CONTENTS.

PAGB

Pyrosis 876

Dysphagia 876

Gastralgia 876

Constipation 877

Dysentery and Diarrhoea 878

Dyspnoea, or Difficulty of Breathing 879

Cough 879

Palpitation of the Heart , 880

Syncope, or Fainting 881

Headache and Dizziness in the Head 881

Insomnia, or Sleeplessness 882

Temporary Affections of the Sight, Hearing, and Smell 883

Disordered Judgment, Inclinations, and Propensities 884

Haemoptysis, Haematemesis, and Epistaxis 885

Varicose Veins 88G

Haemorrhoids, or Piles 887

(Edema, or Watery Swellings 888

Hydrorrhoea, or Profuse Discharge of Water 888

Pustules, and Mucous Discharges 888

Derangements of the Urinary Organs 889

Cramps 889

Pruritus, or Itching of the External Parts 890

CHAPTER LXXX.

IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY 891

Flooding or Hemorrhage 891

Abortion, or Miscarriage 892

CHAPTER LXXXI.

DISEASES OF CHILDBED 898

Puerperal Fever, or Childbed Fever 898

Affections of the Breast occurring after Pregnancy 903

Bronchocele, or Swelling in the Throat 906

Phlegmasia, Alba-dolens, or Milk Leg 907

Trouble with the Urine 908

CHAPTER LXXXII.

DSE OF CHLOROFORM IN MIDWIFERY 909

An Inquiry rico the Utility and Propriety of Preventing the Pain and
Suffering which usually attend Childbirth, with an Account of the
Means to be employed for that Purpose 909

CONTENTS.

ADDENDUM.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGREE OP MAN.

CHAPTER LXXXIII.

PAQB

EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGREE OF MAN 915

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FULL PAGE PLATES.

PLATE PAO!

I. The World during the Coal Period 46

II. Sap-Gathering in a Canadian Forest 59

III. Fungus Caterpillar 86

IV. Ovary of Human Female 150

V. Expulsion of the Ovum, and formation of the Corpus Luteum 152

VI. Ovary of a Kabbit, at various stages 154

VII. Ovary of a Trout, at various stages 156

VIII. Seminal Fluid of a Man 178

IX. Seminal Animalcules of the Frog 180

X. Seminal Animalcules, and Egg, of a Kabbit 182

XI. Generative Organs of a Bird 214

XII. Generative Organs of a Serpent 216

XIII. Generative Organs of Crustaceans 216

XIV. The Surinam Toad, and Pouched Frog 232

XV. The Female Uterus and its Appendages 240

XVI. The Human Male Generative Organs 242

XVII. Structure of the Penis and Testicle 246

XVIII. Generative Organs of the Marsupials 260

XIX. Kangaroo, with Young ; and the Ornythorynchus 262

XX. Opossum, with Young 262

XXI. The Womb, after Impregnation 306

XXII. Human Embryo at a very early Period, Magnified 308

XXIII. More Advanced Stages of the Embryo ; before third week, Magnified . 310

XXIV. Human Embryo at three weeks, and four weeks, Natural Size, and

Magnified 312

XXV Human Embryo at five, and six weeks, Natural Size, and Magnified . . 314
XXVI. Head of Human Embryo at five, six, seven, and eight weeks, Magni-
fied 316

xxxi

v-reii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE

PAS!

XXVII. Head of Human Embryo at two weeks, sixteen days, three weeks,

four weeks, and five weeks old, Magnified 318

XXVIII. Embryo at seven and eigbt weeks, Natural Size, Magnified 320

XXIX. All the parts connected with the embryo on a Larger Scale 322

XXX. Development of the Genital Organs, before birth 324

XXXI. The Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Foetus 326

XXXII. Extra Uterine Conception, Ovarian 332

XXXIII. Spermatic Cord, and Vessels of the Groin 418

XXXIV. Organs of the Chest and Abdomen 447

XXXV. Descent of the Testicle 533

XXXVI. Varieties of Scrotal Hernia 486

XXXVII. The Womb and Embryo at three, and at six months, in a First

Pregnancy, and in a Subsequent one 774

KXXVIII. Ditto at four and five months 782

XXXIX. Ditto at eight and nine months 788

XL. Comparison of the Male and Female bodies in Form and Size. . . . 802

XLI. The Evolution of Life, and Pedigree of Man 914

XLII. Embryonic Development of a Chicken, Turtle, Salamander, and Fish 918

XLIII. Embryonic Development of a Man, a Eabbit, a Calf, and a Pig. . . 918

XLIV. Embryonic Development of the face in a Man, a Cat, and a Bat. . 918

ENGRAVINGS.

Figure 1. — Origin of Paramecia, from the Primary Pellicle 32

" 2. — Mode of Origin of Paramecia 32

" 3. — Ciliated Infusoria 33

" 4. — First Stage of Hay Pellicle, forming Life Spots and Monads. . . 35

" 5.— Second Stage of Hay Pellicle : Monads changing to Amoebae. . . 35

" 6. — Bacteria growing into Vibriones and other forms 38

" 7. — First Forms of Life in an Organic Infusion 39

" 8. — Monera 41

" 9. — Development of Protomyxa 41

" 10. — Leaf of the Drosera, showing tentacles bent over and erect 49

" 11. — Leaf of Drosera, with a bit of meat in the center, the tentacles

all round bent down upon it 49

*« 12.— The sensitive end of a leaf of the Dionera. The pointed bristles

act like the teeth of a trap, and assist in holding the prey. 50
13. — Leaf of Butterwort, or Pinguicula, showing how it curls over to

entrap its prey 50

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXX111

PASS

Figure 14. — Utricularia, or Bladderwort, showing the bladders, or sacs, in

which it catches its prey 51

" 15. — One of the Bladders of the Utricularia, cut open and spread flat,
to show the fringes, and the ribs which work the valve to

close the mouth. — Magnified 51

16. — Dionea Muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap 52

17. — Mimosa Pudica, or Sensitive Plant, asleep and awake 54

18. — Various Forms of Gregarinas 67

19. — Various Forms of Amceba-like Bodies, resulting from the burst-
ing of Naviculas 68

20. — AmoebaB 68

21. —The Gaping Leucophrys 69

22.— Trichina Spiralis 73

23. — A thin slice of ham, magnified, showing the Trichinas actively

at work, boring among the muscular fibers 73

24. — Infusoria in Mountain Meal, from Ebstorf 74

25. — Infusoria, dredged from the bottom of the Antarctic Ocean 75

26.— The Surirella— Diatom 76

27. — Various Forms of Foraminifera 77

28. — Nummulites, from the Eocene Strata 77

29. — Miliola, magnified 77

30.— Kadiolaria , 78

31. — Mucus, from the Nostril of a Diseased Horse, much magnified. 79

32. — Sphseria Eobertii, or Fungus Caterpillar 86

33, 34, 35, 36.— Different Forms of Coral Branches 93

37.— The Human Egg, or Ovum 95

38.— Cells of Different Kinds 97

39.— Cells in the Brain of a Cat. 98

40. — Physalia, or Portuguese Man-of-war 116

41. — The Chrysaora Lutea 116

42.— Sea-urchin 116

43. — Various Forms of Polyzoa. — Molluscoida 117

44. — Hydra, or Fresh-water Polyp 126

45. — Hydra Vulgaris 126

46. — Myriana, with Six New Individuals 128

47.— Propagation of the Vorticelli, by division 129

48.— Other forms of Vorticelli 129

49. — Generative Organs of the Snail called Helix Pomatia 135

50.— Two Snails Copulating 136

51. —The Female Ant, when distended with Eggs 147

ytyiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Figttbe 52.— Shark's Egg 157

" 53. — Diagrammatic Section of a Bird's Egg 158

" 54 — Ovum of the Human Female 158

" 55. — Ovary of the common Fowl 160

" 56. — Seminal Tubes and Appendages of the Testicles 162

" 57.— Testicles of Helix 168

" 58. — Testes of Scolopendra, or Centipede 169

" 59. —Testicle of Staphylinus Maxillosus 169

" 60.— Testicle of Silpha Obscura 169

" 61. — Male Organs of Buccinum, or "Water Snail 213

" 62. — External Sexual Organs of the Human Female, before mar-
riage 221

" 63. — External Organs of the Human Female after marriage 221

" 64.— The Womb shown cut open 229

" 65. — Human Semen, Recent and Dried 230

66.— Perfect Hymen 230

67.— After Violent Eupture 230

" 68, 69.— Internal Female Organs 231

" 70. — Section of the Womb, natural size 235

" 71, 72.— The Womb and its Appendages separate from the body 235

" 73. — Section of the Male Pelvis, to show the Situation of the Different

Parts 243

" 74.— Section of Penis and Bladder 250

" 75. — Young Kangaroo, just born 261

" 76. — Young Kangaroo in its Mother's Pouch, adhering to the

Teat 261

77. —Flower of the Lily 273

78, 79, 80, 81.— The Stamens, Pistils, and Germs, in Plants 274

" 82. — The Stamens placed on the lower part of the Petals 276

" 83.— The Stamens placed on the Germ Cell 276

84.— Pistil of the Poppy 276

85.— Pistil of the Madder-plant 276

86.— The Vallisneria Spiralis 277

" 87.— Various forms of Pollen Grains 278

" 88. — A Plant of the Bastard Dittany, inclosed in a glass case to con-
fine the Inflammable Vapors which arise from it 279

89.— "Union of Vegetable Cells 281

" 90. — Parthenogenesis of the Eose Aphis 287

" 91. — The Tapeworm in various stages 291

" 92. — Tapeworm of the Lark, and Tapeworm of the Cat 292

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXXV

PAGE

Figuee 93. — Various stages in the Development of the Jelly-Fish 293

" 94.— The perfect Medusa or Jelly-Fish 293

" 95, 96. — Some of the most remarkable Parasites found upon Fish and

Crustaceans 294

" 97. — Ovum from the Ovary of a Female Dog, in heat 300

" 98. — The same Ovum as in the preceding plate, showing the disap-
pearance of the club-shaped cells 300

" 99, 100.— Formation of the Decidua 300

" 101.— Division of the Yelk in Eggs of Ascaris. 1 302

" 102.— Division of the Yelk in Egg of the Dog 303

103.— Cells of the Ovum 304

" 104. — The Blastodermic Vesicle 304

" 105. — First Changes in the Germinative Area 304

" 106. — Ovum more advanced, showing the beginning of the Brain and

Spinal Column 304

" 107. — Diagram of the Human Ovum at about the Second Month of

Embryonic Life 307

" 108. — Urinary and Generative Organs of the Human Embryo, when

about three and a half inches long 313

" 109. — Connection between the "Womb and Placenta 328

" 110.— Singular Monstrosity 337

" 111. — Double Monstrosity united at the Sternum 338

" 112. — Double Monstrosity united laterally 339

" 113. — The Sacrum, and Os Coccygis 352

" 114, 115. — A Kemarkable Case of Hermaphrodism 381

" 116.— Waist of Venus de Medicis 417

" 117.— Waist of a Fashionable Lady 417

" 118. — Eemarkable Hybrid, from the New Forest. Drawn from Life

by George Landseer ; 484

" 119, 120, 121.— A case of Hydrocele laid open 489

" 122, 123.— Elephantiasis Scroti 515

" 124. — Varicocele, Falling of the Cord, or Dropped Testicle 517

" 125. — Lateral Section of the Female Pelvis, to show the position of the

Organs in their Natural State 610

" 126. — Lateral Section of the Female Pelvis, to show the position of

the "Womb in the First Stage of Prolapsus 610

" 127. — Lateral Section of the Pelvis, to show the position of the

Womb, and other Organs, in the Second Stage of Prolapsus 610

" 128. — A Globe Pessary, supporting the Uterus 616

" 129.— Anteversion 625

XXX vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGB

Figure 130. — Retroversion 625

131. — Vertical Section of the Womb and Vagina, natural size 75?

132, 133, 134 and 135.— The Muscular Fibers of the Womb 758

136.— Bones of the Pelvis 760

137.— Section of the Pelvis 760

138. — Diameters of the Upper Strait 761

139. — The Bones of the Pelvis viewed from below, looking through

the Inferior Strait, to show its Diameters 761-

140.— The Diameters of the Pelvis 762

141. — Foetus at 3 months inclosed in the Membranes 763

142.— Foetus at 6 weeks 763

143.— Embryo at 12 days '. 763

144.— Embryo at 21 days . 763

145.— Form of Foetus at 45 days 763

146.— The Breast 764

147. — View of the Breast about the fourth month 770

148, 149, 150. — The form and size of the body, neck, and mouth of

the Womb, at about the third, seventh, and ninth months . 773

151. — Primipara, or the First Pregnancy 774

152. — Woman who has borne Children before 774

153. — Mode of performing Ballotment to detect Pregnancy 775

154. — Neck of the Womb in a First Pregnancy, and in a Female who

has borne Children before 777

155. — First Child ; Woman who has borne Children 779

156. — Kepresents the Foetus in the most usual position, the head down-
ward, and the back of it presenting to the left side 780

157. — Eepresents the Foetus in the next most frequent position, the head

downward, but the back of it presenting to the right side . 780
158. — Shows the position of the Foetus in a Presentation of the Pel-
vis, or Breech 1 81

159. — Represents the position of Twins, as most usually observed, one

having a Head Presentation, and the other a Breech 781

160. — Neck of the Womb, at or near the end of nine months in a
Primipara, and in a Woman who has previously borne

Children 782

161-2.— The Foetal Head 783

163-4.— Diameters of the Head 784

165.— Attitude of the Foetus 785

166.— Represents the Neck straightened out, and the Two Fontanelles

on a line with each other 794

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Figure 167.
" 168
" 169

170.

171.

172.

173.

174.
175

176.

177.

178.
179.

180.
181.

182.

183.
184.

185.

186.
187.

188.
189.

190,
191.
192
194
196.

PAG 8

--Represents the Head descended still lower in the Pelvis 794

— Represents the Head still further down, and beginning to rotate. 795
— Represents the hack of the Head nearly under the Pubic Bone,

while the Forehead is just passing the External Opening

below 796

— Represents the back of the Head completely extruded, and also

the Chin, so that the whole H~ad is now born 796

—Head in the Right Anterior Occipito-Iliac Position 797

— Delivery in a Breech Presentation, the Buttocks having just

passed the Vulva 800

— Anterior Posterior Position of the Head, the Occiput being in

front, after the delivery of the Body 800

— The Chin just passed, in Presentation of the Face 803

— The Head full born, in Face Presentation 803

—Position of the Foetus in a Presentation of the Right Shoulder,

and in the Left Cephalo- Iliac Position 806

—Descent of the Shoulder in a Trunk Presentation, at a more

advanced period 806

— Descent of the Shoulder and Trunk at a still later period 806

— The Trunk fully descended, and only the Head left, with

one Arm 806

— State of the Parts at the beginning of Labor 810

—State of the Parts at the end of the First Period : . . . . 810

— The manner of supporting the Perineum, during the Passage of

the Head 819

—Represents the Standard Form of the Pelvis 835

— Masculine Pelvis 835

— Represents the peculiar Deformity most frequently produced by

Mollities Ossium 835

—An Ovate Pelvis 835

— Another Deformity, in which one side is sunk below the other,

and both twisted round the Sacrum 836

—The effect of Corroding Disease in the Pelvis 836

— Represents the Head fixed or impacted at the Upper Strait of a

narrow Pelvis 837

— Case of Tumor in the Vagina 839

— Case of Polypus in the Vagina 839

. 193.— Limbs cut off by the Cord 842

, 195.— Forceps 864

.—The Head being drawn through a narrow Pelvis, by the Forceps. 867

XXXviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PASE

Figube 197. — Correspondence of Structure in Man and Apes 917

" 198.— The Nosed Ape 919

" 199.— Julian Pastrana 919

u 200.— African "Woman 919

PART I

PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS ON MAN, MATTER,
AND FORCE.

CHAPTEK I.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN.

Until quite recently the notion was universally entertained that human beings
were, in many respects, quite different from all other beings, forming, as it were, a
world by themselves. This notion is even now very generally held by those not
versed in natural science, and is often put forward by those who are considered
teachers of the people. The fact is, however, as all observation proves, that man
is, in all respects, like other animals. His body is composed of the same elements,
he has the same organs, acting in the same way, the same passions and propensities,
and the same mental faculties, only more fully developed. In short, man is a part
of the animal world, and not something separate and distinct from it. This is im-
portant to be borne in mind, because this notion of man being different, essentially,
from other animated beings, is the source of most of our errors in regard to him.
Instead of studying the real man, and so coming to properly understand his needs
and requirements, we have all along been studying an imaginary being that had no
real existence.

People who constantly repeat, parrot-like, the saying that " Man is but "Dust,"
nevertheless do not in any way realize the fact that in man, as in all other animals,
and also in the whole vegetable world, there is not a single material element but
what is common to the whole world. When arranged in a certain way and in certain
proportions, these same elements compose a plant, one of the lower animals, or a
man, as the case may be, just as the same stones and mortar may build a palace, a
bridge, or any other structure.

So far as we know at present the world is composed of about sixty-four elements,
or different kinds of matter, of which the greater part are metals. In the composi-
tion of a human being there enters essentially only about eighteen of these, all told,
and many of them only in small amounts.

Of these, several of the most important are known only in the form of gases.
Analysis shows that a human body weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds
would be composed of eighty-eight pounds of water and sixty-six pounds of solid
matter. The separate elements would be Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlorine,
Fluorine (all gases), with Carbon, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Silicon, Potassium, So-
dium, Calcium, Lithium, Magnesium, Iron, Manganese, Copper, and Lead (solids).
The metals are in small amount, Iron being the most abundant, next to Lime
(the oxide of the metal Calcium), which forms the bulk of the bones, the frame-
work of the body. The whole eighty-eight pounds of water in the body is formed

15

16 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN.

of the two gases.. Hydrogen and Oxygen, and Oxygen enters largely into the com-
position of other parts also. The solid portion of the body is composed nearly
wholly of Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Carbon ; the metals and other elements forming
only a small part. To pnt it in another form, the constitnents of the human body,
taking elements the names of which will be familiar to the general reader, rathei
than compounds, are sixteen in number, seven of them being metals, nine non-
metallic. The metals weigh altogether (eleven stone or one hundred and fifty-four
pounds being taken as the standard weight of the whole body) something less than
five pounds, nearly four of which are Calcium, the basis of Lime, supplying the
chief part of the bones and teeth. Of Iron there are sixty-five grains, a small
amount, but very important, as giving color to the blood. Among non-metallio
elements Oxygen is the most important, amounting to no less than one hundred and
nine pounds ; and next to this Carbon, weighing not quite nineteen pounds. Of
Phosphorus, which, if some physiologists are to be believed, supplies the motive
power of the whole, there is one pound twelve ounces twenty-five grains.

Now, these are the same elements that make up nearly all other animal bodies,
there being no substance known peculiar to man alone, nor, indeed, to animals gen-
erally, though Nitrogen is found more especially in animal substances than else-
where, and is, therefore, usually spoken of as the Animal Element. Both Carbon
and Nitrogen are obtained, principally, from the air we breathe. The Carbon, or
solid wood of trees, is also obtained from the air in the same way, and not from the
earth.

Although the various forms matter assumes are endless, they can all be resolved
into the primitive elements above named, but these we cannot make undergo any
further change, and they are indestructible. We may decompose matter, and re-
compose its constituent parts in a thousand ways, but not an atom is ever either
destroyed or created. A piece of wood may be burned, and apparently nothing but
a few ashes be left, but careful observation can account for every grain of it, and if
it be burned under proper conditioDS, every portion, weight for weight, can be
shown in other forms, principally gas and water. There is never a grain more, nor
less, of matter in existence at one time than another, though it may be presented to
us in many different forms, and this is an important fact to bear in mind.

Some naturalists are of opinion that matter is essentially one ; and that what
we regard as different kinds of matter are only different states or conditions of it.
There are many good reasons for considering this opinion well founded, and the time
may come when it will be demonstrated to be true. Many of the so-called elements
of the ancients have been decomposed into simpler ones — water and air, for instance,
— and there is good reason for supposing that many of those we now call simple will
be finally decomposed, and resolved into yet simpler ones in the same way.

The next thing to be observed is that matter is always possessed of certain pro-
perties, or attributes, which are always the same in the same form of matter. It
;iiso invariably exhibits what we call force, energy, or power, varying in degree
and kind according as matter itself varies. There is no such thing as dead, or inert
matter, though theologians and others often speak of it. Matter is always, under
all conditions, endowed with force, or power, and cannot exist without it. There
can be no matter without force, nor, so far as we know, can there be force of any
kind without matter ; they seem inseparable.

In tbe same way that matter presents itself to us in many different forms, so

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 17

does force exhibit itself in many different ways, such as motion, light, heat, elec-
tricity, chemical action, and thought ; but all these can be transformed into each
other, backward and forward, so that they must all be regarded merely as modifi-
cations of the primal force. The most competent observers and reasoners now
accept this view, of the oneness of force, as fully proved. Force cannot be destroyed
any more than matter can be ; it may be changed, but remains ever the same in
amount. Thus light can be transformed into chemical action, and that into elec-
tricity, which again can be transformed into motion, heat, or back again into light.
Force, like matter, is never created, never lost, never destroyed.

These are primary facts, of the first importance, when we come to study man
bodily and mentally. To understand him as we should, we must never forget that
he is composed of the common elements of the world, endowed only with the same
properties and forces that we find in them when they form other bodies. As re-
marked before, man is not something apart from the world, but is a portion of it,
and subject to the same laws and conditions as all other portions, both in his body
and his mind. Startling as it may seem to some, man's thoughts and emotions are
only forms or modifications of nervous force, which again is only a transformation
of the chemical, electrical, and other forces inherent in his bodily structure. The
light of the sun in past ages, stored up in the form of coal, may become light,
heat, electricity, or motion in this age ; and these may even become thought, or
mind, by simple transformation,

%

CHAPTEK II.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN" WHAT ARE CALLED LIVING BODIES AND INORGANIC
MATTER.

Although all bodies, both those called living or organic, and those called dead
or inorganic, are made of the same elements, yet there is a difference between them
in the way these elements are compounded. In inorganic matter the elements are
more numerous, and are primarily combined into twos only, or threes. Thus common
limestone is composed of the metal calcium, oxygen, and carbon ; clay is composed
of the metal aluminum combined with oxygen, and rock crystal is composed of the
metal silicum combined with oxygen; these are called binary and ternary com-
pounds, and they exhibit only the more ordinary forms of force, chemical and
mechanical.

Organic bodies, on the contrary, are composed for the most part of a smaller
number of elements, combined into a more complex combination. They are almost
always threes or fours. In all organic bodies also water is invariably found, which
makes them more soft and mobile, and very liable to decomposition ; and this is the
reason why organic matter is not so fixed as inorganic. Albumen, for instance, or
white of egg, is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and sulphur. In
organic bodies force also is exhibited in ways never seen in the inorganic, as, for
instance, in the form of nerve power. The principal elements composing the human
body, as in all other animals, are those found in albumen, as stated above ; indeed,
the lowest animated beings are composed almost wholly of albumen, to which lime
and other mineral matters are added, merely to give strength and hardness. Inorganic
bodies, such as stone, for instance, either have no particular form, or else they are
crystallized, and then their sides are nearly always straight; but organic bodies
usually have a regular form, or structure, with curved sides.

It used to be taken for granted that living or organized beings could not in any
way spring from inorganic bodies, or dead matter, as it was called. It was thought
that there was a peculiar vital power, upon which life depended, and which was
totally distinct from any kind of force existing in inorganic bodies, so that all living
beings had to be generated by other living beings like themselves, and that they
never came into existence in any other way. Modern investigation has, however,
modified this view very materially. "We can now make artificially, from inorganic
elements, many well-known organic compounds ; and many competent and careful
experimenters are confident that living beings can be, and are, formed artificially
18

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIVING BODIES AND INORGANIC MATTER. 19

also from these same compounds thus artificially produced. In other words, they
believe that inorganic and organic matter can change from one into the other,
and that life can originate independent of previous similar life. That is to say,
they believe in spontaneous generation, or the origin of life without a preceding
parentage. Many eminent scientific men, who are not yet convinced that life has
thus been artificially produced, still admit its possibility, and believe that matter
contains within itself all the powers necessary to produce every kind of life. They
believe that all living beings have thus originated, from the inorganic elements, by
the action of natural force, and that if they were to be all destroyed, and material
conditions be as they have been, others would inevitably originate in their stead.
Man, and every other animal, has thus been produced from the inorganic elements ;
not directly, in his present shape, but by gradual change from the simplest form of
life, through numerous organic stages, up to his present development.

Once let matter assume the organized form, and what we call life begins at once.
In its simplest manifestations life is not distinguishable from the motions of inor-
ganic or dead matter, so that we cannot tell where one ends and the other begins.
In short, life is only one mode in which the universal force inherent in matter shows
itself. The first living organisms are neither animal nor vegetable, but simpler than
either, and apparently may become either the one or the other. And yet, from these
simple beginnings, by gradual change, or progressive development, the most perfectly
organized beings, man himself included, may be slowly evolved.

"We will now proceed to show, as far as can be done, how the inorganic elements
pass into organic material, and how life first originates or shows itself in its sim-
plest forms. This is called primary or spontaneous generation. Then we will show
how organized beings, man included, continue their species, or originate other beings
like themselves by the process of reproduction.

PART IT,

LIFE; WHAT IT IS.— PROTOPLASM, THE MATTER G£

LIFE.— PRIMARY OR SPONTANEOUS GENERATION,

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL.— THE DIFFERENT

KINDS OF LIFE.— SIMILARITY BETWEEN

PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

CHAPTER in.

WHAT IS LIFE?

It may seem, at first sight, very easy to state the difference between living
organized beings and bodies that are not organized and living ; or, in other words,
to define Life! But when the attempt to do so is made, many difficulties arise.
One of the most obvious differences is the way in which growth or increase takes
place. Inorganic bodies can increase only by the addition of other matter of a
similar kind externally, as when a crystal gets larger by more material depositing
upon it of the same kind and in the same form. But organized beings grow by
taking matter into their interior, or stomach, and depositing it from the inside, after
decomposing and changing it in many ways from what it Was.

Organized, or living beings, are also usually made up of different parts, or organs,
each adapted for a different use, such as the limbs and internal organs. Still, there
are living beings that have no definite form, nor any separate organs, or parts, but
every portion of the whole being is capable of performing every function necessary
to its existence, as will be explained farther on.

One thing may be said of all living beings, that they are continually undergoing
change. The substance of their bodies is being continually decomposed and got rid
of in various ways, while new matter takes its place, so that the individual is per-
petually changing, and yet remains the same. The repairing process is effected
by what is commonly called Nutrition, or the digestion and assimilation of food.
Inorganic bodies exhibit nothing of the kind. The question then naturally arises,
whether life is caused by, or results from, organization, or whether organization
results from life. To this it may be said that we know nothing of life without
organization, and that we invariably see it exhibited whenever organization takes
place. We find also that, just in proportion as the organization becomes compli-
cated or perfected, so does the life, correspondingly, and when the organization is so
injured or deranged that its various organs can no longer mutually interact life
ceases. We are justified, therefore, in assuming that life is a result of organization,
and that it is evolved by the play of the natural forces acting upon the material

But as all matter does not show a tendency to organize, it becomes an interesting
question what it is that determines it in special cases to do so, and what kinds of
matter are most prone to organize ? We find, then, on examination, that the four
primitive elements, earlon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, when combined in cer-

23

24 WHAT IS LIFE?

tain proportions, are those which form, as it were, the basis of life ! Of these car-
bon is the only one we know in a solid form, as wood, charcoal, and diamond, while
the other three we know only as gases. These elements, when so combined, form a
jelly-like substance called protoplasm, which is nearly identical with white of egg ;
it is also sometimes called proteine. This primary substance may be properly consid-
ered the matter or basis of life ; for a living organization can under no conditions
begin without it ; and when once we have it, under proper conditions, life invaria-
bly is manifested. When once formed, protoplasm is sensitive in many ways to the
action of the natural forces. Heat stiffens or hardens it, and electricity, which is
everywhere active, makes it contract or move, and this is probably the first vital
effort or beginning of life ! Then chemical change becomes active, and the pro-
toplasm and surrounding bodies act upon and influence each other, whenever the
conditions in which it is placed are suitable. There must be, as a rule, a certain
amount of water and free oxygen present, and the temperature must not be above
nor below a certain point. There are, however, certain low organizations, chiefly
funguses, that are capable of developing from protoplasm, though all these condi-
tions may not exist together. But in every case water, warmth, and oxygen are
necessary to the maintenance of protoplasmic life, or, at least, to its manifestation ;
for without these it soon appears inert or dead. Certain forms of it, however, dis-
play an astonishing power of recuperation, or retain life, if we may so express it,
with most wonderful tenacity. Thus seeds of plants, and the eggs of certain ani-
mals, may be dried and kept for many years, and yet develop or grow when placed
under proper conditions. There is a little microscopic being called the wheel ani-
malcule, or rotifer, which lives in ponds and streams, smaller than the smallest
grain of dust we can conceive, and yet a perfect animal, having nerves, reproductive
organs, a stomach, and even eyes. Some of these beings may be dried and rubbed
into mere dust, and kept so for many years ; and yet if this dust be put in water, the
rotifers will immediately resume their vitality, and all their organs become as active
as before they were dried ; from which it will be seen that a being may still be pos-
sessed of life, though showing no signs of it, as remarked before.

Seeds and vegetable germs of all kinds, it should be observed, are composed of
protoplasm, the same as animal germs, and it is but slightly different from animal
protoplasm. It is probable that life, as seen in these primitive humble forms, and
also in more perfect organizations, as in man himself, is only a modified manifesta-
tion of those natural forces that we see active in all forms of matter. In fact, all
matter may be said to be living, and all life is fundamentally the same, whether in
animals, plants, or stones ; it merely differs in variety and activity according as mat-
ter is more or less combined, the higher organizations having the combined life of
all the different elements and minor combinations of which they are composed.
Dead or inert matter does not exist, and vital force is merely a modification of the
universal force appertaining to all matter alike.

CHAPTER IV.

ORIGIN OF PROTOPLASM, ITS USES AND ITS PROGRESSION FROM THE INORGANIC TO
THE ORGANIC WORLDS.

Protoplasm, as before observed, is a compound of the primitive elements, oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, in certain definite proportions. Neither of these
elements alone, nor any smaller number of them, can, so far as we know, form
living substance nor sustain life ; they must be compounded together in this par-
ticular form. All plants, and all animals, from the highest to the lowest, are made
up of protoplasm, and animals are nutrified, or supported alive, by protoplasm alone, —
it is the basis of their food. Animals get their protoplasmic food by eating either
other animals or plants ; they cannot, so far as we certainly know, make protoplasm
from the primary elements : so that animal life is dependent upon vegetable life. The
plant, on the contrary, forms protoplasm from the primary elements by compound-
ing them together, and thus acts as the animal's provider, or the agent by which
the primary elements are brought into a form fit for animal nutrition.

But even the plant cannot take the four elements, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and carbon separately, and form protoplasm from them. They must first combine
in this way : the hydrogen and oxygen first combine and form water ; hydrogen
and nitrogen combine and form ammonia ; oxygen and carbon combine and form
carbonic acid. These three new substances, water, carbonic acid, and ammonia, will
feed the plant, and by it are built up into one substance called vegetable protoplasm,
which forms the bulk of its own substance, and becomes food for animals, in whom
it is slightly modified and becomes animal protoplasm. We thus have :

First. The primary elements, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon.

Second. These combine and form carbonic acid, water, and ammonia.

Third. The carbonic acid, water, and ammonia are used by the plant as food,
and converted by it into protoplasm.

Fourth. This protoplasm, made by the plant and forming its own substance, is
used as food by the animal and maintains its existence.

Fifth. The animal dies ; its body decomposes, and is resolved again into carbonic
acid, water, ammonia, and simple elements, upon which the plant feeds, and thus
begins the round over again. It is a circle of operations never ending, but always
beginning. Break the circle at any point, and the whole operation ceases at once ;
each part is dependent upon the other.

Now, we have always existing in nature the three elementary compounds, car-
bonic acid, water, and ammonia, but, as we have shown, they require the plant to

25

26 ORIGIN OF PROTOPLASM, AND ITS USES.

combine them together into protoplasm, so that the pre-existence of the plant seems
necessary. The question then arises, Do we know of any conditions under which pro-
toplasm is formed without plant agency ? Many other organic substances have been
formed artificially by the chemist, and substances very similar to protoplasm, but
not the thing itself, as yet. Doubtless it is formed in nature, or has been at some
former time, and when once formed, as previously shown, it organizes and forms a
living being, by the action of the natural forces. The first living beings formed
were, in all probability, neither plants nor animals, but between the two — what will
be described farther on as Protista.

For a long time it was doubtful if protoplasm did exist ready formed, inde-
pendent of plant life, anywhere ; but the discovery of what Professor Huxley calls
Batliybius {deep life) seems to prove that it does. This substance is a kind of
ooze, or jelly, which is deposited on the bottom of the sea in certain places, and
which in all essential particulars is identical with protoplasm ! It is apparently
formed naturally, by the combination of the primitive elements, or their primary
compounds, independent of plant agency. A similar material is also found in stag-
nant ponds.

This substance, under the influence of the natural forces, separates or divides
into small portions, like specks of jelly, which soon exhibit contractility, or motion,
and thus become endowed with life in its simplest form. These earliest living bodies
may become either plants or animals, for, as before said, there is primarily no dis-
tinction between them; but probably the first distinctly formed organisms are plants,
and thus the circle begins to be formed, and living beings are evolved from inorganic
matter by its own inherent force, to be again decomposed at death and returned to
what they came from. The matter of which they are formed, and the forces they
exhibit while living, are neither lost nor lessened by death, but both are returned
to the inorganic world in the same quantity, but in different forms.

A thoughtful and careful observation of natural processes, then, leads inevitably
to this conclusion, that the simple natural elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and nitrogen, first combine and form protoplasm, and that this, by the action of
electricity, heat, and other natural agencies, begins to contract, or move, and finally
becomes a living being !

Protoplasm itself varies within certain limits in its composition, having more or
less of one or the other of the elements. Vegetable protoplasm, for instance, is
slightly different from true animal protoplasm, and, of course, the primary simple
beings formed from it will be more or less different in consequence. They will then
be differently acted upon by the surrounding objects, and by each other, and thus
varieties of living beings will originate. Some will also use lime, which is always
found in sea-water, and thus form a lime shell, or case, while others will absorb
silica, and make a stony case. In short, variety once begun, no matter how slight
it may be, tends to increase, and living beings will gradually become more and more
dissimilar. The death of the first formed simple beings also makes a richer and
more abundant protoplasm, which nourishes later succeeding generations, and so
disposes them to vary still more, — or progress. Finally comes in evolution, or that
process by which surrounding agencies act upon living beings so as gradually to
modify or change them, till finally, perhaps after millions of years, they become
entirely different. In this way have all the living creatures on the earth, animal

ORIGIN OF PROTOPLASM, AND ITS USES. 27

and vegetable, in all probability, been produced from the first formed simple ani-
malcules, which originally sprang from protoplasm evolved by natural agency from
the inorganic elements.

In short, nothing is needed but matter, and the forces inherent in it, to account
for all the life that is found on the earth, of every kind.

This is primal generation, or the first Origin of Life!

It should be remarked here, in relation to Huxley's Bathybius, that the oozy
matter, so named, is almost wholly composed, in some places, of flocculent sulphate
of lime ! But, in other places, it contains more or less true protoplasmic material,
as above described. It is, therefore, a variable substance, which is sometimes com-
posed, more or less, of protoplasm.

CHAPTER "V

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE ALL THROUGH NATURE.

In the very earliest times we find that thera was a belief in spontaneous genera-
tion ; that is, that under favorable conditions, living beings of certain kinds could,
by natural agency, come into existence from the common elements, without being-
derived from parents. This was even orthodox Church belief for a long time, so
singularly does theology change in regard to natural processes, at different periods.
The Church formerly taught that only man was created directly by God, and that
all other beings sprang ready formed from the earth. St. Ambrose, and St. Basil,
both contended that where the Bible says, " Let the earth bring forth grass, the
herb," etc., and "let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that
hath life," it means that the earth and the water really had the power to bring forth
auimals and plants. Nay, they contended further that this power remains still, and
that in a similar way new plants and animals may come into existence.

Strange as it may seem, when Redi first announced that the maggots in meat
were not generated spontaneously, but were developed from eggs laid by the flies, his
statement was denounced by the Church as heresy ! So that we see the same scien-
tific doctrine may be heretical in one age, and orthodox in another. Let those who
are afraid of modern scientific teaching remember this ; it is a lesson which many
should stady at the present day. Men early observed that when putrefaction took
place, for instance, swarms of living creatures were produced, and not looking close
enough to trace how they originated, jumped to the conclusion that they were spon-
taneously generated. Flies especially were thought to be generated in this way, and
also lice ; indeed, many people even at the present day still think the same. Aris-
totle taught that every dry substance when it became moist, and every moist sub-
stance when it became dry, produced living creatures, if the surrounding conditions
were favorable. Others of the ancient philosophers taught that all living beings
originated at first in this way ; Virgil actually gives directions how to produce a
swarm of bees by spontaneous generation ; and even so late as 1542 Cardan taught
that water engendered fishes. Van Helmont went so far as to give special direc-
tions for the creation of mice; and Kircher informs us that he saw certain animals
produced by the action of water on bits of the stems of plants. It was not till
1668, that an Italian scientist, named Redi, first showed that the worms and insects
found in putrefying substances really came from eggs, deposited by other insects of
the same kind ; and, still later, by means of the microscope, Leuwenhoek and others
made this yet more evident. The doctrine of spontaneous generation in consequence

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE. 29

fell into disfavor ; but still there was a difficulty in regard to many beings, sucb as the
worms, flukes, and hydatids found in the intestines, liver, brain, and eyes, both of man
and other animals. But even these were finally traced to pre-existing parents, and it
was proved satisfactorily that they are not, so far as we know, spontaneously generated.

In more modern times the improved microscope has, however, discovered to us
beings much more minute, and much more simply organized, which appear under
such peculiar circumstances, so suddenly, and in such astonishing numbers, that
ordinary parental generation does not seem to account for them. Many eminent
scientists, after careful observation and experiment, have come to the conclusion
that these beings really are generated spontaneously, from protoplasmic matter.
Among the most eminent of these may be named Pouchet in France, and Bastian
in England. With these men it is no mere theory, but the result of careful experi-
ment. The opponents of their views, equally eminent men, such as Tyndall and
Huxley, contend that the atmosphere is full of germs, or organized bodies, too mi-
nute to be seen even by the most powerful microscopes, but which are really the ori-
gin of all these beings — plants and animals — supposed to be spontaneously generated.
That these germs do exist there is no doubt ; and it is equally certain that they often
originate living organisms of various kinds where they had previously not existed.
Many diseases are believed to originate in this way, both in plants and animals, and
it is asserted, by those who do not believe in spontaneous generation, that if the air
is carefully excluded from any kind of material already free from these germs that
no life will ever originate in it.

The object of the experimenters has therefore been, to prepare different fluids, suit-
able for the purpose, under such conditions that all germs which might be in them,
or in the air that reached them, should be destroyed, so that it could be tested
whether life would then originate in them or not. Both Pouchet and Bastian. have
done this hundreds of times, submitting their solutions to intense and prolonged
heat, and roasting and filtering the air admitted to them till it would seem impossi-
ble for anything living to remain, and yet in most cases living things did originate
in the solutions. Their opponents contend that either the germs could stand the
heat uninjured, or else they gained admission to the solutions in some unsuspected
way. Experiments and counter-experiments have been made on the most extensive
scale, and are still being made ; for the matter is by no means decided. It has, how-
ever, been demonstrated that, if these germs do exist, they are capable of enduring a
heat very far beyond that of boiling water for many hours, and yet be capable after-
ward of developing into living organisms. The air even in which they have been
thought to be conveyed has been passed through powerful acids and white-hot tubes,
and still the supposed germs, if there, remained unhurt. This in itself is a wonderful
fact, and gives us a new idea of the tenacity with which life, or the capability of it,
is held. It is well known, however, that many seeds, and even animal eggs, may be
boiled for a long time without killing them.

It may be remarked, however, that though the existence of germs of life in the
air is well established, still we have not been able to isolate and show them. It is
not certain therefore that these germs are of the nature of eggs or seeds, derived from
living beings. They may be only minute portions of protoplasm, floating in the air,
which develop into living beings when they find a suitable fluid. The generation
therefore may be, properly speaking, spontaneous, though originating in a germ.
In other words, there may be no parentage.

30 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

The question, however, arises, How comes the protoplasm in the air ? The oppo-
nents of spontaneous generation say that it is only the cast-off material of living
beings, and that it would not be in the air if there were no living beings from which
it could come. This view, it is evident, makes the generation not strictly a new one,
or spontaneous, because it really depends upon life, and is, therefore, only a propaga-
tion of it in a novel manner. To be really spontaneous, the protoplasm itself must
originate from the inorganic elements, and life must be produced in it without the
intervention of previous life in any way.

A little consideration here will show that it is no more unlikely for protoplasm
to originate in the air than for it to originate in the sea, in the form of bathybius !'
There are always in the air carbonic acid, water, and often ammonia, the three com-
pounds which form protoplasm, and it would be surprising indeed, if the electric
agency, always at work in the atmosphere, did not sometimes cause them to com-
bine. We know that an electric spark will cause oxygen and hydrogen to combine
and form water, and that it will also cause other chemical combinations instanta-
neously. We know also that lightning, or natural electricity, striking through the
air, causes combinations of the elements to occur, of many kinds, as will be more
fully shown farther on.

Here, then, we have a simple explanation of the origin of atmospheric protoplasm,
the universal life-germ, which probably orginates one form of life under one condi-
tion, and other forms under other conditions. Bathybius does the same in the sea,
and in this way inorganic matter combines and becomes living protoplasm, the basis
of every living being, plant or animal. A little reflection will show that life in its
simplest form is but little more than mere motion, and protoplasm can scarcely exist
without becoming mobile. Imagine a little speck of this jelly-like substance formed
in the air or in the sea. One part of it will harden more than another, from mere
heat, or some chemical agent adjoining ; then, a current of electricity will traverse
it — for such currents are everywhere — and this will make it contract ! One part
however, being harder than the other, the contraction will be unequal ; this unequal
contraction will corrugate it, or draw it into channels and furrows, along which the
surrounding fluids will traverse with different degrees of velocity. One part will
thus gain more new material than other parts in the same time, because it has
more presented to it, and there is always a tendency in matter to aggregate with
that for which it has an affinity. Repulsion also comes into play as well as
attraction, and between the two matter can never be at rest, or without life.
The softer parts will easily extend, or stretch out, when attracted by other sub-
stances, while the denser parts will not, or will do so to a less degree, and thus
motion for the purpose of attaching new material will begin, or, in other words,
nutrition in its simplest form. Many of the lowest organisms, in fact, show but
little more life than this, if any. They simply bulge out in some parts and contract
in others, and attach to themselves any matter which floats near them with which
they have an affinity. In this way life may, and probably does, originate spon-
taneously, from the inorganic elements ; and probably in past ages of the world the
conditions were much more favorable for this process than they are now. We know
that there were periods of constant and great heat, with much watery vapor, abun-
dant carbonic acid, and intense electric action, as will be more fully shown farther
on. It would seem, from what we now know, that under such conditions life must
have originated, to an extent, and in a degree of perfection, far beyond anything of

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE. 31

which we can now conceive. Those who would wish to pursue this matter further
should read any good modern treatise on geology, and observe the state of the world,
as shown by that science, in past ages.

We cannot judge, from what we now see, what must have taken place when the
world was young, when all the natural forces were intensely active, and the elements
were in what chemists call the nascent state.

That life did originate naturally, at a former period, cannot be doubted, and that
it often originates even now, under certain conditions, is more than probable : and
these conditions may be either natural or artificial : such, at least, is the opinion of
those who believe in spontaneous generation. It should be observed further, in regard
to the probable origin of motion in protoplasm, that all organic substances similar to
this exhibit, under the microscope, peculiar movements, called the Brownian move-
ments, so named after their discoverer. These movements so closely resemble those
that take place in living bodies that observers are often deceived by them. These
specks of organic matter will not only move, but whirl about, just like the animal-
cules, so that the closest attention is needed to distinguish them.

It is probable that the Brownian movements are merely the first efforts, as it were,
toward life, and that they easily pass into those that we observe to be truly vital.
Nature is nowhere at rest, and organic motion is only a modification of inorganic.
There is no such thing as lifeless matter ! To make this subject better understood,
we will now show how living beings- usually first show themselves,, in the fluids
used in the experiments above referred to, and then describe some of the experiments
more fully.

If any animal or vegetable substance be soaked in water, so as to make an infusion
of it, and this infusion be exposed to the air, within certain degrees of temperature,
certain changes are always observed to take place in it.

First there forms on the top a scum, or film, called the primary pellicle, which
is seen, under the microscope, to be made up of an immense number of small round
bodies, or molecules, like grains of sand.

Next we find many of these molecules begin to lengthen in one direction, forming
bodies like small threads, sticks, or wands. These are called iacteria.

The bacteria continue to lengthen till they form still longer thread-like bodies,
called vibriones.

Finally, both the bacteria and vibriones begin to move in a serpentine manner,
through the fluid.

After a time, in most cases, they all become again motionless, and finally break
up into molecules, which aggregate together into a new or secondary pellicle.

The next stage shows us a number of small round bodies, formed from the pel-
licle, each one possessed of a fringe of threads or hairs called a cilium. These it
uses like oars, and by their means paddles rapidly about in the fluid.

These infusoria, as they are called, are often much varied in form, but all pos-
sess the cilia, or hairs, with which they move about, and from which they are named
cilia. Some of them are extremely simple in organization, while others have a mouth
and stomach, and are more perfect every way. They are by no means all alike.

This is the order of change that is noticed in most cases where an organic infu-
sion is exposed to the air ; but it is not invariably the same in all the details.

The advocates of spontaneous generation, say that this is all a natural process ;
that the primary pellicle and its molecules are produced by chemical change in the

32 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

infusion. The subjoined figure will show the appearance of the primary pellicle
formed on the surface of an infusion of isinglass. It will be seen that the course
of development is slightly different from that above described. Among the gran-
ules will be seen larger, cell-like bodies, called paramecia viride, some containing in
♦ihe interior a spot called the nucleus, while others are without it.

„. S|». j, „

HM

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Figure 1. — Mode of Origin of Paramecia, from the Primary Pellicle.

These round bodies, or paramecia, will be seen forming, at first faintly, by the gran-
ules merely drawing together (a, i, c, d) ; next a clear border is seen to form around
them, and finally the exterior hardens into an investing membrane, and then we have
a perfect cell (/, g, i). The granules in the interior then coalesce, and begin to
move round and round, having evidently organized, into a living being. The slow
circular motion first observed becomes quicker, and irregular, till at last the invest-
ing membrane is burst, and there issues forth a free-swimming infusorial animalcule.

•:c*s4s?s1£&>,, ^

Figure 2. — Mode of Origin of Paramecia.

a. First stage of differentiation. &. Later stage, showing a vacuole formed. &'. The same
still further advanced, b". The same divided into three parts, c. A later stage ; the emhryo filled
v/ith large particles, and revolving, d. A Paramecium after emerging from its cyst. e. Another
form into which they sometimes pass.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

33

Ciliated infusoria are better organized, or more advanced, than bacteria or vibri-
ones, and we seldom see them in the primary pellicle ; but in the second they are
abundant, probably because it is now richer in organized material, from the death
and decomposition of the more simple beings first developed.

The cilia, or hair-like threads, which all these animals possess, are probably used
ooth as oars, to move the body within the surrounding fluid, and also as arms with
which they reach any small portions of nutritious matter near them.

The simpler beings — bacteria, vibriones, and monads — which come first in the
primary pellicle, have no cilia ; but the monads have a long tail, usually called a
flagellum.

It should be observed, however, that this order of succession is not invariable ;
for sometimes we have all these forms appear at once, and they pass so rapidly into
one another that the process can scarcely be seen.

The beings thus produced are ciliated infusoria of various forms, as shown in the
following figure.

Figure 3. — Ciliated Infusoria.

a. A group of vorticella. b. A single vorticella more highly magnified, c. A kolpoda. d. A
Paramecium, e. Enchelys. The Paramecium d is seen to be changed from the globular form,
and is approaching that of c, the kolpoda.

All these beings result from changes in the Paramecium, which begins from a
simple aggregation of the granules of the primary pellicle, one change following
the other. The air may be necessary to the change, but the advocates of spontane-
ous generation deny that any so-called germs are in any way necessary, or, if the}
be, that they are anything more than particles of naturally formed protoplasm, not
necessarily derived from any pre-existing organism.

The Panspermists, as they are called, of course contend that the germs are essen-
tial, and that they are all derived from pre-existing beings, of the same kind as those
that grow in the fluid. There is no proof of the existence of these germs, and each
one must judge for himself as to the probability, or otherwise, of their existence,
after reading the account of the experiments referred to.

Pouchet, Bastian, and others, have made infusions of hay, turnip, cheese, animal
muscle, and various other organic substances. These they introduced into small
glass bulbs, with very long fine necks, drawn out to mere points ; then the solution
was boiled, sometimes for hours, and, while boiling, the thin neck was melted together
by a blow-pipe, or hermetically sealed.

Of . course it would seem that no germs could be left alive in the solution after
this prolonged heating, nor could any pass into the bulb from the air, because the
hot steam was all the time rushing out, till the instant they were closed,
3

34 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

Nevertheless, when these glass bulbs were left undisturbed, sooner or later, all the
changes above described often took place, the same as if they had been in the open
air, and the same living beings appeared.

The experiment was varied in every possible way, and with all kinds of infusions,
almost always with the same results.

To show that the ordinary air was not really necessary, Pouchet even made artifi-
cial air, by mixing oxygen and nitrogen gases in the proper proportions, and still
the same results followed. In other cases the air was passed through white-hot
metal tubes, and the infusion was heated, under pressure, till far beyond the heat o
boiling water ; but it made no difference : the pellicle and the infusoria appeared
after a time just as before!

Pure oxygen even was used, instead of air, and many of the bulbs, after being
sealed, were again boiled, for several minutes, to kill anything which might possibly
have got introduced; but in spite of all these precautions, in due time the same changes
occurred, and the animalcules appeared, in most cases, just as they do in the open air.
Dr. Bastian still further varied the experiments by using artificial chemical mix-
tures, containing the organic elements carbonic acid and ammonia, such as oxalate
of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, cream of tartar, and phosphate of ammonia.
Even in these the same organisms would develop, and live, as in the natural or-
ganic infusions.

It should be observed that the resulting animalcules vary as the character of the
infusion is varied ; but in most cases bacteria and vibriones are first formed. The
surrounding conditions also exert their influence, and we cannot therefore always
predicate what particular forms any infusion may bring forth. It is more than prob-
able that all the first seen, simple forms, are only stages of development of the more
perfect beings we see later ; and in many cases some of these stages may be missed,
so that we see the being in its final form without its having gone through the first
and simpler forms.

If borse-hair be left in stagnant water, it will usually be found associated with
thousands of small worms in a very short time, and uninformed people think the
hair is changed into the worms, which they therefore call hair -snakes ! They are
however only a kind of worm, which lives naturally in such places, and which prob-
ably finds the hair a good breeding-place. If it were not there they would breed on
something else, as they ordinarily do. They develop from eggs or by division.

In one of Bastian's experiments he boiled some dry hay in water at 120° to 130°
for three hours ; then put some of the infusion in a wide-mouthed bottle under a bell
jar, which perfectly covered it. In three days this infusion was quite muddy-look-
ing, and covered with a thin pellicle, portions of which were examined with the
microscope and found to contain numerous monads, each about the three-thousandth
of an inch in diameter, the pellicle itself being formed chiefly of bacteria, with some
torulse (yeast plant). Patches of the pellicle, however, were seen of different sizes,
of a whitish color, evidently made by the granules of the pellicle undergoing some
change in these places. These patches, in consequence of what resulted from then-
were called embryonal areas, or life spots. They gradually separated from the genera'
mass, and the substance contained in them began to have a different look. Even-
tually it aggregated into distinct round bodies, like cells, which finally assumed
the forms of monads. When this stage was reached, the aggregated patch seemed to
spontaneously resolve itself, and the monads became free, as seen below.

8P0NTANE0U8 GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

35

These monads were seen in perfect clouds, most of them with long tails, or flagel-
lums, and they gradually increased in size and varied somewhat in appearance,
having more the look of amwbas (which will be described farther on). In fact, the
change from the monad to the amoeba could be plainly seen, and sometimes took
place very rapidly, the animal losing its tail, and becoming a mere sac, which could

Figure 4. — First Stage of Hay Pellicle, forming Life Spots and Monads.

a. The first stage, tlie white patch, b. The second stage, c and d. More advanced stages, the
round bodies just showing, e. The round bodies beginning to separate. /. The fully developed
xnonads, resulting from the breaking up of the collection of round bodies.

Figure 5.— Second Stage of Hag Pellicle : Monads changing to Amoeba.

a, a. Monads in different stages. 6, b. Monads which have lost their tails, c, c. Monads
being transformed into amoebas. d, d. The amoebas perfectly formed, e, f, g. Different stages
in the encysting of an amoeba, h. One encysted, i, k, I, m show the various stages by which an
amoeba develops into a germ vesicle, and finally bursts (m), giving issue to a swarm of bacteria.

36 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE

protrude false limbs. On the seventh day there were many thousands of perfect
amoeba, and on the eighth day they were as numerous as the monads.

This change from monad to amoeba was often very rapid, one hour sufficing in
many instances. Some of the amoeba remained motionless and became encysted, or
enclosed in a sac, while others, filled with germs, burst and gave forth swarms of
bacteria.

All these changes are shown in the plate above — Fig. 5.

On the ninth day, the pellicle had a darker color, and developed a large number of
brown fungus germs ; portions of it also began to separate, and sink to the bottom.
On the tenth day, similar changes had progressed much further, and a large number
of the amoeba had become encysted. In this stage they somewhat resembled a drop
of oil in a thin membrane, and when perfect had the appearance seen at g, being
surrounded by a fringe of short hair-like cilia, the color being dark brown. Many of
these finally gave birth to brown fungus bodies, like those before mentioned.

Here, then, we have monads, amoeba, bacteria, and fungus, all developing from
the same pellicle and from one another. In fact, one seems imperceptibly to change
into the other.

The infusion afterward underwent numerous other changes, too confused for us
to follow. Similar experiments have been made by the hundreds, by different exper-
imenters, and with varied results. Sometimes the living beings appeared, and some-
times not, under apparently the same conditions. In all such contradictory cases
there was, no doubt, some unnoticed small difference in the process, and, in a matter
of so much delicacy, it is very difficult to always conduct an experiment with every
little detail exactly the same.

It is possible that the electrical condition of the atmosphere, or of surrounding
objects, may have an influence, and so may light, changes of temperature, and vari-
ous other influences, some perhaps unknown.

Professor Tyndall asserts positively that, by thoroughly filtering the air which
acts on the infusions they will not form a pellicle, and go through the ordinary
change? resulting in the production of living beings. His experiments appear to
have been very carefully conducted, and apparently prove his assertion true. Dr.
Bastian, however, controverts them, and shows, to the satisfaction of his friends,
that Tyndall's experiments are defective, and in no way disprove spontaneous gener-
ation.

It is certain that the simpler forms of life do often appear in a very incompre-
hensible manner, and there seems nothing impossible in the way of spontaneous
generation ; but, on the contrary, it seems to naturally follow from a careful
consideration of the facts in the case.

It should be remarked here that the nature of the vibrios and bacteria is quite
uncertain. They may be either plants or animals, or something between them, capa-
ble of becoming one or the other. Many scientists think the lower organisms are
neither animal nor vegetable, but may develop into either. The plant and the
animal both commence the same, and at first there is no distinction whatever
between them. The organisms which succeed the dead vibrios appear to be more
distinctly animal, and those which succeed them are animal beyond doubt. These,
again, are succeeded by others still more perfect, so that there is a regular progress
upward, beginning with inorganic matter. It has been objected to the theory of
artificial spontaneous generation that, in all the experiments, some organic matter

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE. 37

had to be used to make the infusion, and that, as this had to be obtained from some
organic being which existed before, there was no new start ! And this is quite true ;
for though it was dead organic matter when used, still it could not have been had
at all if there had not been a living being before. Chemists, however, now form
organic substances of different kinds in their laboratories from inorganic material,
and the number of these substances so made artificially is increasing every day. In
fact, the general opinion among chemists is, that we shall, by-and-by, form artifi-
cially every organic substance known, even the food we eat, and not be dependent
upon agriculture, or other animals, for it, as we are now. It will be quite possible,
therefore, to first make the organic matter artificially with which the infusion is
made, and thus the whole process becomes artificial from the start, and the life
produced will be truly spontaneous, or independent of parentage in any way.

As an instance of how spontaneous generation, as it is called, may be affected by
the conditions under which the experiment is conducted, reference may be made
to a communication by Mr. Downes and Mr. Blunt, to the Eoyal Society, Eng-
land. These gentlemen found that when glass tubes were filled with an organic
infusion, such as those used by Dr. Bastian, and some placed in the light while
others were left in the dark, only those in the dark became cloudy, and developed
bacteria ; while those left in the light did not.

It is evident from this that light is unfavorable to those changes in organic mat-
ter, or protoplasm, which result in the development of bacteria, and probably other
infusoria.

With chlorophyl (the coloring matter of leaves), which may be called green
protoplasm, it is exactly the reverse ; for this forms only in the light, and best in the
full sunlight.

It is probable that the same speck of protoplasm, therefore, may become plant
or animal, according as it is affected by light during its first stages of growth.

In regard to the nature of the germs, as they are called, floating in the air, which,
when they fall into organic solutions, appear to be the origin of bacteria, these gen-
tlemen remark that they may be considered simply as isolated cells, or minute
protoplasmic masses.

Professor Tyndall may be quite right when he says that infusorial animals never
develop in any solution, if the air be perfectly excluded from them, or even if
it be only perfectly filtered. Indeed, his experiments prove this. When he con-
ducted them in the rooms of the Royal Institution, in London, it was scarcely pos-
sible, with every care, to prevent infusoria appearing in the solutions ; but when
exactly the same experiments were performed in purer country air, they did not
appear. The inference he draws is this — that in the city the germs are so numerous
that it is not possible to exclude them all, but in the country there are so few that
they can easily be kept out.

To show that these germs do float about in the air, he filtered it through cotton-*
wool, and in this way got air perfectly free from them, which had no effect on any
organic infusion. The same result followed if the air was only left for some time
perfectly still, in a box. All the germs then settled down, on the bottom and sides,
which were wet with glycerine to hold them fast. The air thus clarified would not
affect the solutions any more than that passed through the cotton-wool.

Still, granting all this, it does not follow that the so-called germs are like eggs,
or seeds, derived from living beings. They are probably only specks of protoplasm

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE.

(some of which may be formed naturally), ready to develop anywhere, under proper
conditions, into animals in the dark, and into plants in the light. Other natural
conditions also, as before remarked, probably exert their influence, especially elec-
tricity, heat, and chemical action.

It is quite possible that what are called disease germs are only minute portions
of the diseased part itself, floating about in the air, which, if they meet with a
human body in favorable condition, may start the disease anew. In a healthy state
they may not infect ; but if the body be prepared for them, they act at once, like the
matter used in inoculation.

The minuteness of these germs is almost inconceivable. The smallest crack
in a glass vessel will admit them, and if the very point of the finest needle touch
the surface of an organic infusion, in which there are germs, and be then introduced
into one perfectly clear, it will start their development immediately.

We must be inhaling clouds of these germs all the time; but in a normal condi-
tion they do no harm. In fact, in a healthy body living bacteria may be introduced
into the blood without injury. In an enfeebled or unhealthy body it may, how-
ever, be very different ; and pure air, under all conditions, is safer to breathe than
impure.

It is well known that surgical op-
erations seldom succeed well in large
hospitals, owing to the air being con-
taminated with morbid matter, acting
germ-like. An open wound in such a
place almost always becomes filled with
bacteria, and has a tendency to gan-
grene. In a place free from such sur-
roundings this seldom occurs. The
bacteria may be harmless in a healthy
body, but very hurtful in the morbid
material of a wound.

Bacteria are among the simplest
regular-formed beings, and are usually
the first met with. They resemble
wands, or straight, flat rods, like
minute laths, sometimes single, but
more usually jointed, as if several short
ones had grown together, end to end.
They are supposed to be formed by
the union, in a straight line, of mole*
cules of the original protoplasm. The
longer vibriones resemble bacteria, and are supposed to be formed by many of them
joining together. In fact, Dr. H. Bennet asserts he has seen them form in this way.
They are often twisted or bent at various angles.

The nature of bacteria is much in dispute, as to whether they are animal 01
vegetable, or whether they are beings of a definite character, or merely transitory
forms of other and higher beings which follow them. Bastian takes this view, and
it is probably correct. In size they vary from the fifteenth to the twenty- thousandth
of an inch in diameter. They move often quite rapidly, and are undoubtedly living.

Figuke 6. — Bacteria growing into Vibriones and
other Forms.

. a, a. Different kinds of bacteria and vibriones.
b, b, and c. Different forms of leptothris. d, d. Spiril-
la, which change into fungus, e, e. Torulae, or yeast
plant, developing into fungus mycelia.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, AND ONENESS OF LIFE IN NATURE. 39

The following plate shows the more common forms of monads, bacteria, vibriones,
and torulas, or yeast plant.

q. *W& rsV^s

%

Figure 7. — First Forms of Life in an Organic Infusion.
a. Monads, b, c, d, e. Bacteria. /, g, It,. Torulae. i, k. First forms of vibriones.

The yeast plant, which causes the rising of bread, and the working of beer, is
probably only a modification of bacteria. The rapidity of its growth is well known.
A small portion of yeast will soon set a hogshead of wort working, or fermenting.
In fact, the growth can be seen under the microscope.

CHAPTER VI.

THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS.

It was formerly thought, and taught, hy naturalists, that every living thing
must be either plant or animal ; but, as before remarked, this view cannot now be
maintained. The very lowest organisms cannot be called either the one or the other,
but are something between the two, or lower than both. Professor Haeckel was the
first to point out and illustrate this important fact. He called these intermediate
beings Protista (meaning " the first of all," from a Greek word), and showed that
they all propagate in a strictly non-sexual manner. He is of opinion also that these
are the real beginnings of organic life, and that both plants and animals are pro-
duced from them, by further developments.

The very lowest of these, which he calls Monera, or Monads, cannot even be
termed organized, for they consist only of specks of jelly-like protoplasm, without
form or structure of any kind. They are probably the first bits of the protoplasm
which separate from the rest, and are simpler than cells (which are described farther
on), because they have neither investing membrane, nor nucleus, nor, in fact, any
difference of parts. As they become acted upon by chemical, and other agencies,
they become hardened on the surface, or form a membrane, and afterward, by
osmose, a nucleus and granules in the interior, and so become true cells, the first
real organisms.

The first spontaneous beginnings of life, however, as far as can be ascertained, are
these moners, or jelly-like specks of protoplasm, and these are merely detached por-
tions of protoplasm, which may be formed naturally in any waters, like bathybius in
the sea — or in the atmosphere by electric agency.

First, then, we have the natural simple elements, with their inherent powers and
attributes, and next we have the combinations of certain of these — carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen, into water, ammonia, and carbonic acid. Then, by elec-
tric and chemical action, these compounds form protoplasm, and from protoplasm,
as above explained, first come the mere unorganized specks, the moners, and from
them other beings ; and, finally, cells. From the cells are formed the beings next
above, the infusoria, and eventually, by gradual building up, still higher beings, till
we reach the vertebrates and man — all going back, however, to the moners, and
protoplasm or the matter of life, at last !

Many of the lowest orders of beings obviously pass into each other, or possibly
they may all be only different stages in the development of the highest among
them, as stated before. The following plates show the appearance of some of these
beginnings of life.

A very interesting variety of animalcule may be produced quite readily by mak-
ing thick paste of fine flour and water, which should be stirred daily for several
days with a bit of wood. In four or five clays it will swarm with what are called

40

THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 41

paste-eels, a kind of little worm. They can be readily seen with a common mi-
croscope.

Ma

a. Mere specks of protoplasm, from the surface of the mud in a fresh-water pond. 5. A larger
mass which begins to resemble an amoeba. It has just divided in two, by fission, c is a still far-
ther development, prolongations being thrown out, like limbs ; this form is called a vampyrelia.
d is still more like anamosba. e is a mass called a Plasmodium, formed by many of the simpler
bodies uniting. Two infusoria are seen entangled in it, being probably absorbed, or used as nutri-

FiorjRE 9. — Development of Protomyxa.

a shows one of the amcebas, as observed by Haeckel, drawn together into a ball, and inclosed
in a membrane, or encysted. It then becomes filled with granules, which enlarge, and begin to
move round and round, as seen in b. Finally, the cyst bursts open, as seen in c, and the developed
granules are expelled in the form of moners, with tails, as seen at d. The tails gradually disap-
pear, and they become true amcebas, as seen at e. Then, any of these amcebas may draw together,
become encysted, and go through the same round again, from simple protoplasmic granules to
moners, and from these to amcebas.

This particular form is called Protomyxa Aurantiaca.

All these earliest forms of life are utterly without definite shape or structure,
and have neither investing membrane, nucleus, nor granules. The amoeba, one oi
the next above, though still a mere lump of protoplasm, has a skin, and can form
limbs and a stomach, when it needs them, and is, therefore, an advance, though a
slight one.

One of the very simplest of the moners, and one of the first Haeckel discovered,
was taken from the mud of a shallow pond, and was named the Protamoeba. It
was observed as a minute protoplasmic ball, about one-thousandth of an inch in
diameter, perfectly alike in every part, and resembling exactly a speck of jelly. It

42 THE FIB8T BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS.

however exhibited a power of motion, by pushing out and drawing back again, at
intervals, different portions of its substance.

This simple motion, or mere contraction and expansion, caused by the unequal
action of heat on different portions of its mass, or by chemical action, is probably
the first manifestation of life, and is in no way different from ordinary motion.
The next vital manifestation is probably fission, or division, by which it multiplies
or propagates ; for we see this take place in -"he most primitive forms, as in the
protamceba. Osmose, or nutrition, of course commences the moment the exterior,
by any agency, becomes denser than the interior, and so forms an investing mem-
brane. Then results a cell, with all the higher organisms formed from it, as will
be shown when we come to speak of cell-life.

It will be seen from this that spontaneous generation is much simpler than is
usually supposed. We are not required to believe that one of the higher beings is
spontaneously produced ; not even one of the infusoria or amoeba, nor even a cell,
but only the separate speck of protoplasm called the moner, from which all the
others are developed ! In short, once form protoplasm, the matter of life, and
portions of it inevitably become separated, and form moners, and then cells, and so
on, all by natural force acting on the simple elements. And that protoplasm itself
is naturally formed in water, and in the air also, scarcely admits of doubt.

In this way, then, we trace the very beginnings of life, and see how living,
organized beings are produced from the simple inorganic elements by the powers or
forces inherent in matter itself.

Once produce the matter of life, protoplasm, and all forms and qualities of life
result from it naturally, by the process of evolution !

In conclusion of the topic of spontaneous generation, a few additional facts are
toorthy of notice, and a few more inferences seem fairly deducible from the facts!
already given, It is observable that the same infusion, in the same conditions,
always produces the same beings, or with very few exceptions; beginning with
the simplest kind, which die, and are succeeded by others more perfect, and larger,
in successive crops, each one an advance upon the one before it. Finally, the
infusion, though by no means exhausted of material, fails to produce any more.

This would seem to favor the idea that the kind of being produced depends upon
the kind of material used, and the state it is in : if in one condition, it produces
and supports one kind of beings, and if in another condition another kind. The
decay of the first crop probably enriches the infusion, and so enables it to produce
next a more advanced kind.

It is also worthy of observation that when the infusion contains bat little water,
and much organic matter, it usually produces vegetation, such as mould or fungus ;
out when there is much water animal organisms most frequently appear. This seems
hardly consistent with the theory that the new organisms result from germs
floating in the air, but rather favors the idea that they are spontaneously pro-
duced, and that their nature depends upon the character of the infusion used. The
number of beings produced also is no way dependent upon the quantity of air
present.

Another point is also well worth consideration, namely, that many of the infu-
soria produced in the infusions do not, so far as known, produce ovae or germs of any
. kind, but always propagate by division, or by buds ! Where, then, do the germs come
from which are supposed to produce them ? If they do result from any particles

THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 43

floating in the air, the fact would seem to prove that such particles are not real
germs, coming from the ovaries of pre-existing animals, but only specks of proto-
plasmic matter, naturally formed and floating about, as before explained. Such
specks of matter may, if such be their nature, produce anything found in the infu-
sions, vegetable or animal.

The Entozoa, or those beings that live in animals' bodies, would also seem to
favor strongly the idea of spontaneous generation. They are found in almost every
part, not only where the air has access, but where it has not also : in the chambers
of the eye, for instance, in the blood-vessels, in all the closed cavities, in the sub-
stance of the liver, and in the most secret recesses of the brain. Each place has its
own special kind of being, which cannot live long anywhere else, ,and which soon
dies when the animal dies in which it has its habitation.

Now, if these beings are not spontaneously generated, how do they reach these
places so difficult of access ? We cannot conceive of their germs getting there from
the air, and it is still more difficult to imagine themselves being transmitted from the
parents ; besides, many of them do not form eggs at all, but bring forth their young
alive ; and when eggs are produced, they are entirely too large and heavy to be floated
in the air ; nor are these the only difficulties in the way of supposing such beings to
come from germs.

Carnivorous animals, which feed upon others, might naturally be supposed more
liable to be infested with entozoa, and of the same kind as those natural to the
animals they feed upon ; but such is by no means the case. Herbivorous animals
are quite as much infested with such pests as the carnivorous ones ; and, what is
worthy of notice, each kind of animal has its own peculiar kind of entozoa. The
same kind also infests the same animals in all parts of the world. And land ani-
mals have different entozoa to the water animals of the same district.

It has been supposed by some that the ovse of these parasites may reach the secret
parts of the body where they are found, through the blood ; but this cannot be admit-
ted, with regard to many at least, because they are too large to pass the capillaries.
Of course, it is still more impossible for the young of those to pass who bring forth
their young alive, instead of eggs. Still more is it inadmissible that either one or the
other can pass from mother to child, during gestation ; and besides, mother and child
are not always infested with the same kind of parasite. In some cases entozoa have
been discovered in the human foetus at birth, and it becomes exceedingly difficult to
give any reasonable explanation of such an occurrence, except by spontaneous gen-
eration ; for they can hardly be supposed to have come, by any route, from either
mother or father.

It is remarkable also that animals of the same kind, living at the same time and
place, and in the same way, will have different kinds of entozoa.

All these parasitic beings, however they may come, when once produced, propa-
gate like others of a similar kind, some by eggs, and others producing living young.

The whole subject is beset with difficulties, and must not be considered by any
means as settled, either one way or the other. Careful and long-continued observa-
tion and experiment, with candid and fair discussion, can alone lead us to the truth,
which is all we want, let it be whichever way it may.

Another remarkable fact may also be stated. Dr. Bastian found that an organic
infusion, such as he experimented with, could be sterilized by long subjection to
great heat, so that when left still, without any contact with the air, no life would

44 THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS.

appear in it. But if he then added only a little potash, to neutralize its acidity,
bacteria appeared at once.

Apparently the life resulted, in this experiment, from a mere chemical change in
the infusion. But it may be said that the germ was there, but could not develop
while the infusion was acid. If this be supposed, however, we are then obliged to
admit that the germ could withstand an amazing degree of heat for a long period.

In short, though spontaneous generation has not been proved beyond dispute-
by these experiments, it seems, in many of them, tc be undeniably the most probable
explanation of the phenomena observed.

All this shows that, properly speaking, there is no beginning of life in an abso-
lute sense, nor any real separation between what is called dead, and living, matter.
All is living ; every single atom has life ; and the life of any compound body is
merely the aggregated life of the atoms composing it, varied according to the
manner in which they are associated.

Although in their simplest forms organic beings are neither plants nor animals,
but may become either ; yet in their fully developed state, when their characters
are fixed, they are distinct enough. The plant works for the animal, by taking
the inorganic matter and working it up into organic material suitable for animal
food. This the animal cannot do for itself, and therefore it is dependent upon the
plant for its existence. The great work of vegetation is to take carbon from the air,
in the form of carbonic acid gas, decompose it, fix the carbon in the solid form of
woody matter, and return the oxygen to the atmosphere. The animal, on the con-
trary, consumes the carbonaceous matters the plant has formed, using them for
food, recombines the carbon with oxygen, in the process of breathing, and returns
it to the air in the form of carbonic acid again. Thus the two different organisms
work in a circle.

All this is accomplished primarily by the sun, whose action on the leaves of
plants enables them to decompose carbonic acid gas, and fix the carbon, with other
elements, in the form of starch, gum, sugar, and other vegetable products upon which
animals subsist. Without the sun plants could not fix carbon, and, consequents^
animalo as well as plants depend upon the sun for life. The amount of other
elements, in most vegetable matters, is comparatively small, carbon being always the
main ingredient, as we see by the amount of charcoal that wood will leave, when
properly burned — charcoal being nothing but carbon. The quantity of mere mineral
matter is always small, and only of subordinate importance.

The leaves of plants also decompose water to obtain its hydrogen, and ammonia to
obtain its nitrogen, and this is effected solely by the action of sunlight, without
which no such decomposition would take place.

In regard to the sources whence the secondary compounds are derived on which
plants subsist, M. Dumas remarks : " They are, in fact, produced upon the grand
scale by the action of those magnificent electric sparks which dart from the storm-
cloud, and, furrowing vast fields of air, engender in their course the nitrate of am-
monia which analysis detects in the thunder-shower. . . . As it is from the mouths
of volcanoes, whose convulsions so often make the crust of our globe tremble, that
the principal food of plants, carbonic acid, is incessantly poured out ; so it is from
the atmosphere, on fire with lightnings from the bosom of the tempest, that the
second scarcely less necessary aliment of plants, nitrate of ammonia, is showered
down for their use."

THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 45

The air, therefore, is the great storehouse from which the organic material both
of plants and animals is derived, and in one sense they may all be called the children
of the air.

The common notion of many people that plants draw all their nourishment from
the earth is therefore erroneous. The mineral constituents of plants are derived from
the earth ; but they are small in amount, and of subsidiary importance for the most
part. Plants grown in pure sand, and wet with distilled water, will form solid
woody fibre, the same as if they grew in the earth ; and this of course comes solely
from the air, for . it is mostly carbon, and there is none of that element either in
the sand or the water.

The amount of carbon thus fixed by plants from carbonic acid gas is something
astounding to contemplate. Take a forest, for instance, — in one that is properly worked
it is estimated that an acre will yield annually, only by due thinning out, at least four
thousand pounds of dry wood, or about one thousand pounds of solid carbon. Then
reflect upon the millions of acres on the globe covered by forests, besides other vege-
tation, and some idea may be formed of the immense annual production.

These facts are important to bear in mind, as they not only serve to explain vital
processes now going on, but also make it clear how immensely different were the con-
ditions under which life originated in past times.

There was a period in the early history of the earth when the atmosphere con-
tained immensely more carbonic acid gas than it does now ; so much, indeed, that land
animals could not live in it. But such an atmosphere as that, surcharged with hot
watery vapor also, is just what plants thrive upon, and we accordingly find that vege-
tation, at that period, attained to a size and luxuriance of which we can have but
faint conception. Ferns and mosses which now are small and insignificant were
then large trees, and grew in dense forests. Prom this superabundant vegetation is
derived our coal-beds, which thus represent, in reality, the concentrated sun power
of a former age.

This very abundance of plant life, however, of itself ultimately changed the atmos-
phere, and made it fit to be breathed by land animals, which then came into exist-
ence. By continually decomposing the abundant carbonic acid gas and fixing the
carbon, it gradually brought the air nearer to its present constitution.

If this process of active vegetation had gone on alone, all the carbonic acid gas in
the world would finally have been decomposed, and the carbon fixed. But next
came in the era of great animals, who by reversing the process, as before explained,
burned up this carbon in the process of nutrition, and in their breath returned it, as
carbonic acid gas, to the air, so that the plants could use it over again. In this way
the balance was maintained as it is at the present day.

Plant life could not go on alone, because it would ultimately fix all the carbon
solid, and have none left in an available gaseous form ; and animal life could not go
on alone, because it could not obtain solid carbonic and nitrogenous food from the
simple elements. The two are necessary to each other, and each works for the
other in working for itself.

Even in the small field of infusorial life, in plants and animals, such as we have
been describing, this great fact is exhibited, and microscopic plants and animals act
and react upon each other just like their larger representatives. Punguses, moulds,
and animalcules appear together in the same infusion, follow one another, and appar-
ently pass into one another by insensible gradations.

46 THE FIRST BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS.

Possibly the simple protista, which are either plants or animals, or neither, may
be capable of assimilating carbon either in the fixed form, as animals, or of decom-
posing carbonic acid gas, as plants, and thus truly belong to both the animal and the
vegetable kingdoms at the same time, in the same way that amphibious animals can
breathe either in air or in water.

When we see how life has thus changed on the large scale on our globe, by the
change in its condition, we can the more easily understand how it can be similarly
varied on the small scale of our experimental infusions. By varying their composi-
tion and strength, the amount of heat to which they are subjected, and the electric
and other conditions around them, we should naturally expect to vary the result •
and such is in fact the case, as we have already shown.

The large plate here introduced shows admirably the astonishing luxuriance of
vegetation in the age which produced the material of our coal-beds, when the atmos-
phere was filled with carbonic acid.

For the primary beginning of life, — as a starting-point for all the plants and ani-
mals that now live, or that ever have lived, — the minutest speck of protoplasm would
be sufficient. This speck, too small for our best microscopes to detect, would inevita-
bly form a moner, or some kindred organism, which would speedily multiply by
simple division into millions like itself ; and these would soon pass into other forms,
in the way we have shown, and these again into others, each a stage higher, till the
whole organic world would, slowly and surely, be evolved.

The death of one generation, by providing more abundant organic material,
would give increased development to the rest ; and thus the simple primary forms
would insensibly pass into the complicated organisms we now see.

Such, it would seem, must be the result of the production of even the minutest
portion of protoplasm, the matter of life ! And, from what we know of the proper-
ties of matter, it seems scarcely open to doubt that, in the ceaseless whirl of activity
and change in the material world, all kinds of combinations of its elements must
take place, protoplasm among the rest ! It is scarcely possible even to suppose
that it should not ! If all organic matter were now destroyed by heat, nature would,
in all probability, again produce a protoplasm, and the circle of organic life would
begin anew. Under former conditions, it was probably produced abundantly ; but
even now, there is every reason to suppose, it not unfrequently springs into exist-
ence. For protoplasm, it must be remembered, is not a new kind of matter, but
only a particular combination of the simple elements common to the whole universe,

" See ! through this air, this ocean, and this earth,
AU matter quick, and bursting into birth ! " — Pope.

• ■

CHAPTER VTL

f«B DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER, AND TK»
RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Protoplasm, or the matter of life, both animal and vegetable, differs from
mere mineral matter in this way : inorganic matter, as a solution of salt, for in-
stance, when it solidifies nearly always assumes some regular form, usually geometri-
cal, or crystallizes, the crystals having certain definite angles and, usually, straight

Organic matter, on the contrary, instead of being crystallized, usually assumes
what is termed the colloid form, as we see in gum, or sirup, and never has a definite
shape, like a crystallized body. This difference probably results from the difference
in the character, and number, of the elements of which the two kinds of matter are
composed. An inorganic crystalline body is formed of few elements, usually of only
two, and these of a stable character, most of them being solids, so that it is not
prone to change. There are, therefore, but few formative forces at work, and hence
comparative simplicity and regularity of outline. An organic compound, on the
contrary, is most frequently formed of many elements, mostly gaseous, and mobile ;
so that its form is determined by numerous formative forces acting in contrary direc-
tions, and hence its homogeneous or apparently formless appearance. The same
causes also make it more prone to decomposition or decay, because its varied and
mobile constituents are but loosely held together.

Organic matter, in consequence of this peculiarity of composition and structure,
forms itself into some rounded, soft, and mobile form, which being easily acted
upon by the forces around, readily contracts and expands, or moves, and so begins to
live; or, in other words, it organizes into a living being.

Inorganic matter, on the contrary, in consequence of its structural simplicity,
and the more stable character of its constituents, always assumes rigid determinate
forms, straight and angular, which are said to be inorganic, or dead, to distinguish
them from organic bodies, which are called living. It would perhaps be more
proper to say that both kinds are living, in different ways and degrees. The crystal
has fewer constituent atoms than the animalcule, and they are less varied ; it has,
therefore, a less amount, and less variety of life. As Schwann observes, " The forma-
tion of crystals bears the same relation to inorganic matter as the formation of cell
does to organic." Each is an advance in life.

Not only, however, are plants and animals the same at the beginning, so that one
cannot be distinguished from the other, but, even when full grown, they often have
many functions in common. In fact, it is very difficult to state any essential and
constant differences between them.

It was once thought that the difference lay in the power of motion, animals
feeing able to change from one place to another, while plants were fixed. It is now

47

48 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER,

known that there are plants which move about from place to place, and animala
that are fixed to one place, rooted like plants.

It was then supposed that animals were exclusively gifted with sensation, or feel-
ing ; but this also is more than doubtful. The sensitive plant, for instance, will
draw its leaves together, and even bend down its leaf -stem, when the finger is pointed
to it. Like many other plants, it is also affected by electricity ; and may be killed by
poisons, — by piercing with the fang of a rattlesnake, for instance, just as animals are,

The grand distinction, however, was thought to be in the nature of their food,
and the mode of nutrition. Animals have stomachs, it was said, in which they
■digest their food, which must be organized material, either animal or vegetable ;
while plants have but roots and leaves, by which they absorb the inorganic elements
only. There are, however, many plants known that make prey of animals, aud
digest them, a portion of their structure acting as a stomach, and secreting a true
gastric juice, exactly like that found in the stomachs of animals..

The Dionea Muscipula, or Venus's flytrap, for instance, and the Drosera, are
each provided with an apparatus by which they catch insects, kill them, and
afterward digest them. In these plants parts of certain leaves are endowed with
a peculiar sensibility, which causes them to fold over upon any insect that alights
upon them, and imprison it till it dies. Then certain glands pour out a fluid,
which has the same properties as the gastric juice secreted in the stomachs of ani-
mals, and which dissolves and digests the insect the same as the animal digests flesh.
If a small piece of raw meat even be placed on a sensitive leaf, the plant will eat it
in the same way, and we can thus feed the plant as we would an animal. A list
can be made out, by careful observation, of the substances it will eat, and those it
will not, and some will be found even that will disagree with it, or cause sickness, as
with our own stomachs.

It is not mere common sensibility which these plants exhibit ; for if any other
body is placed on the leaf, or other sensitive part, it will not fold over to hold it,
though it may throw it off, as it does the indigestible parts of the insect.

That this is really a process of digestion, and that the leaf acts just as an
animal's stomach, there can be no doubt. If we take a piece of meat, and place it in
a bottle, with some gastric juice taken from an animal's stomach, it will not taint, nor
decompose, but will slowly dissolve, or be digested, just as it would be in the stomach
itself ; and the secretion from the leaf of a Dionea, or Drosera, acts in exactly the
same way : it is, therefore, true gastric juice. As a further proof that this is the way
the plant feeds, or, at least, the chief way, its roots are but very partially developed ;
they seem adapted only for anchoring the plant in the ground, and keeping it up-
right, and not for purposes of nutrition, as we usually find them in the vegetable
world. The leaves also retain their power of seizing and digesting animal food for a
long time after they are torn from the plant — even till they are beginning to wither
—which shows that they act independently of the roots.

Besides the two above mentioned, there are many other plants now known that
exhibit this remarkable habit of insect-eating. In fact, new ones are being dis-
covered all the time, the habit being more general than was formerly supposed.

The sensitive leaf of the Drosera is somewhat like a flat button, surrounded on
the edge by a fringe of arms, or tentacles, as they are called. These are formed of
thin stems, or filaments, each with a small round disk, or gland, on the top. These
arms easily bend at the lower part, and curl over, so as to bring the gland on the

AND TEE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

49

Figure 10.— Leaf of the

top down to the central disk. They act just like the limbs of an animal. If an

insect alights on the small disk on the top of one of these arms, it bends over till it

touches the center of the leaf. What is very remarkable,

also, all the arms near enough to help bend over at the

same time, and to the one point ; but none of those do so

that are too far away.

In Fig. 10, a bit of meat has been placed on the central

disk, near one side, and all the arms on that side have

bent down on to it, or are bending down, to secure the

prey, while those on the opposite side out of reach remain

erect.

In Fig. 11, the bit of meat being placed in the center

of the leaf, all the arms are bent down on to it alike, from

all parts of the circumference.

It will be observed that the arms bend only at the

lower part, but their sensibility rests in the gland, and

upper part. No animal could detect its prey quicker by

sight than these plants do theirs by the sensibility of

their glandular hairs. It seems as if they were contin- Drmem^o^gyL of the

ually on the watch. But place any substance on the disk tentacles bent over, and part

not suitable for food for them, and they will not notice it. erec "

If two or more bits of meat be placed on the central
disk, at different points, all the tentacles nearest to each one
will bend over to that, and seize it They seem never to
make a mistake, but each one helps to seize the piece that is
nearest within its reach. Any one might readily imagine it
was an animal, grasping its prey.

The minutest portion of animal substance is sufficient to
cause this wonderful action. A fragment of hair, weighing
not more than the seven-thousandth part of a grain, will
cause a tentacle to bend over. It is remarkable however, that,
in spite of this extreme sensibility, drops of rain may fall on
the glands without any effect. — The tendrils of climbing
plants also, which are extremely sensitive to almost every-

2>rS?r^th11aMt'S£ert thinS». are similarly unaffected by rain-drops.

in the center, the tentacles It is observable, further, that after these arms have been

all round bent down upon it. activej in bending over> a remarkable change takes place, for

the time being, in the molecular structure of the base, where the bend occurs

In other words, cell transformation takes place as it does in animal muscle, when

that is active.

In regard to the digestion of the animal matters thus seized, Mr. Darwin says

that the action of the fluid secreted by the glands of the Drosera, on albuminous

matters, is exactly like that of animal gastric juice. Chemical tests, and experi-
ments, in fact, show the two to be identical.

It is very curious, also, that if leaves of the Drosera be stripped from the plant.

they still retain, for a long time, this power of seizing prey, and digesting it. A leaf

will seize an insect even when it has begun to wither.

As another instance of the wonderful sensitiveness of the glands of the Drosera, it
4

50 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER,

has been found that the two-hundred-thousandth part of a grain of carbonate of
ammonia will affect them ; while the same salt, absorbed by the root, exerts no influ-
ence whatever. Of phosphate of ammonia not more than the nineteen-millionth part
of a grain is needed to produce the same result.

This shows a degree of sensibility in the glands of the Drosera, a plant, far beyond
anything with which we are acquainted in the nervous systems of animals. How
far this may be accompanied by anything corresponding to consciousness, we do not
know, but we scarcely seem justified in saying positively, that there is nothing of the
kind.

These wonderful vegetable glands may also he poisoned, by many substances, just
as the human stomach may be ; or they may be
made to suffer from indigestion by too much
food, or from that of an improper quality.

In short, here are true nervous action and sen-
sibility, with a real power of seizing animal prey
and digesting it, besides being able to distinguish
it from other matter.

In Fig. 12 is shown the sensitive part of a
leaf of the Dionea, or Venus's flytrap. In or-
dinary conditions, this is spread out flat, but if an
insect alights upon it, the two parts of the leaf close
together like a trap, so as to shut it in. When once
entrapped, the leaf remains closed till the insect is
■of J%£m iC^ouTd &s. digested, and then opens again, ready for more.

ties act like the teeth of a trap, and
assist in holding the prey .

On the edge of the leaf are certain stiff hairs,
like thorns, in which the extreme sensibility ap-
pears to reside, and which assist materially in holding the prey firmly when
caught.

The closed leaf in this case is a real stomach, as well as a trap,
and the fluid it secretes is true gastric juice, like that of the Drosera.
See also Fig. 16, on page 52, in which the leaves will be seen fully
expanded, and in all stages of- contraction.

Besides these two, there are many other animal-eating plants
known, and daily being discovered. The common Butterwort, or Pin-
guicula, is one of these : it is shown in Fig. 13. The edge of the leaf
is seen bending over a row of flies, attracted there by the secretion
of the leaf glands, which holds them fast. Once inclosed, the leaf
remains curled over till they are digested, and then opens, to act the
same part over again. This plant, however, will dissolve some vege-
table matters, as well as animal ones, especially those that are nitroge-
nous.

Fig. 14 shows the common Utricularia, or Bladderwort, a water ^['"''showino
plant, which is also an animal-feeder, but catches its prey in a dif- how it curls
ferent manner. This figure is about twice the natural size. It ^t0 traP its
will be seen that on the branches there are a number of small round
bodies, most of them with hair-like fringes, or bunches of bristles, on the top.
These are the bladders ; they are about the tenth of an inch in diameter, hollow,
with a mouth, and the hair-like tentacles around the lips, exactly like some of

Figure 13.—

Leaf of Butter*

AND THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

51

the infusorial animalcules. The mouth is closed by a kind of valve, which opens
only inward. Into these bladders, or traps, small animals enter, and find it impos-
sible to escape, owing to the valve. They are
then retained till they die, and are used as food.
The bladder is thus a stomach, which catches
its own animal food, by which the whole plant
is nourished.

It does not appear, however, that the animals
so caught are digested in the same way as in the
Drosera, or Dionea, for there is no proper gastric
juice secreted. They simply remain there till
they decompose, and are then absorbed, probably
in the gaseous form.

Fig. 15 shows one of the bladders cut open,
and much enlarged, so that the mode in which
the valve acts may be better understood.

Besides the mechanical action of the leaves
and tentacles, most insect-feeding plants are also
covered with a shiny, sticky fluid, which both
attracts their prey, and also helps to retain it.
This is the reason for the name of Sun-dew ap-
plied to the Drosera, because it shines in the sun
like dew.

The common Catchfly, or Campion, catches
insects in this way only, and is nearly always covered with them. It has no ten*
fcacles or other apparatus, but holds them merely by the sticky secretion till they die.
Many other plants do the same, but in what way they use the prey so caught, if

Figure 14. — Utricularia, or Bladder.
the bladders or sacs in

s its prey.

wort, sho
which it catc

Figure 15. — One of the Bladders of the Utricularia, cut open and spread fiat, to show the
fringes, and the ribs which work the valve to close the mouth. — Magnified.

they do use it, we do not know ; probably it merely decays, and they absorb its
gaseous emanations.

Mrs. Mary Treat has contributed to the American Naturalist some very curious
observations made upon the Drosera. She found the specimens upon which she
experimented in New Jersey. The plant was in full bloom, and growing very thickly
on either side of an extensive cranberry plantation. The first experiment was made
with the best-known species, the Drosera filiformis. Some living flies were pinned
half an inch from the leaves near the apex, about 10 o'clock in the morning. In
forty minutes the leaves had bent perceptibly toward the flies. In two hours the

52 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER,

leaves had reached the flies, and their limbs were entangled among the bristles, and
held fast. The flies were then removed three-quarters of an inch farther from the
leaves, which still remained bent toward the flies, but could not reach them at
this distance. The observer thinks that the action of the flies' wings may have
created sufficient force to bring the leaves near enough to entangle the flies, for dead
flies fail to produce the same result as living ones. On the same day bits of raw beef
were placed on some of the most vigorous leaves of another species of the plant, the
Drosera longifolia. In two hours two of the leaves had folded around the beef,
hiding it from sight. Living flies were also placed upon the same species of the

plant. In a little more than an hour one
of the leaves had folded entirely around
its victim, the other leaves had partially
folded, and the flies had ceased to strug-
gle. Two hours later, four leaves had
each folded around a fly.

The Drosera manifests a very decided
choice in regard to its gustatory fancies.
Experiments were made with bits of dry
chalk, magnesia, and pebbles, but the plant
would have nothing to do with them, and
after twenty-four hours neither leaves nor
bristles had made the slightest movement
toward clasping these articles. A similar
result was produced upon the Drosera ro-
tundifolia. - This variety has longer bristles
around the edge of the leaf, and simply
curls its bristles around its victims, the
glands on the ends of the bristles touch-
ing the substance, like so many mouths re-
ceiving nourishment. Some bits of raw
beef were placed upon the leaves about 10
o'clock in the morning. In two hours the
inner bristles were curving about it, and
the longer bristles at the edge of the leaf
were curving upward. At 9 o'clock in the
evening the bristles of the three most vig-
orous leaves were clasping the beef, almost
Nor is this fe-

Figup.e 16.

trap.

'enus's Fly-

In this cut the structure of the Dionea is concealing it from sidit.
well shown. The trap, it will be seen, is on the . ° x , °, .,, ., .

end of each broad leaf, and is shown both opened rociOUS plant contented With small insects,
flat, with the hairs spread out, and also closed, Mies of the largest size, moths without
in various stages. Those tightly shut up con- . 1 , . . n . , , .

tain insects being digested. number, and butterflies, many of them

measuring two inches across, were held
captive till they died, the treacherous flowers and shining dew luring them to
destruction. The larger insects, after death, fell around the roots of the plants,
as if to fertilize them, while the smaller flies remained adhering to the leaves.
These curious plants thus seem to manifest a decided preference for meat diet,
absorbing the animal substances through their leaves.

The dog's-bane — Apocynum androsemifolium — catches insects in a different way

AND THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 53

but probably for the same purpose : whenever a fly is attracted by the honey of the
flower, and protrudes its trunk to take it, the filaments close tightly on the trunk,
and hold the fly there till it dies, when they relax, and let it fall.

Another very striking proof has been obtained of the identity between the secre-
tion from the leaf of the Dionea, and animal gastric juice. It is well known that,
the gastric juice will dissolve almost all organic matters, even bones, if allowed
sufficient time. It has been known to dissolve the stomach itself even, after
death. The juice from the leaf of the dionea, as before stated, will dissolve meat,
and digest it, the same as the animal gastric juice ; and recently, instead of meat, a
piece of the bony part of a dog's tooth was placed on one of these leaves, which closed
upon it at once, and retained it. It a few days the leaf was opened, and the piece
of tooth found perfectly softened, and fibrous, so that the mere opening of the leaf
tore it into shreds.

A further proof of the similarity between the animal and vegetable gastric juice
is also found in the fact, that the presence of food in both causes the juice to
be immediately secreted.

The difference then, between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, disappears when
we come to understand both more fully, and it is really very difficult to say if there
be any faculty, or property, peculiar to either one alone. It would seem rather that
the plant and the animal should be looked upon as one and the same, at the begin-
ning, and diverging more or less in different directions as they develop. Possibly
&ny primary protoplasmic germ may become plant or animal according as it is in-
fluenced by surrounding conditions, such as light, heat, electricity, etc., when it
starts upon its career of development.

There is a peculiar fungus found in tanpits, which, when placed under new con-
ditions, changes completely. From a decided plant, growing in one spot, it becomes
an entirely different being, capable of moving about, and of eating, and digesting
solid food. In fact, it becomes an animal, to all intents and purposes.

Such an occurrence still further increases the difficulty of determining what is
the real, essential difference, if any, between the two kingdoms. We have plants
that move about, and animals that are rooted ; we have plants with sensation, and
animals apparently without ; we have plants that digest animal food, and animals
that live upon vegetables ; and, lastly, as stated above, we find that one can change
into the other. The simple explanation of these seeming anomalies, is, as previously
stated, that they are both fundamentally the same.

Eecent observations have also shown another point of resemblance, of a very in-
teresting and important kind. It is well known that, in animals, muscular exertion
is always accompanied by an electric current in the muscle, the force of which is in
exact proportion to the violence of the exertion. This electric condition remains in
the muscle even after death, till the body becomes rigid. The current is strongest
in the warm-blooded mammals, gets less in reptiles, and scarcely observable in fishes.
This, it must be observed, is different from the electric battery of the torpedo-fish,
which is developed by a special apparatus. These electric currents in animals
have been known for some time, and recently similar currents have been detected
also in plants. When any of the insect-eating plants contract their leaves, to seize
their prey, an electric current is established in them exactly similar to that which
is found in an animal's muscles when they are exerted. This is another and very
interesting point of identity between the two kingdoms.

54

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER,

"When the leaves of the sensitive plant contract and expand, from a touch, the
same thing is observed, an electric current being immediately established. And Mr.
Darwin says that by pricking a point in the leaf of Drosera, he can paralyze half of
it, and this indicates the existence of nerves or something analagous.

After all, it may be said the grand distinction lies in the possession of mind by

animals alone. This, however, may be more apparent than real, or may be only a

matter of degree. When we observe the apparent intelligence, or sense, often shown

by plants, we are quite justified in supposing that it may be the same as anim*l intel-

Aft,

Figure 17. — Mimosa Pudica, or Sensitive Plant, asleep and awake.
The leaves on the left side will be seen fully erect, and the little leaflets expanded. On the
other side the whole leaf is drooping, and the little leaflets are closed, just as they are when the
plant is touched, or frightened.

ligence, only less in degree, and manifested by less perfect organs. Observe how
singularly a plant will stretch and bend its branches to get into the light ; and how
its roots will turn, even at right angles, or around corners, to reach rich soil. Many
of them always close their leaves, or flowers, on the approach of storms, and some
will not unclose at all, if the weather is going to be unfavorable.

AND THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 55

It will be said, I know, that this is all mechanical, and that there is nothing like
mind about it ! But we cannot be sure about that ; for, as said before, it may only
be a very low degree of mentality. Some idiots have scarcely any more mind than
some plants; and the vital functions they perform are almost, if not quite, as
mechanical. In fact, the difference between a thorough idiot and some plants,
seems not greater than that between the same idiot and a perfectly sane man of
large mental capacity.

We may even go beyond this, and when we see one kind of matter unite with a
certain other kind only, selecting it by preference from among many others, we may
not unreasonably say, — here is the same faculty, in a less degree, that we see in
plants and animals, — that of choice !

The formation of crystals, of frost figures on our window-panes, and numerous
other familiar instances, show us that matter always arranges itself according to
fixed and unchangeable laws, whose action is simply more perfectly manifested in
organized bodies than in simple ones. What we call attraction only in the crystal,
is selection in the plant, and choice in the animal. Nature is one, and the same
powers exist in her atoms, and primary forms, as in the most complicated organi-
zations.

The well-known sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, exhibits sensibility in a very
marked manner, and has, in consequence, always been an object of interest and
wonderment.

In Fig. 17, the Mimosa is seen asleep and awake. On the left-hand side the
leaf-stalks are seen all erect, and the little leaflets spread out. If one be touched
with the finger, even slightly, the small leaflets close together, and the stalk bends
down, as seen on the other side. After remaining closed, and drooping for some
minutes, if not further irritated, the leaflets again slowly open, and the stalk again
becomes erect. This may be repeated over and over again, and the Mimosa may
in this way be readily put to sleep, and kept so for a long time. A drop of acid
on one of the leaves will make the whole plant close up, and the same effect
follows if we throw the focus of a burning-glass on any part. Even striking the
ground, some distance away, will affect it ; or a loud noise, like thunder, or the
discharge of a gun. It is also sensitive to sudden sunlight or shadow, and can be
stupefied by opium, or killed by an electric shock. Prussic acid is instantly as fatal
to it as it is to animals ; ether spray paralyzes the leaves ; and a current of galvanism
from Euhmkorff 's coil closes them immediately.

In short, it is affected by any of these agencies just like an animal, and can become
accustomed to many of them, as an animal does. A sensitive plant when first taken
into a carriage closes up, from the motion, but after a while seems to get used to
it, opens out again and remains open, but closes when the carriage stops, to open
again as before.

Undoubtedly, this is true sensation, of the same kind as that we experience
ourselves, and quite as strong as we see in many of the lower animals.

Many other plants, however, are known to be sensitive, more or less, and probably
all are so in some degree.

Motion in plants is also common enough, and sometimes is quite vigorous. The
Colocassia esculenta moves in regular periods, like the beating of the pulse, and
sometimes so violently that it will almost overturn the pot in which it is growing
The Desmodium gyrans, or telegraph plant, is still more remarkable. Its leaves

56 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER.

are in threes — one at the end of the stem, and one on each side. The two side ones
flap up and down all the time, day and night, at regular intervals, while the center
one moves up and down, according as there is more or less light.

If we touch the stamens of some plants with a needle or knife, especially those of
the Barberry, Nettle, and Cactus, they obviously shrink away from it ; and in other
plants the pistils will draw together when so touched.

The pollen of some plants resembles animalcules, and will swim about in water,
just as they do, being provided with little oars, or cilia, for the purpose. Some
pollens are even formed like eels, and move about by means of two long filaments on
their heads. Others, again, resemble the tadpoles of frogs, and flit about just like
them.

Many plants move in a remarkable manner, and put forth astonishing efforts, to
reach water or light. Thus, M. Grimard tells us of a little plant — Lathrea squamaria
— which, happening to germinate at the bottom of a mine, extended itself 120
feet to reach the light at the top, and yet its ordinary height is not more than six
inches.

In short, we find in plants the power of motion, apparently voluntary — selection,
or choice — and sensibility, exactly as we see them in animals ; and the conviction
forces itself upon us that they are the same in both kingdoms of nature, only
modified and different in degree.

When we come to speak upon reproduction, other points of resemblance will be
shown still more striking.

In a lecture delivered at the London Institution, Mr. Francis Darwin gave some
very interesting information concerning the analogies between plant and animal
life, in addition to what had previously been imparted by his father, Mr. Charles
Darwin.

After first illustrating, in a very felicitous manner, the striking resemblance
between a vegetable seed and an animal egg, in their structure and manner of devel-
opment, he alluded to the recent discovery, by a German chemist, of the existence
in all germinating seeds of a peculiar ferment, which acts like the pancreatic juice
in animals. This ferment changes the starch and nitrogenous matters of the seeds,
which the young plant cannot use as nutriment, into sugar, and other compounds,
which it can use. In other words, it digests them, just as they are digested in the
stomachs of animals.

A ferment of this kind exists in all seeds, when they are germinating, and thus
a young plant acts just like a young animal, in regard to its food, and is nourished
in a similar manner. Farina or arrowroot, which are forms of starch, will not
nourish a child until they are changed into sugar, and other compounds, and this
change is effected by digestion. In the same manner exactly, the starch in a seed
cannot nourish the young plant, till it undergoes a similar change, by the action of
the digestive ferment.

If we carefully examine a seed, as a bean, for instance, we find it composed of
two similar halves, called the cotyledons, which may be compared to the yelk of the
egg. They are composed chiefly of starch, with some nitrogenous material, and
between them lies the embryo, or germ, of the future plant, which, when it begins
to grow, sends one shoot down as the root, and another up as the stem. All its nour-
ishment, before the root and leaves are formed, is derived from these two halves of the
seed, which are gradually converted, by its digestive ferment, into suitable nutritive

AND THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 57

material. They gradually change from white to green, and finally become the first
pair of leaves, charged with chlorophyl, or green protoplasm.

To prove that this is what really occurs, Van Tieghem cut away from a growing
seed all the substance of the cotyledons, leaving the shoot, or embryo, only, which of
course could not then grow, any more than a young chicken could grow without the
yelk of the egg. When placed, however, in a paste made of starch and water, it
began to develop, the same as it would have done had it been left in connection
with its own store of nutriment ; but first, by the action of its digestive ferment,
changing the starch into suitable material.

The young plant, therefore, digests its food just as the young animal does, and
when we eat a grain of wheat it undergoes, in our stomachs, just the same change as
it would have undergone, had it grown into a plant.

Among animals, we have some kinds that live entirely on flesh, and others that
live entirely on vegetable matters, and it is just so with plants. The Drosera, for
instance, feeds on insects, or meat, while the bean feeds on starch. But both digest
their food just the same. It is the same function in all, modified only by difference
of structure.

In the degree of development to which they attain, before being left to them-
selves, young plants also vary the same as young animals. Some young animals are
connected with the mother till fully grown ; others are cast off imperfect ; and in
many the egg develops entirely away from the parent. It is the same in plants.
Most seeds are thrown off and develop independently, but others remain attached to
the parent till fully grown and rooted ; as the mangrove, for instance. As a rule, those
seeds that have the largest cotyledons, or stores of food, grow the most vigorously at
first, before they become rooted, and thus have the advantage over others not so
well provided, and crowd them out. Some young animals have a similar advantage,
and in the struggle for existence hold their own better in consequence.

Even what are called instinctive actions, in young animals, are paralleled by
similar actions in young plants. The child will take the breast as soon as born ;
the chick, just hatched, will peck at its food ; and the young caterpillar will work its
way out of the cocoon. In the same way the young plant sends its root down into
the ground, and its stem up to the light with unerring certainty. The root will twist
and turn in various directions to find water, or food, and the stem will similarly turn
and bend to reach the light. These actions are just as wonderful as those of the
animal, and probably are fundamentally the same, only modified by difference of
organization.

Some plants even sleep, just like animals : the Mimosa, for instance, closes its leaves
at night, just as an animal closes its eyes, and droops its fronds, just as the animal
does its limbs. Many others always close their flowers at night. These sleeping
plants may also be awakened, just like animals, and kept awake, by artificial light
and stimulation.

Mr. F. Darwin even supposes that the sensitive plant may dream, because some-
times at night, when asleep, it will suddenly awake, as it were, with a start, and then
go to sleep again, just as a man often does from a vivid dream.

Many of the systematic motions of plants, and many of their periodic actions,
are wonderfully like memory. They do the same things at regular times, or under
the proper conditions, just as we do from habit. And we often do things thus
habitually, with no more thought than the plant.

58 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTER,

It is certain the plant knows, in some way, the right thing to do, and does it, at
the right time, just as the animal does ; and it is quite reasonable to suppose that
the moving impulse is fundamentally the same in both.

Mr. Darwin says, in conclusion, " Until a man begins to work at plants, he is apt
to grant to them the word alive in rather a meager sense, but, the more he works at
them, the more vivid does his sense of their vitality become ! "

All which goes still further to show, as we have endeavored to illustrate elsewhere
also, that nature is one all through, and that in the organic world, animal and vege^
table are fundamentally the same. That all the phenomena we call mental — con-
sciousness, desire, aversion, will — are attributes of matter, existing in all forms and
quantities of it, down to the merest molecule, is now considered probable by manj
of the first thinkers and observers of the day. It is even conceived that mind may
be only a form of the force, or power, inherent in matter, which underlies all natural
phenomena of every kind, so that the world of thought is a part of the material
universe, and not something outside of it.

Von Zellner, in his work on the nature of comets, distinctly states that position,
and argues that it is only the imperfection of our own faculties which prevents us
seeing the life and mind that are in all material bodies, whether organized or not.
We are not justified, he says, in asserting that the motions which occur in an
injured crystal are totally unaccompanied by sensation. If our faculties were acute
enough to trace all the changes accompanying the injury, and to appreciate the
conditions they give rise to, we might find in the crystal a sensation strictly analo-
gous to the pain felt by an animal when hurt. It would, of course, be modified,
and be in lesser degree, from the greater simplicity of composition and structure of
the crystal, compared with that of the animal.

In short, if our senses were acute enough, and our brains sufficiently developed,
we could probably trace all the complicated phenomena of life and mind from one
stage to another, down to the simple motions of protoplasmic animalcules, and from
thence down to the force which is inseparable from molecules and atoms.

Geiger has well remarked that there may be, farther down, below the world of
nerves, a sensation which we cannot understand. Indeed, he says, " It probably
must be so. For as a body that we feel could not exist unless it consisted of atoms
that we do not feel, and as we could not see a motion, were it not accompanied by
waves of light which we do not see, neither could a complex living being experience
a sensation strong enough for us to feel it also, in consequence of the motion by
which it is manifested, if something similar, though far weaker, and imperceptible
to us, did not occur in the elements, that is to say, in the atoms."

It is true we do not know that the stone we break with a hammer really feels the
blow, in some sense ; but neither do we know that it does not feel ! Each one must
decide for himself as to which is the most probable.

It has been argued that plants have no nerves, so far as known, and therefore
cannot feel ! But there are also animals in whom not a trace of a nervous system
can be found, and yet they plainly exhibit some kind of a sense. The Amoeba is
apparently as nerveless as any plant, and yet it feels when any bit of nutriment
touches its body, and folds around it at once. Several others of the lower organisms
will direct their tentacles toward their food and seize it, as certainly as if they
saw it, and yet no nerves can be traced in them.

The fact seems to be that all organic bodies possess nervous currents, which

AND THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 59

influence their motions, just as all simple inorganic molecules possess polarity.
These currents run in certain lines, and, as the organization becomes more perfect,
these lines become specialized as nerves or conductors. The power is there, whether
the nerves are or not ; but with them it is distributed with more precision and
intensity.

The circulation of the sap in plants may also be referred to as another corre-
spondence between them and animals ; for it is strictly analogous to the circulation
of the blood, and undergoes similar changes, by osmotic cell action, to convert it
into protoplasmic material. The subjoined plate, showing the yearly gathering of
sap in a maple-sugar forest, will serve to show the immense scale upon which this
circulation and conversion takes place*

[It should be remarked here that many of the names made use of in this
chapter, and many of the things referred to, will be more fully explained farther
on. It was necessary to speak of them here, by way of illustration, before they had
been properly introduced. In fact, this chapter should be read again after the next
one on cell life.]

PART III

CELLS AND CELL LIFE. — ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE
CELLS, AND THE DIFFERENCE IN THEIR COMPO-
SITION.—THE LOWEST FORMS OF LIVING BE-
INGS ; THEIR UNIVERSAL DIFFUSION AND
VARIETIES.— THE GERM THEORY OF
DISEASE.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS — VESICLES AND CELLS.

The first forms of life, as already shown, are simply minute specks of protoplasm
like spots of jelly, or white of egg. They have no definite form, no organs, nor any
investing membrane. The only sign of life they exhibit is simple motion. They
are probably nourished solely by absorption, from the fluid in which they live and
move. Many of them are exceedingly minute, requiring a powerful microscope to
distinguish them, and often can scarcely be told from the inorganic matter around
them.

In all probability protoplasm is formed from inorganic matter, as before explained,
and then portions of it are so acted upon, by surrounding agencies, that they separate
from the mass, and assume the first form of independant vital action — simple motion.
The passage from inorganic matter to this form is probably all the time taking
place, imperceptibly, without any sudden transition, as we see in the beds of pro-
toplasmic ooze at the bottom of the sea — the Bathybius of Huxley, — and also in
atmospheric protoplasm, formed in the air by the union of water, ammonia, and
carbonic acid. Small molecules may also, in all probability, be formed independently ;
and these may really be the germs found floating in the atmosphere. These germs,
therefore, which are said by the opponents of spontaneous generation, to be necessary
to the origin of life, in organic infusions, may, in part at least, be simply pro-
toplasmic specks, formed in the air, and not necessarily derived from other beings
previously existing.

The first advance from this simple protoplasmic speck is to what is called the
cell, or vesicle. The surface of the speck becomes firm, — probably from heat, or from
the chemical action of some of its surroundings, — and forms a covering, like a bag.
We then have a true vesicle, or cell, which may be likened to a minute bladder, filled
with a fluid, containing often a number of little granules, or grains, and sometimes
a dark speck called a Nucleus. The Nucleus also is often found to contain a fluid,
and to have a speck of its own, called the Nucleolus ! That is, there is one cell within
another ; and how far this may go we cannot tell. Perhaps if we could see farther,
we should find still other nuclei within these. It was formerly thought that the
cell was the ultimate unit of every organism, or the first stage upward from inorganic
material. We now, however, go beyond the cell, to the primal protoplasmic speck, —
or the moner, — from which the cell originates. When formed, from the primal pro-
toplasmic molecule, the cell is the actual building unit of every organism, animal and
vegetable, they all being built up from it. It may, in short, be properly called the
primary Universal Organic Germ. All cells are essentially the same, and begin in
the same way from specks of protoplasm, no matter what kind of being they may
build up, or how they may be modified. All kinds of animals and plants are, there-
fore, made in the same way, by the aggregating together of cells, as will be shown
more fully farther on. All eggs and seeds are only cells.

64 FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS.

Numerous animals, and plants also, consist only of single cells, and are therefore
called unicellular, or one-celled. They are the lowest and simplest of all organisms.

These simple cell beings can seldom he classified as either animal or vegetable ;
probably they are neither, but capable of becoming either, according to the conditions
under which they may be placed. The only difference between those cells known to
be vegetable, and the animal ones, is this ; that the membrane of the plant cell usually
becomes hard, or woody, while that of the animal remains soft and pliable ; and this
difference arises in this way. They both start from the same kind of germ, as already
explained, and are afterward nutrified by the same elements. Circumstances, how-
ever, so influence some that they absorb a large amount of carbon, and this element
makes the iuvesting membrane, and all the tissues formed after, dense and firm ; makes
them woody, in fact — carbon being the solid element in wood. In this way, the cell
develops into a plant. Other cells, on the contrary, are so situated that they absorb
more nitrogen, in the form of ammonia ; and this makes a soft and pliable membrane
or tissue — a skin, in fact — and these cells, in consequence, form animals. Nitrogen,
therefore, is essentially the animal element, as carbon is the vegetable element. The
life process in each is afterward modified by this primary difference in constitution.
The plant needs carbon to effect its growth ; it is, in fact, its nutriment, and it obtains
the element from the atmosphere. The carbonic acid, always present in the air,
is taken up by the plant, and decomposed, the oxygen being restored to the air, and
the carbon retained to form fresh wood.

All the immense amount of wood in our present forests — all that has ever been
before, and all our coal — have been taken by plants from the air, by the influence o:t"
sunlight, without which the plant cannot decompose the carbonic acid.

The animal needs nitrogen, and obtains it by absorbing ammonia, which it
decomposes, and then uses both the nitrogen and the hydrogen. In its food this
animal also takes more or less carbon, in the solid form, or combined with other
elements ; but it retains only a portion, the rest being got rid of in the process of
breathing. In the lungs, the blood, containing more or less carbon, is acted upon by
the air, the oxygen of which unites with the carbon to form carbonic acid gas, which
is expelled as part of the expired breath. In other words, the carbon is burned, just
as wood is burned in the fire ; only the combustion is slow and smothering, instead
of active. In this way the carbon is got rid of, and heat produced at the same time.

The animal thus throws out what the plant needs, — carbonic acid, — and the plant
forms what the animal needs, — protoplasmic material from inorganic matter ; — so
that the two mutually work for each other. To show, however, how the two king-
doms approach each other, some of the funguses not only decompose carbonic acid, ap-
propriating the carbon and expelling the oxygen, but also absorb nitrogen, like plants.

This will explain the essential differences, in structure and action, between plants
and animals, so far as they exist.

Oxygen, it should be remembered, is the destroying, or changing, element. It
has a tendency to unite with, or burn up, almost every known element or com-
pound. In the case of wood, we know how it unites with it, or burns it up, in an
open fire. But it does the same in the air without fire, though more slowly. If we
leave a clean piece of new board out in the air, we know how soon it becomes discol-
ored, or darkens, and finally slowly decays. This is owing to the action of oxygen,
which unites with it and burns it slowly, but just as surely, as if it were burned in
the fire.

FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS. ^

Even metals are consumed by this all-devouring element in the same way. A
bright piece of iron, or zinc, left in the light and air, soon becomes coated with rust,
as it is commonly called, or oxidized. The oxygen combines with it, or burns it,
and forms the rust, or oxide. All substances, both organic and inorganic, are con-
stantly being consumed in this way.

This is important to be remembered, as it will have to be referred to subse-
quently.

Animal activity, of every kind, may be said, in one sense, to be dependent upon
a constant oxidation, or burning, of the materials of the body. Plants deoxidize car-
bon and other substances, and animals oxidize them again ; so that animal life is as
much a result of fire action, or combustion, as is the steam of the steam-engine.

The lowest forms of cell animals — called protozoa, from two Greek words meaning
first, and animal — the very simplest, as already stated, are only single cells, without
organs or definite form : but, by almost imperceptible stages, we can trace a gradual
advance to more perfect; forms ; that is, to the development of organs for special
functions. These organs, at first, are but few, and the most simple conceivable.

The minuteness of some cells may be conceived when it is stated that, in a gen-
eral way, as many as twenty millions could be placed on a twenty-five-cent piece.

The cell membrane, or outer skin, is so formed that fluids can pass through it,
either way, under certain conditions, although it seems perfectly uniform and with-
out pores. This is the case with every animal membrane, as with a bladder, for in-
stance. If an ordinary pig's bladder be filled with water, and hung in the air, no
water will pass through it to the outside, but if, when filled with water, it be put
into strong brine, some of the brine will soon pass through to the water, and some
of the water to the brine.

This curious and very important property of animal membrane may be stated thus :
when the fluid on one side of the membrane is denser than that on the other, the
two will pass through it, in opposite directions, and mix together, by what is called
the action of osmose. This property of membrane is now much used to separate
different substances from each other, by what is called dialysis. The way in which
the growth and nutrition of the cell is effected by means of osmose, can now be
readily understood.

Whenever the fluid in which the cell is placed is of a different density to that
inside the cell, this process of osmose takes place. Part of the cell contents go to
the surrounding fluid, and part of that enters the cell. All substances chemically
different, act and react upon each other, and very quickly, if they are fluids. The
contents of the cell, therefore, become affected by this admixture, and a series of
changes takes place, resulting, sometimes, in the further growth of the cell, and, at
other times, possibly in its death and decomposition. The whole time this process
must be going on ; so that the functional life of a cell, insignificant as it may seem,
is as active in its way as that of a man.

The whole process of the first formation of a cell and its subseqtient growth can
now be easily shown.

We have only to conceive a speck of protoplasmic matter, — a monad formed by
natural agency (as above explained), — placed in a fluid medium, and the cell results
inevitably. The protoplasmic speck is at first homogeneous ; that is, all alike, out-
side and inside, all through. It has no investing skin, nor any internal cavity.
This is the first and simplest form of life, so far as we know.

66 FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES ANL CELLS.

If, in the surrounding fluid, there be any substance that acts chemically on the
albuminous protoplasm, so as to harden the outside, as many substances do, a skin
or membrane is formed, which surrounds or incloses the fluid inside, just as the
bladder does the water. A certain amount of heat will also do the same. This is
the first step. Then begins the process of osmose through the membrane, by which
the surrounding fluid is sucked into the interior of the cell, and still further modifies
iis contents. Once these changes are begun they continue, in a thousand different
ways, thus producing all the modifications of cells, and of the beings formed from
them, as revealed to us by the microscope.

One of the changes which thus result from osmose is the formation of new
cells inside the original one. A portion of the hardening chemical matter is drawn
in through the membrane, and acts on the fluid it comes in contact with inside just
as it did outside, forming a membrane, which incloses a portion of the fluid, and
thus makes a new cell. In fact, this process often goes on so fast that it can be
watched under the microscope, and the new cells will sometimes multiply so rapidly
that the parent cell bursts, and a swarm of new cells issues forth, while we are look-
ing at them.

This is probably the first and simplest form of reproduction ; and under condi-
tions favorable to cell growth countless millions are thus incessantly issuing forth.

Many of them live and die only simple cells ; others assume various forms, and
aggregate together, so as to form compound beings. In fact, as we have already'
shown, the cell is the fundamental organic unit of every organism. Man him-
self is built up of cells, and nothing else ; and all the time, without intermission, new
cells are being formed in all parts of his body, to take the place of the old and worn-
out ones that are being cast off. Nutrition is nothing but continued cell action, or
the production and assimilation of new protoplasm. If this cell action supplies new
material faster than the old decays, the being grows ; if the contrary, it wastes.
When full grown, for a long time, waste and restoration keep pace with each other,
and it holds its own, as we commonly say. The duration of cell life, however, is
limited, and this power of continued reproduction ultimately fails, and waste, or
cell death, goes on faster than cell reproduction. Then decline begins, and finally,
the reproductive impulse being totally exhausted, death ensues.

This death, however, is only a change. There is still the same matter there, to
the utmost atom, with the same amount of force, and new combinations at once
take place. It is only the form, or particular aggregation of cells, that is broken
up, and destroyed. It is the same as if a mechanic should take to pieces a compli-
cated machine, and out of its separated parts make a number of smaller new machines.
There is still the same material, possessed of the same properties ; and the sum of
the power that was in the original large machine is embodied in the many smaller
ones. He destroys neither matter nor power when he breaks up the original, nor
does he create any new matter or power when he reconstructs. It is only a re-
arrangement, or new birth.

Death is, therefore, the breaking up of one arrangement of cells, and birth is
their re-arrangement in a new form. Life is in everything, — there is no such thing
as creation, — nor death, in the sense of annihilation or total inertness.

If, after the death of a man, we could bring together again the same elements,
in the same way, and under the same conditions, we should reproduce the man, just
as he was1.

FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS.

67

Among the lowest forms of living cells are those called the Gregarinas. These
are globular, ovoid, rod-like, thread-like, and of various other forms ; for it must be
borne in mind that the cell is not always like a ball, but may be pulled out in one
direction, like a thread, or be of any irregular shape, and still be but one vesicle. In
the fluid interior of a gregarina is usually seen a mass of small grains, and generally
a larger body, the nucleus, which is usually free from the granules, surrounded by
fluid, and containing a nucleolus. It has neither mouth nor limbs, is colorless, and
with but little capability of motion.

The subjoined cuts will show some of the prevailing forms of gregarinas. But,
there are innumerable

others ; and they are all the time vary-
ing, so that no form is constant.

The usual residence of the grega-
rinas is in the intestines of various ani-
mals, especially the cockroach, where
they live as parasites. In size, they are
found from that of a small pin's head
up to sometimes half an inch long, when
they have a worm -like form, and occa-
sionally one end is turned round like a
hook, apparently as a means of hanging
on to any object. This is the only ap-
proach to the formation of a limb ever
seen in them.

The psorosperms are usually found
in the bodies of fishes, and are supposed
to be only imperfect forms of grega-
rinas.

"When being examined under the
microscope, two gregarinas may fre-
quently be seen to come together. They
then flatten out at the points of contact, a membrane forms around them both, and
they become one, but double. This is shown in the first stage, in/, and, when com-
pleted, in a.

This union of two seems to be something like a sexual effort, for, when it takes
place, the interior soon fills up with a number of globular bodies larger than the ordi-
nary granules, each one of which ultimately develops into a navicula, or little boat
(e). Finally, the partition between the two parts of the double cell disappears ; it
bursts open ; and the naviculas escape into the surrounding fluid. After a time they
burst also, and out of them arise a number of curious bodies resembling those called
amoeba, some of which are shown in the plate on the following page.

These amoebas ultimately return to the usual forms of the gregarinas.

The navicula, it should be observed, sometimes forms in the interior of single
individuals, as well as from the union of two.

The real nature of the gregarinas is still in dispute. Some naturalists contend they
are vegetable forms, and not animals. This, however, is of little moment, for they
may be either or neither, originally, and yet become the one or the other. They are
simple one-celled beings, of the most primitive kind.

Figure 18. — Various Forms of Gregarinas.

a, b, c, d. Different forms of Gregarinas. /. A
younger stag^e of a. g, g. Psorosperms. e is a
peculiar modification, called a Navicula, or little
boat. The Psorosperms are probably only imma-
ture Gregarinas, or germs not fully developed.

68 FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS.

Figure 19. — Various Forms of Amceba-like Bodies, resulting from the bursting of Namculas.
a. Young Amoeba. 6. An older one. c. A peculiar variety, v. A Nucleus.

A few years ago great consternation was excited, among ladies who wore false hair,

by the announcement that in nearly all cases it abounded with gregarinas ; and
such is really the case, for dead hair, when closely
packed, especially if not perfectly clean, is one of
the most likely things to produce them. It was
shown, by a celebrated microscopist, that many a
lady carried millions of these creatures in her false
locks, and that from them they probably often passed
to her own hair. As no special harm was shown
to follow from them, the excitement died away ;
but the idea of their presence is not agreeable, to
say the least.

The true amoeba is a being a little further ad-
vanced ; for we see in it the rudiments of a stomach,
and limbs. It is simply a unicellular organism,
like a small bag filled with jelly-like protoplasm,
living in fresh water, usually when it is stagnant
and full of putrefying matter. It may be said to
possess a stomach, a circulating apparatus, and
limbs, but of the most simple and strange character.
It propagates either by dividing itself, or by casting
off bits of its substance, which grow into new
beings, or it gives off buds, which develop in the
a. An Amoeba at rest. 6. One same way.

with limbs thrown out. At c two ml ,. „ „ ,. , . ., , .

limbs are seen forming a temporary The ordinary form of the amoeba is that of a

stomach. At d, Fig. 19, the stomach shapeless bag containing granules, and a nucleus, as

is more nearly completed, and is seen • -p. 0f.

folding round a grain of starch. seen m a> * ]&- M-

In this being, then, we have the first definite

organs, not permanent, but formed as the animal needs them. When an amoeba.

as a, for instance, needs a limb, to reach anything not close by, it simply pushes

Figure 20

FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS. 69

out, or elongates, a portion of its substance, like a finger, till it is long enough,
and then, when the purpose is effected, the limb is drawn back, and is again lost in
the substance of the body. When active, the amoeba pushes out a number of these
false limbs, of all shapes and sizes, in all directions, as shown in b, and when no
longer needed, draws them all in, and becomes again a shapeless bag.

It is this constant change of form which has caused it to be sometimes called
the Proteus, meaning the changeable.

When it needs a stomach, for a temporary purpose, it is formed similarly to an
arm. Eolling about in the surrounding fluid, the amoeba comes in contact with a
portion of matter suitable for food, but, having no mouth nor stomach ready
formed, one has to be made on the instant, in order to appropriate the morsel,
and it proceeds in this way : As soon as touched by the object, the amoeba draws
itself in at the point of contact, so as to form a hollow place, the sides of which
roll round the object till it is entirely inclosed. Or a limb may form the stomach, as
at d, Fig. 19. The substance may be said thus to be swallowed, and the cavity in
which it is shut serves as a stomach, in which it is dissolved, and such parts as
are fit for food are absorbed, by osmose, into the general body. When this is fully
effected, the temporary stomach pushes itself out again, level with the general sur-
face, or possibly becomes a limb. Any indigestible portion of the object so swal-
lowed is thus thrown out and got rid of.

Nothing can be imagined more simple than this, but it serves its purpose per-
fectly. Every part may be stomach or limb at any moment, just as it may be
needed.

The following is another being of the same class, called the Gaping Leucophrys.
This animal is merely a bag of jelly, a single cell, like the amoeba, but
it may be considered a slight advance, inasmuch as it is formed like a
pouch, or pocket, the cavity inside serving as a permanent stomach. It
does not need, therefore, to make a new stomach each time it takes food.
This stomach, however, is only like a fold of the skin pushed in, and is
in no way specialized. To facilitate nutrition it has no mouth, properly
speaking, but the entrance to the inner cavity is always gaping open, so
that the surrounding fluid flows in and out all the time, without hinder-
ance, and from this fluid the walls of the cavity imbibe nutriment, as
needed, — or practice osmose. L^eiwoplvrys'.

It may be said that the movement of the amoeba in taking its food
is simply automatic, or like that of a plant in the process of growth, with no
element of intelligence or mind in it whatever. This view, however, does not ac-
cord with the facts. There may be numerous portions of matter floating around,
and it will take only the appropriate one, which it will separate from the rest. If
a portion of its proper food be dropped in while the arms of the amoeba are ex-
tended, they will immediately turn and seize it, as an animal does its prey. In some
cases it has even been seen to lie in wait, or watch, for starch granules floating out
of a piece of a torn plant. If this be not intelligence and will, though in a low
degree, we cannot truly say what is, nor can we begin to imagine where mere auto-
matic motion ends and true mind begins.

The more reasonable supposition seems to be, that what we call attraction and
repulsion in inorganic matter, or selection in the lower organisms, is the same
power that we call intelligent will, or choice, in the higher animus. It is merely

70 FIRST FORMS OF LIVING ORGANISMS, VESICLES AND CELLS.

different in degree or amount, according as the parts of the organism are more or
less differentiated and perfected.

This fact of the original oneness of power, and function, in every part of the cell
body alike, is very important and interesting. All our senses — sight, hearing, smell,
and taste — are only modifications of touch or feeling. The eye feels one way, the ear
another, the nose another, and the tongue still another. It is all touch, or feeling,
with different instruments.

Now, in the simple cell, this sense is exhibited in one form only, because there is
no variety of structure, no special organs, but every part is capable, under proper
conditions, of being specialized, and so modified as to become eye, ear, nose, or
tongue, or equivalent to them.

A man, being built up of cells, exhibits their properties, and, in his early
existence, before his organs have been differentiated to their special uses, he probably
has, like them, only the simple sense of touch all over his body ; and if either of the
special sense organs becomes imperfect, as we well know, it becomes capable of
simple touch only. Thus, an imperfect eye feels only, but does not see.

It is this fact, that every part of the living structure, primarily, is alike, in regard
to sensation, and that certain parts are specialized so as to modify it, which has led
some people to suppose that any and every part may, under peculiar conditions, ■ be
so modified as to see, hear, smell, or taste. In some forms of disease, it is said, or
in highly wrought nervous states, various parts of the body may become so intensely
sensitive to light that they can see, like the eye ; or they may even hear, smell, or
taste. Thus, people are reported to have been able to see with the backs of their
heads, or with the ends of the fingers.

Without stopping here to discuss the truth of this assumption, it is useful to
show on what it is founded. All parts of the body are endowed with common touch,
or feeling ; but whether any part can be so over-sensitive as to have special sensation
without a special organ is doubtful, to say the least of it. In the lower animals,
simple touch serves every purpose of sensation, and they have no need of special

CHAPTER IX.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. ,

To those not accustomed to the wonders of the microscope, some of tne details
we give of the minute beings, called infusoria or animalcules, must appear very
astonishing. When it is remembered, however, that some of our best microscopes,
in ordinary use, will enlarge objects fifteen hundred times their natural size, and
some even many thousands of times, the wonder will lessen. Numerous classes of
these beings are totally invisible to the unaided eye, and but for the discovery of the
lens, we should never have known of their existence.

The great difficulty in examining these beings, next to their smallness, is their
extreme transparency, and absence of definite color : they form no vivid contrast
with their surroundings. This difficulty, however, has, in a great measure, been
overcome by the application of a very simple discovery. It is found that if carmine,
a bright-red coloring matter, be put in the fluid where animalcules are, they will
fill themselves with it, so that they become deep red and very plainly visible.

It must be remembered, also, that among the animalcules there is great diversity
of size. Some of the monads, for instance, are so minute that powerful glasses
are needed to make them visible ; while others, like the kolpodes, can be plainly
seen with the naked eye. In fact, there is as much comparative difference of size
between the two, as between a mouse and an elephant.

In one respect, they are all \erj peculiar. Every other known being requires
stated periods of rest : in animals, this is taken in the form of sleep ; but these primi-
tive beings never rest ! They are always, so far as examined, in incessant motion,
night or day. Owen thought that this never-ceasing activity was the result of their
immense powers of digestion.

These beings are found in all decaying matter, in water, in the polar ice, in
snow, in the depths of the ocean, and in the air. In short, no place is free from
them, and though so minute, yet are their numbers so enormous, that in mere bulk
they go far beyond all the larger beings that ever existed. Their tenacity of life,
under every variety of condition, is another wonderful trait. At the extreme North,
where only a few scattered large animals are met with, and where all ordinary vege-
tation ceases entirely, the animalcule, in some form, is always found living and
active. Sir James Ross collected over fifty species of microzoa on the ice, in the
polar seas, all living, and many of them were even brought home alive. In the
same regions, mud brought up from an ocean depth of 12,000 feet was also found to
contain them.

All muddy water is full of them, and even most of that we drink contains them
in immense numbers, so that we swallow constantly millions of them, fortunately
without injury.

The luminosity of the sea, so often seen, is caused by myriads of phosphorescent
animalcules, and the shining of dead wood in the forest results in the same way—
from fungus growth.

72 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

Sometimes water has been known to turn red, like blood, to the great terror of
superstitious people, and many strange explanations have been given of the phenom-
enon. The microscope, however, shows us that the blood-red appearance is caused
by infusoria of a deep-red color. These at times, from some favorable conditions,
multiply in enormous numbers in an incredibly short time. They appear to be
both plants and animals, and many different species of them are known. The
Bed Sea owes its color to this cause.

It will be remembered that in the time of Moses, it is said, the water turned to
blood.

Even in the bowels of the earth we find the infusoria in such incredible numbers,
dead and alive, that they form beds many feet thick ; and yet several of them are
not more than the forty-five-thousandth of an inch in diameter. The city of Berlin,
in Prussia, is built upon a living, moving bed of this kind, and so is Richmond, in
Virginia. In other places they form a large part of the soil, especially where this
has resulted from muddy deposits.

Travelers in snowy regions have often been astonished to see the snow, as the
water sometimes is, quite red, and this is now known to be caused by the rapid mul-
tiplication of a peculiar microscopic organism, called the Discera nivalis, which lives
and propagates on the snow. This appearance has been noticed in various parts of
the world, and it is always found to be owing to the same cause.

The astonishing rapidity with which these peculiar beings multiply will be better
understood by considering their mode of propagation. They simply subdivide, by
fission, and the process is constantly repeated with every individual, and with all its
descendants. Thus, one divides into two, each of these into two, and so on without
ceasing. Imagine, then, one hundred of them only, to begin with ; their descend-
auts would soon be countless. Ehrenberg says, one individual may produce a mil-
lion, in twenty-four hours, and in four days one hundred and forty billions, or equal
to a cubic foot of ground. — The rapidity with which funguses grow in a single night
is also well known.

The dead and living microscopical organisms, of various kinds, in the air, are
perhaps as numerous as those in the earth or the water. Sometimes they form real
clouds, like fogs, which intercept the light, and make it difficult to breathe. And
in this way are probably often formed those showers of flesh, as it is called — a jelly-
liKe matter — which often fall over a large extent of country. It is simply a rapid
formation of fungoid protoplasm, and it may be of a nutritious character, like ret-A
flesh. It is also sometimes red in color, and more fluid, so as to stain whatever
it falls upon red. It is then often called a shower of blood, and the world has
frequently been alarmed by such showers, which are, however, just as natural
as ordinary rains. The manna in the wilderness, it is thought, was of this char-
acter.

But, in addition to all these varied conditions, similar beings are found, in per*
haps equal numbers, in the very material of all plants and animals, and in all sub-
stances we consume as food or drink. On our teeth, in the saliva, all through thte
intestines, in the liver, the brain, the eye> and every other part, strange beings live
and multiply their kind. The staggers in sheep is caused in this way, by colonies of
small worms, which develop in the brain ; and peculiar liver affections result in the
same way, while intestinal worms are only too well known.

Most of them, however, do no serious harm, and some are perhaps natural and

(JNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 73

inevitable ; but there are others which cause great suffering and loss of life. Among
them may be mentioned the Trichina spiralis. This terrible little worm seems
natural to the pig, and from it is often transferred to man. To the pig itself, the
trichina is not especially hurtful, except when very abundant, but in man it causes
intense suffering and even death. The trichina and its young are contained in the
flesh of the pig, and that being eaten by man, they are taken into his intestines,
from whence they burrow through the intestinal walls and make their way into
the muscles, where they live, causing pains like those of rheumatism, with fever,
diarrhoea, and even death.

The trichina is found only in the lean or muscle of the pig, and not in the fat,
and may be killed by thorough cooking. It will apparently stand boiling-heat for
a short time, but if it be kept up long enough to perfectly cook the flesh, the trichina
is killed. The ham. is the part worst affected, and many fatal cases of trichinosis,
as it is called, have resulted from eating ham raw, or only smoked. Many Germans
have lost their lives from so using it, and also from eating half-cooked sausages.
When fried or broiled, some part may easily escape being perfectly cooked. Thorough
loiling is the only safe mode of preparation. It should never be eaten raw !

Below is shown the trichina in its various stages.

Figure 22. — Trichina Spiralis.
This figure shows a Female Trichina,
giving birth to her young. They are
developed from eggs within her body,
and ejected alive, as seen in the pic-
ture. This is magnified six hundred
diameters, from which the natural size
can be estimated.

Figure 23. — A thin slice of hum, magnified, showing
the Trichinas actively at work, boring among the musealar
fibers.

Once introduced into the body, we know of no way to dislodge them, and there-
fore extreme care should be exercised in having pork always thoroughly cooked.
Smoking, salting, or pickling will not kill trichina.

Measly pork, it should be stated, is by some thought to result from trichina.

Numerous as infusorial beings are at the present day, there is good reason to sup-
pose that in former ages they were still more so, for in some parts whole mountains
are composed of their remains. Some siliceous beds even, the hardest material we
generally find among rocks, are made up of similar remains. The powder called
Tripoli, used for polishing, is almost entirely made of the flint skeletons of infrt
goria, many of which are so perfectly preserved that their species can be uprer-
mined.

74 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

A bed of tripoli is, therefore, only the cemetery of the infusoria of past
ages.

The deposit on which the city of Richmond, Virginia, is built, is of a similar
character, and is several hundred yards deep.

The material called electro silicon is a similar deposit, being formed almost
entirely of flint-shell diatoms ; and there are many other deposits of a like char-
acter in various parts of the United States. They all make excellent polishing
powders.

In the Isle of France there is a similar deposit, which extends some ten leagues5
and is from ten to fifteen feet thick. A cubic inch of this will contain forty million
infusoria. The numbers in the whole deposit are, therefore, past all our power of
expression.

We find similar remains in solid flints, and other hard stones, sometimes richly
colored. The red stone called carnelian, used in jewelry, owes its beautiful color to
red infusoria.

It has long been known that in some parts of the world there are peculiar beds
of earth, a sort of clay, which is eaten both by men and animals in large quan-

Piguke 24. — Infusoria in Mountain Meal, from Ebstorf.

titles, and it is beyond doubt capable of serving as food. The nature of this earth
was long a mystery, till the microscope showed that it was mainly composed of mi-
nute infusoria. It is, therefore, an organic matter, probably both animal and vegeta-
ble. An earth of this kind is sold in the markets in Bolivia, and is often preferred
to other food. In the forests of Carolina, and Florida, the negroes also use a simi-
lar substance for food.

A common name for such earth in Europe is mountain meal, and it is often mixed
wich real meal, to increase the quantity. In some regions hundreds of wagon loads

UNIVERSALITY OF TEE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 75

»re used in a season. The preceding cut shows the appearance, under the micro*
scope, of a few grains of mountain meal from Ebstorf, in Germany.

In Lapland a variety of this material is found so highly nutritious, and so much
like real meal, that it is even made into bread.

Many varieties of limestone used for building are composed almost entirely ol
infusoria and other small beings. The stone of which the Pyramids of Egypt are
made is of this kind, being mostly composed of the shells of nummulites, which
lived in a far-distant period. There were other builders, therefore, millions of years
before the Pyramids were erected.

At the present moment, the same process is going on as of old. In the bed of the
sea just such formations, of unknown thickness, are being made by similar beings to
those which made the fossil beds which we have spoken of.

In fact, the minute, simple, and apparently insignificant beings, such as those we
have been describing, both animal and vegetable, have made a large portion of the
bulk of the earth with which we are acquainted.

Figuke 25. — Infusoria, dredged from the bottom of the Antarctic Ocean.

This shows the abundance and variety of these beings in the ocean ooze, now
forming new beds, similar to the ancient chalk. They are mixed, in many parts,
with bathybius, Huxley's protoplasmic jelly, from which new beings are probably
being continually generated spontaneously. When the membrane of one of the pro-
tozoa assimilates lime, or silex, to form a shell or framework, it often assumes the
most beautiful geometrical forms, instead of being without regular form, as in those
that remain soft.

This is probably due to the fact that crystallization, an inorganic process, here
comes in and modifies the organic animal development. The variety, beauty, and
perfect regularity of these coverings of simple cell beings, are truly wonderful.

?g UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES).

Inorganic matter, like lime, or silex, always has this tendency to assume reg-
•alar geometric forms, while organic protoplasmic or albuminous matter is never
crystalline, nor regular in any form. It is called colloid. White of egg, and gum, or
jelly, are instances of this colloid tendency. The smooth, soft, curved bodies of
animals could not be formed with crystallized matter, which is also fixed in form,
and unyielding. They require soft, formless, colloid matter. This explains why
the soft animals are so variable, and those with hard shells, or frames, so regular in
form.

There is a large class of these shell-coverod unicellular beings, the foraminifera,
that are very interesting in many ways. They belong to that indeterminate region
of life midway between animals and vegetables, not being definitely established as
either the one or the other. They are of various forms and sizes, though mostly
minute, and they exist in countless numbers in various conditions, but especially at
the lowest depths of the ocean, where their shells, minute as they are individually,
form immense beds. Even at the depth of three miles the dredge brings up these
foraminifera, dead or liviug, and often nothing else.

The deposit which results from their decay is almost identical with the chalk
found so abundantly in England, and which contains similar remains. Apparently,
at the present time, just such a formation is being made in various places at- the
bottom of the present ocean.

Among the various forms of the foraminifera, we find triangles, quadrangles,
crescents, disks, objects like boats, and all kinds
of beautiful curves. The little shields, or shells,
often of ^me. flint, are sometimes most beautifully
dotted, or regularly marked with arabesque lines,
in various ways, but nearly always in regular pat-
^ _^9 terns. They are sometimes called brittleworts,
from their extreme fragility. They move about in
the water by spasmodic jerks, with various degrees
of rapidity, apparently from the impetus given
to them by currents of fluid established between
them and the surrounding medium, by osmose.

Although they are single-celled animals, the
foraminifera are generally found in pairs, closely
united, so that the two look like one individual
divided by a line into two equal parts. This
In the smaller figure, A and B are arises, however, from their peculiar mode of mul-
^t™^Zgt^i&zZt tiplication, each individual splitting in two, and
ally wider, as shown hy the space d, d each part becoming a perfect individual. Each
from6 i^SSf ' E^of^ °f «"» new beings divides in two again, and so on
ginal diatoms, and there are then four indefinitely. Owing to this peculiarity of form

KS^aS^dttiiiS they are called Diatom8> from a Greek ™d

between them. The next step is the meaning cut in two. They are always seen in
S^on^'^SiSne^1?: this process of dividing, so that each one always
going together, and B and b. Then appears to be a pair. The accompanying figure
lata0/ T^Bin^XdeS&Saia' sh°™ «* peculiarity very well: it represents a
diatom called the Surirella.
The foraminifer is not completely surrounded by its shell, or case ; there is always

.A B

ll

m

n

Figure 26.— The Surirella,— Diatom.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 77

some part, or parts, where it is open, and where osmose can take place, as it does in
the whole surface of the amoeba. In many cases, also, the shell is full of little holes,
resembling dots, through which it can at any time push ready-formed
thread-like arms, like an amoeba.

The following cut shows various forms of the foraminifera.

Figure 27. — Various Forms of Foraminifera

a. A flask-formed Foraminifera. 6 shows the temporary limbs pushed out in large numbers,
from the opening in the shell which serves as a mouth, c. Another form, showing the limbs pro-
truding, like a bunch of hair, from the little holes of the shell, d and e are other forms. / is a
peculiar foraminifera, called Globigerina, found in immense numbers in the sea, down to the lowest
depths, being sometimes dredged up from three miles below the surface.

The oldest known fossil animal is one of the foraminifera. It is called the Eozoon,
or dawn animal, and was discovered, quite recently, in Canada, in one of the
most ancient known rocks, previously thought to be quite destitute of all animal
remains.

There is one form of limestone, found in large beds, called nummulitic lime-
stone, from the immense number of shells called Nximmulites found in it. They are
all shells of foraminifera that lived untold
ages ago. The stone is in parts almost en-
tirely formed of them. A few forms are
shown below.

Figure 28. — Nummulites, from the Eocene
Strata.

This is the stone used so largely in building
the Pyramids of Egypt.

Figure 29.— Miliola. The Infusoria
which mainly composes the limestone
of which Paris is largely built.— Mag
nified.

78 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

Some other forms with hard skeletons, and numerous spines, are called Radiola-
ria. Two of these are figured helow.

They are both single-celled animals, or protozoa, and the kind represented by a is
called acanthrometra, or thorny. The large spines are formed of flint, and are
hollow, forming tubes through which the thread-like limbs are thrust, as seen in the
figure ; but there are limbs that do not come out of the spines, as will be seen.

Figure
a is the Acanthrometra ; & the Haliomma.

In 5 the thread-like limbs are seen protruding all over the surface, as well as
through the six large spines.

The variety of form, structure, size, and mode of living of these primitive organ-
isms is simply indescribable. As we advance upward among them, we begin to find
permanent limbs, true stomachs, proper mouths, and a circulatory apparatus. In
other words, different parts of their structure become differentiated, or specialized,
for particular uses. From these we ascend to others, still more specialized or per-
fected in their development, and formed of larger aggregations of cells, till we
arrive, by successive gradations, through various types, up to the most perfect of all.

To show how difficult it is to destroy the germs of the lower organisms, it may
be stated that Mr. J. Wyman found that some of them were able to withstand
four hours' boiling ; and Mr. Grace Calvert asserts they can endure either 400
degrees of heat, or 17 degrees below freezing ! — an astonishing range, far beyond
what higher organizations can pass through unhurt. But it is quite possible that
the original germs did not withstand this treatment. New ones may have been
spontaneously generated in place of them.

To still further prove their universality and importance as regards health, it has
recently been shown that the miasma, or poisonous air, which makes the Campagna
near Rome so unhealthy, is probably caused by a microscopic fungus. The atmos-
phere, in the sickly season, is filled with this minute organism, which being inhaled
with the breath causes malarial fever.

Professor Low found funguses in both the milk and the blood of cows that dran..
water containing numerous diatoms, and other similar beings. Many of the cows
were made sick from this cause ; and it is quite probable that their milk might
cause sickness when drunk. This shows the need for pure water to our animals as
well as to ourselves.

In short, microscopical infusoria are everywhere, and have more to do with health
and disease, and with changes in the world at large, than many people suspect.

The lower organisms, bacteria, vibriones, and funguses of various kinds, are

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 79

very generally found in many epidemic diseases. The horse disease, so prevalent a
few years ago, illustrates this very well. The following cut shows the appearance
of the discharge from the nostrils of a horse affected with the epizootic influenza.

Most of these are fungoid growths of various kinds. Their spores, or germs, were
very numerous, some thousands being found in a single drop. They were also
detected floating in the air, which shows the necessity of keeping diseased animals
away from healthy ones, and of properly ventilating and cleansing their stables.

Figxtre 31 . — Mucus, from the Nostril of a Diseased Horse, much magnified.

It is very probable that many kinds of chronic catarrh, especially what is calle*
hay fever, may originate from similar growths, the mucous membranes of some
people being favorable to their development, while those of other people are not.

In connection with this topic, the new views on disease germs, and also the most
recent experiments of Professor Tyndall on spontaneous generation, should not be
passed over without special mention. As far as the artificial generation of life is
concerned, in infusions confined in sealed tubes, without air, or with air perfectly

80 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR YARIETIES.

clean, they are conclusive ; for they show undoubtedly that life never appears if the
air is perfectly clean. They also show the difficulty there is in getting air that is
perfectly clean, especially in cities. It almost everywhere contains clouds of minute
specks of floating matter, which it is very hard to get rid of. They are mostly starch
grains, probably from the pollen of plants ; minute fragments of woody fiber, and
of animal substances of various kinds, such as hair, skin, and dried mucus. These>
are what we see when a beam of sunshine passes across a dark space, no matter how
clear the air may seem. They are commonly called motes.

It is these particles of organized material, which are called the atmospheric
germs, and which, when they fall into any of the organic infusions, develop infu-
soria. There is, however, no good reason for considering them alias true germs;
that is, eggs, or seeds, which have been produced by other organisms like those into
which they develop. In fact, we do not know that many of these produce germs at
all, at least not sxich as float in the air. It is quite reasonable to suppose, also, that
many of these protoplasmic particles, as before remarked, may be formed spon-
taneously in the air, by natural means, and may be just as effective as those derived
from pre-existing organisms.

It follows, therefore, that the generation of life in these infusions may be spon-
taneous, strictly speaking, even granting the necessity for the presence of these
organic atmospheric particles.

But even if this be not allowed, it does not prove that spontaneous generation is
impossible, but merely that it does not occur under certain experimental conditions.
It may occur under other conditions, and probably does.

The difficulty of getting air perfectly clear of organic particles is very great, and
this has caused the failure of many experiments, apparently carefully conducted. Ib
some places they are very abundant, and in others, very scarce, so that an infusion
may escape being impregnated with them in one locality, and yet be immediately
impregnated in another. Thus, Pasteur prepared a number of flasks, filled with
organic infusions and carefully sealed, some of which he opened on the Alps, by
the Glaciers, and others in the plains. Of those opened on the mountains, only one
out of twenty showed some signs of life, while of those opened in the plains, eight
out of twenty soon swarmed with living beings ! Others, that were opened in the
caves under the Paris Observatory, where the air is perfectly clear, showed no signs
of life whatever.

Air may be passed through oil of vitriol, solution of caustic potash, alcohol,
ether, and various other substances, and yet apparently retain these organic particles
unchanged and unhurt.

If they exist they cannot be killed that way, nor be washed out, except with the
greatest care, and by working slowly. This is why many experimenters still found un-
clean air, after all their precautions, and when they thought it must be perfectly pure.

In all cases, however, if air be confined, and left perfectly still, all the organic
particles will settle down, as floating matter does in water, and it will become in
time perfectly clean. This is the way in which Tyndall clears air ; by simply letting
it stand undisturbed, in a proper vessel ; and when this is coated with sticky mat-
ter, like glycerine, all the precipitated particles are firmly held. Such air, when a
beam of light is sent through it, shows no motes or dust, and will not cause infu-
soria to appear in any infusions it may come in contact with.

To show the difference in the air of different places, Tyndall improved on Pas-

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. gl

teur's experiments. He prepared, in London, sixty glass flasks, rilled with an infusion
of turnip, which is known to be one in which life quickly appears, under ordinary
circumstances. The ends of these flasks were drawn out to a fine point, and after
the infusion in them had been boiled for five minutes, this small end was hermet-
ically sealed, by melting the glass with a blow-pipe. Here, then, were sixty flasks,
containing the infusion which had been boiled, and the air in which had been sub-
ject of course to the same heat. Now we will see what happened to these in differ-
ent circumstances. They were taken to Switzerland, to the mountains, seven thou-
sand feet above the level of the sea, in the month of July. Four of them, it was
found, when they got there, had the small ends broken, and these were full of life,
ail the rest being quite clear; two were accidentally destroyed. The remaining
fifty-four flasks were then exposed to the sun by day, and placed in the warm
kitchen at night, for a month ; four of them were casually broken, but the remaining
fifty remained perfectly clear, with not a sign of life in them. It was then de-
termined to let the air into them, to see what would result. Twenty-three of them
were opened, by breaking off the small ends, in a hayloft, and twenty-seven were
opened in the same way on the edge of a cliff, overlooking the Glacier, where the
air might be supposed to be clear.

As soon as the ends of the flasks were broken off, there was, of course, an in-rush
of air, because the boiling had made a more or less perfect vacuum. All the flasks
were then placed in a warm situation, by a stove, with the necks open, and in three
days twenty-one out of the twenty-three opened in the hayloft were filled with living
beings ; while, after three weeks, not one of those opened on the mountain ledge had
the least sign of life, all being perfectly clear. Now, these flasks were all alike, to
commence with, and were all treated exactly the same, the difference in the result
being caused,' it is obvious, by the difference in the air ; that from the hayloft being
loaded with particles of organic matter, while that from off the Glacier was clean.
Such experiments seem conclusive as to the need of organic particles, in those par-
ticular solutions, under those conditions, to cause evolution of life ; but they do not
prove that those particles are either seeds, or eggs, by any means, nor that the result
might not have been different in the same solutions in other conditions.

In other experiments, Professor Tyndall showed how much the air of London, like
that of all cities, is loaded with organic particles, and how difficult it is to perfectly
get rid of them. He, however, proved that if the air in a tight box be left perfectly
still, it will in a few days become quite clear, all the organic particles having settled
on its sides and bottom, which should be coated with glycerine, to retain them. In
such a box he left open flasks, filled with various animal and vegetable infusions ;
but in no case did living beings appear in any of them, while in the clear air of
the box. But in three days after the box was opened, and common air admitted, all
of them were filled with infusoria. This was again conclusive that the dust parti-
cles in the air were the cause, in this case, of life in the infusions.

The quantity of these organic particles in the air is very variable, as before stated,
in different places, and under different circumstances. Some localities abound with
them, while others are comparatively free, and even in the same place they may be
much more abundant at one time than at another. They are not all of one kind, as
might, indeed, be surmised, and have very different properties ; some being easily
killed, while others are so only with difficulty. Thus, some of these so-called germs,
Tyndall tells us, will be quite killed by five minutes' boiling, while others endure fif-

82 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

teen or thirty minutes, and others, again, almost every period up even to eight hours
boiling. Possibly there are even some that will survive more than that, while there
are others that will be killed if the water bo no hotter than can be bcrne by the hand.
The infusoria themselves do not endure these intense and prolonged boilings ; it is only
the dry, hard particles, which are so dense that probably the boiling water does not
penetrate them, except with extreme difficulty. In proof of this, Tyndall shows that
if any infusion full of infusoria and their germs, be only slightly boiled, at repeated
intervals, so as to attack the living beings as they develop, one after another, the
whole infusion will in time become quite sterile. He shows further, by another ex-
periment, that an artificial mineral fluid, which infusoria will live and propagate in,
if placed there, will not develop them, though it be plentifully supplied with atmos-
pheric germs.

In a more recent communication, Dr. Bastian argues that Tyndall's experiments
by no means justify the conclusion he comes to. He especially calls attention to the
fact, that animal germs, or, indeed, animal tissue of any kind, cannot be compared
with seeds, and plant tissues. The horny coating of many seeds niay, as experiment
proves, withstand very prolonged boiling ; but animal germs are essentially composed
of albuminous and fatty matters, which are entirely changed by a very moderate
degree of heat. In fact, all known germs of the lower animal organisms are mere
naked specks of protoplasm, none of which, as experiment has shown, can stand a
heat of even 180° for a single minute. How, then, could they survive a much greater
heat for a much longer time ?

Dr. Bastian does not deny that the organic particles in the air may materially
hasten the development of organisms, in an infusion, and, perhaps, even determine
it, in some cases, when it would not otherwise take place ; but he still contends that
this development does often occur, in sealed and boiled infusions, without their aid ;
and Dr. Burdon Sanderson testifies that he has watched Bastian's experiments, and
is certain of the truth of this. Other experimenters, also, have obtained similar
results, so that Bastian's statements seem fully confirmed. There are, then, but two
conclusions which can be arrived at in regard to this matter : either the organisms
formeu under such circumstances are spontaneously generated, or they, or their
germs, can withstand boiling for an indefinite period, and yet live ! Bastian con-
tends that it is more consonant with known facts, and more reasonable, to suppose
that spontaneous generation does occur, in such cases, than that the organisms we
find have withstood such treatment ; and many agree with him. The question,
therefore, is by no means decided, and it is fortunate there are such excellent cham-
pions, on both sides, hard at work in support of their respective views ; for it is only
by continued experiments and observation that the truth can possibly be arrived at.

A few remarks from eminent men, bearing upon this question, may here be use-
ful to note. Burdach very pithily reminds the germ theorists that they have never
shown their germs ; and that when they say, they are too small to be discovered, it is
tantamount to saying they know nothing about them.

Mr. G. H. Lewes, in his "Physical Basis of Mind," says : "I cannot see 'the
evidence which would warrant the belief that life originated solely in one micro-
scropic lump of protoplasm, on one single point of the earth's surface. On the
contrary, it is more probable that from innumerable and separate points of this
teeming earth, myriads of protoplasts sprang into existence, wherever, and when-
ever the conditions of the formation of organized substance were present. It is

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 83

probable that this has been incessantly going on, and that every day new protoplasts
appear, struggle for existence, and serve as food for more highly organized rivals ! "

Huxley says : " It is not probable that there is any real difference in the nature
of the molecular forces which compel the carbonate of lime to assume and retain
the crystalline form, and those which cause the albuminoid matter to move and grow,
select and form, and maintain its particles in a state of incessant motion. The prop-
erty of crystallizing is, to crystallizable matter, what the vital property is to albumi-
noid matter (protoplasm). The crystalline form corresponds to the organic form,
and its internal structure to tissue structure. Crystalline force being a property of
matter, vital force is but a property of matter."

All this fully accords with what has previously been stated, and shows that the
idea of all matter being alive, in different degrees and ways, is very generally held,
by those whose studies make them competent judges. Life is but a form of motion,
and all matter is constantly in motion, no matter in what form or condition it
may be.

The atoms composing a solid mass of rock, or iron, are not fixed and at rest,
though they appear to be so ; but, on the contrary, are perpetually changing their
position in regard to each other. A bar of freshly hammered iron will appear uni-
formly fibrous, or lamellated, when examined, but after being left for a while will
be found, on breaking, to have become perfectly crystallized. The atoms compris-
ing it have rearranged themselves, according to the laws of their polarity, just as
particles of salt in solution arrange themselves in crystals when the solution evapo-
rates. Solidity is not motionless fixity, as commonly supposed, but merely a state
in which change takes place slowly. Motionless or dead matter does not exist.
Every atom is instinct with life, and organized bodies represent the combined vital-
ity of all the atoms which compose them. As Huxley says : "Beast and fowl, rep-
tile and fish, mollusk, worm, and polyp, are all composed of structural units of the
same character, namely, masses of protoplasm, with a nucleus (cells). . . . What
has been said of the animal world is no less true of plants. . . . Protoplasm, simple
or nucleated, is the formal basis of all life. ... Thus it becomes clear that all liv-
ing powers are cognate, and all living forms are fundamentally of one character."

Further than this, it may be remarked, the protoplasm of which they are all made
is merely part of the ordinary world material, such as helps to form thousands of
other bodies, commonly thought to be dead, or inert, but which merely live in a
different way.

In regard to special disease germs, some of the most eminent physicians and
sanitarians, Dr. Kichardson, of London, especially, have expressed their decided dis-
belief in them, and the reasons they give seem very cogent. It is true that in many
diseases peculiar infusoria are found in abundance, in various parts of the body, and
there seems no reason to doubt but that these organisms, when placed in contact
with a healthy body will, at least in most cases, inoculate it with the same disease;
but it by no means follows that such diseases are always caused by the germs of these
infusoria, carried in the air. If it were so, few would escape, and our struggle
against such diseases would be almost hopeless. It seems much more probable that
the infusoria are effects of the disease more than causes of it, but that, when pro-
duced, they may extend it by being conveyed into healthy bodies.

The theory of Panspermism, or the universal diffusion of germs in the atmos-
phere, from which all the inferior organisms originate, has certainly many difficulties

84 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

to contend with, and some of them seem insuperable. M. Treeul has demonstrated
that in the very interior of the substance of several plants, especially the caladium,
in the hermetically sealed cellular tissue, numerous rudimentary plants are to be
found. Now, it seems scarcely possible that either these or their germs could have
been conveyed there, and the more reasonable supposition is, that they arose spontane-
ously, either from perverted cell-growth, or as some necessary adjunct to the cala-
dium itself.

There are plants, also, that only appear occasionally, at long intervals, under
exceptional circumstances, and it seems scarcely possible that their germs should
remain in the air, waiting, as it were, for these conditions to be established. Thus,
there is a fungus which is found only on dead spiders, and another appears only on
horses' hoofs when they are decaying. Certain moths also have peculiar parasites,
found only on them, and there is a tropical caterpillar on whose neck grows a fungus
of enormous size, proportionately, and which is found nowhere else.

Is it conceivable that these germs Avere in existence, floating in the atmosphere,
waiting for dead spiders, decaying horse-hoofs, and certain caterpillars ? Is it not
more reasonable to suppose that they originate spontaneously, whenever these pecu-
liar conditions are established.

Every form of fermentation is accompanied by the growth of a peculiar plant,
which is never known to come into existence except when this kind of fermentation
takes place ; thus there is the yeast-plant, torulm, found always in fermenting beer.
Now, man must have existed many centuries before he discovered the art of making
beer, and during all that time, according to the Panspermists, the germs of the tor-
ulae must have been floating round in the air, waiting for the first brewing. Is it
not more likely that the fermentation gave rise to the torulse, without any previ-
ously existing germs ?

But, stranger still, there is a plant called the Racodium cellare. which is never
found except on the casks in our cellars, and the question naturally arises, Where
were the germs previous to the first cask and the first cellar being made ?

Berard even tells us that there is a plant which is found only on the drops of
tallow which fall from miners' candles. If these come from germs, they must have
been floating round for thousands of years, waiting for the first miner to come with
his dip ! Is it not more likely that the first drop of tallow, in such circumstances,
generated spontaneously the first of these singular plants ?

It is also well known that every sick plant is immediately attacked by its peculiar
parasite, which never appears elsewhere ; and when we think of the thousands of
different plants, it seems scarcely reasonable to suppose that there are as many
thousands of peculiar germs waiting for some of them to become sick, so that they
may grow upon them.

It would seem, in fact, that if all these thousands of peculiar growths come from
germs, the atmosphere must be loaded with them to such an extent as to be quite
unfit for breathing ; but we know this is not the case. It must be remembered that
if Panspermism be true, every kind of germ must exist everyivhere — that which
grows on the dead spider only, for instance ; for, take the spider anywhere and kill
him, and the peculiar plant is immediately found upon him.

Besides, as before remarked, the closest observation with the most powerful
glasses fails to detect these germs, so that their existence is only hypothetical. Thej
are inferred, not proved, to exist.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. g5

It is true the air is full of organic matter — in cities, at least, — but the nature
of it is well known. The microscope shows us that the atmospheric dust which
we see in the form of motes in the sunlight, is composed of fragments of animal
bodies, of our clothes, our furniture, and of everything that we handle or use.
Farina especially, or wheat-flour in small grains, is everywhere, being carried by
the air. Pouchet says he found it in the dust of Egyptian tombs, where it had
probably remained from the time of the Pharaohs. It is constantly falling upon
us, and upon all other objects, so that no place is free from it. Insects, as they
fly through the a!r, constantly receive grains of it on their wings, and it is always
found in the falling snow.

The skeletons of infusoria also abound in the air, and even live infusoria of
various kinds. Fragments of wool, cotton, silk, leather, smoke, remains of insects,
and numerous other things are revealed by the microscope, but very rarely eggs or
seeds of any kind, although according to the Panspermists, they ought to be the
most abundant of all.

All the above-mentioned matters reach our lungs as we breathe, and may be
found there after death ; even living infusoria are sometimes so met with. The
hollow bones of birds, to the interiors of which air gains access, are also occupied by
them, sometimes one ingredient preponderating, and sometimes another, according
to the conditions under which the animals live. Thus, Pouchet found in the bones
of a peacock, which lived at a chateau, remains of the dresses of the ladies who pro-
menaded on the same terrace with the bird. In a common fowl also, from a baker's,
he found abundance of flour, and remains of the coarse woolen clothes of the baker
and his family.

In like manner, birds from the fields, woods, or cities, will all show different kinds
of remains in the air of their bones, so that from these remains we could judge what
kind of life the animal had led, or where it had lived.

Now these organic fragments, as before explained, may probably assist in the pri-
mary production of simple organisms ; or by their decomposition they may help to
form protoplasm ; but they are not true germs or seeds.

In short, we find peculiar living organisms under all circumstances, appearing
instantly when the conditions are suitable, and varying with these conditions, but we
do not always find the germs or seeds from which they originate. In fact, such
seeds, or germs, are found but very rarely, and all this certainly favors the theory
of spontaneous generation.

The large plate shows a peculiar moth, found in New Zealand, called the swift-
moth (Hepialus virescens), with its caterpillar, on the head of which grows a pecu-
liar fungus {Cor diceps Robertii). The fungus finally roots the caterpillar to the
soil, as will be seen, and literally transforms the whole of the animal into the
fungus.

Dr. Jos. Hooker describes, in the London Journal of Botany, an allied specie.^
called the Splicer ia Roberta, of which a representation is here given. The caterpilla,
is seen buried in the ground, and the fungus growing above from it.

The following is Dr. Hooker's description :

Sphceria Robertii, N. Zealand : Hookek.— " They are found in spring, generally nnder tree-
ferns ; the caterpillar is buried in the ground, as is the lower portion of the fungus. The entire
body of the insect is filled with a pith, or corky vegetable substance, and the intestines are dis-
placed. What does the muscular fiber of the animal become ? It must, I suppose, be all turned

86

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

Into vegetable, for the skin of the creature remains quite sound all the time. . . . The whole
entirely metamorphosed into vegetable, with the exception of the skin and intestines.
Mr. Taylor and Mr. Colenso hold the same
opinion, that in the act of working the soil (to
bury itself), the spores of the fungus are lodged
in the first joint of the neck, and the cater-
pillar settles, head upward, to undergo its
changes when the fungus develops itself. It
is like the green mottled caterpillar, which
produces a large brown moth, numbers of
which skim all about.

The body of the insect was solid and pithy,
the outer skin attached to the substance of the
center, which has no roots in it, and, more-
over, the pith is of the same substance as the
stem, which is as thick, if not thicker, than the
body of the caterpillar. Both the pith and the
stem, when burned, have a strong animal
smell."

Eeference should also be made, in
this connection, to the interesting expe-
riments of Mr. Crosse, Mr. Weekes, and
others, in the production of insects in
mineral solutions by means of a current
of electricity.

Mr. Crosse was the first who observed
this phenomenon, now many years ago.
He was engaged in experiments upon
chemical decomposition and crystalliza-
tion, under the influence of electricity,
without any thought as to the produc-
tion of living beings. In fact, such a
thing would have been thought impossi-
ble, from the nature of the materials
operated upon. These consisted of pow-
erful acids and other chemicals, used as
solvents, with flints and similar hard
mineral substances.

His idea was to submit his solutions
to a long-continued slow action of the
electric current, so that change might
occur gradually, as it does in nature,
and the results gained were extremely
interesting and valuable. Many sub-
stances were thus formed, artificially,

Pioube

hmria Roberta, or Fungus
Caterpillar.

A is the level of the ground, the part below for the first time> and the manner in
being the caterpillar, and the part above the fun- which others are naturally produced was
gas which has grown from it. clearly ghown> Qne day> wMe ingpect.

ing a solution which had thus been a long time under electric influence, he was sur-
prised to see around the negative pole of the battery several living insects, of the

PLATE in.

l&rWi

"'" '' "" # :

2%e Caterpillar Fungus.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 87

species called Acarus ! They were of a peculiar kind, and seemed to be quite at
home in the chemical solution where they were found ; in fact, they lived only in
that, as others live in water.

Subsequent experiment showed that insects always appeared, under the same cir-
cumstances, and not only in that solution, but in others — even in poisonous ones —
under the influence of the electric current. The insects varied according to the
materials used, and each kind, as a rule, could live only in the medium in which it
was formed.

The announcement of this discovery caused the wildest excitement in scientific
and theological circles, and Mr. Crosse was subjected to so much abuse for his dis-
covery that he almost regretted having made it. He was denounced as materialist,
atheist, and everything that was dreadful ; but nevertheless the Acarus Crossii was
there, and had to be recognized.

Attempts were then made to show that it was merely a case of generation from
atmospheric germs, and not spontaneous. But still there remained the questions, —
"Why do particular kinds of insects appear only in certain solutions, mineral and
poisonous ? — and Why is the electric current always needed ? To these questions no
satisfactory answer has been given, and many very competent judges are still of
opinion that these Acari are spontaneously generated by the influence of electricity.
Such experiments have been repeated, since Crosse's time, by many persons, and
always with similar interesting results. Among others, Mr. W. H. Weekes has
perhaps been the most successful.

In a communication made by him to the author of the "Vestiges of the Natural
History of Creation," he gives full details of some very carefully conducted experi-
ments, made specially as tests. He took a glass vessel, so made that no air could
gain access to the interior, except as he wished, and this was connected by inserted
wires with a constant galvanic battery. Into this vessel he conveyed a solution of
prussiate of potash (a very poisonous salt), and also a quantity of oxygen gas, so
that the vessel was filled in the lower part with the solution, and in the upper part
by the gas, there being no common air admitted, and consequently no germs could
possibly find their way there. Every precaution was taken, both by boiling the
poisonous solution and by sending the gas into it straight from the white-hot retort
in which it was generated. There was, therefore, only the gas and the solution in a
perfectly air-tight vessel.

Then some of the same solution was put in a vessel open to the air, and the elec-
tric current was made to pass incessantly through both — entering the open vessel first.

Various chemical changes took place, but no insects were seen till one hundred
and sixty-six days after the electric current began to flow. Then, in the open vessel,
the first ones were seen, and they continued to be produced in quantities for several
months. During this time nothing of the kind took place in the closed vessel, bu*
after two years the solution therein seemed to change very much, and the insects
appeared in it also, just the same as in the open vessel ! This would seem to be con-
clusive, for if it be granted that the open vessel might have received germs from the
air, certainly none such could have reached the interior of the closed one, with its
oxygen atmosphere.

Mr. Weekes also describes another experiment, in which a thin solution of refined
sugar was submitted to continuous electric action. The result was the production of
a peculiar fungus different from any previously known, and which only came under

88 UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

the electric influence. Both this and the insects, it is worthy of remark, always first
appeared in connection with the negative pole of the battery.

Now, the whole earth, with its beds of metallic minerals, and other chemical
substances, is a vast galvanic battery, through which electric currents are constantly
passing, causing chemical changes on a stupendous scale, and, probably, also engen-
dering life, as they do in the experiments above described. It would be strange
indeed if it were not so, for natural forces act uniformly and unerringly, on the small
scale and the large alike.

In the earlier ages of the world also, as before remarked, the general conditions
were more favorable for organic development, and the electric force more intense, so
that living beings were much more readily and abundantly originated.

Experiments of this kind are now being persistently conducted, by men who have
no fear as to what may be discovered ; and I feel a firm conviction that we are on
the eve of discoveries which will revolutionize the whole science of Biology, — so far
as the first origin of life is concerned.

Observations have shown that bacteria, and other such forms of life, often ap-
pear in different internal parts of the body, apparently as a result of deranged
nutrition, or circulation, in that part. It would seem that if any such internal, part
be cut off, as it were, from the general organic life, or isolated, a morbid condition
sets in which entirely changes its mode of cell development. In such circumstances
infusoria of various kinds are produced, and probably intensify the diseased condi-
tion. They may also, as before observed, propagate the disease in any healthy body
to which they may gain access. They are therefore, properly speaking, the products
of disease, though quite capable of extending it.

Dr. Richardson is decidedly of opinion that the so-called contagious diseases
result from diseased secretion, caused by glandular derangement ; but that the con-
tagion, whatever it may be, which they give off, may also be an active cause of the
disease in those who encounter it, providing they are in a condition to be affected.
This is a very different doctrine to that held formerly — that these diseases always
began from germs disseminated from one body to another — and it is not only more
likely to be the true theory, but it is also much more encouraging to us in our con-
test with disease.

As a further confirmation of this view, another fact may be noticed, which appar-
ently proves the theory of spontaneous generation. On carefully dissecting a body
some time after death, bacteria will often be found, in abundance, in the fluids of
various internal parts, where it is certain they could not have been while that body
was living ; and where observation, immediately after death, had shown conclusively
that there was nothing of the kind. The condition of the parts is such, being
closed cavities, that it is certain germs could not reach them from the air ; and as
they could not always have been there, the inference seems warranted that they were
spontaneously generated when death occurred. These parts, being no longer working
portions of the whole body, are thrown, as it were, on their own resources ; the fluids
in them decompose, fresh cellular development sets in, and infusorial life results.
This seems very probable, and I see no other way in which the existence of these
living organisms, in such circumstances, can be accounted for.

In all probability every animal body, immediately after death, is filled with
various forms of infusoria, thus spontaneously generated, and they very likely assist
materially in its decomposition.

UNIVERSALITY OF THE LOWER ORGANISMS, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 89

In what is called Splenic Fever there is developed a peculiar animalcule, called the
Bacillius anthracis, which undoubtedly is a main agent in aggravating and extending
the disease. It is in no way whatever distinguishable from the common Bacillius
subtilis, which is quite harmless.

Now a man may be attacked with Splenic Fever, in any part of the world, where
it had never been known before, and this animalcule would immediately show itself.
Whence, then, does it come, if it be not spontaneously developed in the diseased se-
cretion ? It is true this organism may cause the same disease in another person, if he
be in an apt condition ; but it seems certain that both disease and bacillius will arise
spontaneously, where neither was known before. This certainly supports the view,
that the disease may originate the bacillius, in the first instance, though this may
extend the disease afterward.

The important part which the lowest organisms, or unicells, play in the general
economy of nature is every day being made more and more apparent. In fact, pretty
much all organic change is effected by their agency. One of our latest and most
eminent physiologists — Foster — asserts, in regard to the human being, that the total
action of the whole body, of every kind, is nothing but the aggregated action of
countless amoeba-like organisms of which it is composed.

It was long a mystery in regard to the natural nitrate salts, such as saltpeter,
whence came the nitric acid they contain ? The oxygen and nitrogen which form
this acid, of course, exist in the air ; but by what agency are they brought together
and united chemically ? Many theories have been advanced to explain this, but
none of them have been satisfactory. Latterly, however, it has been shown that nitro-
gen is oxidized by the action of certain simple-celled organisms, which, during their
rapid growth and extension, effect the combination of the two elements. They
operate in the same way as the yeast-plant — torulce — which by its rapid growth
causes alcoholic fermentation ; or like the vinegar plant — the Mycodermi aceti — which
during its groAvth causes the elements of acetic acid to unite, and form vinegar.

This discovery connects nitric acid with the organic world equally with acetic
acid, and shows that the old distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry is
unfounded. It is a further proof that all natural processes are essentially the same,
and that there is no absolute break between organic and inorganic life, but that one
passes insensibly into the other.

PART IY.

AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

CHAPTER X.

AGGREGATION OP CELLS INTO COLONIES AND COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

Some of the ceils, when formed, do not remain solitary, each one living by itself,
but numbers of them aggregate together, into colonies, or societies, in which all the
individuals live their own independent lives, but all together form one community.

Fig. 34.

wish

Figtires 33, 34, 35, 36.— Different Forms of Coral Branches.
The spots, stars, and finger-like projections are the separate Polypes, all united to one main

Instances of this are found in the Corals, a mass of which consists of the lime-
built cases of a number of distinct polypes, all united, just as bricks are in a wall.
Each one, however, lives by itself, and for itself alone, in its own cell, coated with
lime. The animal itself is soft and jelly-like. The separate polypes act together,

94 AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

in this way, — they form conjointly the internal skeleton, or framework, usually
like the branch of a tree, on which they all live, each one separately in its own cell.
Such an arrangement may be called the first approach toward the formation of a
society.

The Sponges also exhibit somewhat similar habits. A ball of sponge is only a
mass of animals somewhat like amcebas, all quite independent, all nutrifying them-
selves like other amoebas, and in no way vitally connected with each other. They,
however, act together so far as to form a common framework, or skeleton, on and in
which they live, like so many separate people in a tenement house.

What we call a sponge is one of the common skeletons cleansed of the jelly-like
inhabitants, and of the lime which had served to somewhat harden it.

The difference between the corals and sponges is this : the corals form a common
skeleton of lime only, while in many of the sponges it is more or less an animal sub-
stance, and sometimes quite horny. There are sponges, however, that form lime
skeletons, and they nearly always have a lime or silex center, somewhat like an
incipient backbone.

For a long time both corals and sponges were thought to be plants, and even till
quite lately the sponges were considered as much vegetable as animal. They are
now, however, by general consent, classed as animals. Many of them, nevertheless,
contain a green-colored substance, apparently identical with chlorophyl, the green-
colored matter found in the leaves of plants.

The stony skeletons of the sponges, and other allied beings, are the most beautiful
and regularly formed objects that can be conceived, and their varieties are endless.
Many of them are microscopic ; others large enough to be seen by the naked eye.
They are often visible in the clear interior of the flints found in the English chalk,
which when polished make beautiful ornamental stones.

In some very simple cellular organisms the separate beings merely hang or stick
together, in bunches, more or less large, each one being still quite independent.

Simple and unimportant as this kind of union may seem, it is still an advance on
detached single-cell life, where each one lives and dies by itself, and where there is
no kind J: mutual help. Both the coral and the sponge, humble though they be,
have made an advance, and are nearer to the higher animals than the gregarinas, or
amoebas. They show us one of the first steps in that process of evolution by which
all the higher animals, man himself included, have been produced from the simple
single cell.

Cells propagate, either by forming a new brood inside, and then bursting and
scattering them, or by dividing themselves into bits, or by budding, as will be shown
elsewhere ; and the rapidity with which this is done is amazing. It has been stated,
by competent observers, that as many as sixty -six millions of new cells are formed in
a minute, in some cases, all originating from a single parent ; but how far this cap
proceed is not known.

It is supposed by some, that each cell, when it begins this astounding rate of
propagation, starts with a certain amount of force, which can carry it only so far,
and that when this original force is exhausted, the propagation of new cells ceases.
If this be so, it follows that every family of cells has its limit of duration, and must,
sooner or later, come to an end. In the simplest single-cell beings, as soon as a
new brood is formed, it is scattered far and wide, each individual living and dying
independently by itself, so that the fate of the family cannot be followed step by

AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

95

step in each of its members. When we ascend higher however, all the family
originated by one cell have a tendency to hang together, more or less, either in
strings, chains, cones, or regular- formed bodies. Probably the coral and sponge
societies start in this way, from one parent originally.

In still higher organisms, as in the vertebrate animals, all the cells produced
from the one primitive parent cell are held together by a single integument, or skin.
The egg, from which every such animal is produced, is the primitive parent cell,
from which are produced the millions of other cells that finally form the full-grown
body. None of these are thrown off till the new individual is fully developed ; then
some of them are specialized, and thrown off in the form of eggs, or sperm, to begin
the formation of other new beings in the same way.

It is just the same with a plant, which starts from a single cell, in the form of a
seed or bulb, and this by ceaseless multiplication forms continually new cells, which
build up the perfect plant; and when complete, some of the cells are specialized
into seeds or bulbs, to form other new plants, just as some of the animal cells are
specialized into eggs, or sperm.

In the plant, however, as in some of the lowest animals, a piece of the perfected
body may be cut off, as a small branch, for in-
stance, and, being planted, will grow into a new
plant just as a seed or bulb would do. This
branch is, in fact, only a cluster of cells, which
can go on propagating, in proper conditions, just
as if still attached to the parent body.

The question has been asked, however, if this
continued division, and redivision, in the case of
a plant grown from a seed or bulb, could go on
forever. Many physiologists say no, but that it
must come to an end some time, because as the
original cell, the seed, started with only a certain
stock of force, this must in time be exhausted,

and then its final descendants will no longer ^f^SS^KtfawW^
have the power to continue propagation. ripe, and the germ vesicle escaping,

In this way they account for the enfeeble- grounded by the nutritious granules

J •> by which it first begins to nutrify itself,

ment, and dying out, of many kinds of trees and develop, c is the germinal vesicle.

and plants once vigorous and healthy. Manyva- ^^^ll^Zl^f"' ™
rieties of fruits, formerly well known, have been

so extensively propagated by budding and grafting, that the power of reproduc-
tion— so these men say — has been all expended, and they are now fast becoming
extinct. Every bud, or graft, it must be borne in mind, is, in reality, only a continu-
ation of the parent tree, and not a new start from a parent cell, or seed.

Observation has not been as yet long enough continued, nor systematic enough,
to settle this point ; but it certainly seems reasonable to suppose that there is a limit
to the duration of a family derived by continual re-propagation from one original
parent ; and that it is necessary, in the course of time, to get a new start from a seed
or egg ; that is, a primal germ.

In the higher animals, of course, nothing of the kind has to be considered, be-
cause they are all propagated singly, each one from a new cell or germ, and cannot
be multiplied by subdivision.

Figure 37. — The Human Egg, or Ovum.

a represents the parent cell, contain-
ing the primitive germ, or vesicle, as

96 AGGREGATION 01 CULLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

A century ago, owing to the ravages of syphilis, it was common for men to lose
their noses, and those who could afford it paid poor men to consent to having a new
one cut from some part of their bodies, and grafted upon the mutilated face. The
operation was usually successful, but great consternation was caused by some one
suggesting that if the poor man died first, the nose taken from his body would die at
the same time. Hudibras alludes to this in his well-known lines —
" And when the date of Knock was out,
Off dropt the sympathetic snout."
It is needless, perhaps, to say that the fear was groundless.

Every animal, high and low, starts from a simple cell, and begins its life like a
simple monad. In the monad, however, the primitive stock of force carries its
future development only to a certain extent, and in a certain way, while in the
higher animal it is capable of carrying it farther, and in a different way.

Man, for instance, begins life as a little vesicle, or bag of fluid — a simple cell — as
all other animals do. In his first stage, or beginning, man is shown in the pre-
ceding figure, which represents the female ovum, or egg, from which every human
being originates.

This germ vesicle immediately begins, by osmose, to suck in the surrounding
nutritive fluid, and to develop, like any other cell, and finally divides and subdivides
into millions of other cells, all of which are appropriated, in the process of growth,
to forming the body of the future full-grown man.

The new cells as they are produced are formed into what are called the tissues
of the body — a tissue being an aggregation of cells, modified or specialized in a
certain way, for a particular use. Some of them, for instance, form into threads, or
fibers, as in the muscles ; others into pipes or tubes, as in the nerves and blood-vessels ;
while others form a congeries of interlaced cavities, which become filled with lime,
and so form bone. Every part of the future body, in short, is built up of cells, pro-
duced at first from the multiplication, or division, of the primitive parent cell.

A man is, in fact, an aggregation of cells, as is a coral or spouge, only, in his
case, they are so vitally united, and interact so in concert for a common purpose,
that, conjointly, they form a compound organism, having an independent life of its
own. This larger life, however, is really a result of the combined forces of all the
individual cell lives of which it is composed, and each of which still lives its own
little life as an independent being.

It is the same as in a working steam-engine, where every particle of wood, iron,
coal, and water possesses, through all its workings and changes, its own individual
power and properties (or life), while all together form the compound life, the engine.

The engine has no power that did not exist before it was made, in the material it
is composed of, or in that which works it. Nor has man any powers but what exist
in the cells of which he is composed, and which, primarily, existed also in the inor-
ganic elements of which they are made.

The newly developing being remains connected with the parent organism till its
own structure is so far perfected that it can begin to live by itself ; then, its organs
being so far perfected that it can form new cells from the food which it takes, for
a while it simply grows, or increases, and afterward maintains itself in equilibrium,
till the time comes when the power of cell formation and assimilation ceases, and
then it dies.

The growth of a man, and his after-maintenance, are effected from the blood, a

AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

97

peculiar fluid that circulates in his veins and arteries, and which is derived chiefly
from the food he eats.

Blood consists, mainly, of a large number of little vesicles floating in a clear
liquid, which is albuminous or protoplasmic, and contains also several salts and
other inorganic ingredients. In it is found the material of the body, but not in a
proper form for assimilation. By the action of the cells, this crude material, which
is only digested food, is sorted and recombined into true protoplasm, suitable for
nourishing every part of the body.

There are two kinds of cells in the blood, — one globular and colorless, dotted
with little grains ; the other flattened, with no dots, and filled with a deep-red fluid.
Each of these cells is a distinct individual, with a life of its own, but all co-operate
together to support the life of the compound being in whose vessels they circulate.

The various changes required in this protoplasmic fluid, to fit it for nutrition, are
effected by these cells, by the action of osmose, and if they are deficient in number or
activity, those changes do not fully take place. The individual then becomes feeble
and loses flesh, — he has poor blood. The life of a man depends, therefore, on the
life of these little cells in his blood.

Such is the power of selection and combination possessed by the blood-cells, that
they can form true protoplasmic material out of
any other albuminous fluid, as well as out of the
true blood fluid. In many cases of great hemor-
rhage or extreme exhaustion, it is well known
that blood from other and healthier bodies can
be transfused into the veins of the sufferer, and
life and strength be restored. It is not so well
known however that, in case blood cannot be ob-
tained, milk may be used ; and many cases are on
record where life has been saved by injecting it
into the veins. Even weak infusions of many fari-
naceous matters will serve the same purpose, after
great loss of blood.

In such cases the blood vesicles select the
needed material from the milk, or other albumi-
nous fluid, the same as they would do from the
true blood fluid.

Nothing shows more clearly than this that
man is but an aggregate of cells, and that his life
is the sum of all their lives. While they live, he
lives ; when they die, he dies, and his powers,
whatever they may be, are but the sum of their
powers combined.

Every part of the body, bone, muscle, brain, 'Figtjbe B8.— Cells of Different Kinds.

hair, nails, and skin, all are composed of cells • • ■ „ ^

i j-.g j ci £±1. n j a and o snow cells formed into fibers,

more or less modmed. borne ot tnem are nxed as m muscle, or cartilage, c shows the

(as those of the bones, for instance), or change cen-s in b°ne ; these cells are all filled

, , , , .-. , , • n XT. j> j.i with plastic or solid matter, to make

but very slowly. Others, especially those of the them ^Im> or UD7ielding.

brain and nerves, are all the time in a state of

rapid change, and so are those of the blood. The more active any part of the body

7

Q8 AGGREGATION OF CELLS INTO COMPOUND ORGANISMS.

is, the more rapidly do its component cells become disorganized and die, and new
ones take their place.

In fact, it is upon this rapid change that activity depends ; the consumption of
cell material, and its constant formation, resembling the fire in the engine, by which
the steam is produced. Muscular motion rapidly uses up the muscle cells, and new
ones have to be supplied from the blood. TJiought and emotion consume cell matter,
in the brain, still faster, and the blood has to circulate in it with a rapidity propor-
tionate to the work it performs.

In the next cut is shown the cells in the brain of a cat. These are all globu*
lar, and soft, being filled only with fluid. At a and b, some of these cells are shown
separately, each with its nucleus.

The skin is simply a layer of flattened cells, and even the claws, nails, and horns

of animals are formed from them ;
the liver, kidneys, and all other
secreting glands, are but clusters
of cells, each cluster specialized for
its particular purpose.

It will be readily seen from the
above explanation, that the cell is
the foundation of the man, and
that even when he is full grown,
FiGUBBlflT— CeOs in the Brain of a Cat. nis life and active usefulness de-

pend entirely upon the ability of
his organs to form, and assimilate, new cell material. If he then make too little of
this, he becomes poor and feeble ; and if the depreciation be carried too far, he
dies. If the cells in his blood are deficient in number, or perform their functions
imperfectly, his whole system suffers. Debility and disease both come from deranged
cell growth, and neither can be got rid of till the cell action again becomes perfect.
In some diseases, as in cancer for instance, a morbid or unusual growth of cells
takes place, different from those normally existing in the system ; and these new dis-
eased c^lls often increase with astonishing rapidity, at the expense of the proper
cells of the body. They resemble those fungus cells which often spring up in a few
hours, and choke, or poison, the ordinary vegetation of the place they grow in. The
osmotic activity of cells is past all conception. Compared with it, the most rapid
action we know of is mere stillness, and it is incessant. A man, therefore, repre-
sents not one life only, but untold millions of lives !

In all probability disease cells, as those of cancer above referred to, have become,
from some unknown cause, different in structure from healthy ones, and in their
osmotic action, instead of selecting that material from the blood which the body
needs for healthy growth, they select hurtful material.

It is highly probable that those who suffer from cancer, if they have children,
will transmit to them a tendency to this abnormal cell formation, and in this way
perpetuate the dire disease. The same may be said of many other diseases, and the
first practical step toward getting permanently rid of them will be for people so
afflicted not to propagate. In future and wiser ages, I have no doubt, this will be
attended to. In fact we do attend to it now, in the lower animals, but neglect it in
man!

PART Y.

EVOLUTION.
ORGANIC AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTEK XI.

EVOLUTION.

All real knowledge of Nature, and natural phenomena, is of very recent growth.
It was formerly the custom with men, even with philosophers, when they inter-
ested themselves about Nature at all, to sit down and imagine how things were, and
invent theories about them. No matter how little those theories accorded with known
facts, if they were put forward by authority, they were generally accepted, and the
facts entirely ignored. Even at the present day this is a very common process, and
when any new discovery is announced, the first impulse with many men is, not to
investigate, and so find out if it be true, but to see if it agrees with some old theory.

It took mankind many thousands of years to find out, simple as it may seem,
that to know about anything they must investigate it, and that they can investigate
only by using their senses, corrected and controlled by their reason.

Man can really gain true knowledge, about any natural object, or process, only
by using his eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and touch. With them he gains the foundation
facts, by means of which he can truly investigate, and gain knowledge ; but with-
out which all his speculations amount to nothing, being like houses built on sand.

It would be amusing, if it were not so pitiful, to narrate the strange and absurd
theories which have been put forward, by the greatest men of former times, in
regard to the various departments of Nature. The early history of every science is
only a record of such theories, one superseding another, according to the weight of
authority it could command, and not at all because it was more true. And yet the
simple examination of the facts, by means of the senses, — that is, experimentation,
and observation, — would have revealed the real truth at once.

No knowledge whatever can be gained of Nature by mere reasoning, unless it be
based upon facts taken cognizance of by the senses. And yet it is quite common
for men to commence such reasoning, without any previous acquaintance with the
necessary facts whatever. Such a course necessarily leads them to all kinds of
absurd conclusions, and makes all their reasonings utterly valueless, because they
have no foundation.

An anecdote recorded of King Charles II. illustrates this well. He was a very
shrewd man, and fond of quizzing the learned pundits around him, whose weak
points he well knew. One day, having a large circle of them, he propounded the
following question : " "Why is it that if you put a vessel of water in a scale, weigh
it accurately, and then put in a live fish, it will not weigh any more ; while if you
put in a dead one of the same size, it does weigh more ? "

The learned men discussed this question, reasoned about it, started all kinds of
theories, but could come to no satisfactory conclusion. Finally the king asked a
hard-headed old Scotchman, who had said nothing, what explanation he gave.

102 EVOLUTION.

The old man simply replied, "I doubt tliefact;" and, sure enough, on trying the
experiment, it was found that whether the fish was dead or alive made no differ© ice,
they both made the vessel weigh so much the more.

Now, this is exactly the course the world has hitherto pursued, and which a lwge
number of people habitually pursue now. Whenever any question presents itsell to
them, out of the ordinary run of their experience, they immediately begin to the-
orize and speculate about it, instead of first finding out how much they can get to
know about it. Fortunately, however, there are always some common-sense men,
who, like the old Scotchman, " doubt the fact," and will have it put to the test oi
experiment.

We are, in fact, indebted to the doubters, and to those who always insist upon
rigid examination, for all the real knowledge we possess ; and they have had a hard
fight of it against the theorists. At one time it was dangerous to doubt or, at least
to question, many prevalent theories, and men had to profess belief in them, even
when they knew them to be untrue.

This is especially the case in regard to man, and other animals. Men who de-
spised Nature as something vile and brutish, sat down in their closets to explain all
about it, without making any observation or experiments whatever. Each one
formed his own hobby or theory, which he put forward as infallible, and denounced
all the others as heterodox and wicked.

It is hard to judge which are the most absurd and unfounded — the theories about
man's body, or those about his mind. We find them vary from age to age, but all
alike baseless in fact. It never occurred to these theorists that the only way to
understand a man was to examine and observe him in every possible way ; to take
him to pieces, and to submit every part and parcel, so far as was possible, to direct
observation and experiment, by means of the senses. If such a course had been
proposed at one time, it would have been denounced as gross, materialistic, and
wicked ; and the individual suggesting it would have run no little danger. In fact,
many of the greatest men who ever lived have lost their lives, after horrible tortures,
for doing so. And yet it is the only true course to take, as people are now begin-
ning to see.

If a man should present to the public a curious machine, working in some un-
known way, but keep it under a glass case while he asked mechanicians to explain
it, we should think him very unreasonable. They would naturally demand to be
allowed to examine it, to take it to pieces, and to ascertain the motive power. Till
this had been done, they might theorize about it, but nothing could really be known,
and all their theories might be utterly wrong.

This, however, is exactly the course hitherto taken in regard to man ; he has
been kept under a glass case of old theories and prejudices, and no real examination
of him allowed to be made, till, finally, some bold spirits, with the sledge-hammer
of scientific fact, smashed the case and took the man to pieces ! The result proved
that he was altogether a different being to what the old theories had made him,
and that he stood in very different relations to his surroundings. The orthodox
theory has always been that man had a different origin and destiny from all other
living beings, and that he stood in a different relation to Nature generally. It was
supposed that he was created, just as we find him, by some outside process, out of
the inorganic elements of the world, with inherent powers, different from any existing
elsewhere in Nature. To doubt this, or to suggest that possibly he might not thus

evolution: 103

stand apart, but be really only a product of Nature, originating from ber inberent
creative power, like everything else, was something undreamed of till recently.

Even now the mere proposal to inquire into the matter, to collect facts, and to
make observations, with a view to ascertaining how far the prevalent theory may
be corroborated or disproved by them, causes the most absurd apprehensions and
the most uncharitable denunciations.

Nevertheless, the doubters have determined to weigh the fish, dead and alive,
with the water, and to see what is the fact. They decline any longer to take any
theory for granted without proof ; but resolutely determine to examine all, and test
them by facts alone.

It is the age of weighing and measuring ; of seeing and hearing ; of bringing
together in all possible ways the different natural substances, to see how they act
and react upon each other. It is the age when a material cause is assumed and
sought for every known phenomenon. It is the age when observation and experi-
ments take the place of mere speculation, and when authority alone is not allowed
to decide any matter in dispute, especially if it can be submitted to investigation.
Men discover that the more they study Nature by observation and experiments, the
more capability they find in her, and the less need for outside influence in any way.
One after another, the events and things formerly thought to be supernatural are
found to be only parts of the natural chain of events, so that the supernatural is
steadily receding.

It is now beginning to be seen that Nature includes everything within herself ;
that there is nothing outside of her in any way, so far as we know ; and that she
possesses inherently the full capacity for originating all beings that exist, organic
and inorganic, man included, with all their powers and capacities of every kind.
Astronomy and geology show us that the world was once very different to what it is
now ; that it had a beginning, probably in a state of vapor, and afterward a long
infancy in which no life was possible, but in which the natural forces were con-
stantly acting with an energy of which we now seldom see an example. It had
to be cooled ; its watery vapor condensed ; its jagged, hard rocks softened and worn
down into mud and sand to form other kinds of rock, laid in regular beds, one
above another, on the floor of the ocean. Finally, the time came when the pro-
toplasmic elements — ammonia, carbonic acid, and water — could exist and combine
together, to form the primitive germinal matter which we now call protoplasm,
when it forms animals, and chloropbyl when it forms plants.

When once this substance was formed, portions of it would inevitably become
endued with vitality, from the influence of chemical action, of heat, and electricity,
as shown elsewhere. And in this way would originate the primitive protozoa,
similar to those we now see ; beings that are neither plants nor animals, or perhaps
either, according to the conditions under which they develop.

As these multiplied and decayed, leaving their own protoplasmic substance to
add to that naturally formed, and the general conditions became more favorable
to life, other and superior beings would naturally take their place.

In this way began Evolution, or that gradual bringing forth, from the primitive
unorganized elements, step by step, the long succession of living beings, ending in
those now existing.

No organized beings above the lowest protozoa originated in the form we now
see them. All have resulted, by gradual change, in a long succession of ages, from

104 EVOLUTION.

other and lower forms. The largest and most perfect animals, with man himself,
can be traced back, step by step, till we come finally down to the speck of proto-
plasm which is the first beginning of all.

Thus matter, and the force inherent in it, or what we call Nature, has originated
all that exists ; and there is no reason to doubt that, if all life were to become
extinct, on this earth, Nature herself would again produce it; but probably it would
begin very differently to what it did at first, because the conditions are different.

This is Evolution, the progress upward, from an immature primitive state to a
mere perfect one, both bodily and mental. For it is not only that animals have,
in many ways, become more differentiated, or specialized, in their bodily develop-
ment, but their mental or reasoning powers have progressed also, notably in man.

This has resulted from a steady improvement in the quality and capacity of the
brain, on the working of which all mental power depends. Nothing is more strik-
ing, in studying the successive stages of fossil animal life, than the steady advance
that is shown in brain power.

In former epochs, we find enormous mastodons, and other gigantic creatures,
with bodily bulk and strength far beyond the mightiest now existing, but with
merely rudimentary brains. It was not necessary for them to think, and so the
thinking organ was not developed.

As the world changed, however, in its conditions, it became fitted for other
kinds of beings. Mere bodily bulk and strength began to lessen, the brain became
more developed, and intelligence came into play.

This new form of natural power soon made itself felt in many ways, and all
other forms became more or less subordinate to it. The small and weak animal,
with much intelligence, could more than hold his own with the big, strong animal,
whose intelligence was small.

The particular type of animals, to which man belongs, are the only ones with
highly specialized brains ; and the next class below him, the apes, have the most per-
fect brains, next to man's.

Kecent investigations, especially those of Darwin, have shown that if we take
the lowest man as a starting-point, there is less difference between him and the
highesb ape, on one side, than there is between him and the highest man on the
other side. In other words, the Bushman is farther removed from the cultivated
Caucasian than the highest ape is from the Bushman. And the difference is
mainly in intelligence, or brain development.

Evolution has not ceased, but is going on all the time, all through nature, but
especially in man and the animals under his control. The cultivated man of to-
day is as far above the barbarian of a past age, in available intellectual power, as
that barbarian was then above the apes from which he sprang ; and probably the
man of the future, by the same process of evolution, will be as far above the most
cultivated men of the present day.

The principle of evolution prevails not only in individual life, but in society
itself. We see how the first crude social arrangements, such as prevail among sav-
age tribes, are gradually advanced to larger associations, under hereditary chiefs, and
how these finally become settled nations. The most powerful and perfected societies
of the present day, such as we see in the more cultivated parts of Europe, have all
been gradually evolved from savage tribes. History shows us how their laws, their
customs, their religions, and their systems of education have all advanced, from the

EVOLUTION. 105

simplest beginnings, to what we see them now, and in all settled societies they are
still advancing. In fact, the only real and permanent progress is made in this way,
by gradual evolution ; and any attempt to advance society by a jump, to the more
perfect stage of a future generation, is sure to end in failure. Many instances of
this are to be found in modern history, and even in our present experience.

And this explains why it is that important discoveries are frequently made, and
announced to the world, without attracting any attention whatever. They are sim-
ply ahead of their time, and the public mind has got to be evolved to a certain point
before they can be appreciated. A very short time since there died a gentleman who
made, many years ago, a perfect electric telegraph, almost exactly like what we are
now using, and invited all the world to come and see it, but it attracted very little
notice, and was finally laid aside. Government officials informed him that they did
not want anything better than the old semaphore telegraph, with its movable arms,
seen through a telescope.

It is just so Avith everything else : not only have scientific inventions to wait till
the public train is sufficiently evolved to comprehend them, but all truths must do
the same. And this explains why obvious improvements in laws, in customs, and
in religion, are so slow in being made. A few advanced minds can see them, and
may urge their adoption, but they have to wait till the dull, inert masses get nearer
to' their stand-point. It is, however, a sufficient consolation to know that time, by
gradual evolution, will certainly bring round all the progress and amelioration that
the best minds can conceive of, and probably even much more.

Many excellent people are much alarmed at our present rapid progress, from fear
that institutions and opinions, now held sacred, will.be swept away, or so modified
that they will not resemble what they are now. And this will, doubtless, be the
case ; but such people should remember that in former ages the same opinions and
institutions, which they now hold so sacred, were condemned and dreaded as much as
they now fear and condemn the present advanced views. The mcst orthodox views
of to-day, on many subjects, were rank heresies among our forefathers, and many
of the much-dreaded heresies and infidelities of to-day will be orthodox in the future.

The human mind must progress, and it is vain and irrational to suppose that the
more enlightened future will be bound and trammeled by the immature views of
the present. Evolution never ceases, and fortunately all the efforts of ignorant and
timid conservatism can never seriously impede its progress.

A remarkable instance of inherited experience, showing itself as improved per-
ception, is shown in the behavior of animals toward railroads and their engines.
When they first began to traverse the country, all the animals in the fields used to
run away in crowds, in the utmost terror, and constant accidents were occurring
with them on the roads. Now, however, the same animals, both in the fields and
roads, see the trains pass and repass, and scarcely notice them. This is not only be-
cause they have got used to them individually ; for the offspring of these animals,
born away from railroads, and brought to them when grown up, usually show just
the same indifference. This is evolution! The animals who first got accustomed to
the engines underwent a change of drain, owing to their new experience, and this
change of brain their offspring are lorn with, and hence their behavior.

The existing knowledge of any community, its habits, customs, modes of thought
and beliefs, are only the inherited experiences of past ages, transmitted to the pres-
ent. The present is the child of the past by the process of evolution.

106 EVOLUTION.

It would be a great mistake to suppose that the process of evolution is limited to
any one or several kinds of phenomena. It extends to all nature, and is everywhere,
at all times, going on ; in the mental and moral world, as well as in the physical.

The present may be said to be always, not only pregnant, but even in the actual
throes of labor, with the future. No age is self-born, nor stands alone, but each is the
child of the one before, and the parent of the nest beyond.

The present clear conception of this great law of evolution, and its wide accept-
ance, is mainly due to the labors of Charles Darwin — a man who may be truly
said to have created a neio era in science.

Before his time the development of an egg into a bird was regarded as a simple
unconnected phenomenon, wonderful in itself, but not specially related to other phe-
nomena of a similar kind on a larger scale. But we know now that the changes the
egg undergoes, before it is fully developed into the bird, are the exact counterpart ot
those which the progenitors of the bird went through in former ages.

The egg is only a simple cell ; but under the influence of heat and moisture, we
see it gradually change, going through various inferior forms up to that of the fish,
thence to the amphibia, thence to the reptile, and finally to the bird. And if we
trace back the bird through its organic descent, as shown by the fossil record, we go
back, step by step, first to the reptile, thence to the amphibia, thence to the fish,
and finally down to the single cell. It is the same process, traced forward in one
case, and backward in the other.

The same fact is shown when we trace the development of a man in his mother's
womb. He begins with the simple cell, goes through all the lower forms, ascencls
to the fish, the amphibia, the reptile, the bird, and still further through all the more
advanced forms, till he becomes finally a man.

We can also trace him back, in the past, just as we did the bird. We can track
him from his present development, back to the apes, from them to the lemurs, and
so on from one form to another of the mammalia down to the bird, the reptile, the
amphibia, the fish, and so on finally to the simple cell.

And not only can we thus trace his bodily evolution, but his mental powers, and
what are called his moral instincts, can all be traced back to the simple instinctive
actions of the beings below him. In them are the germs of the highest mental
developments, and the most elevated moral impulses, that we see in the world's
sages, heroes, and philanthropists. Even religion, the sublimity of law and venera-
tion for that we fear or love, but do not comprehend, is plainly to be seen, in its first
faint glimmerings, in the conduct of a dog to his master.

Every living organism, therefore, develops from a simple cell, and in its progress
upward to its final form, gives us an exact representation of the way in which its
type originated, in the past, from the primordial protoplasm.

The conclusion also seems inevitable that all the individuals, past and present,
of any type, in all their varieties, must have originated from one single ancestor, the
first of that type ! And this first original parent — say of the vetebrates — was probably
evolved from the type below by a combination of conditions that may never exist
again. If any type, therefore, should become totally extinct, it would, in all proba-
bility, never be brought into existence again. Any of its varieties might die out, and
be again reproduced by selection from the other varieties ; but the type once gone, is
gone forever.

Evolution, then, teaches us that not only have all organic forms been derived

evolution: 107

from pre-existing and simpler ones, but also all our social organizations, our moral
impulses, and our mental powers. It teaches us, also, that all the various depart-
ments of knowledge have not only developed individually in this way ; but that they
have also developed communistically — if we may use the term — or conjointly, as a
whole. No one science ever did or could originate and perfect itself, standing alone,
but each one hangs upon every other one, and develops only as that does, so that
knowledge advances as a whole by separate steps.

The whole universe, therefore, is one in every department, and the same law
rules all, from the atom to the mountain, and from simple motion to thought.
Everything that is, is indissolubly connected with everything else that is, and there
is nothing that exists or acts alone.

It is impossible to overestimate the influence that the perception of this law of
evolution will exert upon society in many ways. It will gradually change all our
views and practices in regard to government, and revolutionize completely our sys-
tems of education. It will bring order out of the present chaos, and immensely aid
in bringing about that further and higher development of which man is obviously
capable, and to which he will finally surely attain.

It is inevitable, however, that the prospect of such a sweeping change as evolu-
tion foreshadows, should alarm those who have always considered the prevailing
systems of government, education, and morals as finally established on the basis of
immutable truth.

Mr. Charles Darwin, in his matchless work on The Descent of Man, thus sums up
the conclusions to which his investigations have led him : " We thus learn that man
is descended from a hairy-tailed quadruped, probably arboreal in its habits, and an
inhabitant of the old world. This creature, if its whole structure had been ex-
amined by a naturalist, would have been classed among the quadrumana, as surely as
the still more ancient progenitor of the old and new world monkeys. The quad-
rumana, and all the higher mammals, are probably derived from an ancient
marsupial animal, and this, through a long line of diversified forms, from some
amphibian-like creature, and this again from some fish-like animal. In the dim
obscurity of the past we can see that the progenitor of all the vertebrata must have
been an aquatic animal, provided with branchiae, with the two sexes united in the
same individual, and with the most important organs of the body (such as the
brain and heart) imperfectly, or not at all developed. This animal seems to have
been more like the larvae of the existing marine Ascidians than any other known
form."

From this low form it is easy to pass further, till we get to the simple moner, and
from that to mere formless protoplasm, naturally produced.

The following table will still further illustrate this idea. In it the different
strata or rocks, composing the crust of the earth — beginning with the lowest con-
taining animal remains — are arranged in groups, and a list is given of the charac-
teristic animals found in each group.

The progress of evolution, from the simple zoophyte up to man, can thus be seen
at a glance, by observing the advance from group to group, from the very lowest up
to formations of the present age.

The development of the Human- Beaut, in the foetus, from stage to stage, in
each month, is also shown, and the remarkable correspondence between it and ani-
mal evolution, from the first beginning of life to the appearance of man.

108

EVOLUTION.

T^BLE

Showing the Progressional Development op the Human Brain in the Pcettts,

as compared with the Evolutional Development of Animal Life

on the Globe.

FIRST GROUP OP ROCKS.

Ciay Slate. Greywacke. Old

Red Sandstone. Gneiss. Mica
Slate. Silurian System.

Animal Remains in these
Rocks.
Polypes. Double-Shelled Mol-
lusks. Crustacea. Annelids.
Crustaceous Fishes. — All In-
vertebrate Animals, or with-
out Back Bones.

Human Brain at First
Month.

Resembles that of an Inverte-
brate Animal.

SECOND GROUP OF ROCKS.

Carboniferous Formation ; or
Coal Beds.

Animal Remains in this
Formation.
Various — but especially contains
True Fishes.

Human Brain at Second
Month.

Resembles that of a Fish.

THIRD GROUP OF ROCKS.

New Red Sandstone.

Animal Remains in this
Formation.
Reptiles. Great Lizards. Croco-
diles. Frog - like Animals.
Turtles.

Human Brain at Third
Month.

Resembles that of a Turtle.

FOURTH GROUP OF ROCKS.
Oolitic and Chalk Beds.

Animal Remains found in

this Formation.

Various — but especially Birds.

Human Brain at Fourth
Month.
Resembles that of a Bird.

FIFTH GROUP OF ROCKS.
Lower Eocene. Miocene.

Animal Remains found in
this Group.

1st Series. — Marsupials — Gnaw-
ing Animals, or Rodents.

2d Series. — Cud - Chewing Ani-
mals, or Ruminants.

3d Series. — Animals that Walk
on their Toes, or Digitigrades.

Human Brain.

At five months resembles that

of a Rodent.
At six months resembles that of

a Ruminant.
At seven months resembles that

of a Digitigrade.

SIXTH GROUP OF ROCKS.
The Pliocene Formation.

Animal Remains found in
this Formation.
Most of the above — and also
Monkeys, — Four-handed Ani-
mals, or Quadrumana.

The Human Brain at Eight
Months.

Resembles that of a Monkey, or
Quadrumana.

SEVENTH FORMATION.
Recent Deposits and Caves.

Animal Remains found in
these.
Many of the above, and also re-
mains of Man, the first Two-
handed Animal, or Bimana.

The Human Brain at Nine
Months.

Is now that of a true Bimana, or
Human.

EVOLUTION. 109

It is not intended in the above table to give a list of all the animals in eacb group
of rocks, but merely to show how the various distinctive types succeed each other, in
an ascending order, as we go upward, from the lowest groups to recent formations.

The remarkable correspondence between the development of the human foetal
brain from month to month, and the evolution of animal life, will be evident at a
glance.

The animal world at first was all invertebrate — so is the human brain at the first
month. Later on the animal world advances to the first stage — and so does the
human brain at two months. The next advance in the animal world is to the reptile
stage, and at three months the human foetal brain resembles that of a turtle. And
so it goes on from group to group, and from stage to stage, the development of the
human brain being a strict counterpart of the general animal evolution which has
taken place upon the globe. The two are strictly analogous, and man may, in one
sense, be said to be an epitome of the whole animal world.

That the world of life, animal and vegetable, has gradually grown from the
simplest beginning, or been evolved, just as man grows from the egg, is evident.
We may not be able to show every link in the chain of succession, in its exact order,
because our knowlege of geology is yet imperfect, and also of existing animals and
plants. We know enough, however, to assure us of the general truth, and every clay
the different parts of the chain that are still disconnected, are being linked together
by new discoveries.

A CHANGE OF SPECIES.

Degenerate Eabbits. — In the year 1419 a few rabbits were born on a Spanish
ship, and put on the island of Porto Santo. There were no beasts of prey there,
and these little animals increased so enormously as to become a pest to the country,
and compelled a colony to remove from it. They are still there, but in the course
of 450 years they have become a "species;" they have a peculiar color, a rat-like
shape, are small in size, live a nocturnal life, and are of extreme wildness. And

now they refuse even to pair with the European form from which they arose

The London Quarterly Review.

PART VI.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS, AND THEIE DIFFERENT

TYPES

CHAPTER XII.

THE VARIOUS FORMS OF LIVING BEINGS, OR TYPES.

It is well known that animals, like plants, vary very widely in form. They also
differ quite as much in respect to simplicity or complication of structure, some hav-
ing a large number of organs, for the performance of different functions, and others
having but few. In all cases, however, whether the animal perform many functions
or few, they all serve for three grand purposes, which are identical in all alike.

These three fundamental physiological processes, wbich all animals must per-
form, no matter how they are made, are nutrition, reproduction, and correlation, or
communication with the external world.

Any animal that could not nourish itself could not develop, but must die ; and
if it could not reproduce others like itself, the kind must become extinct. It is
equally necessary it should be able to establish certain relations with other beings,
and with surrounding objects, because all are mutually dependent, in many ways,
upon each other, and upon the world in which they live.

The manner in which these three essential functions are performed, however,
in different kinds of beings, is remarkably varied. In fact, this is the case with
all the organic functions, but, perhaps, more especially so with those concerned in
reproduction.

In the lowest kinds of organisms, where there is great simplicity of structure,
nutrition, reproduction, and correlation are effected with few organs, and those of
a simple type, as we have already shown. But in the more highly organized beings,
we find a greater number of separate parts of the body modified, and adapted for
different purposes. Commonly they are said to be more differentiated, and each
part, or organ, so devoted to a special function performs that function alone, and
never that of another part or organ. Thus the eye sees, the nose smells, the stom-
ach digests, and so on. The higher the animal is in the scale of being, the greater
the number of the separate organs, for special purposes ; or, in other words, the
being is more highly organized, or differentiated.

As we go down in the scale, we find the lower animals with fewer and fewer
separate organs, devoted to special functions. In other words, they are less differ-
entiated. In them one organ may perform two or three functions, instead of being
devoted to one alone. They must all, of course, perform the three functions of
nutritiou, reproduction, and correlation, but all three functions may be performed
with a small number of differentiated parts, compared with the beings above them
m the scale.

In the very lowest beings, in fact, there may be said to be no differentiation at
all, or no special organs for the special functions. Every part of these beings can
effect nutrition, reproduction, and correlation alike, so that every part is stomach,
generative apparatus, or organ of correlation, being sometimes the one and some-
times the other, as in the infusoria already described, especially in the amceba. This
8 113

114 THE VARIOUS FORMS OF LIVING BEINGS, OR TYPES.

is the case with both plants and animals, and it is important to be borne in mind, in
connection with subsequent explanations.

In the highest animals, especially in man, the number of differentiated parts,
or special organs, is very great. Every function is divided into many sub-functions,
instead of being simple. Thus, nutrition, which in the lowest beings is only one
simple process, that of direct absorption from the surrounding fluid, through every
part of its structure, in man is divided into mastication, digestion, assimilation,
defecation, respiration, and numerous other processes. It is the same with the
other functions — in reproduction for instance, which in man requires a series of
different acts, in many of the lower beings is effected simply by the parent throw-
ing off a fragment of its own body, which grows into another being like itself. In
many of them this process of simple division may be carried to almost any extent ;
as in the case of the hydra.

The fundamental organism from which all beings start, as stated before, is the
same in all alike. At the beginning man is like every other animal, or even like
every plant ; he is simply a germ, a speck of organizable protoplasm. What it is
that causes some of these primary germs to develop only to a certain extent, and
others to develop further, we do not know. Some remain simple infusoria, while
others progress to vegetables, or animals, more or less perfectly organized ; and
others, again, develop into human beings. What this is owing to, we have not yet
learned. Whether there be innate differences in the primary germs at the start,
which we have not yet detected, which decide what they shall ultimately become,
or whether their future is influenced by surrounding circumstances alone, is at pres-
ent undecided. Probably, in the beginning, when organic germs first originated,
they were acted upon in different degrees, and in various ways, by the natural forces
then so active, and carried to various degrees of development, some taking one
direction, and some another. The several kinds of beings thus originated would
afterward continue their kinds, each in its own way, as they do now, by modifying
the germs they contain in their own organisms, in the process of reproduction.

Any animal, or plant, when placed in new circumstances will undergo change,
and this change may, by gradual stages, proceed so far as to create, in time, an en-
tirely different being. Differentiation of parts will begin, new organs will form, as
new functions are needed, and thus gradually, step by step, highly organized ani-
mals are gradually originated from the very simplest. This is called Evolution ;
and Darwin has shown, conclusively, that all beings, no matter how perfect or
complicated they may be, can be traced back, step by step, to the mere speck of
protoplasm from which all alike have sprung, from the highest to the lowest.

Every new animal, or plant, living or fossil, that is discovered, fits into the chain
of being at a place where such a link was needed. There is not one that stands
alone, but each is connected with one above and one below ; and if in any part the
chain of life is imperfect, we feel sure it is so only because the links have not yet been
discovered. That they exist, or have existed, naturalists feel assured, and every
day we are picking up some of the still missing ones.

Life progresses, not in one straight line, but in many different ones, all starting
from the same central point, but radiating in different directions, like the spokes of
a wheel.

These different lines of development form the different types of animals, or
kinds, of which naturalists recognize six, and of these it will now be necessary to give
'short description.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS.

1st. The Protozoa. — These are minute jelly-like organisms, of no special form,
and with no differentiation of parts, except that in some there is an imperfect mouth.
There is no special organ for any purpose, and every part can digest or reproduce a
new being, if separated. The whole body is stomach or generative apparatus. They
live mostly in the water, and are often joined together in large numbers. The Vibri-
ones, Bacteria, Monads, Diatoms, and others, referred to before, belong to this type.

2d. The Cmlenterata, formerly called Radiata.— These animals have an internal
cavity, or pocket, which serves as a stomach. This, however, is not localized in a par-
ticular part, but occupies the whole interior, and communicates with every part.
The substance of the body is made up of two membranes, or skins, one outside and
one inside. Most of them have tentacles, or arms, and some of them have traces
of a nervous system. They all have distinct organs of generation. Usually there
is a proper mouth, but in no case is there an alimentary canal that traverses the
whole length of the body, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. They
reproduce their kind in different ways, either sexually, or by simple division, as in
the Protozoa, on which they are a slight advance. In this type we find corals of all
kinds, sea-anemones, polyps, and jelly-fishes.

3d. Annuloida. — In this type we have a complete alimentary canal, separate
from the rest of the body, and extending from one end of the body to the other,
with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. There is also a distinct nervous
system, and, in many, distinct parts, which act as arms, or legs.

Among animals of this type we have sea - urchins, star - fishes, sea - slugs, and
some kinds of worms, which are a great advance upon those of the preceding
types.

4th. Annulosa. — The animals of this type are divided into segments, or parts,
arranged like the links of a chain. They have a tolerably perfect nervous system
and distinct alimentary organs : most of them have regular limbs.

In this type we find leeches, lobsters, barnacles, wood-lice, crabs, spiders, centi-
pedes, and insects. Among them we see many specialized functions and more com-
plexity of parts. They are far in advance of the previous types.

5th. Mollusca. — In this type we find clams, oysters, and other shell-fish, peri-
winkles, snails, and cuttle-fish. They all have a nervous system, with a distinct
alimentary apparatus, and often an imperfect heart. The cuttle-fish even has a
rudimentary backbone.

All the above five types, it will be seen, are very imperfectly developed, though
each ■ one is a slight advance on the preceding. In regard to reproduction, as will
be better shown farther on, they have various modes. Among the simplest the
parent simply throws off a part of its body, or divides, and the separated part grows

115

116

teas

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS.

^Cl

■;-Si:.

' ' ..;:;

i<:

I

fish, Type 2, C&lenterata.

2^p£S=. This snows the Piper
" ii= £ra - urchin with its
spines, and also with
the spines hroken off,
and one spine leaning
against the empty shell.
To illustrate Type 3>
Annuloida.

Figure 42. Scu-urchin.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS.

Ill

into a similar new being ; but there is no special part for the purpose. This mode
runs through several types, and after the first we find also that they throw off buds,
or germs, which grow into new beings, and some are even truly sexual, or male
and female ; but often the same being will propagate in all the various modes at
once, or one individual will propagate one way, and another differently, or the
whole members of a type will propagate in one way at one time, and in another
way at another time. They have no fixed mode. All the preceding types are
called invertebrate, that is, without a backbone, though some of them have a faint
approach to one, as the cuttle-fish, for instance.

6th. Vertebrates. — Animals of this type are well known. Man stands at the
head of them. They all have a distinct spine, or backbone, with four limbs, in
pairs, and the body may be divided into two similar halves. In animals of this
type we find the largest amount of differentiation, with the greatest number of
separate organs for special purposes. They propagate strictly sexually, though in
many different ways.

This summary of animal classification will enable the reader to understand the
references which may be made to the different types when explaining the various
modes of reproduction.

Various Forms of Polyzoa. Type 5, Molluscoida.

A the Lady's-slipper Coralline, b the Snake-head, c Beania Mirabilis. d the Spiny Farci-
minaria. e the Coat-of-Mail Coralline, magnified. F the same, natural size. Q the Dimetopia Spicata.
H the Shepherd's-purse Coralline. K the Caberea Patagonica, or Saw-blade Vibraculum. L the
Bicellaria Ciliata — from the thorny cilia around its mouth. M and p different forms of the Bird's-
head Coralline.

CHAPTER XIV.

PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS.

All animals belonging to either of the six types are formed upon the same
general plan, but some are more differentiated than the others, or, in other words,
have more separate organs for the performance of a greater number of special
functions. Thus, one may have a stomach, but no true mouth nor anus, while
another may have one or both of these in addition to the stomach, and is then
said to be more highly organized. The simplest formed of the two animals per-
forms the function of nutrition as perfectly, for its needs, as the more perfect
one, but with fewer organs. This makes the difference between the various beings
of the same type.

"When we study the development of animals from the primary germs, or eggs,
we observe that they all begin the same, but some progress farther than others in
differentiation. Some stop at one stage of development, and others at another,
and each one on reaching its limit has gone through all the stages below that
limit. Thus, taking the most perfectly organized being in either type, and tracing
its embryonic growth, from the primary germ upward, we find that it has gone
through every stage, and has been, at some period of its growth, like every one of
the lower animals of its type.

This is the case with man, the most perfect of all the vertebrates. He starts
the same as all the rest below him ; but they stop at various inferior stages, while
he passes on. Thus the human embryo, after it has passed the simpler stages,
from the germ, resembles first a fish, then it becomes like one of the amphibia-,
and, still progressing, it next becomes a reptile, then a bird, and finally a true
mammifer. Thus man may be said to be a true epitome of his type, or to com-
prise it wholly in himself in the course of his foetal development. We can
comprehend from this how different beings have originated from those below them,
by the gradual evolution of new organs for special purposes. In one sense all
animals are the same. They are all, when primary germs, alike in every respect,
but some develop farther than others. Fundamentally there is no difference.

In the development of an egg, nothing is needed but a certain degree of heat,
continued for a certain time ; and for a seed, we need only heat and moisture. It
is the same with the germ of an animal, which is merely an egg. In the body of
the mother it meets all the conditions required, and develops as the seed does in
the ground. If similar conditions of warmth, moisture, and appropriate nutrient
fluid could he supplied, it is quite possible that a germ might develop out of the
.mother's body as well as in it ; and it is well known that the human being is often
formed in other parts of the body besides the womb.

118

PLAN OF BE VELOPMENT OF ANIMALS. 119

It is conceivable that in some former stage of the world's history, its condition
was such that any germ, or speck of naturally formed protoplasm, might be de-
veloped, just as the animal embryo is in the womb. The whole world, the universal
mother, was perhaps then one grand matrix, in which living beings of various types
originated spontaneously. As the conditions varied, so would the degree and direc-
tion of the development be effected, and thus the resulting beings would vary.
Afterward their descendants would continue to vary more and more, by the influ-
ence of surrounding circumstances, or by selection, as shown by Darwin. Such
would seem to be a much more probable explanation of the first origin of life, and
its diversity, than that of separate creation of each kind, just as we find it.

When once a certain type of animal is produced, the influence of heredity proba-
bly impresses a character, or constitution, upon the germs it forms, so that they have
a tendency to produce the like of their parents, and for this reason each type con-
tinues its kind. There is no reason to suppose any fundamental difference in the
germs of the different types, although the germ of one type never produces beings of
another type, but always those of its own.

Many animals, in the process of development, go through some of the lower
stages as independent beings, having no connection with the parent. Thus the egg
of the dragon-fly develops, in the water, into a perfect being, utterly unlike its
parent, and lives as an aquatic. But, finally, this animal crawls out of the water,
throws off its skin, develops wings, and becomes a true dragon-fly. The frog likewise
develops as a tadpole, and so does the newt, and breathes by gills, like a fish. In the
course of time a change occurs, its tail drops off, legs appear, and it walks out upon
the land, and breathes by lungs.

Insects, it is well known, go through several of these stages ; from the egg to the
larva, from that to the chrysalis, and from that to the perfect insect. Some insects
even propagate in their inferior stages, and originate new beings, either like them-
selves or like the parent, or different from either. "We can readily imagine that in
this way new forms of beings might originate, from one of the lower forms becoming
fixed, and so remaining permanent.

The development of most metamorphic animals, in fact, is often stopped at one
of the lower stages, and goes no farther. Thus, the tadpole, with insufficient light
and heat, will remain a tadpole, and never develop into a frog. It is the same with
many others. A lizard-like animal in Mexico, known as the Axolotl, which lives and
propagates its kind as a gill or water-breathing animal, will often lose its gills, and
breathe by lungs, becoming a totally different being. There is another somewhat
similar animal, found in the Western States, called the Siredon lichenoides, which has
gills and fins like a fish, and is perfectly aquatic. If this animal be confined under
new conditions, it changes completely, losing its gills and fins, and breathing by
lungs. It, in fact, becomes a different animal, and is called a salamander.

Until these remarkable changes had been carefully observed, the two animals
were always described separately, and were never suspected to have any connection
Whatever with each other.

Possibly many other animals, which we think distinct, are thus merely dif-
ferent larval forms of the same being ; only we have never yet seen the change take
place.

The lower types pass gradually into one another, their organization being so inde-
terminate that they are sometimes referred to one type and sometimes to another.

120 PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS.

It is highly probable that they are all only stages of development from the primal
germ, by which nature gradually evolves the most perfect of all. Even the highest
type, the vertebrate, approximates so closely to the- type below, in its most primitive
forms, that the two almost merge together. It is possible, also, that other beings
exist, or have existed, in which the transition could be still more certainly estab-
lished. Every day new beings are being discovered, living or fossil, and each new
one invariably bridges over some gap that before existed between different kinds.

PART VII.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS,

SEXUAL AND NON-SEXUAL,

INCLUDING HERMAPHRODISM.

CHAPTER XV.

REPRODUCTION.

All living organisms, of every type, when perfect, possess the power to originate
other beings similar to themselves, by the process of reproduction. The way in which
this process is effected, however, varies exceedingly, being sometimes very simple, and
at others very complicated. Essentially it is the same in all, but in some the gen-
erative organs are more differentiated, and there are more separate stages in the
process.

The one general fundamental fact, in which all agree, is this : organisms of every
type throw off from themselves some of the cells which have been evolved during
their own process of development, and these cells so thrown off grow into a new
being, like the parent, just as the parent grew from its primary cell.

These cells so thrown off, to produce new beings, are called germs, eggs, or seeds.
In the higher beings these generative cells are not fully developed till after the
parent attains its full growth, and their evolution ceases entirely at a certain age.
In the lowest orders of beings, however, reproduction begins at once, and goes on
without ceasing.

There is also another difference : in the lower beings, there is usually but one
kind of cell concerned in the process ; but in the higher beings there are always two,
called the male and female, or the sperm and the ovum, which must be united to-
gether to form the new being. This is called impregnation, and it is effected in
various modes, as will be shown farther on.

Although the male and female principles of generation, as we see them, are dif-
ferent, and each plays a part of its own in the process, still there is every reason to
suppose that they are both only simple cells, but in different stages of development.
In the very highest animals at times, and commonly in many of the lower, the
female germ, or ovum, will develop into a new being without impregnation by the
male sperm at all. This virgin generation is seen sometimes in the human being
even.

There is reason to suppose that the female germ, the egg, or seed, differs from
the male germ only in this, that it contains a larger amount of protoplasm, which
serves as nutriment, by which the new being is enabled to effect its first develop-
ment. The one germ has more substance, the other more energy, but either, under
fit conditions, might develop alone.

This difference is well shown in the egg of a bird. The real germ cell, in the
largest of these, is quite small, but it is surrounded by a larger mass of nutritive proto-
plasm, the yelk, and the albuminous white, which are all used up in forming the body
of the young bird ; so that when it comes out of the shell the whole substance of ±he

123

124 REPRODUCTION.

egg has disappeared : it has been made into flesh, bones, blood, and feathers, by the
action of heat and moisture.

The male sperm is not surrounded in this way by nutritive protoplasm, and is
therefore small. Such material is not needed in both.

All the different modes of reproduction may be classed first under two kinds,
sexual, and non-sexual, and each has many varieties. We will therefore consider
each separately, beginning with the non- sexual.

CHAPTER XVI.

NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

The non-sexual mode is confined almost exclusively to the lower animals, and
there are two varieties of it.

First. Gemmation, or Budding. — This means the formation of gemmules, or
tuds, similar to what we see form on trees. These buds are produced either on the
outside of the parent or in the inside. They grow into new beings like the one they
sprang from, and may either remain attached to it, so as to form a colony, as in the
corals, or they may separate, and each bud grow into a perfect new being.

In some cases the parent gives off a bud from one side, and this another, in the
same way, and the process goes on till there is quite a family of them, all developed
in one line, from the original parent. When this is a shell animal, as in the one
(jailed logena, a common shell forms over the whole colony, and incloses them.

In the common sea-mat, as it is called (flustra), the parent begins in the same way,
by sending off a bud, and that another, and so on indefinitely, each one developing
like the parent, and all remaining attached, so that they seem to form one being,
but each one is really an independent organism, and leads a life of its own. In such
cases the gemmation may be called continuous.

In other beings, however, the buds form, and develop into new beings, like the
parent, but then separate from it, and live quite independently. This form of gem-
mation may be called discontinuous, or disconnected.

In the animal called the Hydra, or fresh-water polyp, we see this illustrated very
well. As soon as the buds have sufficiently developed, like to the parent, they
are detached from it at once, and begin life on their own account. The Hydra
virida, a fresh-water polyp, is easily found on the under sides of the leaves float-
ing on ponds, and can be examined with any good lens.

We sometimes see this process of gemmation, or budding, in plants. In the
lily, for instance, at the bottom of the leaf-stalks, small black buds form, which
fall off, when ripe, and in the ground grow into new bulbs. Buds may also be cut
from most trees, and inserted in the bark of others, of the same order, when they
will grow into perfect branches. A bud, in short, is only a cell, pushed out from
the parent's body, and developed as that was, into a perfect organism.

Some of the lower animals possess the power of reproducing lost parts, by a pro-
cess almost identical with that of gemmiparous generation. Thus, crabs and lobsters
will reproduce lost limbs ; some lizards will form new tails, and some even new eyes.
But this is only a process of repairing the individual, not of reproduction of a new
being.

Second. Fission, or Division. — In this mode of reproduction the parent sim-
ply divides, or separates itself spontaneously into two or more parts, each of which

125

126

NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

grows into a new being like itself. This mode of reproduction has already been
shown in the diatom and others.

We commonly practice this form of propagation with plants artificially ; as
when cuttings are taken, for instance, and planted, to grow into new trees. And
the same can be done with some animals. In nature, the parent either divides spon-
taneously, or it is broken up by some external agency.

In the fresh- water polyp, or hydra, before spoken of, this is very beautifully illus-
trated. It propagates by buds, ordinarily, but it may be divided artificially into
any number of parts, each one of which will grow into a new being, like the parent.
We can take one of these beings, and cut it up to almost any extent, and so make
any number of new beings, each one as perfect as the original, and each one of them
may again be divided in the same way.

The following shows one of the hydras, such
as are common in ponds, on the under sides
of the duckweed leaves.

In some respects these beings are like the
amoebas. They resemble little bags of jelly,
capable of protruding thread-like limbs, to take
their food with, and convey it to the stomach.

Figure 44. — Hydra, or Fresh-water
Polyp.

In this picture new animals are seen
forming from buds all over the parent
organism.

Figure 45. — Hydra Vulgaris.

1. Hydra magnified,
under surface of a weed.

2. Natural size, attached to
3. Ail egg nearly ripe.

The stomach, however, is only like that of the amoeba, made by folding in of the
skin, and the animal may be turned inside out without suffering any inconvenience.
When this is done the stomach becomes the outer skin, while the outer skin becomes
the stomach, and this change may be repeated over and over again. All parts are
therefore alike, and this is why it propagates so readily by fission, or simple divi-
sion, as any part contains all the requisites for a new animal.

It is not a little remarkable that when one of these fissiparous animals is cut in
two, each portion reproduces the identical part it needs to form a perfect being.
Thus, when a hydra is cut across, the upper part immediately produces a new hind
part, and the hind part a new head part. If it be cut through lengthways, it
doubles up, so that the two ends meet together, forming a new head, while the two
halves of the stomach combine to form a new complete one.

NON- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 127

Many kinds of worms may be cut into pieces, and each part will soon form a per-
fect new worm.

In many cases, when the young, formed from buds, are attached to the exterior
of the parent's body, their stomachs communicate with the parent's stomach, and
they are nourished from that. This continues even after they form limbs, and take
food for themselves. It is observable, however, that if the supply of food be limited,
the connection between parent and offspring is often shut off promptly, and the
new animal is detached, and sent off to seek food for itself elsewhere. The connec-
tion will, however, often be maintained indefinitely, even after the offspring has
begun to propagate, when the supply of food in the surrounding fluid is abundant, so
that there is enough for both.

As long as the parent's stomach can nourish both easily, it continues to do so ; but
when the task is too difficult, the child is got rid of.

In many cases the buds, or sporules, are loose, instead of being attached to the
parent, and they are found in various parts, sometimes in the cavity of the stomach,
and at other times scattered in many places not otherwise occupied. These loose buds
were probably originally attached, and afterward thrown off. They closely resemble
true ovss, or eggs, excepting that they are not formed by a special organ. Not in-
frequently they exhibit active motion, darting about as if they were already alive,
as probably they are, being most likely one-celled animals. All buds, sporules, and
eggs are only animals undeveloped, but truly living, even in that undeveloped state.

Some of these sporules have a kind of hook, by which they attach themselves to
surrounding objects.

Fissiparous division, when spontaneous, is usually into two parts, or some
other even number — four, six, or eight, for instance. The Gonium pectorale divides
into sixteen. In many cases the place of division is indicated by a slight crack,
or contraction, which gradually deepens till the original body is separated into
two or more parts, as already shown in the diatom. In some of the infusoria the
division is effected in a very singular manner. A portion of the end of the tail is
marked off by a shallow notch, which gradually deepens, making the separation
constantly more complete. While this is going on, the part so marked off forms,
by degrees, all the organs found in the parent, till finally it becomes perfect, and
then drops off and begins life on its own account. That part which was attached
to the parent always forms the head of the new animal. All the beings of this
kind that now exist, therefore, or that have ever existed, may be considered as only
the continuance of the tail of the first one, and this tail may therefore be said, in one
sense, to have perpetual life. Among some of the Annelid worms a similar pro-
cess takes place, but more extensively. When they are going to propagate, two or
more rings form round the tail end, and between the first ring and the part in front
there is a notch, or groove. The ring develops into a head, with eyes and feelers,
like those of the parent, thus making two individuals, united together only by the
skin and intestines. All the food needed by both has to be taken by the first one,
so that the new-formed one lives at its expense. Still the two are quite independent
as living beings, and they may often be seen struggling as if to get free.

After a certain period the body of the new-formed Annelid becomes swollen,
and is found to be filled with sexual germs, either male or female, or both, but
none are found in the original animal. Finally the two beings become separated,
and then the body of the offspring bursts open ; the sexual germs contained in it
are liberated ; and the two kinds, male and female, intermix, so that the eggs become

128 NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

impregnated, and develop into new Annelids, like the original, which itself does
not propagate in that way.

In the case of one such animal, called the Myriana, as many as six new beings
have been seen to form in this way, each one being sexual, forming eggs or
sperm, or both, though the parent has neither. This is shown in the cut below.

Figure 46. — Myriana, with Six New Individuals.

It will be seen that No. 1 at the end is the largest, and that they go on getting
less toward the head. No. 1 drops off first, then No. 2, and so on, till all are
separated, each one growing as large as No. 1 before its turn comes to separate. In
these cases, instead of a bit of the parent's body being separated, and growing after-
ward into a new being, as in the hydra and others, it remains attached to the parent
till it is perfected, and then separates. This apparently strange mode of repro-
duction is, in reality, exactly like the formation of a child in the mother's womb.
In both cases the new being is developed from one of the cells of the parent's body;
but in one case the development takes place in the inside, in a womb, and in
the other case outside. When developed in the womb, the cell is also specialized
into a true ovum ; but when developed on the outside, it may be only an ordinary
cell.

The joints of the tape-worm multiply much in the same way. In each joint,
excepting the small ones near the head, there is a long tube, in which the eggs are
formed, at certain times, and in the walls of this are other smaller tubes, which
appear to secrete a fluid, like semen, or which serves the same purpose, by fecun-
dating the eggs. Every joint, therefore, is capable of propagating by itself, being
strictly hermaphrodite.

As each egg hatches, it forms a head joint, which attaches itself to the intes-
tines, and new joints grow out from it, one after another, like a chain, each one of
which can form eggs to produce others.

The naturalist Bonnet divided a small worm of a certain species into twenty-
six parts, and almost every part formed a new head and tail, and became a new
individual. When sufficient time had been allowed for each of these to obtain
growth, they could every one be divided in the same way.

In short, in the lower beings, where there is no differentiation of parts, every
portion of the organism is alike, and any fragment of it will form a new being, no
matter how it may be separated from the parent. A bud, or germ, is, however, a
step toward specialization. Below is seen the mode of reproduction, by fission, of
the Vorticella.

NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

129

Figure 47. — Propagation of the Vorticelli, ly division.

Figure 48.— Other forms of Vor-

In this illustration the parent is seen, Fig. a, as one globular body, with a
mouth, or what serves for one, surrounded by fringes, or threads, used as limbs.
In i the mouth is dividing into two. In c the two
mouths are quite separate, and the body also is
partially so. In d the separation is complete, and
the two new beings soon become completely sun-
dered. In one of the new bodies even, a iresh sepa-
ration is already commencing. In e we see a new
animal being formed from a lud, instead of by fis-
sion.

In fissiparous generation, the division of the pa-
rent organism is not always in the same direction,

being sometimes across, and sometimes lengthways, . „

, r ,, ,. ,t • .-IT ticella, snowing the gradual develop.

and at other times even oblique, in no particular di- ment from the germ a through b,c,
rection. Owing to this the new-formed beings differ d, e,f, up to^.
from each other very much, and also from the original, so much so, in fact, that they
appear like other kinds of beings altogether. In the vorticella, shown above, the new-
formed being often changes in a very curious manner, the head becoming the tail, and
the tail the head. The mouth closes up, the cilia disappear, and a single tail-like
appendage forms in their place, while at the other end a mouth appears with cilia
round it, the same as originally belonged to the opposite extremity.

These new-formed vorticella float about free for some time, and in that state
were formerly taken for different kinds of animals, and described as such. After
a time, however, the tails become fixed, as a stem, and each forms a true vorticella,
as seen above, ready to go through the same changes as its progenitor.

The body of the Gonium pectorale is composed of sixteen small transparent globes
of jelly, of unequal size, the four larger in the middle, and all lying flat, like a plate.
When propagating, it divides into four parts, all exactly alike, each one with a single
large globe, and three smaller ones. Immediately the division is effected every one
of the four divides into two more, making again sixteen, the same as in the original
parent, and so the process goes on.

The Gonium pulvinatwm, when young, is like a flat piece of thin skin, almost
square, which moves about in the water with greater rapidity than might be thought
possible from its form. As it grows, the surface is seen to be marked with lines,
crossing at right angles, which divide it into small squares. Ultimately these lines
deepen, the animal divides, and each little square becomes a new Gonium.

It is quite remarkable how regular this division is, in many of these beings. It is
often strictly geometrical, and in this respect approaches to inorganic crystallization.
9

130

NO N- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

Some of the hydras, it should be observed, not only propagate by division, or
gemmation, but sexually also. They throw out a special ovum, or sexual germ, on
the surface of the body, and if this meets with a male germ, the two unite, and
form a new hydra. Ordinary germs, or buds, it will be remembered, always develop
by themselves ; and this shows the difference between them and a specialized sexual
germ, or cell.

In some of the polyzoa, the animal can reproduce itself either by fission, by gem-
mation, or by a true sexual process, and also by a peculiar kind of internal budding.
There is a certain band, or cord, which stretches across the parent's stomach, inside,
and on which the buds form, and grow. As soon as they they are developed to a
certain stage they drop off this cord, one by one, and lie loose in the stomach. The
parent then dies and breaks up, and the buds are liberated into the surrounding fluid.
Here they soon burst also, and further develop into young polyzoons, which have to
undergo still further growth, by gemmation, before they fully resemble the parent.

These are really a peculiar kind of bud, and not eggs, or real sexual germs, which
the same animal only possesses in another part of its body.

We see by these examples that, in these lower beings, almost every kind of repro-
duction occurs, and often every kind in the same individual, and at the same time.
In the very lowest beings, where the whole organism is alike, any part may be sep-
arated in any way, and become a new being, because no change is required, only
growth ; but in those which possess different organs, or specialized parts, it is differ-
ent. In these, as in the vorticella, and especially the myriana, given above, the
part to form the new being is separated slowly, and gradually forms into a new being,
more or less perfect, before it is entirely detached from the parent. The more per-
fectly the animal is organized, or the more its parts are differentiated, the longer the
new being has to be held by the parent, and the more perfect it must become before
it is cast off, to give all the organs time to form. This principle is shown in the
extreme in man, and all the higher animals.

Buds, sporules, or ordinary germs of any kind, though forming new beings, as
eggs or seeds do, are yet different from these. The true egg or seed is a cell that
has beeu specialized or differentiated, and is always produced in a special organ,
called the ovarium, while buds, sporules, or ordinary germs, may spring from any
part.

In true sexual beings there are in reality always two specializing sexual organs, the
male testicles, to form the sperm or male cell, and the female ovarium, to form the
egg, or ovum.

Many of the lower orders of plants propagate by spores or sporules, which are
only single cells, separated from the parent organism. This is the case with fun-
guses, lichens, and ferns. These plants are called cryptogamous, meaning secret
generation. In the ferns the spores may be readily seen on the under side of the
leaves, where they are distributed in regular rows. They are usually brownish in
color. When these spores are ripe they separate, and are blown about by the wind.
They will grow from any part, unlike seeds, which always have one definite point
where growth begins. Spores are, in fact, only single cells, and are much like the
pollen grains of regular sexual plants. They are very small, even in large plants,
and are produced in immense numbers. A common puff-ball, for instance, when
■ ripe, bursts open and emits a perfect cloud of spores.

Like seeds, spores may be kept for years, and may also be submitted to extreme

NON-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 131

drought, for apparently an indefinite period, and still retain their power of develop-
ment. The special part of the plant producing the spores is usually called the
sporocarp or sporospore, but in the mushroom it is called the hymenium!

The air is almost everywhere filled with vegetable spores, of all kinds, especially
those that develop mould, which, under the microscope, is a very beautiful object,
resembling often a real forest. It is well known how rapidly this will form, a single
night bringing forth the most profuse growth. The ground in a damp forest, on a
warm autumn morning, will frequently be found covered with moulds, or funguses,
of which there were no signs the previous evening.

CHAPTER XVII.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION".

In the lower animals, as we have seen, sexual reproduction is only occasional,
and occurs along with the non-sexual, but in the higher animals propagation is
effected in no other way, they being all sexual.

Sexual reproduction consists in the union of two distinct kinds of cells, one
called the male element, and the other the female element. The male element in
the animal is called the sperm, or semen, and the female element is called the ovum,
or egg. The male element in a plant is called the pollen, and the female element the
germ, or seed. It is from the union of these two different elements that the new
being results, and, as a rule, each has no power of development without the other ;
but, in some cases, as before stated, the egg, or seed, will develop without uniting
with the sperm, or pollen.

Usually, in animals, the two generative elements are found in different individ-
uals— the sperm, or semen, in the male, and the egg, or ovum, in the female. This
arrangement is termed dioecious, meaning separate, or in two houses. This, however,
is not universally the case, for sometimes the two elements are united in the same
body. In plants this is generally the case.

The individual which thus comprises both sexes in itself is called hermaphro-
dite, or androgynous, in animals, and monoecious in plants, meaning singly, or in
one house.

In all cases, the two generative elements have to be brought together, with or
without the concurrence of different individuals ; and in the dioecious, or separate
sexes, many curious and interesting contrivances are found for effecting this, as
will be shown farther on.

The first distinction, therefore, among sexually propagating beings is that
between the double-sexed and the single-sexed, each of which will be described
separately.

HERMAPHRODISM.

The Two Sexes united in One Individual.

Hermaphrodism, or both sexes in the one individual, prevails chiefly among the
lower animals, such as the annelids, or worms, and the gasteropods. In insects, the
crustaceans, many of the mollusca, and all of the vertebrates, the male and female
organs are placed in different individuals, or, in other words, the sexes are separate.

There are two different kinds of hermaphrodites : one in which each individual
can impregnate itself, as the holothurias, or sea-anemones, the mussels, and the
oysters ; and the other in which self-impregnation cannot occur. In this case two
individuals always unite, each one impregnating the other, and being impregnated
by it in return — a double act on the part of both. This is the case with snails,
with earth-worms, and leeches. Sometimes even three, or more, individuals all act

SEXUAL BBPRODUCTION. 133

together, forming a chain, or circle, each impregnating the one in front, and being
impregnated at the same time by the one behind.

In those beings that impregnate themselves, there are no distinct male and female
organs, and no act analogous to copulation takes place. It would rather seem, in
fact, as if there were only an ovarium, or germ-producing organ, which evolves the
eggs, or germs ; and somewhere in the neighborhood there is a part that secretes a
fluid, which, being added to the germs, enables them to develop. This fluid, there-
fore, is analogous to the male sperm, and apparently serves just the same purpose.
Still there is not always a distinct semen-forming organ, like a testicle, and this
• fluid may be only a nutritive one, or a form of protoplasm, which the germs absorb
as nutriment. In some beings, in fact, it is produced by a part of the same organ
that forms the germs themselves ; and in some others it is doubtful if there be any
fecundating fluid at all, the egg probably developing of itself.

Strictly speaking, therefore, these beings, instead of being double-sexed, are
either imperfectly sexual, or only of one sex, the formation of the germs in them
being often, in fact, little more sexual than the formation of sporules in cryptoga-
mous plants.

In the common mussel the eggs are contained in a kind of sac, or bag, just un-
derneath the skin, and at the period when they are ripe a fluid is secreted by this
sac itself, which flows over the eggs and impregnates them, after which they develop
into little mussels, before they leave the parent inclosure, and may be seen with a
lens quite readily, each one covered by its tiny shell. The mussel, therefore, brings
forth its young living.

In the oyster the process is very similar, there being really but one sexual organ,
which acts as both male and female, and the young are brought forth alive, like
the young mussels. They are very minute when first emitted, and are called the
spat. As soon as free, they attach themselves to any suitable surrounding object,
and there remain and grow. In some others, as in the barnacles, the male and
female organs are a little more distinct. There are real testicles, in which a true
seminal fluid is formed, which is conveyed by a long tube through the whole length
of the animal's body, to the place where it meets with the eggs, and then it fecun-
dates them, and they are thrown off.

This kind of hermaphrodism is the first and simplest form of true sexuality.
The two principles are to some extent differentiated, and a first step is taken toward
separate and distinct male and female organs. There is no instance known in which
both male and female organs, in a perfect state, and capable of sexual union, are
found in the same individual ; so that, strictly speaking, there are no true her-
maphrodites, who can form and impregnate their own germs, by the act of copula-
tion. In one sense, however, the beings already described are true hermaphrodites,
because each individual can propagate its kind by itself, without the concurrence
of any other individual. If only one were left, therefore — say one mussel — it would
be able to continue the species.

In the next kind of hermaphrodites, we have distinct male and female organs ;
one secreting semen, and the other forming germs ; — but they are so placed that they
cannot co-operate, so that the individual cannot impregnate itself. Two individuals,
or sometimes more, unite in the double act, being impregnated, and impregnating
in return. This kind of hermaphrodite, therefore, although more perfect, as far as
the sexual organs are concerned, than the kind first described, is yet less perfect in

134 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

regard to propagation, because it cannot impregnate itself, and one individual would
not be able to continue tbe species.

Among tbose hermaphrodites that perform this double act, there are many curi-
ous varieties, of structure and function, some of which we will describe.

In the common snail we find in each individual a true ovary, and true testicles,
so that it makes both eggs and semen. It also has a curiously formed penis, a kind
of tube, which can be drawn in or thrust out, like the finger of a glove. In the
interior of the right side of the body there is a kind of canal, with which the ovaries
are connected, and in which also lies the penis. This canal opens on the right side
of the head, between the great and little horns.

When the eggs are ripe they are passed into this common canal, where they await
impregnation. The animal's own testicles, however, do not communicate with this
canal in such a way that their semen can be thrown into it, so that it cannot self-
impregnate. They empty only into the penis. When two individuals meet, however,
each one projects its penis outward, and thrusts it into the other's sexual canal,
where it emits the semen among the eggs there lying. This is done by both at once,
so that each one impregnates the other, and is impregnated by it in return ; or, in
other words, each acts both as male and female at the same time. They often re-
main united in this way for a considerable period.

A similar double union occurs in earth-worms. When they lie on the ground in a
dewy morning, they may be seen to be united at two places, in a way that enables
each one to perform both sexual acts at the same time.

The same thing occurs in leeches, and many other beings of the same class. Eels
are also hermaphrodite.

Thereis one species of snail, however — the Helix pomatia — which possesses a special
sexual organ of a very singular character, whose real nature and uses are not known.
In the common sexual canal of this animal there is a tube, or long sac, which has at
its lower end a little projection which secretes a bony material that forms into a kind
of long needle, called the love dart, which can be thrust out like the penis. When
two of these snails meet, they push out these darts and thrust them into one another,
apparently to cause amative excitement, for after having done this, they proceed
to copulate. There is, usually, quite a long period of dalliance before the dart is
actually used, the two beings rubbing their bodies together, in all parts, and touching
one another in various caressing ways. When this has gone on for some time, one of
them suddenly projects his dart and tries to prick the other with it, but the one
attacked draws quickly into his shell and avoids it, making, perhaps, a similar
attack in return. This love battle often continues for a long time, till one or
both are pierced ; then the mimic eombat ceases, and they perform the double
sexual union.

The dart is often broken off during the fight, and many observers formerly
imagined it was really thrown; but this is now generally acknowledged to be an error.
The dart is almost square, having four sharp ridges and a tapering point. When one
is lost, or broken, another is soon formed, so that the animal is never long without
one. The use of this curious instrument is probably simply to stimulate or cause
excitement, so as to make the act of conjugation more perfect, and possibly more
pleasurable. It is formed only in the season of copulation.

There are various other parts, more or less connected with those named, but as
we do not know what part they play, it is not necessary to refer to them any more.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

135

It will be understood, of course, that these parts are shown as they appear whe^ iLb-
sected out of the body and displayed. It would not be possible in a picture to t,how
them just as they are in the snail. This will serve, however, to show how they
are connected, so that their mutual action in the process of copulation can be
understood.

Both the testicle and the womb are ordinarily quite small, but in the pairing
season both enlarge very much, and the womb seems to fill with eggs. The penis is
a very singular organ, resembling a long whip-lash, but hollow. It is shown in th9

Figure 49. — Generative Organs of the Snail called Helix Pomatia.

a a are the ovaries ; b b the testicles ; c the penis ; d the bladder ; e the tube leading from
the bladder ; / the love dart ; g the beginning of the passage leading to the ovaries, the lower
part of which may be called the vagina, and the upper part the womb ; k is the vas deferens, or
tube which conveys the semen from the testicles (6 b) to the root of the penis ; h is the place where
the semen is emitted ; i is the common generative cavity with which ail the parts communicate.
The passage to the womb (g) ends in it, and also the tube from the bladder (e), and the seminal
tube (k) ends in it at (/t). It also contains the love dart (/). It is supposed to be cut open and
spread flat. The actual use of the part called the bladder (d), and of the fluid it contains, are not
known, and there are some other parts connected not here shown, because nothing is known about
them, and this is intended merely to show those parts actually concerned in copulation and im-
pregnation.

cut protruded, and it can be drawn in on itself, like a glove finger, till it is quite
small, and easily contained in the body.

The testes, b b, and the womb or ovary, a a, which contains the eggs, it will be
seen, are associated together, but with no actual connection, so that the animal's own
semen cannot impregnate its own eggs. Instead of doing so, it is conveyed by the vas
deferens, h, to the penis, c, and by that is conveyed to the eggs of another snail,
whose penis does the same in return. The copulating passage is the common gen-
erative cavity, i, which opens exteriorly on the outside of the head. The fluid
secreted by the bladder, d, is thought to be used in covering the eggs as a kind of
Tarnish ; but this is not sure.

136 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. "

The act of copulation will now be understood. When two snails meet, and are
amorously inclined, they begin a series of coquetish dalliances which may last for
an hour or more, and during which their activity belies the old adage, "as slow as
a snail." When this has continued long enough, they begin to use the love darts,
in the way already described, and when both have been pierced by them, the real
copulation begins. The two penises are thrust out, and each one inserts his into the
common generative cavity of the other, till it reaches the womb by the passage g, and
impregnates the eggs. Each one, therefore, impregnates the other, and is impreg-
nated in the same way in return.

The appearance of two of these animals in the act of copulation is shown ill
the following cut :

Figure 50. — Two Snails Copulating.

The two penises, it will be seen, twist together, each leaving its own body at d, and entering
the body of the other at e. The union will often continue for a long time.

It will astonish many people to learn that in snails sexual union should be so
complicated, and apparently attended by so many pleasure-giving processes. It is
probable, however, that even in beings still lower, the process may be equally curious
and equally pleasurable.

In some snails the male organs are at one end of the body, and the female organs
at the other, and that is why three or four individuals must always unite together,
in order that each one may be brought into play.

In other similar beings the generative apparatus is still more curious and compli-
cated ; so much so, in fact, that the uses of many parts of it cannot even be con-
jectured. Some others of them have a kind of love dart, besides the one above
described, but differently situated, and whether used in the same way or not is
unknown.

Snails have a great power of reproducing lost parts. If their horns be cut' off,
new ones will grow again ; and, in fact, if the whole head be removed a new one will
be reproduced. Nevertheless, they do not propagate by either fission or budding,
but by eggs, which may be found in clusters, at the proper season, on the under sides
of leaves. They are, therefore, truly sexual and hermaphrodite.

Many of the water-snails are also hermaphrodite, but they have the separate male
and female organs so far apart, and so situated, that two of them cannot copulate,
like the Pomatia, above described. There must always be three at least, and when
there is but three, it is only the middle one in which the double act is performed.
One of the others can act only as male, and the other only as female, to the one

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 137

between them. Usually, however, a number join together in such a way that each
one can act both male and female with two others, and long chains or rings of
them thus act together.

These snails lay eggs, also, like the others, but they develop in the water.

Hermaphrodites in the higher animals are only monstrosities, from malformation
of the parts. None of them are truly hermaphrodite naturally, although at one
period of its growth even the human embryo is neither male nor female, or more
properly speaking, it cannot be told which it is, for there is no difference in the two
sexes, as will be seen farther on.

In plants hermaphrodism is the rule, the male and female organs being in nearly
all cases on the same plant, and usually on the same flower. To find them separated
on the same or on different plants is the exception. But even in the hermaphro-
dites the male and female organs are nearly always quite separate and distinct, even
where the male grows out of the female, as is the case in some classes.

The male and female organs, and the male and female germs, in plants, cor-
respond very nearly to those in animals, and they even have, in many cases, a
similar function of copulation, without which fecundation would not occur. This,
however, will be better understood farther on.

We will now proceed to speak of those beings in whom the two sexes are always in
separate individuals.

PART VIII.

DIOECIOUS GENERATION.— THE TWO SEXES DIVIDED,

THE FEMALE EGG AND MALE SPERM.

CONJUNCTION OF THE SEXES.

IMPREGNATION.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE SEXES DIVIDED, THE MALE ORGANS BEING IN ONfi ltf DiVIrfl/AL AND THIS
FEMALE IN ANOTHER.

Dioecious.

When the two sexes are placed in different individuals, the two generative prin-
ciples, the sperm or semen, and the ovum or egg, are always distinct, and easily
distinguished from each other. In all cases they have to be brought together, and.
then the semen is said to impregnate, or vivify the egg. Sometimes the two are
united within the body and sometimes without, and sometimes they develop into
the new being within the female body and at other times without. These differ-
ences necessitate different organs, and various subsidiary functions, which will be
explained as we proceed.

First, however, it will be necessary to more fully describe the- two generative prin-
ciples separately, and we will commence with the ovum, called also the egg or germ.

THE OVARIUM OR OVARY, WITH THE OVUM OR EGG.

The celebrated anatomist, Haller, who was one of the first to thoroughly exam-
ine and study the generative organs practically, laid down the rule that every living
thing sprang from an egg. And in one sense he was perfectly correct. Before hits
day, anatomists had not gone beyond the egg, as seen in birds and reptiles, and few
of them had any idea that other beings, least of all man, originated also from eggs.
Haller, however, demonstrated that the germ from which all animals commence,
man the same as the rest, is a true egg, identical in all essential particulars with the
egg of a bird, and developing in the same way, as will be fully shown farther on.
At a later period, when the microscope had enabled anatomists to penetrate deeper
into organized structures, they became acquainted with the cell, and found that to
be the true commencement of everything living. It was then discovered that the
egg is only a specialized cell, thrown off from the parent's body at a certain stage of
growth, and capable, under proper conditions, of forming a new being.

This discovery went farther than was at first suspected, for it proved that all
living beings originate the same; and that the minute Infusoria, equally with the
mighty elephant, and man, the master of creation, all began and were afterward
perfected in exactly the same way. »

After the cell came the discovery of unorganized protoplasm, and its first sepa-
rate mobile portions, the moners ; going still deeper, and making it evident that all
living things originate, primarily, not merely in an egg or cell, but in a small speck
of protoplasmic jelly. All are, therefore, fundamentally the same.

This will be evident from the explanations of cell life and cell growth already
given.

141

142 DICEGIOUS GENERATION.

When, however, "we come to the higher orders of beings, especially the verte-
brates, including man, it is the egg, or fully differentiated cell, "with which "we prac-
tically have to deal. The origin of the egg itself, from the simple cell, and that from
protoplasm, may be passed by here, because fully explained elsewhere.

In all beings above the simple ones before described, generation is always effected
by the union of two different principles, the egg and the semen. And these, though
they differ much, as we see them, are in all probability the same thing, that is, a
cell, one varied a little one way and the other in another.

In some of the simple beings already referred to, as the mussel and oyster for
instance, there is probably but one kind of cell, which is able to develop by itself.
In many other beings it is also common for the egg alone to form a new being ; and
the same thing even occurs, as an exception, in the very highest organisms, even in
man ; the male semen ocsasionally being dispensed with.

Practically, however, we have in all the higher animals, and especially in man,
the two distinct principles, the male semen and the female ovum, and these are
always united to form a new being.

In plants, also, it must be borne in mind, the generative process is essentially the
same, there being the two principles, male and female, corresponding to those of the
animal, and they are united in the same way to form the new organism.

To many people it will sound strange to speak of eggs in connection with the
higher animals, and especially with man. The idea of an egg is usually formed
from that of a bird, though smaller ones, such as those of insects, are recognized,
and they are always seen to be developed externally to the female's body, by the action
of heat. It is not generally known that animals which are born alive are also
developed from eggs, the same as birds, or insects, man himself not excepted.

The essential parts of the egg are the same in all cases, but when they have to
be developed out of the body, as those of birds for instance, it is necessary for them
to be protected by a firm covering, and provided with a large stock of nutritious
material from which the body of the new being can be formed. Hence the hard
shell and the great bulk of the bird's egg. But in the case of those that develop
their young within the body, and bring them forth alive, the shell is not needed for
protection, and the mother supplies nutriment direct from her own blood. The eggs
of all such animals are therefore small, and for a long time were both undiscovered
and unsuspected. Nevertheless, every vertebrate animal, to whatever class he may
belong, develops from an egg formed in the body of the mother.

Those that bring forth eggs, to be hatched externally by heat, are called ovipar-
ous, or egg-bearing animals. Those that hatch the eggs within their bodies and
bring them forth alive are called viviparous, or life-bearing animals.

The human female is, of course, viviparous, bringing forth her young alive, but
still it is always developed from an egg, produced in a special organ in her body,
called the ovary, or ovarium.

All eggs are very much alike when divested of accidental accessories, such as
shells and nutritious matters, and they are all composed of similar parts, so that a
description of any one explains all.

Another thing to be explained is that all females, of every kind, form eggs, and
expel them from the body, whether they have intercourse with a male or not. At
a certain age, called that of puberty, the human female, for instance, begins to form
perfect germs, ovse, or eggs, in the organ called the ovary, and at regular interval?.

TEE SEXES DIVIDED. 14Jj

usually of one month, one or more of these eggs are expelled. This takes place, it
must be remembered, independent of any sexual intercourse whatever. If inter-
course does take place, and the egg be fecundated, it remains within the female's
body and develops into a new being, but if no fecundation takes place the egg is
expelled, by a natural process. The same thing takes place in the females of all other
animals, each kind having its own peculiar laws as to time and manner of formation
and expulsion.

In birds this process is seen, and is therefore familiar, but in the case of vivipar-
ous animals it is only by anatomical and physiological investigation that it becomes
shown. Nevertheless, the laying of eggs is as regular and natural a function in
the human female as in a bird, and in both it takes place just the same in those that
are virgin as in those that have sexual intercourse. The ovary contains the rudi-
ments of a large number of ovse, more than enough, in the human being, to produce
a perfect one, or more, every month, from twenty to forty years. They come forward
in succession, one or more ripening each month, and being either expelled or devel-
oped, if fecundated, into new beings.

As a rule, unless the female egg receives the male semen it is abortive, comes to
nothing, and is expelled, but sometimes, without receiving this, it will form into a
new being more or less perfect, just as any other cell might do.

It is, therefore, necessary to be borne in mind, in reference to the reproduction
of the higher animals, that the female principle, the ovum or egg, is regularly pro-
duced, like the male semen, whether there ever be sexual intercourse or not. The
first production of ripe ovse, as also that of perfect semen, is always accompanied by
great bodily and mental changes, and marks a critical' period of life. The produc-
tion of semen in the male continues to an indefinite period, but the egg ceases to be
perfected in the female usually about forty-five years of age, and this marks another
critical period. These matters, however, will be more especially referred to far-
ther on.

The egg is essentially a cell, but it is modified in structure in the ovary, and takes
on certain peculiarities which will be described. All eggs of whatever kind or size,
as before stated, are essentially the same in structure and component parts, so that
in describing one we describe all.

It will be necessary, however, first to describe the ovary, or organ in which the
egg is formed, and which also is essentially the same in all the higher animals.

THE OVAEY OR OVARIUM, AND THE OVUM.

In the females of all truly sexual animals there is a special part devoted to the
production of those specialized cells called ovse, germs, or eggs. Even in the im-
perfect hermaphrodites there is an ovarium, though anything analogous to the
male testes is doubtful.

The form of this organ, its mode of action, its appearance and location, vary
much in different beings. Usually, in the higher animals, it is located in the pelvis.
It is not formed at any particular period of life, but apparently exists, in a rudimen-
tary state, in the embryo itself. It grows gradually with the rest of the system, and
becomes capable of producing perfect ovse at a certain age, in the human female at
about fourteen years. In all the mammalia there are two ovaries, one on each side
of the body, corresponding with the two testicles of the male, with which, in fact,
at an early stage, they are identical. Formerly they were called the female testicles,

144 TEE SEXES DIVIDED.

and before their true function was known they were supposed to secrete a kind of
semen, which united with that of the male, at the time of impregnation. It is now
known, however, that they really produce ovae or eggs, like those of a bird.

In the human female the ovaries are placed one in each groin, and they are both
connected with the womb, as will be shown farther on. They are each about the
size of an almond nut, light in color, of a soft fleshy consistence, and filled with
granular matter. At the age of puberty they are seen to be studded with small vesi-
cles or cells, both in their substance and on the surface, somewhat like pustules.
These are called the Graafian vesicles ; they all contain a small round kernel which
is an ovum or egg, at some stage of development. Some of the vesicles are merely
rudimentary, others more developed, and others again approaching maturity, but
usually one is fully ripened at each month, and is then thrown off. Generally about
twenty or thirty are distinctly visible at a time. The formation of the ovae in the
female ovary begins at the very earliest period, for we find them regularly produced
and thrown off m young children even. But they are not fully developed till pu-
berty. This, it will be seen, is exactly the same process that occurs in a bird, except-
ing that the eggs of the bird are expelled, and developed, if at all, outside of the
body, while in the mammal they are retained within the body and there developed.,
if fecundated.

Whether the ovary starts with a certain number of rudimentary ovae, ready
formed, and gradually develops them all in succession, or whether their formation
goes on regularly during the laying season, we do not know. But judging from
the analogy of other cell development, it would rather seem that the ovary should be
considered as a simple cell at commencement, which continues to propagate itself till
its powers of reproduction are exhausted, as we see in simpler organisms.

After the change of life, when the ovary has ceased to produce ovae, it changes
in appearance, loses all signs of Graafian vesicles, diminishes in size, and becomes
totally inert.

That portion of a plant which produces the seeds is called also the Ovarium, and it
acts in all essential particulars like the ovarium of an animal. Not being permanent,
however, but only formed from season to season, it of course does not change in the
same way nor present the same features.

In all cases, both eggs and seeds are regularly produced, whether the female re-
ceives any fecundating influence from the male or not. The eggs or seeds are formed
just the same but remain unfruitful, if not fecundated. A female bird which has
never had intercourse with a male produces eggs the same as one that has, but they can-
not be hatched when unfertilized by the male sperm. And it is exactly the same with
the human female. Nor is there any difference, so far as can be seen, between the egg
of a virgin animal and that of one which has had intercourse with a male, until they
are subject to warmth and other favorable conditions, when one will develop into
the new being, and the other will not, except, occasionally, to an imperfect stage.

It is the same with all the mammalia likewise, although there are great differ-
ences, as to the frequency of the development, and in some of the minor phenomena
attending it. Thus, for instance, in the lion and elephant, only one egg is ripened
in two or three years, while in most horned cattle one or more are ripened every
year, and in the rabbit, quite a large number are ripened several times a year. Each
animal, therefore, has its appropriate period, and it is, of course, only at that par-
ticular time that it can conceive, because there can be an impregnation only when

TEE SEXES DIVIDED. 145

the egg is fully developed, and has left the ovary. If no connection occurs with
the other sex at that time, or, in other words, not till after the ripened egg has left
the body, there can be no conception till another period returns again. Nature, how-
ever, has so arranged, in the lower animals, that connection is desired only at that
time, and then very strongly. In them the maturation of the egg, and its passage
into the womb, is always attended with great irritation and inflammation of the whole
generative apparatus, which causes the peculiar excitement we term sexual or amo-
rous, and makes them desire association with the other sex. This is what is called
the Rut, or Heat, or, scientifically, the (Estrum, and it is well known that the
males and females of the lower animals have no inclination whatever for each other,
except at those times, and if connection were to occur between them at any other
period, no conception could ensue, because there would be no egg ripened and ready to
receive the semen. In the human being we see precisely the same phenomena, with
slight variation. Thus the development of the egg in the human female is monthly,
one coming to perfection, as a general rule, every twenty-eight days, and continuing
to do so regularly, from puberty till the turn of life. This is why conception is not
confined in our species, to any particular part of the year, as it is in many others,
but can occur much more frequently. Even in the human female, however, the
same as in every other, there is a time — a certain part of each month — when she can-
not conceive, and that is after one ripened egg has left the womb, and before the
other has reached it. This will, however, be more fully explained in the article on
Conception.

The monthly ripening of the egg in the human female is attended with similar
phenomena to the annual ripening in others, only slightly different in their manifes-
tation. Thus, in the lower animals at the time of heat, we have inflammation, and
strong sexual excitement, with a discharge from the parts, of a thin, almost colorless
fluid, of a peculiar odor. In the human female also, at the time of the monthly
ripening, they have considerable inflammation, with a copious discharge of blood and
mucus, termed the menstrual or monthly floiv, more fully explained in another
article. The sexual desire however is not generally confined to that particular time
in our species, though it is frequently much the strongest then, and is always, most
readily induced.

The manner in which the egg is expelled is very curious, and when understood
it explains many of the attendant phenomena. If we examine the ovary, at about
three weeks previous to one of the monthly periods, none of the Graafian vesicles,
or their contained ova, appear very different from the others, but, in about a week
later, one of them is seen to be somewhat enlarged, and is more prominent upon the
surface. This enlargement continues to be more manifest as the period is ap-
proached, till it assumes the form of a pustule, or pimple, with a prominent point
in the center, indicating that it is ready to burst ; and eventually it does burst, and
the little egg escapes through the torn opening. This is called ovulation, or the
laying of the egg, and is analogous to the expulsion of the egg from the body of the
bird, but in the human being it is then passed into the womb, to remain there for a
time.

The manner in which the egg is transmitted to the womb is very curious, and

can be understood fully only by referring to the parts. Each of the two ovaries are

connected with the womb by a short, firm cord, or ligament, down which there is a

passage. Immediately above each ovary is an organ, called " Hie Fallopian Tube,"

10

146 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

which is much longer than the ovarian ligament, and is in shape like a trumpet, the
large end, which is loose, being close by the ovaries, while the other end is con-
nected with the womb. The open end of this tube by the ovary, is as large as a half
dime, and is divided into a number of little finger-like prolongations, called its
Fimbriae. From this wide opening a small passage extends, down the interior of
the tube, into the womb, between which and the ovary a communication is thus
established.

At the time when the egg is expelled from the vesicle, in the manner already
explained, the open end of the tube is directed over that part of the ovary where it
lies, and the finger-like ends, or Fimbriae, cling round the egg, and pick it up. By
these means, it is taken into the commencement of the tube, which then contracts
behiud it, and thus, by continued successive contractions, it is passed onwards till it
reaches the womb.

The egg usually escapes from the ovary just about the time when the flow ceases,
though occasionally not till two or three days after, and it is then from two to six
days in passing down the tube. It never, therefore, reaches the womb till the flow
is fully over, and most frequently it does so about the second day after, but some-
times not till the fourth or fifth day. When it reaches the womb, it is prevented
from passing immediately out, by a peculiar thin membrane, or skin, called the De-
eidua, which is formed during the latter part of the flow, and which lines the whole
interior cavity. As the egg passes out of the Uterine end of the tube, it pushes on
this thin membrane, and makes a kind of nest or depression, in which it lies. While
this membrane remains, therefore, the egg is necessarily retained in the womb, and
can be impregnated ; but in a certain period, varying in different persons, the mem-
brane looses, and passes out of the body, taking the egg along with it, after which,
of course, there can be no conception till another period comes round, because there
is no ripe egg in the womb to be impregnated. From which it follows, as before
remarked, that there is onhj a part of each month in which conception is possible, and
that will be stated farther on, in the article on Conception. If impregnation occurs,
the egg, instead of being expelled, attaches itself to the walls of the womb, and re-
mains, tc develop into the new being, while the decidua forms one of the festal
membranes, or envelopes.

In every female, therefore, married or virgin, an egg is formed and thrown off
every month, unless conception takes place, and then a new being is produced. Dur-
ing pregnancy and nursing, however, the ripening of the ova is usually suspended,
for reasons given in the article on Menstruation ; and at the change of life it ceases
entirely, because all have been developed.

As a general rule, only one vesicle is ripened each month, but, occasionally, there
are two or more, in which case, if all the ovae are impregnated, there may be twins
or triplets, as the case may be. Probably, also, the ovaries act alternately, generally
one one month, and the other the next ; but this is not always the case, for one will
sometimes lie dormant for a length of time, or even be destroyed altogether, and yet
the other will act perfectly regular alone. Each vesicle usually contains but one
ovum, though sometimes two are seen within, and even more. Twins, therefore, or
other numbers may result either from several vesicles bursting, with an ovum in each,
or from one vesicle containing several ovae. Probably, in those remarkable instances
where we have four or five at a birth, both these unusual occurrences take place.
In the lower animals, as many vesicles burst as they have young, unless some of the

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

147

vesicles contain more than one ovum, which is sometimes the case, and then the
number of the young is greater.

The ovaries are among the very first organs formed, the rudiments of them being
found in the bodies of little girls two or three years old, and more or less distinctly
even before birth. They are also plainly distinguishable in the minutest beings —
in the Infusoria for instance, though they require to be magnified thousands of
times before they become visible. In many of the smaller animals, however, the ovary
is larger than all the rest of the body, at particular times. The body of the Queen
Bee, for instance, is much enlarged when filled with ripe eggs, and in some female
ants, the ovary attains such an enormous size, that the head and trunk are almost
lost sight of. The number of eggs found in the ovaries of some beings, is almost
incredible. Thus in a female sturgeon there has been counted Ten Millions, and in
all probability, many species form even more than this number. In most insects the
depositing of the egg is the last act they perform ; it is not done till they attain the
perfect stage, and then, when the reproduction of their young is provided for, they
die. In the more perfect beings, however, the ovulation is repeated many

Piguee 51.— The Female Ant, when distended with Eggs, showing the enormous increase in size.
The Male is shown with wings, the Soldier Ant with mandibles. The other is a common Working
Ant.

The immediate cause of the expulsion of the egg from the ovary is very curious,
and shows that there is a peculiar vital action in these parts which accumulates its
force at periodic intervals. On examining the Graafian vesicles, they are found to
be surrounded by several distinct membranes, or layers, lehveen the two inner ones
of which the egg is placed, at the bottom of the vesicle ; the innermost of all the
containing the whitish fluid, formerly mentioned. The outer membrane

148 TEE SEXES DIVIDED.

of ,Lhe two inner ones is traversed by a number of minute blood-vessels, which ordi.
narily are barely seen, but about three weeks before each period, some of them are
seen to be much enlarged and engorged with blood. This engorgement continues
to increase, till eventually some of the blood-vessels break, and the blood is thus
exuded between the two membranes, and, of course, under the egg, which is lifted up
by it, and as the effusion of blood continues, and the quantity increases, it is even-
tually forced up to the top of the vesicle, against which it presses. The white fluid
is in the meantime all absorbed, and its place occupied by the effused blood, which,
' by its constant increase, causes the enlargement of the vesicle, and its ultimate
rupture, when the egg escapes. This secretion of blood in the interior of the Graafian
vesicle is precisely analogous to the secretion of the menstrual fluid in the womb,
which it always precedes and probably originates.

On examining the ovary just when the egg is expelled, which is usually about
the cessation of the flow, there will be found, somewhere on the surface of it, a small
space much inflamed, in the center of which will be seen a minute rent, or torn place.
This is the spot where the vesicle has broken open and the egg escaped. Sometimes,
when the dissection occurs at the proper moment, the egg may be seen between the
lips of the rent, or may be found on the surface of the ovary ; it is then just large
enough to be visible, and appears like a minute globe of bluish-colored starch. The
vesicle itself, about the size of a small pea, may be readily opened by enlarging the
rent, and will be found filled with dark-colored blood, with the walls somewhat
shrunken together. Occasionally, a portion of the blood, in the form of a dark clot,
passes out with the egg, and both may be found together. This may be as readily
seen in any of the lower animals, about the commencement of the rut or heat, as in
the human being ; especially in rabbits or pigs, and better still in larger animals.

After the expulsion of the egg, the empty vesicle gradually shrinks up, by the
contraction of its walls, and eventually appears like a mere scar, of a yellowish brown
color. This scar is called the Corpus Luteum, or yellow body, and it was formerly
thought to result only from conception. Until recently, every anatomist regarded
the presence of a corpus luteum on the ovary as a proof of previous conception. It
was known that they were produced by the expulsion of an egg, but it was thought —
as it is now, by many persons — that the egg was expelled only when it was impreg-
nated, and that, consequently, the corpus luteum was a proof of conception. It is
now known, however, that the eggs are formed just the same when there is no con-
ception as when there is, and that consequently the corpus luteum is only an indi-
cation of ordinary ovulation, and is not necessarily connected with impregnation.
This mistake, however, was once universal, and had its influence in medical jurispru-
dence. On examining the bodies of females, for instance, in connection with certain
criminal trials, if any of these scars were found on the ovaries, it was at once decided
that conception must have taken place, some time or other, and such testimony
would have a most important bearing on the case. Suppose there should be a charge
of seduction, it might be important to the defendant to prove that the female had
not been virtuous, and if medical men testified, from these signs, that she had for-
merly conceived, that object would be accomplished. In fact, many such cases are on
record, and, no doubt, many young women have thus had their characters unjustly
aspersed, after death, and many guilty persons have escaped punishment in conse-
quence of this error. This fact may be important for lawyers to bear in mind, as
well as medical men, more especially as they will find no reference to it in the works

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 149

on medical jurisprudence in ordinary use. Haller, the celebrated anatomist, used
to dissect animals extensively, and, on asking the dealers to bring him heifers, fre-
quently accused them of deceiving him, because he sometimes found corpora lutea
upon their ovaries. No matter how strongly the men affirmed that the animal had
never known the male, so firmly was he convinced of the truth of his notion that
all they could say was disbelieved. In 1808, a Miss Angus died in Liverpool, under
circumstances that excited suspicions against her master, and an examination of her
body being deemed requisite, the ovaries were seen by many of the most celebrated
anatomists in England, the greater part of whom decided that she had been a mother
because a perfect corpus luteum was found. Some anatomists even now, who are not
practically acquainted with these subjects, conceive that, though a scar may be
formed at each month, yet, that the one formed at conception is larger and somewhat
different ; but this is altogether erroneous, there being no difference whatever in
them, let them be formed when they may.

From what has been stated, it follows that a corpus luteum is formed every
month, and it might be supposed, therefore, that there would always be just as
many as the individual had had menstruations. This, however, is not the case, be-
cause they gradually fade away and disappear, so that only three or four are seen at
most, and frequently only one. I have seen traces of a larger number under a
microscope, however, and, possibly, in some persons, they endure longer than in
others. As the turn of life is approached, they become more lasting, probably from
the weakened power of the ovaries to absorb them ; and, after the change has fully
taken place, the whole surface of the organ is often covered by them, and in many
old persons, the ovary is one mass of wrinkles, and shrunken very much in size ; in
fact, it sometimes almost totally disappears. The old physiologists, who thought
that a corpus luteum was formed, only when a conception occurred, used to say that
by counting the number of these scars, they could tell how many children a female
had borne. The fallacy of this, however, will be apparent, after the above explana-
tion, and indeed, many of the physiologists had begun to suspect it was not cor-
rect themselves, from the fact that sometimes four or five corpora lutea would be
found in the ovaries of a young person of fifteen or sixteen.

In most instances the ova go on developing regularly, those on the surface com-
ing forward first, and those in the center working their way outwards, to succeed
them, till all have been ripened, and then the ovaries shrink up and waste away.
But, sometimes, one or more of the vesicles and ova will either be buried so deeply,
or be so very rudimentary, that they do not attain nearly their full development at
the turn of life, and are, consequently, left in the ovary in an imperfect state. In
such cases, if the organ remains healthy, these delayed ova may develop many years
after, and may even be impregnated. This accounts for those curious instances of old
females sometimes menstruating a second time, at sixty or seventy years of age, and
also of some of them bearing children when very old, as I knew one at sixty-two.
In such cases, there have simply been one or more of the eggs left imperfect, at
the turn of life, and afterwards developed.

In some persons the ovaries are organically weak, and in others they are diseased,
so that they either cannot develop the eggs at all, or else they do so imperfectly.
Such persons are always irregular in their menstrual periods, and disposed to flood-
ing, from the debilitated state of the organs. If the ova are not formed at all, they
are always barren, of course, and even if they are merely imperfect, conception is not

PLATE IV.

OVARY OF THE HUMAN FEMALE AT DIFFERENT AGES AND PERIODS, SHOWING
GRAAFIAN VESICLES AND CORPORA LUTEA.

Figure 1 is the ovary of a girl aged twenty, who died in the hospital at Kouen.
The surface is smooth, reddish yellow in color, and with three cicatrices, or scars,
showing where eggs have been expelled in former menstruations.

Figure 2 is the other ovary of the same girl. On this are two scars, one quite
small, and the other large. (These scars each form a Corpus Luteum.)

Figure 3 is the ovary of a woman who died a few days after confinement. On
this may be seen quite a large cicatrice.

Figure 4 is the ovary of a woman of thirty-two years of age. It is seen to be
wrinkled all over with the scars of Corpora Lutea, showing where the eggs of former
menstruations were discharged.

Figure 5 is the same ovary laid open. This shows the two last Graafian vesicles
still open, though the lower one is nearly closed up. The upper of the two is the
one from which the last egg was expelled. The body of the ovary is full of vesicles
still undeveloped.

PLATE IV.

Fi&*>

Fig. 2.

@0«?y of Human Fmmik.

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

151

likely to occur, because the germ is deficient in vitality. It has been conjectured
further, that deformity in the child also may arise from imperfect ova, there being
merely vital force enough to allow of impregnation taking place, but not sufficient
to insure a perfect development afterwards. I once had a patient who had borne
five children, all deformed or imperfect, as I surmised, from diseased and weakened
ovaries, who had two others subsequently, quite perfect, after proper means had been
used to stimulate and strengthen those organs, and to regulate their action. Those
who have ever observed what imperfect plants are usually produced from diseased
and imperfect seed, will readily understand the philosophy of this, and will see the
necessity of a healthy condition of the ovaries, to insure both conception and perfect
offspring.

It must not be supposed, however, that the state of the ova alone influences the
quality of the offspring, or affects the liability to conception, it being equally impor-
tant that the male organs, and the male principle, too, should be perfect, as will be
shown farther on.

The ripening of the egg in the ovary is, in many respects, analogous to the ripen-
ing of a fruit upon a tree. It remains in the vesicle till it has attained a certain
size, and exhausted all the nutriment provided, and then leaves it, or is cast off,
like a foreign body. This is the reason why eggs cannot be impregnated if they are
taken from the ovary, because they are not perfect till they leave it spontaneously,
but when found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes, they may be impregnated.

Although, as before explained, neither the female egg nor the male semen can
develop into a new human being alone, yet, under certain peculiar circumstances,
the egg will occasionally develop into a partial and imperfect likeness of a child itself,
without any impregnation. What the conditions are upon which this unusual
power depends, are unknown, but such occurrences have, undoubtedly, been observed.
Possibly, the power of the ovary may be much exalted during a state of inflammation,
as the power of other organs frequently is. Thus, for instance, in many cases of in-
flamed eyes, the power of vision is so preternaturally increased that the patient can
see in the dark, or, rather, in what is darkness to healthy eyes. In what is com-
monly termed darkness there are always some few rays of light, and the diseased eye
can see with those few, though it is blinded by a full light. In the same manner,
though the healthy ovary can only develop the germ into the ovum or egg, yet, when
inflamed, it may be capable of partially developing it into an organized being. The
celebrated Hufeland gives us a remarkable instance of this kind, in which there was
found in a girl of thirteen years, the rudiments of an imperfect foetus very distinct,
contained in a sac in one of the ovaries, which was diseased. Some few such cases
I have also noticed myself, and it is not at all unusual, under such circum-
stances, to find detached bones, hair, teeth, and single limbs, as if the ovary had not
power enough to organize them together, though it could originate them individually.
These occur in undoubted virgins — even in children, and the fact is both interesting
and important. There are many circumstances under which such diseased growths
might be found, that would seriously affect the individual's reputation, and originate
most unjust suspicions.

This shows one use of sexual excitement. It is true that this peculiar sensation
is not necessary, neither to the formation of the ova, nor to conception, but it is also
equally true that it may often conduce to both. There is no question but what amative
enjoyment stimulates the ovaries very much, and in many cold and torpid systems,

PLATE V.

EXPULSION OF THE EGG FROM THE GRAAFIAN VESICLE, AND FORMATION OF THE
CORPUS LUTEUM.

In Figure 1 the ovum, about the size of a pin's head, is seen at the bottom of the
Graafian vesicle, which is filled with the white fluid.

In Figure 2 a little blood has formed underneath it, raising it up.

Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, the blood is seen to increase, raising the egg still higher,
and displacing the white fluid.

In Figure 8 the whole vesicle is filled with blood, and the egg is forced up against
the membrane at the top.

In Figure 9 the vesicle is shown full size, and burst open, the egg just escaping
through the opening, as fully explained farther back.

Figure 10 shows the cell after the egg has been expelled, full of dark blood.

Figures 11 and 12 show the blood beginning to be absorbed.

In Figures 13, 14, 15, 16, the blood is still less, and the inner membrane is cor-
rugating, so as to fill up.

In Figure 17 the blood is nearly all gone, and the corrugated inner membrane
has taken its place.

In Figure 18 the old membrane fills the cavity, and is become yellow, forming a
true Corpus Luteum, or yellow scar.

This Plate shows very clearly how the egg is expelled, and how the Corpus Lute-
um takes the place of the Graafian vesicle. This is what occurs in the human female
each month.

PLATE V.
Fig. 10. Pig- 11 Fig- 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 FJ£-15

Fig. 16 Pig- l7 Pig-

Fig. 9.

Fig.4.

Fig.S.

Expulsion of Ovum, and Formation of the Corpus Luteum.

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 153

nothing else succeeds so well in doing so, which is the reason why marriage is often
recommended for young females who are irregular or deficient. On the other hand
there are others whose ardor it is necessary to moderate, because their over-indulgence
excites the ovaries too much, and they form the ova too frequently. I have often
found that producing the sexual feeling in females who had their periods too seldom,
and who were cold in their temperaments, led immediately to a more frequent and
regular menstruation, although medical treatment had utterly failed in doing so. In
like manner I have known conception to result from the same change, after every
other means had been resorted to in vain. Blumenbach gives us a singular con-
firmation of this principle, for he tells us that he has seen some kinds of birds prac-
tice a species of masturbation, or excite themselves with their bills, and that imme-
diately afterward they always laid an egg, even though there was only a half-formed
one in the body to be expelled.

The condition in which animals live has a great influence over the action of the
ovaries, so as to completely change it in many respects. Thus, for instance, the wild
turkey lays but one lot of eggs in a year, and probably most other species of fowls
do the same in a state of nature, but when domesticated, regularly and well fed, and
sheltered, they will lay many more ; sometimes even they will continue to do so
almost constantly. This is owing to the influence of rich and plentiful food, with
the absence of privation and exposure, which allows more nutriment, and more vital
power to be expended upon the ovaries. Ifc is probable that all cattle, when wild,
have their oestrum, or heat, at some particular season of the year, but whenever
they are domesticated, it occurs in them irregularly and usually more frequently.

Among human beings, however, the manners and customs of society have more
influence, perhaps, than any other causes, because the sexual instinct in them can be
awakened and exalted through the medium of the imagination, and because the
action of the ovaries is so frequent as to keep the whole system more or less con-
stantly under their influence. In the human being Love is a compound feeling,
embracing a variety of propensities and desires, domestic and social, besides the ani-
mal propensity, so that it is awakened in very many different ways, while in the ani-
mal it is called forth only by one impulse. In the article on Menstruation the
effects of social conditions are made apparent ; and the early amative manifestations
of young persons, in all places, when their intercourse is unrestricted, also affords
abundant proof of the same.

Too high feeding often impairs the generative power, by unnaturally stimulating
the formation of fat, owing .to which the functions of the ovaries, in common with
those of many other organs, are then in a great measure suspended, because all vital
power is concentrated on the one absorbing process of Nutrition. On the other hand,
a meager and poor diet is also apt to impair the vigor of the sexual organs, or if it
does not do so, the other organs suffer, because there is not nutrition enough to
maintain them all in full action. In the human being, however, as already re-
marked, there are so many other causes operating upon the sexual system, that the
physical condition is not of such paramount importance as it is in the lower animals.
Thus we often see 'whole classes of people, who live in the most wretched manner,
and are half starved, who, nevertheless, are remarkably prolific, and much disposed
to amative indulgence. In all these cases, however, it will be found that the inter-
course of the sexes is entirely unrestrained, there being no considerations of prudence,
no calculation of means or consequences, but a perfect abandonment to the mere

PLATE VI.

OVARY AHD GRAAFIAN TESICLE OF A RABBIT, AT VARIOUS STAGES.

Figure 1 shows a Graafian vesicle from a rabbit, in its primitive state, before its
evolution begins.

Figure 2, it is grown larger.

Figure 3 begins to show the blood-vessels.

In Figure 4 the blood-vessels are very apparent, and the black dot in the center
shows where it will open.

In Figure 5 the same change is still further advanced.

In Figure 6 the egg is just escaping.

Figure 7 shows the empty vesicle after the egg has escaped.

Figure 8 shows the blood-vessels and the cavity gradually fading out.

In Figure 9 they are still more faint.

In Figure 10 it has dwindled much in size.

In Figure 11 it is still more indistinct, and in

Figure 12 it has become very small, and yellow in color — a true Corpus Luteum.

Figure 13 shows the vitellus, or yellow of a rabbit's egg, with the germinal vesicle
in the midst of it.

Figure 14 shows the same fully developed and burst open, so that the granules
end the germinal vesicle are escaping,

Figure 15 shows the ovary of a rabbit, with the Graafian vesicles on the surface ia
Various stages of development, but none quite ripe.

PLATE VI.

Fig. 14

'"if

Fig.L3

Fig.l.

Fig.2. Fig5. Fig.4»

•

FIgA Ffe&

^

Fig.7

Fig.9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11 Fig 12.

Ovulation of Babbit.

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 155

sexual impulse. Consequently, marriages occur early, and there is no motive what-
ever for restraint afterwards. In these people, however, the virile power does not
endure so long as in those who are better circumstanced, and its exercise being one
of the few indulgences left them, they are apt to abuse it.

At the present time, we know of many means by which the power of the ovaries
can be either increased or decreased, as may be most advisable, and by which also
the egg itself can be made more perfect.

The yellow part, or vitellus, is composed of little round vesicles or grains, which
are hollow, and filled with still smaller bodies, called granules. The membrane
which covers each vesicle is also granulated, and thus we have first the round egg
itself, made up of little round vesicles, and each of these made up again of still
smaller bodies or granules, while the covering of each vesicle is also granulated like
the interior. There is, in fact, a succession of vesicles, or spheres, one set included
within another, as far as we can observe.

The germinal vesicle, which is larger than the vitelline vesicles, among which
it is placed, is also composed of granules, and is covered with a granulated mem-
brane, the granules in the center of it being much condensed, or crushed together,
so as to be opaque, and thus form the germinal dot.

The vitellus, or yellow, is the material from which the new being is first formed,
and it is found in the egg of the virgin precisely the same as in that of a married
person. In fact, the perfect formation of the vitellus constitutes the ripening of the
ovum, which escapes from the ovary immediately that is formed. Many singular and
interesting changes take place in this substance, after the egg enters the tube, some
of which throw great light on the manner of the first commencement of the new
being. On examining the vitelline vesicles immediately on the escape of the ovum
from the ovary, the inclosed granules are seen to be in rapid motion, round a num-
ber of different centers, and this motion continues till the primary arrangement of
the vesicles is entirely broken up. They then re-arrange themselves in a different
order, and begin to form the principal vital organs of the new being. This, how-
ever, will be more fully explained farther on.

Another remarkable change which takes place soon after the egg enters the tube,
is the escape of the germinal vesicle. This is first placed, as before remarked, in
the center of the yellow vitellus, where it is readily distinguished by its greenish color,
and by the darker dot in the center. Just at the time when the egg escapes, how-
ever, the germinal vesicle mounts to the upper part of the vitellus, the membrane
surrounding which then tears open and allows it to pass out. This leaves an open
passage into the interior of the ovum, which, it will be seen farther on, is essential to
impregnation. The germinal vesicle always escapes in this way immediately, so
that we can never find it in the egg except at the moment when that is leaving the
ovary ; after that event we merely discover the rent through which it passed. This
is the reason why many microscopical observers never found the germinal vesicle,
because they only examined ova taken from the tubes, or uterus, and from all
those it had, of course, escaped. The reader will see, from this, what a singular
analogy there is between this event and the ovarian expulsion of the ovum. As soon
as the vitellus is fully formed the egg is expelled from the Graafian vesicle, and
immediately afterwards the germinal vesicle is expelled from the vitellus in a similar
way.

The yellow vesicles forming the vitellus are disposed so closely that they press

PLATE VII.

OVARY OF A TROUT, WITH THE GRAAFIAN" VESICLES 1ST VARIOUS STAGES OS
DEVELOPMENT.

In Figure 1 the vesicles are seen in various stages of development.

In Figure la they are cut open to show the interior ; some of them are dried up
into Corpora Lutea.

In Figure 2 they are more advanced, and the eggs are just escaping.

In Figure 2a the same are shown cut open ; some of the cells from which the
eggs have just escaped being filled with blood, while one is dried up into a Corpus
Luteum.

Figure 3 shows the ruptured ripe vesicles, after the eggs have been expelled ;
with many smaller ones at different stages of growth.

Figure 3« shows two cells cut open, from which the eggs have not long been ex-
pelled. They are still filled with clotted blood, and the internal membrane is begin-
ning to wrinkle up.

PLATE VII.

Fig.l. a

Pig. 1-

Fig- 2. &

Fig. 2.

Ovary of a Trout,

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

157

upon one another, -which makes them not round, but many-sided, like the cells in a
honey-comb. In the spaces between the larger vesicles smaller are seen, so that the
whole substance is very dense. This may be seen very perfectly in the yelk of a
bird's egg, when boiled hard and broken across. The vesicles, like small round
grains, can be readily distinguished with an ordinary lens.

Sometimes one or more of the vesicles will burst while we are examining them,
and the contained granules will flow out. In such cases they always pass in a steady
current, and it takes some ten minutes or more before the vesicle is completely
emptied.

To discover all these curious formations and changes requires, of course, numer-
ous and careful observations, with the most perfect instruments, which is the reason
why they have not been made before. They are, however, of the greatest value, and
until we were acquainted with them, many of the most important generative processes
could not be explained.

It was formerly thought that the Graafian vesicles themselves were the ovas, but
Baer, in 1827, discovered the real ovum in the protoplasmic albumen of a vesicle
which he was examining with the microscope. As before stated, it is very minute,
being in the human being not more than the two-hundredth part of an inch in
diameter. Nevertheless, this small body contains similar parts to those found in
the egg of a bird, and resembles it in every essential particular.

The vitellus or yelk, which is the larger part of the egg, is covered by a kind
of skin, called the germinal membrane, in the midst of which is placed a small
round body, called the germinal vesicle, and in this is
seen a still smaller body, called the germinal dot, appar-
ently the real starting-point of the new being. This
germinal vesicle is very minute, a good microscope being
required for its detection. It is sometimes called the
vessel of Purkinge, after its discoverer. The germinal
spot is, of course, still smaller. And yet, minute though
it be, every human begins with just such a speck. Illus-
trations showing these particulars in the structure of the
egg will be given farther on.

In those animals that bring forth their young alive,
these parts comprise the whole ovum, but in those that
expel the eggs from the body, to be developed outside, as
in birds, a shell, with a lining membrane, is superadded
for their protection, but this is no part of the real egg.

The outer covering of the egg, or shell, is variable,
being sometimes formed of lime, as in the bird, while at
others it is tough or leathery, as in snakes, whose eggs are
joined together in bunches, like grapes. In some cases
the covering is hard and horny, as in the shark's egg.
The shape is usually round or oval, though occasionally it
is different. The shark's egg is a common object on the
sea-shore, and may often be found with the young shark in
it. The eggs of some of the lower animals, in the sea, are strung together like ropes.

The following plates will show the structure of a bird's egg, and of a human egg,
so that their real identity can be seen.

Figure 52.— Shark's

158

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

It is in the germinal dot that the development of the new bird begins. The
germinal vesicle, and its germinal dot, are parts of the egg, and do not result from

impregnation. They are found in all
eggs, whether the female has ever had
intercourse with the male or not.
Many people erroneously suppose that
the germinal vesicle is the male sperm,
but that is a mistake.

Figure 54. — Ovum of the Human Female,
to show its correspondence with that of the
hird. The membranes are the same, but
there is no shell. B is the vitellus or yelk,
in which is seen the germinal vesicle, and
germinal dot.

The strict correspondence between
the bird's egg and that of the human
being, will be evident from a compari-
son of the two, as shown in the pic-
tures of both in this article. The
eggs of a bird, however, are found in
a mass, like a bunch of grapes, and
Figure 53.— Diagrammatic Section of a Bird? s Egg. not separately in the ovary, as in the
a is the shell, b. The membrane lining the shell, human being. When first formed,
C. The space filled with air made by the shell mem- they are without a shell, that being
brane splitting in two and separating, d is one of -,-,■, -,-■-,, ,i -, ,, .

the thin membranes of the white or albumen, e is gradually added to them during their
the denser white next the yelk, f shows this dense passage from the body. Frequently,
white twisted like a rope. This part is called chalaise. „ „ . . , . . ,, , - n •„

g is the round yelk, in the center of the white, which from fright, or injury, the bird will
fills all the space between it and the shell. At n is expel an egg prematurely, covered
seen the germinal vesicle, with the germinal dot. f , ,, ■. ■ ,, ±

only by the membrane, without any

shell, and they may be always seen in that state in the body, in various stages of
development. In many reptiles the eggs have no shell, only a thick, tough mem-
brane.

The real essential part of the egg, from which the new being starts, is the germi-
nal vesicle and dot ; the yelk, or vitellus, is needed only as nutriment during the
first stages of its development. The white is often absent, and the shell is needed
only for protection.

The number of eggs in the human ovum is said, by some observers, to be thirty
thousand or more. In some animals there are many millions. As before stated, the
eggs are formed and expelled in female children, even, though they are not perfcet
till puberty. From this fact it will be seen how early sex affects woman.

THE SEXES DTV1DEB. 15 >

Before being fecundated, the egg is called an ovule or ovulum, and when fecun-
dated, an ovum.

The removal of the ovaries in women — called spaying in animals — produces effects
in them analogous to castration in men. Those who are so mutilated have none of
that roundness of form usually characteristic of women ; the breasts do not grow,
the voice is masculine, they do not menstruate, and seldom have any venereal desire.
They are made in fact more like men, as castrated men are made more like women.
They also change in disposition, character, and habits,, inclining more to the mascu.
line nature in every way.

Cows are sometimes spayed, to make them continue to give milk constantly^
instead of breeding ; and the females of other animals are often so treated to make
them fatten quicker. To merely prevent breeding the Fallopian tube is often tied,
which merely prevents the semen reaching the egg, or the egg the womb. Male
fowls are castrated, or made into capons, so that they may fatten quicker.

In the East, in ancient times, young girls were often castrated, with the idea of
keeping them always young, by preventing them becoming mothers. This practice
was followed by the kings of Lydia, and especially by King Gyges, as we learn
from Hesychius and others. Doctor Kobert assures us that the practice is still pur-
sued in some parts of India, and that he had seen and examined some of these
females, who formed a caste by themselves. They told him they had no recollection
when they were mutilated, nor exactly what had been done to them.

Occasionally, from disease, and for other reasons, removal of the ovaries has been
effected by the surgeon's knife, and when done in early life the effects noted above
have always followed.

The celebrated surgeon, Percival Pott, removed the ovaries from a young girl,
and noticed that she afterwards lost all her bosom, and changed in other ways to a
remarkable extent.

In some such cases a beard has even appeared.

There is a curious book to be found in some European libraries, written in Latin,
entitled " Joannis Wieri opera Omnia," in which may be found a full account of a
pork-butcher, who removed the ovaries of his young daughter, to cure her of being
too amorous. The operation, it is said by Wieri, was successful every way.

The removal of the ovaries is often necessary when they are diseased, but is then
a serious operation, and very often apt to be fatal.

The spermatic granules in the male semen are called, by some physiologists, the
male ovae, or eggs, and they certainly are as truly such as the ova3 of the female, but
in the male they produce the spermatic animalcules, as will be shown farther on.
This shows that male and female are fundamentally the same, or have the same
parts developed in different ways.

M. Coste directs attention to the interesting fact, that a woman pregnant with a
female child, really carries in her body three generations of human beings besides
herself. There is the generation represented by her own ovaries. There is her child
— and in that female child are the rudimentary ovse from which its future children
may be developed.

This may serve to show how far the injurious consequences of any mental, moral,
or bodily derangement in a pregnant woman may extend.

Although, as before stated, the eggs are formed regularly when there is no inter-
course with the male, the same as if there had been, still there seems no doubt that

160 TEE SEXES DIVIDED.

sexual intercourse often hastens their formation, and probably makes it more perfect
Even sexual excitement alone has its effect on the ovary, and will often even cause a
partial and imperfect development of an egg !

M. Pouchet gives several instances of this virgin conception! Sometimes he
found little sacs, or pockets, in the womb or ovary, which contained hairs, bones,
teeth, membranes, and fibers. The excitement was apparently sufficient to commence
development, but could not continue and perfect it. In such cases the formations
are always irregular and imperfect, but in one case a tolerably well-formed jaw was
seen, containing teeth. Hufeland tells us that he once dissected a woman thirty
years old, who had long been addicted to masturbation, but who had never associated
with men. He found in the left ovary a kind of sac, eight inches long by five wide,
containing a quantity of hair, bones, and cartilage, with a fragment of a jaw, con-
taining rudimentary teeth, like those of a young child.

These cases of partial and incomplete development of the egg, probably all re-
sulted merely from sexual excitement alone, without any concurrence of male semen,
and it is possible that many diseases of the ovaries in unmarried females originate
in the same way ; especially when they are strongly amative.

In many insects there is found, in connection with the ovary, a curious instrument,
called the ovipositor, a kind of flexible needle, with a strong sharp point. This is

used to bore holes in the ground, or in the bark
of trees, or other bodies, in which the eggs are
placed to undergo their development. Many
insects do much mischief by stinging trees in
this way. The gall-nuts, seen on the oak, re-
sult from a puncture by the ovipositor of an
insect, and each one of these balls, when fresh
made, contains one or more eggs.

The ovaries are double in nearly all insects,
and are composed of a variable number of sepa-
rate tubes, in some cases as many as thirty to a
hundred or more, in each ovary. The number
of eggs an insect will produce depends upon the
way in which these tubes are divided ; some
Figure 55.— Ovary of the common Fowl, will lay two, four, six, or eight eggs, others

_ , , „ „ sixty or seventv, and others again several thou-

These sacs, or bags, are the Graafian ^ „ „ , , , t j_i .

vesicles, like those in the human ovary, sands. Some of the ants produce so many that
When the egg in one of these vesicles is the number is actuallv incalculable. In beings
ripe the sac bursts open, and the egg is »,,.,. , . , , , • , » • ,

discharged, just as in the human female. of tnls kmd> as m tne hive-bee, for instance,
At d, one of them is seen burst open, hav- every generation is produced by one female
ing parted with its egg ; the other letters , n , ,, ,-, -»T ,, » n •

Bhow Graafian vesicles at various stages. only> ^ho lays all the eggs. No other female IS

produced, unless she should die, and the sexual
organs of all the other bees remain undeveloped, not being needed.

In some insects and crustaceans there is also a remarkable apparatus, called the
spermatheca, in which the male semen is deposited and kept for use as wanted. This
i3 especially the case with those insects that take a long time to place their eggs, with
the ovipositor, each one of them as laid having to pass by the spermatheca to be fer-
tilized. In the hive-bee the spermatheca retains the semen so perfectly that one
connection with the male will impregnate all the eggs the female lays in two years,
-some twenty or thirty thousand.

THE SEXES DIVIDED. \$\

In spiders there are two ovaries or egg bags, one on each side of the body, quite
separated from each other, and each having an opening of its own on the outside of
the body. They are so totally disconnected that the eggs in one bag may be fecun-
dated and discharged while those of the other are unaffected.

Audebert tells us that some spiders are made fertile for two years, by one associa-
tion with a male.

The eggs of birds are formed like a bunch of grapes, as before stated, and develop
in succession. As they become ripe they are detached from the ovary, and enter the
cloaca, or passage common to the dung and urine. It is during their passage from
the ovary that they acquire the shell and its membrane.

Although there are two ovaries in birds, the eggs are nearly always produced
from the left one alone, the right being only rudimentary, or wasted away.

We will now give some beautiful illustrations of the ovaries, with the Graafian
vesicles and ovum, in various stages of development. These are taken from that
splendid work of M. Pouchet, " L' Ovulation spontan'ee." They portray the ovar}
of the human female, and also that of the rabbit. The process is exactly the same
in both, and as in the rabbit the parts are larger, and more ova are developed at a
time, the illustration is more instructive. In the rabbit, also, they can be taken at
any known period, which cannot of course be done with the human female.

By studying these plates, in connection with the explanations already given, the
whole process of the formation and expulsion of the egg, in the human female as well
as in other animals, will be readily understood.

THE TESTICLES AND THE SEMEN.

The most essential organs in the male system are two glandular bodies, called the
testes or testicles, which are placed, after birth, outside of the body in an external
envelope, called the scrotum, hanging from the pubic bone. The use of these organs
is to produce the male principle, or semen, as the ovaries produce the female ovum
or egg. The testes, like the ovaries, are not capable of performing their proper
functions till a certain period of life, called puberty, but, unlike them, they are not
liable to lose their powers at any particular age, but may preserve them indefinitely.
In the early stages of existence in the womb the testes are contained in the abdomen,
and only descend to the scrotum just before birth.

On dissecting one of the testicles, it is found to be chiefly composed of blood-
vessels and numerous small tubes containing semen. A branch of the spermatic
artery is sent from the abdomen down to each teste, in which it divides and sub-
divides into thousands of little branches, many of which are too small to be seen by
the naked eye. It is this artery that brings to the testes the pure blood from which
probably the semen is formed. The extreme ends of the minute arterial branches
are apparently continuous with the commencements of the seminal tubes, so that in
examining them we gradually lose sight of the blood and begin to find semen.
The seminal tubes are at first exceedingly minute, but very numerous, and they
gradually unite together to form larger branches, and trunks, till eventually the
whole form but one tube, called the vas deferens, by which the semen is conveyed
to the urethra. The number of these little tubes has been estimated at over sixty
thousand in one testicle, and it has been shown, that, if they were put in a straight
line, they would measure many hundreds, if not thousands of feet. There ia also a

162

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

branch of the spermatic vein connected with each of the testes, which ramifies in
its substance similarly to the artery. This vein is to take away the blood when it
has become impure and imperfect.

The testicles are therefore mainly composed of three kinds of tubes, or vessels,
namely, arteries, veins, and seminal tubes. In addition to which there are also
numerous nerves, and lympha-
tics, or absorbents, the whole be-
ing connected together by a cel-
lular substance or tissue. Each
one is connected with the body
by what is termed the spermatic
cord, which is a kind of sheath,
or tube, about half an inch in
diameter, containing the main
branches of the artery, nerves,
and lymphatics, going to the
teste, with the main branch of
the vein, and the vas deferens,
coming from it. This sperma-
tic cord ascends into the abdo-
men, where the different vessels
composing it are distributed to
their respective places. Each
teste is also surrounded by a
distinct coat, or tunic, besido
the scrotum, or outer skin, in
which both are inclosed.

The manner in which the
semen is actually made is ex-
plained elsewhere ; we can only
point out now the place where
it originates, and explain its
progress toward the exterior of
the body.

The vas deferens from each
teste, into which all its seminal
tubes have poured their con-
tents, ascends into the abdomen
through the spermatic cord, and

Seminal Tubes and Appendages of the Testicles.

a, a, a. Lobules of the small seminiferous tubes, sim-
ilar to the convolutions of the brain, b. The rete testis, a
number of nearly straight tubes into which the smaller
ones enter, c. The vasa efferentia, or larger tubes, 12
or 18 in number, into which the semen passes from the
rete testis, d. Plexuses, or conglomerations of the vasa
efferentia, which form a kind of head, almost lite a small
testicle, called the epididymis, e, e. The head of the epi-
didymis. /, /. The body of the epididymis, g. An appen-
dix of the epididymis, called the aberans, which is not
always met with. h. The tail, or cauda of the epididymis.
i, i. The vas deferens, which is at first very much twisted,
but becomes finally straight.
,i,, , From this view it will be seen, that the small seminal

rises nearly as high as the top oi tubes gradually merge into the large straight ones, called
the bladder, behind which it the rete testis, then into the still larger, called the vasa^
, , , , , . , , efferentia, and finally they all coalesce into one tube, the

turns, and then begins to de- ^ deferens.

scene! till it meets, near its lower

part, with two small organs called the seminal vesicles, with which it becomes con-
nected. From the seminal vesicles the semen passes down a snail tube called the
ejaculatory canal, which is attached to the bladder, and which joins immediately
under it, an organ called the prostate gland. Finally, by means of some minute
openings through the prostate gland, the seminal fluid is passed into the urethra,

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 163

jr passage down the penis, by which the urine escapes from the bladder, ani is
thus ejected from the body.

These several parts comprise the whole male generative system, and in the act
of impregnation each one has a special function to perform. The testes secrete the
semen, the vas deferens and ejaculatory canal convey it to the urethra, and the penis
deposits it in the female organs, while the seminal vesicles and prostate gland either
secrete some necessary addition, or effect some modification in it.

As before remarked, the testes are usually two in number, the one on the left
side being lower and larger than that on the right. But sometimes more than twa
appear to exist, and at other times only one, or perhaps none. The arrangement of
one being higher than the other, Avhen there are two, prevents them from being
crushed together when the limbs are crossed, by allowing one to slide over the other.
The internal structure of them having already been explained, it is only requisite
further to describe their envelopes and attachments.

Immediately around each one is an envelope, or membrane, called the tunica
albuginea or peri-testis, which surrounds every part, and also sends branches, or
(eaves, into the substance of the testicle, so as to divide it to a certain depth into
lobes, or sections, similar to the lobes of the brain, only of a triangular shape.

The outside icolosure is called the scrotum, or purse, and is the same as the skin
of the thighs. It is divided vertically into two parts by a small ridge, called the
raphe, and is usually covered with hairs at puberty. Underneath the scrotum we
next find a reddish cellular membrane, called the dartos, which makes a separate
sac for each of the two testicles, which are separated from each other by a vertical
membrane placed between them, called the septum scroti, which acts as a partition,
and thus the two organs are perfectly unconnected with each other. The nature of
the dartos has been a subject of dispute among anatomists, some considering it to be
merely a cellular tissue, and others thinking it to be a muscle. It is undoubtedly
partly muscular, and consists mainly of long fibers, which cross and interlace each
other in every direction. It is the contraction of these fibers of the dartos that cor-
rugates or wrinkles the scrotum, as is well seen when sudden cold is applied to the
external parts. Next under the dartos comes a true muscular coat, called the ere-
master muscle, or tunica erythoides, the use of which is to draw the testicle upwards.
This is derived from one of the muscles of the abdomen, and. comes down through
the abdominal ring, forming part of the sheath of the spermatic cord. The last
coat is called the tunica vaginalis, which is a true serous membrane interlaced with
blood-vessels, and comes next to the tunica albuginea.

In a healthy state the muscular fibers of the scrotum are usually contracted, so
as to draw the skin into folds and brace the testes up against the abdomen ; but
during a state of debility, or from great fatigue, they become relaxed, so that the
testes hang low, and pull upon the cord. It is an almost certain sign of ill health
when this relaxation of the scrotum occurs, at any period of life, and often its re-
moval is the first indication of improvement. In old people, and in those of a bad
habit of body, this relaxed state becomes permanent.

By inspecting antique statuary, it will be seen that the ancients were practically
acquainted with this physiological fact, and they have accordingly accurately repre-
sented it in their works of art. The figures of all their men in health and vigor
kave the scrotum invariably drawn up to the abdomen, while those of old men, or
sufferers, hang pendent.

164 TEE SEXES Dl VIDED.

As a general rule the muscles of the scrotum are independent of the will, or act
involuntarily, but instances have been known of men who made them act as they
pleased. Some boys exhibit this power before puberty, being able to draw the testes
up to the abdominal ring, and let them fall again, but it is seldom this command
over them continues, though one instance is on record. This man drew the testes
up into the groin, so as to form apparent ruptures, in order to escape being impressed
into the army. Being detected, however, he confessed the trick, and made an exhi-
bition of his extraordinary power to the examining physicians. He could pull up
either one alone or both together, and could also make one go up while the other
was coming down ; in short, he had the same command over them as over his arms,
and could move them as quickly. In another instance, a man who was charged
with being the father of an illegitimate child, endeavored to evade the responsibility
by alleging he had no testicles, and, therefore, could not be the father ; but it was
discovered that he could draw them up into the groin at pleasure. In a healthy
state the scrotal muscles are brought powerfully into action during coition, so as to
brace the testes tightly against the pelvis ; and one cause of partial impotence in very
weak or old people, is the loss of this power, owing to which the semen is not ex-
pelled with sufficient force. In children the relaxed or firm condition of these mus-
cles is often a valuable indication of the state of their health.

The form of the testes is that of a somewhat flattened oval, with one end a little
larger than the other. The average weight is about one ounce.

The vas deferens, or common tube into which all the small ones are emptied,
commences at the globus minor, or lower end of the epididymis, and then passes
into the spermatic cord by which it enters the abdomen, where lis course has already
been traced. It is altogether about thirty-two feet long. The sheath of the sper-
matic cord is composed of two coats, the outer one of which is very firm, like carti-
lage, so that the tube is not easily compressed ; the inner coat is a mucous membrane,
similar to that inside the urethra. The cord can be readily felt externally.

This description of the testes and their envelopes, combined with that before
given, will be sufficient to give a clear understanding of the various diseases and de-
rangements to which they are liable, and also of the reasons for the line of treatment
laid down. It will be seen that they are so placed, without the body, as to have
no direct connection with any other organs, and they may, therefore, be removed
without any other part being interfered with. This operation, termed castration, is
sometimes necessary in certain diseases, and sometimes it is the effect of accident, or,
in some parts of the world, even of design. The removal of the testes, however, in
whatever way it may be effected, not only destroys the power of procreation, but
interferes in a remarkable manner with the growth and functions of various other
parts of the system, from which it is evident that they are necessary for the perfec-
tion of the individual's own system, as well as for the purpose of bringing new beings
into existence.

ANOMALIES IN THE SIZE AND APPARENT NUMBER OF THE TESTES.

The usual size of the testes is about that of an ordinary pigeon's egg, and their
weight, as before stated, is about one ounce. Occasionally, however, they are seen
much larger, and sometimes much smaller, and their weight may be also considerably
greater or less than the average. I have seen them as large as a full-sized hen's egg,
yet perfectly healthy, and as small as marbles without being in any way deficient in

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 165

power. This is important to bear in mind in many cases that may come under the
physician's notice. I have known men hesitate about marrying when the testes were
very small, from fear that they would be deficient in power, and it was with difficulty
they could be convinced to the contrary. In one instance, of a young man aged
twenty-six, they were no larger than those of a child of nine years old, yet his powers
were but little, if any, inferior to those of persons generally. After a great deal of
hesitation, and much persuasion, he married and became the father of a large family.
It is necessary to remark, however, that in these cases all .the other organs were of
proper size, and that the smallness of the testes had existed from childhood, and was
therefore a natural state. If they had decreased in size, after having been properly
developed, it would have been very different. The falling away or wasting of the
testes, which follows many diseases, and sometimes takes place without any "assigna-
ble cause, is usually a serious matter, and is nearly certain to be followed by a loss
of power. The injudicious use of certain drugs, particularly of Iodine, will fre-
quently cause the testes to waste, and so will the exhalations from some metals, as
lead for instance, many workmen in which I have known so affected. In giving an
opinion in such cases, therefore, their previous history must always be known, as
well as the condition of the other parts, and the physician will then have but little
difficulty in coming to a proper decision. Sometimes one only will be small, and the
other of average size, or one only may waste away, without injuring the other.

An unusually large size of the testes should always excite suspicion of its being
the result of disease, and a most careful examination and inquiry should therefore
be made. If they have always been of that size, or nearly so, from puberty, and
especially if the other organs are large also, there may be nothing to excite apprehen-
sion. The symptoms of the different diseases hereafter described should, however,
be carefully studied, particularly those that cause enlargement, as Hydrocele and
Hernia Humoralis, for instance. I have known the testes of a youth of fourteen to
be much larger than those of most men, and yet perfectly healthy ; such cases of
unusual development are not necessarily accompanied by extra power.

In some instances the development of all the genital organs is very tardy, owing
to the slow growth of the testes. I have seen a youth of nineteen that was in every
respect in the same state, in these parts, as when about seven years old. He was also
but very little grown in other parts of the body, having the appearance of one about
twelve years old. In this case there were perfect evidences of sexual power, though
slight, and all the parts were evidently healthy. It was therefore a case of torpid
action, or retarded development, and I thought that in all probability nature could
be aroused. I accordingly gave him directions to use stimulating lotions, with fric-
tions and shampooing, and to have a stimulating diet, with regular warm bathing
and plenty of out-door exercise. The effects of this practice was soon evident ;
in less than six months an evident increase had taken place, both in the size of the
parts and in the intensity of the sexual feeling. The external parts, which had pre-
viously been perfectly bare and smooth, like those of a child, became covered ; the
voice assumed a more manly tone, the muscles were more solid, the mind more active,
and manhood began to dawn. This improvement continued going on till he was
twenty-one, when there was but little difference between him and other young men of
that age. If this case had not been promptly and properly attended to, in all proba-
bility no further development would ever have taken place, and an early death
would have terminated his imperfect existence. To what age an improvement of

166 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

this kind is possible we cannot of course tell, though I feel sure it may be effected m
older persons than is generally supposed, perhaps till nearly thirty. The younger, ot
course, the better. Several cases have been known of the testes growing after twenty-
six years old.

Sometimes there appear to be three testicles, and possibly in some of these cases
there may really be three, but more frequently one of the three bodies is either an
epididymis, somewhat enlarged, and much separated from the teste, or else it is a
small tumor. Most of those that have been observed in dissection have been small
harmless tumors, existing from birth. Three perfect testicles, however, are occa-
sionally found, but they are not always accompanied by any unusual sexual power.

At other times there appears but one testicle, or perhaps none, and I have known
young men in the deepest distress from this cause. In some of these instances there
is really but one organ, as has been proved after, death, and yet the individual has
had full average powers. It is more often the case, however, that these deficiencies
are apparent rather than real. Before birth the testes are contained in the abdomen,
and they usually descend into the scrotum in the last month. It sometimes happens,
however, that the descent of one or both does not take place, and the individual then
appears so far deficient. In these cases the power of the testes is not impaired by their
unusual position, but perhaps is often increased, and this has led uninformed persons
to think that men sometimes had procreative powers without testicles, because they
could not be found. A man once died in one of the London hospitals who had long
been noted as having no testicles, and yet having all the usual powers. On dissec-
tion, two perfect ones were found in the abdomen that had never come down, and
thus the wonder was solved. These cases, however, are but rare. Dr. Marshall ex-
amined ten thousand eight hundred young recruits, among whom he found five in
whom the right testicle had not come down, and six in whom the left had not ;
there being but one man in whom both were not descended.

It is much better for the testes to remain totally in the abdomen than to descend
only to the groin, as they sometimes do, because in the last position they are apt to be
compressed, by the other parts crowding about them in the ring, and then waste
away. The partial or complete non-descent of the testes must, however, always be con-
sidered an imperfection, and though it may not cause inconvenience, or loss of power,
these are nevertheless always to be feared. The teste itself is as liable to all its dif-
erent diseases while in these unusual positions as when in the scrotum, and unfortu-
nately cannot then be reached. The neighboring parts also become affected from it,
and thus life may be lost from a simple affection which could have been easily re-
moved, if the teste had been in its natural position.

In some instances the retained testes descend late in life, and if they then become
fast in the ring, great swelling and severe inflammation may result, with ultimate
wasting away of the organs. Such cases have been mistaken for ruptures, and some
men, from want of information, have thought that the testicles really grew at that
time, all at once.

When there are really no testicles from birth, there is always an imperfect devel-
opment of the whole system, and a total absence of sexual power and feeling.

In some animals it is natural for the testes never to descend, but always to remain
in the abdomen, and in others they descend only at certain seasons, that is, when they
attain their periodical development, owing to the full growth of the animalcules.

It is stated, on the authority of several travelers, that there is a tribe of Hottentots

1H.E SEXES DIVIDED. 167

at the Cape of Good Hope that never have hut one testicle : but many naturalists
think that more likely it is a custom among them to remove one in youth. It is
quite possible, however, that this deficiency may be natural, and it is not in any way
more singular than many peculiarities observed m the genital organs of the females
of those tribes. I have known two brothers, twins, one of whom had three testes
and the other but one.

In some instances the two testes have been found groion together, so as apparently
to form but one, owing to the absence of the usual septum.

The testicles are sometimes drawn so close up against the abdomen, owing to a
contraction of the cremaster muscle, that they cannot be discovered without close
examination, and are then often thought to be abseut, though they are quite perfect,
and even outside of the body. Medical men have even testified that there were no
testicles, in such cases as these, which shows the necessity for a close and thorough
examination of such apparent monstrosities.

This state of things is not dangerous in itself, but had better be removed if possi-
ble, because the testes are likely to adhere to the neighboring parts and waste away,
so as to cause perfect impotence. A surgical operation is necessary to liberate them,
which is both difficult and somewhat dangerous. In some few dissections the testes
have been found completely absent, and without any trace of their having existed.
Sometimes the vas deferens exists by itself, and sometimes with the epididymis,
though at other times there are no traces of either. These cases of total congenital
absence are, however, very rare, and are always indicated by deficiencies in other parts
of the system.

In some rare instances the testes have descended into the perineum, instead of
the scrotum, most probably from some imperfection in the parts, existing before
birth.

In the course of my practice I have been consulted in many of these cases of tes-
ticular anomalies, and have often had the pleasure of removing unfounded appre-
hensions, and of giving happiness and confidence to those who had previously been
the victims of hopeless despair.

The testes are liable to many different diseases and derangements, some from
birth, and others that originate afterwards, many of which ought to forbid marriag
altogether. A full account of every one, with directions both how to treat and avoid
them, maybe found in the chapter on diseases of the Male Organs, and if every young
man was in possession of that information in time, we should see but few of these
diseases compared with what we do now.

Many men are alarmed very much at any affection of these organs — and with
good reason, too, considering the inefficiency of much of the medical treatment of
them — till very recently. Now, however, some of the worst of these affections, both
organic and functional, are cured very readily, and means are used successfully to
increase power when deficient, or restore it, in many cases, if lost. Some most extra-
ordinary cases of this kind will be found farther on, that have been treated by myself,
and I have also a number of letters from persons who have successfully treated
themselves, by following the directions given them.

In those animals the females of which only admit the male during one particular
season of the year, that of the rut, a necessary adaptation is found in the male, by
which the two are made to correspond. The testicles of these animals do not secrete
semen continuously, as they do in others, but only at those times when the female

£68 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

ovaries act, so that both experience the sexual impulse at the same time. At all
other periods the testicles are quite small, but then they suddenly enlarge, and when
the season is over they decrease again. In some animals the testicles descend from
the body only at that time, and at every other period are drawn up into the abdomen.
In many, the enlargement of these organs during the time of connection is very evi-
dent, even when, as in insects, and some others of the lower animals, there is only
sufficient semen secreted for one single act.

According to recent observations, it appears that the seminiferous tubes are
about one hvo-hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and that the vas deferens, in
all its convolutions, is nearly thirty-two feet in length, while the whole of the tiibes
are, probably, full five thousand feet. The epididymis when unrolled will measure
3ver twenty feet in length,

The condition and mode of action of the testes exert a similar influence over the
male to that which is exerted over the female by the ovaries, the secretion of the
6emen being strictly analogous to the maturation of the ova. The development of
the body is also totally dependent upon their growth, and both intellectual power
md moral disposition are, to an immense extent, influenced by them.

The form of the testicles varies among the different mammiferous animals,
equally with the other organs, being sometimes round, at others oval, and at others
again long and slender, as in the whale. It is seldom, however, that they are con-
tained in a scrotum, as in man, except among the carnivori, the ape, the horse, and
the cud-chewing beasts. In the beaver, the testicles are contained in the perineum,
and in some similar animals, in the abdomen, while in the bat, and some others,
they always glide back into the belly during the rut. The whale, kangaroo, opossum,
elephant, and some others, have the testicles fixed permanently in the abdomen, one
on each side of the rectum. This is the case also with the porpoise, whose testicles
at the time of heat attain an enormous size, having been found nine inches long and
four wide, and weighing two pounds each.

In all cases the internal structure is much the same, and probably the formation
of the semen is always much the same process. The composition of it is also similar,
and in every case it possesses animalcules, though they differ in form.

The seminal vesicles and prostate gland also vary in form, though, probably,
they always serve a similar purpose. Some animals have only one prostate, like man,
while others appear to have several, or rather, it is much divided. Cowper's glands,
also, though usually present, vary much in their development, and so do the vasa
deferentia.

The testicles vary very much in form m different beings, and also in size, being
often very large in proportion to the rest of the body. In the
snail (Helix), whose double copulation was described in the.
article Hermaphrodism, the testes resemble somewhat a bunch
of grapes, as shown in the following illustration.

All the separate seminal sacs unite, and pour their contents
into the common vas deferens, which may be seen proceeding
from them.

In the entozoa, or body worm, the testes are in the form of

Figure 57. a ]0ng small tube, which winds round and round the intestines.

Testicles of Helix. jt occupi-es a jarge part of the interior cavity of the animal,

and when unrolled is found to be many times its length. One end of this tube

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

becomes so fine as to be hardly distinguishable, and floats loosely in the juices of the
body, from which probably it absorbs the cells that form the semen. The other
end terminates in a long tubular penis, which is placed near the opening of the

Figure 59. — Testicle of Stwphylinus
Maxillosus, one of the beetle family, com-
monly called the cock-tail beetle.

Figure 58.

Testes of Seolopendra, or
Centipede.

a, a, are two pairs of
testes united in the usual
way. b shows two separated.
c is the beginning of the
common vas deferens, d, d,
d, e, are other glands join-
ing the vas deferens, not
connected with generation.

Figure 60. — Testicle of Silpha Obscura,
the common burying beetle.

In the Seolopendra morsitans, one of the centipede family, the testes are seven
in number, and each one is composed of two parts exactly alike. Each part is hol«
low, and has a little duct of its own, and these all unite in a common vas deferens,
so that there are fourteen pairs of these ducts. The common vas deferens is very
long and tortuous, terminating finally near the anus.

In insects the forms of the sexual organs, especially in the male, are often very
curious indeed, and no reason can be given, in many cases, for the singularity.

In many insects, besides the testes, there are other glands connected with them,
supposed to be seminal vesicles, like those of man. Sometimes there are a large
number of these vesicles, and they occasionally reach an enormous length, as much

170 TEE SEXES DIVIDED.

even as twenty times that of the animal's body, which shows what bountiful pro-
vision nature has made for propagation in these beings.

The testicles in most fishes are quite large, in proportion to their bulk, and are
placed one on each side of the body, similarly to the ovaries in the females. At the
time of spawning they become very much enlarged, so as to increase the size of the
fish considerably. Some fishes copulate, and have a penis connected with the testes
for that purpose. In the ray-fishes and sharks, there are two testicles, and each one
is double, the two parts being quite different in structure, and probably in function.

The testes of the frog appear like a collection of simple cells, as they probably are,
which are connected with numerous minute tubes which pass into the kidney, and
convey the semen into the one tube which is common both to the semen and the urine.

In birds the testes are always two in number, and quite small, but composed of
an immense number of very minute tubes, not more, in most cases, than the millionth
of an inch in diameter. In many other beings the seminal tubes are also exceedingly
small, and the smaller they are the more there are of them, and the longer they
are. In many beings their diameter is only some millionths of an inch.

In the marsupials the testes are placed in front of the pelvis, as will be shown
farther on.

The testes are of the first importance in the animal economy, especially in man,
not only for their use in reproduction, but also from the influence which they
exert, when active, upon all the rest of the system. In a subsequent article an
account will be given of the principal diseases and derangements to which they are
liable.

THE SEMEN AND THE SEMINAL ANIMALCULES.

The vivifying principle secreted by the male testes is a yellowishly-white semi-
fluid substance, having a peculiar odor. It is slightly viscid, and of a saltish savor,
when fresh. On examination it is found to consist of two distinct parts, one nearlif
fluid and the other like globules of half-dissolved starch ; but they both melt
together when it is exposed some time to the air. The peculiar odor of the semen
appears to be derived from some of the parts through which it passes, for when
taken from the testes it has scarcely any smell at all.

Chemical analysis shows us that the semen differs but little, in its composi-
tion, from other substances found in the body. In 1,000 parts there are about 900
water ; 60 animal mucilage ; 10 soda ; and 30 of phosphate of lime, with a peculiar
animal principle, the composition of which is unknown. This analysis it must be
recollected is that of the semen as it leaves the body, that is, the secretion of the
testes, vesicles, prostate gland, and other parts, united together. How far the pure
semen, from the testes alone, differs from this is not known. By some the starchy
portion only is supposed to be produced by the testes.

TJie Seminal Animalculce. — The most curious peculiarity of the semen, and in
many respects the most important, is that there always exists in it, when perfect, a num-
ber of remarkable living beings, called the Zoospermes, or seminal animalculse. These
beings were discovered many years ago, but have not been accurately studied and
described till very recently. The representations and descriptions given of them in
old works are mostly incorrect, and sometimes very extravagant, and calculated to
mislead rather than inform. Some physiologists, who saw them imperfectly, even
doubted if they were living beings. The perfection of that magical instrument,

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 171

the microscope, however, and the patient investigation of such men as Pouchet and
his coadjutors have not only corrected these old errors, but have also disclosed to us
new truths, more wonderful even than the wild dreams of former times.

As far as yet investigated these animalcules exist universally, in the semen of all
animals whatever, but have a peculiar form in each.

It is also ascertained that they are developed from a species of egg, or ovum,
called the seminal granules, or vesicles. Under the microscope a number of these
can always be detected, like little globules of mucus, and they are observed to
undergo a regular series of changes similar to those of the female ovary. When
first observed they are round, and merely contain a number of small granules, which
are the animalcules, in a rudimentary state. At a farther stage these granules are
found to be developed into small animalcules, while the containing vesicles have
expanded and become elongated, or egg-shaped. Finally, the vesicle breaks open at
one end, and the animalcules escape ; being at first very small and gradually grow-
ing afterwards to the size we ordinarily see them.

In different beings the form both of the vesicle and the animalculae varies much,
and occasionally the zoospermes undergo some remarkable metamorphoses before as-
suming their final form.

In the human being there are about thirty zoospermes in each vesicle, but in
some beings there are more, and in others not so many. The number of vesicles
varies very much, at different times, even in the same individual.

The precise size of the zoospermes is of course difficult to ascertain, but M.
Pouchet estimates their length at about the ten thousandth part of the breadth of an
ordinary hair, and their weight at about the hundred and forty thousand millionth
part of a grain ! A spot as large as a mustard-seed, he remarks, sometimes contains
fifty thousand of them.

Notwithstanding this extreme minuteness, we are now tolerably well acquainted
with their peculiarities of structure, and even with many of their habits, nor need
this excite much surprise when it is recollected that there are beings still smaller
that have been studied with even greater success. In the perfect state they possess
a sucker at the larger end, by which they can attach themselves to any object. They
are observed to change their skins at certain periods, like snakes, and we sometimes
find the loose skin hanging about them in shreds ; or cast off quite whole. In some
animals they have a number of hairs, or >cilia, by the motion of which they move in
the fluid, and some even have perfect fins. One physiologist assures us that he dis-
tinctly saw they were sexual, and that he could readily distinguish the male and
female ! They are usually lively and active, with peculiar motions, some of which
are performed in concert and others singly, with great perseverance and regularity ;
thus, a number of them will sometimes form into a ring, with their heads all one
way, and run round and round in a circle for a considerable time ; or one may
be seen by itself pushing before it a large globule of mucus, or blood, many times
heavier than itself, for several minutes together. One peculiarity is observable in
all of them, and that is an almost invariable tendency to move only straight for-
ward, and they will seldom turn to go back even though they meet with an ob-
struction, but often attach themselves to it by the sucker and remain till they die.
Very often they are seen to enter into combats, and a number of them will fight
till only one is left alive. They will live for some hours out of the body, par-
ticularly if put in warm water, in which their motions maybe readily seen.

172 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

The zoospermes are not found before puberty, nor usually in extreme old age.
Many diseases also destroy them, and several drugs have the same power. In all
cases where they are absent or destroyed, from whatever cause it may be, the se-
men cannot impregnate, though in every other respect it may be quite perfect, and
the vigor of the patient seem not in the least impaired. This has been proved
by filtering them away, and by destroying them. The development of the zoo-
spermes, it will be observed, is strictly analogous to that of the ova or eggs in the
females. Thus they are first found in the form of little granules, inclosed in a
vesicle which bursts as they become more perfect, and allows them to escape. In
some animals there lb even a periodical development of them, similar to that of the
ova in the female, with which it usually corresponds. In such animals the testes
are small at other times, and increase in size at these periods, because the vesicles
only attain their full growth then.

In tracing the semen from its source, we find that the animalcules are not de-
veloped till it reaches the seminal vesicles, and are sometimes not perfect till it
has reached the prostate gland. In the testicles we never find the zoospermes
themselves, but only the vesicles containing the granules, which gradually develop
as the semen proceeds farther on.

The testes may therefore be compared to the ovaries, the seminal vessels to the
Graafian vesicles, and the seminal granules to the ova. Some physiologists consider
the granules to be the ova of the animalcules themselves, but this we cannot yet de-
cide, though it is certain the animalcules originate from them.

The importance of these facts, in giving us a correct knowledge of the nature and
proper treatment of many diseases of these organs, will be seen as we proceed, particu-
larly when treating' on impotence, and seminal losses.

The actual process of conception is also made more clear from some of these de-
tails. For instance, the tendency which the animalcules have to move only straight
forward, is, in all probability, the reason why they make their way up into the womb
from the vagina, and impregnate the egg. If it were not for this tendency, combined
with thei*- great motive power, the two principles could not be brought together.
Their power of living out of the male organs for some time is also necessary to impreg-
nation, because they may not reach their destination immediately. It is found that
they will live in the female organs, when these are healthy, as long as twenty-six
hours, and of course during any part of that time conception may take place. Some-
times conception may take place in a few minutes, and at other times not till as
many hours after the association of the two sexes. It has been found on dissecting
an animal killed ten hours after connection, that the semen had not then reached
the ovum, though it usually passes into the womb almost immediately.

It is evident from this how incorrect it is to speak of the moment of conception,
as if it were a period certainly known. No greater mistake could be made than to
suppose that it always corresponds with the moment of connection, because it may
be as much as twenty hours after, or more. It is also evident from these facts why
it is that conception is possible without actual connection. If the semen is merely
deposited in the external lips it may impregnate, because the animalcules may make
their way from thence up to the womb. It is also of little consequence how the
semen is deposited in the female organs, providing it be perfect, and this explains
why it is that conception can be effected artificially, by merely injecting the semen
In the female organs with a syringe, or otherwise, which has often been done. The

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 173

mere presence of the male organ is in no way essential ; and this explains why a
certain mode of attempting to prevent conception often fails. It was also remarked,
in a previous part, that sexual feeling in the female was not necessary to conception,
and this will now be evident when it is recollected that the animalculse move up
into the womb by their own vital power. It is probable, however, that this feeling
often conduces to conception, by establishing certain favorable conditions of the
parts, and therefore that event is not so likely to occur during sleep or unconscious-
ness, though it is possible for it to do so.

The old idea *hat it was only the odor or aura of the semen that ascended into
die female organs ana Impregnated the ovum, is obviously incorrect, and, indeed,
has been fully refuted.

The presence or absence of the zoospermes in the female organs, and other parts,
is the chief evidence sought for in cases of alleged violation, because in such cases
they may certainly be found alive, if the act has been committed, for as long as
twenty-six hours after, and dead for almost any period if the fluids be dried.

It is considered by some that the animalcule is the true rudiment or germ
of the future human being, which is supposed to be developed from it in the same
way as the plant is developed from the seed ; or rather, the human being is thought
to be one of these zoospermes developed to a more perfect form by the power of the
egg in which it is placed.

It is uncertain in what part the animalcules first issue from their vesicles ;
nor is it clear how they are influenced by the seminal vesicles and prostate, though
it is well known that the semen must pass through those parts before the animalcules
become perfect, for in no case will it impregnate when taken from the testes. It
is conjectured, in explanation of this, that the vesicles and prostate supply some
peculiar food or nutriment, without which the animalcules are never perfect.

There are several drugs that will destroy the animalcules immediately, among
which may be mentioned opium, Prussic acid, iodine, and strychnine. The latter
article even throws them into convtclsions, precisely like those seen in human beings.

The most curious effects are produced upon the animalcules by alcohol. If only
a drop or two be put into the warm water which contains them, they become
singularly excited, and dash about as if in a perfect frenzy. Some will whirl
rapidly round and round, till they stop all at once, and are found to be dead ; others
become more than usually pugnacious, and they will fight with such fury, that in
a short time all will be slain. Others, again, are evidently thrown into spasms, or
attach themselves by their suckers, and vibrate the body in the most energetic
manner. After a short time these effects pass off, and they become listless and dull.
If a larger portion of alcohol be used, they are killed immediately, many of them
being first thrown into convulsions. I have good reason for supposing that similar
effects are often produced upon them when alcohol is taken internally, in excess, and
that many inebriates are thus made impotent. I have frequently examined the
semen of impotent patients who were addicted to excessive drinking, and have often
found them exhibit precisely the same peculiarities as above described. I feel con-
fident also that the injudicious use of the drugs above mentioned, often produces
impotence, by destroying the animalcules ; and, indeed, I have proved this by
direct experiment upon animals. It is well known that confirmed opium-eaters
nearly always become impotent, and that iodine will often cause the testes to waste
away, probably by preventing the development of the animalcules. In all proba-

174 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

bility many persons are made impotent, or, at least, have their sexual powers much
impaired, by these drugs being imprudently given to them while they are children.
I have seen many cases in which the ovaries and testes were undeveloped from this
cause ; and I am inclined to think that the evil exists to a great extent.

In some instances the use of alcohol, and other drugs, does not absolutely destroy
the animalcules, but prevents their full development, or makes them imperfect, so
that we find them smaller than usual, or deformed. This is especially the case from
alcohol and tobacco, as shown by experiments upon animals, and in all probability
this explains why persons who use these articles to excess are apt to have stunted
deformed, and diseased children, as it is well known they often do. If the animal
cule is, even in part only, the rudiment of the future child, of which there seems
little doubt, it is natural to suppose that if it be stunted or deformed, the child will
be so likewise, and thus the vices of the father may entail imperfection and disease
upon his offspring.

The animalcules are often destroyed by many of the discharges which take place
from the female organs during disease, and in this way sterility often results.
Electricity kills them immediately, and so will sudden cold, which accounts for some
persons being able to prevent conception by using cold water as an injection, im-
mediately after connection.

Before puberty, no animalcules can be discovered, but the vesicles containing
them usually begin to appear about eleven or twelve years of age. In old age, the
number of them generally becomes less, and very often none at all are found, though
the time when they cease to be found is very variable. Some men, though in good
health, and robust, become impotent when they are fifty, and others, on the con-
trary, retain full possession of their powers till over a hundred years of age. In like
manner, some children have had the animalcules perfectly developed at ten years of
age, and some young men not till they were twenty. I have known those who had
no trace of them at twenty years of age, who were, nevertheless, perfect enough at
twenty-three ; and I once was cognizant of a painful instance in which a young
girl of seventeen was impregnated by a boy of eleven, she having improperly con-
ducted herself with him without the slightest suspicion of there being any danger in
doing so.

It is important to bear in mind that both puberty and decay may be either
hastened or postponed, by proper attention to diet and general conduct.

It is a singular circumstance, that though an electrical discharge will destroy the
animalcules instantly, yet the continuous galvanic current, even when very strong,
has no effect whatever upon them, which shows the impossibility of preventing
conception by the use of galvanic instruments, as some have proposed.

Our present comparatively perfect knowledge of the seminal animalcules is im-
portant both to physiologists and to the physician, as it enables us both to discover
disease, and, in many cases, to suggest a remedy. Formerly, the reason could not be
even surmised why certain married persons were childless, though both seemed to be
in perfect health, and in the full possession of their sexual powers. It is now known,
however, that in many of these cases, though the semen is formed, yet it contains no
animalcules ; from some cause or other they have not developed, and the vesicles
only are found. This condition is more or less natural to some men, and they can,
therefore, never become fathers, though fully capable of association. In such cases
of sterility, when no obvious imperfection existed, medical men always assumed that

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 175

the fault was in the female, it being an axiom that if the male could associate and
deposit semen, he could impregnate. This, however, we have shown to be erroneous,
because the semen may be imperfect, though it be produced. It is wrong, therefore,
to suppose, as most people do, that in cases of sterility the fault is most frequently
with the female ; it is, in fact, fully as often with the male, only the principal cause
of it has but just been discovered. Men who are imperfect in this way, are in the
same condition as they were before puberty, and are similar to mules, many of whom
secrete semen, and can associate with the other sex, but having no animalcules, can-
not impregnate. In these men the sexual desire is never strong, nor does it last
long, and they are always incapable of exciting much ardor in the other sex. This
is explained by supposing that the presence of the animalcules is necessary to excite
the organs of both, or to develop their peculiar sensibility.

A number of facts have made it probable that the primary rudiments of the
animalcules are exceedingly minute, and abundant in the semen, so that a small
portion of it may suffice for impregnation for a long time. Thus instances have
been known in which both men and animals have impregnated many times though
castrated, and for a long time after. Which is explained by supposing that, when
the testicles Avere removed, a quantity of semen must have been left in the vas defer-
ens, vesicles, and prostate gland, which being mixed with the fluids of those parts
formed the discharge which impregnated. There must, however, have been a large
number of animalcular vesicles in it, and they must have been at first very rudimen-
tary, to continue developing so long. Some physiologists, in fact, suppose that the
semen can produce the vesicles spontaneously, and that, consequently, they will always
be found in it when perfect, no matter what part of the body it may be taken from.
One of the worst forms of spermatorrhoea, or involuntary seminal loss, that in
which it escapes with the urine only, could never be discovered if it were not for the
animalcules. In every case of this form of the disease, they can always be detected
in the urine, by means of the microscope, and thus the true nature of the trouble
can be ascertained beyond a doubt. Before this discovery was made, such a mode
of seminal loss was unknown and unsuspected, though it is now known to be more
frequent than any other, and, doubtless, thousands have died from it without eithei
them or their medical attendants having the remotest idea what was wrong.

Though the form of the animalcules varies in different animals very much, it
is always alike in all individuals of the same species, which is probably the true
reason why totally different species cannot, as a general rule, breed together. The
outline of the animalcule, as will be seen by the figure of that of the human being,
is almost identical with the outline of the main part of the Nervous System, the
large part representing the brain, and the long extremity, the spinal marrow. It is
conjectured, therefore, that the animalcule really constitutes the first rudiment of
the nervous matter, while the ovum or egg, as already shown, forms all the other
parts. The form of the animalculse must, therefore, be adapted to the form of the
body produced by the egg, and if the two be very much unlike, no union, or impreg-
nation, can take place. I have ascertained, by repeated examinations, that there
is a perceptible difference between the animalcule of the negro and that of the white
man, sufficient, apparently, to mark a difference in kind, though not sufficient to
prevent their fruitful intercourse.

The delineations of the animalcules as given in old works are nearly always false,
and sometimes grossly exaggerated. It is, in fact, extremely difficult to make a proper

176 THE SEXES DIVIDED.

examination of them, owing to their being so transparent, and differing so little in
density from the fluid in which they are contained. It is requisite both to have good
and powerful microscopes, and to be skilled in their use. With regard to specimens
of semen, a physician who sees many cases of spermatorrhoea will never be at a loss
for plenty.

In the course of my own practice I have examined these interesting beings under
every variety of circumstances, and from a number of different animals, besides from
our own species. Nothing can well be conceived more absorbing than such a pur-
suit, and no discoveries are more suggestive of valuable and unlooked-for explana-
tions, both medical and physiological.

The illustrations in the large plates will give a perfect idea of these curious organ-
isms in various animals.

According to Rolliker and Wagner there are first formed in the semen a num-
ber of parent cells, filled with a white albuminous fluid, which becomes granular, and
then evolves one or more seminal granules, or vesicles. Each vesicle, according to
their observations, contains only one animalcule, but this does not accord with the
observations of others, who have counted as many as thirty from a single vesicle.
The discrepancy, however, is accounted for in tbis way. As each vesicle ripens it
bursts open, and the animalcule escapes into the fluid semen, and if a number
burst at onetime all the animalcules from them may be thought to come from
the one observed. The seminal vesicles in the parent cells ripen in succession,
one or more at a time, in tbe human being, but in birds all usually ripen at once,
and then the animalcules form into bundles, or masses, and this is occasionally so
in the human being. In all probability all these processes vary in different in-
dividuals, according to the strength and vigor of the organs. One man, undoubt-
edly, produces very many more animal cubs than another, and more vigorous ones.
Possibly each vesicle in one man may produce only one animalcule, and in another
man several, just as one female produces more ova? than another.

The parent cells, from which both the vesicles and their contained animalcules
originate, are formed from the epithelial lining of the seminal tubes in the testi-
cles : this peels off, and the fragments form into the parent cells. Chemical analy-
sis sho^s that the composition of the semen, and of the epithelial cells of the testi-
cular tubes is exactly the same, which is corroborative still further of their funda-
mental identity.

The whole process, therefore, is one of cell growth, just as is the formation
of the ovae. The cellular lining of the testicular tubes throws off small portions,
just as many of the simpler organisms already described throw off parts of their
structure, and these portions begin at once to develop. It is, in fact, a process of
■ftssiparous propagation .'

The formation of the ovum in the ovary, and of the seminal vesicle with its
animalcule, in the testicle, are, therefore, both effected in the same way. Each is
simply a bit of the parent cellular structure, separated from the main body, and
possessing the power, under proper conditions, of continuing its development. The
reproduction of man, therefore, and of all other vertebrates, is really only fissiparous
in the beginning.

The animalcules will live in the human semen twenty minutes or more after a
man's death, and in cold-blooded reptiles they have been found alive several days after

In reference to their production Dr. Burnett says that the changes in the sperm

THE SEXES DIYIJjEI'. I77

cells, which precede the development of the perfect animalcules, are exactly simi-
lar to those which occur in the otueq preceding the formation of the new being.
So that both the female egg and the male seminal animalcule are produced in the
same way independent of each other ; and when united they together produce the
new human being.

Male mules form semen, but it very rarely contains animalcules, which is the
reason it scarcely ever impregnates. The female mule, also, only occasionally forms
a perfect egg, and brings forth young, even if impregnated by a perfect male. The
male mule, therefore, is more generally sterile than the female.

Spallanzani and Prevost attempted to calculate the amount of semen that would
be required to fecundate a certain number of eggs, and Damas even tried to ascer-
tain" how many animalcules are needed to impregnate one egg. It was found that
two grains of the semen of the male toad was sufficient to impregnate one hun-
dred and thirteen eggs. Five grains of semen were mixed with eighteen ounces
of water, and the point of a needle being dipped in this, and then made to touch
an egg for an instant only, caused impregnation, The proportion of semen to egg.
in this experiment, has been estimated as 1 to 1,064,000,000. The impregnation was
no more complete when the amount of semen was larger, nor when the needle
remained longer in contact with the egg. It was observed that in the fecundation
of a given number of eggs, by a given amount of semen, the number of eggs was
always less than the number of animalcules in the semen, which showed that, several
animalcules were taken into each egg, and endeavors were made to find how many.
Experiments showed that a quantity of semen containing 225 animalcules impregnated
61 eggs, or about 3 to each. I am not aware that these experiments have ever been
repeated, and it is doubtful how far their results, if correct, are applicable generally.
If only one animalcule is required as the rudiment of the new being, it is evident
the others are superfluous, unless they serve some subordinate purpose, which is
quite possible. As the essential parts of the nervous system are all double, it may
need always two to form them.

Spallanzani demonstrated the fact that contact of the semen with the ovae was
all that was needed to impregnate. He kept a slut carefully confined, and when
she was in heat injected the semen from a dog into her vagina ; the result was, that
she had a litter of puppies like the dog from whom the semen was taken. This
operation, as will be shown farther on, is often resorted to, successfully, in human
beings, when some impediment prevents impregnation in the usual way.

Impregnation is, therefore, essentially a material act, and not the result of any
mysterious agency, or unknown spiritual power, as was formerly thought. It is
simply the union of two different kinds of cells, or masses of protoplasm, each more
or less specialized, or differentiated ; the result of the union being the development of
a new organism, made up of a mass of cells, propagated from these two primary ones.
Although not formed perfectly, till the age of puberty, semen is yet produced
sometimes in children, and accompanied by strong sexual excitement : a fact which
should not be forgotten. Probably in most cases semen which will excite, is formed
long before it is perfect enough to impregnate. There is no doubt, however, that
quite young boys are often capable of impregnating, as women have sometimes dis-
covered to their shame.

The state of the mind, and the direction given to the feelings and emotions, has
much to do with this. There is, perhaps, no function of the body more influenced
12

PLATE VIII.

SEMINAL FLUID OF A MAN".

Figure 1 is a parent cell, containing three seminal vesicles.

Figure 2 is a seminal vesicle enlarged, showing its granular structure.

Figures 3 and 4 are two of the animalcules much magnified, showing the mouth
irith the (probable) stomach and intestines in the interior.

Figures 5 and 6 are two others, equally magnified, showing the outer thin skin torn
off, and in shreds, as it often is from their active movements and mutual struggles.

Figure 7 shows dried semen, such as is often found on the linen, and which fre-
quently is the certain evidence of onanism, or of rape. The three animalcules con-
tained in it are stiff and dead. This is under the microscope.

Figr.re 8. This shows a spot of fresh semen, as seen under the microscope ; the
animalcules are living and moving, among a mass of mucous globules, and seminal
resides. Compare these living ones with the dead ones.

Tig.1.

Fig. 3.

Hg.5.

PLATE VIII.
Fig.8.

Fig.Z

Seminal Fluid of a Man.

THE SEXES DIVIDED.

179

by mental and moral conditions than that of seminal secretion. It may be increased
by dwelling upon sexual matters with the thoughts, or it may be decreased by forcing
the mind away from them.

Emotions of various kinds may be powerful enough to utterly suppress sexual
excitement, or to raise it to a pitch utterly beyond all control.

There is so much that is curious and wonderful about the seminal animalcules,
that it is not surprising they should have formed the basis of many strange theories.
That they are necessary to the beginning of life in all the higher beings is beyond
question, and that they are living themselves is equally certain. Whether they really
propagate, like other beings, we do not certainly know, though many physiologists
are convinced, from close observation, that they do. If they do not, then they
must be generated spontaneously ! In either case they must be regarded as neces-
sary to the formation of the human being in its first stage!

Those who have doubted their vitality can scarcely have seen much of them.
No one who has watched their fantastic and active movements, and observed their
gradual development, like that of any other similar being, from a cell, or egg, and
seen them stupefied, or even killed, by drugs, can well conceive of them as not
living. If they are not living creatures, then thousands of others are not that we
always regard as such. For my own part, I have no doubt of their vitality, and I
believe them to be spontaneously generated from the epithelial cells of the tubes of
the testicles.

In different beings, as before observed, the animalcules vary very much in form,
and we will presently give delineations of some of the most remarkable of them.

To those who wish to examine them microscopically, it will be useful to know
that they can be best seen in the semen of the male of the common fowl, especially
in the spring. They are always most numerous, most active, and largest, at the time
of breeding, in all animals. In fact, at other times, they are often almost entirely
absent, or only the vesicles are found.

The semen of the male frog also shows them very well.

The zoospermes were first positively discovered by Ham, in 1677, at Leyden, and
afterwards more thoroughly examined by Leeuwenhock, who announced the fact of
their existence to the Royal Society of England. Immediately all the savants then
living became interested, and the microscope was brought into general use for their
examination. King Charles himself had them displayed before him, and his whole
court followed suit. In fact, the whole learned world was much excited, and the
most curious speculations and theories were based upon the remarkable discovery.

The zoospermes were first discovered in the human semen, but examination soon
showed that they existed in that of all beings, down to insects.

The form of the zoosperm varies not only in the different classes of animals, but
even in the species, so much so, in fact, that some physiologists have thought the dif-
ferent species could be distinguished by them ; some of these differences are noted else-
where, both pictorially and by description, but only those which have been thor-
oughly identified. The older physiologists, who worked with imperfect microscopes,
gave very erroneous representations of them, but the more perfect instruments we
now possess enable us to observe them plainly, and to portray them accurately.

The great controversy has been as to their nature, many being loath to admit
that they are real living beings. A careful examination of them, however, can scarcely
leave a doubt on this point. If they are not living creatures, then neither are large

PLATE IX.

SEMINAL ANIMALCULES OF THE FROG.

Figure 1 shows an animalcule with the granular globule still attached to the
lower end. It is nearly straight.

Figure 2. It is seen beginning to bend, and it goes on bending more and more,
as seen in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5.

In Figure 6 the two ends cross.

Figure 7. The two parts begin to twist.

Figures 7, 8. The twisting has proceeded still farther.

In Figure 9 it is seen with the two parts firmly twisted into one, the loop at the
top seeming to form a head.

Figure 10 shows a seminal vesicle bursting, and the animalcules escaping in a
bundle, each one with a small yellow granular globule attached to one end.

Figure 11 shows the bundle beginning to break up, so that each becomes separate.

Figure 12. Semen of the frog in water, showing the animalcules, the mucous
globules, and seminal vesicles.

Figure 13. Mucous globules.

Figure 14. The yellow granular globule, which is attached to one end of each
animalcule when it first comes out of the vesicle.

Figures 15 and 16 show two of the animalcules much enlarged.

These changes in form are very curious to observe, and are well worth close atten-
tion, The semen should be taken at spawning time, in the spring

Seminal Fluid and Animalcules of the Frog.

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 281

numbers of insects and infusoria, for the zoospermes have all the vital properties of
these in perfection.

In fact, the investigations of Pouchet and others prove that they have internal
organs — presumably digestive — and also fins, by which they swim, as fishes do;
they also develop from eggs, just like many other animalcules.

The manner in which the zoospermes move is different in those of different ani-
mals ; some move simply by lashing with the tail, while others progress by means of
a fin on the back, and others again revolve in circles, so that they vary in this respect
as much as the different kinds of infusoria.

In the human zoosperm, the motion is always straight forward, and it seems to
be effected partly by the undulations of the tail, and partly by the motion of a real
fin, on one of the edges, which can be readily seen when the animalcule is examined
in profile. It is also covered by a kind of membrane, or skin, which is sometimes cast
off — as snakes cast their skin — and is then seen to hang about them in shreds, as seen
in some of the illustrations we give.

Schwan even asserts that the human zoosperm possesses a sucker, by which it can
attach itself firmly to any part with which it may come in contact ; and Ehrenberg
asserts the same. G-erber goes so far as to tell us that he clearly detected organs of
generation in some that he examined.

Close observation proves that the zoospermes in all animals, develop in vesicles, or
cells, as shown in the human being. In many persons suffering from wasting dis-
eases these vesicles are often absent, or very small, and they consequently have no
animalcules or very imperfect ones.

Lallemand has demonstrated that the zoospermes exist at first as small globules,
and that they grow and develop into a larger and more perfect form gradually, as
other animals do. It is, probably, this growth of the zoospermes which causes the
testes, in certain animals, to increase so remarkably in size at the season of coup-
ling. In the drake, for instance, they then become three times as large as at other

It is conjectured, with good reason, that when the testes of these animals are at
the smallest, they do not contain animalcules at all, but only their ovas. After a
time these become ripe, break open, and emit the animalcules, which then perfect
their development, and by their increase of size, cause the enlargement of the

That the animalcules usually decrease in size in old age, or during certain dis-
eases, is well established, and they are also dull and slow in their movements in such
cases.

Henle assures us that the power of locomotion, in a healthy zoosperm, is such
that it will traverse the distance of an inch in seven minutes and a half ; which is
considerable, when its minute size is considered.

When moving, they will turn aside to avoid any object, or to pass by one another,
just as other animals do, indicating even will, or choice. Prussic acid kills them
instantly, and so does strychnine, after throwing them into convulsions. A slight
shock of electricity deprives them of life as certainly as a stroke of lightning does a
man.

Meyer and Werneck even assert that the pollen of plants consists essentially of
animalcules, having all the characteristics above described ; and certainly, as else-
where shown, the resemblance between them is very close, both in form and action.

PLATE X.

SEMINAL ANIMALCULES; AND EGG, OF A RAUBlT.

Figure 1 shows some of the mucus, mixed with semen, taken from the organs of
a female rabbit, twenty hours after connection with the male. The animalcules are
still living, in the midst of blood corpuscles and mucous globules.

Figure la. A mucous globule much magnified.

Figure 2. The same fluid taken thirty hours after. The animalcules are seen
to be dead, and more or less broken up.

Figures 3 and 4 show animalcules much magnified, seen in different ways.

Figure 5. The bodies of dead animalcules.

Figure 6. A separate body magnified. There is apparently no trace of internal
organs.

Figure 3. Smaller animalcules.

Figure 9. Egg of the rabbit, fifteen hours after connection with the male.

Figure a. Seminal animalcule of the bat.

Figure 1). Seminal animalcule of the bear. In this there are seen two openings,
the one at the top supposed to be the mouth, and the other the anus.

Figure c. Seminal animalcules of the Guinea-pig.

Seminal Animalcules and Egg of a So': :

THE SEXES DIVIDED. 183

And this accords perfectly with what is shown elsewhere, that plants and animals
are, essentially, in the primitive form, identical with each other.

It may be stated as an absolute fact that living animalcules, variable in form, are
found in the semen of all animals, and that they are the real vivifying, or impreg-
nating principle of the semen. If they be filtered out, the remaining part of the
seminal fluid has no effect on the female egg whatever. They are not found before
puberty, and in those animals which propagate only at certain seasons, the animal-
cules are found in the semen only at those seasons.

In the polecat, the head of the animalcule is round, large, and flat, so that when
they are laid sideways, only the head and tail can be seen. They much resemble
tadpoles, and have similar movements, effected entirely by the bending and straight-
ening of the tail. The movement is always forward, and never backward, as is the
case, indeed, with those of most animals.

The animalcules of the dog are much like those of the polecat, but are not so
large.

Those of the rabbit, shown in the illustrations, are longer than those of the dog,
and they are the most active and the most varied in their motions of all the animals
yet examined, which makes them very valuable for observation.

The animalcules of the Guinea-pig are longer than any of the others above named,
and much resemble those of the polecat, excepting that on the head is noticed a
circular semi-transparent mark.

In the field mouse they are very long, and shaped like eels, which they also re-
semble in their mode of swimming. Their heads are marked by several transparent
dots, similar to the one observed in the polecat, which give them a very peculiar
appearance. The rat and common motise are very similar to the field mouse.

The animalcules of the horse are not large in proportion to the animal, and have
round heads, in the center of which is a clear, bright, globular point.

Those of the common fowl and the pigeon are very much alike, having an oblong
head, with the usual long tapering tail. Those of the duck are shorter and thicker,
and are only found in the spring and beginning of summer. In fact, in all birds
that have a pairing season, we find the animalcules only at that season.

The largest animalcules, not only in proportion to the animal, but absolutely, are
found in snails, which seem to have been unusually favored by nature, in regard
to sexual development.

In whatever light they may be regarded, these beings possess great interest. They
are undoubtedly the beginning, in some way or other, of all animals, but we know
very little of the way in which they begin.

CHAPTER XIX.

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

pouchet's ten fundamental laws which govern the process of fecundation.

1st Law. Generation is essentially the same in all beings, mankind not excepted.

2d Law. In all beings, the female eggs exist before and independent of concep-
tion, the same as the male semen does.

3d Law. The egg is never impregnated in the ovary or organ that produces it.

4th Law. The egg must always have attained a certain development before it
can be impregnated, and must also have left the ovary.

5th Law. In all beings the egg leaves the ovary independent of impregnation.

$ih Law. In all animals the eggs are emitted at certain regular periods, pecu-
liar to each, at which times there also occurs a peculiar excitement of the female
organs.

1th Law. Conception can occur only when the semen is present at the same
time with the perfectly developed egg.

8th Law. The menstruation of the human female is strictly analogous to the
periodical erotic excitement of other animals, sometimes termed the rut or heat.

9th Law. Consequently, conception is necessarily connected with menstruation,
and there is, therefore, in human females, a period when impregnation can occur,
and one when it cannot, and those periods can be pointed out.

10th Law. In the human being, impregnation always takes place either in the
womb, or in the very end of the tube next to the womb.

It has already been shown by the previous explanations, that the two generative
principles, the sperm cell and the germ cell, must be brought together before they
can originate a new being by their joint action. This union is called impregnation,
or fecundation, and it is effected in many different ways ; sometimes it occurs in the
body of the female, and at other times without. When it occurs within the female
body it is effected by the act of copulation, for which special organs exist, which
will be described farther on ; when it occurs without the body, the process is much
more simple, no act analogous to copulation then taking place.

The actual process of impregnation, or that union of the two principles from
which the new being originates, has always been a physiological mystery, and a
fruitful theme for philosophical speculation. It is evident, however, that the only
way to clear up such a mystery, is to examine the generative organs, and their pro-
ducts, under every possible variety of circumstances, and to do this with care and
patience for a length of time, so that a sufficient number of observations may be made.
This task has only been undertaken very recently, and consequently our knowl-
edge of this mysterious process, until lately, has been altogether incomplete and
imperfect. The investigations already referred to, and others which will be men-

184

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 1Q5

tioned farther on, have developed the laws of fecundation, and removed that pro-
cess altogether from the field of mere speculation. M. Pouchet was undoubtedly
the first who clearly enunciated these laws in any publication, though others had
arrived at them independently ; we will, therefore, state them as he has done, and
then make whatever comments and further statements may be necessary.

The First of these Laws has been already well illustrated in our first articles, where
it has been shown that the generative process is essentially the same in man as in all
other beings, though it was formerly thought to be different. All animals, it was
there explained, are developed from eggs, formed in the female's body, only in some
these eggs are impregnated and developed internally, and in others externally ; and
in some, as the human being, for instance, they are very minute, and, therefore,
dihicult to discover.

^nere are four different varieties of the generative process ; the viviparous, or
that in which the eggs are impregnated and developed into the new being within
the body, as in the human being ; the oviparous, or that in which the eggs are
impregnated within the body, but expelled and hatched without, as in birds ; the
ovoviviparous, or that in which the eggs are impregnated within the body, and
hatched while they are passing out, as in some insects and reptiles ; and lastly,
th.3 marsupial variety, or that in which the young are half-formed within the body
and complete their growth without, as in the kangaroo. To one or the other of
these varieties the generation of every animal can be referred, though in some there
may be unimportant peculiarities in the process.

An example of ovoviviparous generation may be seen in the common meat-fly,
which does not lay eggs upon the meat, but little larvae, or maggots, perfectly
formed, the eggs being hatched while passing down the canal from its body.
In come species, the young have even developed into perfect insects, and are ready
co undergo their metamorphosis when they pass from the body of the mother. The
young scorpion is perfect, and begins to walk immediately it is born, having been
hatched and developed within the parental body, and the same thing is observed
in the common aphis, or green plant-louse. Some insects can even generate both
ways, and produce sometimes eggs, and sometimes perfect young, or even both to-
gether, in immense numbers. The structure of the egg is always the same, but in
th.3 oviparous animals it has added to it a quantity of extraneous nutriment by
which the new being is nourished while in the shell, or outer covering. The eggs of
the viviparous have nothing of the kind, because they are attached, from the first
moment of conception, to the mother's body, and derive their nutriment from it.
Th.3 large portion of vitellus, or yellow, which we see in the egg of the chicken, is
only intended to supply nutriment to the young, and so is the albumen, or white,
-which, with the shell, form no part of the egg, properly speaking, but are formed
around it, after it leaves the ovary, and while passing from the body.

An examination of the ovarium of the bird will make many of these statements
readily understood, and will be found a very useful study. It consists, during the
laying period, of a large number of ova, of various sizes, all fastened by ligaments,
or small stems, to a central point, which is the true ovarium, and from which they
all originate. Some of the ova, or eggs, are very minute, like mustard-seeds, while
others are larger, and a few are nearly as large as when expelled from the body, but
none of these have either white or shell while they remain connected with the ovary.
As the egg enlarges, the ligament which holds it becomes less, and eventually, when

186 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

it has attained its full growth, the ligament breaks and the egg is dropped into the
canal, or passage, by which it is to escape from the body. It then consists merely of
the vitellus, or yellow, and the cicatricula, or germinative vesicle, but as it proceeds
along the passage, the white, or albumen, is deposited around it, and the shell forms
around the whole, till it assumes the form we usually see. The shell and the albu-
men, therefore, are mere extraneous matters, and not essential parts of the egg or
ovum, though necessary to its protection and development when out of the body,
and it is not unusual for the egg to be expelled without them, especially when the
bird is diseased, or not provided with sufficient lime for the shell.

The true definition of a viviparous animal, therefore, is one whose egg cannot
develop without being connected with its body, while the egg of an oviparous ani-
mal is capable of developing alone, merely by the application of a proper degree of
heat.

The truth of the Second Law is obvious in respect to all oviparous animals, espe-
cially birds, who are known to have eggs, and to lay them, before being impregnated,
but it is not so obvious in respect to viviparous animals, whose eggs are so small that
they are only discovered by the microscopical anatomist. A consideration of the
facts already adduced will prove, however, that in the whole class, mankind included,
the law also prevails, and that eggs are formed and expelled in them also indepen-
dently of impregnation. The celebrated Harvey was convinced of this fact, though
he had not the proof of it, and he laid down an axiom, in accordance with his
conviction, which can now be received without question — "Everything living," said
he, "comes from an egg." There are some of the lower animals, it is true, that
seem to reproduce their young without eggs, by fissiparous or gemmiparous genera-
tion, but these are now known to be only modifications of the oviparous process. In
fissiparous generation the parent simply splits up, or divides spontaneously, into two
or more parts, which grow into new beings that also divide again in their turn in
the same way, and thus the species are continued. The fresh-water polype is an in-
stance of this mode of generation, and if it be cut into pieces with a knife each part
will grow into a perfect being, which may also be divided in the same way, appa-
rently without limit. In gemmiparous generation the original being simply gives
out little buds, or germs, from its body, which develop into perfect beings, as we
see in the sponge and the hydra ; the buds being sometimes cast off to develop alone,
and sometimes all remaining attached to the parent till a large bed or mass of them
is formed.

These animals that propagate by the fissiparous process are all exceedingly simple
in their organization, and many of them may be turned inside out, like a glove, with-
out the slightest injury or inconvenience. It is probable, therefore, that the whole
being is merely like an ovary, and that every atom of it is a germ or egg, capable of
development alone, like the bud of a tree. Those that propagate by the gemmiparous
process are also very inferiorly organized, and in all probability the buds or germs
which they give off are really ova, or eggs, expelled spontaneously. In fact, many
of these beings propagate by the oviparous mode as well, and their whole substance
seems to resolve itself into germs of new organizations.

The Third Law says that the semen cannot reach the eggs, to impregnate them,
while they remain in the vesicles of the ovary, and a slight consideration of the nu-
merous obstacles interposed will show that this must be so. In the first place, the ac-
tion of the Fallopian tubes, and the cilia which line their interior, as before explained,

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 187

is such that nothing can pass towards the ovary from the womb, but only in the other
direction. And besides this, while the egg is in the vesicle it is surrounded by a num-
ber of different membranes, either of which would present an impassable barrier to
the semen, even if it could reach the exterior of the ovary. But there is still another
obstacle if these were overcome, as if nature had taken special care that no such event
should take place. The interior of the tube is compactly filled with a thick mucus,
in which the cilia work, and through which the semen could not possibly force its way.
In fact, there seems to be considerable difficulty even in forcing the egg down the tubes
the right way, and it is probable that very frequently it does not pass down before
its structure is broken up, so that it cannot be impregnated. This is apparently the
reason why there are but few women who continue to bear children uninterruptedly,
most of them having more or less interval between, frequently of years. They form
the egg regularly every month, and might conceive therefore every ten or twelve
months, but all the eggs do not reach the womb in time, a large number of. them
being so long in passing down the tubes that they are spoilt before the semen can
reach them. Perhaps this is an express provision, to prevent women from being
debilitated by sickness, and worn down by anxiety, as most of them would certainly
be if they were to bear children continually. "With human beings there are many
considerations which make it undesirable for reproduction to be frequent, and this
is probably a natural check. Some females, it is well known, are not restricted in
this way, but continue to conceive regularly a short time after every delivery. In
such persons there is no doubt a uniform transmission of the egg, which, therefore,
always reaches the womb in a state fit for receiving the male semen. In many cases
of barrenness also, I find that stimulating the Fallopian tubes, at the proper time,
will remove the disability, apparently by quickening their action, and causing the
egg to reach the womb earlier, and in a better condition for being impregnated.

The old theory of impregnation was that the semen was absorbed, or sucked up,
into the womb and along the Fallopian tubes till it reached the ovary, when it im-
pregnated one of the eggs and so stimulated it to commence developing. It was
then supposed that this impregnated egg, after a time, separated from the ovary
and passed down the tube into the womb, where it formed into the foetus. The facts
just mentioned, however, show the fallacy of this theory, even if the correct process
had not been given before, but still it has been received so long, and has become so
orthodox, that many celebrated men hesitate to reject it even now.

Abundant proof has been obtained that the thick portion of the semen must
actually touch the egg itself, without any obstruction, or there can be no impreg-
nation. Spallanzani proved this by his experiment upon the eggs of fishes. He
found that if semen from the male fish were put into the water, along with the
female eggs, they would, after a time, begin to develop, and ultimately form into
young fishes, but not if the semen were kept away. He then filtered the semen, and
tried the thin part of it, but that had no effect, though the thick part, which con-
tained the animalcules, impregnated immediately. Some»physiologists had concluded
that it was merely the aura, a kind of steam from the semen, which impregnated,
and he therefore exposed some of the eggs to this steam, for various periods of time,
but always with no effect. The same results have also followed experiments made
upon animals, by myself, for in no case did impregnation follow from the mere aura
of the semen, though it was applied directly to the mouth of the womb, as well as
in the vagina. It is therefore certain that the thick semen itself must touch the

188 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

egg, and this it cannot do while the egg is in the vesicle of the ovary, because it
cannot reach the ovary.

The Fourth Law asserts further that before the egg can be impregnated it must
have acquired a certain development, and must have separated from the ovary.
Reason alone would assure us of this, because it is evident that the egg must be per-
fectly formed before it could be affected by the semen, and when it has attained this
stage it is ripe, and is cast off from the ovary like a ripe fruit from the tree.

The precise period when the egg leaves the ovary appears to be when it has ex-
hausted all the nutriment in the vesicle, as evidenced by the complete absorption of
the white fluid, and it is detached in order to seek the means of further growth else-
where, as the ripe seed of the plant is thrown to the ground.

In the great majority of animals the egg is not impregnated till it has passed a
long way from the ovary, which is usually deep within the body, and sometimes it
even leaves the body before it is fecundated. The eggs cannot be impregnated if
taken from the ovary, as experiment has proved, but they must have left it sponta-
neously, and sufficiently long for the peculiar change we have before explained to take
place in them. Impregnation could not take place, therefore, from the semen reach-
ing the ovary, even if its passage there was possible.

In the case of the bird, the egg is impregnated immediately it leaves the ovary,
before the shell is formed over it, but not while attached by its ligament. The
female bird is provided with a peculiar pouch or receptacle, into which the semen is
absorbed at the time of copulation, and in which it will remain unchanged for a
Jong time. This pouch is so placed that the egg passes by it on leaving the ovary,
imd in such a manner that it absorbs a portion of the semen contained in it, and
Ihus becomes impregnated. The quantity of semen thus stored up is something con-
siderable, and as only a small portion is needed to fecundate each egg, it is possible
for a single copulation to impregnate all the eggs that may be laid for a long time
after, as we often see in the common fowl.

In some animals the egg is not perfect enough for impregnation even wheD it
leaves the ovary, but is kept for a time longer in a peculiar organ provided for the
purpose, in which it maturates more perfectly, and is then expelled into the passage
to meet the semen. This is the case with many fishes and reptiles, and if the egg
be taken before its sojourn in that peculiar organ, it cannot be fecundated.

It is evident, therefore, that the egg must have attained a certain development
before it can be impregnated, and that it must also have left the ovary for some
definite time.

The Fifth Law, which asserts that in all beings the eggs are formed and leave the
ovary independent of impregnation, is almost proved sufficiently by the facts already
adduced, but a fev additional observations will make it still more clear. With re-
spect to birds, this law was long known to be correct, because they frequently produce
eggs without having ever had any connection with the male ; and it was also equally
evident in regard to most fishes, whose eggs are impregnated after they leave the
body. In frogs also, as before stated, the male deposits his semen on the eggs as the
female expels them from her body, which proves that their formation and expulsion
is independent of impregnation. The difficulty in proving that this law applies to
all beings, especially to the human being, arose from want of proper observation,
and from the supposition that the egg in them was in some respect different to that
of oviparous animals. Now that the universal similarity of the egg is proved, how-

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 189

ever, and that we know it is produced by a similar process in all, it is also made
evident that it is formed and emitted independent of impregnation. In fact, one
essential part of the egg, the vitellus, from which part of the new being is formed,
is found in undoubted virgins, and even in children occasionally, when it could not,
of course, have had its development influenced by impregnation.

Nevertheless, it must be observed that sexual excitement may hasten the ripening
of the eggs, because it may excite the ovaries, and expedite their functions, as our
former observations have shown. In some cases it even appears that the egg will
partially develop from mere excitement, without any contact with the male prin-
ciple, as several instances already given have proved. In this way are produced
those imperfect foetal growths occasionally met with in the ovaries, and which have
been found even in children. And in the same way, in all probability, arises that
partial development of the new being found sometimes in the unimpregnated egg of
the bird, many instances of which are upon record.

In short, the growth and expulsion of the egg is a process belonging to the female
system alone, and no more requires the influence of the male, in any way, than he
requires the influence of the female to cause the testes to form the semen. Many
females, who possess sufficient physiological knowledge, and who have been observant
of their own systems, know precisely the time when the eggs leave their bodies, and
can readily obtain them every monthly period. This I have known many do, and
it is sometimes necessary in determining the causes of sterility, which occasionally
results from the egg being imperfectly formed, and we cannot ascertain whether
they are perfect or not without examining them.

The Sixth Law merely states that in all animals the expulsion of the egg occurs
at regular intervals, varying in their duration in the different kinds. In some beings
there is only one expulsion during their lives, and this usually terminates their exist-
ence, as we see in many insects. In some the expulsion is annual, in others, biennial,
and in others again every three years, and sometimes it is as often as daily; in
the human being it is monthly. This regular ovarian expulsion also occurs along
with the periodic excitement called the rut, or heat, in the lower animals, and the
monthly period, or menstruation, in the human being. In fact, the periodic ex-
citement results from the periodic expulsion, and both are parts of one grand phe-
nomenon.

This periodic excitement, especially as it appears in the form of menstruation in
the human being, exerts a most potent influence over the rest of the system, and
makes the female in many respects essentially different from the male, as fully
explained in our article on Menstruation. It commences first in the ovaries, but ia
propagated from them to the whole of the generative apparatus, and sometimes even
to remote parts.

The excitement caused by the expulsion of the egg is not, ia the inferior beings,
accompanied by such a discharge as we observe from the human female, though in
nearly all there is some secretion, and in particular species it is even colored. In
all cases, however, the excitement of the parts is obvious enough, and is sometimes
quite remarkable externally. In some of the apes not only are the external genitals
inflamed, but also the parts around the anus, and even the thighs, which are some-
times covered with large tumefactions, of a bright red color, during every period.
In all birds the inflamed condition of the external parts, while they are laying, may
be readily seen, and it is observable also in fishes. Occasionally this external excite-

190 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

ment occurs in human beings at such times, and some females are always troubled
then with swollen labia, or eruptions on the skin.

In every instance the excitement and flow is terminated by the expulsion of the
egg from the ovary, which constitutes the crisis. In no instance is there any
excitement, or flow, in those females that have been castrated, because they can
have no expulsion of ova, but in all those whose functions are natural, the excitement
occurs at regular periods, and is always accompanied by the maturation and discharge
of ova.

When animals are domesticated their periods are considerably modified, being
usually hastened, but still they almost invariably observe a certain degree of regu-
larity. Many females are also much affected by their mode of life, being made to
menstruate, or flood, almost continually, by the influence of stimulating food and
drink, and by too much artificial heat.

The Seventh Law enunciates a most important truth, which is the foundation of
much valuable advice, and gives us the key to the true time of conception. It states
that conception can never occur except when the male semen is deposited in the
female organs at the same time that a ripe egg reaches them, or, in other words,
for a copulation to be fruitful it must coincide with the expulsion of the egg. The
truth of this will be obvious from our previous statements, for it is evident that
if the semen cannot reach the egg while it is in the ovary, and that has been shown
to be impossible, it can only do so after it is expelled and brought into or near
the womb. In fact, the egg has some further change to undergo after it leaves the
ovary before it can be fecundated, and this is the reason for its being somewhat
delayed by passing down the tubes. This law is strictly in accordance Avith the fact
before mentioned, that the expulsion of the egg takes place just when the flow
is over, as that is the time when conception really occurs, and when most animals
also desire association. It is not at the commencement of the rut that female ani-
mals desire the male, but after the discharge has continued for a few days, and
just when it is ceasing. The slut, for instance, will repel the dog at first, and so
will the female rabbit repel the male, and even fight with him, until about the
third day of heat, and then she submits. This is evidently because the eggs have
not descended till that time, and nature has so provided that association shall only
be sought when it is likely to be fruitful. If any of these animals were compelled to
copulate during the first days of the excitement there would be no fecundation,
because the presence of the semen does not then coincide with the presence of the egg.

The Eighth Law is merely a distinct enunciation of a truth already abundantly
proved, namely : that the menstruation of the human female is identical with the
peculiar excitement observed periodically upon all other animals, and called the rut,
heat, or oestrum.

According to the Ninth Law, it is possible, at least in the human being, to
designate the precise time when conception is possible, and also that in which it is
impossible. This law also follows naturally from the foregoing explanations, they
having shown that the egg remains but a certain number of days in the womb, after
which it passes from the body and is lost, and since the semen can reach the egg
only while it is in or near the womb, it is evident that the days during which it stays
there are the only ones in which conception is possible, and that at all other times
it is absolutely impossible. When we have ascertained, therefore, the precise time
which the egg stays in the womb, and tube, we know to a certainty the time when

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 19 j

conception can occur, and also when it cannot. In another article I shall point out
this time accurately, and explain how it is ascertained.

The Tenth Law is important because it shows where fecundation occurs. Ac-
cording to this law the two principles can only meet in the uterus, or at the
uterine ends of the Fallopian tubes. The proofs of this are many and various, and
quite sufficient to put its truth beyond a doubt. In the first place it must be borne
in mind that the semen cannot pass down the tubes, as already shown, and con-
sequently cannot get farther than the womb. In fact, if animals be killed as long
as twenty-six hours after connection, the semen is still in the womb, and if killed
after that time it has gone no farther, but has begun to decompose. In some few
cases it has been found a little way within the Fallopian tube, and once or twice
nearly as far as the middle of the tube, but no farther. In no instance have the ani-
malcules of the semen been found on the ovary, nor beyond the middle of the tube,
though sought for in hundreds of cases. It is true that in some cases anatomists
have thought that they discovered the animalcules upon the ovary, but it is now
generally admitted that they were mistaken, and their error probably originated in
this way : There are often fragments of mucous membrane, partly organized, which
much resemble the animalcules, and without very close inspection may readily be
mistaken for them. These are called false zoospermes, and in all probability it was
some of those that came under view. Every accurate observer has failed to detect
them in any other parts than those mentioned.

WHEN CONCEPTION IS POSSIBLE AND IMPOSSIBLE.

Numerous observations have established the following facts respecting the time
of conception in the human being, and they may be relied upon with the utmost
certainty.

The Graafian vesicle, which contains the egg in the ovary, enlarges while the
menstrual flow is taking place, and it bursts open, to let the egg escape, on the first,
second, third, or fourth day after the flow has ceased, but most usually on the first
day.

The egg is then taken hold of by the fringes at the end of the tube and carried
into the passage, down which it slowly progresses, taking from two to six days to
reach the womb.

The time, therefore, in which the egg reaches the womb, varies from one or two
to ten days after the menstrual flow has ceased.

When the egg reaches the womb, it would — if there were no special provision to
prevent it — immediately fall down to its mouth, and escape from the body, but this
is provided against. While the egg is passing down the tubes, or during the latter
part of the flow, a peculiar delicate membrane, ox skin, called the decidua, forms
around the inner walls of the womb, so as completely to block up its mouth. This
membrane presses against the opening from the Fallopian tubes also, so that when
the egg passes out of the tube it pushes against the membrane, and makes a hollow,
or kind of nest, in which it lies. This, therefore, prevents the egg from, passing
immediately away, and it evidently must be retained in the womb as long as the
decidua remains.

The time that the decidua remains attached also varies from two to six days, but
usually it is about four, and at the end of that time, unless conception occurs, it

192 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

looses from the walls of the womb, passes out of its mouth, down the vagina, and
cakes the egg along with it, so that both leave the body and are lost. If impreg-
nation takes place, however, or, in other words, if the male semen reaches the egg
while it is thus detained, it remains, and both it and the decidua grow fast to the
womb. The egg then forms the rudiment of the new being, and the membrane
becomes one of its coverings or envelopes.

When the egg and the decidua have fallen, or, in other words, when the egg is
thrown out of the body, there cannot, of course, be any conception till another
period comes round, because there is no egg in the womb to be impregnated.
After this time, therefore, conception is impossible, and its maximum limits at least
may be stated with certainty. From the above statements it will be seen that the
egg reaches the womb some time between the second and tenth day after the men-
strual flow has stGpped, and that it then remains there from two to six days at the
utmost, but after that it passes away. Consequently, conception is possible as
long as sixteen days after every monthly flow has stopped, but after that time it is
impossible ! In fact, it is hardly ever the case that it can take place so long as six-
teen days after, because the egg is seldom more than two days in reaching the womb,
and if it remains six, as an extreme limit, eight days is probably about the average.
If the truth could be ascertained, I have no doubt but that nine out of every ten
pregnant females have conceived within the first seven days after the flow, and that
impregnation would not follow connection after the tenth day once out of fifty
times, but still it is requisite to state the latest possible time, and that is sixteen
days.

An instance illustrative of this principle is recorded in history. Henry II. of
France had been long married without offspring, and had consulted various medica)
men as to the cause, without success, till he sent for the celebrated Fernel, who,
upon due consideration, simply advised him to always associate with his spouse im-
mediately after the cessation of her periods. This advice was acted upon, and sho
conceived, after being childless eleven years. In all probability the egg escaped in
her case very soon, and association had never before been had till after it was lost.

Every other being also has its limited time, but it is various in different kinds.
I have ascertained it in several, and invariably, if they were not allowed to associate
with the male till that time was passed, they never conceived. There are signs, how-
ever, by which any intelligent and observant female can ascertain that time in her
own case, and those signs we will now explain.

Some time within the first five or six days after the cessation of the flow, but
usually on the first or second, all females experience a sensation of weight and unea-
siness, or of slight pain, in the region of the Fallopian- tubes, or across the abdomen,
on a line with the lower edge of the hip-bones. This sensation may be very slight
in some, but in others it is quite acute, and there are few but what can detect more
Jr less of it if they observe. This indicates the passage of the egg down the Fallopian
tube, and is caused by its contraction. In fact, many females can distinctly feel the
tubes drawing together, as they express it, and sometimes the contractions may even
be seen externally. Previous to these contractions the mucus discharged from the
vagina is usually thick and adhesive, but after they have ceased, it becomes thinner
and more transparent. The passage of the egg down the tube is indicated, there-
fore, by very obvious signs, which, I am confident, are but seldom absent.

The passage of the egg out of the womb, or the fall of the decidua, which makes

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 193

conception impossible afterwards, is even more strongly and constantly marked, and
can be known by nearly all females. The first indication is an increased flow of thin
watery fluid from the vagina, so abundant sometimes as to wet all the external
parts, and not unfrequently to cause some little irritation. Occasionally the dis-
charge is tinged of a pale pink, but more usually it is colorless, and like the white
of an egg. This may continue only for a few hours, or for a day or two, and is
always followed by the escape of a small grayish white clot, somewhat firm and elastic.
This clot is opaque, and varies from the size of a pea to that of a small bean. It
much resembles the clots which are often coughed from the throat in bronchial
affections, and is readily detected. Just previous to this appearing, and when the
thin discharge is about ceasing, there is also felt a slight contraction and pain in the
womb, accompanied with a feeling of weight and bearing down, similar to what is
experienced during the menstrual flow itself. If this clot be examined with a micro-
scope it will be found to consist of the decidua and the egg, which have thus been
expelled. In fact, the slight pain and distress experienced, are caused by the womb
contracting slightly to effect the expulsion, the same as it does during a miscarriage
to effect the expulsion of the foetus. This is, then, the phenomenon of the fall of
the decidua, or expulsion of the egg, called by the French the ponte, or laying, and
when it has taken place there can be no impregnation till after another period.

In some females this expulsion of the egg is almost as distinctly marked as the
monthly period itself, and even causes as much distress. In others, however, all the
indications are very slight, but still I believe they are always manifested sufficiently
for the time to be detected, if careful observation is kept.

The time when the expulsion occurs also varies in different persons, and under
different circumstances. On the average, it is about the seventh or eighth day, but
may be as late as the sixteenth, as before explained. The clot, of course, is always
present at the time, and indicates it beyond a doubt.

I have known many females who have ascertained this time quite readily after the
signs had been explained to them, and I believe nearly all would do so with a little
trouble. Many of these have even detected and preserved the clot, which, on being
placed under the microscope, has shown them the egg and its decidua most per-
fectly. Several of these clots I have in my cabinet, both of the human being and
also of animals. Every female who thus ascertains the precise period of the ex-
pulsion of the egg, of course knows when conception in her case becomes impossible,
because it cannot occur after the egg has escaped.

There are, however, many causes that may lead to error, and which may deceive
persons very much if they are not acquainted with them. Thus, some females are
constantly liable to mere floodings, or discharges of blood, from weakness, which
they mistake for real menstrual periods, and thus miscalculate. Others, again,
have periods that are colorless, as elsewhere explained, and they, therefore, never
suspect what they are when they really do occur. All females are liable at times to
these unusual appearances, and are likely, therefore, to suppose that they have a
period when they have not, and that they are free from it when it is actually taking
place. In this way mistakes are very apt to occur, unless the individual has been
sufficiently observant to detect true menstruation by other signs than the mere color.
It must be remembered that every discharge of blood is not a menstrual discharge,
and that many true menstrual discharges are perfectly colorless. One sign can be
always relied upon, however, to detect the true period, and that is the odor of the

194 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

discharge, which is so peculiar, that when once known it cannot be mistaken, there
being no other discharge resembling it. In an ordinary flooding there is seldom any
particular odor, but this peculiar one is always present at every menstruation, though
it be as thin and colorless as water.

It is owing to these occasional deviations and unusual appearances that some
females have supposed they conceived immediately before the period. They had
simply experienced a flooding, and mistook it for menstruation. Others have
thought that they conceived without having menstruated, especially when nursing ,
but in them it had been colorless and unnoticed.

In very many cases I have made practical use of these facts, when consulted in
cases of barrenness, and frequently with the most satisfactory results, as will be
shown when speaking upon that disability.

In every instance — it may be confidently relied upon — conception takes place with-
in sixteen days after a menstrual period, and usually within eigM or nine days,
though it may be often difficult to ascertain the period, and another phenomenon may
be mistaken for it. At all other times impregnation is absolutely impossible, except-
ing possibly for a brief period before the actual cessation, in the way that will be
explained in our next article.

MANNER OF IMPREGNATION.

The precise manner of impregnation, or the way in which the two principles
actually unite, can only be understood by bearing in mind the account given of the
semen in a former article. It was there shown that the essential part of this princi-
ple consists of certain little living beings, called the seminal animalcules, which,
undoubtedly, are the true impregnators. If they are absent, or if their vitality be
destroyed, the semen has no effect whatever on the egg. This fact has been ascer-
tained for some time, but it is only recently that the mode in which they operate has
become known.

"When speaking upon the female egg, in a former article, it was stated, that while
in the o\ary it contained a peculiar body, called the germinal vesicle, which, by a
spontaneous movement, was cast out as soon as the egg entered the tube, in such a
way as to cause a rent, or torn place, in the membrane surrounding the egg.
This bursting open of the ovum had been noticed by many observers, but the
object of it was long a mystery, till, fortunately, a curious discovery revealed its
intention. It was found that if one of these seminal animalcules came in contact
with an egg, which was opened in this way, it immediately crept in at the opening,
and buried itself in the interior. The object, therefore, of the passing out of the
vesicle, is, evidently, to open a passage, by which the animalcule can reach the
interior of the egg, among the vitellus, or yellow, and when there it forms part of
Ihe rudiment of the future new being, as will be explained farther on. In this
way, then, the two principles really unite, each being indispensable to the other,
and the two together providing all the elements for the embryo, — the animalcule
probably being the germ of the nervous system, or that part in which animal life
really resides.

This also explains other circumstances formerly noticed, and shows that every
peculiarity exhibited by either of the principles has its object. It was stated, for
instance, respecting the animalcules, that they had a remarkable tendency to move
in a straight-forward direction, and with considerable velocity. Now this tendency

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 195

is evidently calculated to carry them up into the womb, so that they may reach the
egg, and without it they might never arrive there. The semen is deposited, during
coition, in the vagina, and was always supposed to be absorbed or sucked up into
the womb, though not known to be so. It is probable that such absorption, or
suction, does take place sometimes, but by no means invariably I am convinced,
and I have no doubt whatever, that conception can occur without it. Many females
habitually lose most or all of the semen after every association, and yet they conceive,
though there evidently can occur but little passage of it in either of the above
ways. The fact appears to be that the animalcules can pass up into the womb them-
selves, by their own motion, the tendency above noticed, to move forward in one
direction, enabling them to do so. Immediately they are deposited in the vagina,
if their vitality is perfect, all that find themselves placed in the proper direction,
begin to move upwards, and they continue to do so till they reach the uterus, as
nothing seems to make them ever turn in the opposite direction. When any of them
reach the interior of the womb, if an egg be there that has been opened by the
vesicle passing out, one of them passes in, and thus effects the impregnation. This
fact has actually been seen under the microscope, and the entrance of the animal-
cule within the egg is an undoubted occurrence.

It is easy to see from this, why it is that conception does not occur, as is often
the case, when the male is too debilitated to form perfect semen. The animalcules
are then too weak to pass up into the womb, and consequently there is no impregna-
tion. Any cause, therefore, which weakens their energy, and prevents their usual
lively forward motion, is apt to prevent conception. As long as they are alive, how-
ever, provided one of them can be conveyed to the egg, impregnation may be effected,
which explains why some females, whose organs act energetically, can conceive from
these debilitated individuals while others cannot do so. If the womb has great
power it may draw up the semen, and so allow the animalcules to act, though they
could not have moved up themselves, as they ordinarily do. In this way the greater
energy of the female may partly make up for the exhaustion of the male, while, on
the other hand, if the animalcules be unusually vigorous, they may reach the ovum
entirely by their own unaided powers, and then impregnate when the female organs
are totally powerless. From this we see why it is that conception can occur during
sleep, or even during perfect unconsciousness from drugs, or blows upon the head,
though most persons suppose otherwise. This has been proved, however, by numer-
ous cases in human beings, as well as by direct experiment upon animals, and the
reason will now be obvious enough. The condition of the female, though she be
perfectly insensible, may not prevent conception, because the animalcules can move
up into the womb by their own powers, and thus impregnate without any knowledge
or concurrence whatever on her part. Many cases have been known in which
females have conceived after having been violated but once, though people generally,
and even medical men, have doubted it, and the possibility of their doing so will be
obvious after this. It must be borne in mind, also, that in such cases the brutal
violator is usually a man of strong passions, and of great sexual power, which may
probably cause the animalcules to be unusually vigorous, and thus increase the like-
lihood of conception. I once knew a female who became pregnant after violation,
during which she was perfectly insensible, but who never became so after marriage ;
the reason why, it was of course not possible to ascertain with certainty, but it may
probably.be found in the above explanation.

196 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

This also shows how erroneous it is to suppose, as most people do, that a female
cannot conceive unless she experiences sexual enjoyment, or if the association be
repugnant to her. There are numbers who never knew what the sexual feeling was,
and some who have even suffered both pain and disgust, constantly, in association,
and yet they have become pregnant. Nor will this appear extraordinary after our
explanation, which shows that the female may be quite passive, so much so, in fact,
that conception may take place artificially, without connection. Experiments upon
animals have proved that if the semen be merely thrown into the vagina, at the proper
time, with a syringe, it will impregnate. And in some cases of malformation in
married men, which prevented proper connection, the same practice has been advised,
and with complete success. In fact, the presence in the female organs of the perfect
male semen, at the proper time, is all that is needed to cause conception, no matter
how it may have come there, nor with what feelings its introduction may have been
attended.

It should be observed, however, that though sexual feeling in the female is not
absolutely necessary to conception yet, in many cases, it may much conduce to that
event. Pleasurable excitement at the time of connection disposes the organs to more
energetic action, and some females may possibly not conceive without it, though cer-
tainly all do not require it. We know that this excitement makes the tubes con-
tract more vigorously, and this causes them to bring the egg down earlier, and
probably, also, it may make the womb contract, so as to draw up the. semen more
completely. In many cases barren females, of a cold temperament, have conceived
immediately after having the sexual feeling produced.

From the foregoing statements it will be seen that conception does not always
take place at the moment of connection, nor even immediately after, and we shall
soon discover that it may be delayed for a considerable time. As long as a living
animalcule remains in the female organs it is possible for it to reach the womb, and
thus effect impregnation if the egg be there. We have simply, therefore, to ascer-
tain how long the animalcules retain their vitality, after being emitted in coition, and
we shall then know the period during which impregnation may be delayed. In some
females the semen is either absorbed, or the animalcules move up themselves, very
quickly, so that they are impregnated almost at the moment of emission ; but in
others there is no absorption at all, and the animalcules may move very slowly. The
actual time when the two principles unite, therefore, after a fruitful connection, is
very different in different persons. It appears, according to accurate observations,
that the animalcules can remain alive in the female organs as long as twenty-six
hours after they have been deposited there in connection, and it follows, therefore, that
the impregnation may not take place till that time after. It is found that they be-
gin to die, usually, after the second hour, and fewer of them are found alive as the
time advances. At twelve hours usually half of them are dead, and at twenty hours
but few are found living, though one or two have been discovered even at the twenty-
sixth hour. As they die they break up, the tail separates from the body, and both
parts begin to dissolve. It is possible, therefore, that the impregnation may take
place at any time within twenty -six hours after connection, and it is manifestly ab-
surd to talk, as some persons do, about the importance of a proper state of mind at
the moment of conception, as if that moment could be known. Perhaps the most
frequent time is about two hours after connection, or when the animalcules begin to
die, but of course there will be great variation. When the womb contracts with

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 197

energy, or the animalcules are unusually rigorous, the conception will he quick,
and when otherwise, the reverse. And this makes it more likely to be quick in
those of warm temperaments.

It is barely possible that the animalcules could live through the latter part of the
flow, if connection were had before it had ceased, and if so impregnation might fol-
low such connection. Supposing the coition to occur twenty-six hours before the
egg reached the womb, some of the animalcules might still be living when it arrived
there, and of course could cause its impregnation, though unlikely. This is the only
possible way in which conception can be effected before the cessation of the monthly
flow. In many cases, however, the egg reaches the womb in less than twenty-
six hours after the flow stops, and therefore connection may always cause concep-
tion at any early time after, even immediately. The full time, therefore, during
which impregnation is possible is for the sixteen days after the flow has ceased,
and perhaps for the twenty-six hours before it ceases, at all other times it is im-
possible.

It may appear to some persons, who have not bestowed full attention upon the
subject, that there is danger in making such facts as these known, because, they say,
young persons, knowing that there are times when they can indulge with safety, will
be led to do so, when they would not if they feared the consequenoes. All this I
have duly considered, and yet have come to the conclusion that there would be no
advantage, in any way, in attempting to suppress such truths. In the first place,
as society is now constituted, and with the means of disseminating all kinds of
knowledge so complete as we have them, it is not possible to prevent any interesting
fact from becoming generally talked of, if it be known to ever so small a number.
Some idea of it is sure to get abroad, and most probably an erroneous one, calculated
to mislead and do more harm, a thousand times over, than the truth could ever do.
If only medical men could read and write, and if it were certain that none of them
would ever speak of such things, they might be kept secrets, but such is not the case.
In short, it is impossible, even if it were advisable, to prevent such matters from be-
coming generally known, in some form or other, and it is far better for them to be
known truly than otherwise.

It seems to me also that it is forming a very low and degrading opinion of young
persons, especially of females, to suppose that they are only kept from indulgence by
fear of the consequences. If their virtue is solely dependent upon this, it is scarcely
deserving of the name, and, in my opinion, is not very safe even with the fear. I
feel certain, however, that there are not many young females who would either be
disposed or persuaded to such practices, even if they were assured there was no risk.
Those who think that such a disposition is common amongst them are very much mis-
taken, and judge from very imperfect experience. Persons who think so are gener-
ally of loose habits and principles themselves, though they may, from caution, dis-
guise it, and their experience of females has usually been of the most unfortunate
class, whom they have erroneously taken for correct types of the whole sex. The
great majority of females are actuated by far more powerful and more desirable
motives than fear of consequences, and it is well they are, for that alone would be a
wretched dependence. I much doubt if any one ever remained permanently virtuous
from this fear alone, for some time or other the fear would either be overcome, or
means would be found of avoiding the consequences.

A very little consideration will, I feel assured, show the fallacy and injustice of

198 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

this imputation, and explode the erroneous doctrine that ignorance is necessary to
virtue. If it be true that young persons would practice association if they knew
there was no danger, it follows, of course, that they are disposed to such indulgences,
and that they are pleasing to them. Now, if this be the case, why is it that we do
not find them, at the present time, taking and allowing other liberties, which would
certainly be pleasing enough to make them desired, and in which they do know
there is no danger ? If we are to suppose, in respect to any two young persons, that
the only reason they do not actually associate is the fear of consequences, we may
justly conclude that they are, the whole time, in the habit of all other practices that
can in any way gratify their propensities, and which they know are safe. No one, I
expect, will presume to say that such vicious practices are universal, and yet, if fear
alone prevents worse practices, and these are known to be perfectly safe, why are
they not universal ? The truth is, as before remarked, that there are, especially in
young females, other motives and sentiments of a higher order, which are the true
barriers against vice, and when these are absent, fear alone is seldom any safeguard
whatever. There are few adult persons, if any, who do not know that association
can be practiced without danger, by observing certain precautions, which still leave
the indulgence pleasing enough : and yet, I presume, no one will contend that such
a practice is pursued, though it certainly ought to be universally, if fear of conse-
quences alone restrain, because here there is no danger.

Besides all this, there is another consideration, which should not be lost sight of.
If it be contended that young people would immediately seek indulgence when
they knew there was no danger, it must be admitted that they are usually in the
habit of confidential communication with each other on such matters, and of dis-
cussing the chances of escape from the consequences, or- else a mutual understand-
ing could not be come to. Will any one either contend or admit that this is the
case ? I presume not ; and I am confident it is not so. With all virtuous — or even
commonly decent young persons, before marriage, such subjects are never spoken of in
a familiar manner, and any attempt to do so in either, would nearly always alarm the
other, and put them on their guard. How, then, could the subject be ever intro-
duced between them, so that everything relating to times and periods could be cal-
culated ? The idea is as preposterous as it is unjust, and cannot be admitted for a
moment, in reference to young people generally.

It is pretty evident to my mind, that any young persons who would deliberately
enter into such calculations, and come to such a mutual understanding, merely from
becoming possessed of this piece of information, could not have been virtuous before.
They must have been in the habit of other familiar practices, and, in all probability,
of forming plans, or they could not see any opportunity in this.

It is time now that the people became acquainted with one most important truth,
namely, that ignorance is but a poor crutch for virtue, even when it can be main-
tained, but at the present time it is doubly worthless, from the fact that intelligence
is liable to knock it from under the moral cripple at any moment. Knowledge and
good principles are far more worthy of confidence, for they will never fail in the
hour of need, nor can they be weakened by any additional information fortuitously
acquired ; whereas, with ignorance, there is constant danger.

It is true there are some people who will make an improper use of any knowl-
edge that can be given them, but that is no reason why all others should be deprived
of it. These people are moral lunatics, and to withhold all knowledge from others,

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 199

on their account, would be about as just and wise as to keep all in ignorance that
fire will burn, because some madmen and criminals commit arson.

I have also noticed, that those who express such fear, that, to "some people"
this knowledge will be dangerous, never include themselves among the number.
They will not admit that it is dangerous to them, but fear that others may not be
equally good.

It may also be remarked that in practice there are so many causes of uncertainty,
as already explained, that the number of days is not to be always relied upon, as a
means of prevention !

The mammalia are all viviparous, while birds, fishes, and most reptiles are
oviparous. In all viviparous and ovoviviparous animals the egg is impregnated
within the body, also in many oviparous.

When the egg is developed out of the body, as in all truly oviparous animals, we
commonly say it is hatched, and in the ovoviviparous it is simply hatched within the
body.

Female fish deposit their eggs in the water, some in one situation, some in
another, and the male, by some instinct, follows and deposits his semen upon, or
near them, so that it reaches and impregnates them. The two sexes, therefore, may
have no actual association, and may never come in contact. At the present time, as
is well known, a knowledge of this fact has been put to an important practical use,
in increasing the supply of valuable fish. The eggs, called the spawn, are taken in
immense numbers from a few female fish, and artificially impregnated with sperm
taken from a male. They are then artificially hatched, and when matured enough,
are placed in waters it is desired to stock with them.

In this way one female may be made to produce many thousands, the develop-
ment of which is insured by their being properly protected while young. "When
left under natural conditions, the bulk of the eggs and very young are to a large
extent devoured by other fishes.

Shad, salmon, and other valuable fishes are thus artificially produced every year,
by millions, and the eggs of different kinds are sent all over the world to stock new
waters.

In frogs there is no copulation, the eggs being impregnated after they leave the
female's body, but the male fastens himself to her, in a peculiar manner, so that his
sperm reaches the eggs as they come out. In the land salamander, which is ovovi-
viparous, and breeds in the water, the eggs are impregnated in the female's body, but
without copulation ; the male merely ejects his semen into the water, along with
which it is carried into the oviduct of the female, and there impregnates her eggs,
which are hatched within the body and expelled alive.

Some of the ovoviviparous animals produce only eggs at one season, and living
young at another. This is often the case among insects. Sometimes even, a female,
with a large stock of impregnated eggs in her body, will begin by hatching them
within, and expelling them alive, but finally will expel the eggs themselves, to be
hatched without, as in birds.

In plants, as already stated, impregnation is essentially and practically the same
as in animals. There is the ovum, or seed, analogous to the egg of the female
animal, and the pollen, which is the same as the sperm of the male animal, and
these two must always be brought together before a new plant can be developed.
The two principles are sometimes on the same plant, and sometimes on different

200 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

ones, and they are brought together in many different and curious ways, very
much like the same acts in animals. There is, however, this difference, the organs
of reproduction in the plant are not permanent, as they are in the animal, but fall
off, or decay, as soon as impregnation is effected and the seed developed.

The pollen of the plant, however, never exists in a fluid form, like the animal
sperm, but always in the form of little grains, often very minute. These grains have
two coats, an outer and an inner, or perhaps it would be more correct to say the pol-
len grain is a cell, with two investing membranes. When one of these sperm cells,
or pollen grains, comes in contact with the stigma, or top of the pistil, which is. the
tube leading down to the female germ, it undergoes a curious change. The inner
membrane separates from the outer one and rolls itself out into a thread, or fila-
ment, which is pushed down the hollow female pistil till it reaches the germ cell, or
rudiment of the seed, which lies at the base of the pistil, and so impregnates it.
This, as will be better seen farther on, is exactly the same act as the impregnation of
a female animal by the male. Very often the pollen is carried from the male plant
to the female for many miles, by the wind, or by insects, and if anything prevents
the female plant from receiving the pollen at the proper time, no fruitful seeds are
formed. As a rule, the male pollen and the female germ must belong to the same
species, or they cannot unite to form a new plant, the same as the male and female
animal must be of the same species to breed together. This rule, however, is
often deviated from to a certain extent, so that animals not of the same species,
but nearly related, will breed ; as the horse and ass, for instance. The progeny
of two different kinds of animals is called a mule, or hybrid, and they may be
either male or female, but can never breed together. This is because the semen
of the male mule, as before stated, seldom contains animalcules. The female mule
occasionally develops perfect ovae, and may be impregnated by the male ass, or horse.

It is exactly the same with the plant ; different kinds maybe crossed within cer-
tain limits, and the product is a hybrid, or mule, which usually is unable to fertilize
itself, but may be often impregnated by either of the parents.

Plants may be fertilized artificially, by taking the pollen from one plant and dust-
ing it on the pistils of others. Gardeners and horticulturists in this way mix differ-
ent kinds, and so produce numerous varieties of flowers and fruits. When the male
and female principles are on different plants, as is the case with some fruit trees,
it often happens that they may not be near enough to intermix, and then the female
is always barren.

Even with many of those that have the male and female organs on the same plant,
self-impregnation does not take place, the flowers being so constructed that their own
pollen cannot reach the pistil. In these cases, pollen is conveyed by some outside
agency, from other plants, so that there is constant cross fertilization. Insects are
the great impregnators of plants, by passing continually from one flower to another ;
in doing so they get dusted with pollen from one which they convey to another, and
in this way they often make crosses. Some plants depend entirely upon insects for
their fertilization, and would die out if all those which visit them should become
extinct. There are even particular insects which live on certain flowers, and which
alone are capable of fertilizing them. This is the case with the Tipula pennicornis,
a small insect which lives* on the plant called the Aristolochia clematis. This
little creature, in its ramblings about the flower of the Aristolochia, carries the
pollen upon the pistil, and so effects impregnation. It seems, in fact, to live on that

IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 201

particular plant for this very purpose, so that they are necessary to each other.
There are many other similar instances known to botanists, and some even more
remarkable. Usually the insect is after the nectar, or honey, when he thus acts as
fertilizer to the plant, but sometimes it almost appears as if the fertilization was its
special purpose in nature. There are some plants so entirely dependent upon par-
ticular insects for their fertilization, that if they were taken to new countries it
would be necessary to take those insects with them, for they would soon die out, be-
cause the insect is necessary for the fertilization of their seeds.

The common Indian corn is a good example of self-impregnation in plants. The
blossom at the top is the male portion, which produces the pollen grains, or dust ;
the cob is the female portion, and contains the germs of the future seeds. From the
cob, when young, there is protruded a number of threads, usually called the silk,
which hang down, and on which the pollen from the blossom above falls. These
threads are tubes, and they convey the pollen grains down to the germs, which are
thus impregnated. As soon as impregnation is effected both the blossom and the
silk wither and die, while the seeds begin to perfect themselves. If the blossom be
cut off one of these plants before the pollen is ripened, and care be taken that none
is brought from other sources, that plant will not produce perfect seeds, that will
grow into other plants, but will be barren. It is well known how easily different
kinds of Indian corn intermix, when grown near one another, owing to the pollen of
different kinds reaching the same cobs.

This plant also shows how readily the different parts may change from one to
another. It is quite common to see grains of corn growing on the blossom, and
blossom being produced at the end of the cob. In the one case the male pollen
grain has changed into a female germ, and in the other the germ has changed into
pollen.

This, however, is only what we constantly see taking place in other parts. Thus
thorns will develop into branches or leaves, leaves into flowers, and flowers again
into leaves. They are all fundamentally the same, having the same cell origin, and
there is, therefore, nothing surprising in their transformation from one to another.
An apple can be traced back and shown to be a modified leaf, and so with the flower
and other parts.

The male pollen and the female germ are only cells, originally alike, but more
or less differentiated, and capable of interchanging one with another.

The quantity of pollen produced by some plants is something astonishing. In
the coal beds, whole seams of coal are formed of nothing else but the pollen of plants,
which grew during the carboniferous era. Even now, the pine forests near Lake
Michigan often send forth such immense quantities that it thickens the waters of the
lake for many miles. In many parts of the world, at particular seasons, the air is
filled with clouds of pollen dust, from certain plants, so that the light of the sun,
even, is obscured by it.

At a meeting of the Linnaean Society, Mr. W. G. Smith exhibited some sections
of a boletus, or common puff- la 11 fungus, to show the arrangement and number of
the spores. He stated that in a specimen five inches in diameter, there were seventeen
thousand pores, or tubes, each one of which, when cut across, showed two thousand
cells upon the surface. The cells in the entire plant, he estimated, were at least
five thousand millions, and the number of spores contained in them, at least sixty
thousand millions I With such a superabundance of these spores, of all kinds of

202 IMPREGNATION, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

funguses, floating in the air, it is no wonder they spring up everywhere, when the
conditions are favorable. It is quite probable, also, that the same spores, under dif-
ferent conditions, may develop into different kinds of organisms.

In nearly all plants, in fact, nature produces immensely more pollen than is
needed for fertilization, even after every possible contingency of failure is provided
for, and it becomes a question what is the purpose of this apparently useless super-
abundance ? In all probability it serves some other purpose than that of reproduc-
tion, but we have not yet learnt what that is. It is the same with the semen of
many animals, especially man, which is always secreted in much greater quantity
than can possibly be expended in propagation alone. The question may therefore
be asked here the same, for what purpose is it ? To this we can give no answer at
present, but doubtless it will be found, at some future time, that it serves some other
necessary purpose.

When the pollen grains of plants form themselves into filaments, in the way
already described, to enable them to penetrate the female tube, they resemble the
seminal animalcules of animals so closely that the two can scarcely be distinguished.
They also penetrate the germ of the plant in the same way that the animalcule pene-
trates the female egg, which shows the strict similarity between the two.

The precise way in which the sperm and the germ are brought together, with
the organs concerned in the process, both in plants and animals, will be described
farther on, in the article on Copulation,

CHAPTEE XX.

SEXUAL UNION, OK COPULATION.

When the male principle is added to the ovum, so that foetal development com-
mences, the egg is said to be impregnated, or in other words the female conceives.
Conception, therefore, is the union of the two principles, and fcetal development is
the result of that union.

In different beings, as already explained, impregnation is effected in many differ-
ent ways, being sometimes internal, by the act of copulation, and at other times
external, without any kind of association whatever. In many of the lowest beings
there is no copulation whatever, and frequently even no difference of sex, each
individual being hermaphrodite, or possessing both principles, but in all the higher
beings a personal union, in some form or other, always takes place. This union, or
copulation, is practiced, however, in many different ways, some of them exceedingly
curious, and in all cases the beings are impelled to it by a peculiar and powerful
instinct, the gratification of which constitutes perhaps the highest of all physical
enjoyments, and leads also to other enjoyments of a superior order.

It is a remarkable circumstance, and one which shows how careful Nature has
been to insure reproduction, that the young of all beings, at the proper age, not only
experience sexual desires, but are also led, unconsciously at first, to practice those
peculiar positions and modes of bodily union by which alone those desires can be
properly gratified. In no instance do young animals fail in this particular, though
they may have been kept carefully secluded from all others of their kind from the
moment of birth. Immediately that the eggs are ripened in the female ovary, and
the animalcules fully developed in the male testes, the sexual impulse is mutually
experienced, and each is impelled to seek the society of the other.

The immediate causes which lead to actual personal union, between two young
beings of opposite sexes in a state of nature, when neither has seen nor in any way
known the manner of the act, have frequently been discussed by philosophers, and
some curious experiments have been made for the purpose of ascertaining them. A
careful study of the actual process of sexual union, and of the form and condition of
the body at that time will, however, solve the mystery to a great extent, and will
show that certain physical wants and adaptions inevitably lead to certain peculiar
maneuvers. The infant will seize the breast to nurse immediately it is born, and
has even been known to suck the finger of the accoucheur before birth, when the hand
has been in the womb during some operation. This is evidently owing to a peculiar
sensitive condition of the nerves of the lips and tongue, which impel to the act of
suction, and in like manner the peculiar sensibility of the nerves of the genital
organs, at puberty, impels to those peculiar acts by which it is similarly relieved.

There are many circumstances connected with each sex which make them attrac-
tive to the other, and which tend to draw them together. Some of these consist in

204 SEXUAL UNION, OR COPULATION.

obvious excitants of the senses, while others are more mysterious in their action,
though their influence is equally perceptible. Among most of the lower animals,
the female always emits a peculiar odor, at the time of heat, which when scented by
tbe male immediately causes in him the sexual excitement, and draws him towards
her by an irresistible impulse. "Without this peculiar odor he experiences no excite-
ment, and will not attempt to copulate, but that alone will excite him even when the
female is not present, as experiment has proved. The olfactory sense, therefore, is
an important agent in this process, at least among the lower beings, and perhaps it
operates even in others, in some instances, more than is suspected. In those beings
that are capable of reasoning and comparing, the sense of sight may also assist, by
making differences in organization obvious, and suggesting adaptions. Besides
these, however, there are certain other influences which, for want of a more explicit
term, we will call attractive, the nature of which cannot be ascertained, though their
power is obvious. These are evidently connected with the action of the sexual
organs, being experienced only when they are in perfect action, and only operating
in relation to the opposite sex. It has been suggested that this mutual attrac-
tion is a species of real animal magnetism, the male> being positive and the female
negative, so that they are drawn irresistibly together, like the needle and the load-
stone.

In the human being there are also, at that time of life, peculiar moral sympa-
thies, and intellectual requirements, which lead to mutual caresses and endearing
embraces, even before the actual sexual impulse is fully awakened, and these bring
about the mode by which the novel desires may be gratified, and the peculiar sensi-
bility of the parts relieved. It is probable that in the human being the act of sexual
union always results, in cultivated people, more from moral sympathy and intellect
than from the mere senses, though these undoubtedly operate, especially sight and
touch. Experiment has shown that the generative organs of each sex, when they
are both in a proper state, exercise a mutual influence one upon the other, so that
their contact can be distinguished from that of any other part, however similar.
This has been proved by bringing various parts of the body in contact with the
genitals, while the individual was blindfolded, and in every instance the touch of
the corresponding parts of the other sex was known instantly. This arises in all
probability from their possessing a peculiar power of exciting each other, which
causes a species of shock, like that of electricity. It is easy to see from this how an
accidental contact of these parts, during a mere caress, would suggest their mutual
adaption, and would lead to actual association.

Besides these provisions there are also others, equally necessary, and equally
curious. Thus, the nervous sensibility is placed so that it influences certain muscles,
the action of which causes peculiar motions of the body, such as are necessary
during actual association. These motions are, in fact, often practiced, by the young,
before actual connection is thought of, showing that they originate involuntarily.
This is the case with both sexes, and the motions peculiar to each are precisely
those best adapted for favoring actual connection with the other. Human beings,
however, as society is now constituted, seldom acquire their knowledge of this pro-
cess by nature's slow and sympathetic teaching, but precociously, by the gross, pre-
mature, and lascivious medium of instruction from others. This is perhaps una-
voidable, but it is on many accounts to be regretted, and is certainly less conducive
to true morality, and to human happiness. As the sexual impulse is now experi-

SEXUAL UNION, OB COPULATION. 205

enced it is usually both forced and exaggerated, and is but seldom brought into play
by the natural instincts and requirements alone.

The different organizations of animals make the act of copulation vary very
much, both in its manner and duration. In some it is a complicated act requiring
intimate internal union, and considerable time, while in others it is merely external
and effected in a very brief period. It is impetuous and violent in some, and slow
and gentle in others, but is possibly productive of intense enjoyment in all, no mat-
ter how brief may be its duration, nor how forcible its consummation. Some part,
of the process is, however, to the females of many animals, extremely painful, as i3
evinced by their cries and efforts to escape, and by the exhaustion which they after-
wards exhibit.

The long duration of the act of copulation in the dog is well known, but in some
other animals it is much longer, especially among insects, with some of whom it
continues for days, and always terminates the life of the male, while the female only
lives sufficiently long afterwards to deposit the fecundated egg, and then she dies
.also. The long duration of the act in the dog is owing to two causes ; the male
organ has a number of knots, or swellings, towards its termination, around which the
sphincter muscle of the female vagina closes with such force that the two cannot
separate till the parts become flaccid. So powerfully does this muscle act that even
if the male be killed, or the organ cut off, the vagina will still retain it, till relaxa-
tion takes place. The same phenomenon is often seen in insects also, and the long
continuance of the act is undoubtedly owing to the semen being slowly emitted, and
very gradually absorbed into the female organs.

In other animals, on the contrary, the act of copulation is almost instantaneous,
the semen being darted out in a single jet and absorbed immediately. This is the
case with most birds, some of whom connect while on the wing. The reason foi
this quickness will be obvious on inspecting their organs, which are not adapted foi
continued intercourse. In fact it can scarcely be said that birds copulate at all, ex-
cept a few species. The male has no true penis, but merely a slight protuberance,
like a button, which cannot enter the female organ, but merely ejects the semen
upon its mouth. The female also has no vagina, there being but one passage, called
the cloaca, which is common to the excrement, the urine, and the semen. In some few
birds, however, as in the ostrich, the penis is considerably developed, and enters the
vagina, so that they really copulate. As a general rule also the clitoris is absent
in female birds, which has led some physiologists to conjecture that they have no
pleasurable excitement during the act, but this perhaps is erroneous, as some other
part may be more than usually sensitive in their case. There are a few kinds, as
some of the ducks for instance, that have the clitoris very large, and in the ostrich
and cassowary it even has a groove, like a urethra, so that it resembles a penis.
Ducks are well known to exhibit great amative excitement, the reason for which is
evidently their possessing this large and sensitive clitoris.

In most reptiles also the act is equally imperfect, as in very few do the males have
a properly developed penis, but merely a small bulb, or protuberance. The tor-
toise, and the crocodile, however, have a single penis, and the alligator has a double
one. In the lizard and serpent it is also double, and in the rattlesnake each part is
also divided again. Excepting at the time of copulation this organ, however, is
not visible, being drawn into a sheath, from which it is thrust, at the proper time,
by appropriate muscles. Some serpents copulate always at one particular season,

g06 SEXUAL UNION, OB COPULATION.

and then great numbers assemble together and twine and interlace themselves into
an immense pyramid, with their heads directed outwards. Humboldt tells us of one
of these living pyramids which he met with in South America, and Avhich he de-
scribes as being the most fearful and horrible sight that ever met his gaze. The
whole combined mass moved slowly on over the plain, while each individual writhed
its body, darted out its forked tongue, and hissed in the most horrible manner.
Very few females among the reptiles have anything like a clitoris, though it is found
in some, as in the tortoise, for instance.

The frog exhibits very well the mode of impregnation without copulation, though
in all probability not without mutual pleasure. At the time when the female is
ready to eject the eggs the male climbs upon her back, embraces her firmly around
the body with his long legs, and as the eggs are emitted he covers them with the
6emen. They are then left in the water by some species, and in others are fastened
to the female's back for a while, by a thick mucus, secreted for the purpose. The
embrace of the male frog is well known to be so powerful that the female seems
nearly cut in two by his limbs, which contract with such force, and are so rigid,
that they may even be torn off before letting go their hold. The object of this
powerful compression seems to be the forcing out of the eggs, which probably could
not be effected by the female herself. It is for this reason that these animals are
called accoucheurs or midwives, because they cause the female to lay their eggs.

In male fishes we seldom find anything like a penis, though sometimes there
is an organ which partly answers the purpose of one. It is merely a cartilaginous
prolongation, like the spine of a fin, which hangs down from the body. Sometimes,
in fact, it forms part of the anal fin, though in other cases it is separate from it.
IDown this imperfect organ there runs a shallow groove, which serves as a conduit for
the semen. In many species there is nothing like copulation, nor do the two sexes ever
meet, except accidentally, but in others the male organ is applied against the female
parts at the time when the eggs are emitted, and the semen is then ejected upon
them. In very few is there even the slightest entrance effected. The whale, it must
be remembered, is not a fish, though this may seem strange to some, but merely a
mammiferous animal that lives in the water. Its organs, therefore, are like those
of the other mammifers, and it truly copulates, the male and female standing
partly erect, out of the water, when doing so.

The various forms of the sexual organs in different beings of course necessi-
tate different modes of connection, and probably varies much the sensations con-
nected with it, but there is always a powerful instinct, which insures its perform-
ance, in all. Perhaps some of the most singular modes of copulation are found
among insects, and other inferior beings, and especially among those that are
hermaphrodite. In some insects there is but one female to many males, and no
actual union ever takes place with any, the merest touch of the female's body
being sufficient to satisfy the instinct of each. This is the case with bees, the
males of whom will crowd round the queen in hundreds to touch her body. In other
species, however, the sexes are always in equal couples, and when they copu-
late, the connection continues for days together uninterruptedly, the female carry-
ing the male about with her on her back. Some kinds of hermaphrodite snails
exhibit a very singular mode of mutual impregnation, each individual being pro-
vided with a number of horny darts, or spears, inclosed in a sheath, which they
iart at each other in turn, having first assumed a proper position for the amorous

SEXUAL UNION, OR COPULATION. 207

combat, as illustrated in a previous article. The double connection of the common
earth-worm, which is hermaphrodite, may be seen on any dewy morning, when
they rise out of the ground, and it usually continues till the sun rises, which would
seem to intimate that the continued union is productive of pleasure, because it
can be terminated at will. In the perfect hermaphrodites, which self-impregnate,
it may be a question what kind of feeling is experienced, if any at all, because
they are both male and female, but it is certain that they are as strongly impelled
to the act as those beings that associate with an opposite sex.

A very curious study is afforded also of the various modes by which the two sexes
discover each other, at the proper time, in those species in which they do not live
together. Some insects, for instance, have a peculiar song, or cry, by which the
female attracts her partner, and others are decked out in brilliant colors for the same
purpose. Some, which come out only at night, have a lamp provided to light him,
as we see in the glow-worm and fire-fly. The peculiar cry of the locust, the ticking
of the death-watch, and the chirp of the grasshopper, are intended for this purpose,
and probably also the song of the bird has, to a great extent, the same object. In
fact, every animal has a peculiar cry, which it utters only when desiring the company
of the other sex, and which is mutually understood.

With respect to the feelings which the act of coition produces, and the instincts
or desires which lead to it, they probably vary indefinitely. In all the higher beings
the desire to cohabit arises from a specific irritation of the genital organs, acting in
conjunction with certain moral sympathies and intellectual perceptions. And when
the connection occurs in a proper manner and under proper circumstances, it is
always productive of intense and peculiar enjoyment to both. This is especially the
case with human beings, and with all others similarly organized. The peculiar ex-
citement which first causes coition to be desired, and which also makes it so intensely
pleasurable, arises from the development of certain parts, namely, the clitoris in the
female, and the glans penis in the male. The perfection of either of these organs
in the one sex is invariably attended by a similar perfection in the corresponding
part of the other sex, so that they are mutually excitable, and generally pretty
equally so. We never find a well-developed and sensitive glans in the male, but we
also find a well-developed and sensitive clitoris in the female, or else there is some
other part, as the neck of the womb for instance, which acts in the same manner.
In many of the lower beings, who have none of these parts, it is probable that no-
thing like what we call sexual feeling is ever experienced, but that they are impelled to
connection simply by the mysterious workings of the parental instinct, which, as we
well know, leads to many actions in which no direct pleasure is felt. The careful
depositing of their eggs by insects, in the most proper places, and the patient sitting
of the hen upon hers, may be adduced as instances of these blind promptings of the
parental instinct, and, probably, in some beings, actual connection is brought abou
in the same way.

The more perfect development of the generative organs in the higher order of
beings, and their greater sensibility, especially in man, is only in accordance with
the greater perfection of every other part of the system, and is doubtless intended as
an additional means of increasing their felicity. The higher any being is placed in
the scale of creation, the more multiplied are its means of enjoyment, and the more
intense those enjoyments become, as we see in regard to true sexual intercourse, by an
actual union of the organs of the two sexes, or intromission of the male, which is
altogether confined to the most perfectly organized.

CHAPTER XXL

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN OVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

In oviparous animals, who only produce eggs, to be developed out of the body,
no sexual organs are needed but those which form the semen and the ovae, and the
copulative organs, which are used to bring them together. In viviparous animals,
which bring forth their young alive, there is needed, in addition to these, a special
set of organs by which the new being is connected with the mother during its growth,
and by which it is nourished at her expense.

The oviparous sexual orgaris are, therefore, the most simple, and will be described
first.

The most important of these, the female ovaries and the male testes, have been
already fully explained, and it only remains to describe the other organs which serve
to bring their products together, or, in other words, to effect impregnation.

In those that impregnate the eggs externally, of course no copulative organs are
needed, as in most fishes and frogs, for instance. The female merely expels her eggs
and leaves them in the water. The male does the same with his sperm, and the two
thus come together without any concurrence of the two parents whatever. In these
beings, therefore, sexual generation is reduced to its simplest elements, and but few
organs are needed ; still, there are fishes even that must copulate, because the eggs
are found hatched inside the female's body, but the precise way in which the act
takes place has not been ascertained. In some of these, however, the male possesses
a long conical penis, covered with scales, inside which is a canal leading from the
testicles, and down which the semen is conveyed. With this organ, no doubt, copu-
lation is effected as in other animals.

Some of the rays have a penis more or less developed, and they couple together,
belly to belly, the male being provided with an extra apparatus for holding the
female close to him during the act.

These, however, are exceptions, and in the great majority of fishes there is no
copulative union of the sexes.

Frogs, as before stated, do not copulate, but the male fastens his limbs around
the female at the time when the eggs are ripe, and squeezes her body to such a degree
that it would seem impossible for her to live. This is done, apparently, to force out
the eggs, which he waters with his semen as they escape. This is a kind of coupling,
but not copulation, because the actual impregnation occurs outside the female's
body. The common name given to the male frog of midwife, or accoucheur, is
therefore well deserved, because he assists the female to bring forth her eggs.

The contraction of the limbs of the male frog, in this act, is probably spasmodic,
and involuntary, for it is not possible, except with extreme violence, to make him
loose. In fact the limbs may often be torn off in trying to detach him. When
there happens to be but few females, so many males will cling around one that they
not only stifle her, but many of the males themselves perish, and bunches of them

211

212 THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN 0 VIPARO US ANIMALS.

may be found with a number of those in the interior dead and putrefying. The
males will even thus cling to one another, when there is no female near, or to fish,
on which they will fasten in the same way, till they weigh them down. It is quite
possible that this act is as pleasurable to the frog as complete copulation is to other
beings.

The common frog leaves its eggs, after impregnation, in the water, where they
may be seen, in the early spring, in large masses, like jelly, filled with little black
specks, which are the future tadpoles. In some kinds, the eggs, after they are
impregnated, are glued to the animal's back, and are carried about till they develop
into tadpoles, when they drop off.

There are some animals among whom the male takes charge of the eggs after
they have been impregnated, and guards them till they have hatched. In Chili
there is a species of frog, the male of which has a pouch or pocket on the under
side of his body, in which the female's eggs are developed. How they are conveyed
there, and how they are first impregnated, we do not know.

The male crab has two penises, one on each side of the thorax, behind the fifth
pair of claws. They are horny, pointed, and tubular, and connected with the
testicles by long twisted tubes, down which the semen is conveyed to them at the
time of copulation.

The female has two corresponding openings, in the same situation, to receive the
two male organs, and when they couple, she throws herself on her back, so that
they lie belly to belly, and hold to each other by their claws. The male semen is
poured into the two female openings, which are connected by means of the oviducts
with the ovary, and through them reaches the eggs, which it fecundates.

The eggs are laid some two months after copulation, and are attached m a
very curious manner under the female's tail, and she carries them about with her till
they hatch into little crabs. These keep near the mother and hide under her when
there is danger, till they are considerably grown.

A similar arrangement is observed in the lobsters.

The generative organs in ants are contained in one of the segments of the
abdomen, but their structure and manner of action is not well understood. The
habits of the animals, however, at the breeding season, have been well observed, and
are very curious. It is well kuown that they live in societies, like bees, and display
remarkable intelligence and foresight in what they do for their common welfare.

There are three classes of them, males, females, and neuters, called drones among
the bees, which do pretty much all the work of the community. Not being con-
cerned at all in reproduction, they are devoted to labor and to fighting, which leaves
the males and females free to attend to propagation and rearing the young.

The males are born with wings, like the females, but are usually kept clos8
prisoners till they are needed for the purpose of impregnation. When that time
arrives all the inhabitants of the ant-hill turn out together, a crowd of neuters sur-
round the males and take them to a place which seems to have been selected before-
hand, where they meet the females, and copulation immediately takes place. Very
soon after the act is accomplished the males die, being no longer needed, and the
females are conducted back to the ant-hill, where their wings are torn off, and they
are then taken into the most secluded chambers of the hill. All this is done by the
neuters, who take the pregnant females under their care, and attend to them most
assiduously, feeding them and carrying them about, and caressing them in many ways.

THE ORGANS OF GENERA TION IN 0 VIPARO US ANIMALS 213

The abdomen of the female swells enormously as the eggs ripen, and when they
are fully developed they are laid like those of a bird. This operation, however, is
assisted by one of the other ants, who fastens on to the mother, seizes hold of the
eggs as' they are expelled, one by one, and arranges them in a heap ; afterward these
heaps are all taken by the neuters, and the eggs deposited in places prepared for
them, when they develop into the larvae of the future brood.

The bees act similarly, in many respects, to the ants, and they always impreg-
nate but one female, who produces all the eggs for the next swarm. These animals
will take any young larva and develop it into a male, a female, or a neuter, accord-
ing as they treat it. If they lose their queen they immediately take one of the com*
mon young, and by feeding it in a particular way develop it into a new queen. This
fact, along with several others, shows that sex is entirely a matter of development,
both being the same fundamentally.

"When only one female in a community breeds, the organs of the other females
remain undeveloped, but any one of them can be perfected if required, by appro-
priate feeding and attention. Some of the ants im-
pregnate but one female, who produces eggs enough
for the most numerous swarm.

Among spiders sexual association is an act of ex-
treme danger to the male, who often loses his life in
attempting it. The female places herself in the cen-
ter of her web, and there awaits her lover, who ap-
proaches with extreme caution, and tries in many,
ways to find ontif his visit is acceptable. He shakes
the threads of the web, creeps slowly up and touches
her with his claw, retreating quickly back again, and
this is done repeatedly, till finally if she remains
quiet he springs upon her, embracing her with his
front limbs round the abdomen, and the act is ac- Frarora 61.— Male Organs of Bucci-

■.. , , T„ n . .... , ,, ,, . , num,or Water Snail.

complished. If his visit is unacceptable, the female

often springs upon him during one of his attempts, J> are the _ testes, dis the penis

.. i ■ it t n, .„ ., , i . , c shows the interior of the penis laid

stings him, and he dies. She will then tear him to open. The convoluted tube is the

pieces. spermatic duct leading from the

m," i,i i vi ^ £ i i-i testicle, a is the tail. The penis

The short hand-like claws or feelers, which are is never retracted within the body

placed one on each side of the mouth, in the male completely, and is frequently ex.

• i i , i ,i .,1 i • , i tended without apparent obi ect.

spider, are supposed to be the organs with which he yy J

excites the female, but the actual process is not known. There is no organ analo-
gous to the penis. .

In several of the mollusks, or shell-fish, resembling the water-snail family, there
is probably a real copulation, for the male possesses a muscular penis, of enormous
size, in proportion to the body, and which is capable of being protruded when
required for use. It is placed on the right side of the neck. The testes also, which
communicate with the penis, are very large.

In the female the ovaries correspond in position with the male testes, and
they are connected with a long and tortuous oviduct. In what way the male penis
is used we do not know.

The above plate shows one of these animals.

In all the more perfect oviparous animals the eggs are impregnated within

PLATE XL

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF A BIRD.

Figure 1. The female bird opened to show the connection between the generative
and other organs, aa. The liver, which laps round the heart, b. The stomach,
from which proceeds cc, the intestines, d. The cloaca, or large intestine, e. The
heart. /. The beginning of the oviduct, or egg passage, gg. The oviduct, h. The
ovary.

Figure 2. The generative organs taken out, but still in the same position. The
letters up to li indicate the same parts as in Figure 1. ii are two little intestines
nearly always found in birds ; uses unknown, they join the cloaca, as seen, jj are
the ureters, whicb bring the urine into the lower part of the large intestine, h. The
enlarged part of the lower end of the large intestine, called the cloaca, into which
passes the urine, the excrement from the intestines, and also the egg. It is the
chamber common to them all. I. The rudimentary bladder, m. The orifice of
the anus.

Figure 3. The same organs open, with the same letters to the same parts.
n shows the mouths of the ureters opening into the cloaca, o. The passage leading
outward of the cloaca, p. Opening from the bladder, q. Opening from the oviduct,
through which the egg passes into the cloaca.

Figure 4. Organ of the male bird. In the male, of course, there is no ovary nor
oviduct, but in place of them are found other organs, which are here shown, a. The
lower end of the large intestine, b. The enlarged portion opened, cc. Openings of
the ureters, dd. Openings of the ejaculatory tubes, leading from the testicles, down
which the semen is conveyed, e. The ring surrounding the anus. ff. The testicles,
which are placed one on each side of the back, just beyond the tail, and immediately
under the skin. gg. The spermatic tubes which convey the semen from the testicles.
hh. The ureters, which convey the urine, ii. The muscles which close the anus.
jj. The muscles which open the anus.

Figure 5. One of the spermatic tubes enlarged, showing the projecting opening
at c.

Figure 6. The same portion opened to show the interior.

The action of the organs in both male and female will be readily seen from this
Plate. In the female, the eggs are formed in the ovary, h, Fig. 2, and are passed one
by one as they ripen into the oviduct, through the little opening seen at /, and are
conveyed by the oviduct down to the cloaca, or enlarged lower end of the large
intestine, into which they pass through the little opening at q, Fig. 3. From there
they are expelled outward through the anus, m, Fig. 2.

In the male the semen is formed in the testicles, ff, Fig. 4, and from there is
conveyed by the spermatic tubes, gg, to the cloaca, which it enters through the
little openings seen at dd, Fig. 4. It will be seen by Figs. 5 and 6 that the end
of the spermatic tube projects, like a nipple, into the cloaca.

PLATE XL

Organs of a Bird.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN OVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 215

the female's body by a more or less perfect act of copulation, and are then expelled
to be hatched externally. In some cases, however, as in the ovoviviparous, they are
occasionally hatched before leaving the body, but the young are in no way connected
with the mother.

A few illustrations of the copulative organs in different types of animals will
now be given, and the way in which they act explained.

The bird will be the first explained, because it is an animal with which all are
familiar, and one which can easily be made the subject of corroborative observation
and experiment.

There are two ovaries in the female, but only the left one is developed, the right
one being rudimentary, or undeveloped.

It will be seen that the male has no penis, so that internal copulation between
the two sexes cannot occur. The act that takes place, however, serves the same
purpose, and no doubt affords the same gratification as the more perfect act in other
animals. At the time of association the two birds so place themselves that the
mouth of the anus in the male is pressed firmly against the same part in the female,
the semen is then emitted, and passes into the cloaca of the female, from whence it
reaches the ova?, by the oviduct.

During the association the external opening of the anus, in both animals, swells
out and opens, with considerable energy. In fact it is analogous to erection in other
animals.

The act of connection in the common fowl is repeated frequently, as is well
known, but probably only a small amount of semen is expelled each time. One
connection, it used to be thought, impregnated only one egg, but this is a mistake,
for it is well known that one act will impregnate several that are laid afterward.
If, however, the male does not continue to associate the eggs finally become barren,
though they continue to be laid, and apparently are as perfect as before.

Although this is the usual arrangement in birds, still there are some curious
exceptions. Thus the ostrich has quite a large and well-developed penis, conical in
form, and with a deep and narrow furrow down the back, which conveys the semen
into the female organ. The spermatic tubes open into the cloaca at the root of this
penis, so that the semen passes at once down the furrow, when the organ is in use.

The peculiarity of this penis is that it never softens, but is always firm and hard,
so that there is a constant state of erection, or readiness ; when not in use it is bent
back, drawn into the cloaca, and passes into a kind of bag, or pocket, where it remains
till again required to be protruded. When so drawn back, it closes up completely
the mouth of the urine tube, and indeed of the whole cloaca, so that whenever the
animal requires to urinate, or to void his excrement, he has to protrude the penis the
same as when he connects with the female. This is a very singular arrangement,
and occurs in no other bird, so far as I know ; of course the male and female ostrich
copulate perfectly, the same as the higher animals, the male penis being used in the
same way as with them.

Among the swimming birds, the ducks, geese, and swans, also have a penie,
but different from that of the ostrich. It is composed of two tubes, one within the
other, the outer one thin, and wrinkled up, like a spring, and the inner one much
thicker. At the time of erection the outer tube unfolds itself like the finger of a
glove, and the inner one introduces itself in the interior, making the whole organ
quite firm. At other times both are drawn back into a kind of pocket in the cloaca,

PLATE XIL

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF A SERPENT.

The eggs "will be seen between p and q, about two-thirds of the length from the
head, strung together like the beads of a necklace ; they pass down the oviduct p as
they ripen, and are discharged into the cloaca at x, where they are impregnated at
the time of copulation ; s, the opening of the ureters ; 1 1, the liver ; h, the heart ;
Tc, the right lung.

Fig. 2. a a, the male generative organs, or double penis, with fingers.

Fig. 2 a. be, scales which cover the opening of the anus, where the penis is
protruded.

At the time of copulation the male and female twine around each other very
tightly, and the embrace lasts a long time. The penis is double, and the finger-like
protuberances being bent back during connection, they serve like hooks to hold the
female fast.

The testicles are like a tangle of fine threads, placed near the kidneys q, and
being very long, the semen is emitted slowly, which necessitates the long copulation.

PLATE XIII.

GENERATIVE ORGANS OE CRUSTACEANS.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, represent the common barnacle (Cirripede) in dif-
ferent ways.

Fig. 1. The animal removed from its shell ; //, the cirri, or limbs ; u, the sper-
matic tube, or male organ.

Fig. 2. The animal seen sideways ; u, the spermatic tube, which receives the
semen from the granular testicles above, lying each side of the intestinal tube ; the
sperm is emitted from the end of this tube on to the eggs in the mantle, at the proper
season, both being contained in the same animal.

Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7. The testicles or seminal vesicles enlarged.

Figs. 8, 9. The same animal in its shell.

Fig. 8. /, the cirri ; g, the ovaria ; the female organs, with the eggs.

Fig. 9. b b, the tube containing the eggs laid open, and from which they are
conveyed to the mantle g.

The barnacle is, therefore, perfectly hermaphrodite, the male sperm and female
eggs being in the same animal.

Fig. 10. A snail dissected ; u, the liver ; v, the ovary ; x, the oviduct ; y, part
of the testicle ; z, the bladder.

Fig. 11. Snail deprived of its shell ; a, the large horns ; b, the small ones.

Fig. 12. The genital organs of the snail removed, as shown elsewhere; n, the
penis ; /, g, h, the testicles and ovary ; u, the common generative cavity ; s, the
love-dart ; i, the spermatic tube ; o, the bladder ; c, the multifid vesicles ; k, the
place where the semen enters the urethra.

The other parts not being concerned in generation are not here referred to, and
the generative organs of the snail are more fully described in another place.

PLATE XII.

Generative Organs of a Serpent.

Generative Organs of Crustaceans.

'

■■

TEE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN OVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 217

but they make no interference with the passage of the urine or excrement, as the
always firm organ of the ostrich does. These birds, of course, copulate fully, usually
in the water, and the act is more prolonged than with flying birds, some of whom
copulate in the air.

In some birds the lower part of the spermatic tube is enlarged into a kind of sac
or vesicle, and is always full of semen. The action of the muscles around the anus,
at the time of connection, squeezes this sac, and forces out some of the semen into
the cloaca.

Why connection should be so incessant with some birds we do not know. It
certainly occurs much oftener than is necessary for fecundation, and apparently serves
no actual need. Possibly it may be, for the most part, a mere gratification. The
excessive secretion of semen may be compared to the superabundant production
of pollen in plants, which is certainly far beyond what is needed for fertilization
alone.

The egg in the bird, it should be remarked, when it first passes from the ovary
into the oviduct, is but little more than a ball of yelk. The white and the shell are
added to it during its slow passage down the oviduct.

We will next describe the organs in reptiles, from whom birds are descended, as
comparative anatomy and fossil remains conclusively show. The scales of the reptile
are modified into feathers, and its upper limbs into wings, while other parts are
cbanged in various ways, but all can be fully traced and connected.

Frogs, as before explained, do not copulate, but fastened on the female's back
they watch for the eggs, and shed the semen on them as they come out. At the time
of fecundation a peculiar growth of small protuberances, like warts, appears on the
skin of the belly and under-sides of the feet of the male frog, which he squeezes into
the skin of the female, like pegs, to enable him to hold on firmly, without slipping.
He will wait fastened on his companion this way, with his limbs tight around her,
for six weeks or more, till the eggs are laid. At the commencement of this singular
coupling the female is much swollen, by the contained eggs, but as fast as they are
expelled she begins to reduce in size, till at last she becomes quite small, and then
the male releases his hold and they separate. They are then both much reduced in
flesh, and very weak, but soon regain their usual condition.

The tortoise has a well-formed penis, proportionate to the size of the animal, with
a deep furrow along the back, as in that of the ostrich. When not erect it is also
drawn back into the cloaca, as in that bird, and prevents the outflow of urine, or
excrement, in the same way, till it is protruded.

The males of these animals are less than the females, and ordinarily are very dull
and sluggish, but in the breeding season they become unusually active, and fight
fiercely for the favors of the female. The great aim in their struggle, seems to be to
throw one another on the back, because when one is so placed it takes him a long
time to right himself, and in the meanwhile his successful rival has secured the
female.

This circumstance, of finding them so often on their backs, led to the opinion
that they copulated that way, belly to belly, but this is not the case, for the
male seizes the female from behind and places himself on her back, as I have often
seen. The penis is then protruded and bent under, the tail of the female being
turned sideways, and the anus expanded, to facilitate its entrance into the cloaca.

The embrace usually lasts a considerable time, and one copulation will fecundate

218 THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN OVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

two or three layings of eggs, which are usually nearly hatched when they are laid.
They are placed among dry leaves, or in shallow holes, and left to the action of the
sun, which soon brings forth the young. The sea turtle buries hers in the sand, and
leaves them to the same influence. The parents have no further care or trouble for
their children.

In all reptiles, as in birds, the female has no special organ of connection, like the
vagina in the higher animals. The male organ, when there is one, is introduced into
the cloaca, or enlarged lower end of the large intestine, which is the common passage
for the urine, the excrement, and the eggs ; and which also serves to receive the male
organ. "When the male has no penis the semen is simply ejected into the cloaca, as
in many birds. In this respect, therefore, birds and reptiles are alike. The bird is
in fact, as before stated, only a modified reptile, the change having been effected by
the process of evolution.

The ovaries are double in all reptiles, but single in birds. The end of the oviduct
is expanded into a kind of bag, into which the egg passes from the ovary, and which
by contraction forces it into the oviduct.

In lizards the male penis is double, like that of the snake, and they copulate belly
to belly, according to observation. I have been told, by Southerners who have
watched them, that alligators copulate belly to belly, in the water, which seems prob-
able from the position of their organs.

In most of the higher reptiles there is a real internal copulation, but yet the
male penis is never perfect, nor indeed is it in the ovipara generally. Instead of a
urethral passage through the interior, as in the higher animals, there is simply a
furrow, more or less deep, on the top, down which the semen flows, at the time of
copulation. This shows incomplete development, for the same thing is observed in
the human embryo, at an early period. This furrow forms first in the rudimen-
tary penis, and gradually closes at the top to form the interior passage. Some-
times the development is stopped, from some cause or other, at the imperfect stage,
and then the boy is born with a penis that has no internal passage, or an imperfect
one.

In most turtles the penis has but a single point, but in many lizards, as in most
serpents, it is double and provided with recurved spines for the purpose of better
holding the female firmly during the copulation. The female turtles also have a
real clitoris, or organ of excitemeut, which can be extended and drawn back, like
the male penis. In birds also, when the male possesses a penis the female alwaya
has a clitoris, as in the higher vertebrae.

The penis in most insects is a cylindrical hollow tube, sometimes membranous,
sometimes horny, and capable of being extended from the body. It is usually
straight, and occasionally pointed, but sometimes much enlarged at the end, or curved,
or double, and in the common wasp it is spoon-shaped. In some insects it is like a
screw, in others covered with spines, and in beetles it is provided with a two-valved
sheath, which opens the vulva of the female, to facilitate the introduction of the
penis. More curious still, there are some insects in which the penis is placed on the
female, who introduces it into the spermatic tube of the male, where it receives the
semen and conveys it to the female ovae. There is a real copulation, but it is the
reverse way, the female really entering the male.

In the dragon-fly the male organ is placed forward, at the throat end of the
abdomen, while the female organ is at the other end. During copulation, there-

THE ORGANS OF GENERA TION IN 0 VIPARO US ANIMALS. 219

fore, they have to assume a peculiar position, as may be often witnessed in the sum-
mer time.

In some cases there is a remarkable disproportion in size between the two sexes,
a greater even than is seen between the male and female ant. This is especially
noticeable in the Sphcerularia Bombi, a curious round worm, which lives as a para-
site on certain kinds of bees. The female is about an inch long, blunt at both ends,
and covered with small button-like projections. It has neither mouth, intestines,
nor anus, and is in fact only a mass of fat jelly, containing a very large ovary, filled
with eggs in various stages of development. It was once thought to be hermaphro-
dite, as no male was known, but lately the male has been discovered, — it is twenty-
eight thousand times smaller than the female, and is generally found sexually united
with her, but is scarcely discernible.

In short, in the lower orders of beings, there is an endless variety in the form and
disposition of the generative organs, and many of them are provided with curious
accessory organs, whose uses have not yet been ascertained. In nearly all cases
nature seems to have provided more perfectly for the reproduction of the species
than for the preservation of individuals. Myriads of eggs are produced which are
never developed, and myriads of young die, or serve for food for other beings. With
a large number of animals, as in plants, reproduction is the last act ; when that is
fully consummated the parents die.

"Whether the act is always a pleasurable one, as in the higher animals, we do not
know, but it certainly is in some, and probably in all.

We will now describe the generative organs and their mode of action in man,
the representative of the highest of the vivipara, the mammifers, from whom all the
others may be considered only as deviations.

CHAPTER XXII.

OBGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

In all true viviparous animals, who bring forth their young alive, perfectly formed,
the generative organs are more complicated, more perfect, and more differentiated t
for special purposes, than in the oviparous.

In the male, one of the first things to observe is the more complete separation of
the sexual apparatus from all the others. Instead of one common passage or cloaca,
into which the excrement, urine, and seminal fluid discharge, as in birds, there are
two, one for the excrement alone (the rectum), and the other for the semen and
urine (the urethra). The penis also always has an internal passage, instead of a
mere external furrow ; and is provided with a powerful expulsive apparatus, to throw
the semen with force into the female organs. The urine and semen also are kept
separate, though they both are finally expelled from the body through the same
passage. In addition to the testicles we also find various other glands, the secretion
of which is added to the semen, increasing its bulk, and probably modifying it in
some way.

In the female of the vivipara, in addition to the ovaries, there is provided an
organ called the matrix, or tuomb, in which the impregnated egg is developed into
the new being, and connected with this are various accessory organs, needed for the
transmission of the semen and ovum, for receiving the male organ, and for con-
necting the new being with its parent. These will all be described in detail far-
ther on.

Besides these there are also the mamma), or breasts, to provide nutriment for the
young after it is born, and it is from these, the distinctive organs of their kind, that
the true vivipara derive their name of mammifera, or animals that suckle their
young.

Among all the various classes of nursing animals, or mammifers, at the head of
which stands man, we find the same kind of generative organs. They may vary in
form, and in the way they act, but they are always essentially the same, both in
male and female. If we describe them in man, therefore, they will be understood in
all, because mere modifications can be readily pointed out and explained.

HUMAN FEMALE ORGANS.

The external parts are not necessarily concerned in the process of generation, bub
still it is advisable to describe them, because certain modifications in their form and
size may be of consequence, connected with marriage, and, also, because it is neces-
sary, on various accounts, to refer to them.

The pubic bone, at the lower part of the abdomen, in front, is covered, in the
female, by a thick layer of fatty matter, especially after the age of puberty, when it
is also covered, more or less, with hair. This prominence is called the mons veneris,
and its development gives a peculiar outline to this part of the female form. The

220

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

221

covering of hair was formerly called the tressoria, and its absence was universally
regarded as a reproach. In fact, it was customary to order it to be cut off, in open
court, in ancient times, when a female was detected the third time in illicit inter-
course, as we find stated by Chitty, in his Practical Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence.
In some cases it is very slightly developed, or even altogether absent, and is never
seen at all in those who have no ovaries, or in whom they are inactive. It is also
liable to fall off after certain diseases, or after taking powerful drugs, and will even
turn color after fright or severe agitation, the same as the hair on the head. In
some individuals it becomes troublesome, from excessive development, and will oc-
casionally extend itself far over the rest of the body. In some young persons, the

Figure 62. — External Sexual Organs of
the Human Female before marriage.

Figure 63. — External Organs of
the Human Female after marriage.

Fig. 62. — a. The clitoris, b. The glans, or point of the clitoris, c. The meatus urinarius, or
mouth of the urinary passage, dd. The labia majora, or large lips. e. The opening into the
vagina, ff. The labia minora, or small lips. i. The membrane called the hymen, which partly
closes the entrance to the vagina in unmarried females, g. The fossa naviculaire. h. The four-
chette.

Fig. 63. — The letters are the same as in Fig. 1, but it will be seen that the membrane called the
hymen is broken, and the remains of it, between ff, are seen in fragments, like a fringe. The
edges of the fringe finally shrink up into little points, called the carunculm myrtiformm, and
finally disappear altogether.

growth of the mons veneris and its tressoria is very rapid at the age of puberty, so
that the appearance of the body is completely changed in that respect in a few
weeks. It is customary for parents, and even some physicians, to regard the ap-
pearance of the tressoHa as the certain and invariable sign of womanhood, and
they are guided by its absence or presence in their treatment and communi-
cations. This sign, however, is not always to be relied upon, for I have known
young persons, of not more than nine or ten years of age, upon whom it was very
fully grown, and the mons largely developed, though they did not menstruate till
several years after ; and I have known others, at eighteen years of age, with scarcely
an appearance of it, who had menstruated from the time they were fourteen. As a

222 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS

sign of puberty, therefore, it cannot always be implicitly depended upon, tliougb
generally it may. I once saw an infant, oi/oicr years, on whom quite a large growth
of the tressoria existed ; and I have known females pass the turn of life who had
scarcely ever had any at all.

Immediately below the mons are two large lips, called the labia pudendi, the
labia majora, or external lips, which are formed by a fold of the skin, made round
and full by a thick deposit of fatty matter underneath. The outer surface of these
lips is covered by the tressoria, but the inner surface is smooth, and studded vith a
number of little glands or follicles, which exude a peculiar fluid, with a characteris-
tic odor. The external lips commence at the frontal or pubic bone, and they de-
scend underneath to within an inch and a half of the fundament. They are united
together, both above and below, but perfectly separated in the middle, where they
are also the largest and most prominent. Their union below is called the four-
chette ox fork. Sometimes they are very large and prominent, and at other times are
very small, and with little elasticity, which makes them liable to injury during par-
turition. In some young females they grow together from inflammation, and if not
separated before marriage, great distress and injury may ensue. The removal of
this disability is, however, a very simple matter, and is fully explained elsewhere.

Immediately within the external lips, and lying on their two sides, are the smaller
ones, like folds, which are called the labia minora, or inner lips, or the nymphce.
These two inner lips do not extend so far, either up or down, as the larger ones, nor
are they so round and full. In infants, the nymphse project out farthest, and are
seen in front, but at puberty, the external lips develop more fully, so as to close to-
gether, and thus shut the nymphse in, and conceal them. This is always the case
in virgins, but after childbirth the external lips become more flaccid, and sepa-
rate, and the nymphae again project, and are seen externally. In the females of
some countries — particularly in the eastern parts o! the Old World — the nymphse
often grow to an extraordinary size, so as to partly close the passage, and it becomes
necessary to remove them. I have even sometimes found this necessary in my
own piactice, not only from their immense growth, but also from their peculiar
condition. They are, in many persons, singularly sensitive, and appear to be the
principal parts in which sexual excitement is felt, and when they are more than
usually large, or irritable, that excitement becomes so great and overpowering that
it cannot be controlled, but is really a species of furor, or madness, which irresis-
tibly impels the individual to seek gratification in some form or other, regardless
of consequences. The operation of removing them is comparatively simple, and
unattended with the slightest danger.

In some of the Hottentot females, the nymphse are singularly enlarged at that
part where they join together above, the enlargement hanging down in front of
the passage, like a veil. This is called the apron, and seems to be peculiar to cer-
tain tribes. It was formerly thought that this apron was a growth produced by arti-
ficial means, but it is now generally conceded to be natural. Several of these females
have been examined at various times by medical men and travelers, and their accounts
pretty much conform with each other. I had an opportunity myself, when in Eng-
land, of seeing a Hottentot Venus, as she was called, who possessed this apron, and I
was convinced that it was nothing more than an extension of the nymphae. In these
females, in fact, the whole of the external organs differ much from those of the white
females ; the mons veneris being less prominent, the external lips smaller, and the

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 223

passage itself much larger, while the mouth of the opening is more underneath, or
farther lack, so that, when stooping forward, it is nearly in the same position, as in
some animals. The length of this apron, in the case which I saw, was about three
inches and a half, but they have been observed four or five inches long ; and La
Vaillant says, in his journey into the interior of Africa, even nine inches. Whether
ihis singular apron serves any specific purpose, it is difficult to tell, but it certainly
is a hindrance to connection, unless placed aside at the time, because it hangs down
between the limbs, immediately in front. One of these females very much deceiva
the French physicians who examined her, by concealing the apron in a peculiar sit
nation, so that they could not see it, and some, in consequence, even doubted of its
existence ; but the deception was afterward discovered .

In many of the Oriental nations the enlargement of the nymphae is so general
that their excision is quite a common operation, like circumcision among the men.
This is especially the case in Abyssinia and in the country of Ancient Judea. Many
of the Mohammedans remove the nymphse in most of their young girls, in order, as
they say, to prevent deformity, but in reality to make them have less sexual feeling,
so that they may not be disposed, when women, to desire more indulgence than may fall
to their lot in common with many other wives. It is, therefore, the tyranny and
jealously of polygamy that leads to this shameful mutilation. A medical friend of
mine, who has resided some time in these countries, informed me that he had even
known them to close the two lips together, in young female slaves, with a kind of
lock, so that association was impossible until it was opened, and the manner of open-
ing it was known only to their masters. In Sotmini's Travels in Upper and Lower
Egypt much curious information can be found in regard to such customs. He tells
us that, in many of the cities, there is a class of persons who make the removal of
the nymphse in young girls a trade, and that they go about the streets crying out,
"Here's a good circumciser." And a more ancient traveller, Leo Africanus, informs
us that they also call out, "Who is she that wishes to be cut?" The only instru-
ment employed by these operators is a rude species of razor, and they astringe the
wound by dusting it with ashes.

It is probable that this custom of female circumcision may not have originated
altogether from jealousy, but partly from convenience, because when the nymphaa
are large, the secretions of the parts are apt to accumulate under them, and cause
great irritation, as is often the case in negresses, and occasionally even among whites.
Sonnini also tells us that the lascivious Turks have another reason for removing the
inner lips, and that is that the vulva, or mouth of the passage, may be perfectly
smooth, and sexual congress more easy in consequence.

It is desirable that the condition of these parts, as well as of the external organs
generally, should be known previous to marriage, for I have known many instances
in which great distress and unhappiness has arisen from something unusual con-
nected with them. They may be too large, or exceedingly sensitive, or grow together,
or even be ulcerated, and though the trouble may be readily removed, yet its exist*
ence is not desirable at such a time.

At the upper junction of the two nymphae they project over in a kind of round
arch, immediately within which is a small firm body about the size of a large pea,
which is called the clitoris. This organ is a most important and interesting one in
many respects. It has several points of resemblance to the male penis, both in its
structure and functions, being composed of a similar sponge-like substance, capable

224 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

of being engorged or becoming erect, and is bighly sensitive. It is, in fact, the
principal seat of sensation in most persons, and tbe intensity of the sexual orgasm
apparently depends upon the perfection of its nervous organization. "When it is
unduly developed or excitable, the sexual propensity often becomes irresistible, caus-
ing nymphomania ox furor uterinus, and leading to moral delinquency, which arises
more frequently from mere physical causes than is usually supposed. According to
Chitty, if a female, in ancient times, was detected the fourth time in illicit inter-
course, the clitoris was amputated in open court — a fact which shows that the law-
makers of that period were aware of its influence.

In the early stages of foetal existence it is difficult to discover the sex of the
child, because the clitoris so much resembles the penis ; and even at birth it is
relatively much larger than in adult life. In some persons it attains an unusual
size, so as to resemble the male organ very much, and can even be used in the same
way with another female, though, of course, imperfectly. This fact I can state
positively, for I have seen an instance in which the clitoris was fully as large as the
penis is in most boys of nine or ten years of age, and capable also of becoming quite
firm and erect. It is cases like these that are -supposed to be of both sexes, as will be
seen in the article on hermaphrodites. The clitoris, however, has naturally no
passage down it leading from the bladder, the urethra being in its proper position ;
but in some few cases the passage has been found to exist, although the urine did
not flow down it.

In some females this organ is so exquisitely sensitive, that it is scarcely possible
for them to prevent its becoming excited, and creating sexual desires. Whenever
the clothes touch it, or even when it comes in contact with the lips in walking, i! ,
becomes congested, and excites both the uterus and the brain. In these cases it i«
sheer nonsense to say that the strong sexual desire experienced arises merely fronv
depravity, or that it can be overcome by moral efforts alone. We might just as
reasonably conclude that the hunger of an empty stomach arises merely from unrulj?
appetite, and that it also may be overcome by moral effort. In making these remarks,
I, of coarse, do not intend to deny the great power of a determined will over the
feelings, under most circumstances, nor to discourage such efforts ; on the contrary
they are most important, and often highly effective, but I wish to draw attention
to the obvious fact that they alone cannot always succeed. It is unquestionable that
in many females, and especially about the age of puberty, the excitability of the
nymphse and clitoris is so great that they cannot overcome or escape from the feel-
ings and desires that this excitability creates ; and, beyond doubt, it is from this
cause alone that many seek improper indulgence, and become depraved. "With these
persons, therefore, it is not moral suasion alone, or threats, or the fear of conse-
quences, that can be depended upon to effect a reformation, but the state of
the body must also be ascertained, and the physical causes of the unnatural
excitement removed. The timely advice of a judicious physician, would, in many
of these cases, remove all occasion for moral exhortation or coercion, and effectu-
ally prevent any future evil, because licentiousness is fully as often a result of the
bodily condition as it is of the mental disposition, or probably even more so. It
should never be forgotten, when reasoning upon these subjects, that some persons
cannot prevent sexual desire — though good moral training may enable them to
struggle against it — while others can never experience it, even if they wish and de-
sire to do so.

ORGANS OF GENERA TION IN VIVIPARO US ANIMALS. 225

A proper attention to bathing and diet will usually oyercome any undue ex-
citability in these parts ; and mothers especially <x ght to know when this attention
is required, both for their own peace and for the welfare of their children. Some-
times they are preternaturally sensitive before puberty, even at a very early age,
leading to vicious habits and improper conduct, for which the young person is
only blamed ■ind reprimanded, while a want of proper information prevents a re-
moval of the cause.

When the clitoris is too large, it can readily be amputated, more or less, as may be
required, and its excitability reduced. This operation I have frequently performed
with entire success, at various ages. On the other hand, when it is too small, and
not sufficiently sensitive, means may be taken to make it enlarge, and to increase its
excitability. Thia may be advisable in cases of barrenness, and when the tempera-
ment is too cold.

The clitoris is present in most mammiferous animals, even in the whale, and in
the imperfect kangaroo. In the rat, the rabbit, the ape, and most carnivorous
animals, it is especially developed, and frequently contains a small bone, like the
penis, as we see in the bear, and the otter. In the spider monkey the clitoris is very
much like a penis, being three or four inches long, provided with a perfect glans and
prepuce, and also with a urethra, like a groove, down which the urine flows from
the bladder. In the kangaroo and opossum, the clitoris is split, like the glans
in the male, and in the lemming and some few others, it even has an interior pas-
sage, or urethra, which makes it almost identical with the penis.

We read in the Grecian classics that the females of Lesbos were famed for an
unusual development of the clitoris.

Cowper's glands are sometimes found in the lower animals, and in some of them
the preputial glands are often much developed, which is the reason they emit such
a powerful odor. Cowper's glands have also been seen in the human female, though
they were formerly thought to belong only to the male organs.

There are never any nymphce, or inner lips, in the lower animals, nor mons
veneris, not even in the monkey, and the external lips are also small and thin, and
without a tressoria, while the mouth of the vagina is round, instead of oval, as in
the human being. In the mare, and some few others, there is a small tube on each
side of the vagina, called the vaginal canal, leading to the broad ligaments of the
womb, the use of which is unknown.

These parts, namely, the mons veneris, the two external lips, and the two inner
lips, or nympJim, constitute the external genitals in all females, but their form and
situation occasionally varies in different individuals and races, as already showa.

The opening between the lips, or the external mouth, is called the vulva or fossa
magna, and it is also liable to vary much in different persons. As a general rule,
the vulva or external opening, is higher up, or more in front in white females than
t is in the colored races, and the vagina is shorter and smaller, while the external
ips are more rounded and firmer. There is also a less abundant tressoria in the
white female, and the clitoris is not so large on the average. These differences I
have taken great trouble myself to ascertain, especially during a recent visit to the
South, and I consider them of considerable importance. The form of the external
lips alters considerably after pregnancy, and even to some extent after association
only. The color of the interior surface also changes from the same causes, being a
perfect pink in virgins, but becoming slightly tinged with violet or brown im-
15

226 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

mediately after marriage. The lips also become less firm and hang lower, and
separate further. These alterations are often quite sufficient, with a practiced
person, to decide whether association has been practiced or not It is, perhaps,
necessary to remark, however, that other practices, besides actual coition, may cause
similar changes.

On separating the external lips and the nymphae, there will be seen, at the lower
part of the opening, by the fourchette, the entrance to the vagina, which is nearly
oval, and in virgins is usually more or less closed by a membrane or skin wnic'h
grows over it. This is called the hymen, and it is popularly, but erroneously sup-
posed to be always present during maidenhood. The space below, between the
lowest point of the vulva, or the fourchette, and the anus, is called the perineum,
and the space between the upper part of the mouth of the vagina and the clitoris is
called the vestibulum, in the middle of which is situated the meatus urinarius, or
mouth of the passage by which the urine flows from the bladder. This passage from
the bladder, scientifically called the urethra, is supposed by many uninformed per-
sons, to be the same as the vagina, or passage from the womb, but it will be seen
that they are perfectly distinct, although, in some cases of doubtful sex, the urethra
has been found so large as to be mistaken for the vagina, and during violent deliveries
they are often torn into one.

The hymen has probably given rise to more misapprehension than any other of
the external parts, and there are more popular fallacies and prejudices connected
with it. In most young virgins the external opening of the vagina is always more
or less closed by a membrane of this kind, which has to be broken in the first sexual
congress, but in many it never exists at all, not even in childhood. The idea that a
young female is certainly not a virgin if the hymen be absent, is, therefore, erro-
neous, though it usually does exist. Besides being naturally absent, it is also liable
to be destroyed in many ways. Thus in some it is broken by the first rush of the
menses, and in others it may be ruptured by various accidents, such as falls or
extreme separation of the limbs. I have even known it to be ruptured, and flood-
ing broi""ght on, by the action of powerful cathartic medicines, which, it is well
known, may even cause miscarriage during pregnancy. A long continuance of cer-
tain debilitating diseases will also relax the parts so much that no resistance what-
ever is made by the hymen, even if it remain, which is the reason why those who
marry late have seldom any trace of it, because if they escape all the various acci-
dents referred to, they seldom escape sickness and debility. It should be borne in
mind that the membrane is often very thin, and that it may be broken while using
the bath or the napkin, as I believe is often the case with children in the hands of
their nurses, and with young persons during their periods, especially if they use
those articles too large or too firmly bound against the person. Sometimes, also, the
hymen is destroyed by young persons themselves in various thoughtless or improper
practices, and sometimes it is destroyed during certain necessary operations and
examinations by the medical man. The old Jewish custom, therefore, as stated in
the Bible, of examining the Iridal sheets for the blood stains as proofs of virginity,
was absurd and unjust. V^hen the hymen is perfect, it is true, there is usually more
or less blood lost when it is first broken, but not always even then, as I have wit-
nessed during examinations, and sometimes blood will flow from the vagina at such
times when there is a physical disproportion between the parties, though the hymen
may not exist. In some females these parts are naturally small, and disposed to

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 227

contract when left to themselves, so that even widows, in a second marriage, will
exhibit all the usual indications of virginity. There are even means of forming a
hymen artificially, and this has been done so perfectly in some cases, that it has
been thought the female had never had association, when she, in reality, had even
been a mother ! In short, though there is usually more or less pain and difficulty
attending the first act of coition, yet there are many exceptions, from various causes ;
and it is seldom that much of either is experienced if the first act is delayed till after
the twentieth year.

In nearly every case the hymen has an opening through it at the lower part, by
which the menses escape, but occasionally it is without such an opening, or imper-
forate, and the menses being, of necessity, retained, the health suffers very much.
In such cases constant suffering, insanity, or even death, is not an unfrequent result
if relief is not speedily obtained. All that is required in such obstructions is to
puncture the hymen, an operation neither difficult nor dangerous in proper hands,
It is more to our present purpose to remark, that the hymen is occasionally not only
imperforate, but also unusually strong, so that it is difficult or even impossible for
the husband to break it. I have had such cases come under my notice in which the
marriage could not be consummated, and neither party knowing the real cause of
the difficulty, their distress was extreme. The treatment of this peculiar trouble is
obvious ; the surgeon's knife must first open the callous hymen, and then, if fur-
ther treatment is needed, the opening must be dilated with appropriate instruments.
I have known this membrane to be as hard as if it were ossified, or bony, and so un-
yielding that it had to be removed almost totally before association could be prac-
ticed. After the destruction of the hymen, its fragments usually remain round the
external mouth in the form of little protuberances, like pimples, which are sometimes
highly sensitive ; they are called the carunculm myrtiformce. Not long since a young
man killed himself on his wedding night, because he did not find the proofs of his
wife's virginity, which he had been led to expect from the Bible, and he believed her
unchaste. The event made a great sensation, but the real cause was unknown except
to a few.

From what has been already stated it will be obvious that actual proof of viola-
tion or unchastity may be very difficult to obtain in many cases. In fact, positive
proof is often impossible, and for want of it many a female has been unable to obtain
justice for wrong done to her, while many a man has been improperly condemned.

As stated in previous articles, many undoubted virgins would, on examination, be
pronounced unchaste, while many really unchaste females would be pronounced vir-
gins. There are, it is true, exceptional cases, but the fact that such do occur makes
the matter one of great uncertainty. The truth is, there are no positive means of
proving in all cases from the appearance of the female organs, neither virginity, ha-
bitual association, nor even violation.

There is, however, one way in which connection can be proved, or even the
attempt at it, if recent ; providing emission has taken place on the part of the male.

If there has been any discharge of semen, either within the female organs or with-
out, it can be infallibly detected, even though much mixed with other fluids. Its
presence may be suspected from its appearance and odor, but the only positive proof
is the presence of the animalcules as shown by the microscope. If there be any semen
present they can be found, and if they are absent it is a proof there is no semen, and
consequently there has been no emission.

228 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

In all cases of alleged violation, therefore, the semen must be sought for, both in
the female parts, on her person, and on her clothing. A considerable time may have
elapsed since the emission, and the semen may be mixed with blood, or mucus, or
may be fully dried, but still the animalcules can be detected. Their shape and gen-
eral appearance is so peculiar that they can never be mistaken for any other beings,
and any one accustomed to observe them can always speak positively as to their pres-
ence or absence.

There have been many trials, for alleged violation, in which this evidence has
been most important. In fact, the conviction or acquittal of the accused may often
depend upon it, as will be seen by referring to any good work on medical jurispru-
dence.

Viery tells us in his Histoire Naturelle du Genre Humain, that certain savage
people fasten the lips of the vulva together, in young girls, with a ring, so that con-
nection with them is impossible without its being known. In Darfour they even sew
the lips together, leaving only a little opening through which the courses can flow
At the time of marriage the husband opens the passage with his knife-
On the contrary, certain tribes in Asia and Africa have the virgins deflowered by
their slaves, and no man will marry a girl while she remains a virgin. Strabo tells
us that it was much the same with the ancient Armenians, among whom the virgins
always went to one of the temples to be deflowered, because they could not get hus-
bands while they remained virgins. It has also been stated that the ancient Phoeni-
cians habitually made their slaves deflower the virgins.

This shows how ideas and manners vary among different people ; what is valued
by one is despised by another.

As before stated, virginity may be reproduced (that is apparently) artificially, so
as almost to defy detection, after it has been lost. And this has been done in many
unsuspected cases.

It is a remarkable fact that the hymen may be so elastic, and the lips and vulva
have such contractile power in some females, that they can have connection for a long
time, and yet preserve all the appearance of virginity. Parent Duchatelet tells us,
in his great work on Prostitution, that two girls, who had been accused of being pros-
titutes, demanded an examination, affirming they were virgins. An experienced
surgeon who examined them stated that he could not be sure about one of them, but
that he thought the other might have had connection, though he could not be posi-
tive. It was afterward found that they had both long been prostitutes, and had even
had the venereal disease. Jaequemin also tells us he has known girls who had been
on the town ten or twelve years who could oasily pass for virgins. And Parent
Duchatelet tells us further that he saw a woman fifty-one years of age, who had been
a prostitute since she was fifteen, in whom all the organs might easily be mistaken
for those of a young maiden.

Most of the signs of virginity may, therefore, be very obscure.

PROOFS OF VIOLATION,

From what has been stated in the previous article it is evident that a female may
be violated, even though she be a virgin, and yet it may be difficult to prove the fact.
Usually the violation is evident, but in some cases it is not shown at all by the appear-
ance of the female organs, and this fact should be borne in mind.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS, 229

In all cases of alleged violation the only sure proof, as before stated, is the pres=
ence of the semen, and this should always be sought for. If there has been any
emission it may always be found and recognized. When fresh its odor will betray it,
and by the aid of the microscope its presence may be proved, even when mixed with
blood, mucus, or other fluids. The seminal animalcules can invariably be detected,
even in semen that has been dried for months or years, and on wetting dried semen it
will always give out its peculiar odor. It has .also peculiar chemical reactions, and
if any dry spots of it upon linen be held near the fire they become of a peculiar yel
iowish fawn color, and a number of white dots make their appearance which we.*
not seen before. This peculiarity alone is sufficient to distinguish it from any othei
secretion. In all cases where there has been emission, therefore, the presence of the
semen can be proved, as it will be found either in the female organs, mixed with
mucus or blood, or in spots like gum on the clothes. These spots -placed close to the
fire will show as above, and if wet will give out the seminal odor.

Such facts have often been brought forward in trials for rape, and the conviction
of the violator has depended upon them.

In former times some anatomists, Haller among others, advanced the theory that
the hymen was peculiar to the human female, and made so for moral reasons. They
thought it was intended to prove chastity in virgins or the reverse, a notion, as we
have shown, altogether without foundation. A precisely analogous part is found in
many animals, as Duvernoy has demonstrated, and for many reasons it is often
totally absent even in young children. If any of these external parts are really
peculiar to the human being, it is rather the nymphae, of which scarcely a sign is
found in any other animal. If, therefore, the hymen has any special use, it is cer-
tainly not that of proving virginity. And, further, as before remarked, it both can
be, and sometimes is, imitated artificially by the surgeon, in the most perfect man-
ner. We read in Deuteronomy that, among the ancient Jews, if a virgin could not
show, when married, the blood on the sheets, she was to be stoned to death, and no
doubt this piece of ignorant brutality has often been perpetrated..

The ovaries have already been fully described, and also the ovum ; it will, there-
fore,, be only necessary to show their position in the body, and their connection with
the other parts. The remaining organs will be described in detail.

Below, the internal organs are all shown cut open.

Figure 64.

bb. The walls of the womb. c. The vagina, s. A broad ligament, rr. The two round liga.
ments. ee. The ovaries, showing the ova. /. The right Fallopian tube. In the left tube an
egg is seen just entering, and at the end of the right tube one is seen just entering the womb
\t I.

230 ORGANS of generation in viviparous animals.

Dried Semen.

Figube 65 — Human Semen, Recent and Dried.

Figube 66.— Perfect Hymen.

Figtjke 67.— After Violent Rupture

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

On the preceding page is shown the appearance of the human semen under the
microscope, both recent and when long dried. In 1 — Figure 64 — the animalcules are
shown coiled up in one of the vesicles in which they are formed. In 2 the vesicle
is opening for them to pass out. 3, 4 are perfect animalcules, and in 4, at a, are
seen the internal organs.

In the dried semen the heads and tails are often separated.

The first of the lower cuts, Figure 66, shows the appearance of a perfect hymen
unbroken. The second, Figure 67, shows one that has been ruptured by some vio-
lence,

THE EALLOPIAN" TUBES.

The Fallopian tubes, as already explained, form the only means of communication
between the ovaries and the womb, and it is into them that the ripe eggs are passed
when they leave the ovary. The structure of these organs is very peculiar, and they
are of great importance to health, besides being essential to generation. In dissecting

Fig. 68.

-Internal Female Organs,
The bladder.

The womb.

Figure 68. Front view of the female organs,
ovaries with the Fallopian tubes above.

Figure 69. Side view of the female pelvis cut through. A. The bladder. B. the womb. c.
The vagina. D. The rectum, q. The clitoris, i. The large lip, or labia.

them, the interior passage is found to be covered with a number of cilia, or hairlike
threads, which are directed toward the womb. These cilia are in perpetual motion,
like small worms, drawing themselves up and then elongating, and the tube itself is
also constantly contracting, in successive waves, from the ovarian end to the uterine
end. The result of these combined motions is, that, so long as they continue, and ob>

plate xnr.

In the Surinam toad, the male, when he has impregnated the eggs, places them
uniformly on the female's back, where they become imbedded in a kind of sticky
jelly, each one making a cell for itself. In these cells they develop, and when the
young are fully formed they make their escape, presenting a singular spectacle as
they struggle forth, some head and some paws first. The skin of the back is very
thick and soft, to allow of these cells being indented in its substance. The whole
process takes some eighty days, aud after the young have all escaped the holes fill
up, and the animal resumes its usual appearance.

This may be considered a species of external pouch development, in which the
male is indispensable as an assistant, besides acting as impregnator.

In the pouched frog there is an arrangement resembling somewhat that of the
marsupials. The female has a kind of pocket, or pouch, on her back, in which
the eggs are placed, after they are impregnated by the male, and in which they
are carried about till the young are developed. This is not a place formed at the
time when it is wanted, like the cells on the back of the Surinam toad, but is a per-
manent pouch, possessed only by the female, and not developed till she is of mature
age.

When well filled with eggs this ponch swells along the whole back, up to the
head. It is very firmly closed by a fold of the skin, and the opening, ttarug quite
narrow, is not easily detected.

PLATE XIV.

The Pouched Frog. In the Female the Pouch containing the Eggs is thrown open.

The Female Surinam Toad, with the Young making their Escape from the Cells on its Back.

ORGANS OF GENERA TION IN VIV1PAR0 US ANIMALS. 233

ject of proportionate size can enter at the ovarian end of the tube and be conveyed
down to the womb, but nothing can enter at the uterine end, nor be conveyed up to
the ovary. The ovarian end of the tnbe is also expanded, so as to embrace or cover
any object, and is provided with fimbriae, or fingers, to grasp with, but nothing of
the kind exists at the uterine end. It is evident, therefore, that, except under pecu-
liar and unusual circumstances, explained elsewhere, nothing can pass from the
womb to the ovary, but only in the opposite direction. The great use of the tubes, is
undoubtedly, to transmit the ripe eggs to the womb, after they are ejected from the
ovary, but, besides this use, they also serve another purpose, of great consequence to
female health. The continual excitement to which the ovaries are subject, causes
them to be always secreting various fluids and other substances, which, if not ex-
pelled from the body, are apt to cause many evils. Now the only mode of escape
for these secretions is down the Fallopian tubes, which are consequently perpetually
embracing the ovaries, by their expanded terminations, to allow of this escape
taking place. A portion of those discharges, therefore, occurring at ordinary times
from the vagina, are really the secretions of the ovaries, transmitted down the tubes
into the womb, and thence to the lower passage. If the tubes are obstructed or
paralyzed, as is sometimes the case, this transmission cannot take place, and the
ovarian secretions are retained. When this occurs, they either cause continued
irritation by their contact with the interior surfaces, or acute inflammation by being
absorbed. And in this way often arises inflammation and dropsy of the ovaries,
tumors and abscesses.

There are many causes that tend to weaken the action of the Fallopian tubes, and
which, therefore, dispose to the above diseases, and also lessen the liability to con-
ception. In some persons they are almost totally torpid, from loant of sexual feeling,
the production of which puts them in vivid motion almost invariably. It follows,
therefore, that this peculiar excitement; — which many uninformed persons affect to
despise and totally condemn — is really, in many instances, a preventive of disease,
and its experience becomes essential to the preservation of health. On the other
hand, excessive amorous indulgence will so weaken the tubes, by the incessant excite-
ment to which it subjects them, that they will almost lose their power of contraction,
and then the individual will be liable both to disease and sterility. This is, in fact,
the chief reason why prostitutes do not conceive so frequently as married females ;
the continued and excessive excitement which they experience, causes a paralysis of
the tubes.

In several instances proof has been obtained that, at the moment when the egg
passes from the vesicle, the tube erects, and its fimbriae grasp round the ovary, so as
to include the ovum within the open end. It is probable also that, at the same time,
the body of the uterus expands, while its mouth closes, owing to the excitement
experienced, and thus there is powerful suction, by which the egg is drawn into the
first part of the opening. In some females the motion and erection of the tubes
can be distinctly felt, and it is occasionally so energetic, that it may be seen exter-
nally. It is always very readily excited, by external treatment, and is often all that
is required to remove many diseases, in their incipient stages.

A perfect paralysis of the tubes, or closure of the passages down them, of course,
necessarily causes sterility, because the egg cannot reach the womb. This fact is
sometimes of practical value in preventing breeding in female animals. Instead of
spaying, or removing the ovaries, which is the common operation, a ligature is tied

234 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

round each tube, which, by closing its passage, and preventing the passage of the
egg, effectually prevents any future conception. In some females the action of the
tubes is very slow, and the egg becomes decayed and spoiled before they convey it
to the womb. The sterility arising from this cause may always be cured by quick-
ening the action of the tubes. In ordinary cases, the egg is conveyed down them in
about two days, and it first passes into them immediately it is expelled from the ovary,
which is just about the cessation of the flow. The egg, therefore, reaches the womb,
as a general rule, about the second day after menstruation is over, and then com-
mences the liability of conception. It may, however, pass down in one day, or less,
and may be as long as five or six days, or more, as explained elsewhere. It is pro-
bable that sexual excitement, just at the termination of the flow, hastens the pas-
sage of the egg, and thus makes conception possible so much earlier.

It is probable that many cases of hydatids, and other living bodies, and also
polypi, are caused by eggs being retained through the inaction of the tubes. This
retention first causes inflammation of the ovaries, and then the inflammation causes
the ova to imperfectly develop, as already explained.

At the present time, barrenness from want of passage in the Fallopian tubes, can
be cured, an operation being performed, by which they are opened. This consists
in passing a silver tube, properly made, into the womb, till the end of it touches the
opening of the Fallopian tube, and then a very small probe is thrust out of it and
pushed along the passage, so as to open it, or remove any obstructions. With proper
instruments, and by using due care, this apparently difficult operation becomes quite
feasible, and its results are often as acceptable as they were unexpected. I have
known barrenness of many years' standing cured by this practice — conception occur-
ring in a few weeks after.

The usual length of the tube is about three inches, but I have seen them four,
and even five inches. Sometimes they are too short, and cannot reach the ovary,
which is, of course, another cause of sterility, and an incurable one.

THE WOMB.

The uterus or womb, called also the matrix, was formerly thought to be the
most essential of the female generative organs, but is now known to be merely a
receptacle, in which the ripe egg is placed for a short time after its ejection from the
ovary, and in which it develops into the new being if conception occurs. There is
no uterus, therefore, in those animals that do not bring forth their young alive,
the egg in them being expelled and developed externally.

The situation of this organ in the body will be readily understood by the explana-
tions already given. It is placed midway between the lower edges of the two hip-
bones, and its upper part lies immediately upon the bladder, which is in front of it,
while behind it is the rectum, or lower part of the large intestine. The womb does
Dot extend downward but about two inches, or little more, and immediately below,
connected with it, is the passage called the vagina, which leads up to the womb,
and opens externally at the vulva, between the labia. When viewed externally, the
womb and vagina seem to form but one organ, but internally, the distinction between
them is easily seen.

The form of the womb is nearly that of a pear, the larger end being at the top.
It is not round but flattened, being widest across the body from side to side, and it is
slightly curved, or bent, the convex part being toward the backbone. The lower

ORGANS OF GENERATION m VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

235

part of it, called the neck, hangs down into the vagina, the walls of which are at-
tached to the exterior of the womb, some distance above. At each one of the upper
corners of the womb is one of the Fallopian tubes, with the ovary underneath, the
tubes being about three or four inches in length, and the ovarian ligament about two
or three inches. Underneath these, some little distance down the sides of the womb,
there are also attached two round cords, one on each side, very firm and strong, which
are called the round cords, or ligaments of the womb. These are about five inches

Fig. 70. — Section of the Womb, natural size.

aa are its thick walls, b is the cav-
ity in its upper part, or body, e, is the
cavity in the lower part, or neck, d is
the vagina, ee. The edges of the walls of
the vagina cut through, ff. Two threads,
passing through the openings of the Fallo-
pian tubes, and appearing in the inside, g
is the mouth of the womb, or os tincse
opening into the vagina.

This view, being of the full size, will give
an idea of the astonishing change this organ
has to undergo in the process of gestation.

Figure 71.— Section of the Womb, natural size,

cut through the other way.
B. The walls of the womb. C. The vagina.
The mouth of the womb.

Figukb 72.— The Womb and its Appendages sepa-
rate from the body.

B. The womb. C. The vagina, ee. The ovaries.
ff. The Fallopian tubes, rr. The round ligaments.
s. One of the broad ligaments, tt. Thefimbrise of the
tube.

long, curved round, and by their other
ends firmly attached to the pubic or
front bone. These act like stays, and
keep the womb in the center of the
body, on the rounded top of the blad-
der. Without them it would be con-
stantly liable to displacement, but as each of the ligaments acts with equal force, and
in an opposite direction to the other, they necessarily maintain the organ in the cen-
ter. (See the view of the internal female organs in front.) Besides the round liga-
ments there are also the broad ligaments, which consist of two broad sheets of strong
membrane, one on each side, which extend from the top of the womb, nearly the
whole length down, inclosing the round ligaments, tubes, and ovarian ligaments in
their substance. These grow fast to the sides of the pelvis, and assist in maintaining

236 OEGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

the uterus, the ovaries and tubes, in their proper situations. There are also two liga-
ments that connect the womb with the bladder in front, called the anterior ligaments;
and two others which connect it with the rectum behind, called the posterior liga-
ments. All these, however, do but little toward actually supporting the womb,
which is really kept in its place more by the firmness and density of its own substance,
and that of the vagina below, and by the tension of the muscles in the perineum, than
by anything else. When these parts become weak, from debility or disease, the liga-
ments stretch, the perineal muscles relax, and the walls of the womb and vagina
soften till all fall down together, and then we have prolapsus uteri, or falling of the
womb, the causes, symptoms, and treatment of which are fully given farther on.

The length of the uterus is about two inches and a half, its breadth at the top
about one inch and a half, and at the lower end a little less than an inch ; its thick-
ness also, through the flat way, is a little less than one inch. The walls being very
thick, the interior cavity is necessarily small, and it is different in form to the exte-
rior. In the upper part the cavity is shaped like a triangle, the Fallopian tubes enter-
ing at the two upper angles ; in the lower part it is continued downward like a tube
which swells out considerably a little more than halfway down, and at its termina-
tion opens by what is called the os tincm, os uteri, or mouth of the womb, into, the
vagina. This opening, or mouth of the womb, is like a cleft, placed cross-wise, on
the prominent neck of the womb, and is readily felt at the top of the vagina in manual
examinations. The two lips formed by this cleft are perfectly smooth and round in
those that have not borne children, but are apt to be torn and covered with scars
in those who have. The anterior lip, or the one in front, is considerably thicker
than the other, so that the cleft, which is about a quarter of an inch long, is not
quite in the center. In virgins the internal cavity is very small, the walls nearly
touching each other, and the mouth of the womb, or cleft, is so narrow and its lips
so firmly closed, that it can scarcely be ascertained. In young persons, in fact, the
neck feels precisely like the end of the nose, the os tincse merely giving the impres-
sion of a slight hollow between the lips. In those that have borne children the walls
of the womb separate farther asunder, so that the cavity increases in size, and the os,
or mouth, also enlarges and remains more or less open, so that the cleft is plainly
felt. In speaking of the whole organ it is usually divided into three parts, namely,
that above the Fallopian tubes, called the fundus, that between the fundus and the
neck, called the body, and that which projects into the vagina, which is called the
neck. The neck projects into the lower passage somewhat less than a quarter of an
inch, and is plainly felt at the upper part, like a small firm tumor, across which is
the cleft or os tincm.

In virgins the womb is more straight than in those who have borne children, and
it is also higher up in the body, and the neck is considerably thicker. In some per-
sons, however, the womb is naturally much lower than it is in others, and also
smaller, and is not so much altered by child-bearing even when they have had
several.

The substance of the uterus is muscular, and is capable, in its contractions, of
exerting most tremendous force. The increase in size which it undergoes at the
different periods of gestation, are most extraordinary, and its after contraction to
its original dimensions is still more so. Thus at the full period of nine months it
will measure over a foot in diameter, each way, in some cases, and yet in a few days
after delivery will return to its original dimensions. In the chapters on Midwifery,

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 237

all these changes are fully represented by plates, and instructions are given by which
the period of pregnancy may be ascertained by them.

Arteries, veins, and nerves are plentifully supplied to the womb, so that it is
abundantly nutrifled, and highly sensitive. Indeed there is no other organ in the
body, except the ovaries, that has such extensive sympathies, or that is capable of
such rapid growth. The womb, however, is altogether dependent upon the ovaries
both for its development and its functional ability. If there be no ovaries the womb
will be found merely rudimentary, and if the ovarian actions cease, those of the
womb cease also. The neck of the womb, which hangs down into the vagina, is
usually the most sensitive part of it, and is, in many persons, the principal seat of
sexual feeling, even more so than the clitoris. In fact, I believe that sexual excite-
ment is never known in its full intensity excepting when it is experienced in the
neck of the womb, it being always weak and partial when confined only to the
clitoris and nymphee. It is to this part, therefore, that our treatment must fre-
quently be directed, when that peculiar condition becomes desirable, or not.

When the erotic excitement is intense in the female during connection, the
womb experiences a species of erection and vibration, by which it becomes engorged
with blood and is drawn with considerable force and rapidity up and down the
vagina. This brings the neck into contact with the glans of the male organ, which
is also the most sensitive part, and their mutual pressure hastens the orgasm in both.
This fact has never been mentioned by any previous writer on physiology, so far as I
know, and it is one of considerable medical and moral importance. The idea which
some persons entertain that the male organ enters the womb is both erroneous and
absurd, as a consideration of its structure will show; neither is it true, as others think,
that always when conception ensues the semen is thrown into the womb. It is true,
that during a perfect orgasm, such as referred to above, the os tincce opens when the
womb descends to meet the male organ, and if the semen is emitted at that time
also, it will pass directly into the mouth. This is the reason why conception is more
likely when the orgasm is mutual and simultaneous, but still it is not absolutely
necessary in either.

Sometimes the womb is very small and imperfect, so that the egg is not retained,
and barrenness, of course, results ; and occasionally it is absent altogether. A re-
markable case of this kind is given elsewhere, in which a young person, who had
never menstruated, was married, and it was afterward discovered that she had no
womb, though in every other respect quite perfect. This smallness and imperfection
of the womb is very likely to be found in those who are late in menstruating, or
who have been irregular.

The form of the uterus varies much in different beings, so much, in fact, that it
scarcely appears to be the same organ. It is sometimes round, oval, and even
triangular, and not unfrequently is forked, or divides into two horns, as in the cow,
pig, horse, and whale, in which we also find the Fallopian tubes very long and con-
torted. It has even been found double in the human being, in some very rare cases.
In most of the carnivorous animals, and in the rodentia, as the rat and squirrel, the
uterus is very short, and divides at the lower end into two parts, communicating
with two short and straight tubes. In the greater part of the rodentia, in fact, as
in the hare and mouse, the womb is really double, there being a separate one in con-
nection with each Fallopian tube, and consequently two mouths, both of which can
be distinctly seen in the vagina. Iu the marsupial animals, as the opossum and

'238 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

kangaroo, there is no uterus, properly speaking, but the end of each Fallopian tube,
where it opens into the vagina, is expanded, and made to answer the purpose of
one. In these imperfect wombs, the young are retained but a short time, and are
then expelled, and placed in the pouch outside, as explained elsewhere, in which they
are gradually perfected. The vagina, also, is double in these animals, one com-
municating with each tube. Occasionally the vagina is partly closed, previous to
connection, by a species of hymen, as in the mare, the cow, and ape, but it is never
so perfect as in the human female.

In very rare cases, as before stated, the womb has been found double in the
human being, each organ being distinct and separate from the other, and opening
by a separate mouth into the vagina. In such cases, one womb is connected with
the right ovary only, and the other with the left, so that conception can occur in one
and not in the other at the same time, though it may do so afterward, and cause a
superfoetation, or conception in a person already impregnated. More frequently the
womb is simply divided by a partition inside, and is not properly double, though,
possibly, superfoetation might take place even then.

THE VAGINA.

The vagina is the passage leading from below upward to the womb. At its
lower extremity is the vulva, or external mouth, between the lips, and at the top of
it is the neck of the womb. The vagina is like a tube, with very firm, thick
walls, capable of dilating or contracting to a very considerable extent. The length
of it is from four to six inches, though I have seen it as long as eight inches, and
as short as three. The diameter varies from an inch and a half to two inches
and a half. It is not straight, but curved, the hollow part of the curve being in
front, next to the bladder, while the convex part is next to the rectum, or large
intestine.

The diameter of the canal of the vagina is not uniform in its whole length, it
being seme little narrower in the middle than at either end. It is lined with a
mucous membrane throughout, like the uterus, and in virgins is not smooth, but is
marked with a number of rugm, or folds, which gradually disappear after connection,
and especially after delivery. Under the mucous coat is another thick one of 'cellular
membrane, and under that again is another coat, called the corpus spongiosum
vagince. This is a true erectile tissue, like the corpus spongiosum of the male organ,
and capable, like it, of becoming congested with blood during excitement, and of
erecting and contracting. It is this, power that enables the vagina to draw down the
womb during the orgasm, as explained in the previous article, and it also makes it
compress the male organ at the same time, by thickening the walls, and contracting
the passage, and thus increasing the pressure and excitement in both. The principal
portion of this erectile tissue is, however, confined to the lower part of the vagina,
though it exists more or less in its whole length ; and it is a knowledge of this fact
that enables us to use many internal instruments advantageously, for the cure of
falling of the womb. When the instrument is once introduced, the contraction of
the lower part of the passage which is acted upon by the presence of the foreign body,
prevents it from being expelled. In some females the erectile tissue is much de-
veloped at the narrow part of the vagina, about halfway up to the womb, and it will
contract so forcibly there, from any excitement, that a passage can scarcely be

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 239

effected beyond. Those who have the erectile tissue imperfectly developed, are
always liable to a lax vagina, which leads to falling of the womb, and also to rupture
of the bladder and rectum through its walls. In all such cases, if the erectile tissue
is made to act, by the excitement natural to the parts, the relaxation is much relieved,
and a step is made toward permanent -mprovement.

At the mouth of the vagina is a strong circular muscle, like that which closes the
mouth and eyes. It is called the sphincter, or constrictor vaginm, and when it acts
properly, the mouth of the vagina is kept nearly closed by it. This muscle is of
great importance in maintaining the parts above, by drawing the lower walls of the
vagina together, and making them more firm. It also co-operates along with the
erectile tissue in increasing the pressure during coition. In some females it acts so
powerfully as to close the passage completely, so that an entrance can scarcely be
obtained. This is often the case in those who have an irritable clitoris, or nymphae,
"nd every act is as difficult with them as the first, though not painful. When this
constriction of the sphincter is conjoined with great engorgement of the erectile
tissue, the difficulty is of course still greater, but in all such cases the intensity of
the orgasm is also proportionably increased.

The relaxation of the sphincter muscle, which is very common, is a serious evil,
as it disposes all the organs above to displacement, and much impairs the sensibility
of the parts. The lower part of the erectile tissue, round the base of the nymphse,
exhibits a curious network of veins, called the plexus retiformis, which during
excitement are singularly enlarged. They are apt sometimes to become obstructed,
and swell, causing varicose veins, and enlargement of the lips.

The hymen, which partly closes the mouth of the vagina in virgins, has already
been explained. The opening in it is usually crescent-shaped, and is thought to
have originated the symbol of Diana, the goddess of chastity, which was a half moon
ot crescent.

Immediately within the vagina, on each side, are certain little openings called
the glands of Duvernay. These secrete a thickish gray-colored fluid of a peculiar
odor, which is often discharged in great quantities during connection, and was
formerly thought, by uninformed persons, to be a kind of semen. The situation of
these glands causes them to be compressed by the constrictor muscle, which is the
reason why they discharge most during the strongest excitement. In some persons
the quantity of fluid amounts to several ounces.

In addition to the glands of Duvernay, there are also a number of mucous follicles,
both in the vagina and on the inner surface of the lips, which also discharge freely
under similar circumstances.

The vagina, like the other parts, is liable to various malformations. Thus in
some it is too small, and in others it is closed by the inner walls or external lips
growing together. In others, again, it is unnaturally large, so that the womb con-
tinually falls down to the lower part of it. Many of those cases in which the vagina
is closed, are not discovered till marriage, and then great distress and suffering
result. Many such instances are given in another part, and also the means of reme-
dying the defect, which can be often done without medical assistance. When the
canal is too short, great distress may often ensue in marriage, unless certain precau-
tions are observed.

Most of these difficulties appear much worse than they really are, it merely
requiring time and skillful appliances to remedy the worst of them.

PLATE XV.

THE FEMALE UTEEUS AND ITS APPENDAGES.

Figure 1. A. The body of the uterus. B. The yagina. c. The neck of the
uterus, in the center of which is seen the mouth of the womb. D. The interior of
the vagina. E. The fimbriated end of the right Fallopian tube, grasping the ovary.
F. The right Fallopian tube. G. The left Fallopian tube. H. The fimbriated end,
or pavilion, of the left Fallopian tube open, and just about to fasten on the ovary.
jj. The ligaments of the ovaries. LL. The round ligaments.

Figure 2. An ovary cut through, to show the ova?, aa. ~b~b. The pavilion of the
tube. c. The opening of the tube ee.

Figure 3. This was a remarkable case in which one of the Fallopian tubes was
obstructed so that no ovum could pass down it. It will be seen that both the ovary
and Fallopian tube are deformed in consequence of this obstruction.

The use of all these parts in the processes of impregnation and foetal develop-
ment, can from these illustrations be readily understood.

In the act of copulation the semen is deposited in the vagina, from whence the
animalcules ascend into the womb, and along the Fallopian tubes to the ovary. If a
ripe ovum is there at the time, impregnation may then take place, after which the
egg descends into the womb, and there develops into the new being, as will be
explained farther on. When the new being is fully developed, the mouth of the
womb and vagina expand and it is expelled by the process of natural delivery.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 241

In rare cases, the vagina has been found double, like the womb, sometimes with
two uteri, and at others with only one. I once saw a case of this kind myself, in
which connection could be effected perfectly in either of the two passages, each hav-
ing a perfect external mouth and sphincter muscle of its own, one being below the
other.

The uterus is variable in different animals, in many ways. In some it is single,
as in the human species, while in others it is double, triple, and even quadruple. It
is globular, ovoid, elongated, or triangular. In the apes the uterine walls are very
thick, as in the human being, while in many other animals they are quite thin,
almost like the bladder. When the walls are thick, and the internal cavity small,
the changes which the womb undergoes during gestation are very remarkable, lc
increases wonderfully in size, and its small mouth expands sufficiently to allow of the
birth of the new being, after which it contracts again to nearly its former condition.
In the double uterus, as in the rabbits, where many young are formed at once, each
one is partly inclosed in a separate enlargement, connected with the others by a nar-
rower part. In the marsupials the womb undergoes but little change, because the
young is retained there so short a time, and leaves it while very small.

The Fallopian tubes differ but little in different animals, except in length, and
in being more or less straight or twisted. In viviparous animals they terminate in
the uterus, and in the ovipara in the cloaca.

The vagina, and its mouth, the vulva, vary as much as the penis does in the
male, and correspondingly, because it is in them that the penis is inserted, in the act
of copulation. Its size, length and form, are therefore always proportionate to that
organ. In some animals it has great power of constriction, and closes firmly on
the male organ till copulation is complete, as in the dog.

The clitoris is usually present, and is as variable as the other parts. It is always
the principal seat of pleasurable sensation, and those animals in whom it is' large are
very lascivious, as the apes for instance. In the female bear it is very long, and
curved like a double S. In marsupials it is double, like the male penis. In those
animals in which we find a bone in the male penis there is also one in the female
clitoris.

In the hyena the vulva is cross-wise, instead of length-wise of the body, as in
other animals. In form it is usually long oval, but is sometimes round. Its situa-
tion is commonly near the anus, but in the lamantine they are eight inches asunder,
while in the marsupials the two orifices are united in a common ring.

Instances have been noticed, in the human being even, of all these organs, womb,
vagina, and clitoris, being double, as in some other animals.

HUMAN MALE ORGANS.

The course of the semen will be readily understood from the following illustration,
which is made simply diagrammatic, so that the relative positions and connections
of the parts can be better understood. It is formed in the testicles, of which the
left one is shown in the scrotum (1). From the testicle the semen passes up the tube
called the vas deferens (2), which runs up the side of the bladder and around the
back of it, where it enters the seminal vesicle (3), and from that passes along the
ejaculatory canal (4) (which is only a continuation of the vas deferens), and enters
into the urethra (7) through two small openings, called the seminal ducts, just
16

PLATE XVL

THE HUMAN MALE GENERATIVE ORGAN'S.

Figure 1. A. The bladder. H. The spermatic cord, which is composed of the
spermatic artery and spermatic nerve, going to the testicles, and the spermatic vein
and vas deferens leading from it. These are all contained in one sheath, as will be
seen. The opening through which all these are connected with the interior of the
body is the one through which most ruptures occur. It is called the inguinal ring,
and is in the groin, cc. The vas deferens. E. The mons veneris. E, G. The mus-
cles which corrugate the scrotum, and raise the testicles. I. The skin thrown back,
j. The pubic bone. k. The ischiac bone. N. The under part of the penis, m. The
scrotum, p. The glans penis. Q. The seminal vesicle. R. The prostate.

Figure 2 shows the connection between the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and
ejaculatory canal, a. End of the right ejaculatory canal, i. A portion of the right
seminal vesicle thrown back. cc. Cells of the vesicle, e. A cut through the wall
of the vesicle. /, g. The two vas deferens, h. The left seminal vesicle, not cut
open, ii shows the external appearance of the vesicle, j. The end of the ejacula-
tory canal

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 243

below the veru montanum (6). The urethra is the passage common to both the
urine and the semen, and down this the semen flows whenever there is an emission,
as during connection. It is quite a long course from the testicle where the semen
is made, to the end of the penis where it is finally expelled.

Figuke 73.— Section of the Male Pelvis, to show the Situation of the Different Parts.

A. The bladder. B. The rectum, or end of the large intestine. C. The lower part of the hack
hone, or sacrum, dd. The small intestines. /. One of the kidneys, gg. The ureter, or tube which
conveys the urine from the kidneys into the bladder.

1. The left testicle. 2, 2. The vas deferens, or tube which conveys the semen from the testicle.
3. The left seminal vesicle, with which the vas deferens is connected. 4. The ejaculatory canal,
into which the semen next passes. 5. The prostate gland, with which the ejaculatory canal con-
nects, and through which the semen passes into the urethra or urinary passage from the blad-
der (7). 6. The veru montanum, or small protuberance which partly closes the neck of the blad-
der. 7, 7. The urethra, or passage by which the urine escapes from the bladder down the penis.
8. The upper part of the penis, or corpus cavernosum. 9. The lower part, or corpus spongiosum.
10. The glans, or head of the penis. 11. One of Cowper's glands.

The use of the penis in copulation, it will be seen, is to convey the semen into
the female vagina.

This illustration does not of course give the exact appearance of the organs, nor
show their structure. It is intended merely to explain their position and connection ;

244 OBGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

it is a hey to the large one, which will show them as they really appear, and exhibit
their structure. By this illustration also the course of the semen can be fully under-
stood, which it could not be unless the parts were arranged in this manner. The body
being supposed cut through, the organs are shown only on one side. There is a tes-
ticle, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and ejaculatory canal on each side, all these parts
being double. Each side is distinct from the other, which explains why the testicle
and all its adjuncts may be destroyed, or be deficient, on one side, and yet be perfect
on the other — the urethra is of course common to the two.

As soon as the semen enters the urethra it has added to it the secretion from
the prostate gland, through which it passes, and also of Cowper's gland, close by.
These secretions probably modify it in some way, or possibly only act as diluents.
It is thought also that it undergoes some change, or ripens, in the seminal vesicles.

The penis is a hollow spongy organ down which runs the passage from the blad-
der, called the urethra, by which the urine escapes, which also serves for the exit of
the semen, as before explained.

The anatomical structure of this organ is not thoroughly understood by anato-
mists, owing to the difficulty which necessarily exists of dissecting it in its several
states. Sufficient, however, is known to explain its physiological action, which is
all we now require to know.

The body of the penis consists of two distinct parts, each of which is very porous,
or rather spongy. The upper part, which is the largest, is called the corpus caver-
nosum ; the under part, which is much the same in its structure, is called the corpus
spongiosum. Both parts extend from the pelvic bones to the glans at the end. The
corpus cavernosum is divided down the middle into two parts, by a septum, or par-
tition, and some physiologists on that account speak of two cavernous bodies, or the
corpora cavernosa; it is, however, strictly one. These two parts are rounded on
the under edge, so that when they come flat together there is a groove formed under-
neath, and in this groove lies the urethra. They are both firmly attached to the
front bones of the pelvis, under the perineum, by two roots called the crura penis.

The corpus spongiosum surrounds the canal of the urethra underneath, and fills
up the remainder of the groove, so as to round the whole organ. It terminates pos-
teriorly in what is called the bulb of the urethra.

The whole organ is surrounded by the skin, excepting the end, where we find a
body called the glans penis, which is both different and separate from either of those
described. The inner fold of the skin of the penis is attached to the termination of
the corpus cavernosum, while the outer fold is extended beyond, so that it only
partly covers the glans, but is not attached to it, and may be drawn back. This
loose skin is called the prepuce, or foreskin, and is the part cut off in the rite of cir-
cumcision. In some persons it extends farther over the glans than it does in others,
but generally leaves more or less of it exposed. The glans is probably an enlarge-
ment of the peculiar erectile tissue surrounding the urethra, and is covered by a
highly sensitive and vascular skin, of an exceedingly delicate structure. It is in the
form of a section of a cone, and terminates on the posterior or upper margin of an
elevated ridge, called the corona glandis, behind which is a depression called the
cervix, or neck. In this depression are several glans called the glandula odorifera,
which produce a whitish secretion, of a peculiar odor, that sometimes accumulates
in great quantities in those who neglect proper cleanliness. On the under side of
the glans the prepuce is attached nearly at the end by a cord or ligament, called

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 245

the frcenum, or ligamentum prceputii. This ligament, or cord, is sometimes too
short, and during erection is so pulled upon as to cause great annoyance; occasion-
ally it eyen ruptures, or tears, causing severe pain, with loss of blood.

These parts constitute the substance of the penis, and are therefore most essen-
tial to the performance of its proper functions.

The peculiarity of the structure of the corpus cavernosum, and of the corpus
spongiosum consists in their being full of curiously arranged blood-vessels and cells,
or cavities, like those of sponge, all communicating with each other, and being con-
nected with the main branches of an artery and a vein. In ordinary states these
vessels, excepting the larger ones, and also the cells, are nearly or quite empty, but
under appropriate excitement the blood from the artery is impelled into them and
fills them up, in consequence of which the organ enlarges, like sponge when filled
with water. This is called the phenomenon of erection, and it depends upon a pecu-
liar sensibility proper to the parts, which are therefore sometimes spoken of as being
composed of erectile tissue. There is no other part of the body that in any way
resembles the penis in structure, except the clitoris in the female, which has a
similar tissue, and is usually capable of erection to a certain extent, in precisely the
same way.

When the excitement is withdrawn, the blood ordinarily flows back by way of
the cavernous vein, and the erection subsides, but sometimes its return is prevented
and the erection then remains, though all excitement is gone. The corpus spon-
giosum is so distinct from the coipus cavernosum that erection will sometimes take
place in one and not in the other, which necessarily curves the organ, or draws it
into the form of a bow, producing what is termed a chordee. The erection and
emission of semen is also assisted by a number of different muscles, particularly by
one called the erector penis, or ischio cavernosus muscle. Sometimes in erection
the rush of blood will be so sudden and violent that the vessels will burst, and the
erectile tissue be thus totally destroyed. In some persons the filling up of the
blood-vessels always occurs in a very short time, while in others it is the reverse ;
and in like manner the erection subsides in a short time in some, while in others it
will continue for a long period and subside very slowly. This depends upon some
peculiarity in the vital action of the blood-vessels, not yet understood. In old age
the blood generally flows in slower, and flows out much quicker than it does in
youth, so that the erection is longer in taking place and goes down more rapidly.

The uses of the penis, as before remarked, are twofold. Firstly it serves as a con-
duit to convey the urine from the body, and secondly as a conductor to carry
the semen into the female organs. For the first use erection is not necessary,
but it is for the second, and therefore its proper occurrence is both natural and
essential to the performance of one of the functions of our nature.

The form of this organ varies in different animals, for the purpose of adap-
tion, and is sometimes very singular. In some it is covered with spines, which
give great pain to the female during connection, as in the cat, while in others
its structure causes that act to be much lengthened, as in the dog. In birds, the
male organ is merely rudimentary, so that there is no actual union, properly speak-
ing, but merely an emission into the female organs. In the human being there are
occasional deviations from the ordinary development, and sometimes even peculiari-
ties in structure. Thus instances have been known of the interior of the corpus
cavernosum being more or less ossified, so that a distinct bone always existed iij

PLATE XVII.

STRUCTURE OF THE PENIS AND TESTICLE.

Figure 1. The penis seen underneath, aa. The corpora cavernosa. These are
the bodies that swell up and cause erection, when the blood fills them. i. The glans
penis, at the base of which may be seen the little glands which secrete the white
odorous matter which is often formed under the prepuce, dd. The prostate gland.
ee. Cowper's gland, jj. The vas deferens, kk. The seminal vesicles. I. The mem-
branous part of the urethral canal, m. The bulb of the urethra, oo. The ureters,
or canals bringing the urine from the kidney to the bladder.

Figure 2. The penis split open, and seen from above, aa. The corpora cavernosa.
lb. The glans penis, c. The fossa navicularis. ccc. The # canal of the urethra.
dd. The prostate. /. The veru montanum. The two larger openings seen by the
veru montanum are those by which the semen enters the urethra, the smaller ones
are those by which the prostatic secretion enters. Still farther down, about an inch,
is seen the opening where the secretion comes in from Cowper's glands, hh. The
fibrous partition between the two parts of the prostate gland, nn. Part of the blad-
der, pp. Openings of the ureters, vvv. The corpus cavernosa laid open to show the

Figure 3. A section on the medial line of the urethra, c, i, and of its bulb, m.
e. Cowper's gland.

Figure 4. Veins and arteries of the testicles. /. The vas deferens, s. Its continua-
tion into the epididymus. t. The head of the epididymus. u. The testicle covered
with its membrane, vv. The veins, and yy the arteries of the testicle.

PLATE XVIL

Structure of the Penis and Testicles.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 247

the middle of the organ. This is often the case in negroes, and in some of the
lower animals it is natural. In a few rare instances the penis has been found
double, or rather divided into two parts, only one of which, of course, contains a
urethra, though both being capable of erection as I observed in one case in my own
practice. Probably amputation of the imperfect part might have been safely effected,
but as little inconvenience was experienced it was not thought necessary.

The various peculiarities of structure and development that interfere with the
junctions of this part will be treated under appropriate heads as we proceed.

ABSENCE AND MALFORMATION OP THE PENIS.

Besides being liable to be lost by several accidents, and by necessary opera-
tions, the penis may be also deficient from birth. I have seen instances where it
was not more than a quarter of an inch in length, and sometimes only a slight swell-
ing, like the top of a small tumor. In such cases, of course, there can be no con-
nection, but still such men may he fathers, providing all the other parts are perfect,
because, as before explained, the semen may impregnate if it be only shed within the
external lips, which of course may be effected in the worst of these deficiencies. I
have known instances of married couples, with families, who never had any
association, from similar causes. It is unnecessary to say, however, that marriage
should never take place in such cases without the nature of the infirmity being
first known, though I believe the law would declare any marriage binding if
impregnation was possible. In giving an opinion under such circumstances, it is,
however, difficult to decide this point. In general, in -healthy females, the placing
of the semen artificially in the vagina will induce conception, but not always. Hun-
ter relates an instance where he advised the injection of the semen with a syringe,
after its escape from the husband, and impregnation followed. There are some
females, however, in whom its absorption will not take place without a certain
amount of excitement, dependent upon actual association, so that there will always
be more or less uncertainty, and much less probability than when no such depriva-
tion exists. Independent of this, however, there are other considerations that should
forbid the marrying of men so situated, unless with a full knowledge of the cir-
cumstance and its consequences by both. In some of these cases, especially, when
a portion of the organ is left, as after operations and accidents, the difficulty
may be much remedied by an instrument, so constructed as to fit on the part remain-
ing, and resembling that which is lost. I have known instances of conception
following the use of such an instrument, when the penis itself was not more than
a quarter of an inch long. But then the semen was formed in great quantities,
and was remarkably healthy.

In some children the penis is tied down to the scrotum, or some other of the
leighboring parts, by bands, which never allow it to be extended, and of course pre-
vent the performance of its proper functions. I saw one child of seven years in whom
it grew flat on the abdomen, causing great trouble and annoyance in urinating,
from the direction in which the fluid had to flow. Nearly all such cases can be
easily corrected by a slight operation at any age, the adhesion being usually only by
the skin, but they are better attended to early in life. The one referred to was put
right very readily, and in two years' time scarcely a trace of the operation could be

348 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

Occasionally the penis will have a wrong direction, being turned so much either
on one side, under, or upward, that association is impossible. If this depends upon
contraction of the skin, or of the muscular fibers, it may be corrected by simply di-
viding them ; but if it results from a tumor, or swelling, that must be removed before
any alteration can be effected. Aneurisms, and swellings of the veins will some-
times bring about such deviations, and so will too long-continued erection, by rup-
turing some of the cells or vessels, and so causing accumulation of blood. I knew
one instance of this kind in which every time erection occurred a large tumor was
formed on the left side, full of blood, which of course turned the end of the organ
to the right side, and thus prevented connection. This accident had been caused by
numerous forcible and long-continued erections in one night, during intoxication.
The tumor was as large as an egg, and when full could be distinctly felt to pulsate.
It was also very painful, and appeared almost ready to burst. The remedies pro-
posed were cold astringent lotions and wearing a thin plate of smooth horn over the
part, bound on so firmly as to prevent any swelling from accumulation of blood.
This plan succeeded very well in giving relief, though it is probable there will
always be more or less tendency to a recurrence of the trouble.

Besides scrofulous and other tumors in the penis, there will sometimes be bony
swellings, and accumulations like calculi or stone in the bladder. These may either
compress the urethra, and so prevent the passage of the urine and semen, or they
may curve the organ so as to prevent its use ; in general, however, they can be
removed.

Sometimes the fraenum or cord that binds down the prepuce at the end
underneath, will be so short or contracted that during erection the point of the
glans will be pulled under. This not only prevents the semen being thrown straight
forward, but even prevents connection in many instances, either by causing severe
pain, or by bending the end of the organ too much. This difficulty is easily reme-
died, by cutting through the cord with a pair of scissors, or a lancet. I advised
a gentleman out West how to do this, in a letter, and he wrote afterward to inform
me that he had succeeded perfectly, with his razor. It is simply necessary to take
care to cut only deep enough to just sever the cord, and afterward to keep the parts
stretched asunder, so that they do not grow together again ; a simple dressing of
cloths dipt in cold water is all that is required after. I have known the cord to
be eaten through with caustic, but the plan is not so good as cutting, being (.
more tedious and painful, and leaving a larger scar. In some persons it has been
broken suddenly during a violent erection, or on attempting coition, but such acci-
dents are always painful, and are better avoided by a timely operation.

WANT OF DEVELOPMENT, OR CONGENITAL SMALL SIZE OF THE PENIS.

It is sometimes difficult to say whether the penis is too short or not, because the:$
is no precise standard or limitation, and in different people the development varies
very much. In some persons it never grows from the condition in which we find it
in childhccd, while in others it will attain a medium size, and in others again it will
be nearly rudimentary. This may also be totally independent of any deficiency in the
other organs, though most usually they correspond more or less. Thus I have seen a
man of forty years of age in whom the penis was only two inches long, and about as
thick as the little finger, but whose testes were of a full average size, and who had

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 249

strong sexual feelings, with a full flow of semen. Sometimes the organ can scarcely
be traced at all, being merely like a wart or small tumor.

When the non-development of the penis is dependent upon a general torpor of the
genital organs, more especially of the testes, their action must be aroused, and their
functions fully established, in the manner pointed out in the chapter on the testes.
If this can be done, the penis may be made to grow even to an advanced period of
life, as I have there shown.

In those cases in which the penis alone is not sufficiently developed, a different
treatment is required, as it is simply a local effect we wish to produce. In some of
these instances the organ, though small, is capable of perfect erection, and both con-
nection and impregnation may be effected by its means ; it is not, then, a matter of
such urgent moment for any improvement to be effected, though under certain cir-
cumstances it may be desirable. More frequently, however, erection either does not
take place at all, or so imperfectly, that coition is impossible, and the flow of semen
is so imperfect and irregular that impregnation can seldom be effected, even arti-
ficially. Under such circumstances, it is a matter of the greatest consequence to
produce an increased development, so that both these functions may be performed ;
and it may be both new and pleasing, to many persons, to learn that there are means
by which this desirable end may be often attained, even under the most unpromising
circumstances. It is proper to remark, however, that the cases now referred to are
those in which the small size is congenital, or existing from birth, and not those in
which the organ has decreased, from disease or excess, after having been of average
development, though even in many of them, when the constitutional stamina is not
too much impaired, the same means will frequently restore what has been tempor-
arily lost.

The causes that prevent the proper development of this organ, as well as of
others, are of course unknown in those cases that are congenital, because they operate
before birth, but in those that become arrested during childhood or youth, we gener-
ally trace it to early masturbation, blows on the testicles and other accidents, or to
some severe disease which has impaired the vital energy very much. Some diseases
are particularly apt to affect young persons in this way, as the mumps for instance,
which often make the testes swell.

Scarlet fever and measles, when severe, I have known to seriously injure the virile
power, but not so frequently as rickets or scrofula.

A similar deficiency is sometimes found in females ; in some the uterus or ovaries
being very small, though the vagina may be large enough to allow of coition, while
in others these organs will be of usual size, but the vagina will be too small, so that
marriage is not allowable. In another place I refer to such cases, and explain what
can be done to relieve them.

To effect an enlargement of the penis, in addition to every means proper to im-
prove the general health and impart stamina, there are certain mechanical and manual
applications, the effects of which, under right direction, are often of the most un-
expected and pleasing character. To understand the nature of these, and their
mode of action, it is necessary to bear in mind the anatomical structure of the organ,
and the requisites for erection. That phenomenon, it will be recollected from our
previous description, depends essentially upon the filling up of the vessels and cells
of the spongy and cavernous bodies with blood, and of course, if there be any fault in
their make or mode of connection, or if the blood does not flow into them, erection

250

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANTMALS.

cannot take place. Now this is precisely the fault that is found to exist in most of
the cases of non-development above referred to, and is what requires to be corrected.
On dissecting such cases after death we find that the cells and minute vessels have
never been congested or filled with blood, and consequently the organ has never been

Prostate Gland, ^m • "mwt^ Cowper's Gland.

Ejaculatory Canal

Testicle.
Figtjre 74. — Section of Penis and Bladder.

able to grow nor become erected. In the same way after long-continued excess, or
debilitating disease, the artery seems to lose its power of transmitting blood with suffi-
cient vigor, and the cells, from want of being filled, decrease in size, and eventually

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 251

grow up more or less, causing the organ to shrink. This is the reason also why
absolute suppression of sexual excitement, if continued too long, will make the organ
waste away, instead of increasing its power, as many uninformed people suppose.

The object to be accomplished it will be seen is to open these cells, and cause the
blood to flow into them, so as gradually to increase their size, and dispose them to fill
spontaneously from natural excitement.

In some persons who have always shunned all thoughts of sexual matters, from a
notion that they are improper, it is sometimes sufficient merely to encourage such
thoughts, to a proper extent, and the excitement this gives rise to in the parts will
act favorably on their growth. In others the daily employment of a warm local
bath, with brisk rubbing, and the use of a stimulating ointment, will be found still
more efficacious ; and if this treatment be regularly persisted in, under judicious
direction, combined with proper internal remedies, it will succeed in a large number
of the cases ordinarily met with. It is requisite, however, that the external and in-
ternal stimulants should be exactly apportioned to the wants and capabilities of the
individual's system, and that a strict watch should be kept upon the action and
effects of each, so as to know when to increase or decrease their power, and when to
suspend their action altogether. Until over forty years of age, if the form of the
organ is perfect, and its development not too small, a considerable change may be
effected in this way, though the younger the patient is the more readily the parts
are acted upon.

I once had a patient call upon me from Cuba, the son of a rich planter, who was
troubled with this imperfection, and who was intensely desirous that it might be
remedied so as to allow of marriage. He was about twenty-three years of age, and
of a strong, robust habit of body, with excellent health. On examination the penis
was found about two inches and a half in length, and about as thick as the fore-
finger, properly formed, but with little more sensibility than any other part of the
body. The testicles were fully developed, and the sexual feeling was quite strong.
There had been frequent emissions of semen, under strong excitement, but no erec-
tion, and consequently no connection could take place. Upon inquiry, I found that
he had been brought up to a very rigid code of morals, and had imbibed certain
notions about the necessity of not indulging sexual desires if the mind was wished to
become powerful : as he was very ambitious of distinction he made a perfect ancho-
rite of himself. The bodily effect of such a course has been seen — its effect on the
mind was to make him wayward, irritable and unhappy. A short time before he
came on to see me he met with a young lady with whom he fell violently in love, and
immediately the desire for marriage arose, but with it came the fear that he was
totally incapacitated. The new desire, so strongly awakened, together with the fears
he felt, operated so intensely upon him that he became almost insane. On assuring
him, however, that there was a reasonable prospect of his attaining a more perfect
state, he became calmer, and patiently submitted himself to the prescribed treatment.

The first object was to induce as much heat as possible in the organ, so as to pro-
mote the flow of blood to it. This was accomplished by the use of a hot stimulating
lotion two or three times a day, followed by brisk rubbing with flannel and soft
brushes. In three weeks the effect of this treatment became obvious — erections oc-
curred, partial at first, but ultimately quite forcible, and the organ evidently began
to increase permanently in size. In addition to this he was directed to use some
stimulant drops, and to live generously, to impart as much vigor as possible to the

252 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

generative organs. The flow of semen soon became much larger than before, under
this treatment, and the procreative instinct much more powerful. There was still
one fault, however, and that was a want of power in the muscles that assist in erec-
tion and coition, more especially in the erector penis muscle. This was remedied by
frequent shampooing, and pressing of their fibers till they acquired volume and
firmness, the same as any other muscle would do under similar treatment.

This system was rigidly pursued for six months under my own inspection, at the
end of which time the penis was four inches long, when erect, and quite firm, so that
coition was possible. At this period he was desirous to return home, and as he was
evidently determined to pursue the same treatment himself, I consented to his doing
so, though I would have preferred for him to have stayed still longer. I heard from
him eleven months after his departure, and he then informed me that the improve-
ment had still continued till he no longer thought it necessary to proceed. He was
then intending to marry in about three months. The delight and gratitude of this
young man were unbounded, rescued as he was from the very depths of despondency
and despair, and raised, as he expressed it, " to the highest pitch of human happi-
ness."

In the course of my practice I have had numerous similar cases, some of them
resulting satisfactorily from the same treatment, and others requiring a different plan,
which I will now explain.

When the means above described fail to induce a sufficient flow of blood into the
erectile tissue, an instrument is employed, called a congester. It consists of a tube,
the size of which is adapted to the organ, to which is fitted an exhausting air-pump.
The penis being introduced into this, the air is more or less exhausted, and the blood
of course flows into the contained part immediately. So great is the rush of blood,
in fact, that if the exhaustion was continued too far, or made too suddenly, the
tissue would burst. In a short time, with care, the part begins to swell and look
red, and erection, more or less complete, soon takes place. This never fails, unless
the vitality of the part he totally gone, or the structure of the tissues completely dis-
organized. I have seen some of the most remarkable results follow from the use of
this instrument that were perhaps ever witnessed, in a medical way. I have known
patients in whom the whole organ was not half an inch long, and without the slight-
est tendency to erection, and yet the congester has caused it to grow, and has given
it power, until perfectly capable for the purposes it was intended for. Sometimes
there only appears a simple protuberance, like a tumor, while at other times the
organ is long and surprisingly small, and quite flaccid, but still the congester will
impel the blood into the tissues and produce the effect desired. Sometimes, it is true,
we cannot gain so much as would be desirable, but nearly always sufficient for
Nature's requirements, and very often as perfect in condition as if no imperfection
had ever existed.

In conjunction with the congester it is also requisite, in most cases, to act upon
the muscles by shampooing, as they are usually deficient in power, and without their
action the penis cannot erect, though it may become firmly congested.

This practice of shampooing the perineal and genital muscles, to improve the
erectile power, was originated in Asia, but has been known and practiced in Europe
for many years. The process is both tedious and somewhat painful, and requires
both skill and knowledge in the operation. In Turkey men make a regular business
of this, and they succeed admirably. In this country it is necessary to direct the

OBGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAB0U8 ANIMALS. 253

patient himself, or hired assistants, and the constant supervision of the medical man
is therefore required. To perform this operation to advantage, it is best to have the
parts made perfectly bare and smooth, and then lubricated with a proper ointment.
The operator then presses the end of the forefinger firmly into the muscle, passing
it along backward and forward, in the direction of the fibers, till the muscle be-
comes hot and swells. This is done with all the muscles whose action is required,
and it should be practiced every day till the effect is manifest. At first the sham-
pooing causes considerable pain and soreness, but this soon passes away, and then the
muscle feels firm to the touch, and is found to be much stronger.

It must be recollected that the various means I have described require a long
period to be put fully in operation, and are such as can be commanded only by those
who have plenty of both time and money at their disposal.

"With those who are fortunately so situated as to have these essential requisites,
the gain is certainly great, and well worth what it costs, and I have never known one,
who was successfully treated, who did not say he thought no price could be dear to
pay. Many a man has been saved from insanity or suicide by these means, and many
a domestic hearth has been made the scene of happiness and delight, that was pre-
viously the abode of recrimination and despair.

I have treated patients of all ages, from mere youths up to maturity — the oldest
I recollect being about fifty-two — and in most of them with a success that has been as
pleasing to them as it was gratifying to myself. Some of the means I have mentioned
are scarcely known in this country, and are certainly not put into general practice ;
the account I have given of them may, therefore, be the means of giving many suffer-
ers the first intimation that help can be had.

One of the most remarkable cases I ever treated was that of a young man of nine-
teen, who was brought to me by his father, himself a physician. In this person there
was scarcely any appearance of a penis, but only a small tumor, not projecting more
than a quarter of an inch, in the center of which was the opening of the urethra.
It was quite sensitive, however, and seemed rather as if compressed downward.
The testes were of average size, and the semen secreted in sufficient quantity, appar-
ently, so that nothing seemed wanting but a perfect penis. I at once told his father
that I felt assured much improvement could be obtained, but that it would require
much time and attention, with great endurance on the part of the patient himself.
They were both delighted to hear this, and the young man testified his desire that
I should commence the treatment immediately, which I did. A congester was con-
structed specially for the case, and applied daily. The lower part was of glass, so
that its operation could be seen, and it was observed that immediately the tube was
exhausted of air the penis seemed to be drawn forward, and extended to full two
inches. The patient complained of great pain in the part during the operation, from
the rush of blood into the cells, and it remained exceedingly tender for several days
after. The congester was not applied again till this soreness had subsided, but in the
meantime the stimulating hot lotions were used, and shampooing of the muscles was
practiced. It was observed that even the first application had evidently caused some
protrusion, and the young man remarked that the internal sensations were different
from what he had ever before experienced. The internal medication in his case was
of a more stimulating character than ordinary, because the sexual impulse was not
very strong, and only occasionally manifested. His diet was directed to be as nour-
ishing as possible, with wine for drink, and every day he rode out on horseback after

254 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

a warm bath, followed by brisk rubbing of the whole surface of the body. After the
first effect had subsided the congester was xised daily, and followed by the shampooing,
for ten weeks,. by which time a permanent advance had been made. The penis mea-
sured full two inches in its ordinary state, and in the congester was extended to three.
Partial erections occurred at times during sleep, and the procreative instinct became
more active and permanent. I then directed him to return home for three months,
and only continue the general treatment, so that I might see if Nature herself could
complete the work. At the end of three months he came back to me with a still
further improvement, though slight. He was then put under the old treatment
again, and this time the effects were still more satisfactory. In two months, under
the congester, the penis measured four inches, and in the ordinary state remained
permanently at three, with firm erections and copious emissions of semen. Finding,
therefore, that every requirement of nature could be fulfilled even as he was, and
that further improvement would evidently take place with the growth of the system,
I desisted from further treatment and sent him home cured. His father was as much
astonished as gratified, and another physician who had seen him and pronounced
him an hermaphrodite, would scarcely believe it was the same being.

Another case was that of a man who had married at thirty-two, though imperfect,
from a mistaken idea that marriage would effect a cure. The result may be imagined ;
the misery of two human beings could scarcely be more complete. In his despair a
friend brought him to me for my opinion. On examination I found the penis not
very small, nor in any way imperfect, but it had never been erected, and seemed in-
capable of being so. The semen was secreted plentifully enough, and the instinct
was as strong as was desirable. I told him without any hesitation that he could be
made perfect enough for his marital duties in a short time, providing he would fol-
low strictly my directions, and submit to my treatment, which he was willing enough
to do. The congester was applied, and with the happiest results. At the third
application a powerful erection was produced that did not subside for a considerable
time, owing to want of perfect action in the cavernous veins. This, however, was
soon remedied, and in two weeks, by the use of the congester alone, natural erections
occurred spontaneously, as perfect as could be desired. In a word, he was perfectly
cured, and is now the father of two. children.

I have also had numerous instances of persons who had lost the power of erection
from sexual and other excesses, from mental anxiety and from the effect of debili-
tating disease. In a great portion of these the result has also been favorable, though
in many all vitality had left the organs before I saw them, and in others the struc-
ture was completely disorganized. Many young men especially, victims of mastur-
bation, whose organs had ceased growing, have by these means been rescued from
impotency and imperfection. Many a man of mature age also, whose powers were
unimpaired, but who could not exercise them, owing to this particular debility, has
been restored to his former capability in the same way.

The congester is not an instrument adapted for self-treatment, and I would not
advise any one to attempt its use without proper directions and supervision. I have
known it to do great mischief with inexperienced people, and fail in accomplishing
any good. In one man who had applied it too forcibly and suddenly, the cells were
nearly all ruptured, or broken into one another, so that severe inflammation was pro-
duced, and the power of erection was forever lost.

There are some means, however, that all persons may use, provided they know

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 255

when tuey are appropriate to the case. The pressing and shampooing may be par-
tially practiced by the patient himself, though very imperfectly, but the general di-
rections as to diet and exercise may be observed of course by all. Perhaps, however,
there is no other functional disability so difficult to treat, or that requires so much
skill and such unremitting attention.

In addition to the means already described, there are some others occasionally
useful, but which are not so generally applicable. Galvanism is sometimes an excel-
lent agent, when there is nervous insensibility combined with the other disabilities.
A very good mode to use it is to galvanize the metallic congester, while the organ is
engaged within it. The power must not be too great, however, nor the application
continued too long, or there may be partial paralysis.

The French have a practice of flagellation, which is sometimes very efficacious,
and will induce erection in a short time. It is rather severe, however, and few have
courage or endurance sufficient to continue it long enough to derive full benefit. The
flagellator is made of six or eight small twisted thongs, about as thick as a violin
string, but very flexible, and about eight inches long. To operate with it to the
best advantage the parts should be made bare, and perfectly smooth, and the flagel-
lator must then be applied the whole length of the penis, and on the pubes, peri-
neum, and inside of the thighs, till the flesh is quite red and smarts. The flogging
must never be so hard, or long continued, as to make any bruises, nor leave any sore-
ness, but merely sufficient to make it red and feel hot, with slight smarting. Usually
about a quarter of an hour is sufficient every day. After the flagellation the parts
should be well bathed in hot water, and the patient should recline.

This treatment may seem singular to those who never heard of it before, but it is
undoubtedly more efficacious, in numerous cases, than any one could well believe
who had not seen it practiced. I have known many patients resort to it, with
the happiest results, who could not stay with me long enough for the usual treat-
ment. In some it will produce powerful erections the first time, and lead to an in-
flux of blood to the parts that soon stimulates their growth.

Firing is another practice that may be resorted to, if others fail, for rousing the
dormant energies of these parts, or causing growth. It consists in turning the parts
with a smooth iron button, made hot by plunging it in boiling water. The parts
are first made smooth, and then the button is taken out of the water and pressed
suddenly on, repeating it as fast as possible, till the whole length of the organ has
been operated upon. No part should be touched twice, nor should the iron remain
on more than an instant. The pain is very slight, and no blister is raised, the places
only turning wliite at first, and afterward remaining red. The firings should be re-
peated only at intervals of three or four days, waiting till the effects of one are gone
off before another is practiced.

This process is sometimes astonishingly effective, a single application producing
such a powerful effect that no further treatment is required. Care is required, how-
ever, not to produce too much inflammation, nor to operate too near the testes.
Sometimes the development will be much less on one side of the penis than the
other, or less in the corpus spongiosum than the cavernosum, so that the organ will
not be straight but curved ; or it may be straight in the ordinary state, but not capa-
ble of erecting in all parts alike. This state of permanent chordee is perhaps better
treated by the flagellation or firing than by any other means, because they can be
applied locally, and only to the affected part.

256 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

It may perhaps be as well to remark here that a modification of the congester is
sometimes of great service in certain torpid states of the female organs, and that
some of the other treatment is also occasionally applied to them, in a modified form,
with the happiest results.

The penis is, perhaps, more variable in its form and situation, among the differ-
ent mammiferous animals, than any other organ. It is only among the bats and apes
that it hangs down from the pubic bone, like it does in man, being in the others
always included in a sheath. In the cat, the rat, and some other animals, it is di-
rected backwards, and in tbe beaver it is drawn far back into a kind of canal, like a
vagina, while in the kangaroo it is even surrounded by the sphincter muscle of the
anus. In many animals the prepuce is very long and like a sheath, and the penis is
ordinarily drawn into it, when not erect, as in many of those above mentioned, and
as we see in the horse ; but sometimes the penis is permanently so long that it cannot
be drawn into the sheath in a straight form, but has to be bent.

The position of the penis is variable in different animals, according to the mode
of their copulation. In man, apes and bats it is covered by a sheath of the common
skin of the body, which grows fast to it, except on the glans at the end, and hangs
free from the bottom of the abdomen, being supported by two special ligaments.
Underneath, as far back as its root, it is confined under the skin, nearly to the anus.
In carnivorous animals, pachyderms, ruminants, horses and amphibia, the sheath
does not grow fast to the penis, and is confined to the body as far as the navel, the
naked penis being protruded from it only during erection, or while urinating. The
substance of the under part of the sheath is quite firm, to enable it to sustain the
weight of the penis, which is often considerable. In the elephant the weight is so
great that a solid ligament is needed underneath.

The opening of the sheath, in the above cases, is usually near the navel, and it is
often not so long as the organ it has to contain, in which case the penis has to bend,
or fold itself when drawn within. In the elephant it is very long, and to bring it
fairly under cover of the sheath, it has to be bent like a double letter S. In the
camel, dromedary and cats it is bent back, so that it points behind, which explains
why the males of these animals urinate backward. It is only during erection, when
it is unbent, that they point the penis forward.

In the agouti and the marmot, the penis after being pushed out of the end of the
sheath, is bent back under the skin, till it reaches just under the anus. In some
others, as the rats, hares and opossums, it is carried back, in the same way as above,
and issues nearly from the anus itself.

The form of the penis varies as much as its size. It is of small diameter in the
boar, and in cattle, and usually tapering, while in the horse and elephant, it is
large, of equal size in all its length, and flat at the end. In the rhinoceros it is large
and conical ; in the dolphin it is large, conical, and flat. In the gnawing animals,
and quadrumana, it is cylindrical, and in the rat it is shaped like a letter S.

The structure is similar, and erection is caused in the same way in all cases, by
the blood filling up the vessels of the corpus cavernosum, as water fills a sponge.
In the elephant it would take at least a gallon of blood to cause a perfect erection.

In those species the females of which have a double vagina, like the kangaroo,
the penis is also double, so that there is one for each passage, each having a
tube to convey semen, though there is but one urethra for the urine, which opens
between the two glans. The alligator also has a double-headed penis. The glans

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 257

on the end of the penis is even more variable than any other part, being seldom
soft and spongy, as in man, but frequently hard, horny, and covered with sharp
points, and sometimes even it scarcely exists in any form. In some of the apes it is
spread out like a mushroom, with slit edges, and occasionally covered with sharp,
hard spines. This is the case also in the bat, and partly so in the shrew-mouse,
while in the hedgehog it is divided into three lobes. The hyena has it formed like
the broad knob of a door, and in the bear and dog it is like a long club. The glans
of the cat is covered with horny spines directed backward, which probably cause
pain to the female, and draw forth those horrible cries which these animals emit
during copulation. In the Guinea pig it is covered with scales, and has two horny
hooks, while in the hare it is drawn out to one long, thin point, and in some other
animals into two points. In some it is even covered with stiff hairs, and in many
has rough knobs, or tubercles. In the. rhinoceros the glans is bell-shaped, in the
horse it is bulbous, and in some of the whales it is shaped like a tongue, while in
others it is conical. The most singular form, however, is in that curious animal,
the ornithorynchus, in which it is very large, square, divided in two parts, and cov-
ered all over with spines. The bone of the penis is found in many animals, as well as
in the Negro occasionally. It is very large in the dog, but small and thin in the
cat, while in the raccoon, and rat, it is crooked, like the letter S, and in some
others it is formed like a hook. In the squirrel its termination is flattened out, like
a shovel.

It is found in all the quadrumana, gnawing animals, seals, and whales, and also
in all the digitigrades (animals that walk on their toes, instead of the flat of the
foot), except the hyena. In the bears, rats, and dogs, it forms the greater part of the
organ. In cats, the ichneumon, and some of the rodents, it is small, while in the
whale it is quite large, reaching nearly to the end of the penis, and terminating like
a club.

The testicles having been already fully described, the whole male generative ap-
paratus can now be fully understood, both as regards its own specific action, and its
conjunction with the female organs in the act of sexual conjugation.

Many other particulars as to these parts will be given when we come to describe
their diseases and malformations, and when explaining foetal growth and child-
birth.

In regard to the position of the testicles', we find three different classes. In one
class they are always within the body, in another they are always without, and in
the tnird they only descend at the period of pairing, being at other times within the
body. I have even known men in whom the testicles descended into the scrotum
only when they were sexually excited, they being at other times in the abdomen.

The animals that carry the testicles externally, do so in a proper pouch, called
the scrotum, which is placed differently in different animals. Apes and carnivorous
animals carry the scrotum behind, under the anus, and both testicles lie in it to-
gether, with nothing between them. In the kangaroo, the hare, the jerboa, most of
the ruminants and the solipedes, such as the horse and ass, the scrotum is divided
into two distinct parts, so that the testicles are completely separated from each other
by a partition.

In the moles, rats, beavers, squirrels and many others, the testicles descend into
the scrotum only at the time of the rut, and when that is over ascend into the abdomen
again. In the civet-cat, and in many pachyderms, or thick-skinned animals, like the
17

258 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

hog, which have no true scrotum, the testicles are still always outside. They lie in
the thickness of the perineum, just below the anus. The camel carries them in the
skin of the groins.

The ornithorhynchus, seal, whale, elephant, and many others of the pachyderms,
carry the testicles always inside, where they are attached to the loins, much as in
birds.

The seminal vesicles, as before explained, probably act as reservoirs, in which
surplus semen is stored between periods of copulation. They are not always present,
some animals being quite destitute of them. Like the testicles themselves, they are
often quite small, except at the time of the rut, and they vary greatly in form and
size. In some animals their walls seem to be glandular, which makes it probable that
they also secrete some fluid to mix with the semen, or else they in some way modify
that fluid.

The prostate gland undoubtedly secretes a fluid which mingles with the semen,
and is probably essential to it. This gland exists in all the quadrumana, bears and
rats. It is double in the ruminants, and in the bats is so large that it surrounds the
whole urethra, like a ring. In cats and dogs it is very large, making quite a pro-
jection. The elephant has four prostates, two on each side, of unequal size, and they
are placed inside the seminal vesicles. Horses also have four prostates, but they are
differently disposed.

Cowper's glands, usually considered as a small prostate, are very small in men, but
in some animals are quite large ; they probably secrete some necessary addition to the
semen, like the prostate itself. They are much larger in apes than in men, and still
more so, proportionately, in bats and cats. They are largest in the hyena. The
pouched animals (marsupials) have several of these glands, sometimes as many as
six. In the squirrel and marmot there are two, resembling bladders. In the boar
they form a long tube, while in the elephant they are round and flat, and quite large.

A want of careful observation has led some anatomists to confound Cowper's glands
with the seminal vesicles, but they are always distinct enough, both in structure and
function. The vesicles contain semen, but these glands contain a peculiar fluid of
their own, very different.

The glans at the end of the penis varies in form and structure as much as any
other part, being in all cases adapted to the part of the female it has to reach in the
act of copulation. This is necessary, because it is the part which causes in her the
proper degree of excitement.

GENERATIVE ORGANS OE THE MARSUPIALS.

Our previous explanations haVe shown that there are two very distinct kinds of
animals, among those with which we are ordinarily acquainted, namely, those that
bring forth eggs only, which are developed externally, and those which develop the eggs
in their bodies, and bring forth their young alive. The females of these latter all
possess a peculiar organ called the matrix, or womb, in which the new being remains
connected with the mother, and is nourished by her blood, till it is enough de-
veloped to live alone, then it is born and she further nourishes it with her milk. The
womb, therefore, is the distinguishing organ among females of this kind, and there
is nothing like it in those that bring forth eggs only.

There is, however, a class of animals, found mostly in Australia, which are inter-

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS. 259

mediate between these two. They are called marsupials, or pouched animals. The
kangaroo is typical of the marsupials. The females of this class bring forth their
young alive, and have a womb in which it is formed, but it is very imperfect, and so
is the connection between mother and child, so that the offspring is not retained in
the womb till it is perfect, as in the true viviparous animals. It is brought forth
half formed, like an early miscarriage in more perfect beings, and is then placed in
the pouch, or pocket, which is under the belly, outside. In this pouch are the teats,
or external openings of the milk ducts, and each little half-formed being, as it passes
out of the womb, is attached to one of these teats, and enclosed snugly in the pouch,
where it remains till its development is sufficiently advanced for it' to live alone.

It will be seen from this that the marsupials are intermediate between the ovip-
arous and viviparous animals. They bring forth the young alive, but only half
formed, and complete the development in a sort of extra external womb — the marsu-
pium, or pouch.

All these animals are peculiar in many ways, some of them very much so, and
they are in every way of an inferior type to the true viviparae. The brain, in the
kangaroo, is very imperfect, so that the animal has but little intelligence, not even
enough to recognize its keeper and feeder. The hind legs, also, are the only limbs
perfectly developed, the front ones being very small, and useless for progression.
The animal, therefore, uses its tail, which is enormously developed, and with this and
the two large hind legs bounds along by successive leaps. It also possesses certain
peculiar bones, called the marsupial bones, because they are found only in marsupial
animals. These bones are placed under the abdomen and serve to support the pouch,
and the young, in the female, and are important also to the male, in connection with
the generative apparatus.

The sexual organs, and the process of generation altogether, in these beings, are
very peculiar, as will be shown further on.

In all of them the uterus is double, and the vagina is also divided more or less
completely into two distinct canals. The generative tubes and the digestive both
terminate in a common cloaca, as in birds, thus showing an approach to the ovipara.
In the male the penis is double, or divided, corresponding to the double vagina of
the female, and in all probability the act of copulation is double.

The American opossum is a marsupial, but has not all the peculiarities of the
class so prominent as in the kangaroo. The young, when born, are blind and shape-
less, and do not weigh more than a grain each when they are placed in the pouch.
There are often from ten to sixteen of them. When perfect they leave the pouch,
but often run back to it for shelter, when there is danger, as indeed all young marsu-
pials do. The way in which the young opossums travel when older is very droll to
witness. The mother curls her long tail over her back, on which the young ones
stand, and each one keeps his place by curling his tail round the mother's, and so
they travel.

There are many different kinds of these animals in America, especially in the south,
some of them very small, like mice, and until Australia was explored they were
thought to be the only ones of the kind in existence.

There are many fossil marsupials, and, in fact, it would seem that at one period
they were a prevailing type. Some naturalists have suggested that Australia, which
is peculiar in many respects, is in reality a fraction of the world of that period.
The mouth of the young marsupial, and the teat of the mother, are so formed

PLATE XVIII.

GENEKATTVE OKGANS OP THE MAESUPIALS.

Figure 1. A female opossum, showing the pouch open, and the young ones at-
tached to the nipple.

Figure 2. The milk apparatus of the female kangaroo, showing its numerous
nerves, c, d, e, g, and the powerful muscles, /. b, by which it is compressed to force
out the milk.

Figure 3. Internal generative organs of the female kangaroo, aa. The two
uteri, bb. Where they open into the vagina, cc. The uterine tubes, d. The left
ovary, ee. Blood-vessels, ff. The principal veins, g. One of the tubes open.
M. The ureters leading from the bladder, ii. The large ligaments of the womb.
jj. The two vaginas, h. The bladder. I. The external opening of the vagina.
m. That of the bladder, n. The common cloaca.

Figure 4. A foetus just born. Figure 5. The same.

Figure 4a. The head of a young kangaroo cut through, to show how the nipple
is held in the mouth.

Figure 6. The external sexual organs in the male kangaroo, a. The testicles
placed forward. b. The penis drawn back into the body.

Figure 7. The same organs dissected out. a. The testicles, b. The penis a
little protruded., c. The spermatic tubes, e. The bladder. /. The neck of the
bladder. 7i. The rectum. %. The muscle which draws the penis back into the body.
j. Tbe gland of the penis, dd. The ureters.

Figure 8 shows part of the pouch of a female kangaroo, b. One of the nipples
pulled out, as when in use by the young, a, is one when not in use.

Figure 9. Head of young kangaroo cut open, to show how the windpipe and
oesophagus are arranged, so that it can swallow and breathe all the time without
inconvenience, a. The oesophagus, b. The windpipe, going to the nostrils.

PLATE XVIII.

Generative Organs of the Marmpiak.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

261

■initio

that when once the teat is in the month the hold never relaxes. The milk, there-
fore, is all the time being absorbed, though slowly, and owing to a peculiar forma-
tion of the larynx this occurs without interfering with breathing. It will be seen
that this is analogous to the constant absorption of blood by the young of more per-
fect animals, in a true womb.

The time that these half -formed young remain in the womb is very short, in the opos-
sum only twenty-six days, and in the kangaroo only thirty-nine. When first brought
forth they are very imperfect, almost shapeless, and in the smaller animals much
resembling earth worms. The earlier observers, who only saw these minute creatures
attached to the nipples, thought they grew there, like buds. The subjoined cut
shows a young Kangaroo, when first placed in the pouch, natural size ; the skin is
tbin, and almost transparent, in fact almost like that of a worm.
The mother, it is said,
uses her mouth to transfer

(ft £5^,0 the y°uns to the niPPles>

^H "w v~/ and this is much facilitated

by the close connection be-
Fl™Vo5ojJ^ZKanga- tween the vagina and the
pouch. They remain fast
to the nipples a long time, in the kangaroo about
two months, and suck at intervals after they are
detached, like other animals, for some months longer.

It may be supposed that the young marsupial,
so imperfect, cannot have muscular strength enough
to hold on voluntarily to the nipple. And this is
probably true, the hold being very likely spasmodic,
or involuntary, and aided by the mutual adaptation
of the teat and the mouth. Nor could it draw the
milk by its own efforts, at least not at first. The
flow is therefore regulated by the action of a special
muscle, in the abdomen of the mother, which com-
presses the mammary gland and squeezes the milk
gradually into the mouth. These beings evidently
form a link between the egg-bearing and the young-
bearing animals, for they possess characteristics com-
mon to both, but fully belong to neither. Figube 76.— Young Kangaroo in

In past ages they formed one of the links, in the its Mother's Pouch adhering to the
long chain of evolution, by which the more perfect

animals of the present day have been developed from the imperfect ones of a more
early period.

These particulars will, however, be better understood by reference to the accom-
panying plates. In some animals of this kind, it should be observed, the pouch
is not perfectly developed, the skin being only drawn into deep folds, or wrinkles,
which apparently serve the same purpose.

MONOTREMATA.

There is another order of animals, containing only two kinds, which are still
lower than the marsupials, and which, in their generative organs, approach very

262 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS.

closely to birds. This is the order monotremata, which is found nowhere else but
in Australia, and consists only of the omithorhynchus, or duck mole, and the echidna,
or porcupine ant-eater. In both of them the intestine, the urinary passage and the
seminal duct, all open into a common cloaca, as described in birds. The females have
no marsupial pouch, like that of the kangaroo, although there are the marsupial
bones. The testicles of the male remain always in the body, there being no scrotum,
and the vas deferens discharges the semen into the cloaca. There are no nipples on
the females' breasts, the milk ducts opening, in the echidna, into a kind of small
pouch, and in the omithorhynchus on a flat surface. So far as observed, the young
appear to have no direct connection with the mother by a placenta, and the way in
which they are carried and nourished is not known. They are born quite blind, and
almost skinless, so that they are evidently not retained long in the body. From the
peculiar formation of their mouths, and the absence of nipples in the mother, their
manner of nursing is a mystery.

The manner in which these very exceptional animals copulate, and other particu-
lars as to their generation, have not been ascertained. I have been assured, however,
by a gentleman long resident in Australia, that in the act of sexual union, the
female duck mole lies on her back, and that the act is very prolonged.

The omithorhynchus is perhaps the most remarkable animal known. It has a
body like an otter, covered with fur, the tail is broad and flat, like a beaver's, the
feet have claws and are webbed, and it has a bill like a duck's. It has no teeth, and
its food consists mainly of insects, and it burrows in the ground like a mole.

The echidna resembles somewhat a hedgehog, having spines, and stiff bristles on
the back. The feet are not webbed ; it burrows in the ground, and lives on insects,
which it catches by means of a long sticky tongue. Its snout is long and pointed,
and like the duck mole, it has no teeth. Its principal food is ants, from which it is
called the porcupine ant-eater.

No doubt these singular animals are as exceptional in their generative processes,
in many ways not now known, as they are in other respects.

The following table will give a synopsis of all the different modes of reproduc-
tion, as above described :

PLATE XIX.

Duck-billed Platypus, or Omythorynchus.

PLATE XX.

Grab-eating Opossum, with Young in its Pouch.

Opossum carrying its Young.

SYNOPSIS OF THE VABIOUS MODES OF GENERATION.

I.
NON-SEXUAL GENERATION.

VAEIEXIES.

Fissiparous.
"When the parent simply divides into
two or more parts, each becoming a new
being.

Gemmiparous.
When the parent gives off buds, which
grow into new beings, either attached to
the parent or separate.

II.

SEXUAL GENERATION.

VARIETIES.

Hermaphrodite.
Where both sexual organs, male and
female, are found in the same individual,
some being capable of self-impregnation,
others needing the concurrence of two,
or more, to mutually impregnate each
other.

Dioecious.
When the male and female organs are
placed in separate individuals ; the male
and female principles being united within
the body in some, and without the body
in others.

MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT.

OVIPAROUS.

The eggs laid and hatched outside the body. As in birds and insects.

OVOVIVIPAROUS.

The eggs partly developed within the mother's body, but the young being in no
way connected with her.

VIVIPAROUS.

The eggs developed in the mother's body ; the new being nourished from hei
blood, and brought forth alive, and capable of living independently.

MARSUPIAL.

The eggs developed in the mother's body, but the young only half formed, and
then placed in an outside pouch to be completed.

MONOTREMATOUS.

Development mainly external — no placenta, and no marsupial pouch.

CHAPTER XXIII.

THEORIES OF GENERATION.

Having thus stated the provisions which have been made by nature through
fecundation of the ovulum, by the concurrent offices of the two sexes, we may here
examine various speculations and opinions which, from time to time, have been enter-
tained relative to the nature of this marvellous and mysterious process; speculations
which, although for the most part exceedingly hypothetical, and often completely
visionary, have been dignified with the appellation of theories of generation. This
it is our intention to do very briefly, and to notice only the more important of these
theories ; for the total number of hypotheses which have been advanced on this subject
is so great, that their mere enumeration might occupy many pages. Drelincourt,
who lived in the latter part of the seventeenth century, collected from the writings
of his predecessors as many as two hundred and sixty-two "groundless hypotheses"
concerning generation; " and nothing is more certain," observes Blumenbach, " than
that Drelincourt's own theory formed the two hundred and sixty-third."

These theories may be arranged according as they relate to the action of the
parent organs, or to the changes in the egg occurring during the formation of the
new animal; and Haller divided the first of these classes into three divisions, accord-
ing as the offspring is supposed to proceed; first, exclusively from the organs of the
male parent, which is the theory of the Spermatist; or, secondly, entirely from those
of the female, which is that of the Ovists; or, thirdly, from the union of the male
and female products, which is the theory of Syngenesis. The second class, again,
may be arranged under two heads, according as the new animal is supposed, first, to
have its parts rendered visible, by their being expanded, unfolded, or evolved from
a previously existing though imperceptible condition of the germ, which is the
theory of evolution; or, secondly, to be newly formed from amorphous materials at
the time when it makes its appearance in the ovum, which constitutes the theory of
Epigenesis.

The theory of the Spermatists regarded the male semen as furnishing all the vital
parts of the new animal, the female organs merely affording the offspring a fit recep-
tacle and suitable materials for its nourishment, until it could exist by the indepen-
dent exercise of its own functions. One of the earliest supporters of this hypothesis
was Galen; but its modern revival dates from the period of the discovery of the
seminal animalcules, which were regarded by Leewenhoek as the proper rudiments
of the foetus. They were even considered by some to be miniature representations
of men, and were styled homunculi; one author going so far as to delineate in each,
the body, limbs, features, and all the parts of the grown human body. Even Lee-
wenhoek describes minutely the manner in which they gain the interior of the ovum,
and are retained after their entrance by a valvular apparatus.

The Ovists, comprising some of the older philosophers, such as Pythagoras a

264

THEORIES OF GENERATION. 265

Aristotle, maintained that the female parent affords all the materials necessary for
the formation of the offspring, the office of the male being merely to awaken the
dormant formative powers residing in the female products. Malpighi and Harvey
asserted that the rudiments of the foetus are derived principally from the female
ovum; an opinion which was also elaborately defended by Vallisneri (Delia Gene-
razione, part 2).

The theory of Syngenesis, or of the simultaneous combination of products derived
from both sexes, which after sexual intercourse, are supposed to unite together to
form the germ, is also of very ancient date. In connection with this theory may be
mentioned that modification of it which may be termed the theory of metamorphosis,
according to which a formative substance is held to exist, but is allowed to change
its form, in order to be converted into the new being; as also the hypothesis of Buf-
fon, which was eagerly adopted by Needham, who conceived that certain molecules,
which they termed organic, and which they believed universally to pervade plants
and animals, were all endowed with productive powers, which enabled them, when
placed in suitable situations, to attract one another, and to compose by their union
living organized bodies. They imagined, that in the process of generation the super-
abundant portion of these organic molecules were accumulated in the generative
organs, and there constituted the rudiments of the offspring.

The hypothesis of evolution, or of pre-existing germs, coincides with that of the
Ovists, in considering the fcetus as solely the production of the female; but it farther
assumes that it already exists, with all its organs, in some part of the female system
previous to the sexual intercourse; and that it receives no proper addition from the
male semen, the action of which is merely that of exciting the powers of the fcetus,
and of endowing it with vitality. The observations of Haller with respect to the
gradual enlargement or evolution of the chick during the process of incubation, were
conceived to lend great support to the advocates of this theory, of whom the most
strenuous and enthusiastic was Bonnet. This naturalist, so celebrated for the bold-
ness of his speculations, contended, not only that the whole of the parts of the fcetus
pre-exist in the ovum, before they actually make their appearance, but that the germs of
all the animals which are in future to be born, also pre-exist in the female parent;
so that the ovaries of the first parents of any species of animal contained the germs
of all their posterity, included the one within the other, like a nest of boxes; from
which comparison he termed his theory that of "emboitement." This extravagant
notion was adopted by many physiologists, principally from its affording some kind
of explanation of what no other theory seemed in the least adequate to solve. Spal-
lanzani, in particular, was a zealous defender of the hypothesis of pre-existing germs.
It appears, however, to be totally irreconcilable with the phenomena of hybrid pro-
ductions, and of the resemblance which, in so many instances, the offspring bears to
its male parent.

We have already mentioned that Harvey and Malpighi ascribed the formation of
the fcetus principally to the powers of the female. This opinion gave origin to the
modern theory of Epigenesis, first clearly promulgated by Casper Frederick Wolff,
who not only described a successive production of organs, of the previous formation
of which there existed no trace; but showed, also, that after parts are first formed,
they undergo many important changes in their shape and structure, before arriving
at their finished state. The more recent researches, aided by delicate microscopical
observation, of Meckel, Pander, Baer, Bathke, Oken, Purkinje, and Valentine; Ser-

260 lUlEORIES OF GENERATION.

res, Kolando, Dutrochet, Prevost and Dumas, Coste, and others, have demonstrated
that the theory of Epigenesis, or superformation of parts, is much more consistent
with the observed phenomena than that of evolution. The facts which have thus
been brought* to light are of peculiar interest with reference to the plans of nature,
into which they give us a more extended insight, by exhibiting new and unexpected
affinities between remote families and classes of animals ; by showing that at one
period the type of their formation is nearly the same, and by explaining the seeming
Caprice of nature in instances of monstrous and defective formation.

The fact that the new being is often a perfect mixture of loth parents, would
seem sufficient to prove that it is not formed exclusively from either the egg or the
semen, but from a union of the two. And further, the fact that it is not in any par-
ticular part that it always resembles, either the one or the other, would show that
the union is not effected on any strict plan. The fact that a child may resemble
either father or mother, in many different ways, is well known. In a large family
some of the children will resemble the mother in features, and dispositions, while
others will resemble the father in the same way.

In the lower animals, when the new beings are formed from only one parent, they
resemble that parent. It is only when sexual difference comes in, and the two par-
ents are concerned in reproduction that we find great differences in offspring.

In those cases, among the higher animals, where a new organism is formed from
the female egg alone, it is never perfect, as already explained, which alone would
seem to prove the need, among them, for the concurrence of both egg and semen.

In their primary condition the egg and seminal animalcule are probably the same
kind of simple cell, but they become afterwards differently specialized. The seminal
germ is apparently further developed than the ovum, and assumes a different character
in consequence. They both probably contain the same fundamental organization,
but the seminal germ becomes more vitalized, or capable of motion, as we see in thf
animalcule, while the egg remaining more inactive is but little else than a mass of!
protoplasm, with a small amount of motive energy ; when they unite, therefore, the
male germ gives the life, or motive energy — in the animalcule — while the female
germ gives the nutrient material by which the new being is formed. In this way
both concur, and the union of the two results in the perfect new being.

Still even in the female the egg may, in some cases, have much more vital force,
or motive energy than ordinary, while the sperm may have less, in which case the
female would influence the formative process more than the male, and impress her
likeness upon the offspring more than he would. That there are these differences in
the vigor — if the term may be used — of the male and female principles is undoubted.
Usually they are tolerably well balanced, but cases are not unfrequently met with in
which the female completely neutralizes the male, and her children resemble her
alone.

In other cases it is the reverse, and the family represents the father alone.

Breeders of animals often understand this important fact very well, and by proper
pairing, and attending to the relative condition of the two parents, at the time of
connection, they will produce offspring resembling one or the other. Negro women,
it is well known, will bear much lighter colored children to some white men than
to others, and some mules will resemble the ass much more than they do the horse.

The most probable theory would seem to be that the male germ, and the female
germ, both have within them the formative rudiments of a similar new being, and

THEOBIES OF GENERATION. 267

that the corresponding elements unite, part to part, and thus produce a more perfect
organism than either could alone.

The one that gives the preponderating portion of any part stamps its impress on
that part, and thus transmits its own resemblance.

The actual commencement of development is probably due to the male germ,
because it is already, at the time of impregnation, endowed with motion, or life,
owing to its having further progressed.

The reason we do not find the male germ alone forming a new being (beyond the
animalcule) like the female germ, is simply because it has no stored up stock of nutri-
ment, such as we find in the female egg ; and there is therefore nothing by which
further development can be effected. But the animalcule itself is, in reality, the male
germ alone, developed to that extent, and it is in fact a more perfect development
than the female egg ever reaches alone.

The animalcule is really a new human being, produced by the male germ only,
as far as the formative material in that germ could effect its development ; but when
the nutrient matter of the female egg, and its formative power, is added, then the
development becomes complete.

PART X.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS IN PLANTS, AND THEIR
CORRESPONDENCE WITH THOSE OF ANIMALS.

CHAPTER XXIV.

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

From what has been already explained it will be obvious that plants, in many
respects, resemble animals much more closely than is usually suspected, and this
is especially so in regard to the organs of generation, and the way in which they
act. There is scarcely a sexual organ found in animals that we do not find the exact
analogue of in plants, and the various processes, even to the act of sexual conjugation,
are identical in both.

In the lower animals propagation is effected by the parent simply dividing into
two or more parts, or by sending out buds, each part or bud becoming a new being.
The same process, exactly, occurs in plants, — they can propagate either by simple
division or by budding, in the same way. In the higher animals there are two prin-
ciples concerned in propagation, the male sperm, and the female egg, or ovum,
which unite to form the new being ; and it is the same in the higher plants, which
propagate by the union of the male pollen and the female germ. Even the organs
by which the two principles are brought together are remarkably similar in both, the
hollow tube of the pistil corresponding to the female vagina, and the elongated pollen
grain to the male penis. There is a real act of conjugation, or sexual union, in the
one case as in the other, and as many curious modifications, both of form and mode
of action, are found in the plant as in the animal.

At the present day, the fact that plants are truly sexual, male and female, is very
generally known, and in many ways practically used, but it has been known only a
short time.

It was not till 1716 that Vaillant, a French botanist, first clearly explained the
true nature of the stamens and pistils, and showed that plants propagated sexually,
like animals. This was one of the greatest discoveries ever made in botany, and also
a highly suggestive fact in natural history generally, because it showed man how
nature works by similar agencies in different fields. It was a long step toward a
perception of the great truth of the oneness of many natural phenomena, when they
are rightly understood, which are ordinarily thought to have nothing in common.
Establishing the similarity of plants and animals, in the matter of propagation, led
the way, at a later period, to the still more important discovery that man and all
other animals are identical in the same way.

Plants, as before explained, like animals, may be either hermaphrodite — that is,
have both male and female organs on the same plant ; or they may be dioecious — that
is, have the male organs on one plant, and the female organs on another. The her-
maphrodite arrangement is the most common, so that the male and female principles
being close together there is seldom any failure of fertilization.

When the male and female organs are separated, by being on different plants,
which may not grow near each other, fertilization often fails, and the female plant

271

£72 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

is barren. Nature, however, has so well provided for carrying the pollen great dis-
tances, by the wind, or by insects, that the male and female may be many miles
asunder and yet impregnation occur.

The date palm, on whose fruit a large number of the Arabs mainly depend for
food, is dioecious, and if no male trees are near to fertilize the female ones, they are
sterile, and produce no fruit. The Arabs therefore always attend to this, and if no
male plant is near their plantations, they fetch branches, with the pollen on them,
from a distance, and hang them in the female trees. The pollen dust is then blown
about by the wind, settles on the female pistils, impregnates them, and they produce
fruit. In time of war, between different tribes, it is a common practice for one
tribe to destroy the male date-trees of the tribe they are contending with, and thus
starve them.

The common persimmon is dioecious, and it is not unusual to find female trees
producing no fruit, because no male trees happen to be near. Sometimes when the
grapevine is just ready to fertilize, heavy rains occur, which wash off the pollen, so
that it never rises, like dust, to fertilize the germ, and in consequence there is a
failure of fruit. The same thing often happens with other plants, in unfavorable
seasons, the perfect dryness of the pollen being indispensable, so that it may rise,
which it will do sometimes in a perfect cloud.

In the conservatory at Berlin there was a fine female palm-tree, which had been
there for eighty years, sterile ; but which was at last fertilized by some pollen sent
from a distance, by post, and it then produced fruit. It was then left barren again
for eighteen years, and again fertilized in the same way. Gardeners, at the present
time, when they think their plants, or flowers, may not be properly fertilized natu-
rally from any cause, take care to fertilize them artificially. This they do by taking
pollen, in a proper state, and dusting it upon the pistils of the female flowers, some-
times using a fine camel's-hair brush for the purpose. By the same means they pro-
duce hybrids, or crosses, by placing the pollen of one kind upon the pistil of another
kind, just as mules are produced by the union of the horse and ass. There is a limit,
however, to the extent to which this can be done in plants, as there is in animals.
The two parents must be related, within certain degrees, or the fertilization will
not take place. Why this is we do not know. Possibly, in the case of animals,
the form of the seminal animalcule may be, in some way or other, adapted to the
female germ ; and the same may be the case with the pollen of the plant and the
future seed.

It is a curious circumstance that mules, or hybrids, both animal and vegetable,
may be perfectly developed iu every other way, but are never so in the sexual organs.
They may even surpass the parents, generally, but cannot continue their kind by
propagation.

It has been shown before that in animals, even in the human being, the female
egg is formed and expelled without any intercourse with the male, but it comes to
nothing if it be not impregnated. And exactly so it is with plants. The female
germ is always formed in the ovarium, at the foot of the pistil, but if it be not
impregnated by the male pollen it does not form a seed, but only a mass of albu-
minous pulp.

All germs, however, have an innate power of development, which may enable
them, under peculiar circumstances, to form a new organism without the concur-
rence of another germ. Thus the ovum in human virgins, as before explained, may

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

273

form into an organism, to a certain extent, without any concurrence on the part of
the male whatever. Such formations, however, are never perfect, and do not come
to anything. They begin, but do not complete development.

In plants also, the female germ may, in some cases, develop without receiving the
male pollen at all, and even reach perfection. An Australian plant which was grown
in England, in the Botanic Gardens, was found to be female, and there was not
another plant of the kind, of either sex, in Europe, and yet it produced perfect seeds,
which germinated and grew into new plants.

The same thing has been observed in a few other cases, but must be regarded as
exceptional only, and possibly when more closely observed, the occurrence may be
explained satisfactorily. We know that there are some insects in which one sexual
connection will impregnate several successive generations, without any other male
contact, and it may be that some such phenomenon occurs in these plants.

Commonly, in hermaphrodite plants, the male and female organs are close
together, forming part of the same corolla, or flower. The female organ, called the
pistil, is in the center, and the male organs, called the stamens, are ranged around,
within the petals of the corolla, as seen below.

The male pollen is formed at the top of
the stamens, which usually end in a pro-
tuberance, or curiously shaped part, called
the anther, which is often jointed to the
stem of the stamen, and has quite a range
of motion.

The female germ, or future seed, is
placed at the bottom of the pistil, in what
is called the ovarium, analogous to the ovary
of the female animal.

The pollen, when ripe, is in the form of

fine dust, which is readily blown or carried

around. If a grain of this dust alight at

the top of the pistil, called the stigma, a

q curious process takes place.

There is a very minute passage down the
center of the pistil, leading to the germ,
and down this passage the pollen has to be
conveyed, in order to fertilize the germ.
In its ordinary state the pollen grain is too
large to pass down this narrow way, and it
therefore undergoes a very curious change.
Resting on the stigma it begins to push
downward a prolongation like a root,
which works its way down the passage in
the pistil till it reaches the germ, and im-
pregnates it.

This is a true act of sexual conjugation,
exactly analogous to copulation in animals.
As soon as it is over the flower begins to wither, the leaves, stamens and pistils dry
up and fall off, and the germ develops into the seed, or fruit.
18

Figure 77.— Flower of the Lily.

the

aa are the petals, or flower leaves
stamens, or male organs, c is the pistil or fe-
male organ, d are the six stamens separate ;
e being the anthers on the tops of the stamens.
/ is the pistil separate, with the stigma g on
the top, and the germ h at the bottom.

274

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

There may be either one stamen, and one pistil, or several of each, though usually
the stamens are more numerous than the pistils. There may also be only one seed,
or fruit, or several. In short, similar variations to what we see in animals.

The following cuts will show some of these varieties :

Figure 79.

Pistils, and Germs, in Plants.

In figure 78 the five male stamens, with double anthers on the top, may be seen
in the spaces between the five petals ; with the female pistil in the center. In figure
79 the flower is cut through, to show how the pistil is connected with the germ, or
the seed, in the ovarium. Figures 80, 81, show the same.

Sometimes the male and female organs, instead of being contained in the same
flower, as in those just shown, are in separate flowers of the same plant, as in the

Figure 80.

Figure 81.

hazel, in which the male organs are the catkins, which, when ripe, are covered with
yellow pollen dust. The female flower is very small, and red in color.

At the time of fertilization the flower is at perfection, in every way, but immedi-
ately sexual conjugation is completed it fades and dies, as many of the lower animals
do. When ready to fertilize, the stamens and pistils often exhibit curious sponta-
neous movements, calculated to aid in the grand process of fecundation. It would
seem as if the access of sexual vigor endowed the whole plant with an energy and
sensibility far beyond what is shown at other times, just as we see an animal bound
into superabundant life at the period of puberty.

The various forms of the stamens and pistils, and the strange ways in which they

OBGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS. 275

act, to bring the pollen on to the stigma, are exceedingly interesting to observe. In
some, as in the barbery, the stamens are held bent down by the closed petals, which
thus cover the pollen and keep it dry. But as soon as the bright sun shines upon
them the petals spread out straight, and carry the stamens with them. These, how-
ever, gradually work clear of the petals and again curve inward, so that the anthers,
with the pollen upon them, approach and touch the stigma on the top of the pistil.
At the right moment the least touch or shake will cause this action to occur imme-
diately. The settling of an insect is one of the more frequent of these assistant con-
cussions.

In the nettle, and some others, the stamens are folded back, at the bottom of the
flower, like coiled springs, and the least touch, or shake, makes them spring up in
an instant with a force that throws the pollen in a cloud all over the pistil.

The rue has eight or ten stamens, spread out flat, with the petals, and if carefully
watched one of these will be seen to bend forwards till its anther touches the stigma,
and sheds the pollen upon it, when the stamen again bends back flat, and another
takes its turn.

In Figures 80 and 81 some of the stamens are seen approaching the pistil to
deposit their pollen upon it. Each one touches it in its turn, or kisses, and then
springs back.

In self -fertilizing plants, just at the time when the pollen is ripe, the stigma
usually becomes sticky on the top, so that the pollen falling upon it is retained, and
at the same period, in those that need aid, the flower secretes the honey or nectar,
which insects seek, and in doing so scatter the pollen, and convey it from one plant
to another.

In many flowers the stamens are so situated, in reference to the pistils, that this
approach cannot take place, nor can the pollen reach the stigma at all without some
extraneous assistance. In these cases it is carried by the wind, or, more frequently,
by insects, many of whom are peculiarly organized to fit them for the purpose.

A very curious circumstance was lately noticed, in regard to the common red
clover, showing the mutual dependence of plants and animals upon each other. This
plant has a very long tubular flower, at the bottom of which is the nectar, or honey,
and within the tube is the female pistil. The pollen is so placed that it needs to be
carried by some agency to the stigma, and this would be readily effected by many
insects seeking the honey, were it not for the form of the tube. It requires an insect
with a long thin trunk, or sucking pipe, which can be thrust down to the honey,
and the common bumble bee has just such an organ. It is this insect, therefore,
that effects the fertilization of the clover, in getting its nectar, the trunk of the
common hive-bee being too short.

It was observed in some places where the red clover was sown, that, though growing
well, it did not produce sufficient seed. There was pollen enough, and both pistil
and germ were perfect, so that the failure evidently was in fertilization. This failure
was traced to the absence of the bumble bee, and then came the question, why this
insect was absent ? Further observation explained this also, by showing that this
bee makes its nest in a hole in the ground, among the grass, and that the common
field mouse, being fond of honey, destroyed the nest and young bees to get at the
small store of it which the nest contained. As a consequence, when the field mice
abounded the bumble bees were scarce, and the clover was only partially fertilized.
By multiplying cats and other such animals, which preyed on the mice, they were

276

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

soon so reduced in numbers that the bumble bees became abundant, and the clover
was perfectly fertilized ! Few people would suspect any connection between cats and
clover seed, and yet it is obvious enough, when the mutual dependence is traced out.
Many equally curious instances could be given, some of which particularly show
the mischief which is often done, by ignorant people, in deranging the balance of
nature. These people look only at one animal or plant, and observe only one event,
without tracing out the connection between all beings and all events, and so learn-
ing how they mutually influence and are dependent one upon another.

Figtjbe 82.

FlGTTRE

Figure 82 and Figure 83 snow different arrangements of the sexual organs. In Figure 82 th?
stamens are placed on the lower part of the petals, while in Figure 83 they are on the germ eel I
itself. The pistil is in the midst of them in both cases, and connected with the germ below. Li
Figure 82 one of the stamens is just touching the stigma, on the pistil.

Mr. Darwin, in his wonderful book on the fertilization of plants, gives a vast
amount of interesting information on this subject, which is well worth study. Among
other important facts, his experiments have shown that the pistil, in regard to the
pollen, has a power of selection ; for when the pollen of different varieties is mixed
and applied to the stigma, it will always take one particular kind, and that only,
though it will take one of the others if that be not present.

Figttbe 84. — Pistil of the Poppy.

Figtjke 85. — Pistil of the Madder-plant.

Figure 84 shows the seed capsule, or pistil, of the poppy, with two of the stamens.
Figure 85 shows the double pistil of the madder-plant, with all the stamens removed.

It is quite possible also even in animals, when they mix promiscuously, that the
semen of some males may always be absorbed in preference to that of others, so that
their descendants will preponderate over the others, and thus become a special breed.

Another curious fact may alsobe noticed. It is chiefly those plants that need
insects to fertilize them which produce honey, while those in which the pollen is

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

277

blown about by the wind are nearly always without it. In such plants also the
stamens generally project beyond the corolla, or else there are no flower petals at
all, so that the pollen is freely exposed to the action of the wind.

There is a curious water-plant, called the Vallisneria Spiralis, which gro^s at

Wi

m &&

JB

^-i-JrJ

- MSZ

■:^[-

Figure 86.— The Vallisneria Spiralis.

the bottoms of ponds, in which the contrivances for assuring fertilization are well
worth studying. It is dioecious, but the male and female flower stalks usually grow
very near each other. At the time of fertilization, the female stem lengthens so that
the flower is carried to the surface of the water, where it expands. The male flowers
grow on short stems, at the bottom of the water, but at this time they become de-

278

ORGANS of generation in plants.

tached, in some unknown manner, and float up to the top where they too expand,
and are drawn toward the female flowers, so that the pollen is shed upon the stigma,
and the germ is fertilized. The male flowers then wither and die, while the female
descends again to the bottom, and there the seed is perfected.

The spiral stems of the female flowers, as shown above, by expanding, project
the flower to the surface of the water, and after they are impregnated by contract-
ing, draw them down again. The male flowers, thrown up from below, are seen on
the surface, ejecting pollen grains.

The amount of pollen produced by some trees, and the distance to which it is
carried, is astonishing. "Where pine forests abound it often descends, like rain or
mists, over a large extent of country. Indeed, it is often called sulphur rain, from
its color, and before its real nature was known, very curious notions prevailed as to
what it was.

There is a plant called lycopodium, something like a large moss, which produces
such a quantity of pollen that it is gathered in bags, and used for various purposes.
It is very combustible, burning with a vivid flash, and is employed in theaters to make
lightning. If a handful be scattered in the air, and a light applied to any part, the
whole cloud flashes into a bright flame at once. It is easy to see how conflagrations
in forests may be accelerated, or even originated, by this substance, for the slightest
spark would be sufficient to cause its ignition.

The forms of the pollen grains are very varied and often peculiar, resembling
closely the lower protozoa in animals, as seen in the following illustration :

Figure 87. — Various forms of Pollen Grains.

There are also other phenomena connected with the inflorescence of plants, not
less suggestive than those already given. In many of them the temperature rises to
a most remarkable extent, so that the flower becomes actually hot. In some arums,
in fact, the temperature rises as high as 143°, a heat sufficient, under some con-

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

279

ditions, to make it wither up. Touching one of these flowers is like touching hot
iron. Probably most flowers, at the time of fertilization, develop heat as well as
motion, as a consequence of the activity of the sexual organs, which is strictly anal-
ogous to the erotic fever in animals at the corresponding period.

But not only do plants develop heat, and motion, at the period of greatest sexual
exaltation. Many of them give out flashes of light at such times, and others again
currents of electricity, like what occurs in animals. Eeproduction, in short, is
nature's supreme effort, and both in plants and animals it brings all her forces intc
active play.

The countless millions of
germs produced by some of
the lower plants has already
been referred to, as well as the
astonishing amount of male
pollen ; but even in tb 3 higher
plants the quantity of seeds
produced seems almost fabu-
lous. A single poppy-plant
has been found to contain 32,-
000 seeds, and a tobacco-plant
40,000, while an elm-tree may
produce in one season half a
million seeds. Of course, only
a small fraction of all these
seeds canform new plants, while
but a still smaller fraction of
the male pollen is needed in
fertilization. And this super-
abundance, it must be remem-
bered, is not occasional, but
constant, season after season.
Nature has provided, in every
way, all the elements of repro-
duction, not only in abund-
ance, but apparently in ex-
travagant excess.

It must be remembered,
however, that both germs and
pollen are essentially proto-
plasmic, and very possibly
they may be important agents
n the reproduction of that Figure 88 shows a plant of the Bastard Dittany (Dictam
natural protoplasm before re- nus Fraxinella), inclosed in a glass case to confine the in-
- , , J- , ' . flammable vapors which arise from it. On opening the case

ierred to, which abounds in and applying a light, the vapors at once hurst into flame,
the air and in the water. When Many plants, during the period of flowering, give out these
. -, • ,i . -,., „ inflammable vapors, as well as flashes of light, heat, and cur-

not used in their quality Ot rents of electricity ; all resulting from sexual activity,
germs, pollen, or seeds, they
may simply disintegrate into that impalpable, universally diffused organic dust which

Figure 88.

280 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

the air everywhere contains, and which constitutes what experimenters call the
floating atmospheric germ. The vitality of some seeds is very remarkable. They will
endure the greatest extremes of both heat and cold, and may be kept for hundreds of
years, and yet germinate when placed under proper conditions. Certain seeds, which
often come to Europe in wool, imported from Brazil, may be boiled for four hours,
and yet afterward grow if planted. Many others will stand boiling for a shorter time.
Some raspberry seeds taken from an old Celtic tomb, seventeen hundred years old,
were sown in the Horticultural Garden, London, and grew, and the bushes from
them may still be seen there.

In simple cellular plants, though the contents of two cells unite to form the gen-
erative germ, there is no difference, so far as can be ascertained, between the two.
The union is probably only analogous to the process of fission, or division, in the
fully-developed plant itself ; the substances from two cells uniting in the same way
as the two halves of a one-celled organism, and making one complete cell between
them. The union of a portion, or the whole, of the contents of two different cells,
seems to develop a more energetic action than is seen in either cell alone, or more
force of growth. This arises, probably, from there being some small difference
between them, and the one complements the other.

The way in which the contents of two cells mingle to form a new one is very
simple. They merely approach till they touch ; then burst at the point of contact,
♦he contents of the two intermix, a membrane forms around the intermixture, and a
new cell is formed containing the essential elements of the original two, which shrivel
up and disappear. The new cell thus produced from this union is called the sporan-
gium, because it produces the spores from which new plants arise.

Sometimes, instead of the two cells bursting when they touch, their investing
membranes simply unite, and expand between them, forming a new cell, into which
both pour their contents, and thus form a sporangium as before.

In other cases, when the two cells unite one empties into the other, and thus
forms the sporangium, instead of a new cell being formed. Probably this is the first
beginning of a differentiation of cells. One of them varies in some way from the
other, and is attracted to it ; or, in other words, a kind of sexual difference has
taken place — one is male and the other female, though imperfectly.

Among the higher cryptogamous plants, and in some of the sea-weeds, certain of
the cells produce thread-like bodies or filaments, exactly resembling the spermatic
animalcules of animals, which, when ripe, are scattered around by the bursting of
the investing membrane, and move freely about of themselves. When one of these
sperm filaments merely comes in contact with a germ cell, it seems to stimulate it,
and cause increased development by its mere presence, but it is uncertain if it ever
really enters the germ cell. There may be some osmotic absorption, however,
through the investing germ cell membrane.

The cell which grows and develops the new organism is always called the female,,
or germ cell, analogous to the egg in animals, and the filamentous one which stimu-
lates it is called the male or sperm cell. They may either be formed on the same
plant (hermaphrodite) or on different plants (dioecious).

In the simpler forms, where two of the same kinds of cells unite, the new one
(embryo) is perfect from the first, and is at once cast off to commence life on its own
account. But when we come to the actual union of two different kinds, a sperm cell
and a germ cell, by the sperm filament penetrating the germ cell, and uniting with it,

ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

281

or by osmotic action through the membrane, the case is different. The sperm cell is
usually small and imperfect, while the germ cell is provided with a large amount of
nutritious material, like the yelk and white of a bird's egg, by which the sperm
embryo is nutrified and developed to a much more perfect stage before it is cast off.
In other words, it is retained till it is formed into a perfect embryo, ovum, or seed,
which is different from either the sperm cell, or the germ cell, from which it is
derived.

These different processes are clearly shown in the following illustration :

Figure 89. .

Figure A shows how the two cells, a, a, have burst on contact, and their contents uniting form
the sporangium, b.

Figure A 2 shows the investing membrane of the two cells, a, a, expanded, and the contents
of both intermixed in the new-formed space ; making the sporangium, b.

Figure A 3. In this the contents of the cell a have passed bodily into a*, thus forming the
sporangium in one of the original cells, by the union of the contents of both. This is probably the
first commencement of sexuality.

B is a sperm cell (male) of one of the higher cryptogams ; it contains a moving filamentous
body, resembling the zoosperm of an animal, which is* just escaping from it.

C is a germ cell (female) of one of the higher cryptogams, filled with protoplasmic material
analogous to the yelk of the animal egg. A filamentous male germ is seen in contact with it,
effecting its impregnation either by actually entering it, or by exerting some influence upon it, by
osmotic action, through the investing membrane.

In perfect plants, which produce seeds, as before shown, the sperm cell, or pollen
grain, in like manner, pushes out a long tube, which forces its way down what is
called the style, or pistil, of the flower, till it reaches the germ cell, and fertilizes it,
so that it can develop into the perfect embryonic germ or seed. This curious process,
as before observed, is wonderfully like the act of copulation in animals, the pollen
tube acting the part of a penis, and conveying the fertilizing male principle to the
female germ.

This is shown in the last figure, a is the pistil of a flower, with the seed d at
the bottom, c is one of the stamens, there being one also on the opposite side, e is
one of the male pollen germs lengthening itself out like a thread, down the tube of
the pistil, to reach the germ d.

Much more that is exceedingly interesting could be said on this matter, but this
is sufficient to show the remarkable correspondence between animals and plants in

282 ORGANS OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

the process of reproduction. It will also show that the old poetic dream of the loves
of flowers is probably a reality ! Any one who has studied the curious ways in which
the male and female organs of flowers unite, how they bend, and turn, and twist, to
come together for a short embrace, and the close union they form, can scarcely help
thinking that pleasurable sensation, of some kind, must accompany the process. It
is, perhaps, really the same in kind as love in animals, only different in degree.

PART XL

PARTHENOGENESIS, OR VIRGIN GENERATION; AND
THE ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

CHAPTEE XXV.

VIRGIN GENERATION".

Is some of the lower animals the process of reproduction presents a most remark-
able peculiarity. We find in them, at some period or other during their career,
both males and females, and, of course, the two sexual elements, and they propagate
in the usual way by uniting them.

In addition to this, however, there is a period in which the female propagates
alone, without any concurrence with the male ; in fact, at that time no males exist.
This is called Parthenogenesis, or virgin generation.

The best illustration of this remarkable mode of propagation is found in the green
Aphis, or plant-louse. These insects are always to be met with, during spring and
summer, on the young shoots of the rose tree, which are often covered with them.
They are small and plainly visible to the naked eye, plump, round, with six legs,
and bright green in color. In front the aphis has two long feelers, and behind two
odd-shaped spikes. It has no jaws, since it lives entirely by sucking the juices of
the plant on which it lives, and from which it seldom moves, unless forced to do so.

The aphis is always full, and frequently even overflowing with the plant-juice,
thus causing that peculiar sticky, sweetish, varnish-looking substance called honej
dew, often seen on the leaves and stems of plants. Ladybirds, ants, and several
kinds of grubs, feed on these plant-lice, not eating them, but using them as we do
cows. They tap them, or milk from them the juice they contain, and which they
keep continually drawing from the plant.

It may readily be supposed these insects are terribly hurtful to vegetation, and
indeed gardeners consider them among their worst foes. One particular kind, which
lives on the hop-vine, often causes in England a loss in revenue alone of upward of a
million dollars in a single season. They propagate with such extraordinary rapidity
that when the season is favorable for them, nothing can withstand their power of
destruction. And yet the greater part of this astonishing multiplication is effected
by females only !

During the early summer all the aphis are wingless females, and a brood of them
begins in this way. An egg is laid the previous fall, usually in the axis of a leaf,
which in the warm spring hatches out into a wingless female insect, with six legs,
as above described. In a few days this wingless female produces eight more living
creatures, just like herself.

And each of them, in like manner, soon produces eight more, and so on, for six,
eight, and even ten, successive generations ! This ratio of increase would make it
possible for one single egg, in one summer, to produce ten thousand million insects !
"We need not wonder, therefore, at their astounding numbers, and at the rapidity
with which they multiply.

But the most remarkable thing, connected with this prolific propagation, con-

286 VIRGIN GENERATION.

Bidered jmysiologically, is that it all results from virgin females only, not a male
being produced ! Where then, it may be asked, does the egg come from with which
we started ?

It comes in this way : toward the end of the summer the production changes,
and the same wingless females bring forth aphides with wings, and which are both
male and female, perfect. These copulate in the usual way, and the female deposits
her eggs on the plant to be hatched the next spring, and to commence the same round
as before. Then both parents die, and no more males, or winged females, are seen
till next autumn.

It is supposed, therefore, that the influence of the autumn impregnation is con-
tinued through the ten or more generations of the next spring. But why only fe-
males should result from it for so long a period, and yet finally perfect males and
females both should result, we do not know.

It would rather seem as if the early broods were real virgin productions, and all
female from lack of vigor in the parent. As the season advances, and the plant juice
becomes richer, the parent may become more vigorous, and capable of producing per-
fect males and females.

It will be seen that the reproduction of this insect depends entirely upon the pro-
duction of the egg at the end of the season. The aphis itself perishes entirely in the
winter, but the egg survives, to be hatched wheu warmth returns in the spring. The
one way to lessen or destroy them, therefore, is to destroy the eggs, for a single one
hatched is enough to produce thousands of millions of the aphides.

We do not know that the eggs have any destroyers, though fortunately there are
plenty for the insects themselves ; but, in spite of all, the plant-louse never fails.

The following plate shows the progression of this remarkable creature from its
commencement in the egg.

It has been suggested that the so-called wingless females may really be hermaphro-
dite, but no trace of a male apparatus has been detected in them. Even if they were,
it would still be a strange anomaly for them to produce finally true males and
females ; and besides these true males and females produce only eggs, while the wing-
less insects produce living insects, like themselves.

Consider it in whatever light we may this abnormal mode of propagation is
very wonderful, and gives rise to many plausible speculations.

The generation of the hive bee is, in many respects, analogous to that of the
aphis. We find among them three different kinds of beings — the males, which are
produced only at certain times of the year — the workers, which are only imperfect
females — and the true females. These three varieties all result from eggs laid by one
female, and the difference between them is brought about in a very curious manner.

One female produces all the eggs that a hive requires to form a new swarm,,
some thirty thousand or more, so that only one is reared. If two are produced they
always fight till one is killed, the males making no interference. When ready for
impregnation, the single queen takes a flight through the air, a kind of nuptial
journey, during which the males attend and impregnate her, probably repeatedly.
After this is effected she returns to the hive, and enters upon the business of laying
eggs, the workers forming the cells, making the honey, and attending to her and
the eggs. The males being no longer needed soon die off.

This single impregnation suffices to fecundate all the eggs she afterward lays ;
the semen she has received being stored up in a peculiar organ adapted to the pur-

VIRGIN GENERATION.

287

pose. This seminal reservoir communicates by means of a tube, with the oviduct,

down which all the eggs pass, and it is so made that she can open and close it at will.

All the eggs which are to produce workers, or

future queens, are impregnated as they pass

down the oviduct, the seminal tube being opened

at that time to let the semen reach them. But

when the eggs pass down that are to form future

males, the seminal tube, it is said, is not opened,

and so they are not fecundated at all. This has

been apparently proved by destroying the tube

which conveys the semen, in which case the

female produces nothing but males.

If this be really the case, and it would seem
to be so, then all the males are produced by the
female only, and have no male parent at all.
In support of this it may also be noted that
when two kinds are crossed the males all resemble
the queen only.

Some naturalists, however, contend that the
eggs of insects are of no sex, but may be devel-
oped into either, according as the resulting larvae
are fed and treated. And this possibly may be
the case, for as before explained, all cells are
primarily alike, and male and female are only
different stages in their development.

Parthenogenesis occurs in many other beings,
besides those above described, but the process is
essentially the same in all.

The occasional imperfect organisms developed Figtjke 90.— Parthenogenesis of the Rose

in the human virgin, from her ovas, are of course , ..,'.,

„ " . , . , . . , o, is the original egg laid on the rose

true cases of parthenogenesis, and it is quite con- staik in the fall, e, is the first insect

ceivable that in some former state of the world, hatched from this egg in the spring, g,

, . .._, , » , . , . , to a, are seven different generations, each

among beings very different from what exist now, on° produced by the one before it. and

it may have been a frequent occurrence. all wingless females alike. /, and m,

T, •■ ■, i-iiiiii • ^ i • are the ninth generation, or sometimes

It has been suggested that the wingless aphi- the tenth or eleventh. They are pro-

des, produced by the virgin females, should be duced last in the- season, and are perfect

-. j -, i j ti j.i £ j male and female. These copulate, and

regarded only as buds, like those formed on the fema]e lays tlie eggs t0 £e hatched

plants, and not as true sexual products, while the next spring. The male has organs
the final perfect males and females should be re- JS^teS^SS^
garded as the flowers and seeds which the plants duces eggs, like the more perfect ani-

finally produce. ^From 1 to 5 shows the ovarian tube,

in which the aphis is developed. Begin-
ning at 1, we find a small number of germ vesicles, which, as they develop and multiply, passi nto
2, 3, 4, 5, successively. 1', 2', represent single vesicles magnified.

These successive enlargements of the ovarian tube are needed to accommodate the continually
increasing brood. In each chamber the larva has become more perfected, till finally in 5 it is
ready to come forth as the grub g.

By some, each of the imperfect stages of the aphis is regarded only as a kind of budding, the
true sexual reproduction occurring only in the final stage.

Begard it as we may, however, the whole process is very wonderful, and highly sugges-
tive.

288 VIRGIN GENERATION.

This explanation is more ingenious, it seems to me, than well-founded, and does
not meet the difficulty so well as that given above. Nor does it seem to apply at all
to the occasional cases of parthenogenesis in the higher animals, and in plants, such
as have been narrated in previous articles.

Some of the small water insects exhibit the phenomenon of parthenogenesis,
especially those called water fleas. In some of these one impregnation will last the
female her whole life, and the young females which she produces will produce young
all their lives without any male intercourse whatever.

In some of the barnacles the disposition of the sexual elements and organs is still
more singular. Usually they are hermaphrodite, but not in the ordinary way. The
animal seems to be only female, having no separate male organs, and instead of them
there are two males, lodged in the same shell, which impregnate only her. They do
not leave that shell at all, nor fecundate any other female, and evidently serve the
one only. They are very imperfect as animals, having neither mouth, anus, stomach,
nor limbs, like those of the female. They seem, in fact, to be nothing more than
separate living sperm cells, full of sexual animalcules, which they discharge at the
proper time, and then die.

In this case, we seem to have the male testicles separated from the rest of the
hermaphrodite body, and formed into living organisms by themselves. They perform
no other function than that of secreting semen, and when that is discharged they
perish. This, it will be seen, is strictly analogous to those cellular organisms which
produce only germ cells ; and which may be considered as living female ovaries, which
discharge their ovae and then die.

Both the male and female organs, therefore, may live, and perform their respec-
tive functions, as independent beings, without being structurally connected with any
other bodies. Still more singular than this, there are other beings, of a like kind
(the Scalpellum vulgare), which are also hermaphrodite, but in whom the male organs
are apparently too small to secrete enough sperm to insure fecundation. To com-
pensate for this, there is always found closely connected with them a number of in-
dependent males, which by their seminal secretion make up the deficiency. These
males never separate from the hermaphrodite body, and when no longer needed, die.
Their sole purpose evidently is to make up for the smallness of the male organs
which form part of the parent body. They serve, in fact, the same purpose as those
before described, but are more perfectly organized. They never pair with simple
females, but only with the hermaphrodite they live with.

In what is called alternation of generation, parthenogenesis frequently occurs,
with change from one mode of generation to another. The common tapeworm is
an instance of this, and a very instructive one.

In their perfect state tapeworms are always found in the intestines of warm-
blooded animals, their presence causing much sickness and distress. How they come
there, and the change they undergo, is understood by few of those who suffer from
them.

This animal, as usually seen, is composed of a number of flattened joints, all alike,
connected together like a chain, sometimes of immense length. The real animal,
however, is but small, constituting the round upper end, called the head, or some-
times the nurse. It is very curiously formed, having a circle of hooks, or suckers, or
sometimes of both, by which it holds on to the inner wall of the intestines. It has
no digestive organs, and no mouth, so that it lives entirely by absorbing the fluids of
the body to which it is attached.

VIRGIN GENERATION. 289

The joints, as they are called, which stretch out, one below the other, down-
ward from the head, are all simply so many hermaphrodite propagating bodies.
They are all alike, each one having male and female organs, and being capable of
producing ovse, or eggs. The head itself, the real animal, has no reproductive
organs, and apparently could not, alone, continue its kind. All the propagation is
effected by the joints. Whether there be any nervous system in the tapeworm has
not been ascertained. There is, however, a kind of tube on each side, running the
whole length of the animal, called the water vascular system, which binds all the
parts together. At each joint a small tube goes across from one side to the other,
like the rounds of a ladder, and thus all the joints are organically connected. In the
last joint this cross tube opens into a peculiar contractile vesicle.

The joints are all formed from the head, by budding, one after another, each new
one being produced between the head and the nearest joint, so that those nearest the
head are always the youngest, and the end ones the oldest.

Each separate joint has both male and female organs, perfect, consisting of an
ovarian tube, and a seminal tube, which both open together into a small projection
on the side, and are ejected through an opening called the generative pore. This
pore is placed alternately on the right side of one joint and the left of the next, and
so on.

What is called a tapeworm, therefore, consists of the real animal, the head,
and the joints (named proglottides). It may be altogether only a few inches long,
or many yards ; every joint, or proglottis, being nourished by what is imbibed from
the intestine through the head. Possibly the joints may also absorb, by osmose,
from the fluids in the intestines. It is, in fact, a fearful parasite, feeding all the
time on its victim, and perpetually multiplying itself.

The most remarkable thing about this creature, however, is the way in which it is
developed, for it does not reproduce its kind directly, nor where we usually find it.

The sexual joints, which form the eggs, are produced only in the intestines of
warm-blooded animals, as in man, but the eggs never hatch there, so that no new
worms are ever formed there, and usually there is but one. This is why it is some-
times called the "solitary" worm. Before the eggs can be hatched they must be
swallowed by some other animal, as they never develop in the one in which they are
formed.

The joints, one after the other, when their contained eggs are all fertilized, be-
come fully ripe, detach themselves, and are expelled from the body with the excre-
ment. After this discharge, they soon become decomposed, and the contained eggs
are liberated.

Each egg is covered with a firm capsule, or sac, which protects it from injury, and
it often contains the rudiments of the young worm so far developed that its head
and suckers can be distinctly perceived, though very minute. At this stage the egg
must be swallowed by some warm-blooded animal, and so be carried into its intestines,
before its development can proceed any farther.

When once in the intestine, the capsule is soon ruptured, or dissolved by the gastric
juice, and the young tenia is liberated. It is then ordinarily only like a small vesi-
cle, or sac, but it is provided with three pairs of flinty spines, or borers, with which
it bores its way through the walls of the intestines, and so reaches some of the neigh-
boring parts, or some blood-vessel, which it enters, and may then be carried in the
blood to some internal organ, often the liver.
19

290 VIRGIN GENERATION.

It is now cahed a ''proscolex," and having got so far, immediately sets to work to
develop further. Wherever it may be, it forms around itself an inclosure, like a round
sac, called a cyst, in which it lies, and at its posterior end it develops a small round
vesicle, filled with fluid. It is now called a scolex, or sometimes a hydatid. While in
the cyst it consists only of the head, with its hooks and suckers, and the vesicle of
fluid attached behind. It has no other organs of any kind, and it is unable to pro-
ceed further with its development where it is. It may, however, propagate in this
encysted stage, by simple budding, but only produces a scolex, like itself, except very
rarely. In some exceptional cases it produces an organism like a half-developed
tenia, but never a perfect one.

If the scolex, however, reaches the intestines of a warm-blooded animal, by being
swallowed, it attaches itself by its hooks, or suckers, and soon forms the perfect
head of a new tapeworm. The vesicle drops off, and the formation of joints com-
mences. „

When first formed, the joints are not perfect, but as the chain of them is gradually
lengthened, those first formed ripen, the eggs are produced and impregnated, and
they become finally ready to fall off and begin the circle again as proglottides. The
whole animal, head and joints together, is called a strobila.

The animal, therefore, goes through the following stages : 1st, the egg, produced
from the generative joint, or proglottis ; 2d, the proscolex, or embryo, which is set
free from the ovum after that has been swallowed by some warm-blooded animal ;
3d, the scolex, or encysted embryo, a little further developed than the proscolex, but
still with no generative organs, though it may propagate by budding, beings like
itself (formerly called a cystic worm) ; 4th, the strobila, or perfect tapeworm, with
head and joints developed from the scolex after this has been again swallowed by a
warm-blooded animal.

The course of one of these worms may be traced in this way : An individual
afflicted with tapeworm is constantly evacuating the ripe joints, with their eggs.
These are very small, and may either be washed by rain, or otherwise, into water, or
they may dry up and be blown about by the wind. There being so many eggs thus
dispersed, some of them, if pigs be around, are sure to be swallowed by these ani-
mals with something they eat, and once in the pig's intestines each one soon forms
into a proscolex, which bores its way into some part of the body, and becomes a scolex.
Usually they pass into the muscles, and when in large numbers cause one form of
what is called the measles. In the pig itself, the animal remains a scolex only, but
may propagate by budding, as before explained. If, however, the pig be killed, and
a man eats part of its flesh, especially the ham, he necessarily swallows the scolex,
and once in his intestines it fastens itself to the walls, and becomes a true tapeworm,
or strobila, ready to form joints and begin the same round over again.

In the cystic, or scolex state, it was formerly called the cysticercus cellulosus,
and was chiefly noticed as the agent that caused the measles. Measly pork, therefore,
is simply the flesh of a pig infested with tapeworm in the scolex stage.

It would seem almost like what is called poetic justice, that the cat is afflicted
with a tapeworm which results from a scolex contained in the mice which it eats,
and in like manner the tapeworm of the fox comes from the hares and rabbits it de-
vours. The tapeworm of the dog comes from a cysted worm, which causes the stag-
gers in sheep ; and in man there is a variety which comes from measly beef.

What are called hydatids, in the human body, result from the scolices of the tape-

VIRGIN GENERATION.

291

worms of other animals, especially of the dog, which by some means obtain access to
the interior of the body.

It is very difficult to get rid of a tapeworm, because it is of no use to merely break
off some of the joints. If the head is not got rid of, the animal is still there. When
a part of the joints protrudes, a steady, firm pull upon it, not enough to break it off,
will often make the head let go, if the pull be kept up for some time. Several drugs
have more or less power over the tapeworm, either killing it, or causing paralysis,
so that it looses and comes away. Turpentine is very effective for this purpose, but
the new remedy, housso, is the best yet discovered.

It is very certain that the principal source of the tapeworm in man is swine's
flesh. And those animals that feed around the most promiscuously are, of course,
the most likely to be infested with it. The flesh of all measly animals ought to be
carefully destroyed.

Altogether some 200 varieties of tapeworms, and of others resembling them, have
been described, about ten of which affect the human body.

In the perfect form, tapeworms are found only in the vertebrate animals, though
in the larval, or scolex stage, they are found in some of the invertebrates. In birds
they are very numerous, especially in water birds, but they are rare in reptiles, or
fishes, except the cuttle-fish. The hog itself, it will be observed, never has the tape-
worm, in its perfect form, but only the scolex, which he passes on to man to be
completed.

The scolex, it should be remarked, sometimes reaches the drain, causing epilepsy,
insanity, and even death. Still, old men have been found, after death, infested with
them in almost every part of the body,
and yet, while living, apparently but
little inconvenience resulted from their
presence.

The adjoining plate shows the vari-
ous stages of development in the tape-
worm.

In the hydroid polyp, called the
sertularia, the generative process is
still more remarkable. The egg which
it produces swims about, for a time,
by means of cilia, or hairs, which it
uses as oars, but finally becomes at-
tached to some object in the water,
and then develops a mouth and limbs,
and becomes a new being. It then
commences to produce others like
itself, by budding — all of them grow-
ing together, forming a colony, in
which each is independent, though all
are united

Figure 91. — The Tapeworm in various stages.

Figure 1. An egg, containing the embryo,

Figure 2. A cysticercus, or scolex.

Figure 3. Head of a tapeworm enlarged, to show
the hooks and suckers.

Figure 4. One of the joints magnified, showing
the ovary o, the generative pore a, and the water
vascular canals b.

Figure 5. A portion of the jointed part of the
None of these new beings tapeworm, to show the generative pores on alternate

have any sexual organs, and

sides

The water vascular tube on one side is connected
quently they are unable to propagate, *"* the one on the other side by two cross tubes,

„„ j- vi j.-u , , , ii. one above and one below,

except like the parent, by budding.

After a while, however, some of the buds grow into beings entirely different in

VIRGIN GENERATION.

appearance from these, and possessed of sexual organs, which produce fecundated
eggs, like the one begun with, and then immediately die. Both kinds remain
attached together, and the first kind seem simply to produce nutriment, by which

Figtjbe 92.

Figure a. Tapeworm of the lark, with the detached head much magnified to show the
3uckers and hooks.

Figure 6. Tapeworm of the cat.

all alike are supported. There are thus two kinds of beings formed by simple
division of the parent, one whose duty it is to provide nutriment, and the other to
produce eggs. To express it another way, the stomach is placed in one being, and
the sexual organs in another, bat the two may still be united together.

In some beings of this kind, the process is varied a little. The new beings destined
for reproduction are separated from the others, and live for a while independently
before they develop the generative organs. They become also totally different from
the parent, developing, in fact, into a species of jelly-fish, or medusa, which is sexually
perfect, and produces eggs, but these, instead of developing into jelly-fish like those
they come from, produce only simple hydroids, like the original one commenced
with.

In some others, again, the primary egg forms into a round, free, swimming body,
which attaches itself finally to some object, and then further develops into a being
formed like a trumpet, with mouth and limbs, like the hydra. This trumpet-like
body propagates abundantly by division, but only beings like itself, without sexual
organs of either kind. At last, however, the trumpet-like parent enlarges, change*.'
in form, and splits into several pieces, which swim separately away and form into so
many new beings, entirely different from the parent. They become, in fact, medusae,
or jelly-fish, occasionally many feet in diameter, with perfect organs of digestion and
finally, also, of reproduction. These, when full grown, give birth to perfect eggs,
and then die. Their eggs, hoAvever, do not grow into anything like the large jelly
fish parent, but into small hydras, like those with which the circle began.

VIBGIN GENERATION.

Figure

Various stages in the development of the Jelly-Fish.

a. The original egg, with its fringe of cilia, b. The same attached at one end, and heginning to
lengthen, while the top sinks in and the corners rise up. c shows a still further change, the
corners being' lengthened into tentacles, which finally multiply into a large number, as in d and e.
The body then lengthens, and is divided into segments by a series of rings, as in/. These segments
gradually separate, and are at last held together only by a slender filament down the center. They
are, in fact, like so many plates, piled one upon another. Finally, the upper plate separates and
floats away, like g, and the others follow in succession. The root, however, remains, and continues
to form new ones, as in h. Each of these segments, or plates, then develops into a perfect jelly-
fish, as below, and this produces eggs, which begin the same round over again.

«

Figttrb 94.— The perfect Medusa or
the various stages above described.

I-Msh; resulting from the simple egg a, through all

VIRGIN GENERATION.

In this remarkable series of transformations, we begin then with a minute hydra,
which produces free swimming eggs, which develop into the trumpet-like bodies, and

Figube 95.

Figure 96.

Some of the most remarkable Parasites found upon Fish and Crustaceans.

Figure 95. A is the argulus, which lives under the fins. B. The caligus, found mostly on the
cod. c, d, E. The nicothce, or lobster louse, found chiefly on the lobster's gills, p. The dicheles-
tium ; this creature works its way under the skin, near the gills, of many kinds of fish. G. The
chondracanthus found in the gills of the John Dory. H, and I. Two remarkable parasites found
under the abdomen of the lobster.

Figure 96. A. The female perch sucker. B. The male. C and D are the female and male of
the anchorella. E is another anchorella. All these infest the backs of cod and haddock. H, I, K,
show the various stages in the development of the tracheliastes ; in H its two long egg bags are
seen protruding behind. L, M. The lampoglena. All these last bury themselves in the flesh in
various parts of the body. One of these parasites, the penella sagittata, or sprat sucker, attaches
itself to the sprat's eye, and hangs from it.

In short, the variety of these beings is endless. Every part of the fish is affected by them,
and they seem often to cause great suffering.

these divide up to form jelly-fish, which may become quite gigantic, and which pro-
duce eggs that develop back again into the minute hydra,

VIRGIN GENERATION. 295

Before the real pedigree of these singular beings was made out, each different
stage was taken for a different animal, and described as such by naturalists. It is
very possible that many of those we now consider distinct are really only similar
separate stages of one and the same being.

Similar changes occur in an endless variety of ways, showing that nature can
propagate in many different modes, and change from one mode to another, even in
the same being. The sexual organs and elements are evidently only the common
organs and elements of the body, specialized for purposes of propagation, and some-
times resuming again their former simpler functions. As formerly explained, in the
simpler beings any part may serve, for the time, any purpose for which it may be
needed, and be again relegated to its former uses.

Some naturalists, Huxley among the rest, do not consider the above process as
one of alternate generation, but regard the whole series of changes, from the egg
through all the transformations back to the egg again, as one act. Much may be
said in favor of this view, and it certainly simplifies our conception of the phe-
nomena ; but the whole subject requires further elucidation. No matter how it may
be regarded, this strange series of metamorphoses, ending at last with the same being
it began with, is certainly one of the most wonderful of nature's operations.

In the vegetable world there is often what is equivalent to the alternation of
generations in animals. Some quite large and well organized plants produce no seed,
but only small spores, such as form the lowest mosses and lichens. These spores
produce a plant inferior to the parent, but which is able to produce a seed, and this
seed develops into a plant like its grand-parent, and not like the one it sprang from.

The perfect germ cell or seed, is not formed at once, in this case, but by two
efforts. The simple spore is only the first stage in the process of its evolution, the
final stage being reached when the seed itself is formed.

The parasites which live upon other animals are all very singularly formed, and
have very peculiar habits, according to the parts on which they live. Their mod«
of reproduction is often very obscure.

PART XII.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING,

CHAPTER XXVI.

FIRST CHANGES OBSERVED IN THE OVUM AFTER FECUNDATION, AND THE WAT THE
EMBRYO BECOMES CONNECTED WITH THE MOTHER.

The description, already given of the structure of the egg, unimpregnated, will
make the following account of the changes it undergoes after fecundation, and the
iinal development of the embryo from it, readily understood.

The precise way in which the sperm affects the egg, so as to cause these changes,
we do not know ; it is only the changes themselves that we can observe. Observa-
tions on the frog show that when fecundation takes place, the animalcules become
imbedded in the gelatinous covering of the ovum, almost the moment they touch it,
and pass at once into the vitellus or yelk, where all further trace of them is lost.
Most probably they there combine with the vitelline material, and commence the new
being. All this is accomplished by the motion of the animalcule, for without that it
could neither reach the ovum nor enter it. When dead or rigid, they cannot im-
pregnate.

It seems probable that when the germinal vesicle is ripe, it becomes filled, in the
interior, with cells, which, when it bursts, become mixed with the cells of the vitel-
lus, and so disappear. The germinal vesicle is therefore an egg within the egg, and
it is probably one of the cells of the vesicle which the animalcules enter, and not
one of the ordinary cells of the vitellus. This is why the yellow of the vesicle is
often called the germ yelk, because it is the real point of origin of the new being,
while the yellow of the ovum is called the food yelk, because it only supplies the
nutrient material by Avhich the new being grows. Probably the germinal dot is
merely the ripest germ cell, and the one into which the animalcule enters. That
the perfect new being is a product of the two principles, the male and female, there
is no doubt, though a partial organism may occasionally result from one principle
alone, as shown elsewhere.

When impregnation has been effected, then begins the nutrifying and growth of
the embryo, some steps in the progress of which have been observed, but more in the
lower animals than in the human being.

At the time when the ovum is leaving the ovary, it has somewhat the appearance
shown below.

It will be seen that the cells on the outside layer or proligerous disk, as it ia
called, which surrounds the zona pellucida, or white, are club-shaped, their thick
ends being outward, and their points all touching the surface of the ovum within.
These cells remain thus, more or less, during the passage of the ovum down the
Fallopian tube, and are found upon it even after it enters the womb. In other ani-
mals, however, as in the rabbit, they disappear much sooner ; ultimately tbey disap-
pear entirely in all cases, so far as observed. (Figure 97.)

Figure 98 shows the same ovum when these outer cells are nearly all gone.

300 FIRST CHANGES OBSERVED IN THE OVUM AFTER FECUNDATION.

During the passage to the womb, the ovum becomes covered with an albuminous
envelope, resembling the white of a bird's egg, which is called the chorion, and which,
as will be shown further on, plays quite an important part in the formation of the
new being.

The first change observed in this membrane is that it becomes spongy, or covered
m the surface with minute projections, like fine moss. It is probably by these that

Figtjbe 97. — Ovum from the ovary
of a female dog, in heat.

Figure 98. — The same ovum as in the
preceding plate, showing the disap-
pearance of the club-shaped cells.

the fluids of the Fallopian tube and womb are absorbed and made to contribute to
its growth.

The womb itself also begins to change, as if it were preparing itself for the new
visitor. All over the interior there gradually forms a fine membrane or lining, called
the decidua, which folds inward when the ovum enters from the tube, and forms a
cushion on which it lies. When there is no conception, the decidua is cast off along
with the unimpregnated ovum, but when conception occurs it remains, and assists
in forming the placenta, by which the child is connected with its mother.

At a later period, the decidua is found to consist of two layers, the outer one called
the decidua vera, lining the interior of the uterus, and the inner one, called the
decidua reflexa, covering the ovum. There are some differences of structure between
these two layers in the early stages, but later on they become united so as to be indis-
tinguishable.

The vay the ovum becomes inclosed by the decidua reflexa is well shown in the
following figures :

Figure 99.

Figure 100.

In Figure 99, the ovum is seen pressed up against the decidua vera, lining the interior of the
womh ; and the decidua is beginning to push out arms around it.

Figure 100. In this illustration the two arms thrown out by the decidua vera have nearly sur-
rounded the ovum, or have become reflected around it, thus forming the decidua reflexa.

When this stage is reached, the two deciduas are indistinguishable ; the surface of
the ovum, it will be seen, is quite shaggy, or covered with a hair-like growth of
small vessels. These, as before explained, suck up nutriment from the surrounding
fluids, and so begin the first stages of nutrition.

FIBST CHANGED 0B8EBVED IN THE OVUM AFTER FECUNDATION. 3Q1

At a later period, these hair-like tufts become mixed with blood-vesseis, which
finally predominate, and by which more complete nutrition is effected. These blood-
vessels communicate with the embryo through the chorion, and with the vessels of
the mother's womb by the decidua, forming finally what is called the placenta, the
organ by which mother and child are united.

The manner in which the embryo receives its nutriment from the mother, varies
somewhat in different viviparous animals. In the lower types, the new being, for the
most part, derives its nutriment indirectly from the surrounding fluids ; and even in
many of the higher types, the connection between parent and offspring is not close and
intimate, but occurs at a number of scattered points. In man, however, as in all the
highest types, the connective vessels between mother and child are all concentrated
at one point, forming a large mass, the placenta. In this organ the pure arterial
blood of the mother is poured into certain cavities, from which the vessels of the
foetus absorb it, without directly connocting with the vessels of the mother. Into the
same cavities also the blood of the foetus, and its refuse material, are thrown, and
taken up by the veins of the mother, to be mixed with her venous blood, and puri-
fied in her body. All animals in which thb occurs are called placental, while those
in which there is no such close connection, as in the marsupials, are called non-pla-
cental.

It is instructive to note here that the placental connection explains how the
mother may be affected, through the child, by the father. It is certain that diseases
may be transmitted from father to child, through the semen, especially syphilis, and
beyond doubt the child transfers these diseases to the mother, in the impure blood
which it returns to her through the placenta. Many diseases thus communicated
may affect the mother ever afterward, though the child may experience little or
nothing of them. And not only diseases, but physical, mental, and moral impulses
may thus be given by the male to the female, through the child, which may pro-
foundly influence her bodily and mentally as long as she lives. This is why somt
women, who marry again, often have children resembling their first husband, in
feature, health, bodily constitution, and mental peculiarities. In fact, a woman is
probably always influenced, permanently, by every man by whom she bears a child,
so that her last children, if she have several liusbands, may, in one sense, belong
more or less to them all. This fact has long been known in regard to animals, though
not practically acted upon to the extent it might be. In some future time the
desirable qualities of many different males will thus be concentrated in the offspring
of one female, to the great improvement of a race.

CHAPTER XXVII.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING PEOM THE GEKM.

The first beginning of the new being, so far as our observation is able co go, is
a single small cell, lying in tbe midst of the vitellus, or yellow of the egg. It re-
sembles a drop of albumen, or white of egg, such as might be taken up with a pin. It
is, in fact, a speck of protoplasm, such as those that form the moners, and infusoria
generally.

This simple cell, the germ of a future human being, in no way differs, so far as
can be traced, from the cells from which all other animals, or even plants are devel-
oped. Man, in fact, has the same origin as all other living things, animal and vege-
table, down to the simple green mould which spreads over a damp wall.

Even the first steps in the process of development, up to a certain point, are the
same in man as in all other vertebrate animals ; and it is not possible, till that point
is passed, to tell whether the germ will form a fish, reptile, bird, or mammal.

The germinal vesicle, as already stated, disappears as the egg ripens, but if fecun-
dation occurs it is succeeded by the embryo cell, which we have already spoken of as
lying in the substance of the vitellus. The first changes observed in the embryo
cell are these : it divides first into two cells, then into four, eight, and so on, to an
indefinite extent, and it is from these new cells, into which the original cell is multi-
plied, that all the different parts of the future embryo are formed.

The yelk of the egg also undergoes a similar change at the same time, dividing
first into two portions, and then into four, and so on, till it forms just as many sep-
arate parts as there are new cells formed from the primary embryo cell.

Each cell absorbs to itself one of these portions of the yelk, which forms its share
of the primary nutritive material ; for the purpose the yelk serves is to provide ma-
terial by which the new being first begins to grow.

In the mammalia, these changes occur while the egg is passing down the Fallopian
tube to the womb, and by the time it reaches there the subdivision, of both cells and
yelk, has proceeded so far that the whole mass seems made up of numerous minute
grains, which occupy nearly all the original space of the zona pellucida, or white.

These changes are very clearly shown below.

Figure 101. — Division of the Yelk in Eggs of Ascaris.
This shows the yelk dividing first into two, as in A, then into four at b, and so on up to ]

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM.
The next figure shows the corresponding changes of the ovum of a dog.

Figube 102.— Division of the Yelk in Egg of the Dog.

A, shows the ovum with the yellow first divided into two. The white contains several semi-
nal animalcules. This is from the Fallopian tube about half an inch from the womb. B, shows
the further division of the yelk into four parts, and the gradual disappearance of the outer projec-
tions. This was taken just at the entrance of the womb. C. A still later stage, with the division
carried still tarther. D. An ovum from the womb. The subdivision of the yelk has now gone
so far that it is a mere mass of granules. E. This represents an ovum burst, by compressing it,
to show the yelk segments, each containing a transparent vesicle, or cell, in its interior.

It is not possible, for obvious reasons, to obtain the ovse at every corresponding
known stage in the human being, but we know them to undergo similar changes.

Up to this stage, the separate yelk grains, with their cells, are all loosely aggre-
gated together, each one distinct, but with no definite investing membrane. One
soon forms, however, around each, converting it into a cell, of which the yelk is the
contents, and the vesicle the nucleus.

The outer layers of these cells adhere together, forming an investment for the
whole, which binds them together into a globular mass.

When this process is fully completed, the interior of the mass is found to be
hollow, and to contain a clear fluid. It is then called, by some physiologists, the
blastodermic vesicle.

Gradually this globular mass or vesicle becomes larger, and a darker colored
roundish spot is seen upon it, called the germinal area. It seems to be formed by
the gathering together of a number of the original small cells which have become
opaque.

The wall or outer membrane of the vesicle, called the germinal membrane, now
thickens, and gradually divides into two layers, which at first seem both alike, but
eventually differ very much, and fulfill very different purposes in the future develop'
ment.

The outer one, called the serous lager, or sometimes the animal lager, forms the
foundation of the future spinal column and nervous system ; the inner one, called
the mucous lager, or vegetative layer, forms the foundation of the future nutritive
organs. This division first begins in the germinative area, but soon extends over the
whole germinal membrane.

304

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM.

The germinative area, at first roundish, gradually becomes oval, and then pear-
shaped, as shown below.

Figure 103.— The outer layer of cells will
be seen squeezed together till they are hex-
agonal, like the cells of a honeycomb. The
dark spot, or germinal area is seen to the
left, at the top.

Figure 101— The Blastodermic Vesicle.

In the center of the pear-shaped area, Figure 104, is seen a clear white space,
called the area pellucida, bounded by a dark ring, which is afterward called the area
vesiculosa. Down the center of the area pellucida is . seen a thin dark line, called
the primitive trace ! which appears to be formed from the serous layer only, — thia
line or primitive trace, is the actual beginning of the future human being!

The outer dark pear-shaped ring, is in two portions, or separate rings, tmited
together, called the dorsal lamince. They play a very important part in the furthei
development, as Avill be shown.

FiOTTlE 105. — First changes in the Germina-
tive Area.

Figure 106. — Ovum more advanced, shoicing the
beginning of the Brain and Spinal Column.

These rings, as will be seen in the above illustration, assume finally a shape like a
guitar, and gradually swell up all round, so that the shallow groove, called the prim-
itive trace, becomes buried deeper and deeper between them. This goes on till the
edges of the two rings fold over, come together, and so form a tube. At the same
time the upper part of the groove (the primitive trace) divides into three separate
parts or vesicles, which are the beginnings of the three principal parts of the future

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. 305

skull and brain, and the lower part of the groove becomes the future backbone and
spinal marrow, as shown in Figures 105, 106.

Even at this early period a few rudimentary plates of bone, or what will become
bone, may often be traced.'

In birds and fishes, the bones of the future spine are indicated by a straight cord
of round cells, called the chorda dorsalis. In some of the lower fishes these never
become bony, but always remain simple soft cells, like those in the human embryo.

While this is going on, an accumulation of cells takes place between the two
laminae of the germinal membrane, and gradually form themselves into the future
blood-vessels. From, each side of the dorsal laminae also a prolongation is sent out,
which forms what are called the two ventral laminae, from which are formed the ribs
on each side. These gradually bend over toward each other till they finally join, on
the future breast-bone, and thus shut in the cavity of the chest.

The outer portions of the two layers of the germinal membrane fold over under
the abdomen, so as to inclose that, and on the under surface a small groove gradually
forms, which becomes the future intestinal canal.

Up to this point, the embryo has been nourished directly by the matter of the
original vitellus, or yelk, with which it was in contact, but its increased size and
complexity of structure now require a more perfect distribution, and a different
mode of assimilation. This is effected by the formation of the blood-vessels, which
are gradually evolved from the nuclei of the cells, the cavities of which have become
connected. The first function of the new-formed vessels is to absorb all the nutri-
tious matter of the yelk, and convey it to all parts of the embryo by circulation, so
that each part receives what it needs. This continues till the yelk material has
been entirely absorbed and appropriated. The first movement of nutritive fluid being
toward the embryo from the outside, before any heart can be detected.

At quite an early period, in mammalia, the yelk sac is gradually separated from
the embryo by that portion next the body becoming contracted. The connecting
link, however, always remains, forming what is afterward called the umbilical
vesicle.

The heart is formed from a cluster of cells, beneath the upper part of the spinal
column. It begins to pulsate even before it has lost its cellular character, and becomes
muscular by degrees. In the chicken, it may be distinctly perceived in 27 hours
after incubation has begun. The different parts of the heart are developed successively,
and the circulation is at first carried on just as it is always in fishes, the true mam-
malian heart coming afterward. Thus all mammalia, man included, at a certain
stage, are fishes, in the circulating apparatus as well as in other respects.

The allantois in birds is the organ by which the embryo breathes, or is brought
in contact with the air which comes through the shell. The human embryo, how-
ever, uses the mother's lungs, as explained elsewhere, and in it the allantois is
merely the medium of connection between the embryo and the chorion, at the pla-
centa. It is the same in all other mammalia, and in some it extends around the
whole embryo. Ultimately, as the connection between mother and child becomes
more direct, through the blood-vessels of the uterus and placenta, the allantois
shrivels up, and almost disappears, being no longer needed. The same thing also
occurs in regard to the umbilical vesicle, which disappears in the same way, ex-
cepting a small portion which develops into the urinary Madder. The duct by which
it was connected with the abdomen also shrivels up in the same way, all but a small
20

PLATE XXL

THE WOMB AFTER IMPREGNATION.

Figure 1. a. Walls of the uterus, cut through, showing their spongy structure.

b. Mucous deposit, which afterward forms the lining memhrane, or decidua vera.

c. Inner mouth of the womb, or os uteri internum, d. Mucous deposit in the neck
of the uterus, e. Outer mouth of the womb, or os uteri externum, or os tincce.
f. Base of the womb, or fundus of the womb. g. Uterine end of the Fallopian tube.

Figure 2. Longitudinal section of the uterus, a. The decidua vera. I. The
decidua reflexa, hanging like a sac in the cavity of the womb.

Figure 3. Shows the formation of the decidua reflexa, by the gradual entrance
of the ovum. a. The ovum, pushing its way into the womb, and carrying the decidua
before it. The different rings show the decidua reflexa at different stages, till it is
pushed against the decidua vera.

PLATE XXL

Fig.L

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Section of the Womb.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM.

307

month of Embryonic Life.

a 1. Smooth part of the chorion,
or outer membrane, a 2. The por
tion of the chorion called the vil
lous, from the formation of numer-
ous small vessels, like roots, k k,
shows these vessels much enlarged,
and beginning to collect into the
mass called the placenta, through

part, which remains and forms the ligament called the urachus, by which the
bladder is suspended to the navel, or umbilicus.

The amnion contains a peculiar fluid, called the
liquor amnii, which in composition is similar to the
serum of the blood. The embryo floats in this liq-
uor, and probably absorbs it as nutriment. During
the first two months, the space between the amnion
and the inner membrane of the chorion is also filled
with a peculiar gelatinous substance, which probably
likewise assists in the nutrition, before the formation
of the placenta and blood circulation.

The umbilical cord, by which the child is con-
nected with the mother, when fully formed, is com-
posed of a portion of the amnion, the umbilical

vesicle, the vessels by which the yelk was absorbed Figube 107.— Diagram of the hu-
. , ,, , ,, , , . t , . , , . man Ovum at about the second

into the embryo, the urachus, and the blood-vessels

which pass from the mother to the child. At a later
period, the cord is composed mainly of these blood-
vessels, which in man consist of two arteries going
from the mother, and one vein going from the child.
The plan of the circulation of the blood is the
same in the embryos of all kinds of vertebrates, at an

early period, and gradually changes in each till it SftSSS^ Tt^£
attains the form peculiar to that type. In man it bilical vesicle, or remains of the

resembles them all in succession. A88.0' c\The yiTg- emh7°-

f. The inner layer of the investing
The liver, in the human being, begins to be membrane, called the amnion, g.

formed about the third week, and it is from the first The allantois. A. The outer layer
' .of the amnion, which unites with

f ery large, being at the fifth week one half the weight the chorion.

of the whole embryo. About the third month it

reaches nearly to the pelvis, and almost fills the abdomen. After this it begins to

gradually decline, but remains very large, in proportion to the body, up to the period

of birth. During foetal life, the liver appears to perform a very important part in

the purification of the blood.

The lungs first appear as two buds, at the upper part of the alimentary canal,
and progress very slowly, because they are not needed during fcetal life.

The urinary organs present some very interesting features in the course of their
development, representing, as they do in their early stages, the permanent forms of
these organs in all the lower types. In the chicken, the first sign of a urinary appara-
tus is discernible on the third day ; it is then in the form of two tubes, one extending
down each side of the spinal column, from the heart downward toward the allantois.
On the fourth day, there are formed, in connection with these tubes, certain bodies
called the corpora Wolffiana, or Wolffian bodies. These are evidently secreting bodies,
and the fluid they secrete is poured into the cloaca, or end of the large intestine.
These Wolffian bodies, and certain clusters of convoluted vessels which form with
them, are the only urinary organs of fishes ; but in the bird they develop further,
and in the higher vertebrata finally become true kidneys.

In the human embryo, the Wolffian bodies appear about the end of the first month,
and about the seventh week the true kidneys begin to be seen, as if growing from

PLATE XXII.

HUMAN EMBBYO AT A VERY EARLY PERIOD, FROM TEN DAY* UP TO THREE WEEKS,
MAGNIFIED.

Figure 1. A very early stage, a. The area pellucida, or white of the egg. b.
The primitive dot, or first sign of the embryo, c. First appearance of the heart, d.
The upper margin of the vitellus, or yelk. e. First appearance of the omphalo
vessels. /. Area vasculosa, or space where the future blood-vessels first appear.' g.
The space which separates the white from the yolk.

Figure 2. Embryo more advanced, a. The primitive dot, or nota, more raised.

b. The tail end of the embryo, c. The omphalo vessels, d. The amnion.

Figure 3. Still further advanced embryo, a. The head. b. The caudal or tail
end. c. The omphalo vessels, much increased, d. The amnion.

Figure 4. A still further stage, a. The head. b. The narrowing part of the
yelk bag, which forms the beginning of the umbilical vesicle, c. The tail end.

Figure 5. Further advanced stage, a. Pedicle of the yelk sac. b. Allantois.

c. Hea**t-like bodies, which afterward become the villosities, or nutritive root-like

Figure 6. Most advanced stage, a. pedicle of the umbilical vesicle. I. The
allantois, extending toward the chorion, c. The villosities.

PLATE XXH.

Fig.l

Fig. 5.

Fig. G.

Human Embryo at a very Early Stage.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM TEE GERM. 309

them, though they are, in fact, independently formed. After the third month the
kidneys begin to increase in size, and the Wolffian bodies decrease, and this goes on
during the whole foetal period, so that we finally see the kidneys fully formed and
active, while the Wolffian bodies have almost disappeared.

There are several other organs which are thus formed, and apparently used, in
early embryonic life, which finally disappear, and are succeeded by the permanent
ones which we find at birth. These temporary ones, as before explained, are really
the permanent forms in the lower types of animals, through all of which the human
being passes before it becomes fully developed.

The essential generative organs in both sexes — the female ovaries and the male
testes — are both developed close by the Wolffian bodies. They are not formed from
them, however, but originate independently, like the kidneys. In the chicken, the
first rudiments of these organs are seen about the fourth day, and there is then noth-
ing to indicate whether they will become testicles or ovaries. Like the kidneys, they
increase as the Wolffian bodies decrease.

In the human embryo, the sexual rudiments first show themselves soon after the
kidneys, or about the end of the seventh week. At first they are exactly the same in
both sexes, but gradually the peculiar form of each begins to show itself. In the
testes, the epididymus shows itself about the tenth week, and they begin to descend
to the lower part of the body about the middle of pregnancy, reaching the abdominal
ring by the seventh month, and the scrotum in the ninth. Although usually found
fully descended at birth, they are not always so, but occasionally one or both is de-
layed for some time, or even never leaves the body. In these cases the man is often
thought to have no testicles, because they are not in the scrotum, but they may be
just as active as if they were there, as explained elsewhere.

In some animals, as in the ram, the testicles always remain in the body.

The female ovaries undergo much less change, from their first formation, than
the male testes, both in structure and position. In fact, they remain permanently
very near where they were first formed. The common canal into which, in the testes,
all the seminiferous tubes empty, becomes in the female the Fallopian tube. There is,
of course, one of these on each side, but they gradually grow together at the upper
part, and form the uterus by their junction. The uterus is thus made up of the
enlarged inner ends of the Fallopian tubes, the outer ends of which are in contact
with the ovaries. The part in the male corresponding to the womb in the female, is
the prostatic vesicle, called sometimes the sinus pocularis. This is connected with
the ends of the vasa deferentia, leading from the testicles, just as the womb is with
the Fallopian tubes. In fact, all the parts, in either sex, are represented by corre-
sponding parts in the other sex, simply developed in a different way. Starting the
same, one grows more in one direction, and the other in another, and this makes the
difference of sex. The organs are the same in both, essentially, but differently de-
veloped.

This is strictly analogous to what we see in the vegetable world, where similar
buds may form thorns, leaves, flowers, or fruits. In fact, we often see common
leaves changed into flower petals, stamens into pistils, and pistils into stamens. It
is merely a matter of development, the fundamental germ being the same in all.

In the human being, and all other animals, it is the same. Every part originates
from some of the cells into which the primary germ cell multiplies, as explained in
the beginning of this chapter, and thus all parts begin the same. Not only are the

PLATE XXIII.

STILL MORE ADVANCED STAGES, PRECEDING THE THIRD WEEK, MAGNIFIED.

Figure 1. a. The chorion. B. The villosities. c. Amnion, d. Embryo, e.
The heart. /. Pedicle of the umbilical vesicle, g. The umbilical vesicle, h. Vessels
of the allantois.

Figure 2. Still more highly developed, a. The chorion, b. The villosities. c.
The amnion, d. The embryo, e. The heart. /. Pedicle of the umbilical vesicle, g.
The umbilical vesicle, much diminished in size. h. Vessels of the allantois, now-
connected with the villosities.

Figures 3 and 4 are parts of figure 2, more highly magnified.

PLATE XXIII.

KH o

Fig. 4.

Further Developed Embryo.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GEBM. 3H

two sexes alike at first, but every part of each one is the same in the beginning, and
becomes differentiated by a process of evolutionary development.

The skin, which is to surround and inclose all the organs, begins to form at a
very early period, from a number of minute granules, which are developed in the
original germinal membrane. These granules are, at first, seen to be always in rapid
motion, like the seminal animalcules, and this continues till they are fully consoli-
dated into the membrane called the skin. This motion is apparently essential to the
proper development of the skin, which would probably be imperfect if it did not take
place, and from some stoppage of it, possibly, many diseases and imperfections of
the skin may be owing.

It is worthy of notice, that the same causes which arrest the motion of the seminal
animalcules, have the same effect upon the skin granules. Opium, for instance,
arrests them immediately, and so does alcohol ! It is quite conceivable, therefore,
that the use of opium, or alcohol, in excess, by the mother, at a certain stage of
"pregnancy, may originate skin disease in the child, even before it has well begun to
be formed. And the same may be true of many other agents.

We see, therefore, that it is important to consider the welfare of the future new
being, and what may be to its benefit or injury, long before it is born.

It is a very short-sighted view to suppose that our care in regard to it should
begin only at birth, for its future constitution, bodily and mental, may be irrevocably
influenced from the very moment of conception.

The cells, or granules, which form other parts, as well as those which form the
skin, are also seen to exhibit this rapid motion, and it probably occurs in them all.
It is the incipient development of life. The embryo itself, in its earliest stages, is
usually seen to be in rapid motion, like the germ in many of the lower organisms, as
described in the chapter on spontaneous generation.

In the development of the external organs of generation, there is much that is
very interesting and instructive to observe. In the early stages, there is no distinction
whatever between the two sexes, and the conformation of the organs, both in man
and all the higher animals, is precisely the same as it is permanently in the oviparous
vertebrates. Up to the fifth or sixth week there may be seen in the embryo, externally,
the opening of a cloaca, as in birds, in which the ureters, the intestines and the sexual
ducts all terminate. About the tenth week, the intestinal opening, or anus, and also
the urinary and sexual canals, begin to be divided from each other by partitions
iorming between them, and the bladder is developed. At this stage the parts have
much the same conformation as in certain birds, and in the non-placental mam-
mals.

The external opening of the geni to-urinary canal is now seen to be surrounded by
two thick folds of skin, which may become either the large lips of the female vulva,
or the two halves of the male scrotum. Between these two folds of skin there is also
formed a kind of longish bud, of rather firm consistence, which has a gland on the
end, and a furrow, or cleft, on its under surface. In the female this organ is drawn
back considerably into the canal, and forms the clitoris, while the two sides of the
furrow, or cleft, form the small lips, or nymphcB. In the male, however, it develops
further, and becomes the penis, the two walls of the cleft closing over and forming
the tube called the urethra, or common passage for the urine and semen.

The penis, therefore, is the same as the clitoris, only more fully developed,— the
scrotum corresponds to the two large lips, and the walls of the urethra to the nymphse.

PLATE XXIV.

Figure I. Human embryo of 3 weeks pregnancy ; natural size. A. The embryo.
B. Umbilical vesicle, c. Amnion. D. Chorion, e. The villosities, or root-like vessels
which absorb nutriment. F. Exterior of the decidua vera, or . lining membrane of
the womb. G. Interior of the same.

Figure 2. The same embryo magnified. A. Rudiments of the face. B. Vesicle
whicli becomes the front part of the brain, or cerebrum, at the lower part of which
may be seen a small point, which is the beginning of the eye. c. Vesicle of the
third ventricle, d. Vesicle of the corpora quadrigemina. (c, D. and E. are parts
of the brain.) E. Vesicle of the medulla oblongata. F. Beginning of the walls of
the abdomen. G. The heart. H. Umbilical vesicle. I. Amnion. K. The pedicle of
the umbilical vesicle. L. Eudiments of the lower limbs.

Figure 3. Human embryo at the fourth week ; natural size. A. The embryo.
B. Umbilical cord. c. Amnion. D. Umbilical vesicle, e. Internal surface of the
chorion. F. The villosities. G. The external surface of the decidua vera. H. Internal
surface of the same.

Figure 4. Embryo in the fourth week, magnified. A. Vesicle of the cerebrum.
b. Vesicle of third ventricle, c. Vesicle of the quadrigemina. D. Vesicle of the
cerebellum (all the above are parts of the brain). E. Dorsal laminae. F. Eudiments
of the upper limbs. G. Eudiments of the lower extremities. H. The tail, or end of
the spine, curved backward. I. The heart. K. Sheath of the umbilical cord. L.
The amnion. M. The umbilical vesicle withering away. N. Vesicle of the medulla
oblongata, or top of the spinal marrow, o. The indentation, which afterward
becomes the neck, and separates the head from the trunk.

N. B. — If these plates are studied in connection with the detailed description,
previously given, of each stage, both will be readily understood.

PLATE XXIV.

Fig. 1.

Human Embryo at Three Weeks, Natural Size.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

f

Human Embryo at Third and Fourth Weeks, Magnified and Natural Sim.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM TEE GERM.

313

The male, in short, is merely the female in a more advanced stage of evolution, not
only externally, as here shown, but also internally, as explained before.

The urethral canal, in the male, is usually completely inclosed about the fourteenth
week, but sometimes it does not inclose completely at all, and then we have the mal-
formation that will be explained further on, in which there is an opening by which
the urine escapes at some other place than/the end. Most cases of what are called
hermaphrodites, in human beings, arise from imperfect, or abnormal development
at this stage. Sometimes, in the male, the parts will remain, more or less, in the
female stage, while in the female, on the contrary, some of them will advance to the
male stage. Instances of both kinds, with full explanations, will be given in a subse-
quent article, but the following illustrations will make the matter readily understood.

Figure 108. — Urinary and Generative Organs of the Human Embryo, iclien about three and a
half inches long.

A. General view of all the parts. — 1. The capsules on the tops of the kidneys ; very large at
this stage. — 2. The kidneys, yet quite small. — 3. The ovary. — 4. The Fallopian tube. — 5. The
uterus. — 6. The intestine. — 7. The bladder.

B. The bladder and generative organs of the same, seen sideways. — 1. The bladder. — 2. The
urethra. — 3. Uterus, with two horns. — 4. The vagina. — 5. Part common as yet to both urethra
and vagina. — 6. The common orifice for both urinary and generative organs. — 7. The clitoris.

C. Internal organs of the same. — 1. Uterus. — 2. Round ligaments. — 3. Fallopian tubes. — 4.
Ovaries. —5. The remains of the Wolffian bodies.

D. External generative organs of the same embryo. — 1. The large lips. — 2. The nymphse. — 3.
The clitoris, with the open cleft underneath. This may either remain what it is at this period,
— a female clitoris, — or it may develop further into a male penis.

This would almost certainly be taken for a male embryo, on a cursory inspection,
and indeed, the correspondence of the several parts with those of a male is very
striking. The clitoris (D 3) is a true penis, except that it has an open furrow un-
derneath, instead of a closed tube ; but it is readily seen how this furrow becomes
a tube, by the two sides closing over, and then it is a true male organ. The large
lips (D 1) only need to grow together to form a scrotum, into which the ovaries may
descend and become testicles.

PLATE XXV.

Figure 1. Human embryo at 5 weeks ; natural size. a. Head of embryo.
i. The heart, c. The villosities. d. Amnion reflected, e. Outside of the decidua
vera. /. Outside of decidua reflexa.

Figure 2. Same embryo magnified, a. Eudiment of the ear. i. Eudiment of
the shoulder-blade bone. c. The heart, now divided into two parts, d. Beginning of
the arm. e. Beginning of the leg. /. Commencement of the back-bone. g. The
abdomen, h. The lower end of the spine, or tail.

In the rudiments of the limbs, d., e., the bulbs at the ends are the hand and
foot, while the thinner part forms the arm, or leg.

Figure 3. Human embryo at 6 weeks ; natural size. a. The embryo, b. Um-
bilical cord. c. Umbilical vesicle, d. Amnion, e. Chorion. /. Outside of decidua
vera. g. Outside of decidua reflexa.

Figure 4. The same as figure 3 magnified.

Figure 5. Embryo at 6 weeks, magnified, a. The heart, b. The division of the
ventricles. c. Beginning of the stomach, d. Eudiments of the muscles of the
abdomen. e. The intestinal canal, beginning to contract. f. The os coccyx, or
tail-like end of the backbone.

The gradual evolution of one part after another can now be very readily seen ;
and it is easy to understand how slight a thing may interfere with the development
of any part, in these early stages, and so lead to deficiency, or deformity of that part.

PLATE XXV.

Fig. 5.

Hvmcm Embryo in the Fifth Week.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. 315

At this stage it is really of neither one sex nor the other, but may become either
male or female.

In short there is no part, in either sex, that a part corresponding to cannot be
found in the other sex, but differently developed. It is not at all surprising, there-
fore, that irregularity of development should often occur, making an individual of
doubtful, or double sex, like the so-called hermaphrodites.

It has already been remarked that the part first distinctly developed is the spinal
column. At first, however, this is merely a jelly-like chain of connected cells, taper-
ing at both ends, and inclosed in a sheath, or investing membrane, which eventually
becomes fibrous. This is called the chorda dorsalis, and in man is only temporary,
being succeeded by the true backbone, and spinal marrow, which are formed grad-
ually. In the lowest vertebrates, however, such as the amphioxus, and some fishes,
the spinal column never advances beyond this stage, but remains always the chorda
dorsalis, as we find it in the human embryo at an early stage.

In vertebrates a little higher, a true bony spine is formed from the fibrous sheath,
which gradually ossifies ; but in man, and all the higher types, the bony plates are
formed independently, and more perfectly. In short, the development of the spinal
column becomes more perfect in each type, as we ascend in the scale, just as we see
the other organs do, till in man it becomes the most perfect. It has, however, in him
to go through all the stages, from the simple chorda dorsalis upward to the true
spinal column.

The limbs, upper and lower, in all vertebrates, develop from leaf-like buds, which
grow from the sides of the trunk, and they also go through several modifications of
development. Thus, in the human embryo, the toes and fingers are at first united by
a membrane, or webbed, as in the swimming animals ; but the web gradually disap-
pears as growth progresses.

In the brain, also, the gradual progress, from the lowest type to the highest, is
distinctly traceable. At an early period, the human brain is almost exactly like that of
a fish, so that the two are scarcely distinguishable. At a later period, it equally
resembles the bird brain, and still later, that of the marsupials. It becomes truly
human only after having been fish, reptile, bird, and marsupial.

The same law of development prevails with the eye, and all the other organs of
sense, which in their earlier stages are not human, but like those of the lower verte-
brate types.

This important fact is very suggestive, as it shows us to what a great degree, and
in what way, a human being may be affected, for good or ill, before birth.

The quality of the mother's blood, and her nervous condition, at any stage of
foetal development, must exert a vast influence over the bodily development of the
new being ; and whatever influences it bodily, does so mentally and morally, through
all its future existence. But how few human beings ever give this a thought, or
rather, how few are acquainted with the fact. Dr. Combe says, "We have demon-
strative evidence that a fit of passion, in a nurse, vitiates the quality of the milk to
such a degree as to cause colic and indigestion, or even death, in the suckling infant.
If, in the child already born, and in so far independent of the parent, the relation
between the two is thus strong, is it unreasonable to suppose that it should be yet
stronger, when the infant lies in its mother's womb, is nourished indirectly by its
mother's blood, and is, to all intents and purposes, a part of her own body ? If a
sudden and powerful emotion of her own mind exerts such an influence upon her

PLATE XXVI.

Figure 1. Head of human embryo of 5 weeks, magnified, aa. The two sides of the
nostrils, b. The lobus frontalis, cc. Edge of the lobus frontalis, dd. Lobes of the
upper jaw. e. Front part of the tongue. /. The ear. gg. Lower jaw. hh. Arches
of the palate, i. The line showing where the tongue was originally divided into two
lobes.

Figure 2. Magnified head of embryo of 6 weeks, a. b. ab. c. Eings of the nose.
cc. Lobes of the upper jaw.

Figure 3. Magnified head of embryo of 6 weeks, aa. Rings of the nose, nearly
closed, bb. Rudiments of lower jaw.

Figure 4. Magnified head of embryo of 7 weeks, aa. Rudiments of lips, nearly
united, bb. Right and left frontal cartilages, a beginning of the frontal bones of the
skull, e. The frontal sinus, or open space between the frontal bones.

Figure 5. Magnified head of embryo of 8 weeks, aa. The two hemispheres of
the brain, b., c. d. Other parts of the brain and future skull bones, e. Upper part
of the nose. /. Lachrymal canal, gg. Rudimentary eyelids, h. Point of the nose.
ii. The cheeks. Tck. Upper lip. I. Union of the upper lip. m. The palate.
n. The tongue, o. Corner of the mouth, p. External ear. q. Throat.

The origin of many well-known deformities of the face can be easily explained
from these figures. Hare lip, for instance, is caused by the two portions (aa. in
figure 10) not coming together, as they are in figure 11. Cleft palate is also caused
in the same way.

Fig. 5.

Head qfBmbry* at Fw« W*k».

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. 317

stomach as to excite immediate vomiting, and upon her heart as almost to arrest it3
motion and induce fainting — as we know it will — can we believe that it will have no
effect on her womb and the fragile being contained within it ? Facts and reason then
alike demonstrate the reality of the influence, and much practical advantage would
result, to both parent and child, were the conditions and extent of its operation
better understood."

A striking instance of the truth of this is mentioned by Baron Percy, connected
with the siege of London, in 1793. Besides a violent and long-continued cannonade,
the arsenal blew up, with fearful noise and destruction, spreading consternation all
over the city. .

Within a few months after the siege was over, sixty-two children were born, out
of which number, Percey tells us, sixteen died at birth, thirty-three lived only eight
to ten months, eight were idiots, and died before five years old, and two came into
the world with fractured limbs ! So that fifty-nine out of the sixty-two, or nearly
two out of every three, were actually killed by the mother's fright !

Among other instances, I know of one in which the mother, when between two
and three months pregnant, was for three weeks in constant fear of her life at sea
from storms. Her child, a son, in all his after life has, beyond question, been a
sufferer from this continued state of fear in his mother before birth. Nervous, ex-
citable, prone to alarm and ungovernable impulse, he has been a constant source of
anxiety to his friends, and of misery to himself. Finally, he became a wretched ine-
briate, and for a long time had to be kept under restraint. None of her other children,
developed under better influences, exhibited the slightest tendency to anything of the
kind, and yet the family lvkeness in this son was unmistakable.

Many other such cases could be given, but it is not necessary ; it being now very
generally acknowledged that habitual mental conditions in the mother during ges-
tation can, and do, influence her offspring, both bodily and mentally. And it should
be remembered that the influence may be good or bad. It is just as easy to thus
impart to the child a healthy mind and body, with good impulses, as the reverse ;
and at some future day, it will be seen that the education (or proper development)
of a child must begin before birth, and not be neglected, as now, till several years
after. "When this truth is practically acted upon, many evils we now vainly try-
to cure will be prevented.

We thus see that a child, before birth, and probably in the very germ, may be
permanently affected by the quality of the mother's blood, or by her mental and
emotional condition. After birth, it may be equally affected by the constitution or
quality of her milk, which, in the same way, is dependent upon the state of hei
blood and the condition of her nervous system.

We will now describe, in detail, the appearance of the embryo at various stages of
its development, so that the changes it undergoes may be better understood.

At the earliest observed period. — The embryo is about as large as a pin's point,
and weighs not more than a grain. The rudiments of the spinal marrow resemble
a small white thread. The eyes first appear on the sides of the head, like those of
quadrupeds, and move round to the front later.

Three to four weeks.— At this period the embryo has the form of a serpent, its
length being from 3 to 5 lines. The head is indicated by a slight swelling, and the
lower end terminates in the umbilical cord. The beginning of the mouth is seen as,.
a small cleft or gash, and the eyes are two black dots. The limbs show like two

X

PLATE XXVII.

Figure 1 Head of human embryo at 2 weeks, magnified, a. I. c. a. e
Parts of the brain, which is now very large, in proportion to the rest of the body,
f. The eye. gg. Rudiments of the face. h. The heart drawn upward.

Figure 2. Head of embryo of 16 days old, magnified, a. Rudiments of the upper
jaw. I. Rudiments of the tongue, c. Rudiments of the under jaw. d. Rudiments
of the bone of the tongue (os hyoides). ee. Rudiments of the frontal lobe- of the
brain, ff. Rudimentary eyes. g. The heart, separated from the face.

Figure 3. Magnified head of embryo at end of 3d week. References the same as
in figure 2.

Figure 4. Magnified head of embryo in 4th week. aa. Beginning of the upper
part of the face. b. First beginning of the nose. c. Corner of the future mouth.

d. Open cavity of the mouth, e. Rudiments of the tongue, ff. The two hemispheres
of the brain, g. Fissure of the future lachrymal canal.

Figure 5. Head of embryo of 4 weeks, magnified, a. The lobus frontalis.
bb. The two sides of the nose. c. Tip of the tongue, d. The lobus mandibularis.

e. Rudiments of the ear. ff. The opening of the ear. g. Ring of the eyelid.

Figure 6. Magnified head of embryo of 5 weeks old. aa. Eyes, closer together.
bb. Hemispheres of the brain, c. Forehead, d. The corpora quadrigemina, a portion
of the brain, e. Separation between the two hemispheres. /. First appearan ?e of
the fontanel, or open space between the bones of the skull.

PLATE XXVIL

Fig. .3:

DEVELOPMENT OF TEE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. 319

pairs of small warts. The abdomen is nearly filled by tbe liver, and the bladder is
very large. The villosities, or rootlets, by which it absorbs nutriment from the sur-
rounding fluid, are diffused all over the surface of the chorion, or investing mem-
brane. At 25 days it is about as large as an ant, and somewhat like it in form. At
the end of the first month it is as large as a bee, and resembles a small thick worm
curled up.

Six weeks. — It is from 7 to 10 lines long, and weighs from 40 to 75 grains. The
face now is marked off distinct from the cranium, and the head from the chest.
Little apertures are distinctly visible, indicating the mouth, nose, ears, and eyes.
The arms and hands are about the middle, and the fingers may be seen ; the legs
and feet are near the anus. The umbilical cord, or navel string, is formed, and the
placenta begins to grow.

Two months. — Length 16 to 20 lines ; weight 150 to 300 grains. The elbows and
arms are now separate from the trunk, and the heels and knees show plainly. The
nose, lips, and eyelids begin to take form, and the anus is marked by a dark spot.
The clitoris or penis is formed, and rudiments of the lungs, capsules of the kidneys,
spleen, and cascum can be made out. Bone begins to form in the front of the skull,
and in the ribs. The chorion and amnion membranes begin to come together, and the
placenta assumes its permanent form. The vessels of the umbilical cord now begin
to twist round one another.

TJiree months. — Length from 2 to 2 J inches ; weight 1 to 1J ounces. Head very
large ; edges of the eyelids in contact ; mouth closed ; fingers quite separated. The
lower limbs are now larger than the rudimentary tail, which exists in the early stages
before the limbs show at all. The clitoris or penis is very long ; the two ventricles
of the heart quite distinct ; all parts of the brain much more developed. The pla-
centa now is distinctly formed and isolated, while the umbilical vesicle and the allan-
tois have quite disappeared.

Four months. — Now called the foetus. Length from 5 to 6 inches ; weight 2 J to
3 ounces. Skin tolerably firm, and rosy in color ; mouth quite large and open ;
nails perceivable ; sex indicated clearly by the form of the genital organs. The
gall-bladder appears ; navel at the bottom of the abdomen. Chorion and amnion
perfectly united.

Five months.— Length 6 to 7 inches ; weight 5 to 7 ounces. Head still very large,
compared with the rest of the body. Hair appears ; nails quite distinct. Heart and
kidneys very large ; germs of the second teeth appear. The meconium or fluid in
the intestines becomes yellowish green.

Six months. — Length 9 to 10 inches ; weight about 1 pound. Eyelids still grown
together. The navel gets higher in the body ; face purplish ; hair white. Testes
near the kidneys. Bony matter forms in the sternum, or breast bone.

Seven months. — Length 13 to 15 inches; weight 3 to 4 pounds. Skin rosy and
thick. Nails not yet reach the ends of the fingers. Eyelids no longer grow together ;
gall-bladder contains bile. Brain firmer ; testicles lower down. Middle of the body
a little below the end of the breast bone.

Eight months.— Length. 14 to 16 inches; weight 4 to 5 pounds. Skin covered
with a sebaceous scum. Nails reach the ends of the fingers. Bone formed afc many
points. Brain shows convolutions. Testicles descend to the abdominal ring ; mid-
dle of the body near the navel.

Nine months.— Full term. Length 17 to 21 inches ; weight 5 to 9 pounds. Head

PLATE XXVIH.

Figure 1. Human embryo at 7 weeks ; natural size. a. The ear. b. Umbilical
cord. c. Amnion, d. Chorion, reflected, e. Umbilical vesicle, now hanging only
by a long pedicle. /. Tubes of the villous roots, g. Vessels of the umbilical cord,
spreading on the inside of the chorion.

Figure 2. The same embryo magnified, a. The cerebrum, or front part of the
brain, b. The third ventricle, c. Corpora quadrigemina. d. Cerebellum. . (a. b.
c. d. are all parts of the brain.) e. The ear. /. The arm. g. Leg. h. Hand.
i. Walls of the abdomen, now closed over. h. Foot.

Figure 3. Embryo at 8 weeks ; natural size. a. Embryo. B. Umbilical cord
c. Amnion, d. Chorion, reflected, e. Umbilical vesicle, now nearly all shriveled
up. /. The villosities, or nutrifying vessels, g. Marbled appearance of the insidfi
of the chorion.

Figure 4. The same embryo magnified, a. b. c. d. Parts of the brain,
e. The ear. /. Beginning of the neck. g. The eye. h. Upper arm. i. Elbow
'c. Hand. I Liver, m. Thigh, n. Knee. o. Foot. p. Umbilical cord. q. End of
the spine, now shortening from the previous tail-like form, and rounding into the
pelvis, r. Cavity of the mouth.

Figure 5. The same embryo seen in front. This shows how the mouth and nose
begin to form, and the line a shows how the two sides, or walls, of the abdomen come
together, and so inclose the internal organs. This line can be eacily traced in adult
life, especially in women, and is called the lima alba.

A Human Being at Various Stages.

i

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW BEING FROM THE GERM. 321

covered with hair. Skin thickly covered with sebaceous scum. White and graj
matter of the brain become distinct. Centers of bony formation at most important
points. Liver descends to the navel. Testes descend into the scrotum. Middle of
the body at the navel, or sometimes a little below.

Male children are larger and heavier, at birth, on an average, than female chil-
dren. Dr. Joseph Clarke puts the average of males at 7£ lbs. and females 6f lbs.
He says those that weigh less than 5 pounds at full term, seldom thrive, or -live
long. Several instances are on record of children at birth weighing 15 pounds.

As a rule, more males are born than females, although in adult life females pre-
ponderate ; which shows that more males perish, from various causes, before ma-
turity. It is curious, also, that among illegitimate children the proportion of males
is less than among those born in wedlock.

More male than female children are born dead, and more die during the earlier
periods up to puberty. For a short time after puberty, more females die than males,
but from 18 to 28, more males die than females. From 28 to 50, the deaths are most
numerous among females, but after 50 the two sexes differ very little in this respect.

The accompanying plates show the development of the embryo at its early stages,
with all the accessories.

In its earliest periods it will be seen to consist of three parts : the head, heart, and
trunk. The limbs and other organs do not show till later. This shows the fallacy
of the idea that the human being exists from the first, in its adult form, only very
minute. In the early stages, man is a mere grub, or worm, and goes on from one
inferior type to another above, and becomes a perfect man only at last.

The genital organs are the most irregular of all in their development. In some
embryos, of three months, they are as much advanced as in others at four. Fre-
quently it is difficult to distinguish the sex even at four and a half months. Tip to
three and a half months, the organs are the same in all, male and female, both in
origin and development, so that when the different points are spoken of up to that
time, they may be called either by the male or female names, but without its being
understood that they are absolutely either the one or the other.

The first absolute sign of the genital organ may be distinguished about the fourth
week, with close observation ; but the exact period at which the divergence begins
which makes the future being male or female, we do not know.

It is obvious, however, from the above explanation;:, that the male is a further
stage of development than the female, of the same parts, and in a different direction.
The most essential organs in the female, the ovaries, are internal, and the corre-
sponding organs in the male, the testicles, are external ! the womb is also internal,
and the corresponding part in the male, the prostatic vesicle, is external, so that the
male resembles the female turned inside out as it were.

This sexual difference is accompanied by other bodily differences, so that woman,
as a rule, does not develop like a man. She is not inferior, in the vulgar meaning
©f the term, but she is not the same, and is adapted to a totally different sphere of
life. Neither can with advantage take the place of the other.

PLATE XXIX.

THIS PLATE IS INTENDED TO SHOW ALL THE PARTS BEPEBEED TO IN THE PBECEIN
ING PLATES ON A MOKE PEEFECT SCALE ; PEOPEBLT PLACED AND CONNECTED.

a. The embryo.

i. Amnion.

c. The umbilical cord.

d. Choroid space.

e. Pedicle of the umbilical vesicle.
/. The umbilical vesicle.

g. The villosities surrounding the outside of the chorion.

h. The decidua vera.

i. Decidua reflexa.

Te. Part of the decidua terminating in the uterine end of the Fallopian tuba

I. Mucous secretion in the os uteri.

m. Wall of the uterus.

nn. The ends of the Fallopian tubes.

The womb in this plate is supposed to be cut through, lengthways.

Section of Impregnated Womb

CHAPTER XXVIII.

FCETAL NUTRITION.

The manner m which the new being derives its nutriment, or the material by
which it grows, is, in a great measure, unknown to us, though we certainly obtain
some information about it by a study of the apparatus employed in the process.

For the first fifteen or twenty days the substance called the vitellus, which is
analogous to the yelk of the ordinary egg, appears to supply most of the material that
is required in the formation of the new being, if not all ; and, indeed, this sub-
stance does not totally disappear till after the third month, though we cannot sup-
pose it to be the sole source of nutriment then. It is also supposed, by some, that
the amniotic liquor, in which the foetus floats, may afford some nutriment, either by
being swallowed, or by being absorbed through the skin. It is certain that this fluid
is nutritive, and there is nothing impossible in its absorption, though it is not very
likely to occur to a sufficient extent. The idea that it can be swallowed, however, is
erroneous, because the mouth of the foetus is firmly closed while in the womb ; and
besides, children have been born alive without mouths, and even without heads, and
of course they could not have swallowed anything. It is now generally conceded by
physiologists that the material required by the foetus, for its nutrition, is obtained
from the blood of the mother, through the medium of the placenta, and the vessels
in the umbilical cord. It is, however, a matter of dispute whether the maternal
blood is sent directly, in its ordinary state, into the body of the child, or whether it
first undergoes a preparatory process, which most modern authors suppose it does.

From the earliest period of gestation, the middle membrane, called the chorion,
is covered, on its outer surface, with a number of small protuberances called villosi-
ties, which subsequently become true blood-vessels. About the fourth month these
have increased very much in size and number, and have all become conglomerated
into one mass, in form like a mushroom. This is called the placenta. It is almost
entirely formed of blood-vessels, which seem to attach themselves at one end, by open
mouths, to the open mouths of other blood-vessels on the inner walls of the uterus.
At the other end these vessels are drawn together and lengthened out into a long
tube called the umbilical cord, or navel string, which finally enters, the body of the
child at the navel, and so establishes the connection between it and the mother.

The blood-vessels in the placenta, umbilicus, and foetus, like those in the mater-
nal body, are of two kinds, arteries and veins. The arteries, which come from the
left side of the heart, carry the pure blood, which contains all the materials for form-
ing and nourishing every part of the system. The veins contain the blood in its
impure state, and take it to the right side of the heart, from whence it is forced into
the lungs to be purified by the act of breathing. The blood is made impure by some
of its constituents being absorbed, to form the different parts of the body, and by
having thrown into it a quantity of waste and poisonous matter no longer needed.

PLATE XXX.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GENITAL ORGANS.

Figure 1. Genital organs of an embryo, 8 weeks old, magnified, a. The external
lips. b. Clitoris, c. Central cleft, d. The coccyx.

Figure 2. The same at 9 weeks, a. External lips. b. Clitoris, c. Central cleft.
d. Anus. ee. The nymphae. /. The coccyx.

Figure 3. The same at 10 weeks, magnified, a. The glans. b. The furrow,
caused by the bending of the glans. c. External lips. d. The central cleft, con-
tracted at its lower part. e. The anus.

Figure 4. The same at 11 weeks, magnified. This shows the perineum perfectly
formed, at a, so that the anus and the genito-urinary passage are now separated.

Figure 5. Genital organs of a male embryo at 3 months, natural size.

Figure 6. Genital organs of a female embryo at 3 months, natural size.

Figure 7. Genital organs of male at 3 months, magnified, aa. The scrotum.
b. The raphe, which divides the scrotum into two parts, c. The penis, d. The glans
penis, e. The central cleft now nearly closed. /. The anus. g. The os coccyx.
h. The perineum., or space between the genitals and anus.

Figure 8. Female genital organs at 3 months, magnified, aa. The nymphae.
b. The cleft, more widely open, instead of being closed, as in the male. c. The cli-
toris, corresponding to the male penis, d. Lower end of the nymphae. e. Perineum.
/. The anus. g. The os coccyx, hh. Large lips. t. The mons veneris.

PLATE XXX.

Development of the Genital Organ*.

F(ETAL NUTRITION. 325

The course of the blood, therefore, is from the left side of the mother's heart
along her arteries till it reaches the arteries of the uterus, from thence it passes into
those of the placenta, and thence into those of the umbilicus which convey it into
the body of the child. When there it circulates in its arteries, supplies the material
for its further increase and development, becomes in consequence impure, and passes
into its veins, the same as in the maternal body. From these veins it passes into
those of the umbilicus and placenta, and, apparently, into those of the mother, by
which it is conveyed to the right side of her heart, and by its action to her lungs,
to be again purified when she breathes. This explains what was previously stated,
that the child uses the mother's heart, lungs, and stomach while in the womb, and
has, therefore, no occasion to use its own.

The diameter of the placenta is about six inches, and its thickness about one inch
and a half. The length of the umbilical cord is from eighteen to twenty-four inches,
its diameter about half an inch. These dimensions are, however, subject to great
variation. Instances are mentioned of the cord being five feet long, and as thick as
the child's arm. I have seen one myself four feet long. Sometimes it will be very
short, not more than eight or ten inches. It is composed of one artery and two
veins, twisted together like the strands of a cable, and a sheath surrounding them
composed of the chorion and amnion. Between the sheath and the vessels is a thick
gelatinous fluid called the gelatine of Wharton.

This explanation, it must be remembered, is in fact merely hypothetical. The
direct passage of the blood through the placenta, from the mother's vessels into those
of the cord, is denied by many physiologists, who contend that there is an interme-
diate set of vessels in the placenta, in which it first undergoes important changes.
They also contend that the impure blood does not pass through into the mother's
veins at all, but is purified in the placenta, and immediately returned. Some have
even averred that the placenta is not required at all, to supply nourishment, but is
merely a purifying organ. It is now known, however, that it is not absolutely essen-
tial to either process, for children have been born alive, and perfectly formed, which
merely floated loosely in the amniotic liquor, having neither placenta nor cord, nor
any other connection with the mother. How they were nourished we cannot tell.
These, however, must be regarded merely as curious exceptions, there being little
doubt but that foetal nutrition is ordinarily effected through the placenta and cord,
by means of the mother's blood, somewhat in the manner we have described.

PECULIARITIES OF THE POSTAL CIRCULATION.

From the circumstance of the fcetus not using its heart and lungs, like the adult,
its circulation has several modifications.

The engine by which the blood is forced along its vessels is the heart! This is
divided into two distinct parts, each of which has two cavities, the upper one called
the auricle, and the lower one the ventricle, which communicate with each other by
curious valves. In the adult, the whole of the impure blood is poured into the right
auricle, that from the lower part of the body by the inferior vena cava, and that from
the upper part by the superior vena cava. From the right auricle it passes into the
right ventricle, which pumps it into the lungs, by way of the pulmonary artery ; here
it is purified by the act of respiration, and then brought, when pure, by the pulmon-
ary veins, into the left auricle, and passes from thence into the left ventricle, which

PLATE XXXI.

THE PLACENTA AND UMBILICAL CORD, SHOWING THEIR CONNECTION WITH THE

FOETUS.

A. The placenta. D. The foetus. B. The umbilical cord. On the under surface
of the placenta, a, the ramifications of the blue veins and the red arteries are plainly
shown, and their continuation into the twisted vessels of the umbilical cord, B, which
at the navel, c, enter the body of the child. From the navel they are continued up
the interior of the body to the heart, F. E. The liver.

Length of the umbilical cord, or navel string, from one foot and a half to two
feet. It apparently has no nerves, for the child shows no sign of pain when it is cut.

The placenta usually weighs about a pound, but sometimes considerably more.
When there are two or more children, each one has its own placenta, though they
occasionally coalesce together.

The placenta, cord, and membranes, form what is called the after-birth, because
they come away after the child. (See Frontispiece. )

The Foetus with its Appendages.

FCETAL NUTRITION. 327

pumps it into the great aorta, and from thence into the smaller arteries all over the
body.

The two sides of the heart, therefore, do not communicate directly with each
other, but there is a strong partition between them. In the foetus, the arterial blood
from the mother, when it leaves the umbilical artery, enters first the liver, runs
through its vessels, gives off the bile found in it, and then joins the vena cava infe-
rior. By this passage it is taken into the right auricle, along with the impure blood
of the vena cava. From the right auricle it passes through a hole in the partition
directly into the left auricle, instead of taking the indirect route by the lungs as in
the adult. From the left auricle it passes into the left ventricle, and is from thence
distributed by the arteries all over the body. This opening in the partition is called
the foramen ovale!

After birth, when the blood begins to pass through the lungs, this passage closes
up. By the eighth day it is generally obliterated, often much sooner, though occa-
sionally it has remained open longer without inconvenience. In some cases the
foramen ovale does not close at all. The child has then what is called the blue dis-
ease ! The whole body is of a uniform leaden, or blue color, and the whole system
is generally languid and sluggish. The blue color is caused by the dark blood of the
veins mixing with that of the arteries. These children mostly die early, but some
live to be five or sis years old, and one I saw twelve, but this is rare. No remedy
can be had for this affliction, and I have never known it to cure spontaneously.
Some children are so very dark for a few days after birth as to cause great alarm.,
This is owing to the foramen ovale being very open and closing slowly. No appre-
hension need be experienced in such cases, as they soon come right.

The impure blood from the upper part of the foetal body, which is brought down
by the superior vena cava, also enters the right auricle, but does not pass from thence
through the foramen, like that from the inferior vena cava. By a peculiar arrange-
ment this blood is made to pass down into the right ventricle, and from thence along
the pulmonary artery, the same as in the adult state. Only a very small portion,
however, passes into the lungs, the great part being taken along a tube called the
ductus arteriosus into the great artery called the aorta, where it begins to turn down
to the lower part of the body. In consequence of this, the arterial blood going down
to the lower part of the body is mixed with this portion of impure, venous blood,
brought by the ductus arteriosus from the superior vena cava ; while that going to
the head, and upper part of the body remains pure. And this is the reason why the
lower part is always so much smaller than the upper part, previous to birth ; it re-
ceives less pure nourishment. The head and chest appear, at an early period, almost
as large as the rest of the body.

This circumstance also explains why, in the great majority of cases, the right
arm is preferred to the left, and has more real power. The place where the ductus
arteriosus pours the impure blood into the aorta, is almost immediately opposite to
where the artery is given off which feeds the left arm. In consequence of which, in
most cases, a small portion of this impure blood becomes mixed with the arterial
blood, and the left arm is, therefore, in the same situation as the lower limbs, and
like them is comparatively imperfectly developed. The right arm is not liable to
any such deprivation. In some cases the insertion of the ductus arteriosus is lower
down, so that no such mixture occurs. Both arms are then equal, and this accounts
for the fact that in some persons there is no difference. In some cases, no doubt,

328 FCETAL NUTRITION.

3arly habit may overcome this natural inferiority, and even give the preference to the
left arm ; but such instances are rare.

The ductus arteriosus closes up about the same time as the foramen ovale.

The two veins which convey the impure blood back to the mother, to be purified,
originate from the iliac artery, pass up the sides of the bladder toward the navel,
enter the sheath of the cord, and so reach the placenta. They are obliterated about
the third or fourth day after birth, and assume the form of a cord.

The real source of all the blood in the body of the child is a mystery ; it would
certainly appear most likely for the whole of it to be derived from the mother, but
there are many circumstances which make it probable that the child may form some
itself, by digesting the fluid it is supposed to absorb. This view is supported by the
fact that there is found in its bowels at birth, and even before, a greenish substance
like excrement, called meconium. This has every appearance of being the product
of digestion, though some suppose it to be derived from the liver. It occasionally
contains hair, and other anomalous substances.

The most recent investigations in regard to foetal nutrition show that the con-
nection between mother and child is established in the following manner : In the
walls of the womb there are formed, during gestation, certain cavities, called sinuses,
into which the curling arteries of the womb pour blood. The tufts of foetal vessels
in the placenta dip into these cavities, like roots dipping into water, and absorb the
blood as needed. The mother, therefore, supplies the blood to the foetus, but its
blood-vessels and hers are not continuous one with another. This is shown in the
following cut :

Figure 109. — Connection between the Womb and Placenta.

b. One of the cavities, or sinuses, into which the foetal blood-vessels are seen to dip. Another
is shown further along, cc. Are the foetal vessels, dipping into the sinuses, dd. The decidua,
lining the inside of the womb. e. One of the uterine curling arteries which pour the blood into
the sinuses.

CHAPTER XXIX.

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL OR MONSTROUS GROWTHS.

It sometimes happens that a foetus is formed outside of the womb, either on the
ovary, in the tube, or in some part of the abdomen, as among the intestines, for
instance. These are called extra-uterine conceptions, and their origin has always
been a mystery. It was long thought that such cases proved the old doctrine of con-
ception, which supposed that the semen was conveyed to the ovary, and impregnated
the egg there, otherwise, said its advocates, how could the foetus ever be found
outside the womb, if conception takes place inside ?

The true cause of an extra-uterine conception is this : Any sudden and violent
emotion, as & fright, for instance, will sometimes reverse the action of the Fallopian
tubes, so that they will convey anything from the womb toward the ovaries, or con-
trary to their usual course, so that if an egg should have passed down near the womb,
but not have quite left the tube, it might be taken back again during this reverse
action. Now, according to our previous explanation, it will be seen that the egg
may be impregnated, in some cases, while in the uterine end of the tube, because the
semen occasionally penetrates so far ; and it is therefore possible that an egg so impreg-
nated may be conveyed to the other end of the tube, or even out of it completely,
by this reverse action. It is not necessary for the development of the egg that it
should be in the womb, but, on the contrary, it will develop in any part, if it can
attach itself to some blood-vessel, though it will never form into a perfect human
being except inside the womb. In these cases, therefore, when the egg after impreg-
nation is taken to the other end of the tube, or to the outside, it is possible for it to
grow in this way, though imperfectly, and thus form an extra-uterine conception.
I have two beautiful models representing actual cases of this kind. It may even
be taken, by the motion of the body, after it becomes loose, to various parts of the
pelvic or abdominal cavities, where it will attach itself and develop in the same man-
ner. In other cases it has been known to imbed itself in the walls of the womb, and
develop there.

Several instances of extra-uterine conception have come under my notice, and
I have bestowed considerable attention upon them. Sometimes the development
will be indefinite, having no resemblance to a human being ; while at others it
will be tolerably perfect, and attain a large size, as large in some instances as a
foetus of five months. It is usually, however, a monstrosity, imperfect in some par-
ticular. The placenta and cord are found, as in the inter-uterine conception, as
also the amnion and chorion, but only occasionally a membrane analogous to the
decidua, this being properly a product of the uterus alone. The expulsion of these
products cannot, of course, be effected in the ordinary way ; they have either to be
removed by an operation, which is rarely resorted to, or else left to nature, in which
case they may terminate in various ways. Some authors say they will occasionally

330 EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

be absorbed, and so disappear. More generally, however, labor pains come on at the
ordinary time, decay commences, an abscess is formed, and the remains of the foetus
work through the opening. If she does not immediately succumb, the wound may
then heal, and the woman perfectly recover her health. Cases of this kind have often
been met with. I remember one in which all the parts did not come away under six
months ; the head was nearly perfect. Sometimes the pains will return every nine
months, for a long time, before decay commences. In other cases, instead of decay-
ing, the foetus, with its appendages, will become callous, and form into a hard tumor,
which may remain during the individual's life, without causing serious results. I
saw a lady very recently who had carried one of these tumors for nine years ! And I
assisted at the dissection of another in whom it had existed for thirteen years. It was
as large as the head, and fixed on the right side of the abdomen, apparently just
underneath the skin. These accidents, though serious, aro not necessarily always
fatal. Females have been known to suffer from them several times in succession,
though sometimes the next conception will be perfectly natural. Very generally,
however, the first case is followed by barrenness.

FORMATION OE ONE CHILD WITHIN ANOTHER.

Foetal development will sometimes occur under more extraordinary circumstances
even than those already mentioned. One foetus may be contained within another. A
case of this kind occurred at Verneuil, in France, in the year 1804, in a child named
Bissien, who differed in no external particular from other children, but always com-
plained of something being the matter in his left side. A small tumor appeared
there early, but the development of his body and mind went on as usual, and noth-
ing particular was noticed till he was thirteen years of age. The tumor then
suddenly increased in size, he began to pass from his body a quantity of putrid matter
mixed with long hair ; fever set in, and he died when about fourteen. Upon making
a post-mortem examination, there was found between the intestines and spine the
remains of a foetus. The teeth, nails, hair and bones, were not like those of a mere
infant, bat evidently indicated that the inclosed foetus was as old as the one in whom
it was formed ! Such cases are extremely rare, and I believe this was the first that
was properly observed or explained. Singular as it may appear, it can be readily
explained, if the description we have given of the process and organs of generation
be borne in mind.

In all such cases there have been two eggs impregnated, as in a case of twins, but
only one has developed into a child while in the womb, and the other has become in-
closed within its body. The egg thus inclosed may retain its vitality, but not develop
for an indefinite period, perhaps not till many years after that child is born, and very
likely there are many cases in which it never does. There is nothing more ex-
traordinary in its development, however, when it does take place under such circum-
stances, than there is in extra-uterine conception in the mother's body, because the
conditions are the same. The most wonderful circumstance is that the egg should
xemain so long dormant, and still be able to grow after such a lapse of time.

I have met with several cases of included foetuses in dissecting animals, and a
physiological friend informed me that he once found one in a man of thirty, which
was so perfect that he could perceive it to be of the male sex. This man was, there'
fore, really pregnant with his own twin brother.

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS. 331

As a proof of our explanation of the causes of extra-uterine foetuses, it may be
stated that, in every such case when its history could be traced, a fright or other
accident had been experienced about the period of conception. It is a singular fact,
also, that the most of such cases have been from illicit intercourse, in which females,
of course, are often liable to tbe fear of discovery and exposure, and to be disturbed.

The most convincing proof, however, that extra-uterine conception is owing to
fright, or disturbing violence, has been obtained by experiment upon animals. It
has been found that a blow upon the head, if it be given about the time of concep-
ion, will nearly always cause an extra-uterine development. It is dangerous, there-
'ore, for association ever to be practiced when any disturbance may be experienced
immediately after. If conception has already taken place, such violence or fright
may materially affect the development of the new being, by suspending the vital
power for a time. Thus a celebrated physiologist gave a female dog a violent blow
on the head, at the time of conception, so that she was partially paralyzed for some
days, and when she brought forth her young, all of them, except one, either had no
hind legs, or were deformed, or puny and weak. In another similar experiment, four
deformed young ones were born and three others were formed extra-uterine. The
four eggs had therefore evidently reached the womb at the time of impregnation,
while the other three were at the uterine end of the tube, which, having its action
reversed, took them to the outside.

All our ideas connected with the development and birth of man, are so associated
with the maternal womb that it sounds strangely unnatural to speak of children being
formed in any other part of the body. Still, it is a fact that they sometimes are, as
already shown ; nor will this seem so mysterious and. wonderful when the true nature
of foetal development is borne in mind.

The female germ cell, or ovum, receives such an electrifying influence from the
accession of the male sperm cell, in fecundation, that it will develop anywhere if it
have the requisite conditions of warmth, moisture and nutriment in an available
form.

It is true all these conditions are found best in the womb, and the new being can
also find its way, from there, into the world with safety to itself and the mother.
An impregnated egg, however, will form a child in the ovary, the Fallopian tube,
in the walls of the womb, or in the abdomen itself, among the intestines — in fact,
almost anywhere in the body where accident may convey it.

In very ancient works such cases are recorded, but their nature not being
known, all kinds of theories were adopted in regard to them. It was only when
the human female anatomy and physiology were practically studied by competent
observers that they could be understood.

It is somewhat remarkable that the womb, even when the child has no connection
with it, is still affected by the impregnation. It enlarges, becomes engorged with
blood, the neck clogs up with mucus, and a deciduous membrane forms to line its
interior. It is, therefore, evidently in sympathy with what is going on, though not
directly concerned in it.

Sometimes the ovum, in these extra-uterine cases, arrives at full maturity, dies,
putrefies, and by causing inflammation, makes a passage for itself, by which the
remains escape. Sometimes it passes away in fragments by the bowels ; at other
times by an abscess, on the outside of the abdomen. Occasionally, it works its way
into the vagina, and still more rarely into the bladder.

PLATE XXXII.

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION — OVARIAN".

This represents a remarkable case of extra-uterine conception, in which the child
was formed in the ovary itself. There was, of course, no connection with the womb,
nor were there the usual membranes, but a confused placental mass connects the
child with the cavity in the ovary in which it was formed.

a. The amnion. B. The chorion, ccc. The placenta, ddd. Fragments of the
corpus luteum. eee. Covering of the ovarium, e. The Fallopian tube. G. The
omentum or membrane covering the intestines.

A RemarkaHe Case of Ovarian Fecundation.

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

333

In other cases, instead of decaying, it passes into a substance like adipocere (waxy),
and simply makes a tumor, which may remain during the female's life without
causing serious trouble. Women have had these extra-uterine tumors so altered, and
have afterward borne children in the natural way while they still remained. In
the year 1828, a woman was received into the fever hospital, in Cork Street, Dublin,
who had a remarkable enlargement of the abdomen. She stated that eight years
before she had been in labor two days, but was never delivered. Two years after she
conceived again, and went her full time, as she also did on two other subsequent
occasions. Finally, an abscess formed near the navel, and from that the original
child was expelled, which had been conceived eight years before. It was twenty-two
inches long, remarkably well preserved, and had two feet of the umbilical cord
attached to it.

A still more remarkable instance was related to the Academy of Medicine, in
September, 1833. The body of an old woman of seventy-eight was brought into the
Anatomical Theatre, Geneva, in whose pelvis was discovered a tumor, connected
with the bladder, uterus and vagina, but not communicating with them. On cutting
this open, it was found to contain a foetus, three months old, crusted over with
phosphate of lime. She was the mother of three children, and died of old age.
From her history, it was supposed she had carried this foetus for upward of thirty
years.

An instance is even recorded where a woman had two extra-uterine foetuses at
the same time. She conceived, went the full period, had some labor pains, which
subsided, and finally relapsed into her usual condition of health, and menstruated
regularly ; a hard tumor, however, remained on the right side of the umbilicus.
Three years afterward she again conceived, and the same thing occurred, labor pains
ceasing, and a hard tumor remaining — this time on the right side.

Subsequently, the first tumor became tender, inflamed, and an abscess opened,
from which was extruded a quantity of pus and foetal bones. Two months afterward,
the other tumor was opened artificially, and similar remains were expelled. Both
openings healed up, and the patient returned to her usual state of health.

In these cases, the foetus never lives beyond the full period of gestation, nine
months, and usually dies before then. When this occurs, the uterus contracts, with
labor pains, and the decidua is expelled, with loss of blood, the same as in true
labor.

When the conception is in the tube or ovary, it nearly always dies before the full
term ; the sac then bursts, and the contents escape into the cavity of the abdomen,
causing inflammation, hemorrhage, and death.

In a few still rarer cases, the foetus forms perfectly, and at the full period is
extracted alive artificially. In such cases, it has been found as well developed as one
from the womb itself. Wherever it may be, a placenta, with cord, usually forms,
which attaches itself to some neighboring part, and by which nutrition is effected.
The development may occur, however, without this, as some of the cases prove.

In numerous cases, the foetus has been removed by the surgeon after its death, and
often to the saving of the woman's life, although the operation is necessarily a dan-
gerous one. Much, however, depends upon the position of the tumor, and the place
where the opening has to be made.

In twelve cases recorded by Kamsbotham, four of the women died from the sac
bursting into the abdomen, causing hemorrhage. Three died from ulceration conec

334 EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

quent upon nature's effort to expel it. Four recovered, two getting rid of the foetus
by way of the intestines, one by an operation, and one by its forming a permanent
tumor. In the remaining one, nature had made no effort at removal in any way.

In one case, a woman of 84 was found with an extra-uterine foetus, which she had
carried forty-eight years. Others at thirty and twenty years have also been seen, and
one extreme case of fifty-two years, in which the foetus weighed eight pounds.

"When the conception is in the Fallopian tube, it is seldom carried over two
months, and when in the ovary not more than five or six months, but when in the
abdomen, it may be carried for an indefinite period, as the above cases prove.

It is remarkable that many of these women, thus carrying children within them
for a large portion of their lives, in an unnatural condition, yet enjoyed good health,
and even became mothers in the meantime in the natural way.

As to the causes of extra-uterine conception, we are much in the dark. Almost
all of the cases have occurred in women who had previously borne children in the
natural way, so that it would not seem to result from any defect in formation. Many
physiologists ascribe it to fright or shock, either at the time when the egg leaves the
ovary, or at the time of impregnation, as before stated.

Baudelocque tells us of one case, in which a woman, while with her lover, was
frightened by some one trying to enter the room ; she had extra-uterine conception.
In another case, the woman, under similar circumstances, was alarmed by a stone
being thrown through the window, and the same result followed. It is worthy of
remark also that more such cases occur in unmarried women than in married ones —
possibly from irregular indulgence or fear of its consequences.

Certain experiments have seemed to prove that fright during impregnation may
cause extra-uterine conception in animals. It is, however, very rare among them,
probably because they are not so subject to emotional terror at such times.

It is my opinion that the condition of both parents at the time of conception,
bodily, mental, and moral, is of great consequence to the future child, and that it
should be much more considered than it is, along with the condition of the mother
during gestation and nursing afterward. It is quite possible that the influences
which operate, for good or for evil, upon a child before birth are more powerful than
all that can be brought to bear upon it after birth.

FALSE CONCEPTIONS.

A variety of abnormal productions are found in the uterus, called moles and false
conceptions, which are different from those not connected with impregnation, such
as tumors, polypi, etc. The mole of generation is an abnormal development of the im-
pregnated ovum. It has various forms, but most frequently resembles a mere shapeless
mass of flesh, inclosed in an envelope full of fluid. On carefully dissecting this sub-
stance, we can usually discover some traces of the foetal structure ; at other times we
find nothing but the bag of fluid. Sometimes the production will remain attached to
the mother by a kind of cord and placenta, and develop into a shapeless monstrosity ;
at others it will be entirely disconnected. These growths probably originate from a
blighted ovum, which retains sufficient life merely to develop, but not to organize.
I have known them to attain a large size, and some females to have many of them
in succession. What causes moles we do not know, nor can we always distinguish
one from a natural pregnancy. Occasionally they assume the most fantastic shapes,
and resemble the most incongruous objects. It is this circumstance, no doubt, which

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS. 335

gave rise to the statements we sometimes hear and read of in old works, of women
bringing forth animals, plants, etc. ! I have seen some moles myself which could be
easily mistaken for such things by persons who did not attentively examine them,
and whose imaginations were a little lively. A kind of imperfect animalcule, called
the hydatid, is also found in the uterus. It merely resembles a bag of jelly, and
floats in a fluid. Its size varies from that of a pea to a chestnut. Sometimes only
one is found, at others a number. When removed from the fluid in which they live,
and put in warm water, they will often move, which shows them to be alive. Similal
beings are formed in the liver and kidneys. (See article on the tapeworm.)

DEFORMITIES AND MONSTROSITIES.

Monstrosities. These anomalous productions, called also lusus natural, are of
various kinds. They may either have more parts than natural, or less, or unnatural
parts. Sometimes there is a confusion of parts only. Thus we sometimes have a
foetus with two heads, or an additional number of hands or feet. And sometimes we
have them with only one leg or arm. Then again we see others with supernumerary
parts that resemble no member in particular. And at other times we find some of
the parts transposed, particularly the viscera. The causes of these accidents are not
well understood. An opinion prevails very generally that they are altogether owing
to some personal violence, or strong mental emotion experienced by the mother dur-
ing pregnancy. Thus fright, sudden joy, or the sight of any disagreeable object art
thought to be able to produce them. In many cases this opinion is probably correct,
so far as the mere fact is concerned, but some very absurd notions are entertained as
to the manner in which these causes operate. I shall, therefore, endeavor to give a
scientific explanation.

A deficiency of any part, or an imperfect development of it, is evidently caused
oy something disturbing the vital process, and depriving that particular part of its
power of growth, either permanently or for a time ; but what those causes are it is im-
possible to tell. Sometimes the toes, or the fingers, or some of the limbs become
imperfect in this way, and sometimes the heart, or some other internal organ, and
children have even been born with no heads.

The disturbing cause may either operate from the first, and then there is no trace
i)f the part, or it may operate at a later period, and then the part is merely smaller
and more imperfect than the others. Thus sometimes we see one arm or one leg only
half as large as its fellow, and sometimes the whole body is dwarfish and the head,
large. At other times the roof of the mouth is imperfect, or an eye, or the ear, so as
to cause congenital deafness and blindness, and sometimes the upper lip is imperfect,
causing hare-lip.

There is no foundation, however, for the notion that these deficiencies are always
caused by frights or fancies, or that the mother can produce them by injuring her-
self in the same part, or by merely placing her hands on it, as many suppose. In many
such cases there is no doubt, if the truth could have been known, that the deficiency
existed before the fright was experienced ; but people are apt to suppose that it must
have been caused by the fright, merely because it followed after it.

Sometimes when there are two ova impregnated, instead of both forming per-
fectly, as in twins, or one being included within the other, as in the case of the boy
Bissien, they will become so intermixed as to be grafted, as it were, one upon the
other, or grow together. The parts where they touch, then, do not form, and these

336 EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

only deyelop certain portions of the different foetuses connected together. In this
way are produced those monstrosities that we see with two heads, two bodies, or
many arms, or legs. If there should be more than two ova join together, of course
the confusion of parts would be greater, and the monster still more unnatural.

Two perfect twins are also liable to grow together, if they touch, and so become
connected in any part. Thus some have been found joined at the back, others at
the stomach, and some by the side, like the Siamese Twins, between whom there was
a ligament.

Most of these monstrosities are probably caused by some disturbing agency at the
time of conception, or during pregnancy ; but monsters may also result from imper-
fect eggs, as before explained, and also from imperfect or deformed animalcules.

They may originate with the male, therefore, as well as with the female, and I
have known a man who had three deformed children by one wife, and two by another,
owing to imperfect animalcules, as I proved by observing them.

It is certain, however, that cases occur sometimes thr.t may well excuse the com-
mon belief, especially as people generally are not in the habit of properly connecting
cause and effect. Thus a pregnant mother has seen a man who had lost his arm, and
her child when born has been similarly deficient. No doubt, however, other preg-
nant women might have been worse affected by the sight, and yet have had perfect
children, and probably she would have had the one-armed child just the same if the
man had not been seen by her. It is more likely that her child's arm was not formed
at the time of her fright, from some other cause, for if it were, we must suppose
that the fright destroyed it, and then comes the question how or in what way was it
carried off ?

In Fleming's Zoology a remarkable instance is given of a cat, who was much terri-
fied, while with young, by having her tail severely trodden upon, and who brought
forth, at the usual time, five kittens, only one of which was perfect, all the others
having their tails distorted in a singular manner, and all alike. This, however, was
from real bodily injury, affecting the vital power, and not from imagination.

It is quite conceivable that the condition of any part of the mother's body, at any
particular period of pregnancy, may influence the corresponding part in the new
being she carries in her womb, and affect its development. Especially if any violence
be done to any part of the mother, so as to arrest its growth, or cause an abnormal
condition of it, we should expect that the same part in the child would in some way
be similarly affected.

Thus in the case of the kittens, above referred to, the normal condition of the
tail, in the mother, was suddenly and violently changed, and apparently the same
part in all her kittens suffered a similar change.

In case of a slight injury, or one the effects of which soon pass away, no such re-
sult may follow, but if the hurt be severe, and its effects lasting, it may be otherwise.

In all such cases it seems necessary there should be nervous shock, as well as
bodily hurt, for it is only through nervous agency that we can conceive of the mother
affecting the child in her womb, — except through blood poisoning, and that would
affect the whole system equally.

Pregnant women are constantly subject to unfavorable influences, which affect
their children in many unsuspected ways ; and at no period of their lives do they need
more watchful care and attention, nor niore entire freedom from all injurious con-
ditions. The formation of the child's head especially, may be readily affected by the

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

337

bodily and mental condition of the mother during pregnancy, and the possible con-
sequences of this may be seen from the following facts :

The British Medical Journal presents, at some length, the results arrived at by
Prof. Benedict, in his examination of the brains of criminals — some sixteen in all.
Every one of these, on. comparison with the healthy brain, proved to be abnormal.
Not only, too, has he found that these brains deviate from the normal type, and
approach that of lower animals, but he has been able to classify them, and with them
the skulls in which they were contained, in three categories. First, absence of sym-
metry between the two halves of the brain ; second, an obliquity of the interior part
of the brain or skull — in fact, a continuation upward of what is usually termed a slop-
ing forehead ; third, a distinct lessening of the posterior cerebral lobes, so that, as in
the lower animals, they are not large enough to hide the cerebellum. In all these
peculiarities, the criminal's brain and skull are distinctly of a lower type than those
of normal men.

Now, that these abnormal conditions may often result from influences acting
upon the mother, during pregnancy, is scarcely a matter of doubt, and thus a child
may be made a criminal before its birth ; or in other words, a moral monstrosity.

REMARKABLE CASE OF A FCETAL MONSTROSITY.

The case represented in the following cut is one recorded a short time ago in the
London Lancet. It was the mother's thirteenth pregnancy, and her previous children
had been quite perfect. She had received no fright
of any kind, nor had she been subject to any un-
usual longings.

It will be observed that the upper part of the
body and the head are quite perfect, but that from
below the chest and the middle of the back, all is
imperfect, displaced, and deformed.

About a month previous to her confinement, she
had a slight flooding, which, however, increased,
and every day more and more blood was lost, up to
the time of delivery. This, however, could not
have caused the monstrosity entirely, because it is
evident the deformity must have existed before the
eighth month, and was doubtless the result of some
abnormal direction of the nerves and blood-vessels.
The deficient nutrition of the parts, however, owing
to the loss of blood by the flooding, may have made
the case much worse.

In all cases of deficiency of any part, there is
always an absence of the nerves and blood-vessels of
that part, and in all cases of wrong position or de-
formity the blood-vessels and nerves are wrongly

directed, or turned from their usual course. In the stomach.— d. The spleen
same way, if we tie a ligament round the bark of a T^^^.-l&u^'
tree, so as to compress the sap-vessels, the tree will The feet and legs are conjoined,
bulge out at that part, or be deformed, and if we only the toes being separate,
cut through the sap-vessels entirely, the parts above will die, or be deficient.

Figure 110. — Singular Monstrosity.

A. The heart.— B. The liver.— c. The
small

338

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

MONSTROSITY. — DEFICIENCY OF PARTS.

Of all the irregularities of montrosity, instances in which there exist a deficiency
of parts are most commonly met with ; and this deficiency may exist in many organs.
Among those that can be brought under the examination of the eye, the mouth and
lips are perhaps most frequently the seat of this abnormal development. Sometimes
there is a simple fissure in the upper lip. forming the single hare-lip ; at other times
there is a double fissure, and a want of a greater or less portion of the palate ; some-
times, again, the palate is faulty, while the lips are perfect. Not unfrequently, also,
there is some imperfection in the genitals. The interior part of the bladder and
the parietes of the abdomen, just above the pubes, have been found wanting ; so
also has a portion of the muscles and integuments round the navel. In the former
case, the mucous lining of the bladder is continuous at its circumference with the
skin, and forms a soft, red, sensitive protuberance in the pubic region ; the ossa
pubes do not meet, and the recti muscles are separated to some extent. Such an
extensive malformation could not exist without disturbing the arrangement of
the genital organs. In the latter, the intestines in the neighborhood of the

umbilicus appear to have no covering
but the peritoneum, and the chorion
and amnion continued from the pla-
centa. Often a large portion of the
bowels is received into the cord itself ;
and cases are on record in which the
whole contents, both of the abdomen
and chest, were without any covering
or skin. The septum between the ven-
tricles of the heart, and occasionally
the diaphragm, have been deficient or
imperfect. Sometimes one or both
arms, at others, the legs, are scarcely
formed at all ; and when this is the
case, Nature seems to make up for the
deficiency by granting an extra growth
to other parts ; thus, in a foetus pre-
served in the London Hospital Museum,
the head and trunk are nearly twice
the natural size, while the arms and
legs are not more than three inches
long. A want of the spinous processes
of three or four contiguous vertebras,
is not a very uncommon species of mon-
strosity. This constitutes spina bifida.
There is usually a soft fluctuating
tumor in the situation of the mal-
formed bones, caused by water con-
tained within the sheath of the spinal marrow. A midwife, under my superintend-
ence, delivered a woman, a few years since, of twins, each laboring under spina bifida
situated low in the lumbar vertebrae.

Figtiee 111.

-Double Monstrosity united at the
Sternum.

EXTRAUTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS. 339

But the most interesting and singular variety of deficient organization is the
acephalous monster (that is, literally, brainless). In this there is a total want of
the bones at the sides and upper part of the cranium, as well as of the brain and the
membranes ordinarily covering it. The base of the skull is ill shaped, and covered by
a membrane continuous with the integuments. There is no forehead, but the skull
runs backward from the superciliary ridge. Sometimes, under the membrane at
the base of the skull, there is a quantity of soft pulpy matter ; but more frequently
the spinal marrow commences, as it were, abruptly. The preparations of the acepha-
loid foetus (which have been multiplied ad infinitum, and specimens of which may
be found in every museum), prove that the case is by no means very rare ; and they
show also that the brain is not essential to our being while in utero ; for many of
these children have arrived at the full intra-uterine size — nay, some are actually
larger than an ordinary f cetus ; as if nature had intended to compensate for the loss
of the brain by allowing an exuberant growth to the body. In these instances the
nerves are well formed, and even those of the senses which ordinarily terminate
in the cerebral mass itself, such as the optic, ,are not wanting. Acephaloid children
have been known to live some hours, and even days. I myself saw one alive thirty-six
hours after its birth, which cried
(though feebly), sucked, and
seemed to perform all the animal
functions much more perfectly
than could have been supposed.
The spinal marrow has been
found wanting in some cases,
when the brain was deficient.
There is a woman now living in
Double X Place, Globe Eoad,
Mile End, who has had six chil-
dren, and each alternate one
has been acephalous, the others
healthy, and born living. It has
been observed by her attendant,
that with each of the monstrous
foetuses there has been an exces-
sive quantity of liquor amnii, not
so, however, with the others.
Many explanations have been
offered to account for the origin
of the acephaloid foetus. Pro-
fessor Eudolphi, of Berlin, in-
deed has proved, by a collection
of specimens, that it originates
in hydrocephalus ; and the last
fact that I have mentioned
would seem to bear out this view

of the question ; for I have my- JJ^, m_DouUe j^trosit& unUed lateraa&
self frequently observed that
when the foetus is dropsical, there is an excessive quantity of 'liquor amnii. My

340 EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL OROWTHts.

friend, Dr. Mackenzie, of Glasgow, writes to me, "When visiting the Anatomical
Museum at Berlin, in 1817, Professor Kudolphi pointed out to my attention a series
of preparations explanatory of the formation of acephali. Embryonic hydrocepha-
lus is the cause. He showed me an embryon, on the upper part of whose head waa
a reside ready to burst — a second, in whom the envelopes of the brain had burst,
the pieces floating round the basis of the skull— and a third, in whom these floating
remnants were partly gone, thus verging on the common acephalus, as we find it
when born after nine months intra- uterine life."

REDUNDANCY OF PARTS.

Organs are not unfrequently redundant : thus occasionally there are supernumerary
thumbs, fingers or toes ; such an irregularity being sometimes confined to one limb,
sometimes affecting all. "It is evidently both erroneous and unjust to call a child a
monster, merely because it possesses a toe or a finger more than the natural number ;
for the very word conveys a horrible, or at least an unpleasant, impression. It is
worth remark, that this deviation from natural formation sometimes runs in families.
Meckel (Pathol. Anatomy, vol. i., p. 19) has observed this ; there is a curious case
of the same kind in the fourteenth volume of the Medical Gazette, p. 65 ; and two
similar instances have come under my own eye. In the year 1831, two children were
brought to my house, twin boys, of a fortnight old, one of them with a supernumerary
finger and toe on each hand and foot, the other with only one extra finger on the
right hand ; the toes had apparently well-formed joints, by which they were con-
nected to the metatarsal bones ; the fingers merely hung by a pellicle of skin. T saw
the mother afterwards, and found she had a supernumerary finger and toe on each
hand and foot, with perfect joints, and capable of motion. She told me she had
borne twenty-one children — that all the girls but one were born with extra fingers
and toes ; but only one of the boys, besides the twins, was affected in the same
manner. She also said her mother and one of her sisters were the subjects of the
same kind of irregularity. The other case much resembled this.

Sometimes a larger and more important member than a finger or toe is supernu-
merary. Thus Sir E. Home has described, in the 80th volume of The Philosophical
Transactions, an Indian child which had two heads, united together at their crowns
— the upper one being inverted. The subject died of the bite of a rattle-snake, when
it was about four years old. It was found that the two skulls were nearly of the
same size — equally complete in ossification. " The frontal and parietal bones, instead
of being continued over the top of the head, meet each other, and are united by a
circular suture. The two skulls are almost equally perfected at their union ; but
the superior skull, as it recedes from the other, becomes imperfect, and many of its
parts are deficient. The number of the teeth is the same in both. There is no
septum of bones between the crania, so that the two brains must have been contained
i\ one bony case." The dura mater of each, hoAvever, was continued across, so as to
divide the cerebral masses from each other, and their membranes were perforated by
a number of large vessels by which the upper brain was nourished. The skull was
deposited in the Hunterian Museum, and is now in the possession of the Eoyal College
of Surgeons.

In the lower animals, monstrosities occur much more frequently than m man ,
and the domesticated are more obnoxious to these irregularities than those in th6

EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS. 341

wild state. Monstrous pigs, sheep, puppies, kittens, ducks, and chickens, are to he
seen in every collection of specimens devoted to the elucidation of the subject of
reproduction.

Two children have been joined together by the back, the sides, and by the sternum
and abdomen. Figures 96 and 97, the originals of which are in the London Hospital
Museum, show the possibility of sucb a confusion. Nor are such specimens by any
means singular ; but many similar are preserved. Instances, indeed, are not wanting
of individuals variously connected by nature, surviving their birth, and even living
to maturity.

The Siamese twins were connected only by a band about four inches long and
eleven in circumference, situated at the lower part of the sternum, involving the
ensiform cartilages, and possessing at its lower face an umbilicus. The length of
the band allowed them to turn a little sideways towards each other. Their nervous
systems seemed to act more in unison than in the case of some others ; for they both
slept at the same time, and one could not be awakened without rousing the other ;
their pulses were not always alike. Hunger affected both simultaneously ; they
both preferred the same kind of food, and were both satisfied with nearly the same
quantity, and at the same time. But the vascular systems were distinct, or had but
slight communication ; for asparagus eaten by the one did not impregnate with its
peculiar odor the urine of the other ; and not the least pulsation could be distin-
guished in the band.

The Siamese twins are now dead, after having lived thus conjoined for many
years. They married two sisters, and both had families. One died first, and the
other did not long survive his separation from him. It was found, on the post-
mortem examination, that the liver of one, and some of the larger vessels, extended
along the band of union into the body of the other, so that they could not have
been separated with safety, as Sir Astley Cooper suspected.

"While this book is going to press there is now exhibiting in New York City
"The Benoit Twins," two sisters, joined together something like the two in figure
112. The two bodies, heads, and arms are distinct, but they have only two lower
limbs between them. They are now some five years old, in good health, and quite
lively.

In such a case each head seems the seat of a separate intelligence, though pro-
bably there is a sympathetic connection between them. One may sleep, however,
while the other is awake, or feel hunger or thirst when the other does not. Each
seems to influence one of the lower limbs only, and there are probably some parts
equally under the control of the two.

Instances also are recorded of the union of a perfect with a partially developed
body, of which A-Ke, a Chinee, sixteen years old, may be adduced as an example.
He had the loins, nates, upper and lower extremities, of a small parasitical brother
escaping from the abdomen between the umbilicus and the sternum. This prodigy,
I believe, was shown in England some years ago, and small models of his person must
be familiar to every one who has had the curiosity to inquire into this subject.
Another case very similar to the last is related by Ambrose Pare. The man exhibited
himself in Paris in 1530, was forty years old, and had growing out of his abdomen
a. small body, perfect in all its parts, but wanting the head and shoulders. Pare" has
given a drawing of this, as well as many other monstrous productions, and Palfyn
^ives the history of a man having a small body attached in the same way ; but ix

342 EXTMA-UTEBINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATtrnJi.r, GROWTHS.

this instance, also, there were arms external, and the head only was wanting. Wins
low relates that he saw a girl of twelve years old, well-formed, and of the common
size, with the ahdomen and lower extremities of another hody hanging from the left
side of the epigastric region ; and in the 79th volume of TJie Philosophical
Transactions there is an account of a well-made Gentoo boy, who had the pelvis
and lower limbs of a little brother suspended from the pubes.

Rueffe, Pare and Palfyn all speak of a man, alive in 1519, from whose abdomen
a small though well-formed head appeared to grow ; and Winslow saw, in 1698, an
Italian, who had another head much less than his own, connected to the chest
below the cartilage of the third rib. The man felt any impression on this extra head.

Again, an imperfect body has been found entirely enclosed within another. Ir
the Gentleman's Magazine for December, 1748, mention is made of a child born with
a large bag extending from the perineum to the toes, which in a few days burst, and
a mass of florid flesh protruded, in which were distinctly perceptible a hand and foot,
with perfect fingers and toes ; but no organs could be traced, nor any rudiments of
either sex. Richerand mentions the case of a lad who died at thirteen years old,
and who, from his earliest infancy, had a tumor on the left side of the lower part
of the abdomen, which was very painful. He was seized with fever and increase of
pain in the prominent part, and voided by stool purulent and fetid matter, and a ball
of hair, after which he soon sank. The tumor was found to consist of a cyst, having
a recent communication with the transverse colon, and containing the rudiments of a
foetus. There was discovered a brain, spinal marrow, very large nerves, muscles, and
the skeleton of the head, vetebral column, pelvis, and imperfect limbs, with a short
umbilical cord attached to the mesocolon. No organs of digestion or respiration,
urinary or generative, could be found. The case was drawn up at length by M.
Dupuytren, and drawings were made by MM. Ouvier and Jadelot, and a detailed
account was published in the Bulletin de VEcole de Medicine, Gazette de Sante, 1804,
and some other works of the period. A somewhat similar case was published by Mr.
George Young, in the first volume of The Medico- Chirurgical Transactions; it
was of a child whom he saw frequently during life, in consequence of a tumor in the
abdomen, which gradually increased till his death ; he survived nine months. A cyst
was found occupying a large portion of the abdomen, which contained four pints,
fourteen ounces of greenish-looking fluid, and an imperfectly-formed foetus adhering
to it by a conical process arising from the umbilicus. The surface was covered with
that sebaceous matter so usually found on the skin of infants at birth ; and the skin
itself was rosy, and of a healthy look. The extremities were distinct, but short and
thick ; the fingers and toes were furnished with nails ; there was a well-formed penis
and a cleft scrotum. There was no brain, nor spinal marrow, nor diaphragm ;
neither heart, nor liver, nor urinary organs, nor any internal organs of generation.
Scarcely any muscular fabric was discovered in the whole mass. The alimentary
canal was the most perfectly formed of the internal organs ; a part of the intestines,
indeed, was in all respects naturally constructed. Mr. Highmore, a surgeon of Sher-
bourne, in Dorsetshire, opened the body of a boy named Thomas Lane, between
fifteen and sixteen years old, in June, 1814, in which he found the rudiments of a
human foetus. The two last-mentioned specimens are preserved in the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons.

In I? Historic de V Academie Royal des Sciences, vol. ii., p. 298, 1733, there is
an account given by M. D- Sainte Donat, a surgeon at Sisterton. of a foetus found in

EXTRAUTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS 343

the scrotum of a man. And Velpeau presented to the Paris Academy, in 1840, a
preparation of the rudiments of a foetus — the whole mass being as large as a doubled
fist — which he had removed from its connection with the right testicle of a man,
«t. 27, named Gallochat. The tumor had existed from his birth.

Parts misshapen, though properly situated, are by no means uncommon ; sometimes
this unnatural formation is the result of defective, sometimes of redundant organi-
zation ; thus the different features of the face may be malformed ; the scrotum is
sometimes cleft ; the urethra and rectum imperforate. Club feet are usually classed
among this variety of monstrosity; but it appears to me that they often owe their
origin to accidental causes rather than natural formation. The distortion may nol
unfrequently arise from the limb being cramped in utero, owing, perhaps, to the
awkward position in which the child lies, or to there being but a small quantity oi
the liquor amnii.

Misplacement of perfectly-formed parts is the least common of all kinds of
monsters. I do not know that, even among all the extravagant stories in the oldei
works, there is any account of a well-formed arm rising from the pelvis, or a leg from
the shoulder ; and we should certainly not give credence to it, were we to meet with
such a tale. But the viscera have occasionally been found transposed, both in the
chest and abdomen ; and such a case may be considered a monstrosity of this descrip-
tion. When the viscera of the chest are transposed, those of the abdomen are almost
always in the same condition ; but there are some exceptions to this general obser-
vation. I do not know any instance on record, however, of the abdominal viscera
being transposed, where tho chest did not also participate in the malformation. In
the 18th volume of The Medical Gazette p. 393, for June 11th, 1836, there is a
paper by Dr. "Watson, in which he enumerates thirty-three cases of this irregularity ;
nineteen of the subjects were males, six were females, and in eight the sex is not
mentioned. In four the anomalous formation was detected during the lifetime of
the individual. A foetus with the heart on the right side, and other viscera trans-
posed, is preserved in the London Hospital Museum ; the subject was in other respects
misformed. And in the same volume of The Medical Gazette just cited, p. 600,
a case is given by Mr. Cooper, of Brentford, of a female infant, in which the viscera
of the chest were transposed ; but those of the abdomen were in their natura]
situation ; so that these cases are not so singular as some have imagined.

It may be thought a needless waste of time to enter so much at large upon
subjects from which no practical good appears likely to result ; but its interest has
seduced me into these details. Besides, by studying nature in her imperfections and
irregularities, we are more likely to arrive at some knowledge of her laws, than if we
regard her only in her healthy condition. By learning what parts she can dispense
with, we ascertain those organs essential to existence, and by tracing the deviations
from her common course, we may perhaps be hereafter led to a more correct acquaint-
nee with her mode of operation.

ORIGIN OF MONSTROSITIES.

It is not my intention to endeavor to account for the origin of monstrous forma-
tions in general ; but I may cursorily state, with regard to deficient and redundant
monsters, that some suppose the germ, before impregnation, is improperly formed ;
others, that it is an undue admixture of prolific particles at the moment of fecunda-
tion; others, that monstrosity has taken place after conception, owing to some

344 EXTRAUTERINE CONCEPTION; AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

irregular vascular excitement, or deficiency of nourishment — thus the vessels of the
redundant part being more numerous and more active than they ought to be, produce
an excess of growth, whilst those of the deficient parts are just in a contrary con-
dition. "Where a connection of two children, nearly or quite perfect, exists, I cannot
help thinking that union takes place not only after fecundation, but after the foetuses
have grown to a certain size. In the case of the Siamese twins, or those shown in
figures 111 and 112, I presume that they were originally true twin conceptions, but
that the membranes which ought to have enveloped each body, so as to form an
inseparable barrier between them, were imperfect, and that, in consequence, the
bodies were allowed to come into close contact with each other ; that there is such a
strong formative power existing in the vascular system of the foetus, that when the .
two cuticular surfaces came together, vessels shot from one to the other, and the parts
became permanently united by adhesion, in the same way that two fingers would
coalesce, provided the skin was removed and they were kept together. We know that
sometimes twins are contained in the same bag of membranes, and in such case, pro-
vided they lay for any length of time in contact, we may believe it quite possible for
a junction of the two bodies to occur.

Kicherand {Elements of Physiology, trans. 1815, p. 462) tells us, "by placing in
a confined vessel the fecundated ova of a tench, or any other fish, the numerous
young ones which are formed, not having space sufficient for their growth, adhere to
each other, and fishes truly monstrous are produced." And in the vegetable king-
dom it is not very unusual for two fruits, in contact and cramped in their growth,
to unite indissolubly.

DOUBLE PEOPLE.

Concerning double people, twins united in an abnormal manner at birth, the
authentic records are numerous, but a few examples must suffice.

In 1701, united twins were born at Szany, in Hungary. They were christened by
the names of Helen and Judith, and were exhibited for some years in the chief cities
of Europe. They were joined together at the lower part of the back, the faces and
bodies being half sideways, or diagonal, neither back to back nor side by side. The
two girls were not equally strong, nor equally well made ; one had a more resolute
will than the other, and settled all questions as to whether to move, and whither.
Being carefully educated, they read, recited, and sang well, conversed in Hungarian,
German, French, and English, and afforded much scope for study to psychologists ; for
there was sufficient difference between them in strength, temper, health, and intellect,
to give play to two sets of forces, mental as well as bodily. It was observed, however,
that when one was ill, the other became more or less affected with the same complaint ;
and it was deemed probable that their deaths would be nearly simultaneous. This
proved to be the case. Judith was attacked with a complicated disease of brain and
lungs, in 1723, and died. Helen, who at the commencement of her sisters malady
was in good health, soon sickened with her, and the two died almost at the same
instant. They were buried in a convent grave-yard at Presburg, and the particulars
of their remarkable history found admission into the Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society.

There was another case of a man named Lazarus, or rather a double man named
Lazarus-Johannes, very attractive to sight-seers in Germany several years ago. There
was much of a curious character in the degree in which the feeding of Lazarus helped

EXTRA- UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNA TURAL GRO WTH3. 345

to feed Johannes, without any distinct participation of the latter in the eating process.
As the Johannes portion of the duplex was less fully developed than Lazarus, some
discussion arose among the ecclesiastics, as to whether each half had a soul to be
saved, distinct from the other ; it was decided in the affirmative, and the two names
of Lazarus and Johannes were given in baptism. The men were alive at the age of
twenty-eight, but we have no mention of their age at death.

The Siamese twins were more completely two human beings than any others
we have here spoken of ; for the only physical or organized band of connection,
between them was at the two chests. In one of Dr. Todd's medical works, a
description is given, which conveys a sufficiently clear notion of the nature of this
band, to those who have neither seen the twins themselves nor pictures of them.
When first exhibited, they were not exactly opposite to each othei, but stood side by
side, or rather obliquely one by another ; but this position, there can be little doubt,
was acquired by the attempts which they had instinctively made to separate from
each other in walking, or in lying and sitting down, and by the extension they had
thus effected in their band of union, which was considerably more slender than in any
other yet described. It Avas quite impossible for them to remain always face to
face ; therefore their bodies acquired an oblique direction, in which they also moved.
The consequence of this was, that the right limbs of the one and the left of the other
individual were the principal organs of movement, and that the intermediate limbs
(that is to say, the left of the one and the right of the other) remained nearly passive.
In organic and animal relation of life, they appeared to be independent of each other.
Each had his own circulation of the blood, and his own respirative and digestive
functions. The curious yellow-skinned couple were wont to play at battledore and
shuttlecock with each other ; one had a battledore in his right hand, the other had
one in his left, and very deftly they tossed the feathered messenger to and fro.

TWINS AND SUPERFffiTATION.

Twins that are both born at the same time, and of the same age, have evidently
originated from two eggs impregnated at the same time, and triplets from three, and
so on. It is a question, however, whether it is possible for one impregnation to occur
after another, while the female is yet pregnant. This is called superfcetation, and its
possibility is by some denied, though there is every reason to believe in its possibility
within certain limits. Dr. Eyan remarks :

"Physiologists are at issue upon the question of superfcetation, that it is possible
for a pregnant woman to conceive a second time. According to Aristotle, a female
was delivered of twelve infants, and another of twins, one of which resembled her
husband, the other her lover. Some writers maintain that superfcetation is possible
during the first two months of pregnancy ; the majority hold it possible in a few days
after conception, before the uterine tubes are closed by the decidua. This is the
received opinion, though cases are on record which justified Zacchias and other jurists
to conclude that superfoetation might occur until the sixtieth day, or even later.
Nothing is more common than to see a full-grown infant born, and another of the
second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth month expelled immediately after. I need not
cite authorities upon this point, as obstetric works abound with examples, a few
of which may be given. Dr. Mason published an account of a woman who was deliv-
ered of a full-grown infant, and in three calendar months afterward of another,

346 EXTRA-UTERINE CONCEPTION, AND UNNATURAL GROWTHS.

apparently at the full time. A woman was delivered at Strasburg, the 30th of April,
1748, at ten o'clock in the morning ; in a month afterward, M. Leriche discovered a
second foetus, and on the 16th September, at five o'clock in the morning, the woman
was delivered of a healthy, full-grown infant. Degranges, of Lyons, attests a similar
case ; the woman was delivered at tbe full time, the 20th of January, 1780 ; in three
weeks afterward she felt the motions of an infant, and her husband had no intercourse
with her for twenty-four days after delivery. On the 6th of July (five months and six-
teen days subsequent to delivery), she brought forward a second daughter, perfect
and healthy. On the 19th January, 1781, she presented herself and both infants
before the notaries at Lyons, to authenticate the fact. Buffon related the case of a
woman in South Carolina, who brought forth a white and black infant ; on inquiry,
it was discovered that a negro had entered her apartment after the departure of her
husband, and threatened to murder her, unless she complied with his wishes. Dr.
Mosely relates a similar case. A negress of Guadaloupe brought forth a black and
mulatto, having had intercourse with a white and black man the. same night. An-
other negress produced a white, black, and a piebald infant. A domestic of Count
Montgomery's produced a white and black child at one birth. Gardien relates a
similar case, on the authority of M. Valentin. A mare also has produced a foal and
a mule, she having been impregnated by a horse, and five days afterward by an. ass.

"Another argument, which I have never seen, occurs to me from analogy, which
deserves mention, namely, that each dog will produce a distinct puppy ; this no one
can deny, for the offspring will resemble the different males that fecundate the bitch
in succession. If a number of healthy, vigorous men were to have intercourse in
succession, immediately after the first conception, I think it probable and possible
that similar superfcetation would happen. I am proud to say that Dr. Elliotson is
an advocate of superfcetation ; he explains Button's case this way. Magendi is of the
same opinion. Medical men must bear in mind that women have had three, four,
and five children at one birth. Various cases of infants of different sizes, being
expelled in succession, are recorded in our own periodicals.

"One of the Pennsylvania newspapers, in 1827, recorded the case of an Irish
lady, who in eighteen months had at three births twelve living children, all born
prematurely. . She and her husband were healthy fresh-looking people, and only two
years married. Cases of twins, triplets, quadruple, and quintuple births are of very
rare occurrence ; but of these more particularly hereafter. Dr. Golding delivered
a woman of six infants during the year 1829."

It is, perhaps, possible that eggs may be formed sometimes during pregnancy,
and possibly also the animalcules may make their way between the deciduous mem-
brane and the walls of the womb to impregnate them, and thus superfcetation may
occur. I think it likely, however, that some of the cases mentioned may have been
caused by there being a double tcterzis, and each one having become the seat of im-
pregnation, independent of the other, and at a different time. Some of the cases of
resemblance may also have originated in the way explained in the article on The
Permanent Influence of the Male over the Female Organs.

It is a vulgar error to suppose that twins will not breed, or that one of them will
be sure to be barren. When of the same sex one or both frequently are barren ; but
in other cases botli are fertile. When they are of different sexes one is nearly always
imperfect, as in the case of the Free Martin, explained farther on.

PLURAL BIRTHS. 347

PLURAL BIRTHS.

Women, although usually uniparient, like other uniparient animals, sometnE.es
produce more than one offspring at a birth ; and when the gestation is plural, twins
are by far the most frequent.

The average of twin cases varies considerably in different parts of the world ; and
we find also no little difference in the tables kept by separate individuals in the
same country. Thus Denman shows that in the Middlesex Hospital, in London,
one occurred in about every 95 labors ; in the London practice of midwifery the
estimate is stated as one in 48 ; Conquest considers it one in 90 ; Gooch, one in about
70 ; Blundell states, that from the statistical accounts transmitted to government in
the year 1801, it appeared that in Great Britain one in 65 was a twin case. Bland
in London, and Boer at Vienna, found the average one in 80 ; in the Maternity at
Paris, one was met with in 88 ; in the Maison d'Accouchemens, one in 91; Mad. Boivm
met with one only in every 132 ; Dewees averages the frequency in North America
as one in 75 ; Dr. Arnell's average is also one in 75 ; Mr. Moore's, one in 76. From
Collins' table of 129,172 women delivered in the Dublin Lying-in-Hospital, there
were 2,062 cases of twins, being one in about every 62 labors; 29 of triplets, or one
in 4,450, and one of quadruplets. From tables which I have myself kept, I find that
out of 35,743 cases that occurred in the royal Maternity Charity, from January 1st,
1828, to December 31st, 1843, there were 386 instances of twins, or one in nearly
every 93 labors. Of these 135 were of different sexes ; 123 were both boys ; and 128
both girls — 183 of these children presented both with the head ; 152, the head and
breech, or lower extremities ; 33, both breech or lower extremities ; 14, one head,
one tranversely; 3, one breech, the other transversely ; and in one both presented
transversely. It is curious, too, that when the children were of different sexes they
mostly presented with the head and breech. It is generally supposed that triplets are
to be met with once in about 3 or 4,000 labors ; and the returns from Dublin would
lead us to believe that estimate tolerably correct ; but I am inclined to think the
frequency of these cases generally much overrated, for out of these births there was
but one case of triplets. Quadruple cases are so rare as to defy anything like an
accurate calculation.

It is popularly supposed that climate, and the state of civilization to which the
country has advanced, exert an influence on the multiplication of the human species ;
and that certain external circumstances are favorable or otherwise to the frequent
production of twins ; but this is by no means proved, although we know that some
animals, the sow for instance, farrow more young at a birth, and also more frequently,
when domesticated, than when in a state of nature. Dewees says, that if the various
tables can be relied on, it is certain " there are conditions and circumstances which
give rise to more double births " in America than Europe ; while Collins remarks,
" it is singular that in Ireland the proportional number of women giving birth to
twins is nearly a third greater than in any other country from which I have been
able to obtain authentic records."

I have heard these two opinions, apparently contradictory, attempted to je recon*
ciled by the explanation that a large proportion of the first European emigrants to
America were from the Emerald Isle. Denman, too (chap. xvii. section 1), thinks
climate and the state or degree of civilization have their influence over the fecundity
of human beings.

348 PLUBAL BIRTHS.

It is also a belief that preternatural fecundity is, to a certain extent, hereditary ;
and Dewees states, that "some facts within his own knowledge would seem to counte-
nance this supposition ; but they are not sufficiently numerous or strong to confirm
it." He looks upon it, however, as, in some instances, constitutional, and adduces
the case of a woman, whom he knew, that five times produced twins, and never had
a single child, and another who thrice brought forth twins, though not consecutively.

Gottlob mentions one who in three births produced eleven children. — (Elliotson's
Notes to Blumenbach, p. 487.)

It has been observed, indeed, that some seasons appear more prolific than others,,
as well in the human race as other productions of nature ; but whether this is quite
accidental, or dependent on some fixed laws, is not easily determined. Denman
thinks " it can scarcely be doubted that there is some relation in those years between
the animal and vegetable creation."

Eare as instances of quadruplets are, the prolific powers of the human female are
not even limited to the production of four children at a birth. In the Museum of
the College of Surgeons in this city, there are five foetuses preserved which were ex-
pelled at one birth, under the care of the late Dr. Hull, of Manchester ; they had
advanced to five months intra-uterine age.

When there is more than one foetus in utero, each is generally smaller than in
single births, and in proportion to the number will the size of the children be less.
Thus Dr. Joseph Clarke's estimate of the weight of twins is twelve pounds and a half
a pair. We often remark also that in twin gestations one foetus at birth is sensibly
smaller than the other. Should the uterus contain more children than two, the
woman seldom carries them to the full term, and they are consequently rarely reared.

In the London practice of midwifery, which is a copy of the late Dr. John
Clarke's lectures, and some other works on the science, it is stated that Dr. Osborn
met with six distinct ova thrown off at one abortion, but on what authority I have
not been able to discover.

Pare (lib. xxv. chap. 3), tells us, that in his day the wife of the Lord of
Maldemeure, in the parish of Sceaux, near Chambelly, produced six children at a
birth, after which she died ; and that the then present Lord of Maldemeure was the
only surviving one. His history of this extraordinary occurrence is so circumstantial
as to impress us with the belief that he was himself fully convinced of the fact.

Twins may possibly proceed both from one ovarium, or the rudiments of one
foetus may be furnished by each gland. When the conception, however, is more than
duplex, it is clear that one ovary must supply two ; for no instance has yet been met
with where these organs were in excess. It is commonly supposed that twins are the
result of one connection, and instances are noted where this must have been the case.
But it is not equally plain that this is a universal rule, and it appears to me by no
means impossible that a second impregnation may take place soon after a former one
has occurred. It is not difficult, indeed, to imagine that such an event may happen
at any time previously to the uterus becoming lined with the secretion afterward
converted into the deciduous membrane, or until its mouth is plugged with that
viscid mucus which divides its cavity from that of the vagina, and which, after its
formation, would entirely prevent the immission of the seminal fluid in coitu.

Dr. Dewees {Philadelphia Med. Museum, vol. i.) has related that a servant in
Montgomery county was delivered of a black and white child at one birth, which were
often seen by the doctor. He states also, that on the report of the pregnancy, both

PLURAL BIRTHS. S4h

a black and a white man disappeared from the neighborhood, and Elliotson,
(Notes to Blumenbach, p. 485) has put on record that Mr. Blackaller, of Wey-
bridge, sent him the following account •. — A white woman of very loose character
left her husband, and some time afterward returned pregnant to the parish, and was
delivered in the workhouse of twins, "one of which," says Mr. Blackaller, "was
born of a darker color than I have usually observed the infants of the negroes in
the West Indies to be ; the hair quite black, with the woolly appearance usual to
them, with flat nose and thick lips ; the other had all the appearance common to
white children." That these respective twins were not the offspring of one parent is
very evident, and a second impregnation, therefore, must have taken place ; but we
have proof, in two at least, that the connections followed each other quickly, before
any changes could have been commenced in the uterus. With the knowledge, then,
of such accidental occurrences in our possession, we are warranted in believing that,
in the case of a woman living with her husband, twins might possibly be the result of
two separate connections if only a short period intervened between them.

In regard to multiparient animals, whose uteri are cornuated, it is a well-known
fact that more than one connection may be fruitful if they follow each other within
a short time. Thus if a bitch, while in heat receive two or three dogs of various
species in succession, she may bring forth mongrel puppies of different kinds, some
partaking of the character of one dog, and others of the rest.

Each individual child which the uterus contains, according to the law of nature,
is distinctly enveloped in its own membranes — so that its body is not in contact with
that of its brother — possesses its own quantity of liquor amnii, has a separate cord
and separate placenta — the circulations not inosculating. Generally the placentae
are attached together at a part of their edges, and often, on regarding the maternal
face, they appear but one mass ; at other times they are situated distinctly from each
other at different points of the uterus ; again, occasionally, though very rarely, the
vessels of the one child anastomose with those of the other. It has been remarked
that both children have been found in one bag of membranes, and cases are recorded
where the placenta was in all respects single, and the funis also arose singly, and
divided into two branches when about to terminate in the umbilicus of each foetus.

See a case by Dr. H. Davies (Medical Gazette, May 14, 1841, p. 307) of three
children at a birth, in which two of them lay in one bag of membranes, though the
circulation did not inosculate. Also another (May 28, 1841, p. 384), very similar,
by Mr. Dodd, of Northampton. In the same periodical for June 11th, 1841, there
is also a case of five at a birth, given by Mr. Wardleworth, in which three of the
umbilical cords arose from the placenta by one common origin, and the other two
cords by another. The three umbilical veins united to form one, and it would seem
that there were but five umbilical arteries.

Besides the instances mentioned there are a few more well-attested cases of five
children at a birth. One will be found in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1736 ; the
patient lived in the Strand ; another in the same periodical, 1739, at Wells, Somer-
setshire ; one occurred in Upper Saxony ; one near Prague in Bohemia.

In the British and Foreign Medical Review for 1839, a notice is given of a
woman at Naples being delivered of five children at seven months ; in the Dublin
Med. Journal for January, 1840, there is an account given of Dr. Evory Kennedy
having shown to the Dublin Pathological Society five ova of between two and three
months, which were expelled at once under the superintendence of Dr. Thwaits.

350 PL I~KAL BIRTHS,

They were all male children- Aud if we could credit newspaper reports, we might
add the following : — The wife of a cannon- founder at Luginski, in Russia, was
delivered, on May 32d, 1S36, of five girls, of whom four were living and likely to
do well. The G-iornale del Due Sicilie states that a woman was safely delivered,
on June 21, 183S, of a boy and four girls, all of whom died at the expiration of half
an hour. The wife of a landed proprietor at Altruitweida, near Mitweida, in Saxony,
was recently delivered of five daughters, who though perfect in their conformation,
died in about half an hour after their birth. A woman in New Hampshire was
delivered of five living children at a birth, in the beginning of the year 1841.
Mrs. Mauger, of St. Owen, Jersey, had five daughters at a birth at six months, on
May 20, 1S40. Sir Thomas Urquhart, the translator of Rabelais, had twenty-five
brothers and eleven sisters, all of whom were living at the same time. Dr. Plot, in
his Natural History of Staffordshire, published in 1686, relates that a Lady Child
of Shropshire, was married at twelve years of age, had her first baby, a daughter,
before she completed her thirteenth year. This daughter also married at the age of
twelve, and gave birth to a child before she reached thirteen. Thus Lady Child
became a grandmother before twenty-seven.

The most miraculous instance of supposed fecundity in a human female is that of
the Countess Henneberg, recorded on a marble tablet, which still is, or at least was,
in the church of Lonsdunen, near Leyden. The monument bears the following
announcement : —

" That Margaret, wife of Hennan, Earl of Henneberg, and daughter of Florence,
the fourth Earl of Holland and Zealand, being about forty years old upon Easter
day, 1276, at 9 A. M., was brought to bed of 365 children, all of which were baptized
in two brazen basins by Guido, the suffragen of Utrecht. The males, how many
soever there were of them, were christened John, all the daughters Elizabeth, who
all, together with their mother, died on the same day, and with their mother lie
buried in this church at Lonsdunen." This supernatural infliction is accounted for
on the principle of retributive justice ; for we are informed that the countess being
solicited for alms by a poor woman who was carrying twins, shook her off with con-
tempt, declaring that she could not have them by one father, "whereupon the poor
woman prayed to God to send her as many children as there were days in the whole
year, which came to pass, as is briefly recorded in this table for perpetual recollection,
testified as well by ancient manuscripts as by many printed chronicles."

The credulity of the people who raised the memorial must create a smile, and yet
no doubt the story may not be without some slight foundation. It is probable that
the poor lady died after having given birth to a number of watery cysts, which were
looked upon as ova. A very slight stretch of the imagination might transform them
into children in embryo, and in the rigid adherence to the Catholic forms of worship,
it might have been thought necessary that the baptismal ceremony should be per-
formed, though they were nothing more than a mass of hydatids, as is clear from
the declaration that "they were baptized in two brazen basins." The noble lady
probably sank from flooding.

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE FOREGOING TOPICS.

Some of the terms which have been used, or that will be used further on, may
require explanation, so that their exact meaning may be understood.

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH FOREGOING TOPICS. 351

Miscarriage is the name generally given to an expulsion of the new being from
che womb before the period when it can live. Usually this is seven months, but as
children have lived that were born still earlier, it is perhaps now proper to use the
term miscarriage only up to the sixth month. After the sixth month rfc is called a
premature labor.

The term abortion is also used to designate any premature birth before six 01
seven months, and is more general than miscarriage.

In regard to the vitality of the new being, it seems certain that it has a life of its
own, quite independent of that of the mother. This is shown by those cases in which
the foetus lives and grows, without any vascular connection with its parent whatever,
as when it simply floats in the amniotic liquor. In many cases also, when the ovum
has been expelled at an advanced period quite intact, with the membranes unbroken,
the foetus has lived, and its circulation has continued for an hour or more. When
connected with the mother, it derives nutriment from her beyond doubt, and is
immensely influenced by her mental and bodily condition, as before explained, but
it has its own independent life, even from the beginning. At the first it is only a
simple cell, and may be nutrified, like all other cells, by simple osmose, through its
membranous covering. Even in after life, when made up of a congeries of cells, the
same process may still take place, as we see in those cases where the foetus is nour-
ished solely by the fluids with which it is surrounded. It forms its own blood, and
circulates it with its own vessels, even when most intimately connected with the
mother. Her blood is not used directly by her child, in the state in which she uses
it for her own body, but the child absorbs from it, in the placenta, the materials by
which its own blood is made. Close as is the connection between them, the two are
independent lives, but intimately bound up with each other. The child is, in reality,
dependent on the mother for nutrition, and not for vitality !

The old idea that the fcetus really swallowed the amniotic liquor and digested it,
as we do food, is quite erroneous. In the first place, at an early stage there is no
mouth. In the second place, a foetus has been found which had lived and grown,
with no continuous intestine. Another was born, full grown, without head, heart,
or intestines. Animals have also frequently been born alive, and full formed, with-
out mouths or noses, and even without heads. In all such eases, nutrition must have
been effected by simple absorption or osmose, through the skin, as in all cells.

That substances do pass direct from the mother into the child's body is demon-
strated, and it is an important fact. Thus when animals with young have the
dye-stuff madder given them in their food, it will pass into the body of the young,
and stain their urine, teeth, and bones red.

Women just previous to labor have also had rhubarb given them, and it has been
found, after birth, in the blood flowing from that part of the navel-string connected
with the child, and also in its first urine, and in the amniotic liquor.

Without doubt, therefore, any medicine the mother may take, at such times, or
/hdeed anything whatever entering her blood, may pass directly into the child. If
this fact were more generally known, much more care would be taken in regard to
using medicine by pregnant women, and no doubt ignorance of it often makes them,
unintentionally, do great harm to their offspring ; perhaps for all their future
lives.

The sacrum or os sacrum, the lowest part of the back-bone, will be referred to
more especially when we treat upon parturition, but there are some particulars about

352 MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH FOREGOING TOPICS.

it which will be well to state here. It is important, in connection with the expulsion
of the foetus, whether at full term or prematurely.

This bone forms the back of the basin of the pelvis,
and is the largest part of the spinal column. The spi-
nal marrow, proper, stops at the sacrum, but a thin
nervous thread passes down the center of it, called the
canda equina, or horse tail. The os coccygis is the
small bone at the very end of the sacrum, forming the
lowest point of the spinal column.

There has been much curious speculation as to the
origin of the name of this bone, — sacrum. In some
way or other it seems, in old times, to have been special-
ly devoted to the Deity, and held sacred, but for what
reason is now unknown. Probably this arose from its
connection with the sexual organs, and especially from
FiQvnvm.-The Sacrum, and its imPorta*ce during child-birth. Some say it should
Os Coccygis. be secret instead of sacred, and that it was so called

a. The hollow of the sacrum, from its association with the mystery of birth. Even

&pThet?P>^ere the upper part among the ancient Jews there were some singular su-

of the back-hone rests upon it. ° &

c. The side. d. The os coccygis, perstitions about this bone. One of the Eabbinical

which is detached, in order to doctrines was that, though all the rest of the skeleton

show how it is connected. This lnn ,

small bone has three, and some- would decay, this one bone would not, and that it would

times four joints which enables become the germ, as it were, of the new body at the

it to bend back during parturi- ° ' J

tion, and so facilitates the exit of time ot the resurrection. It was called luz, and be-

the child. lieved to be incorruptible.

In a very old Hebrew book, called Medrac Rabbath, which treats upon the deluge,
we are told that when the world was drowned at that period, the destruction of all
human beings was so complete, that every luz even was destroyed, from which man
might be again formed, so that Noah and his family alone could re-people the earth.
It also states that one Eabbi Joshua, to prove to the Roman emperor the indestruc-
tible character of this bone, tried to grind it in a mill, and to burn it with fire,
without success. He also tried to crush it with a hammer, on an anvil, but the
anvil itself split, and the hammer burst.

The Arabs also held this bone in the same veneration, as Sale tells us, in his
Introduction to the Koran. Mahomet, he says, teaches that the body of man de-
cays in the earth, except the bone called al ajih, which is the same as what we call
the os coccyx, or rump bone. This bone, which is the first point formed, remains
undecayed, and is the seed from which the whole body is afterward recreated.

The origin of this singular idea it is impossible now to trace. It is, of course,
unnecessary to say that it has no foundation in fact. It is, perhaps, the lightest bone
in the body, being very spongy, and therefore most likely to decay first, and it cer-
tainly is not the first formed, as this old superstition taught.

CHAPTER XXX.

DURATION OP PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN THE CHILD CAN LIVSi,

These are two questions of great interest, and about which there has always been
much dispute.

The duration of pregnancy, or the precise term of utero-gestation, is not fixed.
It appears, from accurate observation, that there is no absolute period determined by
natural laws, and therefore there is none laid down by human enactments. An ap-
proximation can be made, by taking the average of a number of cases, and the
period of limitation may also be determined in the same way. The most usual
period is about nine months, or from thirty-five to forty weeks, some females going
beyond the thirty-six weeks, and others not so long. First children are frequently
born under the nine months, and more so than those that come after ; this is a fact
not generally known, and ignorance of it has often given rise to unjust suspicions.
It is quite possible for a female to be delivered, with the child at full period, in a
little over eight months after marriage, without there being any just grounds what-
ever for suspecting unfaithfulness.

Dr. E. Lee, in his Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Midwifery, gives the
best summary that we have in the language, of our information on this subject ; I
will therefore quote from this work, making such comments and additions as I may
think advisable.

" The Roman law fixed the period of gestation at ten lunar months. The civil
code of Prussia ordains that a child born 302 days after the death of the husband shall
be considered legitimate. By the law of France, the legitimacy of a child cannot be
called in question who is born 300 days after the death or departure of the husband.
The laws of England declare that the usual period of human utero-gestation is nine
calendar months, or forty weeks ; farther than this they do not fix a definite period :
the law is not exact as to a few days. Nine calendar months contain only 275 days, and
only 273 or 272 if February be included. To fix bastardy on a child in Scotland,
absence must continue till within six months of the birth, and a child born after the
tenth month is accounted illegitimate.

The difficulty of determining the precise time when impregnation takes place in
the human subject, renders it almost impossible, in any case, to calculate with
absolute certainty the duration of pregnancy. We are, however, in possession of a
sufficient number of observations to establish the fact that the ordinary period is
about forty weeks, or 280 days ; but it is certain that it does occasionally exceed or
fall short of this period by several days. As we never can be certain of the precise
day, between the periods of menstruation, when conception occurs — whether it takes
place immediately after the last period, or before the expected period, or midway be-
tween these — it is obvious that all calculations founded upon the cessation of the
catamenia must be extremely uncertain. The error of the calculation will be still
23 353

354 DURATION OF PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN TEE CHILD CAN LIVE

greater if the catamenia should have appeared, or a discharge like the catamenia
should have occurred once or twice after conception. Impregnation most frequently
takes place soon after menstruation, but in others it does not happen till later ; so
that two women may have menstruated at the same time, and one may have reached
the full period two weeks before the other ; and to this extent, or nearly so, an
opinion founded on this disappearance of the catamenia may be erroneous.

" Calculations of the duration of pregnancy, founded upon what has been observed
to occur after casual intercourse, or perhaps a single act, in individuals who can have
no motive to tell us what is false, are likely to be much more correct ; and the con-
clusion to be drawn from these is, that labor usually, but not invariably, comes on
about 280 days after conception, a mature child being sometimes born before the
expiration of forty weeks, and at other times not until the forty weeks have been ex-
ceeded by several days. A case came under my observation very lately, in which 1
had no doubt the pregnancy existed 287 days : the labor did not take place till 287
days had elapsed from the departure of the husband of this lady for the East Indies.
Some women are always delivered before the end of the forty weeks, according to the
usual calculation, and their children are mature.

"In the evidence given on the Gardner Peerage case, the period of utero-gestation
was limited, but not strictly, by some of the witnesses, to forty weeks, or 280 days ;
by others it was extended to 311 days. Dr. Merriman, whose opinion is always
entitled to much respect, thinks the greatest number of women complete gestation in
the 40th week, and next to that in the 41st. Of 114 pregnancies, calculated by him
from the last day of menstruation, and in which the children appeared to be mature,
3 deliveries took place at the end of the 37th week ; 13 in the 38th ; 14 in the 39th ;
33 in the 40th ; 22 in the 41st ; 15 in the 42d ; 10 in the 43d ; and 4 in the 44th
week.

"How long before the expiration of the 40 weeks a child may be born with the
power of supporting life has not been determined. Where I have induced prema-
ture labor for distortion of the pelvis, before the end of the seventh calendar
month from the last menstruation, I have never seen a child reared. The lady of
the clergyman in Fife, whose case has lately given rise to so much discussion, was
delivered 175 days after marriage, and the child lived five months. To what extent
gestation may be protracted in some cases beyond the 280 days it is very difficult
to determine, and the opinions of the most eminent writers differ upon the subject.
I should suspect some great error in the calculation where the period of gestation
exceeded 300 days. But the experiments made on the lower animals prove that
there exists in them a great variation between the shortest and the longest gesta-
tion ; and it is difficult to comprehend why there should not be a difference in this
respect in human species."

In a trial which took place in this country, in the county of Lancaster, Pa., as
reported in the Medical Examiner for June, 1846, it was decided that gestation may
be prolonged to three hundred and thirteen days ! The female swore that conception
must have taken place on the twenty-third of March, 1845, and the child was not
born till the thirtieth of January, 184G, or over eleven months. The judge directed
the jury to return a verdict in her favor, and I suppose this case establishes a pre-
cedent for America.

In a recent number of the Medical Gazette, I find a case reported, wherein the
period was said to be prolonged still farther. A man left his wife in New South

DURATION OF PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN TEE CHILD CAN LIVE. 355

Wales, he coming to England, and twelve months after lie left, she was delivered of a
child, which she claimed to be legitimate. He denied this, however, and the judge
in the Consistory Court decided, without hesitation, in his favor. Taking the
medium between these two cases, therefore, it appears to be decided that the extreme
limit is somewhere between eleven and twelve months ! It must be recollected, how-
ever, that both were perfectly arbitrary, and that, for anything known positively on
the subject, both may be either right or wrong.

Except when labor is brought on prematurely by violence, it usually commences
at what would have been one of the monthly periods ; or in other words, after a cer-
tain number of full months, and never at any time between ! If, therefore, a female
passes over the ninth month, she will probably go to the tenth. This has been
proved by extensive observation, and is only another proof of the regular method in
which nature conducts all her operations. The same law is also observed in abor-
tions, which generally take place at one of the months, unless brought on suddenly by
violence.

Dr. Ryan remarks that " Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, Pliny, Avicenna, Mau-
riceau, Eiolan, La Motte, Hoffman, Schenk, Haller, Bertins, Lieutaud, Petit, Levret,
Louis, Astruc, etc., maintained that pregnancy usually terminates at the end of the
ninth calendar month, but might be protracted to the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and,
some of them said, to the fifteenth.

" It is also decided by a preponderating majority of the profession, in all countries,
that the term of utero-gestation is not uniform ; in other words, not invariably
limited to nine months. This position is strongly attested by the analogy afforded
by the inferior animals ; for it appears by the extensive observations of M. Tessier,
on the gestation of heifers, mares, sheep, swine, and rabbits, that all these animals
exceed their usual period of delivery. (Trans, de TAcad. des Sc, Paris, 1817.)
Further evidence is afforded by the vegetable kingdom, in which we observe in the
same field, on the same tree, shrub, etc., different parts of vegetables arrive at matu-
rity with more or less celerity. Petit informs us that many faculties of medicine,
forty-seven celebrated authors, and twenty-three physicians and surgeons, concluded
pregnancy might be protracted to the eleventh or twelfth month. He cites a case on
the authority of Schlegel, in which pregnancy was protracted to the thirteenth
month ; the child was admitted to be legitimate, on account of the probity and
virtue of the mother, which induced her shopman to marry her, and she bore two
children by him, each at thirteen months. Tracy, a naval physician, relates a case at
the fourteenth month. Dulignac, a French surgeon, positively asserts that his own
wife quickened at four months and a half, and on two occasions she went on to the thir-
teenth month and a half, and on the third to the eleventh month. Desormeaux relates
a case of a woman who was maniacal, who had three children, and whose physician,
after all means had failed, recommended pregnancy. Her husband had intercourse
with her once in three months, of which he kept an exact account. She was closely
watched by her domestics, and she was extremely religious and moral ; she was de-
livered at nine months and a half. (Velpeau.) The last author attests a case which
went to three hundred and ten days, and Orfila two of ten months and a half. I
have repeatedly known women mistake expected delivery, four, five, and six weeks.

" The term of gestation seems capable of being prolonged by peculiarities in the
constitution or rate of development of the foetus, which are derived from the male
parent ; for it was ascertained by the late Earl Spencer, that of 75 cows in calf by a

356 DURATION OF PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN THE CHILD CAN LIVE

particular bull, the average period was 288i days, instead of 280 ; none of these hav-
ing gone less than 281 days, and two-fifths of them having exceeded 289 days.

"Although the duration of pregnancy is commonly stated at nine solar months,
it would be more correct to fix the period at 40 weeks, or 280 days ; which exceeds
nine calendar months by from 5 to 7 days, according to the months included. The
mode of reckoning customary among women, is to date from the middle of the month
after the last appearance of the catamenia ; but it is certain that conception is much
more likely to take place soon after they have ceased to flow, or even just before their
access, than in the intervening period ; so that, in most instances, it would be most
correct to expect labor at forty weeks and a few days after the last recurrence of the
menses. This, at least, is the average result of observation, in cases in which the
period of conception could be fixed, from peculiar circumstances, with something
like certainty ; but there can be no doubt that variations of a few days, more or less,
are of continual occurrence. The period of quickening may be relied on in some
women, in whom it occurs with great regularity in a certain week of pregnancy ; but
in general there is great latitude as to the time of its occurrence. The usual or
average time is probably about the 18th week.

" The question of the extreme limit of gestation is one of great importance both
to the practitioner and the medical jurist ; but it is one which cannot yet be re-
garded as satisfactorily decided. Many persons, whose experience should give much
weight to their opinion, maintain that the regular period of 40 weeks is never ex-
tended for more than two or three days ; whilst, on the other hand, there are numer-
ous cases on record, which, if testimony is to be believed at all (and in many of these,
the character and circumstances of the parties place them above suspicion), furnish
ample evidence that gestation may be prolonged for at least three weeks beyond the
regular term. The English law fixes no precise limit ; and the decisions which have
been given in our courts, when questions of this kind have been raised, have been
mostly formed upon the collateral circumstances. Very important evidence on this
subject is afforded by observations on the lower animals, which are free from those
sources of fallacy which attend human testimony. The observations of Tessier, which
were continued during a period of forty years, with every precaution against inaccu-
racy, have furnished a body of results which seems quite decisive. In the cow, the
ordinary period of gestation is about the same as in the human female ; but out of
577 individuals, no less than 20 calved beyond the 298th day, and of these, some went
on to the 321st, making an excess of nearly six weeks. Of 447 mares, whose natural
period of gestation is about 335 days, 42 foaled between the 359th and 419th days, the
greatest protraction being thus 84 days, or just one-fourth of the usual term. Of 912
sheep, whose natural period is about 151 days, 96 yeaned beyond the 153d day ; and of
these 7 went on until the 157th day, making an excess of 6 days. Of 161 rabbits,
whose natural period is about thirty days, no fewer than 25 littered between the 32d
and 35th ; the greatest protraction was here one-sixth of the whole period, and the
proportion in which there was a manifest prolongation was also nearly one-sixth of
the total number of individuals. In the incubation of the common hen, Tessier found
that there was not unfrequently a prolongation to the amount of three days, or one-
seventh of the whole period. In regard to cows, the observations of Tessier have been
confirmed by those of Earl Spencer, who has published a table of the period of gesta-
tion as observed in 764 individuals ; he considers the average period to be 284 or 285
days ; but no fewer than 310 calved after the 285th day ; and of these, 3 went on to

DURATION OF PREGNANCY AND PERIOD WHEN THE CHILD CAN LIVE. 357

the 306th day, and 1 to the 313th. It is curious that among the calves born between
the 290th and 300th days, there was a decided preponderance of males — there being
74 to 32 females ; whilst all of those born after the 300th day were females. The
additional series of observations subsequently made by Earl Spencer, in regard to the
constant protraction of the period in 75 cows in calf by a particular bull, has been
already noticed. Another series of observations has been published by Mr. C. N. Be-
ment, of Albany, U. S. , who has recorded the period of gestation of 62 cows. The
longest period was 336 days ; the shortest, 213 days. The average period for male
calves was 288 days ; and for females, 282 days. On the whole, it may be consid-
ered, that in regard to the human female, the French law is a very reasonable one ;
and there is quite sufficient analogical evidence to support the assertions of females
of good character, having no motive to deceive, which lead to the conclusion that a
protraction of at least four weeks is quite possible, and that a protraction to the
extent of six weeks is scarcely to be denied.

"In regard to the shortest period at which gestation may terminate, consistently
with the viability of the child, there is a still greater degree of uncertainty. Most
practitioners are of opinion, that it is next to impossible for a foetus to live and grow
to maturity, which has not nearly completed its seventh month ; but it is unques-
tionable that infants born at a much earlier period have lived for some months, or
even to adult age. It is rare in such cases, however, that the date of conception can
be fixed with sufficient precision to enable a definite statement to be given. Of the
importance of the question, a case which some time since occurred in Scotland
affords sufficient proof. A vast amount of contradictory evidence was adduced on
this trial ; but, on the general rule of accepting positive in preference to negative
testimony, it seems that we ought to consider it possible that a child may live for
some months, which has been born at the conclusion of 24 weeks of gestation. In the
case in question, the Presbytery decided in favor of the legitimacy of an infant born
alive within 25 weeks after marriage. A very interesting case is on record, in which
the mother (who had borne five children) was confident that her period of gestation
was less than 19 weeks ; the facts stated respecting the development of the child are
necessarily very imperfect, as it was important to avoid exposing his body, in order
that his temperature might be kept up ; but at the age of three weeks, he was only
13 inches in length, and his weight was no more than 29 oz. At that time, he might
be regarded, according to the calculation of the mother, as corresponding with an
infant of 22 weeks or 5J months ; but the length and weight were greater than are
usual at that period, and he must have been probably born at about the 25th week.
It is an interesting feature in this case, that the calorific power of the infant was so
low, that artificial heat was constantly needed to sustain it ; but that, under the
influence of heat of the fire, he evidently became weaker, whilst the warmth of a
person in bed rendered him lively and comparatively strong. During the first week,
it was extremely difficult to get him to swallow; and it was nearly a month before
he could suck. At the time of the report, he was four months old, and his health
appeared very good. Another case of very early viability has been more recently put
on record by Mr. Dodd : in this, as in the former instance, the determination of the
child's age rests chiefly on the opinion of the mother ; but there appears no reason
for suspecting any fallacy. The child seems to have been born at the 26th or 27th
week of gestation ; and having been placed under judicious management, it has
thriven well. One of the most satisfactory cases on record is that detailed by D*

358 DURATION OF PREGNANCY, AND PERIOD WHEN THE CHILD CAN LIVE.

Outrepont (Professor of Obstetrics at Wurzburg), and stated by Dr. Christison in his
evidence on the case first alluded to. The evidence is as complete as it is possible to
be in any case of the kind ; being derived not only from the date assigned by the
mother to her conception, but also from the structure and history of the child. The
gestation could have only lasted 27 weeks, and was very probably less. The length
of the child was 13.} inches, and its weight was 24 oz. Its development was alto-
gether slow ; and at the age of eleven years, the child seemed no more advanced in
body or mind than most other lads of seven years old. In this last point, there is a
very striking correspondence with the results of other observations upon premature
children, made at an earlier age. A very remarkable case has been since put on
record by Dr. Barker of Dumfries, in which the child is affirmed to have been born
on the 158th day of gestation, or in the middle of the hoenty -third week after inter-
course. Its size, weight, and grade of development were conformable to the asserted
period : for it weighed only 1 lb. and measured 11 inches ; it had only rudimentary
nails, and scarcely, any hair except a little of reddish color on the back of the head ;
the eyelids were closed, and did not open until the second day ; the skin was shriv-
eled. When born it was wrapped up in a box and placed before the fire. The child
did not suck properly until after the lapse of a month, and did not walk until she
was nineteen months old. Three years and a half afterward, this child was in a
thriving state, and very healthy, but of small make ; she then weighed 29 J lbs."

The precise period, therefore, when the child can live, if brought into the world,
is not determined, any more than the time it may remain in the womb. Some chil-
dren may be able to live a considerable time before the full period of gestation, and
others may not till some time after, there being a great difference in regard to their
development.

One may be as fully developed at six as another at seven months. The common
opinion is that the child cannot live if born before seven months. This, however, is
incorrect. Many instances have been known of births at six months, and even earlier,
in which the child lived, and became strong and healthy. Van Swieten mentions
the case of one Fortunio Liceti, who was born before the sixth month. He was not
larger than the hand, but grew to the average size, and lived to be seventy-one years
old. Dr. Gunning Bedford mentions a similar case, in his translation of Chailly's
Midwifery. There are even cases mentioned of children living at five months, but it
must be borne in mind that it is seldom possible to determine the exact period. As
a general rule, however, the child does not live till after the seventh month, though
there undoubtedly have been cases where it has lived before the end of the sixth
month. The law adopts the medium period, and declares the child capable of living
at the end of the sixth month, and not before. There is no reason whatever for sap-
posing that it is less likely to live at eight months than at seven, or that it will not
live at all at eight months, as some do.

CHAPTER XXXL

MENSTRUATION".

It is well known that in all healthy and properly developed female?, after a cer-
tain age, denominated puberty, there occurs a discharge of blood and mucus from the
vagina, at certain regular periods, usually a month distant from each other, and which
lasts, as a general rule, from two to four days. This discharge is called the courses,
or the menstrual or monthly discharge, and it is intimately connected both with
female health and with the process of conception. The real cause and nature of this
singular phenomenon has always been a matter of dispute among philosophers and
physiologists, and it is only in modern times that the truth has been known. Even
at the present time, many of the best informed people, including some medical men,
are not acquainted with it ; and, in consequence of that ignorance, we have all
kinds of errors prevalent on the subject.

Some of the most curious and important discoveries in human physiology have
been made by observing the lower animals, with whom we can make experiments and
observations in a more complete and methodical manner than with our own species,
while the general laws which regulate their physical functions are the same with those
that regulate ours. It was formerly thought that many organic actions in the
human being were totally different to any that took place in the inferior animals, but
it is now known that this is an error. There is no physiological action occurring in
our own systems that we cannot find the counterpart of in other beings. It is true it
may vary some little in the manner of its occurrence, and in unimportant details, but
still it is always essentially the same action, and serves the same purposes. Thus it
was formerly thought that this very function of menstruation was one peculiar to the
human being, and that nothing analogous to it was to be observed in the lower ani-
mals, but it is now known that a corresponding phenomenon occurs in nearly all, in
some form or other.

To understand how menstruation is produced, we must refer back to what has
been stated in regard to ovulation, and the functions of the ovaries. It is only since
a comparatively recent period that the existence of eggs or ova in the human female
has been satisfactorily proved ; but it is now known that they do exist the same in her
as in all other females, and that they are uniformly developed according to a regular
plan. The ovaries contain the ova or eggs in a rudimentary state, and they begin, at
the age of puberty, to ripen or develop, as explained in the article on the Functions
of the Ovaries. At the age of puberty, the first egg is ripened and expelled, in the
manner already explained, and the same process occurs at every monthly period after-
ward till what is termed the change of life, usually about forty-five years of age, when
the last ovum has been expelled, and the ovaries cease their functions. Now this
ripening and expulsion of the egg every month is a very curious and important phe-
nomenon, and exercises a powerful and peculiar influence over both body and mind,

360 MENSTRUATION.

making the female essentially different to the male in her physical requirements and
capabilities, and also in her nervous sympathies.

It is undoubtedly true that the monthly ripening and expulsion of the egg in the
female, and its development into the new being when conception occurs, is the great
and principal business of her organic system, and that it absorbs more of her nervous
power, and more of her physical strength, than any other process she performs. In
fact, all other processes, both nervous and nutritive, appear subservient to this, and
chiefly intended to carry it on. There is nothing analogous to this ovulation in the
other sex, and therefore there is nothing to compare it with, and that is the reason
why the peculiarities of the female constitution and character are so imperfectly
appreciated. In man there is no periodical function that absorbs, as it were, all the
rest, and to which they are merely auxiliaries, but each acts independently, and it is
only in exceptional cases that any one preponderates over all the others. Thus we
sometimes see cases in which, either from organic peculiarity or from weak indulgence,
the stomach is so active that digestion is the all-absorbing process, and every other
function is imperfectly performed in consequence of its preponderating requirements.
The person can neither think, nor perform muscular exercise, because he has no vital
energy for anything but digestion. In the same manner, others do little else than
think, through the brain being the over-active organ. Such instances may enable
any one to conceive what follows when any one function overpowers, as it were, all
the others, and to see how they must necessarily be subservient to it. Bat it must be
remembered that such cases as these are exceptional and unnatural ones, and that
they are not of the same character as the peculiar function referred to, though a con-
sideration of them may enable any one to better understand its influence. The
monthly formation of the egg in the female is not an exceptional occurrence, nor an
unnatural over-excitement, but a legitimate and necessary result of her peculiar
organic action, and the consequences of which she cannot therefore escape from.
From the age of puberty till the change of life, nature is constantly laboring at this
one function, and the female seems to live chiefly for this purpose. This is the true
explanation of those peculiarities that are seen in the female character, especially of
its excessive sympathy, sensitiveness, and excitability, and also much that is peculiar
in female diseases. The incessant action of the ovaries keeps the nervous system in
a constant state of irritation, and makes all the organic functions liable to derange-
ment, so that it is impossible for a female to preserve that equanimity of mind and
that evenness of temper and disposition which to individuals of the other sex is a
comparatively easy matter. The female is, in fact, in a great measure, like a man
who is constantly subject to annoyance from those around him, and who is obliged
to use constant efforts to keep himself cool. Her situation is indeed, in some respects,
even worse, because the cause of her uneasiness is inherent in herself; she cannot
escape from it, and knows not what it is, and those around not knowing it either, she.
meets with but little sympathy and consideration. There are numbers of females who
are most unfortunate in this respect, some being subject to distressing depression of
spirits, or the most melancholy despondency ; while others are irritable, or peevish, or
subject to ebullitions of the most frantic gayety ; and others, again, constantly change
from one mood to another, without any apparent reason for so doing. Ignorant
persons attribute these eccentricities to mere caprice or whim, and fancy that females
can avoid them if they choose. Sometimes they are blamed or scolded for them, and
are thought to be perverse or contrary, and sometimes females even accuse themselves

MENSTR UA TION. 361

of being ungrateful and dissatisfied, and in this way increase their distress. If, how-
ever, the true nature of their constitution was understood, it would be seen that no
blame whatever should be attached to them for these peculiarities, since they cannot
be avoided, but, on the contrary, every allowance should be made for their involun-
tary aberrations, and the fullest sympathy exhibited for the distress which they really
endure. The ovaries and the nervous system exert a reciprocal action, so that one
can influence the other to a remarkable degree, which is the reason why many female
diseases can be so much modified, or even produced, by certain states of the mind
and feelings. It is often the case that a female suffering from indisposition is not
benefited at all by medical treatment, but through some pleasing impression on the
mind or feelings, is relieved immediately. I have often seen females completely
prostrated, with scarcely energy or ability enough to breathe, who have been restored
almost instantaneously by a word of hope, an expression of sympathy, or a little kind
and pleasing attention, especially if it was from some wished-for but unexpected
quarter. In such cases, uninformed people are apt to suppose that there has been no
real indisposition at all, because the improvement was so rapid, and without medicine.
A proper understanding of the subject, however, would show them that these appa-
rent caprices are as real as any other forms of disease, and that moral or mental med-
icine may be as active as drugs, and often much more beneficial. In short, if the
nervous system is kept in a constant state of irritation, and the feelings and sympa-
thies are habitually outraged, it is often impossible to do much good in female indis-
position. The conduct of those around the patient is of more consequence than the
physician's prescription, by far, and may, according to its propriety or impropriety,
either accelerate or impede the cure. There are many men who habitually act in
such a way toward their female companions as to both cause them suffering and
prevent its removal, and that too without either desiring or intending to do so. They
do not act from unkind motives, but their ignorance prevents them from seeing the
consequences of their conduct. Conceiving females to be like themselves, and knowing
that they can shake off the vapors, as they call them, and that their nervous systems
are not easily irritated, they cannot feel a proper charity toward their sensitive com-
panions. Females, on the other hand, feeling that they are not understood, nor their
condition properly appreciated, and having no one to repose confidence in that they
think can appreciate them, are apt to become morose, and retiring within themselves
conceal their suffering and disquiet from every one around them.

This ignorance respecting the female constitution is, therefore, a serious evil,
^making them liable to suffer, and causing the other sex to withhold from them that
sympathy and charitable consideration so much required, and which would be gen-
erally bestowed, if men were better informed as to its necessity and utility.

The ripening and expulsion of the egg is effected by a real inflammation, similar
to what is seen when a splinter of wood, for instance, is expelled from the flesh by
the process of festering, and it is this periodical inflammation that causes the sympa-
thetic irritation above described. The inflammation is slight at the beginning of the
month, but gradually increases toward the end, when the ovaries are found to be
highly congested, and the blood-vessels in them and the uterus are much engorged.
About the time when the egg is expelled from the vesicle, the inflammation reaches
its height, and to relieve it the vessels pour out a quantity of blood and mucous, in
the same way that a discharge occurs after inflammation in other parts. This is the
true cause of the menstrual flow. It is a consequence of the action of the ovaries,

362 MENSTR UA TION.

and is only seen in those who possess these organs perfect. Females who hare no
ovaries, or in whom they are torpid, never menstruate.

The importance of a knowledge of these facts, both to the preservation of health
and also in medical science, is very great. The medical treatment of deranged or
suppressed menstruation has always been chiefly empirical, and seldom of much
service, because the real origin and nature of the flow itself was unknown. In fact,
there is no denying that, instead of doing good in these cases, medical science has
led to much evil, and probably has caused more disease than ever it has cured. And
yet, when properly understood, these derangements are usually readily corrected, and
by very simple means.

In some young females this discharge occurs suddenly the first time, without any
premonitory symptoms whatever, and occasionally it continues to do so at each of the
succeeding periods, but more usually it is indicated by certain well-marked signs
peculiar to that condition alone. Generally the female experiences considerable
excitement just previous to its appearance, with a sensation of fullness in the head,
slight fever, and pain in the back and abdomen. In some, these symptoms are much
aggravated, so that they suffer severely, even more than at the time of parturition.
There are females who are made perfectly delirious with the pain at these times, or
so completely prostrated that they have scarcely strength to move. Others are more
fortunate, and experience little or no inconvenience at their periods ; but these are
the exceptions, and there are but few who are not more or less affected, particularly by
lowness of spirits or irritability, and on that account considerable allowance should
be made for what may appear strange or unusual in their conduct and manner.
This is what is usually termed being unwell, and it is generally indicated by certain
changes in the countenance, as well as by the signs mentioned above.

In the first twenty-four hours, the discharge is commonly slight, and pale in color,
but afterward it becomes more profuse, and like real blood. The time it lasts is
about four days, but varies considerably. Thus in some it endures a week, or more,
and in others only a day, or even but a few hours. Some of these irregularities are
natural, and must not be interfered with, but others are accidentally produced, and
should be corrected. The discharge subsides into a colorless mucous secretion, com-
monly termed LeucorrTima, or the whites, which when it remains constant, and too
abundant, constitutes a real disease.

The quantity of fluid lost is on an average about six ounces, but it varies much
in different persons, in some being very abundant and in others very small. I have
known females to lose over a quart each time, without any apparent ill effects. To
some extent it appears to be affected by climate, being more abundant in tropical
countries and less so in cold ones. In some cases it is nearly or quite colorless, owing
to there being little or no blood mixed with it, and then the individual is apt to sup-
pose she has not menstruated when she really has. It is for this reason that such
persons can never correctly estimate the proper time when conception can occur.
The real period is not suspected by them to be so, because it is colorless, and then if
any flooding, or mere discharge of blood from weakness takes place, they think that
is the period, and in this way they fail in their reckoning.

It was formerly thought that the menstrual discharge was something peculiar,
and that it was possessed of certain deleterious properties, but this is now known to
be a fallacy. It is nothing more than real blood mixed with the ordinary mucous
secretion of the parts. Its odor is peculiar, and sometimes powerful, owing probably

MENSTR UA TION 368

to its having been retained in the uterine vessels some time before its discharge, and
having in consequence undergone some change, or fermentation. And this accounts
for its odor being always stronger, and its color darker, when it has been retained
longer than usual.

In former times menstruation was attributed to the influence of the moon, and it
was thought that it only took place when she was at the full, but this is well known
not to be the case ; there are probably females menstruating every hour of every day
in the year. It is true the usual period between the cessation of one discharge and
the beginning of another, is generally equal to the time of the moon's revolution
around the earth, being twenty-eight days, but they do not otherwise correspond.
Indeed, in some there are not more than two or three weeks between, while in others
there are five or six, or even more, and yet this may be to them perfectly natural and
proper. The real cause of menstruation is the ripening and expulsion of the egg,
and of course it occurs whenever an egg is developed, whether that be frequently or
rarely. It was found from observation that, in one hundred females, sixty-eight
menstruated every twenty-eight days ; twenty-eight every three weeks ; and one every
second week ; while ten were irregular.

The first appearance of the menses varies from about the twelfth to the seven-
teenth year, in our country, but it is affected by various circumstances. In the
greater number of females it commences from fourteen to fifteen, though it is some-
times delayed till twenty or more, and occasionally is seen at nine, or even earlier.
I have seen a case myself in a mere infant. Out of four hundred and fifty cases
observed at the Manchester Lying-in Hospital, England, ten menstruated first at
eleven years of age, nineteen at twelve, — fifty- three at thirteen, — eighty-five at four-
teen,— ninety-seven at fifteen, — seventy-six at sixteen, —fifty-seven at seventeen, —
twenty-six at eighteen, — twenty-three at nineteen, — and four at twenty years.

The time when the menses cease, or the turn of life as it is called, that is when
every ovum is developed, is usually from forty to forty-five years of age, but like the
commencement this is also liable to considerable variation, some females arriving at
the turn when they are but thirty, and others not till they are fifty, or even more.
Sometimes after it has apparently ceased, at the usual time, it will appear again, for
a time or two, many years after, at advanced age. This is probably owing to one or
more of the eggs having been left undeveloped in the ovaries at the time of the turn,
through being imperfect, and their ripening afterward. In such cases conception is
possible at these after periods, which accounts for those instances of child-bearing in
old females, which are occasionally met with, sometimes as far as the sixtieth year.
Of course conception is possible as long as proper menstruation continues, but never
when it ceases, or has not appeared. It is true, that in some cases females have
borne children who have apparently never menstruated, but these were undoubtedly
cases in which it was simply colorless, and small in quantity, so that they did not
observe it, or else thought it was only the whites. The menstruation, in some form,
must always occur before pregnancy can ensue, but the excitement and inflammation
may be so small, in particular constitutions, that none of the usual indications are
observed. It is owing to this that some females, who think they do not menstruate
often enough, are deceived, because many periods are apt to be unobserved by them.
And on the contrary many others who fancy they have their turns too often are
equally deceived ; many of the supposed menstruations being mere floodings, or dis-
charges of blood from weakness or over-fullness of the vessel. A mere show of

364 MENSTRUATION.

blood therefore is no proof of menstruation, nor is its absence any sign to the
contrary.

In one series of observations it was found that in seventy-seven females one ceased
menstruation, or arrived at the turn of life, at thirty-five years of age, — four at forty,
— one at forty-two, — one at forty-three, — three at forty-four, — four at forty-five^-
three at forty-seven, — ten at forty-eight, — seven at forty-nine, — twenty-six at fifty,—
two at fifty-one, — seven at fifty-two, — two at fifty-three, — two at fifty-four,— one at
fifty-seven, two at sixty ; and one at seventy !

It is commonly supposed that menstruation commences earlier in hot countries
than in cold ones, and in consequence of the heat, but it is by no means universally
so. Mr. Robertson has shown by his researches that it commences everywhere at
about the same average age, and that the early intercourse of the sexes which takes
place in the Indies, and other warm countries, is owing more to a depraved state of
morals, and to unrestrained intercourse than to any influence of climate. He remarks
that the early marriages we see there are " to be attributed not to any peculiar precocity,
but to moral and political degradation, exhibited in ill laws and customs, the enslave-
ment more or less of the women, ignorance of letters ; and impure or debasing systems
of religion." He also thinks that if the same manners and customs prevailed in Eng-
land, or America, the same effects would be seen, and this is fully borne out in those
pitiable instances, occasionally seen in our large towns, of juvenile prostitution.
Many of these degraded and brutalized children at eleven or twelve years are as much
women, in certain respects, as they ought to have been at seventeen or eighteen, and
of course any other children would be the same if exposed to the same influences,
unless, as fortunately is often the case, the initiation into vice caused their death.

In cities generally, on the average, menstruation commences earlier than in the
country, owing to the more exciting circumstances that surround young persons,
and which awaken the sexual instinct precociously. This is particularly the case in
those places where morals are bad, and familiar intercourse between the sexes is un-
restrained. In the Eastern parts of the old world marriages are often contracted
while the female is very young, but it does not follow that she was fitted for it ; and
in all probability if those very females had been educated like our own they would
have been in no respect different. We are told for instance that Mahomet consum-
mated his marriage with one of his wives when she was but eight years old. In this,
however, we simply see the proof of her degradation and enslavement, and not of her
natural precocity. So far as is known also there is no difference as to the time of the
first menstruation among the different races of human beings. Thus, for instance,
it is no earlier under the same circumstances, in the negress than in the white
female.

As a general rule the earlier menstruation commences, and the more frequently
it occurs, the earlier it will cease, and to this there are but few exceptions. It is
therefore of considerable importance to the future health of the female that this
grand event should not be accelerated by any factitious causes, but should be
brought on by the slow and unaided process of natural development. Young
females should be allowed to remain as children, or girls at least, much longer than
they usually do, and not be forced into young women too soon. For every year earlier
that they become young women they probably become old ones five years before they
otherwise would have been. It is of the utmost importance that young females
should have their muscular systems well developed previous to puberty, and that

MENSTRUATION. 365

they should not have their minds and feelings too much excited. Nothing tends to
bring on puberty more than a morbid excitement of the feelings and sympathies,
such as results from silly romances, and over-wrought love-tales. Excessive study
also is very injurious, and the too constant attention to what are called mere accom-
plishments. These are often pursued to the utter sacrifice of what is useful or benefi-
cial, and result in nothing but premature development of those instincts tbat had better
lie dormant till a later period. In fact, the education of young girls seems too often
to have but one object, and that is to force them into women as rapidly as possible,
to the utter ruin of their health and happiness.

In former times, as we find from the Bible, a woman was thought to be unclean
while menstruating, and was shunned as something hurtful and deleterious. Accord-
ing to Pliny, the ancient naturalist, it was thought that she would destroy grafts, or
bees, and blight corn, make iron rust, and even cause madness in dogs. Nay, he
even goes so far as to say that the menstrual fluid, by its odor, will cause fruit to fall
from the trees, destroy insects, and cause seeds not to grow. Many barbarous na-
tions at the present day entertain similar notions, and at such times compel females
to secrete themselves, and shun society, when they really need the most sympathy
and kind companionship. M. Moreau de la Sarthe, in his Natural History of
Women, tells us that the South Sea Islanders, and the South American Indians,
always send their females to separate huts during these periods, and that the Illinois
Indians formerly punished any woman with death who failed to give due notice of
her being in that condition. According to history we also find that by a decree of
the Council of Nice, women were forbidden to enter the church while menstruating.
In the laws of the Israelites it is enacted, that "If a man shall lie with a woman
having her sickness, and shall uncover her nakedness, he hath discovered her foun-
tain, and she hath uncovered the fountain of her blood, and both of them shall be
cut off from among their people." — (See Leviticus, chap. 20, v. 18.)

Such notions it will be seen are now happily to be found chiefly among barbarians,
or in the records of a former ignorant age, though there are individuals who enter-
tain them even yet. Indeed at the present time there are persons, especially among the
ill-informed in England, who believe that meat will not take the salt if the process be
carried on by a female who is menstruating. Others again think that bread will not
rise, that beer will sour, and milk curdle, if a female so circumstanced have anything
to do with them. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to say that all such notions are as
erroneous as they are absurd, and that they are practically disproved every day, by
thousands of females who pay no attention to them, and who yet conduct all the
above operations as successfully as if nothing of the kind was taking place.

The first appearance of this function is an important event, and should be care-
fully watched for, so that nothing may be allowed to interfere with it, and also that
means may be taken to bring it on if it be too long delayed. Young females ought
especially to be timely informed about it, so that they may know how to conduct
themselves, and may not be needlessly alarmed, as many are when it first appears.
These matters, however, belong more especially to medicine, and will be found
fully explained in the chapter on the Diseases of Woman.

It is especially important to bear in mind that females are usually more irritable
and unsettled at these times, and that full allowance should be made for their being
so. In a young person this is more apt to be the case, from the very novelty of her
situation. The strange phenomenon that is occurring in her system, the development

366 MENSTRUATION.

of her person, and the new feelings and instincts that are awakened, all exert a
powerful influence, which is still further increased by the mystery with which every-
thing relating to these wonderful operations is enshrouded. In the absence of
proper information, imagination is busily at work, curiosity is excited, and the mind
becomes filled with strange fancies and romantic dreams, which often exert a bane-
ful influence in after life. Proper instruction, at the proper time, with a well-
regulated mind and body, would give more correct ideas of her real duties and
sexual situation, and prevent much of that sickness and unhappiness of mind which
are so commonly seen after marriage.

There are few objects more interesting to the philosopher and philanthropist
than a young female at this period of her existence, when the body is assuming its
natural beauty of form, and becoming fit for its wondrous functions, and when the
expanding mind receives the first faint perception of her real destiny.

To a great extent, the development of the whole physical system depends upon
the action of the ovaries, so that if they are absent, or inactive, every other part of
the organization remains imperfect. The destruction of them in early life causes a
similar imperfection to what follows the removal of the testes in the male, and even
at adult age, as already shown, they exert a paramount importance over the other
organs. It is apparently the effort that is required to develop them, in fact? that
makes the body grow and perfect itself so rapidly at puberty. Every one must have
noticed what an astonishing change occurs in a young female at that time. The
bust becomes full, the pelvis enlarges, the features change — especially in their
expression — the mind takes a different turn, and the manner and conduct become
altogether different, denoting the new feelings and instincts that begin to be experi-
enced. In short, the girl is changed into the woman, and is conscious herself of the
alteration. All these changes result from the action of the ovaries, and if they are
incapable of performing their functions, no such alterations take place, but on the
contrary, the system either remains always as it was during girlhood, or develops in
an unusual manner, similar to the male for instance. Nature seems to refuse to
put forth her energies to perfect the rest of the system if she cannot first perfect
the essential organs of generation, and the first menstrual flow, or the ripening of
the first egg, is, therefore, the constant and necessary prelude to womanly develop-
ment.

In reference to marriage, menstruation ought always to precede that event, and
generally for a considerable time — twelve months at least — especially if it commences
early. It is not always that it continues regularly from the first commencement, but
ceases for some months, or even longer, and then commences again.

The proper age for marriage is, of course, variable in different individuals, some
being properly developed years earlier than others, and no general rule can, there-
fore, be given. One necessary condition is the perfect establishment of menstrua-
tion, as already stated ; and, perhaps, the next most essential requisite is the propei
development of the body, especially of the pelvis and genital organs, for if these
have not attained to a certain growth before marriage, they may never do so after-
ward. A neglect of these matters leads often to the most serious and unhappy
consequences, from which there is no escape. Nevertheless, there are cases in which
marriage may be required to perfect the development of the system, and in which it
will always remain imperfect without, but these are very rare, and are usually indi-
cated in an unmistakable manner,

MENSTB UA TIOS. 367

The proper time for marriage is midway between two of the ordinary periods, let
*he space be what it may. I have known instances of young females marrying eithei
at the menstrual period, or so near that nervous agitation, consequent upon the
ceremony, has brought it on, and many evils have followed therefrom, to say nothing
of the annoyance and distress. This was, of course, the fault of those who had
these young persons under their care, and who had neglected to inform themselves
upon so essential a point. Immediately after, and immediately before menstruation,
are neither so proper as the midway, the organs and the nervous system being at
both these times more or less excited and irritable. Marriage just before menstrua*
tion has been known to arrest it, so that it never afterward returned.

As a general rule, menstruation does not take place during nursing, though,
occasionally, it does so, even commencing as early as the first month after delivery,
and continuing on uninterruptedly. The reason why it does not take place at this
time generally, is, because the blood and the vital energy which is ordinarily
expended in ripening the egg, is needed during nursing, to secrete the milk, and it
would exhaust the system too much to carry on both f unctions at the same time.
In those cases where menstruation and nursing do occur simultaneously, it is either
because there is a superabundance of vital energy, by which both can be supported,
or the ovaries are in a state of chronic irritation, owing to which they act when
they ought to be dormant. In the first case, no injury may result from both taking
place at the same time, but when there is not a real excess of energy, this double
drain nearly always exhausts the strength, and impairs the health. It is not, as
some suppose, necessarily improper, or injurious to the child, for nursing to be
allowed while the turns continue, unless the health and strength of the mother
suffer thereby. If she becomes weak, the milk is often imperfectly formed and
watery, so that the child is not perfectly nourished by it, but there is nothing posi-
tively hurtful in its nature under such circumstances. It is not necessary therefore
to discontinue nursing at such times, unless the mother evidently suffers from the
unusual condition.

During pregnancy the menses do not appear, for the same reason, though in
some females they are thought to do so. All the energies of the uterus and ovaries
are then needed in developing the new being, and the ovaries are necessarily dormant.
Besides this, the interior of the womb is covered, immediately after conception, with
the membranes surrounding the foetus, which effectually close the mouth of each Fal-
lopian tube, and of the womb. If either an ovum or the menstrual fluid were to
form therefore, it could not pass away, unless these membranes were detached, which
would cause abortion.

When a discharge occurs during pregnancy, therefore, it is not a real menstrua-
tion, though it may take place regularly at the month, from the habit of the system,
but it is simply an escape of blood from the vessels of the vagina, or neck of the
womb, owing either to their weakness or over-fullness. It is really a flooding, there-
fore, which may do no harm while it is confined to the parts below ; but if it extends
to the interior of the womb, it is nearly sure to cause miscarriage. This is one rea-
son why much sexual excitement is improper during pregnancy, because it is apt to
excite the ovaries to form the ova, and thus lead to miscarriage by their expulsion.

After marriage the question is often asked of the physician, whether connection
during menstruation is improper ? To this it may be answered, that, in some cases,
it is both disagreeable and painful, and therefore obviously improper ; but, in other

368 MEN STB UA T10N.

cases, it is rather desired than otherwise, and is apparently not at all injurious, and
then it must be objected to on other grounds than being unnatural. Perhaps there
are but few persons who need any particular reason for abstaining at such times, con-
siderations of delicacy alone being sufficient. The feelings and instincts of the
female herself are all that need be consulted, and it is very seldom that they will
direct her wrong. It is certain that there are persons who never experience a desire
for association, except at such times, and we are certainly not justified, on scientific
grounds at least, in saying that it should then be forbidden. The old idea that certain
diseases originated from association at such times is altogether erroneous, and without
the slightest foundation.

Until recently, it was thought that menstruation occurred in human beings only,
but it is now known that it occurs in most animals, though in a different form.
Every being that brings forth its young alive, has a certain period in which the
development of its ova or eggs is effected, and at those times when they are fully
ripe, there occurs a function analogous to menstruation. Thus taking most kinds of
cattle for instance, as the wild deer, they are capable of conception only at one time
in the year, and will only receive the male at that time. This is what is called the
season of Rut or Heat, and on dissecting them, the cause of it becomes obvious.
They ripen an egg only once in the year, and when that occurs it causes the excite-
ment which makes them desire association, and also results in a peculiar discharge
from the genital organs, which is, strictly speaking, the same as human menstrua-
tion, though it is nearly colorless. A "discharge of this nature is seen in all animals
at such times, and, occasionally, as in some of the monkeys, it is even tinged with
blood. It is, therefore, merely in its color, quantity, and frequency of appearance
that it varies ; in some taking place but once a year, in others every two or three
months, and in the human being monthly, according to the frequency with which
the eggs are ripened. These facts have led some physiologists to suppose that the
most appropriate time for association in the human being, is near to the monthly
periods, because in the animals above referred to, it is only at such times that they
desire it. In the human being, however, there are many essential differences, in regard
to the commerce of the sexes, and especially in the feelings that lead to it. In the
lower animals, it is, of course, a mere amorous propensity that impels, and which is
excited only by peculiar conditions of the genital' organs in both ; but in human
beings there are other feelings, of a higher order, which are 'often more powerful
than the sexual instinct itself. The mere animals being impelled to the act only by
physical excitement, depending on a certain condition of the parts, will, of course,
feel the impulse only when those conditions exist, but the human being may also be
impelled by mental and moral agencies, though the physical excitement may be weak,
or even if it be quite extinguished. It is not always therefore solely for the indulgence
of the mere sexual propensity that human beings associate but for that conjointly
with other instincts, and therefore the same rule should not apply to them. It is,
perhaps, desirable, physiologically speaking, that association should never take place
without both physical and moral enjoyment in both, and therefore those times should
be chosen when the female organs are most disposed to these peculiar excitements.
This time is not always the same, being just after the period in some, and just before
it in others, and occasionally only during the flow itself. As a general rule, it is
found that in the great majority of females, the inclination is strongest immediately
after the flow, and it is also then that conception is most likely to ensue. This is

MENSTB UA TION. 369

analogous to what is observed in the lower animals, in whom the flow has always
passed its height before the heat is experienced. In medical practice, it is found
that those means which we use, in cold temperaments, to produce sexual feelings,
always act best just after the period is over, and this is, therefore, doubtless the
most proper and favorable time for association, though there is nothing inherently
wrong in it at other times.

Formerly a notion prevailed that association during the flow was wrong because
the offspring resulting therefrom would be diseased or insane ; and in fact, certain
peculiar affections were thought to have originated in that way. This, is, however,
altogether erroneous, because conception cannot occur at that time, as shown in
another place.

It is probable that the menstrual flow is also made use of by nature as a means of
periodical purification, and that many matters which would be hurtful to the body,
if retained, are removed by it. This accounts for the fact that females can work with-
out injury at certain employments in the metals, where poisonous fumes are evolved,
and which would Mil men, the deleterious matter being carried off in this way. It
is for this reason also that the turn of life, when the flow ceases, is so critical a
period. The cessation of this periodical purification, of course, makes the body more
liable to disease, and more disposed to suffer from congestions of blood, because there
is now no monthly abstraction to give relief. It is, therefore, at this time, particu-
larly necessary to attend to all the other secretions, especially the skin and bowels,
to keep them active, so as to make up for that which is suspended.

It may not be out of place to remark here, that the existence of this function
alone makes it impossible for woman — except in a few peculiar individual cases — to
pursue the same avocations, and follow the same mode of life as man. It makes her,
of necessity, not so continuously active, nor so capable of pbysical toil, while, at the
same time, it causes her to yearn for sympathy and support from some being that she
feels is more powerful than herself.
24

CHAPTER XXXII.

CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SEX, AND PRODUCTION OF SEX AT WILL.

These have always been fruitful subjects of discussion both among physiologists
and popularly, but until recently nothing certain has been known about them.
Nevertheless, I am of opinion that they will eventually be perfectly understood,
and that the sex of every child will be known previous to its birth. Our knowl-
edge at the present time, it is true, is not perfect on this point, but still much more
is known than what is usually supposed, and as such information may occasionally
be really valuable, besides being of great interest, I shall lay it before my readers.

All the old ideas on this subject are utterly unfounded, and generally as absurd
as they are erroneous. Such, for instance, as supposing that if the parties lie on the
right side, during the act of association, the offspring will be male, and if on the left
side, female. Or imagining, as others do, that males are more apt to follow from
connection in the early part of the day, and females when it is practiced in the even-
ing. Neither is there any foundation for supposing that it depends upon which sex
the parents most strongly desire, as many know well from experience.

The idea about the position, during the act, determining the sex, originated from
an unfounded theory of the physiologists themselves, namely, that the right ovary
produced males, and the left females. So generally was this opinion received, and
so far did it influence even practical men, that about the year 1827, a physiologist
named MUM, published a book on " TJie Art of Procreating the Sexes at Will," in
which he gave directions for producing whichever might be desired. He even gave
the names of several mothers who were said to have succeeded in their wishes by
following his directions, but of course did not enumerate those who were disap-
pointed, though experience has fully demonstrated that they were undoubtedly
equally as numerous. In short, the theory, though captivating, is founded on an
untruth, and cannot, therefore, be practically true.

In several instances it has been demonstrated, most conclusively, that each ovary
can produce both sexes. Thus instances have been known where one has been de-
stroyed by disease, or where it has been naturally deficient, and yet the female has
borne both boys and girls. In one case not only was the ovary and Fallopian tube
absent entirely on one side, but even the corresponding half of the womb itself was-
imperfect, and yet she had borne eleven children of both sexes.

The fact appears to be that the sex is determined by the joint action of several
distinct causes, the principal of which at least are known, so that the great majority
of children can be made of ivhichever sex is desired, providing certain suggestions
are attended to. And I may remark here, that this assertion is not based upon
theory alone, but upon certain observations, and also upon a long series of experi-
ments with animals. The peculiar nature of my practice has of course brought many
persons to me for information on this very topic, and I have therefore been able to

370

CA USE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SEX. 371

verify the correctness of my conclusions. In every case, unless certain inappropriate
conditions existed before marriage which could not he corrected, / would guarantee
either the one sex or the other, providing my advice was strictly attended to !

To understand how this can he done, I must first state what has been ascertained
respecting the influence of relative age. It has been found, by actual observation of
some thousands of cases, that the oldest parent most frequently imparts the sex,
unless the age be so great as to verge upon decrepitude. Thus, for instance, when
the fathers are younger than the mothers there will be born about ninety boys to one
hundred girls, and very nearly the same when they are of equal age. When, how-
ever, the fathers are from one to six years older than the mothers, there will be born
one hundred and three boys to one hundred girls ; and when the fathers are from
nine to eighteen years the oldest, the number of boys will be one hundred and forty
to one hundred girls ; but if they be more than eighteen years older, the number of
boys will be two hundred to the hundred girls.

In the same way, just in proportion as the mothers are the oldest, the number of
girls will predominate ; till, when they are from eighteen to twenty years older than
the man, there will be twice as many girls as boys. It may of course happen that
this rule may not hold good in many single families that may be noticed, but it will
always do so when the average is taken of a large number, and the chances of course
are in the same ratio in every instance. Thus in every case when the father is over
eighteen years older than the mother, it is two chances to one that the child will be a
boy, and in three hundred such births there would be just two hundred male to one
hundred females ; while, if the mother be so much the elder, the chances and results
will be just the same the other way.

The relative age, therefore, has a most potent influence over the sexual formation,
but still there are evidently other agencies also, because it does not operate in every
individual case, and we must therefore endeavor to discover what those other agen-
cies are. My own impression is, that in the exceptional cases, where the elder parent
does not impart the sex, it is owing to the younger parent being much the more
vigorous. This view I have had many opportunities of verifying, in confidential
communications, and I have almost invariably found it correct. This also shows
why it is, that the greater age is no advantage beyond a certain period. Thus, for
instance, if the father be over fifty, while the mother is under thirty-five, the rule
will change, and the number of girls will predominate. We also find that the greater
number of first children are boys, especially if born soon after marriage, owing to
the father being naturally most powerful then. In illegitimate children, on the
contrary, there are most girls, probably because in many of these cases the female is
more vigorous than ordinary. In those countries where polygamy predominates, or
where the men have several wives, there are many more girls born than boys, owing,
qo doubt, to the male power being weakened by excess, and expended among
oo many, which causes the female power to predominate. For this reason poly-
gamy must always continue itself, because the number of females will constant!)--
oe greater than the number of males ; and if there were no foreign admixture to
take place, a nation would probably become extinct, in time, under such an insti-
tution.

It is stated, in the article on the influence of connection after conception, that the
more frequently it takes place, the more the child will resemble the father in many
particulars, but not necessarily in sex. If, however, the mother have much less sexual

372 OA USE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SEX,

power, and experiences little or no enjoyment at those times, the father is likely to
impart sex also, as well as general resemblance.

There are many females who are capable of proper excitement at other times,
but not after conception, owing to some change in the action of the organs, and
if connection still continues in such cases, the offspring is nearly sure to be a boy,
because the father then predominates. On the contrary, there are other females wbo
never experience excitement till they have conceived, and then it is often so great as to
preponderate, and very likely to cause a girl to be produced. This accounts for those
Instances in which children are produced of the same sex as the parents who are the
least vigorous — they being, in fact, the most so at a particular and critical period,
though usually otherwise.'

The production of either sex, therefore, is, to a very great extent, within our
power, providing we can fulfill the principal of the above indications. If, for instance,
a boy is desired, the father should be older than the mother — say at least five years —
and conception should not be allowed to take place during the first five days after the
monthly period. • The relative warmth of temperament should also be regulated, so
that the female do not preponderate, especially at the time of conception and during
the first two or three weeks afterward. If a girl be desired, of course the opposite
conditions should exist, and in every case where the age is not appropriate, the other
particulars must be the more scrupulously attended to. The means by which the
warmth of the temperament may be increased, in either sex, is a portion of the med-
ical art, and is explained in another place. Suffice it to say here, that it can nearly
always be accomplished, even in those females who have been always perfectly indif-
ferent.

Many intelligent breeders of animals are practically acquainted with these prin-
ciples, and will undertake to breed almost any proportion of either sex, by properly
mating the parents as to age, vigor, and frequency of association, besides causing
the offspring to resemble which they please, and to partake of any general charac-
teristics.

Taken in conjunction with what is stated in another article, respecting the influ-
ence of the male in connection after conception, and also with what is stated as to
the poorer of the mother's imagination over her offspring, it will be seen that these
facts are of the greatest value, and it will one day be accounted of the utmost im-
portance for every married person to be acquainted with them.

From what is observed in some animals, and also in the vegetable world, the
conversion of one sex into the other is actually demonstrated. Thus it is well known
that bees, when deprived of their queen, will make another ; and this they do by
taking one of the larvae or grubs, such as produce, under ordinary circumstances, a
common worker or drone, and treating it in a peculiar manner, feeding it upon
different food, and carefully tending it in a different way to what they ever tend the
others. The result is, that the grub, which would have been an ordinary bee, under
the usual conditions, is by this treatment formed into a queen or perfect female. In
this case, then, sex is evidently a result of development, effected chiefly by a peculiar
kind of nutrition. Botanists also know that plants frequently change their sex in a
remarkable degree, under peculiar cultivation, some becoming nearly altogether
staminate or male, and others nearly altogether pistillate or female, though in their
natural condition they remain uniformly one or the other, or a proper mixture of
both.

UAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SEX. 373

A still further confirmation of the identity of these organs in the early stages, is
afforded by some cases of accidental hermaphrodism. Thus, in many crustaceous
animals, as crabs, for instance, it is not at all unusual to find a perfect ovary on one
side, and a perfect testicle on the other. I have observed the same peculiarities in fishes
also, and in one case at least it was found in a human being. Birds scarcely ever
have the ovary developed but upon one side, the other being merely rudimentary, and
sometimes even formed something like a testicle.

Many circumstances make it probable that the first stage of development of the
primary cellules is always into ovaries, and if they develop no further, of course the
being remains female, and all the other parts correspond. If, however, any addi-
tional impulse be given, they develop further, and become testicles, the other parts
changing also, and thus forming a male.

There are therefore various causes that influence sex, as already shown, but there
is one that really determines it, in nearly all cases, and that we will now explain,
but first give a short sketch of the various opinions held on the subject, from the
most remote times.

Hippocrates taught that both the male and female secreted a semen, which was
a kind of essence, coming from every part of the body in each. He also considered
that the semen, in both, consisted of two parts, one male and the other female, and
that when the two male semens combined a proper boy was formed, and when the
two female semens combined a proper girl was formed. But if the male part of the
father's semen united with the female part of the mother's, there would be either an
effeminate boy, or a boyish girl, according to which semen predominated.

This, of course, was all theory, and without the least foundation in fact.

Some followers of Hippocrates went further than this, and undertook to give the
signs by which it could be told, in either male or female, which semen predominated
in them, and consequently which sex they would be likely to procreate ; but all these
signs were mere fanciful speculations.

Others considered, as before stated, that the semen from the right testicle pro-
duced males, and that from the left, females ; but this theory had no better founda-
tion than the other. Nevertheless practical rules were given, founded upon this
theory. Thus, those who wished toys were directed to tie a band round the cord
leading from the left testicle, or even to have it cut out, so that semen could come
only from the right one. Those who wished girls, of course were to do the same
with the right testicle, so that semen could come only from the left one.

No doubt much mischief and disappointment was caused by the promulgation of
such a theory, but it held its ground for a long time. Hufeland first showed its
improbability by referring to the fact, that if a number of fish eggs are impregnated
with the same semen, some will form males and some females, and not all one sex or
the other. Those who acted practically upon the theory soon found out it was not
to be relied upon. Besides, men with only one testicle were known to become father
of children of both sexes.

A similar theory was then broached in regard to the female ovaries, — that the
eggs from the right one produced boys, and those from the left one girls. This,
however, was equally unfounded with the other, and was disproved by the fact that
females with only one active ovary had children of each sex, the same as men with
one testicle only were fathers of both boys and girls.

One celebrated physiologist even asserted that the womb was divided into sevea

374 • PRODUCTION OF SEX AT WILL.

parts, three on the right side for males, and three on the left for females, with one
in the middle for hermaphrodites. Of course this was all fancy — a mere specula-
tion.

Harvey taught that the female semen formed the egg after the male semen came
in contact with it, and that from this egg the new being was formed. He was
quite unaware that the egg was formed independent of any connection with the
male.

Buffon, still holding to the teaching of Hippocrates, that each sex secreted a
semen, contended that the animalcules in the male semen formed boys, and those in
the female semen girls.

More modern theorists have supposed that sex was a mere matter of development,
and that all were the same, or hermaphrodites, at first. And it is true that in the
early stages it is impossible to tell one sex from the other, the organs being precisely
the same in all cases. The different parts of the sexual system, in males and females,
correspond to each other, and in the early stages no one can tell what the future sex
might be.

PRODUCTION OF SEX AI WILL.

To understand the true theory of the cause of sex, we must refer to the Physiology
of Generation, as already explained.

The female forms the egg, and the male forms the semen, both independent of
the other, but the egg cannot develop into the new being till the semen unites with
it. The female ripens one or more eggs each month, at what is called the monthly
period, and these eggs are retained in the womb, when passed there from the ovary,
only for a certain number of days. It is therefore possible for the conception to
occur only during those days, for the semen cannot cause conception if there be no
egg in the womb for it to impregnate.

The majority of conceptions occur within eight days after the monthly period,
though a few may occur as late as twelve days after, or in very rare cases, perhaps
fourteen. It may also be possible a day before, in very few cases, as previously
explained. At all other times conception is impossible.

Now, it must be borne in mind that the egg at first is not quite perfect, — it
gradually ripens as it proceeds on its way to the womb. Very often it is not ripe
enough to be impregnated when it first reaches the womb, but has to remain there
some days first, and this is why some females cannot conceive till some days after
their periods. In others, on the contrary, it is fully ripe when it reaches the womb,
and if not impregnated immediately, it becomes over ripe, and breaks up. In such
cases, if the woman is not impregnated immediately her period is over, she cannot
conceive at all, and this is one reason why many are sterile, — they are always too
Me.

It is upon this fact, of the gradual ripening, or perfecting of the egg, that the
true theory of the cause of sex depends, as we will now show.

It must be borne in mind that the egg can be impregnated only at a certain stage
of ripeness, or maturity, and that before that stage, or after it is passed, impregna-
tion cannot take place. Thus M. Coste has shown, in his observations upon poultry,
that their eggs can be impregnated only in the upper part of the oviduct, and that
when they have passed to the lower part they are over ripe, and can no longer be
impregnated.

PROD UGTIOJY OF SEX AT WILL. 375

And this is strictly analogous to what occurs in plants, there is only one stage in
the development of the pistil in a flower when the pollen can fertilize it. Before
that stage arrives, or after it has passed, fertilization is impossible.

This particular stage of maturity, or ripeness, in some cases endures but for a very
short time, but in others it is much more prolonged, both in plants and animals.
But in all cases it is the limit within which impregnation is possible.

Now it has been discovered, through observations upon the lower animals first,
that the sex of the future being developed from any egg depends, mainly, upon the
stage of ripeness that egg was at when impregnated.

Messrs. Schirac and Huber discovered, in their observations upon lees, that an
egg only partly developed always produced a female, while one fully developed, or
ripened, always produced a male.

The queen, or fruitful female bee, only needs to be impregnated once to make
fruitful all the eggs she may lay for the whole season. It is observed, however, that
all the eggs she lays during the ten first months produce onlj females, while those
that she lays during the last two months produce males. The reason of this is that
the first eggs are not fully ripened, or developed, while the last ones have arrived at
full maturity. Cousequently the first are only capable of forming females, while the
last ones are perfect enough to form males.

Acting upon this fact it is possible to make her produce male eggs only. Thus,
if she be kept from impregnation during the first few weeks, till all the eggs are well
ripened, they will be all males, and the working bees may treat them in any way
they please, but can never form a female from them.

The sex, therefore, of the future being depends upon the maturity of the egg from
which it is developed, and consequently there are male and female eggs, and the sex
is determined even before impregnation! Nothing which can be done, therefore, at
the time of conception, or after, can alone determine the sex.

The most recent observers assure us that though the sex of the new being seems
the same in all cases, at very early periods, still it is only apparently so, and that
there is an essential difference from the very first moment. They assert that the sex
is established, and can be distinguished, from the very first I In fact, as above
stated, it is probably established in the egg itself before impregnation.

Although these facts were known long ago, in reference to plants and the lower
animals, yet it is only recently they have been recognized as equally applicable to
human beings. This arose from the circumstance that the true physiology of gen-
eration in human beings, and other mammalia, has only been recently discovered.
Directly it was ascertained that all mammiferous females, the human female in-
cluded, formed eggs, the same as birds or bees, at regular periods, and that the new
being was formed from those eggs, it was at once concluded that they were subject
to the same laws of development. A celebrated professor of Geneva, M. Thury, was
one of the first to put this to a practical test, in the following way :

Assuming, in regard to cattle, that at the beginning of the rut, or heat, the eggs
would not be in so perfect a state of development as later, and therefore most likely
to produce females, he gave instructions accordingly to a stock breeder, M. G-. Cor-
naz. He advised him, if he wished female young only, to let the mothers be impreg-
nated only at the very commencement of the heat, when the eggs were not fully ripe.
If, on the contrary, he wished all male young, he advised him to not allow the sexes
to associate till later, when the eggs of the mother would be more mature.

376 PRODUCTION OF SEX AT WILL.

The result was just as he had predicted. Those begotten at the very beginning
of the rut were all females, while those begotten later were all males, with very few
exceptions. So convincing was the experiment that the breeder, M. Cornaz, states
most emphatically he was able to have nearly all males, or all females, in his stock,
just as he chose, by observing these simple directions !

The period of the rut is longer or shorter in different kinds of animals, and it
varies even in individuals of the same species. In all cases, however, the eggs may
be impregnated at any time while the heat lasts, but tbey are invariably not fully
developed in the early stages, and consequently female, and become male only at t
later period, when fully matured.

In cows the heat lasts from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, varying in different
individuals. All that was needed, therefore, was to find out the habit of each one,
and then allowing connection with the male only in the first half of the period, or
the last, and she could be made to produce either a male or female at will.

The importance and value of such a discovery as this can scarcely be over-esti-
mated, and it must be remembered that it applies to all animals, without excep-
tion.

It must be borne in mind, however, that in animals who lay many eggs in suc-
cession, like birds and bees, and with whom one impregnation affects all the eggs
laid for a long time after, it is much more difficult to use the discovery practically.
Still, even with them, the first-laid eggs almost always produce females, because not
fully matured, and the males come after.

It was formerly thought that the bees could form a new queen from any larva,
simply by feeding it with a peculiar kind of food, but this is now known to be a mis-
take ; they can develop a barren female — that is, a working bee — into a fruitful
female, or queen, but cannot change the sex.

It is further to be observed, that if the ovulation, or egg-laying, be continued too
long, or if from any cause the female's generative organs be much weakened, the last-
laid eggs may also be imperfectly formed, and again produce only females, as at first !

Sometimes animals that are too richly fed, and also live in too artificial a state
all the time, have the period of heat very imperfectly marked, and with them there-
fore it would be difficult to apply the rule successfully. It is much the same some-
times even with human females, many of whom menstruate very irregularly. The
result thus obtained, therefore, by these experiments is this : That the sex of any
new being depends upon the degree of development of the egg from which it origin-
ated at the time when that egg was impregnated.

When an egg is formed in any animal, it is not fully perfected when first separ-
ated from the ovary, but gradually develops as it progresses along the female organs.
And if the male semen impregnate it in the early, or imperfect stage, it produces
a female, but if the impregnation be delayed till the egg is fully ripe it produces
a male.

This fact is as fully applicable to the human female as to any other, and enables
us, in nearly all cases, to produce either sex at will ! We have only to bear in mind
that menstruation, in the human female, is strictly analogous to the rut in other
beings, and that it is caused by the production and throwing off of the egg.

Now the egg of the human female is at first only partially developed, though
capable of being impregnated, and it ripens more perfectly during its stay in the
womb. If impregnation occurs in the first, or imperfect state, the egg will develop

PRODUCTION OF SEX AT WILL. 377

into a girl, but if it occurs at a later period, when the egg is perfected, it will develop
into a boy !

TIte production of either sex, therefore, depends upon the period when impregna-
tion takes place, and thus either boys or girls can be produced at will !

The rule may be broadly stated thus :

To produce girls impregnation must take place only on the last day of the monthly
period, or during the two first days after it has stopped.

To produce boys impregnation must not take place till at least three days after the
complete stoppage of the monthly flow, and better not till the fifth or sixth.

■ The egg remains in the womb not more than about twelve days after the stoppage
of the courses, in any case, as already explained, and usually not nearly so long ;
perhaps averaging not more than six or eight days. This is the limit during which
it can be impregnated, and in the first part of this time it is not fully perfected, and
can produce only a female. Later, when more perfect, it produces a male, and still
later, when over ripe, it decomposes, or breaks up, and can no longer produce any-
thing, or be impregnated.

There are, of course, many differences in different individuals, not only as to the
time during which the egg remains in the womb, but also as to the rate at which the
egg ripens.

In some females the egg ripens very quickly, and consequently they may produce
boys earlier than others, while some, on the contrary, ripen it very slowly, and they
may produce girls to a much later date than usual. There are some females appar-
ently in whom the egg is always perfect from the first, and they always bear boys,
while in others it is never perfect, and they, on the contrary, always bear girls.
This is why the rule may sometimes fail, but such cases are very rare.

To make quite sure of having female offspring, however, connection should not
take place after the second day following the stoppage of the monthly flow. And to
make sure of male offspring it should not take place till five or six days after.

A little study of the peculiarities of each parent should be made, and then there
will be no difficulty in so advising as to insure either sex that may be wished.

In a previous article on the cause of the difference in sex, it was shown to what
an extent sex was influenced by several causes — such as difference of age, tempera-
ment, and physical condition ; these were then thought to be the actual causes of
sex. We now see that they are only secondary causes, and act indirectly, through
some influence on the egg or the semen. Thus, for instance, a female, who is fee-
ble, will perhaps be able to develop the eggs only enough to produce females ; or,
they may not be capable of impregnation till they reach the male stage, the first, or
female stage, being too imperfect. In a vigorous female, on the contrary, the eggs
may be perfect enough in the very earliest, or female stage.

It must be remembered, also, that the semen varies in power, the same as the egg
does in degree of development, and thus the relative vigor of the two parents becomes
an important indirect influence in the production of sex. But all such influences
operate only partially, and in few cases.

RULES TO INSURE EITHER SEX.

The rules to be observed, then, are simply these :

To insure a girl, practice association only on the last day of the monthly flow, or
during the two first days that follow its stoppage.

378 fEODUGTION OF SEX AT WILL.

Also let the woman avoid all kind of excitement or fatigue, and use the most
strengthening food, to insure the greatest vigor ; while the man should do the reverse
of this.

To insure a boy, never practice association till the sixth day after the stoppage of
the monthly flow.

Also, let the male live in such a manner and take such food as will insure the
greatest bodily vigor ; while the female should live low, and exhaust herself to some
extent by bodily exertion.

By observing these rules either sex may be produced at will.

CHAPTEK XXXIII.

DOUBTFUL OR DOUBLE SEX. — HEEMAPHKODISM.

It is generally supposed that individuals are occasionally born that are both male
and female, and it is certain that sometimes it is very difficult to decide upon the sex,
through the form of the genitals being so unusual. In the lower animals, perfect
nermaphrodites are not at all unusual, especially in those that are low down in the
scale of creation. Indeed, hermaphrodism becomes more frequent in proportion as
we descend, till, in some of the very lowest species, there are none but hermaphro-
dites, each individual being both male and female, impregnating itself, and bringing
forth its own young without the concurrence of any other individual. In none of
the so-called hermaphrodites in the human being, however, is this ever the case.
They cannot perform the functions of both sexes, though uninformed persons suppose
they can, not even when the resemblance to both is most perfect. All such cases are
either of one sex, with some deformity which also makes them resemble the other, or
else they are mere monstrosities, and, properly speaking, of no sex at all.

The greater number of so-called hermaphrodites are truly females, in whom the
clitoris has assumed an unusual development, so as to resemble the male penis. In
some instances this development has been so large, and the power of erection in the part
so complete, that it could be used like the male organ, with another female, and thus
an imperfect connection could be held, but it of course could not lead to conception,
owing to there being no secretion of semen. In other cases, the womb has been
extended from the vagina, and while in that situation has been used for a similar
purpose, and supposed by ignorant persons to be truly a male organ. A proper
investigation, however, soon reveals the truth in all such instances.

In men we sometimes find the scrotum cleft, and an opening through it into the
bladder, which has been taken for a vagina. In such formations it is occasionally
possible for one of the same sex to have connection, by this unnatural passage, but of
course without any result, there being neither womb, ovaries, nor ovse.

Oases of sexual monstrosity are found of infinite variety, all of which it is neither
necessary nor useful to describe.

Many of these deformed females, who are called hermaphrodites, also resemble the
male in other respects, such as the form of the pelvis and shoulders, the shortness of
the hair, and tone of voice, and also occasionally in having an imperfect beard. This
has still further led to wrong conclusions, and has tended to confirm the popular
misapprehension. M. Beclard describes a curious case of this kind, and I have met
with several such myself. In one instance that I saw, a young person of sixteen, who
had always been considered and treated as a boy, was found, upon full examination,
to be really a girl. The vagina was completely closed by a membrane across its
external mouth, and the clitoris was at the same time much enlarged, so that there
seemed to be something like a male organ, but no indication of the usual female

379

380 DOUBTFUL OB DOUBLE SEX.—HEBMAPHBODISM.

passage. This led to the mistake, which probably would never have been rectified,
but for her falling sick, and complaining of peculiar pains in the abdomen, the char-
acter of which induced an examination, which led to the discovery. It was with the
greatest difficulty that I could convince the parents that they had mistaken the sex
of their child, whom they insisted in considering a boy. I felt certain, however, that
the pains complained of arose from menstruation, and that the usual flow would be
seeii if the vagina was not closed. I therefore made a thorough examination of the
membrane, and determined to puncture it, so as to open the passage, which I ascer-
tained existed beyond. A small incision was accordingly made, through which a
probe readily passed to the usual depth of the vagina, without any difficulty. This
was kept open and gradually enlarged till the finger could be introduced, when the
womb was distinctly felt at the top, and in a short time after the menstrual flow
occurred, and continued regularly. The only deformity now existing was the enlarged
clitoris, and this, at the earnest request of the parents, was amputated, till it was no
larger than usual. She was now perfectly female, and in a short time little or no
difference could be seen between her and most other young women of the same age.
If this had not been done, she would always have been considered an imperfect
male, or an hermaphrodite, and would have led a life of misery in consequence. I
have since heard that she afterward married and became a mother. It is worbhy of
remark that previous to the operation, her general appearance was certainly more
that of a boy than a girl, the hair being quite short, the voice rough, and the pelvis
quite narrow. Very soon after the operation, however, and especially after menstru-
ation had begun, the appearance changed rapidly, so that in a short time she differed
but little from other young persons of her sex. The hair grew long, the voice softened
in its tone, and the pelvis rapidly attained its full dimensions.

In the year 1818, an hermaphrodite was exhibited in London, but, on examination
by a medical class, she turned out to be a female with an enlarged clitoris.

A celebrated Prussian physician, Eudolphi, gave a description before the Acad-
emy of Sciences, in Berlin, in the year 1825, of the most perfect case of admixture
of the sexes perhaps ever seen. It was a child that died soon after its birth, and
which was found to possess a testicle on one side and an ovary on the other, besides a
uterus, vagina and penis. In this case, the two sexes were undoubtedly united, but
had it lived, probably both sets of organs would have been inactive, or one set would
have disappeared and left the other. No single instance has ever been known, in the
human species, in which both sets of organs performed their functions in the same
individual. Uninformed people judge from mere external appearances, and these
are often deceptive.

A curious instance occurred a short time ago, in one of the Eastern States, in
which an individual, who had always passed as a man, voted at an election, which
was decided by that one vote, but the losing party objected to it, on the ground that
the voter was a woman. It being a case of doubtful sex, what decision was come to
I never ascertained, but the question was a curious one, and must, of course, be
decided by medical examination.

In many of these cases, the inclination of the individual is sufficient to decide
the question, as they nearly always desire to associate with those of the opposite sex.

Perhaps the most complete case of hermaphrodism, among the higher order of
animals, was observed by Dr. Harlan, on an ourang-outang. It had ovaries, Fallo-
pian tubes, uterus and vagina — being the complete female apparatus, and also two

DOUBTFUL OB DOUBLE SEX.-HEBMAPHBODISM.

381

testicles, with the epididymi and vasa deferentia, and also a perfect penis, being the
complete male apparatus.

The case represented by the following cuts is that of a female who died in the
Fever Hospital, Leeds, England. Her previous history was unknown, and as no one
claimed the body, it was sent to the dissecting-room, when the curious conformation
of the genital organs was first noticed.

It will be seen that the clitoris is so developed as to resemble a real penis, and that
it also has a perfect passage, or urethra, down it, communicating with the bladder,

Figuke 114. — View of the Organs when
the Clitoris was raised up toward the Ab-
domen.

A. A probe passed down the passage in
the clitoris. B. The glans of the clitoris
or penis. C. The probe passing out of
the lower end down the passage of the cli-
toris, close by the meatus urinarius, or
mouth of the passage into the bladder,
which was the same as in other females.
D. The folds or rugae in the entrance of
the vagina. E. The commencement of
the passage down the clitoris, at the top
of the glans.

Figure 115. — View of the Organs with
the Clitoris hanging down in its natural po-
sition when not erect.

A, A. The large lips. B. The glans of
the clitoris. C, C. The body of the clitoris
or penis. D. The vagina. B. The opening
in the glans.

It is probable that the urine actually
passed down the passage in the clitoris,
when that hung down, but that it passed
out of the natural opening (at C, Fig. 114)
when the clitoris was held up. There
seems little doubt of this organ having
been fully capable of the usual functions
of the penis, with another female.

and down which, in all probability, the urine could flow. In every other respect, the
organs are in no wise different from those of other females ; but the clitoris could, in
all probability, erect and perform the part of a penis.

In its collapsed condition, the clitoris measured about two inches and a half in
length, or about half the average size of the male penis, and when erect must have
measured four or five inches in length. Its diameter was probably about an inch
and a quarter, and its structure evidently indicated that it was capable of perfect
congestion and erection. Every other organ was normal, except the ovaries, which
were very large, and in appearance much resembled the male testicles ! They were
undoubtedly female in their action, however, for she had, in all probability, been
pregnant, and the corpora lutea were readily distinguishable.

382 DOUBTFUL OB DOUBLE SEX.—HEBMAPHRODISM.

Among neat cattle, there are often found instances of a curious admixture o?
the sexes, in what is called the free-martin. They occur in this way : When a cow
has twin calves, one male, and the other apparently female, the male will grow up
into a perfect hull, but the other is often of no sex at all, or rather of both. There
is, to a certain extent, a development of both, sets of organs, but each imperfect, and
sometimes they will both admit the male and also attempt to associate with the
female, but, of course, neither act is productive.

John Hunter remarks, in his Animal Economy, " There is one part common to
both the male and female organs of generation in all animals which have the sexes
distinct — in the one sex it is called the penis, in the other the clitoris ; its specific
use in both is to continue, by its sensibility, the action excited in coition till the
paroxysm alters the sensation. In the female it probably answers no other purpose ;
but in the male it is more complicated, to adapt it for the purpose of conducting and
expelling the semen that has been secreted in consequence of the actions so excited.

" Though the unnatural hermaphrodite be a mixture of both sexes, and may possess
the parts peculiar to each in perfection, yet it cannot possess in perfection that par"
which is common to both. For as this common part is different in one sex from
what it is in the other, and it is impossible for one animal to have both a penis an I
a clitoris, the common part must of course partake of both sexes, and consequently
render the hermaphrodite so far incomplete ; but those parts peculiar to each sex may
be perfectly joined in the same animal, which will convey an idea of the truest her-
maphrodite. Although it may not be necessary to constitute an hermaphrodite, that
the parts peculiar to the one sex should be blended with those of the other, in the
same way that the penis is with the clitoris, yet this sometimes takes place in parts
whose use in the distinct sexes is somewhat similar, the testicle and ovarium some-
times forming one body, without the properties of either. This compounded part,
in those animals that have the testicle and ovarium differently situated, is generally
found in the place allotted for the ovarium ; but in such animals as have the testicle
and ovarium in the same situation, as the bird tribe, the compound of the two, when
it occurs, will also be found in that common situation.

" The parts of the female appropriated for the purpose of supplying the young with
nourishment are variously placed in different animals. In the horse, black cattle,
sheep, and other graminivorous animals, their situation is between the hind legs ;
which is also the place allotted for the testicles of the male of this tribe, and probably
of all those in which the testicles come out of the cavity of the belly. In the herma-
phrodite, therefore, which has both these parts, the testicles must, to a certain
degree, descend into the udder, though that cannot receive them so readily as tk
scrotum.

" The hermaphrodites which I have seen have always appeared externally, and at first
view, to be females, from the penis being the part principally deficient, and there being
an opening behind like the bearing in the female ; and as the testicles in such herma-
phrodites seldom come down, the udder is left to occupy its proper place. In animals,
the female of which is preserved for breeding only, as sheep, goats, pigs, &c, these
are generally kept, from their being supposed to be females.

"Among horses such hermaphrodites are very frequent. I have seen several, but
never dissected any. The most complete was one in which the testicles had come
down out of the abdomen into the place where the udder should have been (viz.,
more forward than the scrotum), and though not so pendulous as the scrotum in the

DOUBTFUL OR DOUBLE SEX.—HERMAPHRODISM. 383

perfect male of such animals, had all the appearance of an uddei*. There were also
two distinct nipples, which, although they exist in the male, have no perfect form,
being blended with the sheath or prepuce, of which there was none here. The ex-
ternal female parts were exactly similar to those of the perfect female ; but instead
of a common-sized clitoris, there was one about five or six inches long, which, when
erect, pointed almost directly backward.

"I procured a foal-ass, very similar in external appearance to the horse above-
mentioned, and killed it to examine the parts. It had two nipples, but the testicles
were not come down, as in the above, owing perhaps to the animal's being yet too
young. There was no penis passing round the pubis to the belly, as in the perfect
male ass.

" The external female parts were similar to those of the she-ass. "Within the
entrance of the vagina was placed the clitoris, but much longer than that of a true
female, it measuring about five inches. The vagina was pervious a little beyond the
opening of the urethra into it, and from thence up to the fundus of the uterus there
,vas no canal. The uterus was hollow at the fundus, or had a cavity in it, and then
divided into two horns, which were also pervious. Beyond the termination of the two
horns were placed the ovaria, as in the true female ; but I could not find the Fallo-
pian tubes. From the broad ligaments, to the edges of which the horns of the uterus
and ovaria are attached, there passed toward each groin a part similar to the round
ligaments in the female, which were continued into the rings of the abdominal
muscles ; but with this difference, that there accompanied them a process or theca
of the peritoneum, similar to the tunica vaginalis communis in the male-ass, and in
these theca? were found the testicles, but I could not observe any vasa deferentia
passing from them.

"Here, then, were found in the same animal the parts peculiar to each sex,
although very imperfect, and that part which is common to both, but different in
each, was a kind of medium of that difference.

"Something similar to the above, I have seen in sheep, goats, &c; but I shall not
at present trouble the reader with a description of hermaphrodites in general, as it is
a very extensive subject, admitting of great variety, which would make them appear
a production of chance, whereas the intention of this account is to point out a cir-
cumstance which takes place in the production of hermaphrodites in black cattle,
that appears to be almost an established principle in their propagation, and is per-
haps peculiar to that species of animal.

" It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally understood, that when a cow
brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf and the other, to appearance, a
cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation, but the bull-calf grows up into a very
proper bull. Such a cow-calf is called in this country a free-martin, and is com-
monly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. Although it will
appear, from the description of this animal, that it *"n an hermaphrodite (being in no
respect different from other hermaphrodites), yet I siiall retain the term, free-martin,
to distinguish the hermaphrodite produced in this way from those which resemble
the hermaphrodite of other animals ; for I know that in black cattle such a deviation
may be produced without the circumstance of twins, and even where there are twins,
the one male, the other a female, they may both have the organs of generation per-
fectly formed ; but when I speak of those which are not twins, I shall call them her-
maphrodites— the only circumstance worth our notice being a singularity in the mode

384 DOUBTFUL OB DOUBLE SEX.—HEBMAPHB0D1SM.

of production of the free-martin, and its being, as far as I yet know, peculiar to black
. cattle.

" This calf has all the external marks of a cow-calf, similar to what was mentioned
in the unnatural hermaphrodite — viz., the teats and the external female parts, called
by farmers the bearing ; and when they are preserved by those who know the above
fact, it is not for propagation, but for all the purposes of an ox or spayed heifer—
viz., to yoke with the oxen and to fatten for the table. I need hardly observe here,
that if a cow has twins, and they are both bull-calves, that they are in every re-
spect perfect bulls, or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows.

e ' It is known that they do not breed ; they do not show the least inclination of the
bull, nor does the bull ever take the least notice of them. They very much resemble
in form the ox or spayed heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the
cow, having the horns very similar to the horns of an ox.

"The bellow of the free-martin is similar to that of an ox, having more resem-
blance to that of the cow than of the bull. Free-martins are very much disposed to
grow fat with good food. The flesh, like that of the ox or spayed heifer, is generally
much finer in the fiber than either the bull or cow, is supposed to exceed that of
the ox and heifer in delicacy of flavor, and bears a higher price at market.

" However, it seems that this is not universal ; for I was lately informed by Charles
Palmer, Esq., of Luckley, in Berkshire, that a free-martin having been killed in his
neighborhood, from the general idea of its being better meat than common, every
neighbor bespoke a piece, which turned out nearly as bad as bull-beef — worse, at
least, than that of a cow. It is probable that circumstance might arise from this
animal having more the properties of a bull than a cow, as we shall see hereafter
that they are sometimes more the one than the other.

"Although what I have advanced, with respect to the production of free-martins,
be in general true, yet, by the assistance of Benjamin Way, Esq., of Denham, near
Uxbridge, who knew my anxiety to ascertain this point, I was lately furnished with
an instance which proves that it does not invariably hold good.

" One of his cows having produced twins, which were to appearance male and
female, upon a supposition that the cow-calf was a free-martin, he obligingly offered
either to give it me, or to keep it till it grew up, that we might determine the
fact. As I conceived it to be a free-martin, and was to have the liberty of examining
it after death, I desired that he would keep it ; but, unfortunately, it died at about
a month old. Upon examining the organs of generation, they appeared to be those
of the female, and perfectly formed ; but to make this more certain, I procured those
of a common cow-calf, and comparing them together, found them exactly alike.
This made us regret that the animal had not lived to an age that might have de-
termined if it was capable of breeding ; for the construction of the parts, being to
appearance perfect, is not sufficient of itself to stamp it a true or perfect female ; as
I can suppose that the parts being perfectly formed, but without the power of propa-
gation, may constitute the most simple kind of hermaphrodite. It is, however, most
probable that this was a perfect female, which is an exception to the common rule,
and I have been informed there are instances of such twins breeding. If there are
such deviations, as of twins being perfect male and female, why should there not be,
on the other hand, an hermaphrodite produced singly, as in other animals ? I had
the examination of one, which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have been a
single calf ; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from having found a

DOUBTFUL OR DOUBLE SEX.—HERMAPHRODISM. 385

number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the circumstances of their
birth being ascertained.

"Hermaphrodites are to be met with in sheep ; but from the account given of
them, I should suppose that they are not free-martins. I have seen several which
were supposed to be hermaphrodites, but which were imperfect males, having the
penis terminating in the perineeum, the orifice of which appeared like the bearing in
the female. Such are not naturally stimulated to put themselves in the position of
the female when they void their urine, so that when it passes the surrounding parts
are wetted by it, and being covered with wool, and retaining the urine, keeps them
continually moist, and gives the animal a strong smell. They are mentioned as
both male and female.

" I believe it had never been even conjectured, notwithstanding all these peculiari-
ties, what was the true nature of the free-martin ; and from the singularity of the
animal, and the account of its production, I was almost tempted to suppose the whole
a vulgar error. Yet by the universality of the testimony in its favor — it appearing
to have some foundation — I eagerly sought for an opportunity to see and examine
them. I have succeeded in this inquiry, and have seen several, the first of which
was one belonging to John Arbuthnot, Esq., of Mitcham, and was calved on his own
farm. He was so obliging, as to allow me to satisfy myself, first by permitting a
drawing to be made of the animal while alive, which was executed by Mr. Gilpin,
and afterward to examine the parts when the animal died. At the time the draw-
ing was made of Mr. Arbuthnot's free-martin, John Wells, Esq., of Bickley Farm,
near Bromley, in Kent, was present, and informed us that a cow of his had calved
two calves, one of which was a bull-calf and the other a cow-calf. I desired Mr.
Arbuthnot to request Mr. Wells to keep them, or let me buy them of him ; but from
his great desire of natural knowledge, he very readily consented to preserve both till
the bull showed all the signs of a good bull, and when the free-martin was killed, he
allowed me to inspect the parts.

" Of all the specimens which I have dissected, I shall only give the descriptions of
those which point out most distinctly the complete free-martin, with the gradations
toward the male and female.

MR. WRIGHT'S feee-maetin, five teaes old.

"This animal had more the appearance and general character of the ox, or spayed
heifer, than of either the bull or cow. The vagina terminated in a blind end, a little
way beyond the opening of the urethra, from which the vagina and uterus were im-
pervious. The uterus, at its extreme part, divided into two horns. At the termina-
tion of the horns were placed the testicles, instead of the ovaria, as is the case in the
female. The reasons why I call these bodies testicles, are the following : First, they
were above twenty times larger than the ovaria of the cow, and nearly the size of the
testicles of the bull, or rather of those of the ridgil, the bull whose testicles never
Come down. Secondly, the spermatic arteries were similar to those of the bull,
especially of the ridgil. Thirdly, the cremaster muscle passed up from the rings of
the abdominal muscles to the testicles, as it does in the ridgil.

"There were the two bags placed behind, between the bladder and the uterus.
Their ducts opened into the vagina, a very little way beyond the opening of the
urethra ; but there was nothing similar to the vasa deferentia.

"As the external parts had more of the cow than the bull, the clitoris, which may
25

386 DOUBTFUL OR DOUBLE SEX.—HEBMAPHRODISM.

be reckoned an external part, was also similar to that of the cow — not at all in a
middle state, between the penis of the bull and the clitoris of the cow, as I have de-
scribed in the hermaphrodite horse. There were four teats — the glandular part of
the udder was but small.

"This animal cannot be said to have been a mixture of all the parts of both sexes,
for the clitoris had nothing similar to the penis in the male, and it was deficient in
the female parts, by having nothing similar to the ovaria ; neither had the uterus a
cavity.

ME. aebuthnot's FEEE-MAETIN.

"The external parts were rather smaller than in the cow. The vagina passed on,
as in the cow, to the opening of the urethra, and then it began to contract into a
small canal, which passed on to the division of the uterus into the two horns, each
horn passing along the edge of the broad ligament laterally toward the ovaria.

"At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaria and the testicles
— they were nearly of the same size, and about as large as a small nutmeg.

" To the ovaria I could not find any Fallopian tube.

" To the testicles were vasa deferentia, but they were imperfect. The left one did
not reach near to the testicle ; the right only came close to it, but did not terminate
in a body called the epididymis. They were both pervious, and opened into the
vagina near the opening of the urethra.

" On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the uterus and bladder, were
the two bags, called vesicular seminales in the male, but much smaller than what
they are in the bull ; the ducts opened along with the vasa deferentia. This was
more entitled to the name of hermaphrodite than the other, for it bad a mixture
of all the parts, though all were imperfect."

Human children have been born analogous to the drones among bees — that is, of
neither sex. These children had no sexual organs whatever, male or female, external
or internal. All those I have had accounts of were like the male in one respect,
in having a penis, but it was used only as a urinating organ, and in no way whatever
sexually. In a certain sense, therefore, they might be considered imperfect males,
like the bee drones. None of these, so far as I know, ever attained maturity ; had
they done so, it would have been exceedingly interesting to note their development
in other respects. Among the bees the drones are the real workers, and the exist-
ence of the community depends upon them.

It is possible that human beings naturally without sexual attributes, might attain
great development in other ways, and be valuable to society. Such beings should not
be compared with eunuchs, or with those who have lost sexual power, because they
are entirely different. Their systems would never feel the effect of sexual stimu-
lation, nor be influenced by sexual growth, and therefore would never experience any
deprivation, like the eunuch and debauchee.

In such cases the whole force of development, ordinarily expended sexually, might
be diverted to brain growth, and thus an intellectual giant result. Such cases, how-
ever, are so rare that it is of little use speculating about them, nor do we know of
any means of producing them at will, were it ever so advisable to do so.

PART XIII

MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS CONNECTED WITH
MARRIAGE.

CHAPTEE XXXIV.

ON CONFECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES.

Some persons suppose that when conception has occurred, no further associatiot
should take place between man and wife until after delivery. One reason assigned
for such forbearance is that sexual connection should not be indulged except for the
purpose of procreation. This notion is, however, manifestly absurd, and impossible
to be acted upon. There are but few females who can tell when conception has taken
place till it is considerably advanced, and they must, therefore, either wait a long
time after each act to see if such be the case, or be continually breaking the rule.
But, independently of this, there is no doubt whatever that connection is both proper
and beneficial after conception as well as before, providing it be not repugnant or
hurtful to the female, and is not carried to excess. In no case, however, should it
be indulged in if it causes her suffering, or is disagreeable to her, for then it will
have a most injurious effect upon the nervous system, and may also lead to miscar-
riage. The same evil results may also follow from excessive indulgence, even when
not hurtful or disagreeable, and this must therefore be avoided.

So far, however, from sexual indulgence being improper in all cases alter con-
ception, it is often required, and various evils may follow from its denial. When
the temperament is warm, and the sexual instinct unusually strong, as it often is
during pregnancy, indulgence is imperatively needed, and if it cannot be had the
most injurious consequences may take place. I have known instances of this kind to
result in a peculiar nervous frenzy, or partial derangement, and in miscarriage ; in
short, the indications and obvious requirements of nature should be the guide in this
case, as in all others, and not the dreams and theories of speculating physiologists.

Besides these reasons, there are also others, connected with the child, which show
the important influence of this after-union in many ways. It is a question often
asked, whether the new being is in any way affected by connection after impregnation?
And a notion prevails extensively that in some way or other it is so. This notion,
like many others, has probably originated merely from observation, without any
knowledge of its scientific accuracy, but recently its truth has been demonstrated by
experiment as well as by observation. Several intelligent breeders of birds and other
animals had long remarked that the male could influence the offspring after con-
ception as well as before, and they acted upon this knowledge, practically, in the
production and preservation of particular varieties. Dr. Delfraysse, of Cahors, in
France, was the first, however, who recorded any special observations of this kind.
He found that the first connection merely gave life, or impregnated the egg, and that
the after-connections imparted to the young the colors of the male, and that the
more this after-connection was repeated, the more closely would the offspring re-
Bemble the father. In what way this effect is produced it is difficult, in the present
state of our knowledge, to even surmise ; but, notwithstanding this, the fact is one

389

390 OUT CONNECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS C0N8.EQ VENCE8.

of great importance. It has been suggested that the resemblance to the male, ob-
served in such cases, resulted from an effect upon the imagination of the female
through the medium of the sight, the colors being, as it were, impressed upon her
mental vision. This, however, is certainly not always the case, even if it be so oc-
casionally ; for a friend of mine, at my request, tried the experiment upon a hen
that had been Hind during the whole of her laying period, and in her case the
chickens produced from her eggs invariably resembled the male in color, just in pro-
portion to the frequency with which association took place. And in another instance,
two heifers when put to the male were both blindfolded, one having but one connec-
tion, and the other several. Each brought forth a calf — that from the mother who
had but one connection resembling both parents, lut mostly the mother, while that
from -the other, with whom there had been several connections, resembled the male
parent in almost every particular of color, marking, and general appearance, though
she had been carefully blindfolded each time. It is not through the imagination
alone, therefore, that the paternal influence is exerted, though it may probably be so
in some cases, as, for instance, in that of the mare and the quagga, recorded by Sir
Everard Home. The quagga is a species of ass striped like the zebra, and one of
these, a male, impregnated an English mare in the park of the Earl of Morton, in
Scotland. There was but one connection, and the offspring was a hybrid, or mule,
marked like the father. This hybrid remained with the mare about four months, and
probably she might also have seen it again about ten months afterward. After this,
during the next five years, she had four foals by an Arabian horse, and, strange to
say, though she had not seen the quagga during this time, they were nevertheless
all marked more or less like him. Now if this singular resemblance was effected
through the imagination of the mother, as Sir Everard supposes, the most wonderful
circumstance is that the effect should endure so long, even after the quagga was re-
moved. It rather makes it probable, even in this case, in my opinion, that some
permanent influence was exerted upon the female ovary, as in some other cases that
I shall allude to further on, when speaking of the permanent influence of the male
upon the offspring of the female. I am not disposed, however, to deny the influence
of the imagination altogether, in all cases.

In the human being, it is of course more difficult to make corresponding observa-
tions, but still it is not impossible. My own professional ministrations have been so
confidential, and so numerous, that I have enjoyed many opportunities of testing
this interesting question, and I am fully satisfied that the same rule holds good
in regard to human beings as with the animals already referred to. In our own
species, however, it is not in respect to the color of the slcin that the influence of
the male in after-connection is made manifest, so much as in the color of the hair
and eyes, and in the expression of the features, though the peculiar tint of the
father's skin, as to being light or dark, is often so imparted. Certain propensities,
itabits, and modes of thought are also given in the same way. I have made many
(J)servations of cases in which all the necessary particulars were fully known to
me, and invariably I have found that the child resembled the father in proportion
to the frequency with which association was practiced after conception. The mere
bodily resemblance seems to be most readily imparted, especially the color and expres-
sion of the eyes, and the color of the hair. The mental qualities, and disposition,
are more apt to vary, unless the connection is very frequent, and then in the majority
of cases they will be like those of the father. I have known married persons to act

ON CONNECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 391

upon these principles, in order to produce certain characters in their offspring, and
with great success. In all such cases it has been found that the more frequently
connection takes place after conception, the more decidedly the child will resemble
the father, especially in the particulars above mentioned, while if such after-connec-
tion takes place but seldom, or not at all, it will on the contrary resemble the mother,
in the same way. This fact may often be of great service to married persons, as it
gives them a certain power over their offspring, and enables them to insure or pre-
vent the transmission of the character of either one at will, if it be desirable to do so.

This influence, it should be remarked, does not, however, extend to the sex of the
child, which appears to depend upon other causes, an d until these causes are fully under-
stood, the above facts lose half their value, because it might be advisable to impart
the character of one of the parents to a male child but not to a female, or the reverse.
The causes of the difference of sex, therefore, should be attended to likewise, and
they will be found discussed in another part of our work. When all these matters
are fully understood, I have no doubt but that any form of body, any disposition,
and any given character of mind, as well as either sex, may be given to every child before
its birth ! Such a statement may seem strange to those who have not considered these
matters scientifically, but to those who have it will be nothing new or surprising. I
have known breeders of birds and other animals, for instance, who would undertake
to produce, in a given number of young, ninety per cent, of either males or females,
just as might be desired, and alike in color to a hair or a feather, besides being all
endowed alike with certain prominent traits of character. And when the procreation of
the human being is as carefully attended to as that of these inferior beings, the results
will be equally certain, the organic and physiological laws being the same in both,
in regard to this function. I leave every person of common sense to answer the ques-
tion for himself, whether it is not more important to understand these laws in rela-
tion to the human being than in relation to the inferior animals alone ? It seems
clear to my mind that it is only by attending to such laws that the human race can
be truly and permanently improved in body and mind, and made to attain its fullest
perfection of development. By education after birth, we can only partially modify
and regulate the development of the bodily and mental powers with which the
individual is born, and very often their natural force successfully resists the most
powerful influences we can bring to bear upon them, which is the reason why edu-
cation frequently fails either in preventing evil or in leading to good. By acting
upon those laws, however, which govern the child's organization, mentally and
bodily, before its birth, every power and quality may be made to have precisely that
degree of development which may be most desirable, so that education will always
produce the results we wish from it, and disease and vice be forever removed. At
present, however, it is scarcely allowable to talk of improving human beings by such
means, though it is thought quite right, and even praiseworthy, to do so respecting
dogs, horses, and cows ; as if they were of the most consequence.

My readers will bear in mind that the law I have now been explaining, when
fully stated is this : That frequent connection after conception causes the offspring to
resemble the father, and that no connection afterward, or but very little, causes it
to resemble the mother. This is undoubtedly true in the great majority of cases, and
the degree of resemblance will usually be proportionate to the frequency in the one
case, and to the unfrequency in the other. If, therefore, no connection took place
after conception, as some would-be philosophers contend should be the case, alJ

392 02T CONNECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES.

children would in time resemble their mothers only, and there would be a uniform
and unbroken transmission of certain fixed characters, without any variation, which
of course would be a great evil, even if it did not in time extinguish the race. This
is another proof of the error of such a doctrine. On the other hand, if the after-
connection was always frequent, children would as constantly resemble their fathers,
which is equally undesirable. To produce a mixture of the characters of both,
therefore, when it is best to do so, the after-association should occur, if other con-
siderations do not forbid it, to a moderate extent, according to the peculiar habits,
temperaments, and relative vigor and age of both parties. This will, however, be
better understood by referring to what is stated in another part of this book, on the
proper frequency of sexual association.

An interesting question arises, further, when a female conceives by one man,
whether connection afterward with another man would cause the child to resemble
him, the second partner ? Of course, such a question is not easy of solution in
regard to human beings, but from observations made upon animals, it seems certain
that the second partner can really impart his likeness to the child that was begotten
by the first, and thus actually exert more influence, or impart more resemblance,
than the father himself, who only gives life, but not always form and character !

In one instance I knew a widow who secretly married in about three months
after the death of her husband, and while, as it appeared afterward, she was preg-
nant by him. The child, however, resembled her second husband, though there was
almost a certainty that no previous infidelity had been practiced, because the indi-
vidual was at a distance when the conception must have occurred.

It has even been conjectured, by some philosophers, that if a female have associ-
ation, at any time, with a man who exerts a strong influence upon her, any children
she may have afterward, by any one, will be liable to resemble him, even for many
years afterward. And, indeed, the cases above given prove this.

This singular fact is explained by supposing that, in the act of sexual union, the
male not only impregnates the egg, but also exerts a more or less permanent influence
upon the female organs, owing to which they have a tendency afterward to bring
forth new beings upon the same plan, or resembling each other. This was probably
the case with the mare impregnated by the quagga, above referred to, and it ex-
plains why the foals produced afterward, though begotten by a horse, still resembled
the other animal.

Instances of a precisely similar character are sometimes seen in human beings.
Thus a female married a second time will have children resembling the first husband,
and sometimes even in a third marriage, as I have witnessed myself. Such remark-
able resemblances can be explained only by supposing a permanent influence to be
exerted by the male ; and probably that influence is likely to be exerted most power-
fully by the first partner. The true explanation of these remarkable facts should be
generally known, to prevent improper and unjust suspicions, which I have known to
be entertained in such cases, and which, in the absence of proper information might
well be excused.

Many persons would suppose immediately that these resemblances were simply
the result of imagination, but I do not think so, at least not always. I have
known instances of this kind, both in the lower animals and in human beings, in
which the influence of the first partner was visible for a long time afterward, and
in which I was assured the imagination had no share.

ON CONNECTION AFTER CONCEPTION, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 393

Breeders of animals are aware of many such facts, and have frequently stated
them to me. Thus for instance, when a mare has a mule foal by an ass, it will fre-
quently happen, if she have a foal afterward by a horse, that it will to a certain
extent resemble the ass. This resemblance is most frequently traced in the form of
the mouth and lips, and in the greater length of the ears. A friend of mine, at my
vequest, tried some experiments, on several animals, for the express purpose of test-
ing this curious question, and the result was a striking confirmation of the truth of
the explanation I have given. Many of these experiments were so managed that the
imagination could not possibly operate, and yet the influence of the first partner was
distinctly perceptible during several conceptions afterward. "We can only come to
the conclusion therefore that the male does often exert a permanent influence on the
female organs, and especially by the first acts of association. In all probability this
permanent effect is most likely to be seen when the male is relatively the most vigor-
ous, or where the association has been very frequent, but it may be manifested even
after a single act, as was shown in some of the experiments made by my friend.
Among other singular cases bearing on this subject I may also mention the follow-
ing, which was told me by an old physician in Scotland, who knew all the parties
concerned. A young female was forcibly violated by a person whom she did not
know, and under such circumstances that she could not see him ; it was known,
however, by her friends who he was, but from a wish to avoid exposure, the occur-
rence was kept secret, though unfortunately she became pregnant in consequence.
The child strongly resembled its guilty parent, and what was still more singular, she
married, and had two other children which also resembled him, though by her hus-
band, the young man having left the country in consequence of his offense. Every
one will see how naturally unjust suspicions might be entertained in many such
cases, if they were not explained.

In the procreation of animals, such facts may be of the greatest importance. Life
may be given, for instance, by the male that has the most constitutional stamina or
vigor, and yet particular qualities may also be obtained from others, in which he
may be deficient.

CHAPTEE XXXV=

NPLtTENCE OP THE IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS, AT EVERT

PERIOD.

As a general rule, there can be no doubt that the sexual instinct is first awakened
by the generative organs, but after it has been once called into action, it may be
afterward awakened by the imagination alone, which also exerts a peculiar and
marked influence over its manifestations. It is certain that if the generative organs
do not exist, there will never be any sexual desire, which is a proof that the action
of the brain is merely reflex, or secondary, and not primary. It is true that some
infants have been known to excite themselves even before the organs were perfectly
formed, but such anomalies are evidently owing to a peculiar local sensibility, con-
stituting a disease of the parts, and in no way invalidate the obvious principle we
have laid down. In all such cases, the unnatural and precocious sensibility disap-
pears immediately when the organs are restored to a healthy condition.

Sexual desire, therefore, at first, originates from a positive, zvant, arising from
organic action, the same as hunger arises from want of food. Very soon, however,
this want awakens the imagination, which often acts so forcibly as to increase the
desire a thousand fold. This is especially the case in cities, where there are so many
causes to call forth the instinct prematurely, and to keep its gratification almost
constantly denied. Some peculiar temperaments also, and certain organizations, are
more disposed to a preponderance of this desire than others.

That acute observer, J. J. Rousseau, has well exhibited the effects of the imagi-
nation upon the sexual instincts, particularly in his Emile. Buff on had remarked,
before him, that young persons were more precocious in cities than in the country,
simply because they were fed on more stimulating food, and were warmer housed and
clothed. Rousseau remarked, however, that this explanation is not the true one,
but that it is owing more to difference in manners and habits, and this is undoubt-
edly correct. In those places where the people live a quiet, simple life, with noth-
ing to excite the imagination, sexual manifestations are not seen till late in life, and
then not strongly ; but where the manners are free, and social observances lax, it is
the reverse, though their nourishment may be poor and scant. It is undoubted that
^ood and clothing exert a great influence, and in some cases more than in others, but
he imagination often exerts a greater, particularly over the first manifestations.

It is probable that there are many causes inherent in the present constitution of
society which, in spite of all we can do, have an invariable tendency to inflame the
imagination on these subjects, and to direct attention to them at an early period.
The very concealments even which are now necessary, become provocatives, and per-
haps, have more to do with these evils than we suppose. Rousseau remarks that chil-
dren have a peculiar sagacity in seeing through all these concealments, and in detect-
ing every artifice that is made use of to blind them. The mysterious language that

INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 395

they hear, and the half-hidden acts of tenderness that they see, he remarks, are only
so many stimulants to their curiosity, and, in all probability, they learn more from
these attempted precautions, than from any other lessons.

Even dress, necessary though it be, and conducive to true modesty, as it un-
doubtedly is calculated to be, has yet had its share in these teachings. The half-
concealment, half-disclosure which it leads to, and sometimes even the exaggeration
which it causes, excites curiosity, and gives the imagination a boundless and mys-
terious field to roam in. Such evils are perhaps unavoidable in the present state of
society, but the conviction arises irresistibly, to all who consider the subject fairly,
that in a more enlightened age they will be corrected.

Between tlie two sexes there is a wide difference as to the manner in which the
imagination acts, owing to the difference in their characters and organization. In
the young woman there are two powerful sentiments which oppose each other, and
which by their antagonism originate those caprices and eccentricities which are so
captivating, at the same time that they are so tantalizing. In the first place, she
naturally desires to please, and all her arts and actions toward the other sex have
this object in view. It is essential to her happiness, to her very existence even, that
she should endeavor to be liked, or loved, and no misery is so great to her as the con-
sciousness that her endeavors are in vain. That being that has not this desire of
pleasing is not a woman, in character, though she may be a female in organiza-
tion. In the second place, there is an innate sentiment in woman of modesty, or
shame, which controls her desire to please, and prevents her from exhibiting that de-
sire in the way she possibly might wish to do. These two sentiments are, therefore,
continually struggling for the mastery, and their alternate and intermixed manifesta-
tions produce that bewildering but universally adored mystery, the female character.
Sometimes one of these sentiments preponderates and sometimes the other, while at
other times they properly control each other ; and this gives us a key to all the appa-
rent vagaries which this peculiar character presents. When shame preponderates we
have prudery, when the desire of pleasing preponderates we have forwardness or co-
quetry, and when both are properly active we have that affable, engaging demeanor,
corrected by true modesty, which makes woman truly entitled to the name of Angel,
and commands reverence even when it does not awaken Love.

So intimately are these two sentiments connected with the female character that
we see them exhibited at the earliest age, even little girls being prudes, coquettes, and
true women, equally with those of more mature years.

"With man this is totally different. He desires more to be pleased than to please
others, and has but little of that sentiment which would lead him to conceal his feel-
ings. He, therefore, makes the first advances, and presses his suit, while woman
coyly resists, and pretends indifference, even when her ardor is really equal to his
own. Upon two such different characters it is obvious the imagination must exert a
very different influence, and with a different degree of force. From peculiarities in
her organization, explained in the article on menstruation, the female is most under
its dominion, and it is in reference to her, therefore, that its power over the genera-
tive functions is most marked, though it is manifest enough in both.

Many cases in which the imagination is supposed to have exerted a peculiar power
especially in pregnancy, have really been produced more by the imagination of other
people, but still there are sufficient authentic cases upon record, some of which are
instructing as well as interesting.

396 INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS.

The celebrated Descartes had for his first love a young lady who squinted, and
never after could he admire any one who saw straight. His imagination associated
all her charms with that peculiar obliquity of vision, and could not see them if that
was absent.

Eaymond Lully, the great philosopher and chemist, was violently enamored of a
beautiful Spanish lady named Elenora, who returned his affection, and even encour-
aged his advances to a certain extent, but whenever he pressed her to grant him the
last favor, invariably refused, though evidently not offended at his importunity. He
discovered eventually that her objection to a closer intimacy arose from her having a,
cancer in the breast, which she wished to keep secret, and thus there was a perpetual
struggle between her love and her shame. This discovery instantly cooled all his
ardor, but did not extinguish his love. His imagination vividly pictured to him
how delightful it would be to effect, her cure, and then claim his happiness as a
reward, thus insuring both her love and her gratitude. All his talents and time were
henceforth devoted, almost without intermission, to this special. object, and no doubt
his mind constantly reveled in the delightful anticipation of success. Unfortunately,
however, he did not succeed, the disease was proof against his science, and showed
itself more powerful than his love.

I once knew an instance myself where a young man's desire was quenched
instantly, and permanently, on his marriage, by the discovery that his wife was
marked across the bosom by a large ncevi, which looked like a burn. Her bust was
faultless inform, and his imagination had no doubt often pictured it as being equally
beauteous and perfect in every other respect ; when this blemish was so unexpectedly
discovered, therefore, all his feelings underwent a complete revulsion, and disgust
took the place of admiration.

Many similar instances might be given, and perhaps more cases of mutual unhap-
piness after marriage arise from such discoveries than is usually supposed. Espe-
cially may this be the case where young females are induced, or forced, to marry old
men, or those who have been debauchees, as is too often the case. A melancholy
instance of this kind occurred but a short time ago, not far from New York, which
resulted in the suicide of the unfortunate victim, her horror and disgust when the
actual condition of her husband was known completely overpowering her reason.
Many often under such circumstances drag out a miserable life, in constant despair
and grief, while their friends, and the public generally, offer congratulations upon
the excellent alliance they have formed. In very many cases the imagination, work-
ing under the veil of ignorance, forms such perfect pictures of the object loved, both
bodily and mentally, that humanity as it actually exists can never come up to them,
and the consequence is that the reality is sure to disappoint. The ardent imagina-
tions of females make them peculiarly liable to this romantic dreaming, and they are,
therefore, more frequently the victims of this disappointment, which they feel
acutely, and may even never forget.

How far the imagination may influence the sexual functions it is of course diffi-
cult to tell, though it is undeniable that it does so to a great extent.

Le Bon tells us, in his Physiology of Generation, that the Parliament of Grenoble
once gave a very singular decision, in a case of disputed paternity ; showing what
extreme views were held in former times as to the influence of the imagination over
conception. The case was this : The Lady dAuvermont gave birth to a child after
her husband had been absent four years, and when, as she averred, she had had no

INFL UENCE OF IMAGINATION 0 VER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 397

intercourse with other men. She stated that in a dream she imagined herself with
her husband, and that the impression upon her was so strong as to cause her to con-
ceive. The Parliament called a special commission of matrons, midwives, and
doctors, to consider the case and collect evidence. A number of other noble ladies,
being called upon by the commission, stated that such an occurrence was perfectly
possible, and by no means rare, for they themselves had frequently conceived, in the
absence of their husbands, by the force of their imaginations alone. The Parliament
upon this decided that the husband was the father of the child, and that he must
acknowledge his wife to be a chaste woman.

As a corollary to this, I may mention that eminent spiritualists have expressed
to me their belief that materialized spirits could, in some cases, cause a woman to
conceive, independent of association with a mortal man ! — of all which every one
must form his own judgment. I doubt, however, if, at the present day, any court
would render, on such a plea, a decision like that of the Parliament of Grenoble.

Not only can desire be engendered or annihilated by mental impressions, in
despite of all other conditions, but the actual growth or development of the organs
themselves can be retarded or accelerated by the same means. I have known men
who never felt sexual desire, and whose organs were very imperfectly developed
until a late period, and then quite suddenly the long-suppressed feelings were expe-
rienced, and the parts began to grow, simply from the stimulus of seeing some
person of the opposite sex who was adapted to make the proper impression upon
their minds. Such instances are, indeed, by no means rare, as every person of ex-
perience must know, and they prove that, in many cases at least, a certain impres-
sion must be made upon the mind before the mere animal feeling can be experi-
enced, or the physical development take place ; or, in other words, they prove that
with some persons there are only certain individuals of the opposite sex who can
call forth those feelings in them, and that if they never meet with these individuals,
it is probable that such feelings will never be experienced, or at least only to a slight
extent.

A knowledge of this fact will often explain to us many of those distressing cases
of indifference and dislike to be met with between parties, and will also be a valuable
guide in giving advice, particularly in those instances where there is only apparent
impotence without any real deficiency.

There seems to be good reason to suppose that the sexual instinct is materially
dependent upon a particular part of the brain, though we cannot tell what part it
is, nor whether it is a mere development of it that is needed, or some peculiarity of
structure or organization. It is not at all uncommon to find men perfectly organ-
ized, in every respect, with vigorous minds, and with every other faculty in full
play, but yet almost wholly destitute of desire for sexual enjoyment. In some of
these cases, it is true, the generative organs are small, or evidently inactive, but in
others they are of full average development, healthy, and active. In such cases we
can only account for the singular indifference exhibited, by supposing that the part
of the brain which regulates the reproductive instinct has not had sufficient power,
or else that the proper object has not yet been presented to the senses, as before
explained.

Besides this particular influence, the generative organs can also be much affected
by the general action of the brain and nervous system, the same as all the other
organs. Thus if a man exhaust most of his nervous energy in thinking or in mus-

398 INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS.

cular energy, the other functions, including the generative, must be proportionally
weakened. I have met with numerous instances of this among men of business, many
of whom would become quite impotent when more than usually absorbed in their
pursuits, and regain their powers in a short time after their care and anxiety were
lessened. The following case of this kind I select from my note-book as being more
than usually instructive. The patient, a young man of twenty-eight, had been mar-
ried three years, and had one child ; he was very fond of his wife, and she in return
reciprocated his affection. He had never been addicted to excesses or abuses of any
kind, and until about six months before I saw him was in the full enjoyment of his
generative powers. About that time, however, he experienced a sudden and severe
loss in his business, which had previously been very prosperous, and .the care,
anxiety, and incessant exertion he underwent, in endeavoring to extricate himself
from his embarrassments, brought on various physical and mental troubles that he
had never before experienced. Among the rest, he found himself perfectly impotent,
having completely lost both power and desire. This distressed him very much, both
for the loss itself and also from apprehension that it was the beginning of general
decay. In this dilemma he came to consult me, and was exceedingly anxious to
know my opinion as to the prospect of his ultimate recovery. After a careful
examination, I felt convinced that there was no real loss of power, but merely a
temporary absence of the requisite nervous stimulus, owing to the excessive mental
labor and anxiety he had undergone ; I therefore inquired as to his future prospects,
and was gratified to learn that he was now quite relieved of his difficulties, and wag
beginning to regain his usual health and spirits. On learning this, I unhesitatingly
assured him that in a short time his generative powers would return, and more espe-
cially if he could abandon all care and thought about them. I gave him a slight
stimulus, and some general directions as to diet, external treatment and exercise, and
arranged to see him twice a week. In one month afterward he was as well as ever,
though he had been for nearly seven months as impotent as if the organs had been
totally destroyed. I have also frequently had business men remark to me that they
were liable to experience more or less deprivation of sexual power, and to feel much
less desire, at those periods of the year when trade was most active, and their minds
in consequence most absorbed. An author also told me that when writing any very
particular part of a book, or when anxiously expecting the criticisms of the press after
its issue, he was always for a time perfectly impotent. In the lives of several severe
students we have further corroboration of this fact, many of them having been re-
markable for their coldness and incapacity, particularly those engaged in absorbing
abstract studies, like the mathematics. Sir Isaac Newton is said to have never
known sexual ardor, though in every respect a perfectly formed man, and it is pro-
bable that this was in a great measure, if not entirely, owing to his incessant and all-
absorbing studies. In short, there is no question but that intense mental occupation
lessens sexual ardor in most persons, and that it may sometimes even extinguish it
altogether. This is a fact of considerable importance both medical and moral, and
one that should be more fully considered than it has hitherto been. There is no
doubt that a great part of the licentiousness which exists, particularly in youth, is in
* great measure brought about, or at least made much worse, by mental and bodily
idleness. If the mind is not occupied by some proper and congenial study, that will
pleasingly engage it at every leisure moment, a habit will soon be formed of indulg-
ing lascivious thoughts during such vacant periods, and if at the same time a due

INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION 0 VER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 399

proportion of the vital energy is not absorbed in physical exertion, the sexual organs
will soon become so constantly and intensely exci ted that such thoughts will become
paramount over all others. I once pointed out the philosophy of this to a gentleman
who came to consult me both for himself and for his son, aged seventeen. The
father was nearly impotent from intense occupation in business, and the son was
nearly dead from constant licentiousness and intemperance. I found on inquiry that
the young man had been brought up as a gentleman, and was not even expected to
employ himself with anything useful ; in consequence of which, from mere idleness,
he resorted to licentiousness and drinking as a regular occupation, till he was scarcely
capable of anything else. Moral suasion was utterly useless to effect a change, and
habit was too strong for the fear of consequences to break through, so that it seemed
as if nothing could be done but abandon him to his fate. His father bitterly deplored
the condition of his son, and earnestly entreated me to give him any information I
thought likely to be of service in preventing similar misfortunes to his younger
brother.

On explaining to him how the sexual power and propensity is influenced by a
proper exercise of the rest of the system, the philosophy of his own and his son's con-
dition was immediately apparent. "Yes," exclaimed he, "I have exhausted myself
by over-exertion, and at the same time, I have left my son a prey to his licentious de-
sires merely from idleness. I now see plainly enough that had part of my burden
been laid on his shoulders it might have saved both, but from mistaken kindness, and
false pride, I condemned him to a life of inactivity and consequent depravity, and
myself to a drudgery that has left me a mere ruin of what I was." Now this is a
case instructive to all, and there are many others in society precisely similar.

Certain feelings are also very influential over the generative functions, but only
temporarily or with particular persons. Thus some men have found themselves
suddenly impotent, with certain females, merely from disgust at something that was
unexpectedly displeasing in them, and others have experienced the same difficulty
from the fear of discovery or infection. Some men will experience a total loss of
power on finding their companions too cold, or too ardent, or meeting with some
unusual difficulty, but perhaps the most frequent cause is timidity, or self-distrust.
I have known several men, every way competent, who were so possessed with the idea
of their own incapacity, that they invariably became impotent whenever they at-
tempted an approach to the other sex. This timidity is sometimes exhibited in the
most striking manner, the patient being intensely agitated, and so nervous that his
whole frame trembles, and his bodily powers sink so much that often fainting ensues.
This peculiarity appears to be constitutional, and is often seen in those who are by
no means nervous, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, and who are collected
enough in regard to other matters. The only remedy for such an infirmity is con-
stant association with one object, in marriage, by which means a proper familiarity is
induced, and in time the individual loses his distrust, and becomes convinced of
his perfect capability. In most of these cases, there is a real excess of power, rather
than a deficiency, and the very intensity of the feeling tends to prevent its gratifica-
tion, by completely absorbing all the vital energies. I have frequently been consulted
by persons so circumstanced, as to the propriety of marriage, they fearing that the
failing could not be recovered from, and it has been with the greatest difficulty that
I could persuade them to the contrary. In every instance, however, I have found
marriage to effect a cure, though it might not be immediate. Some have worn off

400 INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVEB THE OENEBATIVE FUNCTIONS

their distrust very soon ; others have experienced it for months, hut eventually have
been surprised that they ever had it at all. It is the fear of failure that causes it,
with these people, and when that fear is once shown to he groundless, the cure is
complete. In some aggravated cases, a little medical assistance is available, but it
is of a nature not necessary to point out here. I once saw a man who had been
married for three years, without being able to associate with his partner, and solely
from this cause. In all probability he never would have done so, had it not been for
the advice he received, and yet there was no real deficiency of any kind. The cele-
brated John Hunter gives us a similar instance, which he met with in his practice.
The patient was perfectly incompetent, solely from the fear of failure, which so
operated upon him as to always make him fail. Hunter was persuaded there
was no other difficulty, and that it was merely necessary to break this spell ; he
therefore required of him, as one essential requisite of the treatment, that he should
remain with his companion, but on no account whatever make any attempt for six
nights, let his desire be ever so strong. The result was, that before the period fixed
bad gone by his desires were so strong he found it difficult to obey the injunction,
and feared he should have too much power, instead of too little. In fact, the cure
was complete, without any further treatment. The only thing required in such cases
is a judicious and honest physician, who will first ascertain that there is no real
deficiency, and then explain to the patient the real nature of his case and the means
by which it may be relieved. If this be done in a proper and sympathizing manner,
a cure may always be effected, but by a wrong course of procedure the evil may be
confirmed.

A too great intensity of the sexual feeling itself, during association, will some-
times cause impotency, by overpowering the patient before the act can be properly
consifmmated. I have known instances of men who always became then so intensely
excited that they fell into a kind of dreamy stupor, and had involuntary emissions
while in that state. This, however, can always be remedied by proper treatment.

Several instances have come to my knowledge, of men being impotent at their
marriage, from their first discovering some disagreeable fact respecting their part-
ners. In one instance, the lady had a small abscess on the arm, which she had hith-
erto concealed, and doubtless thought it a matter of little or no consequence, as her
health was good, and her appearance remarkably pleasing. Her partner, however,
thought differently, and such was the effect upon his mind that he could never
afterward experience the slightest desire toward her. In some cases, such simple
discoveries as false hair, or false teeth, have had a similar effect. It is not so much
that the circumstance is excessively disagreeable in itself, as that it is unexpected, and
its discovery destroys the dream of comparative perfection hitherto indulged. With
uncultivated and unimaginative people, such causes might operate but slightly or
not at all, because they form no such ideal image ; but with men of refinement it is
different. There is no doubt but that a good deal of the dissatisfaction and loss of
power, which many men experience after marriage, is owing to this circumstance.
They are ignorant of the real physical and moral nature of the being they take to
their arms, and have formed a picture of her in the imagination very different from
the reality, so that when the truth is known, their feelings undergo a complete revul-
sion. This ignorance sometimes extends to the most ordinary functional phenomena
of the female system, and the first knowledge even of that has, to my own knowledge,
produced a very disagreeable and lasting effect. In short, it is in this, as in every-

INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER TEE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 401

thing else, ignorance and concealment produce evils that only knowledge and mutual
confidence can prevent or remove.

It is still a question, however, whether the imagination of the mother can affect
the child before birth, and if so in what way, and to what extent ? The popular
belief in its influence this way is well known to be very strong, and probably it has
some foundation, though there is no question but that it is carried too far. The
well known case in the Bible, in which Jacob caused his father-in-law's animals to
bring forth striped young, by placing peeled wands before the mothers, shows that
this notion was entertained long ago, and the wonderful marks attributed to long-
ings which we see every day show that it still exists. (Genesis, chap, xxx.)

Hippocrates, who wrote some thousands of years ago, relates that a celebrated
queen was accused of adultery, because she was delivered of a black child, herself and
husband being white. The great physician, however, remarked that at the foot of
her bed there hung the picture of a negro, and he at once cleared her from the diffi-.
culty, by asserting that this picture had influenced the child through the medium
of her imagination, it being constantly before her. A contrary case is recorded, by
the historian Heliodorus, of an Ethiopian queen, who brought forth a white child
in consequence of looking, at the moment of conception, upon a picture of Andro-
medus. At the present day, such an explanation of how these cases came about
would scarcely be received.

These are not mentioned here as authentic cases, it will be borne in mind, but
merely to show the bent of the popular belief.

In many old works which people are still in the habit of reading, merely from
the name, such as "Aristotle" for instance, pictures are given of children resem-
bling animals, which are there represented to have come either from the mother
seeing such, or from having actually associated with them. All these, however, are
gross exaggerations, and many of them even mere fabrications. In none of these
works is there anything approaching to science, but on the contrary the merest rub-
bish and trash, utterly worthless for any purpose whatever.

Among more probable cases may be mentioned that of a lady who had a child
covered with hair, and with hands fashioned much like the paws of a bear, and which
she attributed to having often seen a picture of John the Baptist, clothed in a bear's
skin. Malebrande also tells us of another infant, which was born with all its bones
broken, and its joints dislocated, in consequence of the mother having seen an unfor-
tunate criminal broken alive on the wheel. In short, such instances are numerous,
and they show how firmly this belief is grafted on the popular mind, whether it be
true or false.

It is quite common to observe, on the skin of new-born infants, certain brown,
yellow, red, blue, or black marks, which are generally supposed to have been pro-
duced by the mother having longed for something while pregnant. These marks vary
much in their form, size, and appearance, and are usually of so indefinite a charac-
ter that a little stretch of the imagination may easily make them resemble anything.
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that there are but few females, if any, who do not
long for something during their pregnancy, and if this cause could produce such
marks, but few children would be without them, whereas they are, on the contrary,
rather scarce. The fact is that when one of these marks is discovered upon an infant,
the mother begins to think of something she very much wished for, and then she
easily sees that the mark is like it, but it is very seldom the case that any one else
20

402 INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS

perceives the resemblance, unless it has previously been suggested to them. I have
known one of these ncevi materni, or mother's marks as they are called, taken for
half-a-dozen different things by as many different people.

The real cause of the mother's marks is a disease of the skin which produces an
alteration in its texture. In general they are of little consequence, and remain sta-
tionary as long as the individual lives. It is seldom that success attends any attempts
to remove them, and as a general rule they are better left alone, the effects of an
operation being more likely to disfigure and injure than the mark itself. There is
one kind, however, which differs from all the others, and which requires attention.
This kind presents the appearance of little red warts, with flattened tops, connected
with the skin by small necks, and full of blood-vessels. These are called fungus
hcematodes, and they are caused by obstructions in the little vessels under the skin,
which makes the blood accumulate in minute tumors, or aneurisms. These may
continue to grow, or even ulcerate, and lead to serious consequences ; it is therefore
best to remove them. This is done either by tying a silken string round them, to
gradually strangle them off, or to use a sharp knife. In many cases, however, they
may be destroyed by simply washing them in alum water, or a solution of sulphate
of copper, or in keeping a silver coin pressed flat upon them for some time.

The fear that many people have of causing these marks is quite amusing, and has
sometimes been acted upon for particular purposes. Thus I saw some time ago, in a
medical work, an account of a lady in England who induced her husband to buy a
carnage and horses, which she longed for, by assuring him that if he did not do so
the child with which she was pregnant would be marked with them!

In no case does the mother ever announce before the birth what kind of a mark
the child will be born with, and yet if she knew about the longing that caused it, she
ought to be able to do so. It is always after the marTc is seen that its resemblance
is sought for, and then of course something can be thought of that may at least be
supposed to be like it.

In one of the French medical journals, some years ago, M. Girard gave a very
curious and instructive instance of the fallacy of this popular belief. In the course
of his practice he became acquainted with three pregnant females, all of whom had
been so strongly impressed by some object presented to the mind that the children
were expected to be marked, but neither of them were so. On tbe other hand, three
others, who had experienced neither frights nor longings of any kind, had their
children terribly deformed with naavi. And this is in fact daily seen, numbers being
born with marks, though the mothers did not long at all, and others being free from
them though they did long, and intensely too. In fact, if their longings could do
what some people suppose them capable of, there would be few children without
marks, for nearly all females experience these imperious desires. Another circum-
stance, too, should be borne in mind, — if the imagination can exert such a power
over the child as to cause deformity, it can also equally cause beauty, or give any
particular feature, or sex, so that every mother must be supposed to have the power,
by her imagination, to make her child be just what she pleases. Experience, how-
ever, shows that this power does not exist, and no mother who longs for a son can
be certain of bearing one by so doing, nor can she by her imagination give a Grecian
nose or auburn hair. If this could be done, we should have none but Venuses and
Apollos born, but unfortunately for the gratification of fond mothers it cannot be,
and this fact alone proves the imagination is not so powerful as some suppose it to be,

INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 403

It should be remarked, however, that the generative act is certainly the most
exalted that the animal organization can perform, and requires the greatest expen-
diture of vitality. The union of the two sexes is accompanied by an excitement
more intense than is ever experienced at any other time, — in fact, it results in a
positive convulsion, and often in partial derangement of mind, as if the two parents,
while giving life to the new being, almost, for the instant, surrendered their own
lives. This is the case at least when the conditions are perfect on both sides ; but
though this excitement must of course be always experienced by the male, yet the
female may be perfectly passive. In such cases it may be questioned whether the
act is really so perfect as when both are in the normal condition, and whether this
remarkable exaltation and expenditure of vitality is not really necessary in both, to
properly impress the new being, and make it active and vigorous. It is possible, as
before explained, that conception may occur without any emotion whatever being-
experienced by the female, but there is very good reason for supposing that the chil-
dren resulting from such conceptions are often imperfect, or deficient in mental and
bodily vigor. In fact, experiments by artificial impregnation, upon animals, have
proved this, and have shown that the vivid and overpowering emotion of sexual ex-
citement should be experienced by both parents, in order to give that impulse to the
new organization which is necessary to its most perfect development.

This accords with the popular notion respecting illegitimate children, who are
generally believed and with sufficient reason too, to be on the average more talented
and handsome than others. It is supposed that the intense warmth of temperament
which, in most of these cases, leads to the breach of morality and social propriety, is
advantageous to the new being, because it is conceived with more energy and power.
The imagination of the parents is also more acted upon- by the very circumstances of
their association. The necessity for deceiving others, and of practicing secresy in
their meetings, together with the charm of mutual confidence, and perhaps the indul-
gence being a forbidden one, all conspire to produce an exaltation greater than the
ordinary circumstances usually give rise to.

It is certain also that children who are conceived during sickness, or when old
age has vitiated the parents' energy, are never so vigorous and healthy as others.

After fecundation, the new being remains for nine months connected with the
mother, and its development within her body is as much a natural function of her
organization as is digestion or the circulation of the blood. Now both these func-
tions, in common with all others, are well known to be affected by moral causes to a
great extent, which alone would make it probable that gestation is also. Thus grief,
joy, or sudden fright, will often prevent digestion entirely, and so derange the action
of the heart that the circulation may completely cease, as in fainting. There is
every reason to presume, therefore, that these emotions can also influence foetal
development, and modify the new being both in body and mind. Indeed many cases
have been known which directly prove this, and no doubt the moral temperament and
bodily condition of many human beings is thus in a great measure determined before
their birth.

In connection with this subject, it is most important to bear in mind that the
child must be formed entirely from the mother's blood, for there is not an atom of its
material that can come from any other source. The condition of the mother's blood,
therefore, is of great consequence to its future well-being, for if that be imperfect, or
diseased, the body formed from it must be so likewise. Now it is well known, that

404 INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS.

the quality, and even the composition of the blood is very much affected by the state
of the mind, and by the emotions experienced. In despondency and grief it is im-
perfectly formed, being thin and watery, and it circulates sluggishly through the
heart. On the contrary, joy makes the circulation brisk, and nutrition perfect, so
that the blood is rich and pure, while anger makes it boil through the veins, and
changes its very composition. In fever it is well known the blood is so altered that
when drawn from the body it speedily putrefies, and it is almost the same during a
violent fit of rage, as I have seen when bleeding for a fit of apoplexy brought on by
that cause.

It is not bodily disease only, therefore, that can change the quality of the blood,
but also the state of the mind and feelings, which must be capable, therefore, of
affecting the child through the medium of the blood.

Now when we reflect how sensitive females usually are during gestation, and how
many causes then annoy and disturb them, it is readily perceived that their offspring
must of necessity be much under their moral influence, or in other words be affected
through the imagination. This influence, however, is chiefly exerted in a general
way, and not in the production of merely local effects, like marks.

It is deeply suggestive, also, to the reflective mind, to contemplate the fact that
when a female is pregnant with a female child there are three generations nourished by
the same blood at the same time ! There is the mother herself, — the child in her
womb, — and within its body the rudiments of the ovaries from which, if it ever
become a mother, its children will be formed ! Who does not see from this how
literally true it is that the physical sins, at least, of the parents, are visited both upon
the children and the children's children ? There are conditions of the blood which
no doubt can in this way affect both the child that is forming and also its future
children, through the rudimentary ovse, and those conditions may originate from the
imagination. A violent fit of anger in a mother, therefore, or of any other powerful
emotion, may cause suffering and disease both to her child and her grandchild.

Another fact may also be mentioned, to prove that the child can be influenced by
moral emotions. It is well known that many diseases of the womb, and also mis-
carriage, are often caused by fright, anger, and grief, and it is scarcely possible to
believe that the child in the womb is not influenced by the same causes. During
times of great public excitement and danger, as in revolutions and civil wars, it has
been observed that miscarriages are more frequent, and ' that more of the children
born then are idiotic, or become insane, than is usually the case.

It is true that there has not yet been discovered any nervous communication be-
tween the mother and child, but this by no means proves that the emotions of the
mother cannot influence her offspring. The blood itself is regarded by many physi-
ologists as being truly living, and this certainly is connected in both. But whether
it be living or not, it is certainly the material from which both are formed, and there
'is no question as to the emotions of the mother affecting it.

In works on medical jurisprudence many trials are recorded in which the power
of the mother's imagination has been called in question, but it has never been legally
admitted. About forty years ago, a mulatto female, in New York, became the
mother of an illegitimate child, the father of which she asserted was a negro, named
Whistelo, who was accordingly arrested and brought to trial, as he denied the fact.
The child was not at all like that of a negro in any particular, being whiter, and
with straight hair, but Dr. S. Mitchell contended it might have been influenced by

INFLUENCE OF IMAGINATION OVER THE GENERATIVE FUNCTIONS. 405

the mother's imagination, and that consequently Whistelo might have been the
father. The court, however, thought otherwise, and it was unanimously and very
properly decided that the father must have been a white man, or a mulatto, and
consequently Whistelo was acquitted.

Many of these resemblances which are supposed to originate with the imagination
of the mother may really arise from other causes, as shown by the case of the quagga
and mare, given in the article on The Permanent Influence of the Male upon the Fe-
male. In fact, that article should be referred to in connection with the present one.

It is a familiar fact to medical men, that many diseases are transmitted from the
mother to the child while it ie yet in the womb, and also that many drugs can in-
fluence it under the same circumstances, but this must, of course, take place through
the medium of the blood.

The ague, small-pox, and the venereal disease, are frequently given to a child be-
fore its birth, and possibly also many diseases of a more chronic nature.

To show how crude the popular notions on this subject are, and how little they
are founded upon correct information, it is only requisite to state that many people
believe it is the child itself that longs, while in the womb, and they think the maris
can be taken away by giving the child the object it wanted immediately it is born.
Thus I have known an infant of two days old given a piece of beefsteak to take away
the supposed image of one on its cheek.

Some suppose the marks are only given at quickening, others at six months, some
at three and others again at any time.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

This is a subject that lias never yet been fully treated upon in a popular way,
though it is unquestionably one of the most important and interesting. Dr. Curling
remarks, when speaking of the testes, " Their functions are so involved in those
of other parts, are influenced by such peculiar causes, and are so dependent on and
modified by particular events and circumstances, that the investigation of them,
when disordered, necessarily becomes of a complex and difficult character. The pro-
duct, too, of these glands, is one, the qualities of which it is almost impossible to
appreciate, and which during life is never afforded in a pure and unmixed state ; and
further, taking into account the repugnance felt to such inquiries, it is scarcely sur-
prising that the subject has been but imperfectly investigated, and rarely treated of
by the pathologist and practitioner. Indeed, the little information we possess respect-
ing it is chiefly to be found under the head impotency, in works on medical juris-
prudence, in which it is cursorily considered, principally in relation to points of
medico-legal interest, and scarcely at all in relation to practice."

This is strictly true, and it will, I dare say, surprise many persons, to learn that
physicians, generally speaking, pay but little attention to such matters. Such,
however, is the case, as is well known to those who have occasion to apply to them,
either for advice or information. I have found it absolutely necessary to set out in
my investigations, on many important points, as if nothing were known, and hunt
out the requisite information by the tedious but sure process of actual experiment
and extended observation. Very many of the statements made in this work will pro-
bably surprise those who see them for the first time, owing to their novelty, and to
their variance with old notions. None of these statements have been made, however,
without good and sufficient evidence having been obtained of their correctness, while
the old notions with which they conflict, are merely suppositions and assumptions,
utterly destitute of any foundation whatever. This is especially the case in regard to
the functional and sympathetic causes of impotence, and also its medical and moral
treatment, which may be truly said to be, nearly invariably, of the most unsatis-
factory character.

In pursuing my own investigations into these important and interesting subjects,
I have left no means of acquiring information untouched. Besides studying and
experimenting, as far as was proper, in numerous cases that came under my notice
professionally, I have fully experimented upon hundreds of animals, to the utmost
extent that humanity would allow. By these means I have ascertained many impor-
tant facts, and studied the action of many powerful medical agents, which could not
with propriety and safety have been tried upon human beings first.

Functional or sympathetic disability of the reproductive organs appears in two

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER. 407

forms, impotence and sterility, which are frequently, but erroneously, confounded
together. Sterility means a total absence of the reproductive capacity, while im-
potence is merely an inability to associate with the other sex.

The various kinds of deformity, deficiency, and acute disease that cause destruc-
tion of the generative power, are fully treated upon elsewhere, and we have now
only to explain those mysterious sympathetic and functional agencies, which, though
they are often more powerful, are yet so different in their operation, and hitherto
so little studied, that but little is generally known respecting either their nature or
mode of action.

In the female, though there are many causes of sterility, there is but one cause ol
positive impotence, and that is deformity or absence of the vagina. If this canal
exists, and is of sufficient size, she can always receive the embraces of the other sex,
though they may be fruitless.

"With man, however, this is different .; not only may he be sterile from various
causes, but also impotent. Desire may be strong, and the semen abundant and
perfect, but still he may be unable to convey it within the female organs. There
may be no power of erection, or the passage of the urethra may open in the wrong
place, or it may be obstructed by stricture ; in all which cases the man is impotent,
though not necessarily sterile, for if his semen could be placed, even artificially, in the
female organs, it would impregnate.

All these defects are capable, in most instances, of being remedied, as I have
shown elsewhere. The penis can not only be made to erect, but to grow when too
small, and sometimes can even be made, when it is nearly totally absent. Its proper
sensibility can also be created or restored, and the urethral passage can be either
restored to its proper dimensions, or made to open in the right place, so that in every
respect it can be made capable of performing its peculiar functions.

In like manner, the vagina can be either enlarged or opened in the female, and
the only cause of impotence in her can therefore be removed, as shown in the part
on The Diseases of Woman.

"With sterility, however, it is not always so easy to deal, depending, as it often does,
upon peculiar organic deficiencies, or resulting from mysterious sympathies, it fre-
quently baffles all our endeavors to understand or relieve it.

The ancient Greek and Koman females used to hang a wood or metal image of
the' male organs round their necks when they desired children, as a charm, firmly
believing that it had power to make them fruitful.

In the long-buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, many of these images are
dug up, some of them being most elaborately and beautifully carved. They are
generally about an inch long, though some are of the natural size. A friend of mine,
a short time ago, presented me with several of them. In Cochin China, as I have
been assured by a medical man long resident there, it is the custom, when a female
yemains long barren; for the priest to give her a wooden model of the male organ,
which has been blessed by him, and which she uses herself. This is supposed to
remove the sterility, and is implicitly relied upon.

Even in our own times and country, charms are often practiced for the same
purpose, and medical means are employed, almost as ridiculous, and quite as useless.
In some parts of the world, the waters of certain springs are supposed to make women
conceive, and many resort to them for that purpose. A famous well of this kind
once existed at one of the monasteries of England.

408 DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

Perhaps the most frequent cause of impotence and sterility in the male, however,
is spermatorrhoea, or excessive seminal loss. This may arise from many different
causes, but principally from excesses, and from masturbation. It may occur in
two ways, either visibly, as in those who lose it in sleep, or during the motion
of the bowels, and it may also take place in an unseen form, which is the worst
of all.

There is, in fact, scarcely anything more important for a man to know than the
causes, effects, and treatment of this terrible affliction, and there avefetv indeed who
do not practically experience more or less of its consequences.

It is, undoubtedly, the most frequent of all the causes of impotence and sterility,
and also of premature decay of the system generally. Every man, young or old,
ought to know this ; for if such knowledge was universally possessed in time,
it is incalculable how much suffering, disease, and untimely death would be pre-
vented.

It should also be borne in mind, as explained in a former article, that the male
is often sterile from imperfection of the semen. Sometimes there are no animalcules
at all, and at other times they are dead, in either of which cases he is sterile, or inca-
pable of impregnating. If the imperfection is not of long standing, however, he
may not be impotent, but may still be able to practice association ; though,. event-
ually, even that power will be lost, for the organs soon lose all sensibility if they are
not stimulated by perfect semen.

In some men the animalcules disappear, or die, for a short time only, from dis-
ease, or from taking drugs, and afterward re-appear. In others again, I have found
that they only appear at a particular time of the year, so that these individuals can
impregnate then, but at all other times are incapable.

The worst ceases of sterility in the male are those connected with a wasting of the
testes, which may take place from numerous causes, some of them apparently trivial,
to which all men are more or less liable. To guard against such evils, however, is
easy, with proper information.

There are also certain mysterious causes of sterility, the nature of which we can-
not understand. Thus some females will conceive by one man and not by another,
and some men will impregnate one female but not another, which shows that there
is a certain adaptation needed between the two, though we cannot tell in what par-
ticular that adaptation consists.

There are often cases, in both sexes, where there is neither sexual desire nor capa-
bility till some particular object is found, as shown in a former article on the influ-
ence of the mind over the generative powers, and also in the articles on the power of
the imagination, and on the brain, all of which should be referred to in connection
with this subject.

The principal causes of these disabilities in the female have been explained in the
previous articles, particularly in those upon the ovaries and menstruation. The non-
formation of the egg, its not passing down the tube in time, and the non-retention
of it in the womb, are among the most frequent causes. Many married couples are
also childless because they do not associate at the proper time, as explained in the
article on conception.

At the present time there are but few causes of barrenness in females but what
can be removed, except those depending upon imperfect or deficient development,
and even many of these are capable of being remedied. The vagina, or mouth of

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER. 409

the womb can be opened or enlarged. The Fallopian tubes can be opened, and the
ovaries can be stimulated to act in cases where they have been dormant for years.
All which operations come constantly within the scope of my practice, and with very
few exceptions they are uniformly successful.

In nearly all cases when a female has painful menstruation, attended by a dis-
charge of membranes or clots, it is owing to a constriction of the mouth of the womb,
which also prevents conception. The operation for opening it therefore relieves
both the suffering and the sterility.

The treatment most frequently required in females is that for stimulating the
ovaries to form the eggs, and strengthening the womb to retain them sufficiently
long ; a weakness or irritability of one or the other of these organs being the most
frequent cause of female sterility known. A want of sexual feeling is also a cause of
barrenness sometimes, indirectly, and the production of it leads at once to concep-
tion. In nearly all cases, however, this peculiar sensibility can be produced, to any
extent that may be required, and by means comparatively simple, and perfectly
harmless. Diseases of the womb and vagina also often lead to sterility, especially
leucorrhoea, or the whites, the discharge from which kills the animalcules, and thus
prevents conception. I have known many females barren from this cause who con-
ceived very readily, by simply using an injection of warm water before connection,
to cleanse away the acrid discharge.

Moral causes do not operate so strongly and uniformly with the female as with
the male, because she is in a great measure passive, and may even be made to con-
ceive in spite of herself.

Although impotence and sterility are usually spoken of as if they were the same
thing, there is yet a difference between them, as elsewhere stated, which must not be
lost sight of. Impotence is simply want of power or capability for association, which
may arise from temporary or accidental conditions. Sterility, on the contrary,
arises from total absence of some natural requisite to procreation. Thus, a man
may be impotent from loss of the penis, because he cannot copulate ; but if he
still secretes perfect semen, he is not sterile, for a woman might be impregnated
by his semen artificially.

In like manner, a woman may be impotent or incapable of intercourse, from
the vagina being closed, and yet her ovaries may be perfect, and the ovum be regu-
larly formed. In such a case, she would not be necessarily sterile, for on open-
ing the vagina, to allow contact of the generative elements, she might conceive at
once.

As a rule, impotence is most common in the male, and sterility in the female.
Commonly, sterility is nearly always referred to the female, but it depends upon the
male much oftener than is suspected, as shown elsewhere. Woman, it must be re-
membered, is the passive and merely receptive party, and has not to exhibit power
analogous to that of the male, and for this reason is less seldom impotent, and never
in a corresponding way.

The mental and moral causes of impotence are much more frequent than is gen-
erally known, but are principally confined to cultivated, sensitive, and conscientious
people ; coarse, ignorant, uncultivated men seldom suffering from them.

Many estimable men are totally incompetent for the sexual relation, from no lack
of natural power or capability, but simply from peculiar nervous and moral suscepti-
bilities. Many men are incapable merely from too violent desire, or from prolonged

410 DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

over-excitement, and are surprised to find that after complete temporary exhaustion
they become capable. The more frequent moral causes of incompetence, however,
are all the depressing passions, fear of not succeeding or of not being loved, simple
timidity, shame, some sudden disgust, dislike, hatred, jealousy, terror, surprise, and
apprehension of consequences. Most of these causes, as before remarked, operate
only with the most refined and cultivated people, and seldom have much effect upon
those who are coarse and merely animal in their nature.

The imagination, with many men, acts more powerfully than anything else.
They either fancy something wrong with themselves or with their partners, and
conjure up difficulties which have no real existence ; in fact, they create troubles
beforehand, and having persuaded themselves that they shall meet with them, natu-
rally do so. This is often the case at the time of marriage. I constantly see young
men, a few days after marriage, in the greatest consternation and despair, fully per-
suaded that they are hopelessly incompetent, and will never be able to consummate
the act. In such cases, it is nearly always over-eagerness, too much effort, and excited
imagination which creates the difficulty at first, and then mortification and fear for
the future come in to make matters still worse. The natural difficulties attendant
on first associations also complicate the trouble, and utter failure results, sometimes
causing such shame and despair as to lead to suicide. Many men have killed them-
selves, under such circumstances, who were naturally fully potent, and who would in
a short time have experienced no difficulty whatever. All that they needed was to
know enough of themselves, and to have the courage to wait.

Very frequently a chivalrous consideration, and tenderness for their partners, or
excessive modesty even, leads to the same result, and thus it is that the best of men
often suffer the most. Frequently also, such men, from over-conscientiousness, will
confide to their partners that they are doubtful of themselves, and crave their indul-
gence for possible failure. This is a most unfortunate thing to do, for nothing dis-
heartens a man so much as the knowledge that others suspect him or doubt his capa-
bility. The very sympathy and condolence he receives even make matters worse, by
intensifying tbe sense of his unworthiness.

In such cases, a man should reflect that with a young and innocent woman, what-
ever occurs seems right, because she knows not to the coLirary, unless he tells her.
It is also easy for him to make it appear that his diffidence, or temporary failure, is
caused only by his deference and thought for her, and not from any incapacity on his
own part.

Few people have any idea of the practical value of a little information of this'
kind. If given in time, it would often prevent distress of the most poignant kind at
marriage, and separation or life-long misery afterward.

As a practitioner, conversant daily with such matters, I may say, for the encour-
agement of over-sensitive bridegrooms, distrustful of themselves, that the first asso-
ciation seldom occurs immediately. Generally several days elapse, or even weeks,
sometimes even months, and yet all comes right eventually, so that the man afterwarda
wonders how he could ever have experienced any difficulty.

It is some compensation that the imagination may, in many cases, help to cure
these evils, as well as to cause them. When there is no real physical reason for the
impotence, but only a nervous one, anything which favorably affects the nervous
system may remove it at once. Immediately that a man regains confidence,, and
begins to see that his trouble is only temporary, it disappears rapidly.

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER. Q\

In former times this was well understood by both priests and philosophers, and
thus arose all the charms, amulets, and other such means for curing impotence and
sterility, of which we read in ancient books. One of these charms, given by the
priest with the assurance that it would cure, would often be effective, from the very
confidence which it inspired ; and no doubt the assurance felt by many a sterile
woman, that she would become a mother, from the possession of a precious amulet,
aided powerfully in bringing about the desired result. In the old records of Egypt,
Greece, and Eome, we find much curious matter of this kind, giving strong confir-
mation of the power of the imagination in impotence and sterility.

Witchcraft, of course, was early resorted to for the removal of such disabilities,
and even now similar superstitious observances are not quite unknown. Among
ignorant people the old beliefs, modified in various ways, still remain, and the priest,
or the witch- wife, is still thought, by many, more efficient than the physician.

Montaigne, in his essays, treats this subject with much skill, good sense, and
acuteness. He was perhaps the first to give a philosophical explanation of it, and
his remarks are well worth reading even now.

That there are persons naturally weak sexually, or partly impotent, is undoubted ;
and this condition they may be born with. In some cases it results from imperfect
stamina, or from the unfavorable effects of certain diseases of other parts. In other
cases however it is probably inherited. Boys Avhich result from too early connection,
or too late, or from the union of parents exhausted, or imperfect naturally, are very
apt to lack sexual power. Such children are often of a weak, lax habit of body,
with deficient hair, especially on the pubes. Their voices are often shrill, or weak,
their testes small and soft, and the scrotum lax and pendulous. In short, they are
largely feminine.

Mere functional impotence may arise from simple excess naturally, but much
more frequently from masturbation. Of the two abuses the last is undoubtedly the
worst, its effects being more permanent. A man may recover from over-indulgence,
at least in part, even when it has been excessive, but prolonged masturbation causes
evils irremediable. And this is why many men who have passed years in vicious
dissipation end better than those who have been socially virtuous, but addicted to
solitary vice.

In masturbation the act is always incomplete and unsatisfactory, and is followed
by a feeling of disgust which grows constantly deeper. The orgasm being brought on
by unnatural means, and by mere force of imagination, is not only more exhausting
than is actual connection, but gives much less pleasurable feeling. In fact, almost all
pleasure finally is lost, and the practice is kept up from mere habit, unless super-
seded entirely by urinary loss. As a rule, unless abandoned early, masturbation
causes total impotence, or else destroys all natural propensity, so that female society
becomes distasteful.

Among other results of this fatal vice may also be mentioned the want of corre-
spondence between the orgasm and the muscular power. The emission in such cases
occurs too quick, that is before erection, or it may fail altogether. Occasionally,
however, the erection fails entirely, or lasts but a few moments. Not unfrequently
there is neither erection nor emission, when wanted, though both may occur at other
times.

Similar results, however, may follow from over mental work, worry, or anxiety of
mind. Also from excitement kept up too long without indulgence, and from the

412 DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

habit of withdrawing, by the male, before emission. Many men injure themselves
seriously by being constantly in female society, where their passions are excited, but
have to be restrained. All such, who cannot control themselves, should keep away
from influences they cannot resist. Some of the most virtuous and honorable men
suffer intensely in this way, and accuse themselves of being wicked when they simply
require marriage, which to some is a real necessity.

It must not be forgotten that too long continued continence may also be a
cause of impotence. The sexual organs, like all others, may become enfeebled
simply from want of proper use. Nature seems to think, in such cases, that it is
useless to continue power in organs that are never employed. Moderate natural
association is undoubtedly favorable to the continuance of sexual power, in all
cases.

Impotence may result, as stated elsewhere, from the use of narcotics, stimulants,
and other drugs, and also from exhausting labor, insufficient food, and debilitating
disease. Impotence often results from mere imperfection, or want of development, of
the penis, as we have shown before, and may then be often remedied. Inability to
obtain erection of course makes a man impotent, and it may arise in many ways
When from bodily debility alone, if the man is not too old, a cure can usually be
effected, unless he has been much addicted to masturbation. But when it arises
from failure of nervous power the case is more difficult.

It must be borne in mind that all our natural functions, bodily and mental, are car-
ried on solely by the nervous power ! This is to the animal organism what steam is to
the steam-engine, or electricity to the electric telegraph. "Without sufficient steam
the engine cannot move, no matter how perfect its structure may be, nor can the
telegraph send a single message unless there be plenty of electricity from the battery.
In like manner we can do nothing, bodily or mental, if our nervous power be
deficient.

It is in the brain, spinal marrow, and other great nervous centers, that this ner-
vous power is engendered, and it is distributed from them to the different parts of
the system by the white cords, called nerves, which are found in every portion of the
body. Each organ receives its due share, when the action of the system, is properly
balanced, and thus all work harmoniously for the common need. As there is but a
given amount of this nervous power produced, however, in a given time, it is evident
that if any organ receives more than its due share, some other organ must receive
less, and its function in consequence be imperfectly performed. Thus if a man uses
his brain too much, in study, he so exhausts his nervous power by thinking, that
there is not enough left for other purposes. Commonly, in such a case, his stomach
acts imperfectly, from lack of sufficient nervous stimulation, and he becomes dys-
peptic ; or his heart may become feeble, or his kidneys act imperfectly ; in some way
or other he is sure to suffer. Many men weaken their sexual power in this way,
and become more or less impotent. This is a common cause of sexual debility
among students, business men, and those subject to much worry and anxiety of
mind.

In all such cases, the first thing to be done is to give the brain complete rest, and
to tone up the system generally. In this way more nervous power is engendered,
and it is more evenly distributed. If the patient be not too much run down, and
can give the brain perfect rest, the sexual power may be restored ; but it is vain to
expect any help from medicine alone. Rest, change of occupation and scene, are the

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER. 413

first essentials of treatment in such cases, and with these may be combined good
tonic and aphrodisiac remedies.

Some men in this state still keep on with their brain work, and try to force the
sexual system to action, at the same time, by using stimulants, and aphrodisiac
medicines. They may succeed for a time, but it is literally burning the candle at
both ends, and when they finally break down, as they are sure to do, there is no hope
of restoration.

Excessive sexual indulgence, too long continued, leads to the same results. It
not only weakens the sexual organs themselves, by over use, but, by exhausting
unduly the nervous power, all the other organs suffer the same as when tne brain is
over used. The whole system is run down, and when finally impotence comes, there
is nothing to fall back upon, and recuperation is impossible.

This is why impotence resulting from, or comiected with, nervous exhaustion, is
so difficult to treat successfully. There is much building up to be done, and much
regulation of the functions, so that they may be properly balanced, and the nervous
power be evenly distributed.

In my practice, I always find a large increase in the number of patients impotent,
from nervous exhaustion, after any period of business embarrassment, like one ol
our panics. Those who do not become insane, or commit suicide, among the vie.
tims of the panic, usually become sexually powerless. It is only those with well
balanced functions, calm unexcitable nervous systems, and good digestions, who
escape.

I have been assured by many ardent business men, who are all the time in a whirl
of excitement, that the only time they really enjoy the society of their wives is
during their summer holiday, when their brains are comparatively at rest. But
some of them so completely exhaust themselves, by worrying over the ups and
downs of stocks, that even in their period of relaxation they find themselves power-
less.

The same law applies to women. Continued worrying and fretting, or anything
which leads to mental depression, or moral dissatisfaction, is especially hurtful sex-
ually. Such causes may not prevent conception, nor make a woman incompetent
for sexual intercourse, but they may make it distasteful to her, and prevent her from
either experiencing or imparting that enjoyment which ought to accompany the act.
This is, in one sense, impotence, because the woman is not capable of fully perform-
ing her part in the congress.

A large number of women are habitually cold in temperament, and never expe-
rience sexual ardor, although they become mothers. Such women are, of course,
not sterile, but, as before remarked, they are to a certain extent impotent. It
is true, that sexual ardor is not necessary to them, and that they may become
wives and mothers without it ; but its absence is nevertheless a deprivation, and
both reason and experience assure us that they would be better if it were experi-
enced.

It is probable that the absence of sexual feeling in women, in all cases, is owing
to unfavorable mental and moral conditions ; or to some bodily derangement. It is
usually accompanied by peculiar nervous states, and by various undesirable eccentri-
cities of character and disposition. A woman so conditioned seldom exhibits all
those qualities which make her relations with the other sex a sure source of happi-
ness to both. Any one conversant with such matters, as a medical adviser, must be

414 DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWEh

well aware that many married people become estranged, and many homes made un
happy, by coldness and indifference on the part of the woman.

Indifference, or want of sexual ardor, is much rarer in men than in women, but
still it is to be met with. I have known men almost totally deficient in sexual feeling,
and yet, apparently, well-developed, and fully capable, as men. This unusual con-
dition probably arises from some form of nervous derangement, and is therefore not
organic, but merely functional, like what we sometimes see after a weakening disease.
The same thing may also result from any powerful revulsion of feeling, or from
intense devotion to some absorbing pursuit.

More frequently, however, the man does not lose his sexual ardor, but merely be-
comes extremely fastidious and capricious in regard to his indulgence. He is never
quite satisfied, and invariably attributes his disappointment to some fault in the
woman. His coldness and indifference, so he thinks, is entirely owing to lack of
warmth, or some other deficiency, on her part. Such men seldom dream that they
themselves are to blame, and often are quite astonished, and even offended, when
such a thing is intimated to them.

This partial indifference, or fastidiousness, in men, is, to a certain extent, a form
of impotence. They are not nearly so likely to become parents, and some women can
never conceive by them. In such cases the fault is, of course, attributed to the
woman alone, but unjustly. It arises simply from want of that mutual enjoyment,
and perfect satisfaction, which, to some females, is indispensable to impregnation.
It is more than probable also that such a condition of mind and feeling, if habitual,
is unfavorable to the production of healthy or abundant semen, as it is also to the
formation of perfect ovae in women.

Any imperfection in the-quality of a man's semen not only makes him impotent,
to some extent, if not sterile, but also affects unfavorably the woman with whom he
associates. It may either simply fail to stimulate her system as it should do, or it
may not impregnate, or, what is of still more consequence, if she do conceive, the
probability is that she will prematurely miscarry ! Many women habitually meet
with this misfortune from no fault of their own, but simply because their husband's
virility is impaired. This is very apt to follow, as before explained, from excessive
indulgence, or from masturbation, and very often from particular diseases, especially
syphilis !

The man who has constitutional syphilis may, apparently, recover his health per-
fectly, and exhibit complete sexual power, but the woman who conceives by him will
almost invariably miscarry. I have known many cases of this kind, and in every one,
till the matter was explained, the fault was laid to the woman. But what is more
singular, these women, when married again to men who have never been so diseased,
will still continue to miscarry just the same. It would seem, therefore, that some
injurious influence is exerted on the female generative organs by such a condition in
the male ; but in what way we do not know.

It is fortunate, however, that in such cases miscarriage does occur, for the few
children that do arrive at the full period almost always suffer from the disease of
the father, in some way, though neither he nor the mother show any signs of it.

And here let me remark that this disease, syphilis, is one of the most serious evils
that afflict society ! It is also one of the most general, causing untold evils, the true
cause of which is unsuspected. No family is safe from it while it exists, and once
introduced it may be transmitted, in its hereditary form, to a long series of innocent

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER 415

descendants. There are few families, indeed, that do not inherit some taint of it,
from their ancestors, though nothing of the kind is known or suspected.

It is a great misfortune that this fearful scourge has been taken under the pro-
tection, as it would seem, of certain well-meaning persons who consider it a judg-
ment upon men for sexual vice. They contend that no attempt should be made to
cure, or eradicate sucb a disease, so that it may still remain a terror and a punish-
ment. A more unfortunate or mischievous idea was never entertained, nor one more
repugnant to humanity and common sense. Carried out to its logical conclusion,
the same argument would apply to most other diseases, for they arise also from an
infringement of some moral or physical law ; or, in other words, from some vice.
Besides, the worst consequences of syphilis, in many cases, are experienced by others,
by innocent persons, and not by the original offender. A man contracts syphilis, is
apparently cured, marries, and has children born with a syphilitic taint, from which
they suffer through life, and perhaps their children also, unless they are fortunately
sterile. The mother likewise may become diseased, from her children, and be made
a confirmed invalid in consequence. Scrofula, and many think cancer, originate thus
from constitutional syphilis, and it is well known these diseases are practically in-
curable. To carry out this theory of judgment and punishment, however, all this
suffering of innocent people, and deterioration of the race, had better be endured,
these people say, than that the original disease should have been prevented, or
effectually cured. As to the value of the fear of syphilis in preventing sexual indul-
gence, we have only to see how it acts practically, to be aware what little effect it
has.

But putting all this aside, it is simply our duty, as it is to our interest, to prevent
or cure every disease or infirmity that afflicts humanity, as early and as effectually as
possible, and to pay no attention to judgments or punisbments.

It will scarcely be believed, at some future day, that a Congress of the United
States, in the middle of the nineteenth century, actually passed a law forbidding the
importation or sale of the artificial coverings, called condoms, used to prevent
venereal disease ! This was done at the instigation of those people who believe that
syphilis should be preserved, as a punishment and judgment.

Our immediate concern with the disease, however, is in its relation to impotence
and sterility, of which it is a frequent and unsuspected cause.

In man stricture is a more common cause of sterility than is suspected. During
the orgasm the stricture is more contracted than at other times, and the semen
cannot be expelled through it. Long-continued gleet, or the use of strong injections,
are very apt to lead to this form of disability. Sometimes the stricture is in the
seminal ducts, or they may be obstructed by stone, or by small tumors, or fungous
growths.

Extreme smallness of the male organs is not necessarily a cause either of impo-
tence or sterility, except, perhaps, with particular females. Blows, bruises, and
other injuries to the testicles, are often causes of impotence, and so is long-continued
pressure, as in horseback riding. Mumps are a very frequent cause of impotence,
when the swelling changes from the throat to the testicles. They are also, in the
same way, injurious to the female ovaries and womb.

Analogous to stricture in the male, we sometimes find narrowness of the vagina
in the female. This may be so extreme as to prevent intercourse entirely, as
was said to be the case with the celebrated Joan of Arc. Still, in such a case, the

416 DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

woman might conceive, if otherwise perfect, from the semen being merely placed in
the external opening, and thus she would be impotent, but not sterile. In fact,
instances have been known where conception took place while the vagina was too
narrow to admit of connection, and it had to be artificially enlarged to allow of the
birth of the child. A complete closure of the vagina, either by an imperforate
hymen, by growing together of its walls, or by membranes across it, is, of course, a
cause of sterility, but if the obstruction is far up, it may not prevent connection.
Many of these cases can be readily corrected by a comparatively simple operation.
I once knew three sisters, all with the vagina closed just below the neck of the womb.
Of course they never menstruated, but always had monthly hemorrhages from the
nose or bowels, to compensate for it. One was married, and the obstruction was
removed afterward, so that she became a mother, with no unusual difficulty. An-
other one was also married, but as neither she nor her husband desired children, and
intercourse could take place, nothing was done in the case. The third one never mar-
ried while I knew them. It was with much interest I learned that a great aunt was
similarly deficient, and I have no doubt this was a decided instance of hereditary
transmission.

Perhaps the most frequent cause of sterility in the female is the smallness of the
mouth of the womb ; and this may be either natural, or may arise from spasmodic
closure at the time of excitement, or from inflammation, or from some abnormal
growth. Simple swelling, from irritation, or from congestion, may also lead to the
same result. Of course, the partial closure prevents the passage of the semen to the
interior of the womb, and consequently there can be no conception. In nearly all
cases, this disability can be remedied, either by removing the diseased condition of
the parts, or by expanding the mouth of the womb by bougies. I am constantly
seeing and treating cases of this kind.

In cases where the constriction is very firm, and cannot be permanently over-
come by the bougie, impregnation can be effected artificially, as fully explained in
the article on Artificial Impregnation.

It must, however, be borne in mind that, in addition to all the above causes, both
sterility and impotence often result from imperfection in the quality of the male
semen. It may be abundant in quantity, and seem perfect, and yet will neither
excite the female nor cause impregnation. In my practice, I constantly meet with
cases of this kind, usually resulting from excesses, or from some form of abuse.

Dropsy of the testicle, or hydrocele, does not always cause impotence, nor even
impair sexual power, though it does so occasionally. Tumors, however, especially
hard, fleshy ones, almost always do injury, and so does simple swelling sometimes,
such as follows a blow, or gonorrhoea.

The violence many men do to themselves, in hindering the emission of semen by
compressing the penis during the orgasm, is a frequent cause of impotence. Some
do this from the mistaken idea that they then retain the semen, and consequently
suffer no loss. It is, however, merely forced back into the bladder, instead of escaping
externally, and is expended the same as if it had been lost in the natural way.

The injury done in this way is of a very serious nature, and well calculated to
destroy sexual power altogether, besides leading to stricture, inflammation of the
prostate, and weakness of the neck of the bladder.

More frequently the above practice is pursued as a means of avoiding the impreg-
nation of the female, and it then does harm to both. In her it leads to nervous

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER.

417

Figure 116. — Waist of Venus de Medicis.

Irritability, coldness of temperament, and lencorrhcea. In some cases, it even causes
symptoms much like epilepsy.

Among other causes of derange-
ment of the sexual organs in females,
leading to displacement of the womb,
miscarriage, impotence, and sterility,
may be mentioned improper dress.
Corsets, especially, do immense harm
in this Avay, as may be seen when the
natural position of the organs in the
body is observed, and compared with
the way in which they are squeezed
together when the waist is com-
pressed. It is very unfortunate that
fashion so frequently adopts some
deformity, and imitates it. Some
savages squeeze the head till it is
flat like a plate ; others blacken the
teeth, or put a large ring in the upper
lip or nose. This is fashion with them, and we think it very silly, if not disgusting,
without reflecting that our own fashions are just as absurd, and often much more
injurious. Any deviation from the natural form of the body is a deformity, whether
natural or artificial. The Chinese ladies deform their feet to make them small, and
so do our ladies, in a different way. They bunch them together in tight, ill-shaped
shoes, till the toes are immovable and covered with corns' and bunions, while the heel
is placed under the hollow of the foot. The evil of this is not confined to the pain
and discomfort in the foot itself, but it interferes seriously with walking, and by
changing the gait and position of the body, tends to displace the internal organs.

A small foot — that is, one smaller than Nature makes it — is a real deformity, and
not a beauty. It should bear a certain proportion to the body, and in all cases should
be fully capable of every motion belonging to it.

A small toaist — that is, one smaller
than Nature makes it — is as much a
deformity as a hump back, and may be
much more hurtful. The idea that it
is a point of beauty could arise only
from ignorance and artistic obtuseness.
It is on a par with the idea of the sav-
age, that there is beauty in a flattened
head, or an upper lip stretched as wide
as the hand.

Our immediate concern, however,
is with the effects of waist squeezing
on health, and especially on the health
of the sexual system, and in this
respect it is a very serious evil indeed,
especially to young girls.
Fiotbe 117.— Waist of a Fashionable Lady. The accompanying figures show a

27

PLATE XXXIII.

Figure 1. 6, 7, show the vessels in the spermatic cord uncovered. At 15 is the
place where an external rupture usually occurs. 11, 12, 13, 14. The large blood-
vessels and nerves in the groin, going to the leg.

Figure 2. At 6 the hernia is seen protruding, covered by the sheath of the
spermatic vessels. At 7 this sheath is laid open, showing the peritoneal covering
underneath.

The other parts are the same as in Figure 1.

The place where the rupture protrudes is in the groin, and it pushes outward,
instead of down into the scrotum as in infants.

DEFICIENCY AND TOTAL LOSS OF THE GENERATIVE POWER. 419

natural waist, and one shaped in the fashionable way by corsets. Compare them,
and see in which lies the beauty. Also observe, by our previous plates, the position
of the female organs in the body, and then inquire what becomes of them when the
waist is compressed, as in the second figure. Especially notice the bones !

Inguinal rupture is an accident very apt to make a man impotent, or at least
to impair his powers, and the way in which it does so will be readily understood
from our previous explanations. The rupture is formed by a portion of the intes-
tine and omentum bursting out of the abdomen, at the inguinal ring, and it causes
more or les3 pressure on the spermatic cord and blood-vessels. This interferes with
the circulation of the blood in the testicles, and consequently impairs their nutri-
tion. It is not always serious in this way, however, but is very apt to be so.

Sometimes more harm is done by a badly-fitting truss, such as is worn for this
accident, than by the rupture itself.

The colored plate opposite page 418 shows the nature and situation of inguinal
rupture, and the way in which it bears on the spermatic cord.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

INFLUENCE OF DRUGS OVER THE SEXUAL POWERS.

Cantharides, or Spanish flies. — This article is popularly supposed to have an
undoubted stimulating effect upon the sexual powers, and many persons will be sur-
prised to learn how little foundation there is for such a belief. In fact, upon most
persons, cantharides have but little or no effect at all in that way, except they are
given in such quantity as to be poisonous, and then they only act by causing severe
inflammation, not only in the genitals but also in all the neighboring parts. It is
quite common for even a small dose to create great irritation of the bladder, with
complete inability to discharge the urine, and this may take place without any unu-
sual sexual excitement at all, though most usually the generative organs are stimu-
lated more or less. It is a great mistake, therefore, to suppose that cantharides have
a constant and specific action on the sexual organs, for they merely create an intense
irritation, which affects these organs along with others, in the same way that many
other irritant poisons do. All the popular notions on this subject are utterly un-
founded, and quite opposed to the truth.

It is very seldom that cantharides are of any service whatever in the treatment of
impotence or spermatorrhoea, though a combination of these with other articles is
useful in certain cases. They form the main ingredient in all the quack stimulants
for the generative organs, and the use of them in this way unfortunately causes great
mischief. Numbers of young men are permanently ruined, from spermatorrhoea,
through taking these preparations of cantharides, and I have known many married
persons rendered hopelessly sterile from using them as stimulants. I had one dis-
tressing case of a young man, who was persuaded by a thoughtless friend to take
some Spanish flies as an experiment, to see if they would not increase his desires and
powers. The quantity he took was only a moderate dose, but the effects were most
alarming. He completely lost all power of discharging the urine, though the blad-
der was full almost to bursting, and experienced such agonizing pain in the prostate
and urethra that he was nearly delirious. Priapism took place, but so far from
being attended by increased pleasure, it only added to his sufferings, and yet he could
not prevent it. Fortunately, he had timely assistance, and the immediate danger
was obviated, but very soon after, he began to be troubled with involuntary emis-
sions in the night, and eventually when urinating, so that he became completely
impotent, and so weak he could scarcely stand. I cauterized him, and used every
other means the case would allow, but in spite of all, the trouble continued to some
extent, and probably always will. He had been suffering, however, over four years
when I saw him.

I also had a case of a young person of the other sex who was seriously injured by
cantharides, given as a trick, and who had involuntary discharge of urine ever after-
ward,

420

INFLUENCE OF DRUGS OVER THE SEXUAL POWERS. 421

Camphor. — The action of camphor upon the genital organs is sedative rather
than stimulant, and when taken improperly or in excess, it may almost entirely
destroy the sexual feeling, at least for a time. It is, therefore, given in cases of
priapism, and in excessive excitement, whether from moral or physical causes. If
cantharides or any other irritating poison be taken, camphor is usually a valuable
palliative, and it is sometimes of great service in certain forms of spermatorrhoea.
If taken in too large doses, however, or for too long a time, it will cause involuntary
emissions.

Nitrate of potash or saltpeter. — It is commonly supposed that this substance acts
as a direct sedative to. the sexual organs, and that if taken in any considerable quan-
tity, it will destroy all feeling, but this notion is a very erroneous one. Like all
other diuretics, nitre stimulates the genital organs, and if taken in too large doses it
will even produce inflammation, like cantharides. Instances have been known where
a discharge from the urethra has followed its use, like that of gonorrhoea, and after-
ward involuntary emissions have been experienced.

Ergot of rye, or secale cornutum. — This substance, as is well known, is used to
expedite delivery in females, which it does by increasing the action of the womb.
Its use, however, is dangerous, except in proper hands. From recent observations,
it appears to stimulate the male organs also, and the men of those parts where it
grows among the rye are noted for their ardent desires, while the females frequently
miscarry. The ergot cannot be given alone, either with safety or advantage, but its
combination with other articles forms a valuable remedy both for impotence and
spermatorrhoea. It is one of the ingredients of a stimulating and invigorating medi-
cine which I use extensively in my practice.

Coffee and tea. — Both these articles, but especially coffee, act as direct stimulants
to the generative organs, and if taken in excess, may produce all the effects of the
most powerful drugs. I have known coffee cause priapism, lascivious dreams, and
involuntary emissions, and nearly always its continued use will counteract any treat-
ment that can be followed for relief.

Phosphorus. — This article is similar in its action to cantharides, but much more
energetic, and consequently it is much more dangerous in wrong hands, but when
properly administered, it is frequently of great service. It is one of the ingredients
of the invigorating medicine which I formerly spoke of, with which I have often pro-
duced the most unexpected restorations to power and health. Phosphorus should,
however, never be experimented with by those not familiar with its action, for in
some cases it will lead to the most disastrous consequences, and its evil effects are
not easily recovered from.

It is beyond doubt a most powerful stimulant to the generative organs, and
also a most dangerous one. Instances have occurred of men being made perfectly
delirious with satyriasis, from merely taking an ordinary medicinal dose of it, and
women from the same cause have become so furiously excited as to forget every con-
sideration of prudence and decorum. In one instance, a physician found his patient
utterly unable to subdue the ardor that consumed him, by any means whatever, until
complete exhaustion ensued, and he died. In less than thirty hours this man had
cohabited sixty-five times, without erection having subsided or the flow of semen
ceased. Similar effects are also observed upon animals, showing that the power of
this drug is specific. A chemist having thrown out some of his refuse preparations,
in which was some phosphorus, they were partly drunken by a drake, who immedi-

422 htfl uenge of dr uos o ver the sexual po wers.

ately afterward commenced cohabiting with his female companions in the most furious
manner, and continued to do so till he fell down dead.

When incautiously used, therefore, this drug is exceedingly dangerous, and many
cases of severe suffering have resulted from its unwarranted employment. Not only
will it cause delirium, but it will also create the most burning and destructive in-
flammation of the stomach and intestines, which nothing can subdue. So perfectly
does it pervade the very substance of the body, that, in many cases of death from its
use, the corpse has been perfectly luminous, and the phosphorus has been distinctly
smelt in the blood. A physician, who dissected a body of this kind, found that even
his hands, and the instruments he had used, were luminous, and smelt quite strongly
of it.

Even workmen who employ phosphorus, as match-makers for instance, unless
they are very careful, are apt to suffer seriously in consequence of breathing its
fumes. In some cases, the bones have even decayed, and ulcers have formed of the
most malignant character. Children have been poisoned by eating the phosphorized
ends of matches, it is well known, and some people have been made quite sick by only
breathing the fumes when striking a friction match.

Ether, and other similar articles, have occasionally a singular effect upon the gen-
erative instinct, and awaken it when nothing else will. In many cases, where ether
has been taken to produce insensibility, during surgical operations, the patient has
been, in imagination, enjoying the pleasures of amative indulgence during the whole
period. This has been the case with females while in labor, and insensible from
ether, several having confessed that so far from suffering, they actually experienced the
warmest feelings, and imagined they were enjoying the embraces of their husbands.
In some of these cases, females have experienced these feelings, under such circum-
stances, for the first time, and never after did so while awake. A short time ago, I
knew an instance of a young married lady who took chloroform to have a tooth ex-
tracted, and instead of putting her to sleep, it created a singular amative excitement,
which, in her half-unconscious state, she could not control. Her advances to the
dentist were obvious enough, but fortunately he was a man of honor, and took no
advantage. In a short time the excitement wore off, but she had a distinct recollec-
tion of her situation, and was most deeply mortified and hurt when she thought of it.
At other times she was rather indifferent to such pleasures, especially after the above
occurrence. In some peculiar cases I use these agents in my practice, but only under
certain circumstances.

Aromatics and spices have in general a stimulating effect on the generative or-
gans, the same as on other parts, but their power varies very much in different
persons, and under different circumstances. There are various spice mixtures and
combinations in popular use for this purpose, but they should not be indiscrimi-
nately used. Sometimes they are highly injurious, like all other stimulants, and
even when they do cause an increase of power or feeling it is only temporary, and
often followed by directly opposite effects.

In short, none of these articles operate specifically, in a beneficial manner, on the
generative organs, though certain combinations of them may do so under particular
circumstances, like the medicine I have referred to as being used in my own practice.

There is one drug, brought from the East Indies, the Cannabis Indica, which is
the most regular in its action, and produces the most constant beneficial effects of
anything yet tried. It appears to act as a special nervous stimulant, exciting those

WFL UENGE OF DB U08 0 VER THE SEX UAL PO WEBS. 423

parts of the brain, which influence the sexual organs, so that they feel directly an in-
crease of power. It also causes great mental activity, disposes to cheerfulness, and
induces a feeling of warmth and comfort over the whole system. Those who have
taken it, in a proper manner, are delighted with its effects, and never complain of
any after-depression or reaction in any way. If given improperly, however, or in too
heavy a dose, it first causes excitement of the wildest character, with an uncontrollable
disposition to bodily activity, and afterward a complete mental and physical prostra-
tion. In short, it is most powerful, either for good or for evil, according as it is
ased, and is the only means we possess, in numerous cases, of restoring sexual power
and desire. In the East Indies it is commonly used, like opium in China, for the
purpose of producing pleasurable excitement, and also for removing impotence.

Medicines that excite the sexual organs are called aphrodisiacs and in various
parts of the world they are in great demand, though but seldom administered so as to
be of any real service. As I have already remarked, some of these medicines, when
properly used, have undoubted aphrodisiac powers, but they are by no means appli-
cable in all cases. They may frequently fail of producing any good, effects whatever,
and sometimes may even cause irretrievable mischief. Their successful administra-
tion, therefore, requires a perfect knowledge of their properties, and an extensive
observation of their effects under all circumstances. It is for this reason I have not
given any recipes for these drugs, for no one can tell when they should or should not
be used unless they know something about them, and the effects of taking them
improperly may be so serious that experiment with them is dangerous.

Medicines that decrease the sexual powers are called anaphrodisiacs.

Every young man should read attentively the remarks upon the influence of
tobacco and alcohol, further on. The real power of these drugs is but little known,
and the mischief they do to the sexual organs is unsuspected. Married persons
should also be acquainted with many of the facts there given, as they will show that
in many instances the most temperate use of these articles is hurtful, and that they
often cause impotence and sterility, as well as insanity.

These remarks were intended to apply more especially to the male, but they are
equally applicable to the female also. In fact, to females they may often be of more
importance than to males, because the female system is more easily affected by many
of these drugs, and they act upon them with more intensity. I have known little
girls affected in a most deplorable manner by having such drugs given to them, and
I am confident that the practice is productive of more mischief than is generally
suspected.

Odors and scents. — It will scarcely seem possible, to those who have not considered
this subject philosophically, that a mere scent can have any effect at all over the gen-
erative powers, but such is undoubtedly the fact. The different parts of the nervous
system are so mysteriously and sympathetically connected that any impression, how-
ever slight, made on one nervous fiber may react upon others in a remote part of the
organization, and thus exciting the olfactory nerve, by some peculiar odor, may react
upon and excite the sexual organs, as powerfully as if they were directly irritated.

Some persons are much affected by odors, which operate upon them either ig
stimulants or as sedatives. That there are odors which specially excite the sexuci.
instinct is beyond question, though different people experience their effects in very
different degrees. There are also others that exert an opposite influence, though
seldom in so decided a manner. Very sensitive people, particularly those in whom

424 INFLUENCE OF DRUGS OVER THE SEXUAL POWERS.

the sexual instinct is naturally strong, may be as much excited by a mere scent as by
a medicine conveyed into the stomach, as I have frequently seen. Hysteria is often
excited in this way in females, and various forms of nervous excitement frequently
supervene in the other sex from the same cause.

It may be stated, as a general rule, that all powerful odors may produce effects of
this kind, and they are, therefore, better avoided, particularly the habitual use of
them. There are some particular scents that exhibit this power more constantly,
and to a greater degree than others, and several of these are articles of common use
in the toilette. An enumeration of these would embrace many of the choicest per-
fumes used, but it is scarcely possible to particularize among so many, nor is it
necessary. The very origin and natural use of some of these indicates clearly
enough the purpose nature intended them to fulfill, in the animals from which
they are taken, and I cannot but think that few females at least would use them, if
they really knew what they were. Mush, especially, is an article of this kind, the
aphrodisiac effects of which I have sometimes seen exhibited in the most unequivocal
manner.

The readers of classic poetry will call to mind the story of the Indian Prince,
who exhibited such marvelous powers merely from smelling the flowers of the
nympha odorata ; and also several other instances in which the aphrodisiac power of
different odors is distinctly alluded to, showing that the general truth was known
centuries ago. Some of these accounts are of course much exaggerated, but most of
them are founded upon actual truths, as I have in some cases proved, and I believe
the statement about the nympha is one that is entitled to consideration.

In Turkey, an odoriferous pastile is in common use in the harems, and is reputed
to have great stimulating power. It is compounded principally of musk, civet, am-
bergris, cinnamon, and a variety of vegetable oils. One of these is constantly worn
in the dress, and sometimes it is powdered and rubbed over the person.

Some of these scents, as musk for instance, are probably the sexual odors of the
animals from which they are taken, and are intended to attract the other sex. This
may possibly account for their peculiar power, and make it less singular. Dimer-
brock relates an instance of a man who rubbed musk upon his genitals, before cohab-
iting, and who became so swollen and excited in consequence, and his partner like-
wise, that they could not separate till a variety of refrigerant means had been resorted
to. And in another instance it was observed, that one of these scents excited an
insane person, though he gave no such indications without it.

Experiments have shown undoubtedly, that the peculiar odor of the genital
organs, of either sex, will excite the other sex, though the individuals may neither
be visible nor known to be near.

CHAPTEE XXXVIII.

ON THE PKEVENTION OF CONCEPTION.

This is a subject which many persons may think not necessary to be treated upon,
but there are peculiar reasons why it ought not to be passed over in silence. It has
been, of late years, so much talked of, and so many unscientific works have been
published, pretending to give information about it, that every one is familiar with
the idea. To say that there are means of preventing conception, is only stating what
every person has already heard, or believes, and is, therefore, nothing new. Even if
such information was likely to be productive of great evil, as some imagine, it is now
impossible to prevent its dissemination, and it is, therefore, useless to avoid the topic.
I think, however, that the danger apprehended from it is altogether fallacious, and
the fear arises from a wrong view of the case, as shown in the article on Conception,
to which I refer my readers for the arguments.

Many of the practices resorted to for preventing conception are altogether inef-
fective for the purpose, and some are decidedly hurtful, but this not bei\ig known,
people resort to them, and are both deceived and injured. It is, therefore, the duty
of every physician to show the inutility and danger of such practices, and not to shun
the subject.

Independently of this, however, there are many great and good men wbo think
that harmless means of preventing conception may be practiced with propriety, or
even become advisable in peculiar circumstances, and that there may be nothing
either immoral or improper in their use. It is well known, for instance, that there
are many severe diseases to which females are subject, that never can be removed
while they conceive, but which, if uncured, are sure to become fatal, and probably
also descend to their children. Some females also have deformed pel vises, and can
never bring forth live children, while others are certain to die if the child remains in
the womb till it is a certain size. Besides these cases, however, how many there are
that remain in constant ill health and suffering from continued child-bearing, with-
out the possibility of relief or escape. In our country, fortunately, there are but
few persons that cannot find means to maintain a family, though it be large, but still,
with many it may be a severe struggle to do so, and a constant increase may con-
demn the parents to poverty and difficulty, and the children themselves to neglect.

Now it cannot be denied that people are situated under all these different circum-
stances, and that the continual increase of their families entails all these evils both
upon them and their children, but whether this affords a sufficient reason for limiting
the number, must be left for every person's own decision. I am acquainted with
many moral and religious people who think that the practice, under such circum-
stances, is perfectly justifiable and proper, and some even consider it a duty. Others,
however* think the contrary, and hold that every evil or inconvenience ought to be

426 ON THE PBEVENTION OF CONCEPTION.

undergone, whether poverty, sickness, or even death, rather than avoid it by such
means. For my own part, I would neither give advice, nor offer an opinion on the
subject, as I consider that all persons should decide for themselves, and that their
decision concerns themselves alone. My duty is simply to show the injury of those
practices now in ordinary use, and also the ineffecti veness of most of them.

It is not generally known that it is a regular custom in medical practice, when a
female has a deformed pelvis, or is otherwise incapable of being delivered at the full
term, to produce abortion at an early stage. This, however, is the invariable custom,
and in practical works upon midwifery the means are explained. This is done be-
cause it is thought better to sacrifice the foetus only at any early stage, than to let
loth die, as they assuredly would, if the gestation were allowed to proceed. Now it
may well be a question in such cases, whether it would not be better to teach how to
prevent the conception altogether, and I leave it for others to decide which is the
most objectionable, prevention or abortion ?

There are few persons except medical men, who have any idea of the extent to
which the revolting practice of abortion is now carried, or of the awful consequences
that frequently follow from it. Every female who undergoes any of the disgusting
operations practiced for this purpose, does so at the risk of her life, and to the almost
certain destruction of her health if she survives. I have had many of these misera-
ble victims come to me afterward for advice, and more wretched objects cannot be
conceived. Some of them have been almost torn and cut to pieces, and others so
injured, that their lives hung as it were by a thread. Those that take drugs for this
purpose are also equally exposed to risk, and suffer in their health to an equal extent,
so that their lives become a positive burden to them. In short, this is one of the
most terrible evils of the present time, and every one must earnestly desire to see it
abolished, or some lesser evil take its place. Every female may be told with truth —
and, indeed, every one ought to know — that there are no safe means of procuring
abortion. It is true that some few may undergo the ordeal in safety, but none can
depend upon doing so, and the chances are ten to one that death, or the evils above
referred to, will follow !

A general knowledge of this fact would, no doubt, do much to prevent the prac-
tice, but still it would not do away with it altogether, unless some reliable means of
prevention were known. Strange as it may seem, many of the worst sufferers have
assured me that they would undergo the same risk again, rather than have more
children, and some have even said that they would die first. In such cases, there-
fore, there is simply a choice between the two practices of abortion and prevention,
and I am confident there are thousands who feel in this way.

A gentleman called upon me a short time ago, who was suffering from a terrible
scrofulous affection, which had appeared since his marriage, and by which his first
child was afflicted in an awful manner. He assured me that both himself and his
wife would rather suffer death a thousand times than be the authors of such another
miserable being, and that they thought it would be a most grievous sin for them ever
to be parents again. In another case, the mother had periodic attacks of insanity
after she had borne two children, one of whom had already shown symptoms of the
same terrible affliction, and they, with good reason, feared that if they had others,
the same calamity might befall them. Now, in such cases, I leave those who con-
demn prevention altogether to decide what should be done. For my own part, as I
remarked before, I leave all to decide for themselves, according to their conscientious

ON THE PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION. 427

notions, and I think that no one person's decision, let it be what it may, should in
any way affect another person. In a word, I think it is every one's own affair.

Besides such instances as the above, I often meet with others equally distressing,
and such as are common enough. An industrious, hard-working mechanic, called
upon me once and stated his case, in the hope I could give him advice. He had
four children, the eldest only eight years old, and after every confinement since the
first, in consequence of an injury then, his wife was from three to six months com-
pletely bed-ridden, and unable to attend in any way to her household duties. His
employment was often restricted, and his means so limited, that hired help was out
of their power, and there, said he, "My wife had to lie, day after day, and week
after week, and see everything go to ruin in the house, with the children dirty and
ragged, without being able to rise and help herself." Now this may be considered
an extreme case, but there are thousands of others that approximate to it, and peo-
ple, so situated, naturally ask of their medical adviser, "What shall we do?" If
these men give them no reply, as is generally the case, and no other means are
offered to them, they too often resort to the dreadful practice of abortion.

I know some people will say that it is possible for such persons to avoid having a
family without using preventive means. And so it is ; but the deprivation required
will not be undergone by the great mass, and cannot be undergone by others without
the most immoral consequences. It is sheer absurdity to suppose that the prompt-
ings of nature can be totally unheeded, except in peculiar individual cases, and illicit
intercourse, or vicious habits of self-indulgence, would certainly follow a total depri-
vation of the marital right, in most instances.

Many medical men and philanthropists have perceived these difficulties, and have
pressed a consideration of them, but few have chosen to give actual advice. I think
it is best to leave it altogether an open question as to the propriety of prevention, or
in what cases it is allowable.

The most obvious means of prevention are those alluded to in the Bible, as having
been practiced by Orian, and which have doubtless been in use for thousands of years.
If the seminal fluid be not placed within the female organs, of course there can be no
conception, and all that is required, therefore, is to cease association before emission
occurs. But, independently of the uncertainty of this being done, at least in many
cases, it is not advisable. There is good reason to believe that, in every act of associ-
ation, the presence of the male principle within the female organs is always required,
even when there is no conception. It is, in all probability, more or less absorbed in
every case, and even when it does not impregnate, it prevents irritation and exhaus-
tion. In fact, without it, the act is merely a species of masturbation, unsatisfactory
and injurious. It is also extremely hurtful to the male, and in a way not at all
suspected. When emission occurs without the female organs, it is always more
incomplete and slower than when it occurs within, owing to the absence of the cus-
tomary warmth and pressure, and of that peculiar influence which the organs of one
sex exert upon the other. A portion of the semen, therefore, remains undischarged
at the time, and escapes slowly afterward, thus giving rise to a weakness and irritation
of the urethra and seminal ducts, which, in time, becomes permanent, and lays the
foundation for involuntary losses and final impotence.

I have known many married men much injured in this way, without being able to
even conjecture what had hurt them. And I am confident that much female exhaus-
tion and nervous irritation result in the same way.

428 OJS~ TEE PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION.

The partial adoption of this plan is not liable to the above objections to quite an
equal extent, but still it is so, more or less, and it is perhaps still more difficult to prac-
tice. But, independent of these considerations, it cannot be relied upon, for conception
may follow if the seminal fluid be placed in any part of the vagina, as before explained5
or perhaps even in the external lips. It is true it is not so likely to occur under such
circumstances, but still it may do so. In some men the penis is imperfect, the opening
of the urethra being under, and some distance down, instead of being at the end,
so that they can never eject the semen to the top of the vagina, but only into its
lower part. Still these men may be fathers, though not so frequently as others, unless
with certain females. Dr. Dunglison, in his Human Physiology, remarks of this
imperfection, that "we cannot, therefore, regard it as an absolute cause of impotence,
but the inference is just, that if the semen be not projected far up into the vagina,
and in the direction of the os uteri, impregnation is not likely to be accomplished ; a
fact which might be of moment to bear in mind where the rapid succession of children
is an evil of magnitude. "

This plan, therefore, diminishes the liability, but does not totally prevent.

The next most general plan is the use of injections after association, either for
the purpose of removing the semen, or of destroying its power. For the purpose of
removing it, however, they cannot always be relied upon, for sufficient will often be
retained in the folds of the vagina to cause conception, notwithstanding the injection.
For the same reason, no certain dependence can be placed upon introducing any
object into the vagina before association, as a sponge, for instance, which, on being
withdrawn, may bring the semen with it. In many cases this succeeds, but often it
will not, because a small portion of semen is sure to be left on the walls notwith-
standing, and that may impregnate. There is another objection also to this, which
should forbid its general use. Tbe object introduced, of course, comes immediately
before the mouth of the womb, and thus prevents the contact of that part with the
male organ. Now this contact is often necessary for the production of a proper state
of excitement, as formerly explained, and when this does not occur, there is simply
an injurious irritation to the female, without any gratification. I have known it also
cause irritation of the meatus in the male.

The use of injections to destroy the power of the semen would seem to be the
most reliable means, and when of the proper kind, they are so, but the unscientific
use of them has led to sei-ious evils. The way in which they operate, when effective,
is by killing the seminal animalcules, and any injection that will not do this, will
not prevent conception. There are many substances that will apparently kill them,
but which only leave them paralyzed, so that they afterward recover ; and there are
other substances that will destroy them, but only when used so strong as to injure
the female organs. The solutions of various salts, for instance, act in this way,
such as alum, sulphate of zinc, chloride of zinc, and sulphate of iron, none of which,
according to my experiments, will always kill the animalcules, unless used stronger
than is allowable with safety to the female. Very many I have met with seriously
injured by the constant use of powerful injections of this kind, some having inflam-
mation of the womb and vagina, some excoriations, and others hemorrhage. Besides
which, they in a short time destroy the sensibility of the parts entirely, and lead to
total indifference and sterility. The only articles proper to be used in this way are
guch as destroy the animalcules without acting on the female organs, and there are
but few that do so.

ON THE PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION. 429

The employment of injections is objectionable, however, on other grounds. It is
cot advisable, as before stated, to remove the semen from the vagina, nor to pi event
its being deposited there, because it is better for it to be absorbed, even when there is
no impregnation. In all cases, also, it is necessary for them to be used immediately
after emission, and the too early separation, together with the anxiety and revulsion
of feeling attending upon the preventive act are both agitating and injurious, to say
nothing of inconvenience. Some females, also, absorb the semen so quickly that the
injection can scarcely be used in time, and with some men the emission is so slow
that the first part may impregnate before the whole has been expelled. To be in any
degree certain, therefore, when using injections, it is necessary for the act to be to a
certain extent incomplete, and this often causes a weakness in the male and nervous
irritation in the female.

The employment of a covering to the male, in the form of a thin skin tube, called
the condom, is of course efficacious as a preventive, but is liable to many of the above
objections. The emission is never quite perfect when it is used, and the mutual con-
tact of the male and female organs with each other being prevented, as well as the
contact of the semen with the vagina, there is not a complete gratification, and to the
female great nervous irritation often follows.

Among some persons a plan has been adopted more injurious than any of the
above, though not known to be so. It consists in forcibly compressing the male
organ close to the scrotum, just previous to emission, so that the semen cannot
escape. Some men think that by such means nothing is lost, and that the connec-
tion does not exhaust them, but this only shows their ignorance of their own structure.
In all cases where the compression is practiced, the emission is as complete as if noth-
ing of the kind had been done, only it takes a different course. By referring to the
plate showing the internal male organs, it will be seen that the semen passes into the
urinary passage, from the prostate gland, through certain little openings called the
ejaculatory ducts, close to the vera montanum, or little protuberance in the middle
of the passage, close to the bladder. Now the veru montanum is so formed, being
pointed forward, that it directs the semen along the passage toward the external
opening, which is the course it should pursue, but when compression is practiced, so
as to close the passage, it cannot escape in this direction. Under these circumstances,
therefore, it is compelled to flow by the large end of the montanum and enter the
bladder, from whence it is expelled afterward along with the urine. The consequence
of tins is that it soon begins to take that course always, whether compression be prac-
ticed or not, and the man becomes sterile in consequence. He is also liable to
inflammation of the urethra, veru montanum, and bladder, and suffers from sperma-
torrhoea, till eventually his powers are lost altogether. It is, in short, a most de-
structive practice.

M. Parent Duchatelet gives us some curious information respecting this practice,
in his work on "Prostitution in Paris," which may be read with profit both by the
physiologist and philosopher.

I may perhaps as well remark here, incidentally, that some young victims of mas-
turbation practice the same thing, under the mistaken idea that no evil ensues from
their vice if the emission does not take place. The folly of this will, however, be
apparent from the above explanation.

Those females who think they can escape being impregnated by simply avoiding
all excitement and pleasurable feeling, are more deceived than those who rely on any
of the other modes, as former explanations have shown.

430 ON THE PREVENTION OF CONCEPTION

It is evident, however, that the prevention of conception, when association is
practiced, is not so easy as some have supposed, and that it is not altogether harmless
either.

To prevent disappointment and criminality, it is thought advisable to make
known the following facts : By a laiv of the State of New York, and also by a special
act of Congress, it is forbidden, under any circumstances, to give any one such
means, or information, as may enable them to prevent conception ! The law makes
no exceptions, not even though the plea may be to preserve health or life !

It is also forbidden to import or sell the ordinary membranous, or rubber cover-
ings, used to prevent venereal disease.

In regard to miscarriage, or abortion, it should be universally known that there
is no medicine tohatever which is sure to effect either the one or the other at any
time ! Nine-tenths of the remedies advertised for such purposes are mere deceptions,
and are not intended to have any effect whatever; while the remainder are more dan-
gerous to the female than to the foetus, and still uncertain in their action.

The operation for abortion is never safe at any time, or in any hands, and every
woman who submits to it, not only risks her health, but puts her life in peril!

CHAPTEK XXXIX.

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST.

Influence of Food and Brink over the Sexual Powers.

Those who think that food and drink exert little or no direct influence over the
eexual powers are greatly mistaken. They in fact operate most powerfully, both
directly and indirectly.

It is very essential to the preservation of the sexual power that the general health
should be good, and that there should be no serious derangements of any of the vital
functions. When the general health is impaired and the vital energies are low, the
sexual organs are sure to be weakened, and usually more in proportion than any of
the others. Owing to their extensive sympathies also, they are sure to be affected by
the diseases of all the other organs, and not unfrequently this sympathetic injury
becomes very serious. The stomach particularly exerts a great influence over the
generative organs, both beneficial and injurious. Long-continued dyspepsia is nearly
always accompanied by weakened sexual power and desire, and even temporary attacks
of indigestion will, for a time, produce similar effects. On the other hand, a healthy
stomach, with perfect digestion and nutrition, is highly conducive to sexual vigor.
We may even go much further, and show that high feeding is nearly sure to over-excite
the genital organs, or, in other words, that gluttony leads to licentiousness. This is a
truth too often lost sight of in the education of children, many of whom, though pre-
disposed to sexual ardor, are stimulated with rich food and exciting drinks till their
passions become overpoweringly strong. In short, the stomach exerts a most decided
sympathetic influence over the generative organs, and we are thus enabled, by proper
attention to the diet and drink, to either increase or weaken their power to a great
extent.

Some kinds of food stimulate the sexual organs, while other kinds have the con-
trary effect upon them. Shell-fish, as before stated, are usually stimulating, owing
to the phosphorus they contain, but other fish have partially this power. Flesh-meat,
is stimulating, merely because it is nutritious, but it is a great mistake to suppose
that it is of necessity more so than vegetables. There are some vegetables that are
often more stimulating than flesh, especially those that are farinaceous or contain
much starch, as the potato for instance, which, when of good quality, contains most
of the elements the body needs. Most strong-tasted or aromatic vegetables have a
stimulant effect, such as celery, parsnips, onions, and asparagus, especially, and so
have all seasoning herbs, such as mint, sage, pennyroyal, and thyme. Spices and
condiments have a still stronger action, especially the peppers and nutmeg. Mush-
rooms stimulate some people very much, and truffles still more, and even olives exert
a marked influence at times. The flesh of birds, I think, is not stimulating, except
that which is red, such as ducks and geese. I have several times been assured that

431

432 TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST.

eating freely of the canvas-back duclc, when in season, has been highly beneficial to
those who were weakened by excess, probably partly from its oavii nature and partly
from the wild celery on which it feeds. Of all meats, however, turtle has the greatest
reputation for exciting the generative organs, and I think with good reason. It is
undoubtedly highly nutritious, and it appears also to contain some heating principle,
which specially affects those parts.

As a general rule, all watery vegetables, such as turnips, cabbage, and squash,
have no such effect as those enumerated, and are therefore proper when we wish to
keep down excitement. Acid fruits also come under the same category, and indeed
fruits generally, except some highly-flavored ones, such as peaches and pine-apples,
which are undoubtedly aphrodisiac, except they disagree with the stomach.

Tomatoes are rather stimulating, and so are most kinds of beans, especially the
lima beans, but peas are not so. Wheaten bread, or wheaten flour in any form, is
more stimulating than the flour of any other grain, while Indian meal is probably
the least so. When we desire an anaphrodisiac effect therefore, Indian bread should
be used, with mush, samp, or hominy, instead of wheaten bread or potatoes. Kice
is unstimulating, but sago, tapioca, and arrow-root are the reverse.

In regard to drinks, it may be stated that all alcoholic liquors are highly stimu-
lating when first takerj, but they soon lose their power if used too long or intemper-
ately, and then they become injurious. Wine has a more strengthening effect than
spirits of any kind, and ale or porter is still better than wine. Those who desire to
keep their passions down should not take either wine or malt liquor in any quantity.
Most of the cordials in use are highly exciting, owing to the spices they contain, and
so are many of the so-called bitters. Coffee is almost as stimulating as wine, and
should never be used by those who are disposed to involuntary emissions, nor by those
whose desires are too strong. Tea is different from coffee in this respect, and is there-
fore the better drink in such cases. Milk, though highly nutritious, is not stimu-
lating, and it therefore forms an excellent drink for those who are disposed to emis-
sions or exciting dreams ; such persons, however, will do better to use cold water
only, and they should also avoid all warm fluids, no matter how simple, because
warm drinks always excite the flow of urine, and of course stimulate the sexual
organs also. Those who cannot use the cold water only may safely drink soda and
mineral waters as much as they choose, or lemonade if it agrees with them.

The Turks regard all kinds oifish as being stimulating to the sexual powers, and
they resort to them on that account. Some kinds besides shell-fish may probably be
so, because they contain phosphorus, which is the real cause of their power when they
have any. A French writer, Hecquet, gives us a curious account of an experiment
made by one of the Sultans, to test this. He had two Dervishes brought before
him, men who mortified the flesh in everyway, and who practiced the most rigid celi-
bacy. He had them fed upon the most stimulating and nutritious meats, till they
became quite stout and strong, and then commanded them to be constantly attended
by two of the most beautiful young females in the harem, who were directed to
use all their arts to excite their amorous desires. The Dervishes, however, resisted
all these powerful influences, and maintained their celibacy inviolate. He then
directed them to be fed on fish, and to be waited upon in the same way. This
course was found to succeed, the rigid Dervishes forgot their vows, love triumphed,
and the influence of this peculiar diet was fully established.

Young meats are not nearly so stimulating as those of mature animals, nor so

TOPICS OF SPECIAL WTEREST 433

nutritious. In roasting meat, especially beef, when it is properly done, there is a
peculiar and delightful odor given from what is called the baric or brown, which in-
dicates the presence of a principle, termed osmazome, which is not found in veal or
lamb. This principle is highly stimulating and generous, and undoubtedly conducive
to generative power.

In well-prepared soups we smell the osmazome, and then they are of service, but
without it they can do but little good.

Good, rich beef roasted, especially the outside, is perhaps as good an article for
strengthening the sexual powers as any that could be eaten, and it may often be used
alternately with some of the other articles mentioned, with great advantage.

Fat is of little service for this particular purpose, it having a direct tendency, as is
well known, to form fat, which is not required.

PKOPER TIME FOR SEXUAL INDULGENCE.

The importance of this subject is greater than, at a first glance, it might appear to
be, and in giving advice, as a medical man, I often find it necessary to refer to it.

Perhaps, however, the most important suggestions, as regards the preservation of
the procreative power, are those relating to its actual use. It is well known, respect-
ing all the other vital functions, that their healthy performance and preservation
depend materially upon their being exercised at proper times and under proper cir-
cumstances, and it is the same with the generative functions. Many persons think,
because the genital organs are usually capable of action at any time, and under almost
any circumstances, that it is therefore of little consequence what time is chosen, or
under what circumstances it may occur. This, however, is a great mistake, as any
one may soon discover by studying his own experience.

The time for sexual indulgence should be so chosen that the temporary excitement
and after-exhaustion resulting from it may not interfere with any of the bodily or
mental functions, nor distress the system by necessitating too much effort during any
needful exertion. Ignorance of this important rule, and consequent neglect of it, very
often leads to great inconvenience, and even serious mischief. Sexual indulgence just
after eating is nearly certain to be followed by indigestion, even if it does not cause
immediate vomiting, owing to the temporary loss of nervous power thereby produced,
which arrests the action of the stomach. Just before eating, also, the same evil may
follow, from the stomach being made so weak that digestion cannot properly com-
mence, and the food consequently ferments. Many times I have heard men confirm
this truth, when explained to them, though they had previously never dreamt that
their troubles arose from such a cause, and when our previous explanations are borne
in mind, respecting the nervous sympathies of the sexual organs, the philosophy of
it will be evident. The proper time for this indulgence, therefore, in reference to
taking food, is at a sufficient interval after eating for digestion to be nearly accom-
plished, and before another meal begins to be needed. By observing this rule, the
action of the stomach is not interfered with, and no indigestion or nausea is likely
to follow. It is true that most men experience a stronger desire for indulgence im-
mediately after a full meal, particularly when stimulating drinks have been used, but
this does not prove that they choose the best time. The desire they then experience
is merely a factitious one produced by the general excitement of the whole system,
and the exhaustion afterward felt is nearly always in proportion. In the same manner

434 TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST.

a man, while under excitement from alcohol, may feel disposed to great bodily
activity, and may exhibit astonishing strength, but when the stimulus is withdrawn
he feels a corresponding prostration and lassitude. This is the reason also why
sexual indulgence sbould not be sought during such excitement, for the disposition is
nearly sure to be stronger than natural, and the over-excitement is followed by pro-
portionate exhaustion. In poetry, I am aware, Venus and Bacchus are associated
together, but poetry is not always physiology, nor even common sense, nor should the
licentious furor produced by wine be in any way considered as the promptings of
nature.

Upon the same principles, it is obviously injudicious to seek indulgence just
previous to any mental effort being made, because the vital energy will be too much
exhausted to allow of such effort being made with advantage. Nor is it advisable
immediately after any great mental effort, because it is injurious to have hvo causes
of exhaustion in action at the same time. The same remarks also apply to muscular
exercise, which should neither immediately follow nor closely precede sexual indul-
gence, for the reasons above given ; in short, the period chosen should be one when
both body and mind can enjoy repose, at least for a short period, both before and
after, and when none of the functions are likely to be disturbed.

The time of day is a matter of secondary importance, or rather no preferable time
can be named, because it must so much depend upon how the individual is circum-
stanced. That of course will be the best time when the above-mentioned rules can
be most fully observed. Some medical writers suggest the evening, because the busi-
ness of the day is then over and the repose of night is to follow, and this probably is
the best period, generally speaking. Others again recommend the morning, because
there is then the greatest vigor, and in case of conception the offspring may be bene-
fited thereby. This, however, I feel assured, is a bad suggestion, for the business
of the day will be very apt to oppress a man who starts exhausted, and the various
functions of his system will very likely be imperfectly performed. .

The celebrated Buffon was accustomed to indulge just after his dinner, and pos-
sibly in his particular case it might have had no ill effect, but most certainly the
practice cannot be generally advised, and there are few persons but what would be
injured by it.

Perhaps the best course, when a man is much exhausted by the fatigues of the
day, is to take a first sleep, for two or three hours, and then wake up for the pur-
pose, devoting the remainder of the night afterward to undisturbed repose.

EFFECTS OF OVER-EXCITEMENT AND ABSTRACTION OF MIND.

Abstraction of mind, or its complete absorption in some much-liked pnrsuit, is
highly unfavorable to the manifestation of sexual power. Many men who were
really strong and vigorous in their sexual systems have been comparatively impotent
from mere pre-occupation of mind, as some of our former articles have shown. Such
is the case also with females, who are very apt, when absorbed in their domestic
duties, and in the anxieties attendant upon a family, to become completely indiffer-
ent to amative enjoyment. Indeed, it is a common remark that most of them soon
fail in this respect, and seldom maintain the ardor they experienced at first, and no
doubt for the above reason. Those that remain childless, or who have no care and
anxiety, do not experience this deprivation, but, on the contrary, their power of en-
joyment often increases.

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST. 435

A celebrated medical author relates an instance of a great mathematician who
married, and who, though every way capable, was utterly unable to consummate
fully the act of sexual union. Always before it was complete some of his mathe-
matical 'problems would come up in his mind, and so completely abstract him, that
love was momentarily forgotten, and the excitement went down. His lady com-
plained to the physician above-mentioned, and asked his advice. He recommended
her to partially intoxicate her husband some night, with champagne, and induce him
to seek her society while experiencing the, to him, novel exhilaration. She did so,
and the result was as desired, so that in a short time she became a mother. During
the unusual excitement of the time his mathematics were forgotten, and love had
the desired opportunity to triumph.

Several instances have been known where over-excitement has led to apoplexy,
and to paralysis. I know a young man now, who became completely blind from
excessive excitement when first cohabiting with a female. And I was told a case of
a husband who actually died while embracing his wife after a long absence. In
another instance, a man became insane from over-excitement, on the occasion of his
marriage, and a female who was exceedingly amorous, completely lost the use of her
Jimbs in the same way. Palpitations of the heart, nervous tremblings, and partial
loss of sight are frequent occurrences at such times in both sexes, and when excessive
are apt to become permanent.

DURATION" OF THE SEXUAL POWER.

The duration of the sexual power, like any other, materially depends on the
manner in which it is used, and this should therefore be duly considered by those
who think the preservation worth striving for. A certain amount of natural indul-
gence is probably essential, in most cases, to perfect health, but when that amount is
exceeded, of course, more or less permanent injury results, as before shown. Every
individual should therefore endeavor to discover, for his own guidance, the proper
limits to his gratification, and if he will attend to what has been previously stated on
this point, that limit may be readily ascertained. By doing this, a real gain will
always be made, for the extra duration of the power which this will insure will more
than compensate for any temporary denial. With those people whose systems are
in regular action, and whose health is nearly uniform, the observance of a regular
period is found to be advantageous, and highly conducive to the preservation of the
virile power, as it prevents both excess and gradual decline.

These hints and suggestions, though apparently simple and commonplace, are
nevertheless of great value, and if duly observed would probably do more toward
preventing untimely decay than all the medical treatment ever practiced. Decay is
caused, in numerous instances, by a number of small causes operating together, and
if each of those be removed, as it may generally be very readily, the decay is of course
prevented. People are too apt to take notice only of the more striking agents of
destruction, passing unnoticed these apparently simple ones, as being of small conse-
quence, while, in reality, they are the most important.

There are few persons of good health who will attend to the above suggestions,
and the advice formerly given, but what may preserve their powers to an indefinite
period of their existence, particularly if they practice cold local bathing over the parts,
and avoid all improper excitement. There is no particular time of life when the

436 TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST.

powers of the male system decay, but they may be preserved to extreme old age, as
many cases have proved. Old Parr, for instance, was condemned to do penance
when over a hundred years old, for an amorous intrigue, and he had several children
after that period.

In females, however, the power of generation ceases at the turn of life, but not
the power of association, which of course remains the same. It is a remarkable fact
also that the disposition to, and the capability of, enjoyment remain as strong after
that period as before, or even become stronger in many, which would seem to prove
that association is quite proper as a means of indulgence only, or certainly the desire
for it would become extinct.

The explanations already given will show that both power and capability of
enjoyment may be either increased and made to endure, or decreased and early extin-
guished, according to the mode of life which the individual pursues. There are,
however, many modifying circumstances not generally taken notice of, but which are
of considerable importance.

There is no question but that association between persons properly adapted to
each other is less exhaustive, and may be more frequently indulged, than between
those who are naturally unfitted to be companions. And it is also certain that the
circumstances under which the association occurs may very much determine the effect
it will have. It is requisite, for the act to be truly pleasurable, and advantageous,
that it should be fully approved both by the feelings and the judgment ; other-
wise it will be more or less regretted, and more or less injury will follow, no matter
what amount of mere animal gratification be experienced. This is the reason why
mere licentious debauchery is always followed by remorse and ill health, while legiti-
mate association in marriage, with a loved and respected partner, leads to no such
evil results. It is a fact equally important to individuals and to society at large, that
the institution of marriage is conducive both to health and to happiness, and that the
duration of life, in both sexes, is longer in that state than in any other. Many men
fall into a great error in regard to this subject, and suppose that they can realize
more pleasure in the unlicensed indulgence of the single state than when married.
This is, however, a fatal mistake, for they really enjoy less, and are after all dissatis-
fied with themselves, while the duration of their powers is materially shortened.

Some little time ago, I had a very interesting conversation on this subject with a
Swedenuorgian, who remarked that many of the principles laid down in my lectures
exactly corresponded with his spiritual views on marriage, and that his own experi-
ence fully corroborated the truth of what I had stated. He told me that in his youth,
he was unfortunately led into a licentious course of life, and experienced in conse-
quence all that self-accusation and loss of real pleasure which I described, but that
since his marriage, and in consequence of the important truths learned from Sweden-
borg's writings, he had subjected his passions to the control of reason, and had led, as
he exp/essed it, a new life. He assured me that with the partner of his bosom, asso-
ciation was never follotoed by exhaustion to either, but, on the contrary, by a feeling
of increased strength and pleasure to both, and I have no doubt but he spoke the
literal truth, for I have been frequently told the same by others. He regarded this as
a spiritual effect, while /looked upon it as a simple physiological one ; but be that
as it may, the fact is an important one, both as regards health and morals.

Another important requisite for the healthy action and extended duration of the
sexual power, in both, is a near correspondence in age. Experience has proved beyond

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST. 437

doubt that when there is great disparity of age in marriage, the elder person is
nearly sure to benefit at the expense of the younger, sometimes even sufficiently to
compensate for the loss resulting from great excess. This fact was acted upon,
medically, in former times, and is now even, in some countries, by procuring young
females to sleep with old men, so that they may be strengthened thereby, which they
nearly always are, though the females suffer a corresponding loss, and not unfre-
quently waste and die in consequence. Such unnatural practices are, therefore,
properly discountenanced now, both by reason and morality, though we sometimes
see a near approach to them in marriage. It is even known that when children sleep
with old persons they suffer from it, and sometimes even die, without the cause of
their sickness being suspected. In all probability young men who marry old females
suffer in the same way, and to an equal extent, providing they are as exclusive in
their companionship, but there are many causes that may make it otherwise in their
case.

What constitutes a great disparity of age must, of course, depend upon various
circumstances, besides the number of years. Some persons are younger at forty,
or even fifty, in respect to health and probable longevity, than others are at twenty-
five or thirty, and this must be taken into account. Generally speaking, however,
there should not be much more than ten years difference, under any circum-
stances, and only half that is better, the man being the elder. Besides health, this
principle of similarity of age has an important bearing upon the relative number
of the sexes born, as shown elsewhere.

The explanation of the above-mentioned fact is probably this : all living bodies
are constantly giving off portions of their substance, in the form of insensible perspi-
ration, and these particles thrown off are in the same state, in regard to age and
health or disease, as the body from which they emanate. The same bodies are also
as constantly absorbing, both by the lungs and by the skin, whatever is presented to
them in a proper form, which partly counterbalances the loss. Young healthy
persons are therefore always giving off a stream of fresh, wholesome material from
their bodies, and old, or diseased persons, as constantly giving off a stream of morbid
and decaying matter, which explains why it is that the young suffer and the old
benefit when they live together. The waste of the old persons is in part made up by
absorbing the fresh exhalations from the young, and they become thereby rejuvenated,
while the waste of the young persons is only made up by absorbing the decaying ex-
halations from the old, and they in consequence speedily decay and become old like-
wise. The celebrated Hufeland, in his Art of Prolonging Life, gives some curious
instances of the practical application of this fact, which are highly interesting, in a
scientific point of view, though morally reprehensible. Among others, he tells us of
an old man who had the superintendence of a kind of almshouse, in which were a
large number of young girls, in whose society he passed nearly the whole of his time.
He contrived to have a number of them always around him, so that he was constantly
in an atmosphere, as it were, of youthful exhalation, and by these means he preserved
his life to an extreme old age, with all his powers in full vigor.' A similar practice,
to a certain extent, has even been adopted in London and Paris very recently, as was
discovered in the evidence of a police trial. It appeared, from the statements made,
that a number of poor young married females were hired to attend, at certain estab-
lishments, for so many hours in the day, to associate with superannuated old men.
And not only did these young females associate in company with the aged patients,

438 TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST.

but they also supplied them with what ought to be kept for infantile nutrimeni
alone — in short, they acted as wet nurses to them ! The results of the practice were
said to be very satisfactory ; but fortunately there is not sufficient degradation and
poverty, in this country, to make it available here, though I have known it attempted.
With persons of equal age, and similar condition of health, the exhalations are simi-
lar, and there is an equal loss and gain on both sides. During sexual excitement the
insensible exhalation is much increased, and therefore the effects above-mentioned are
more evident at such times ; and this perhaps explains, as my Swedenborgian friend
remarked, why it is that in a proper marriage no exhaustion at all is experienced,
there being merely a reciprocal interchange exactly corresponding in both.

PROPER AGE FOE MARRIAGE.

The proper age for marriage cannot always be determined by the number of years
the individual has lived, some being fully as much developed at fourteen or fifteen
as others are at seventeen or eighteen. The law, of course, fixes a definite period
for each sex, as it is requisite to do, but nature makes many variations. The ancient
Greeks fixed the period of marriage very late, from an idea that it would insure more
vigorous offspring. Some of their lawgivers assigned thirty years for the female and
from thirty-five to forty for the male, but others decreased this extreme period five
or eight years, still leaving it, however, very advanced. The ancient Germans, ac-
cording to Tacitus, never allowed young persons to marry, but compelled the strictest
celibacy in the male till five-and-twenty, and in the female till twenty-one. This
rule we are assured was never infringed, and they believed that the children were
more strong, healthy, and long-lived in consequence. At those times perhaps, when
none of the artificial excitants of civilization existed, and when all lived, almost from
the mother's arms, in the constant practice of laborious muscular exertion, with
coarse food and thin clothing, this continence might be practicable, but it certainly
is not now.

In other parts of the world, where the habits and social condition of the people
are different, we find the opposite extreme, marriages often taking place between
mere children, and females of twelve years old becoming mothers. Both extremes
are undoubtedly hurtful, the too early marriage being, however, the worst, both for
parents and children.

A female who delays marriage till after twenty-eight is liable to many uterine
derangements, and runs more risk during childbirth than even at a very early age.
Perhaps it may be said with propriety, that it is better for a female to marry before
she is ttoenty-four, and not till she has turned fifteen at least, or better still sixteen
or seventeen, the medium age of eighteen being esteemed the most desirable by
experienced physiologists. Much, however, will depend, as before stated, upon the
development of the system, and upon the inclination. Mothers ought to be able to
tell whether the development is such, in every respect, as to make marriage allowable
or not, and it should be esteemed their duty to ascertain such an important fact. In
the course of my practice I have met with many cases of deplorable suffering, both
of body and mind, from neglect in this way.

The proper age for the male is from twenty to twenty-five. It is true that he is
capable of becoming a father at a much earlier age, but it is not at all advantageous
for him to be so, because previous to that time the vital energy is all required to

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST. 438

complete the growth of the system, and it cannot be abstracted in the emission of
semen without injury. It is an undoubted fact that in most young men, previous
to seventeen or eighteen years of age, the seminal animalcules are very small, and
often imperfect, which shows that though they may impregnate, yet it is not proba-
ble that perfect offspring will result from them. There is, however, a difference
among males as there is among females, though it is not perhaps so great, as a gen-
eral rule.

ADVANTAGE OF TEMPORARY SEPARATION.

It is an undoubted fact, that a short absence, or partial separation, occasion-
ally, tends both to increase marital pleasures, and to make them endure longer. It
also makes conception more likely, as the organs act more energetically after a period
of repose, and when stimulated by a short restraint. Many eminent men are said
to have been conceived after a separation of this kind, and their genius has been
attributed to the greater vigor experienced under such circumstances. It is said, for
instance, that Sir Isaac Newton's father had been absent at sea for a long time pre-
vious to his being conceived, and that both his father and mother had strongly
desired their meeting after this irksome separation. In many cases, I have acted upon
this principle, in giving advice, with happy results, and I have no doubt of its being
well worthy of attention practically.

On the same principle, some authors contend that it is advisable always to leave
at least three years between every two births, and they contend it is better both for
mother and child. It has even been advanced as an argument why females should
know how to prevent conception, because it is thought that a small number of chil-
dren will be more perfect, individually, than a large number.

PRECAUTION AT THE TIME OF MARRIAGE.

From our previous explanations, it will be seen that there may be many little
peculiarities of organization, and many conditions of the genital organs, especially in
females, that may make the first association not only difficult and painful, but even
seriously hurtful. An imperforate or very strong hymen, a relatively small vagina,
a partial closure of the lips, or an irritable condition of the parts generally, may be
mentioned among others, and both parties ought, at such a time at least, to know
that such impediments occasionally exist. In most of these cases, a little care and
gentleness may obviate both pain and difficulty, while a want of it may create lasting
trouble and dissatisfaction. If young persons, of both sexes, always perused some
book like this, these minor difficulties would be easily overcome in every instance,
and even more serious impediments would be so well understood that they would
neither alarm nor disgust, as they now too often do. In all cases, however, the
existence of impediments of this kind should be known to mothers, or if they are not
sufficiently informed, and suspect them, the advice of a medical man should be sought.

It appears to me that no young person should enter into marriage totally ignorant
of its duties and liabilities ; and common humanity — to say nothing of prudence —
imperatively demands that no young female should be condemned to it. I have known
many instances of the terrible consequences resulting from a neglect of this necessary
precaution, and, in many cases, when I have been timely applied to, I have been the
means of removing impediments and difficulties that otherwise would have led to
deplorable results. Owing to my books and lectures, a large class of cases of this
kind constantly come under my care, and I therefore speak on sufficient grounds.

CHAPTEK XL.

PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE INDULGENCE.

Those who suppose that sexual enjoyment is altogether immoral and unworthy
of rational beings, and those who regard it as a mere sensual gratification, are both
in error. The instinct or desire for it is innate in all beings, and exercises a most
powerful influence, both upon individual action, and upon the destinies of nations.
That influence may be productive of good or evil, according as those moved by it
are ignorant or properly informed, but there is nothing necessarily wrong in the
instinct itself, that gives rise to it. The charms of mutual love, the relations of
family, and the compact of society, are all dependent upon it, and would never orig-
inate without. Dr. Dunglison remarks, in his Human Physiology, that "In man
and the superior animals, in which each sex is possessed by a distinct individual, it
is necessary that there should be a union of the sexes, and that the fecundating fluid
of the male should be conveyed within the appropriate organ of the female, in order
that — from the concourse of the matters furnished by both sexes — a new individual
may result. To this union we are incited by an imperious instinct, established
within us for the preservation of the species, as the senses of hunger and thirst are
placed within us, for the preservation of the individual. This has been termed the
desire or instinct of reproduction j and, for wise purposes, its gratification is at-
tended with the most pleasurable feelings which man or animal can experience."

The true origin of this instinct has been discussed in a former article, and fre-
quent reference to it has been made in connection with various other explanations,
so that its influence and uses are tolerably well shown already. It undoubtedly
originates from the action of the sexual organs themselves, and its mental manifes-
tations are merely caused by the reflex action of those organs on the brain. In pro-
portion to the activity of the testes in the male, and of the ovaries in the female, is
the extent of the sexual power, and in proportion to the number and sensibility of
the nerves of certain parts is the intensity of sexual feelings and desire. To say that
all these are experienced in different degrees, is but stating what is generally known,
though few persons know the occasional extent of that difference. While some ex-
perience sexual desire so weakly that they can easily overcome it altogether, others
feel it so overpoweringly, that every other impulse besides is utterly powerless, and
for the sake of one indulgence, all risks are run, and all consequences madly braved.
There are people even — females at least — who never even feel the slightest amorous
propensities, and there are others in whom they become so imperious as to cause
actual mania. It is, therefore, very difficult to be strictly just, when judging of the
virtues or failings of people in this respect, and the utmost charity should at least
influence our thoughts, whatever prudence may point out as requisite in our actions.
There are, no doubt, many immaculate people who owe their virtue chiefly to organic
deficiency, which lessens the inclination to indulge, and there are no doubt others

PHILOSOPHY OF AMA TIVE IND ULGENCE. 441

that fall, from unusual organic vigor, which, perhaps, few, if any, would have been
more successful in withstanding. This is not said, be it remembered, as an excuse
for licentiousness, nor to undervalue the power of a well-regulated mind, in controll-
ing these impulses, but merely to state the case as it really exists. That the sexual
powers and desires may be either exalted or depressed, by the state both of the mind
and body, has already been abundantly shown, and all persons with sufficient knowl-
edge may regulate that state in a great measure themselves. It is the duty, there-
fore, of those acquainted with such truths to make them generally known, and
thereby hasten the time when the mere animal instinct will be controlled, at least
sufficiently to prevent evil, by the intellect.

The phenomena attendant upon copulation, or the actual union of the two sexes,
have already been discussed, and also the causes that may be supposed naturally to
lead to it. In both sexes, when the union is really desired, and no obstacle inter-
feres, it leads to the highest and most absorbing excitement that animated beings
can experience. Both sexes are thrown into a species of mental ecstasy and bodily
fever, during which all other thoughts and functions are totally suspended, and all
the vital forces are concentrated in the reproductive system. In the female, the uterus
and vagina are engorged with blood, the labia are tumefied and irritable, and the
clitoris becomes congested, erect, and highly sensitive. In the male similar changes
are also observed, to fit the organ for its peculiar use. " It is first necessary that,
under the excitement of the venereal desire, the organ should attain a necessary state
of rigidity, which is termed erection. In this state the organ becomes enlarged, and
raised toward the abdomen ; its arteries beat forcibly : the nerves become tumid ;
the skin more colored, and the heat augmented. It becomes also of a triangular
shape, and these changes are indicated by an indescribable feeling of pleasure." —
(See Dunglison.)

At this time the adaptation of the male and female organs for each other becomes
most manifest, and the manner of union is clearly indicated. The penis being drawn
up toward the abdomen, it necessarily has an upward curve, which precisely adapts
it, in the usual position, to the curve of the vagina, and brings the mouth of the
urethra almost directly against the mouth of the womb. The cushion of the mons
Veneris prevents injury by external pressure, and the increased flow of mucus from
the vagina moderates the heat, and lubricates the walls of the passage.

Dr. Dunglison remarks, respecting the male organ, that, in all probability, " The
arteries first respond to the appeal ; the organ is, at the same time, raised by the
appropriate muscles, its tissues become distended, the plexus of veins turgid, and the
return of blood impeded. In this way the organ acquires the rigidity necessary for
penetrating the parts of the female. The friction which then occurs keeps up the
voluptuous excitement and the state of erection. This excitement is extended to the
whole generative system ; the secretion of the testicles is augmented ; the sperm
arrives in greater quantity in the vesiculge seminales ; the testicles are drawn up
toward the abdominal rings, by the contraction of the dartos and cremaster, so that
the vas deferens is rendered shorter, and, in the opinion of some, the sperm filling the
excretory ducts of the testicle is in this manner forced mechanically forward toward
the vesicles. When these have attained a certain degree of distension, they contract
suddenly and powerfully, and the sperm is projected through the ejaculatory ducts
into the urethra. At this period, the pleasurable sensation is at its height. When
the sperm reaches the urethra, the canal is thrown into the highest excitement, and

442 PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE IND ULQENGE.

the ischio-cavernosus and bulbo-cavernosus muscles, with the transversus perinei and
levator-ani are thrown into violent contraction ; the two first holding the penis straight,
and assisting the others in projecting the sperm along the urethra. By the agency
of these muscles, and of the proper muscular structure in the urethra, the fluid is
expelled, not continuously, but in jets, as it seems to be sent into the urethra by the
alternate contractions of the vesiculse seminales. These muscular contractions are of
a reflex character, being independent of the will, and incapable of being controlled
by any exertion of it. They are induced, as in deglutition (swallowing), by a special
excitant — the food in one case, the sperm in the other."

This highest point of enjoyment is termed the orgasm, and in some it is so intense
that all consciousness of everything but the intense pleasurable excitement ceases.
The duration of the orgasm is short, it being over immediately the flow of semen is
ended, which is usually in a few seconds. The momentary ecstasy is followed by a
state of dreamy languor and exhaustion, which is often not devoid of pleasure, though
of a different kind, and there is an almost invariable desire for repose. So intense is
the orgasm in some cases, that the individual utters loud cries, and becomes delirious,
or occasionally insensible. The exhaustion afterward is also sometimes very great,
and the individual will be almost unable to move.

In the female, an orgasm is not always experienced, and many even know not
what it is, though they may be capable of considerable excitement. When it does
occur, it is exhibited in the same way as in the other sex, though often much more
intensely, being accompanied by cries and convulsive motions of the most energetic
character. The after-exhaustion is usually not so great in them as in the other sex,
and the dreamy languor is more pleasing. It will often endure for hours.

In the male there can, of course, be but one orgasm at once, because no other can
be experienced till a fresh supply of semen has been secreted, which requires more or
less time. Some, however, can have two or three secretions in an hour or two ; but
it is unusual, and the effort is always very exhaustive and hurtful. I have known an
instance in which a man has forced eight or ten orgasms in a single night ; but in
such a case I have no doubt there was a peculiar conformation of the organs, owing
to which but a small portion of semen was emitted at once, and probably no more
altogether than most men emit at once. In general, no repetition of the act is
desired under several hours, or perhaps not for days, and it is certainly improper for
it to be sought earlier than when naturally desired.

In the female the orgasm is not caused by any secretion, like that of the semen,
and consequently the excitement is not necessarily subdued by the first, but several
orgasms may follow each other in quick succession. This is sometimes carried to a
great extent, each one becoming more vivid than the others, till fainting ensues. In
general, however, there is but one, as with the male, and when there is a proper
adaptation, the two orgasms correspond, which mutually heightens the pleasure of
both, and conduces to conception, though not necessary to it in all cases.

The after state in females is not always the same, but is often one of sadness and
weeping, or of violent hysterics. Some females even say that this is always the case
when they conceive, and that they thereby know when that event occurs. It has been
even said by some that during a vivid orgasm, resulting in conception, they could
see, mentally, the new being they were about to bear, and one female assured me
that in this way she had a perfect view of the form and features of her child as it
afterward appeared at birth. Perhaps we ought rather to believe that the image so

PHILOSOPHY OF AM A TIVE LWD ULOENGE. 443

strongly impressed on her mind, at such a moment, was given to the child in conse^
quence of that impression.

In most females there is a sudden and increased secretion of mucus from the
vagina at the moment of the orgasm, which is erroneously thought by the unin-
formed to be a species of semen, but it has nothing whatever to do with conception.

In many of them the orgasm is very difficult to be produced, and they therefore
seldom experience it, and in some even it is never felt. In others, however, it is
produced very readily, and will even occur during sleep, or from exciting the breasts.
Owing to this peculiar nervous susceptibility sexual excitement will also often follow
various moral emotions, and an orgasm will occasionally supervene without there being
any licentious tendency. This peculiar liability is in fact the cause of many female
enthusiasms, which are often only the results of this powerful emotion directed by
circumstances and education. When strongly experienced, if conscientious motives
are powerful enough to forbid its natural indulgence, it takes some other direction,
and imparts that fervor and devotion which is so amiable a part of the female char-
acter, and which all admire, though few suspect its origin. This nervous suscepti-
bility, however, is unfortunate for them in some respects, as it makes them liable to
undesirable influences, and often overcomes them in spite of themselves.

It has been asserted, by a very eminent physician, that it is simply owing to the
susceptible state of the sexual system that many females are so readily impressed, as
it is termed, by mesmerism, and similar nervous excitements, and that those who are
uninfluenced by such agents are always of cold temperaments. The truth of this, as
a general rule, every medical man of experience must have perceived, and in some
instances it has been proved by unfortunate and unlooked-for occurrences.

A short time ago I induced a lady, who was formerly much addicted to mesmeric
practices, to give me her experience, written down, and a curious revelation it is.
She confessed that whenever she was capable of being acted upon, mesmerically, the
mesmeric state was always preceded by one of sexual excitement, often amounting to
a perfect orgasm, and that if this feeling was not experienced she could not be mesmer-
ized. Sometimes the exaltation of the nervous system was so great she could with
difficulty control herself, and so many orgasms would follow each other that she
would be completely exhausted, and would faint away. According to her statement,
the mesmeric sleep, or ecstasy, was nothing but the dreamy languor following a sexual
orgasm, and though it may not be precisely the same in all similar cases, yet I am
satisfied it is in many. I have seen exhibitions of this kind with young females, in
which I could plainly perceive, from observation of such phenomena, that sexual ex-
citement, though modified and disguised, was the moving impulse. Several respect-
able ladies have also assured me that they were fully aware of this from their own
partial experience when being mesmerized for the cure of disease, and they afterward
refused to submit to such influences again, or to allow their daughters to do so.
In short, I am satisfied that such influences are often dangerous to morals, and
also destructive to health.

Similar results to the above often follow intense devotional excitement, when car-
ried so far as to overpower the reason — such, for instance, as the wild fanaticism of a
camp-meeting, or protracted revival meeting, the female actors in which are often so
carried away by their fervid feelings as to be totally insensible to the nature of what
they experience. This I say, of course, merely as a medical man, and from the number
of patients I have had who have been the victims of these exhibitions, I feel fully jus-

444 PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE INB ULGENGE-

tified in making the observations I have. Hysteria and other nervous affections, pal-
pitation of the heart, and irregular menstruation are a few of the evils that I
thus find produced, to say nothing of the liability to affections of the brain and
chlorosis.

One of the most remarkable circumstances connected with the experience of the
sexual feeling, in females, is the fact that it will often be felt with one companion,
even to excess, but not with another, though there may be neither dislike nor
disinclination. This shows how much it is under the influence of the mind with
them, and to what an extent it is modified by other emotions. Some little matter,
perhaps a mere association of ideas, may be sufficient to prevent excitement entirely,
or raise it to the highest pitch. This also shows that there is a natural adaptation
required between married persons, and that marriage is never precisely what it ought
to be unless that adaptation exists. It is not easy, however, to say in what that
adaptation is to be found, nor can its absence or presence be known precisely, except
by experience.

In addition to its other uses, sexual excitement is undoubtedly beneficial in various
ways to the organization generally. It serves as a wholesome stimulus to the nervous
system at ordinary times, and as a means of expending surplus energy when the vital
functions are too active. It is very seldom the case that there is perfect health with-
out it, and scarcely ever is there an exemption from severe nervous affections. This
accounts for the fact that married people are always longer lived, on the average,
than those that remain single, notwithstanding that they have more anxieties, and
that married females are subject to so many accidents. A celebrated physician
(Pidoux), who had been much employed in nunneries, assures us that almost invari-
ably the nuns are afflicted with floodings, and with other uterine diseases, after they
attain a certain age.

In short, marriage, or the union of the two sexes, is ordained by nature, and this
ordinance can no more be violated without evil consequences than can any other.
The physical enjoyments appertaining to marriage also form part of that ordinance,
and are undoubtedly both proper and advantageous within certain limits.

In all cases where the sexual system is mutilated, so that none of those feelings
and desires are experienced, the individual remains ever after imperfect, both
bodily and mentally. Proof of this is to be seen daily in our domestic animals, the
nature and form of which are changed in the most remarkable manner by castration
or spaying. The most remarkable effects of this kind, however, are seen among
human beings, in those unfortunate creatures termed eunuchs. Stunted or deformed
in body, imbecile in mind, and perverse in disposition, they drag on a wretched exist-
ence for a little more than half the usual term of human life. Decrepid and decayed
while yet young in years, old age comes prematurely upon them, and an untimely
grave closes their imperfect career. Nature, in short, seems to say, that where the
generative apparatus is absent, the rest of the system is not worth preserving, and she
therefore leaves it to speedily decay.

Even in after life, when all has apparently become perfected, the presence and
proper action of these organs is necessary to maintain health and vigor. If any acci-
dent occurs by which they are destroyed, or their powers seriously impaired, every-
thing else suffers, and the whole system speedily goes to decay ; without them,
everything else seems to be abandoned.

The sexual system is therefore necessary, at first, to effect the full development of

PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE INDULGENCE. 445

the whole organization, and it is equally necessary afterward, to maintain it in healthy
and vigorous action.

Perfect continence, in those who have natural sexual tendencies, is always attended
by a variety of evils, some of them of a serious character, showing that temperate
indulgence, so far from being hurtful, is both necessary and beneficial. Perfect con-
tinence, in the male, leads to spermatocele, spermatorrhoea, and even insanity. In
the female, it leads to ovarian and uterine diseases, hysteria, and mania, and in both
it originates the most singular and distressing vagaries of mind and thoughts. In
severe cases, it leads to erotomania, satyriasis, or nymphomania.

An instance occurred in England, of a young female, who became insane, from
not being allowed to marry — though the true cause was not suspected — and who was
confined in a private asylum in consequence ; while there, one of the keepers noticed
certain peculiarities in her conduct, and abused her for his own gratification. The
result was, however, that she perfectly recovered her reason.

In short, it is with these as with all other organs, a temperate and proper use of
them is conducive to health, and creates happiness, but abuse or destruction of them
leads to misery and death.

Constant and healthy exercise of the whole muscular system is also of great
importance to the preservation of sexual power. It is true that if a man takes little
exertion — particularly if he lives high — he will be apt to exhibit an unusual tendency
to amorous indulgence, because, as before remarked, gluttony and idleness lead to
licentiousness. This effect, however, is only a temporary one, and, sooner or later,
the individual finds that he has permanently exhausted his vital energy, and that his
health and strength are seriously impaired. The vital power that may be safely ex-
pended in sexual indulgence is only the surplus, after every part of the system has
appropriated its due amount, and if more be so expended, some part must suffer.
In other words, we may suppose that every healthy man has a certain stock of vital
energy, which we will call his capital, to which he keeps adding more or less, by the
function of nutrition ; this addition may be compared to interest, which may be
expended without any loss of capital, and, of course, without making him any
poorer. If, however, by any excess he expends more than this addition, the capital
is proportionally diminished, and permanently too, for it can seldom be made up
again.

Now, the idle man does not expend enough vital energy on his muscular system
to keep it healthy, but at the same time gives a superabundance of it to the sexual
organs, so that they are over-stimulated, and suffer from excess. They become
habituated to great indulgence, and are constantly causing a drain on the vital
power, that soon exhausts both principal and interest, and leaves the individual com-
pletely exhausted.

The philosophy of this has been frequently alluded to in the course of the pres-
ent work, but it is so important that I wish to present it in a strong light. I am fully
persuaded that there is no case of precocious or excessive sexual propensity, unless
caused by disease, that cannot be easily subdued by muscular exercise. ~No matter
how vigorously the seminal glands may act, in a state of leisure, they must become
less active if the body be exhausted by active exertion, and to this rule there is
scarcely any limit. One of the Keports of the Massachusetts Lunatic Asylum
strongly impresses this truth, and shows conclusively that we have, in hard labor,
a certain means of subduing this propensity to its proper limits under any circum-

446 PHILOSOPHY OF AMATIVE IND ULQENGE.

stances. The application of this truth to young persons is obvious, numbers of them
being made licentious only by bodily inactivity and over-feeding.

The invalid, or the man whose powers are impaired, must, of course, husband
his strength, because he does not require exhaustion, but only sufficient exercise to
insure health.

Exercise oi the mind is also equally as important as exercise of the body. The man
who is mentally idle, is nearly certain to experience too strongly the force of the
animal propensities, and licentious thoughts are too often indulged merely from the.
absence of better ones. It must be recollected, however, that too much mental ex-
ertion, particularly if attended with care and anxiety, is most destructive to the
sexual power, and frequently leads to impotence, as many of our cases have shown.
Those who wish, therefore, to preserve their virility, should endeavor to maintain a
happy medium, laboring with the mind sufficiently for health and utility, and en-
deavoring to preserve perfect calmness and equanimity.

One singular circumstance maybe mentioned here, in connection with the genital
organs, which is both curious and important. They appear to possess, in an eminent
degree, the power of retaining animal fluids in their substance without those fluids
becoming decomposed. Thus, in many cases, sacs of water, blood, and other fluids,
have been formed and retained in these parts, both in males and females, for months
and years, and jet no change has taken place in these fluids. Now, in all cases where
such accumulations take place in other parts of the body, decomposition speedily
ensues, an abscess forms, and perhaps serious wasting disease commences. The
genital organs, therefore, possess a preservative power greater than any other part,
and this % doubtless owing to their great vitality and vigorous circulation

Internal Organs of the Pelvis.

CHAPTEE XLI.

INFLUENCE OP THE BRAIN OVER THE GENERATIVE POWERS.

It is important, in connection with sterility, that the direct influence of the brain
upon the generative organs should be noticed, especially as it is manifested in cases
of injury.

In another part of this work a number of instances are narrated in which im-
potency followed injuries of the head, and we will now narrate a few others, because
this is a most important fact, in many respects.

About five years ago I was consulted by a married man who had totally lost his
sexual powers from striking his head against a beam. The blow had stunned him for
a time, but did not lead to any serious symptoms afterward. He found, however, in
two or three days after that he was perfectly impotent, and had so remained for
eighteen months, when I saw him. There was but little loss of desire, with no
wasting of the genital organs, nor any other indication whatever of his deprivation.
He had previously been a man of temperate habits, and at the time of the accident
was as vigorous as most men. The blow, it may be as well to remark, was received
on the top of the head, and was not followed by any swelling or pain in the cerebel-
lum or neck. When I saw him he was in perfect health, and in good spirits ; in
fact, nothing was complained of but this unfortunate impotency, which he was very
desirous of having removed.

The great point was to ascertain, if possible, in what way the concussion of the
brain had suspended the transmission of nervous power to the genitals, and how it
could be restored. I recollected that in several cases where injuries to the head had
paralyzed particular muscles, or limbs, their power had been restored by galvanism,
applied so as to pass along the course of their nerves, from the spine. It seemed to
me as if the blow had impaired the proper connection between the spinal marrow ana
these nerves, at their roots, and that the passage of the electric current., in some way
or other, restored that connection. It was similar, in fact, to starting the electric
telegraph again by mending the wires, or making the connections perfect, after
they had been destroyed by violence. I therefore applied galvanism, passing the
current from that part of the spine where the spermatic nerves originate, to the
pubes, perineum, and neighboring parts, applying also a stimulating liniment, and
occasionally using the congester. The result was highly satisfactory, and speedily
obtained. At the third application he experienced a decided tingling about the
perineum, and along the penis, and the next time a partial erection occurred.
After persevering for five weeks, using the galvanism daily at first, and then every
other day, and finally but twice a week, he was fully restored, without any apparent
tendency to a relapse. In this case, it will be observed, that the injury was not re-
ceived at the lack of the head, on what the phrenologists call the organ of amative-
ness, but at the top, nor did it in any way whatever affect the cerebellum.

448 INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN OVER THE GENERATIVE POWERS.

In another similar instance, impotency, with complete loss of desire also, followed
a fracture of the skull over the left temple, and no means that were used had the
slightest effect in restoring it. In a few months the testes began to waste, and
eventually almost totally disappeared, but the general health was only slightly
affected.

In the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, for February, 1839, Dr. Fisher
relates a curious instance of a gentleman injured in a railway car. He was looking
out at the moment when a collision occurred, and the shock threw the back of his
head against the edge of the window with such force as to stun him ; he, however,
recovered his senses and was taken home, but suffered great pain in the back part of
the head and top of the neck. His right arm was numbed a little, and some difficulty
was experienced in passing the urine, but in two weeks he was able to walk out, with
no other inconvenience than a slight dimness of sight. About the fifth week, he
discovered that he was impotent, and had lost all sexual desire. The means used to
restore his genital powers were only partially successful, nor was his memory so per-
fect as before, but all the other difficulties disappeared under proper treatment.

In the Lancet, for August, 1851, is an account of a medical student, who received
a blow on the face, in a quarrel, which knocked him down, so that he fell on the
back of his head. He was totally unconscious for eight or ten hours, but gradually
recovered, and on the following day even resumed his studies, which he continued
unremittingly for the next six weeks. He, however, became exceedingly irritable,
with a feeling of general uneasiness, and after the first week he observed the genital
organs begin to waste, and desire to weaken, till he finally became nearly impotent,
but afterward recovered under proper treatment.

Many instances have been observed of soldiers being wounded in the head, and
suffering afterward under the same disability. It is perhaps proper to remark, how-
ever, that this is not the only nor even the most frequent result of such injuries, as
many patients so hurt suffer no deprivation of their genital powers, but have some
other functions impaired. Thus, some lose their sight, some their hearing, and
others become paralytic in their limbs.

The prospect of recovering the sexual powers, when lost from injuries of this kind,
is very small, especially if the parts have really begun to waste. The treatment, at
first, must be that best calculated to subdue the irritation which is probably existing
in some parts of the nervous system, and afterward, if requisite, to rouse the sper-
matic nerves to more energetic action. Every case, however, will require something
peculiar to itself, which can only be discovered by a patient and careful attention to
all its symptoms.

A further corroboration of the facts above stated may also be found in certain
physiological indications observed in those who have died from strangulation. It is
well known that in very many men who have been hung, erection and even seminal
emissions have occurred, and experiments upon animals have often led to the same
result. This is attributed to the pressure of the rope on the back of the head, which
in some way or other excites the spermatic nerves. I have even known pressure
made on that region purposely, in a particular manner, in order to excite erections,
and frequently ivith perfect success. Some of the females in the Turkish harems
understand this, and they habitually chafe or shampoo the back of the neck of their
companions of the other sex, for this very purpose. I have frequently made an ap-
plication of this important fact in my practice, in cases where there was merely a

INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN OVER THE GENERATIVE POWERS. 449

suspension of that sympathetic influence which the brain ordinarily exerts upon the
sexual organs.

A full consideration of all the facts and arguments bearing upon this influence of
the brain over the sexual functions, has left the subject, so far as I am concerned,
in great obscurity. That a singular influence is often exerted by the brain in this
way, sometimes beneficially, and at others the reverse, is undoubted, but whether
such influence emanates from a particular part of the brain, or from the whole
organ is uncertain. The phrenologists affirm that only a particular part of the en-
cephalon is concerned in this phenomenon, namely, the lower part or cerebellum,
which rests upon the spinal marrow.

But after a careful consideration of all the reasons brought forward in support of
this affirmation, I am not yet convinced of its correctness. That many facts favor
such a theory I am willing to admit, but it is also certain that many others militate
against it, and, as a searcher after truth, I must consider everything that bears upon
the question, even though opposed to my previous opinion. I set out with firmly
believing that the cerebellum tvas the organ of the sexual propensity, and my inves-
tigations have made me doubt it. It is not true, I am convinced, that the strength
of a man's propensity can be estimated by the development of his cerebellum, nor is
it true in regard to animals either. If it were so, we ought to find that organ largest
in those who exhibit the propensity most, and in numerous cases it is not so, though
in others it is. A celebrated German physiologist made some investigations bearing
on this point, of an interesting character ; he had numerous opportunities of dissect-
ing horses, and curiosity induced him to weigh the cerebellums of these animals,
some of whom had been castrated wrhen young, and others left entire. Now if the
cerebellum be truly the organ of amativeness, it ought, of course, to be largest
in the entire horses, who have always exhibited that propensity, and we should ex-
pect to find it almost disappeared in the others, seeing that they could never have
felt anything of the kind. The result of the experiment was, however, on taking
the average of an equal number of each, that there was scarcely any difference, or if
any at all, the castrated ones had the largest cerebellums. In observing idiots, also,
some of whom were notoriously licentious, and others directly the reverse, I have not
found that the development of the cerebellum corresponded to the phrenological sys-
tem. Neither can it be contended that the size of the cerebellum in the castrated
animals was only the result of disease, for no difference could be detected in it be-
tween them and the others. All that can be said, therefore is, that certain agencies
acting on the cerebellum, sometimes cause sexual manifestations, and at other times
check them. The same agencies also acting on other parts of the brain will some-
times produce the same results, and sometimes when the cerebellum is acted upon,
it is not the generative organs that are affected, but the sight, hearing, or speech,
which might, therefore, just as properly be considered under its exclusive influence.

It should also be stated, as bearing on this subject, that certain influences oper-
ating on various parts of the body will often affect the generative organs in a decided
manner. I have known a blister on the leg cause the most uncontrollable sexual de-
sires in one man, and the application of caustic to the throat do the same in another.
In applying blisters to the top of the neck also, though it is followed by erections in
some, yet in others no such effect takes place, and occasionally it will produce a
nervous twitching, like St. Vitus' dance, in the arms. Flogging the back, it is well
known, even when very severe, will frequently cause erections and emissions, as in
29

450 INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN OVER THE GENERATIVE POWERS.

the case of soldiers when undergoing that brutal punishment. Kousseau tells us,
in his Confessions, that flogging boys at school, in the disgraceful manner formerly
practiced, is sometimes followed by similar results, and he remarks that the pain of
the punishment may be forgotten under the powerful excitement it leads to — a fact
of deep moral importance. In short, there seems every reason to believe that the
strength of the sexual propensity is dependent upon some peculiarity of the sexual
organs themselves, though it may be often modified by various mysterious sympa-
thies emanating from other parts. If the semen be never formed, there will never
be any sexual desire, and if the amount secreted be unusually large, the desire will
be proportionally great, independent of all other influences. In those who feel desire
without having any semen, as is sometimes the case in impotency, or even after cas-
tration, it is only the remembrance of a lost pleasure.

In treating disabilities of the generative organs, however, the possible influence
of injuries to the head, even at former periods, and long ago, should always be borne
in mind.

Similar facts I have also noticed in females, showing that the influence is similar
in both. Some have never conceived after receiving a blow upon the head, and
others have always miscarried after. In some it has entirely destroyed all sexual
feeling, and in others it has, for a time, excited it to a most uncontrollable height.

CHAPTER XLII.

STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION".

Op late years, much attention has been bestowed upon the subject of sterility, and
much success has attended the efforts of physicians to cure it. This success has re-
sulted from a better knowledge of the various causes of sterility, in both sexes, and
of the means by which such causes could be removed. Those who have read our pre-
vious chapters will be aware that a childless marriage may result, on the part of the
male, either from actual impotence, from malformation of the organs, or from an im-
perfect condition of the semen. On the part of the female, it may result from various
causes. She may either be imperfect in the ovaries, so as to form no eggs, or the eggs
themselves may not be perfect ; or she may have such an irritable womb that constant
miscarriage will occur, even if she does conceive. Besides these causes, the passage
into the womb may be too small, or it may contract spasmodically, and thus prevent
the entrance of the semen. In like manner, the Fallopian tubes may be so contracted
that the egg cannot pass down them till it is too ripe, or spoilt, and, therefore, inca-
pable of impregnation.

Most of these causes are capable of removal, as shown in previous chapters. In
the male, various malformations can be corrected ; the organs can be strengthened,
and the testes can be made to secrete semen more abundantly, and of a better quality.

In the female, also, the ovaries can be strengthened, so as to form more and better
ovse, or eggs ; the irritability of the womb can be removed, so that when she conceives
the embryo can be retained : the Fallopian tubes can also be opened, when contracted
or dosed, and the passage into the womb can be enlarged, so as to admit the semen
into its cavity. Thus most of the causes of sterility are removable, and it is perhaps
safe to say that nine otit of ten childless couples may be made to become parents.

The operations for opening the Fallopian tubes and the passage into the womb
are now regularly performed, and with the happiest results. Men with small organs
have them enlarged, and those with ill-formed ones have them re-formed, so as to
make them fit for their natural uses.

It sometimes happens, however, that the man may have the opening of the penis
not at the end, but far down the organ, and in such a case, though he may have
abundance of good semen, he may fail to impregnate. The semen, in such a case, is
not thrown up to the womb, and unless the female have unusual, powers of absorp-
tion, it may never reach there, and of course cannot impregnate the egg. Such an
imperfection can sometimes be removed by making a new opening in the proper place,
and closing the other ; but this cannot always be done.

Sometimes, also, in the female, the womb may be out of place, so that its mouth
is not properly presented ; or the passage into it may contract, in spite of all we can
do, with such force that no semen can possibly enter. This is very apt to be the
case with females of very warm temperaments, and explains why such women often

451

452 STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION.

do not conceive. No doubt some females can absorb semen from tbe vagina, as ex-
plained elsewhere, but tbese are exceptions. In most cases, the semen, or the ani-
malcules, must directly enter the womb.

Now, it is in precisely these cases in which the semen cannot reach the womb
during or soon after connection, from some of the causes above named, that artificial
impregnation is so applicable and so generally successful.

As we have already explained, connection is not essential to impregnation ; the
female may conceive without any contact whatever with the male ! All that is needed
is for healthy, pei'fect seminal animalcules to enter the womb, and unite there with a
perfect egg. It matters not how the semen is got there, whether through the medium
of the male organ or through the medium of a syringe! And upon this fact is based
the practice of artificial impregnation.

Experiments, made a long time ago, showed that a bitch when in heat could, be
impregnated by injecting semen with a syringe up the vagina. And further, that
by mixing the semen from different dogs, a mixed progeny could be produced, some
resembling one of the dogs, and some another.

Finally, some physicians, seeing the anxiety of many childless parents for off-
spring, and feeling sure that this longing could, in many cases, be easily gratified by
artificial impregnation, urged it upon their patients. A proposition so strange and
novel was, of course, received with great surprise and many objections, and it was
long before the matter was put to the test. Finally, a French physician prevailed
upon several childless couples to adopt the means he suggested, and the success which
attended them at once established the practice, till it has now become quite common,
and no couple now in France consent to be without children, if they wish them, till
these means have been tried. There are physicians, even, who make this a specialty,
and do scarcely anything else but cure sterility, by artificial impregnation.

It is true old John Hunter had suggested this practice to one of his patients many
years ago, and it had succeeded, but the fact had been lost sight of. It is only in
recent times that the practice has become recognized as a legitimate one in medical
practice.

It is a curious circumstance that in an old Arab book, published nearly twelve
hundred years ago, a case of artificial impregnation is fully described. It seems that
in one tribe there was a famous stallion, so fleet that no other horse could compete
with him, and his master could make raids and always escape, owing to his fleetness.
A man of another tribe, however, who had been injured by the owner of the famous
stallion, determined to have one of the same breed, so that he might compete with
him. The book relates, therefore, that when his mare was in heat he took some
cotton and soaked it in the mucus from her vagina ; then, during the night, he
stole to the side of the famous stallion and put this cotton to his nose. The odor of
course excited the horse, as it always does, and finally had such an effect upon him
that he discharged the semen, which the cunning Arab caught upon some clean
cotton, and then, hastening home, he placed it in the vagina of his mare. The con-
sequence was that she became pregnant, and ultimately brought forth a male colt,
which became the equal of his father, and the Arab was thus able to make raids in
his turn upon the hostile tribe. There was one wide, deep ditch in this part of the
desert which only these two could leap.

Artificial impregnation is performed in this way. The physician is provided with
a properly constructed syringe, having a long nozzle, very small, and properly curved.

STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION. 453

The semen, freshly obtained, is sucked up into the syringe, the small end of which
is pushed up into the womb, and then the semen is injected. Of course it is then
put just where it is wanted, and if a healthy, well-formed egg be there, impregnation
follows.

There are various precautions to be observed, however, to insure success, con-
nected with both sexes. In the first place, we must ascertain when the female passes
the egg, as explained in a previous chapter, because it is of no use placing the semen
in the womb when the egg is not there to receive it. Nor is it any use before the egg
reaches the womb. It is requisite, therefore, to make the matter more certain, to
study the female before, during, and after menstruation.

Of course, the most likely time will be immediately after the cessation of the
courses, and from then till six or eight days after ; or, in some few cases, perhaps,
just before.

After the operation the female should remain perfectly quiet for an hour or so,
and avoid all violent exertion or excitement for some time after. If the period comes
on again at the usual time, it will show that impregnation probably did not occur,
and the operation should be repeated a little earlier or a little later, for it is not pos-
sible, in all cases, to be sure of the proper time, and, occasionally, the injection has
to be made six or eight times before impregnation takes place. I remember one
instance in which the operation was repeated eleven different times in as many
months, with no success, but on the twelfth it did succeed.

In this case the first injection was made the first day after the period, the second
the second day after, and so on till the eleventh day ; the twelfth injection was then
made before the flow had quite ceased, and that succeeded.

It must be remembered that some women have a flow at regular periods, as usual,
even after conception. It is therefore necessary to be very cautious and not repeat
the injection too soon, unless there seems to be no doubt as to its being a real men-
struation. In fact, it is better to let two or even three months pass, so that there
may be no risk of causing miscarriage. "With care, however, this accident may not
necessarily occur, even if injection be practiced after conception has taken place.

It is also advisable that the man should prepare himself some time beforehand,
by avoiding all exhaustion or excitement, so that the semen may be abundant, and
of good quality.

Although the operation is simple, and easily made, even by the parties them-
selves, still it is better done by some one who has the proper instrument, and who is
familiar with the anatomy of the parts. No injury need be feared under any circum-
stances, nor any unpleasant consequences whatever. The only precautions to be ob-
served are, to have the syringe properly warmed, to introduce it slowly and gently
into the passage to the right depth, and to have it filled with the semen, so that no
air may be introduced with it.

I need only remark that the semen must be freshly obtained, and used immedi-
ately.

Some physicians use a speculum when introducing the syringe, but that is not
necessary. It is necessary, however, to ascertain first the length of the vagina and
the height of the womb, so as to know exactly what depth the syringe should pen-
etrate.

Details as to the position in which the female should be placed, and other matters,
need not be given here, as they can be communicated if necessary.

454 STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION,

During the last five years, I have performed this operation thirteen times, and
known of its being performed thirty-seven other times, makings/% in all. Of these
fifty, forty-three have been successful, and the other seven failed, I have no doubt,
from imperfection either in the semen or the egg.

In such a matter as this, I consider no apology or excuse necessary. It concerns
only the parties themselves. If childless people wish offspring, and safe and harmless
means of gratifying them can be adopted, it rests entirely with them alone whether
they will remain without children, or obtain them by these means. As to the
practice being in any way improper or immoral, I cannot so consider it, but rather
the contrary. The parentage is of cqurse the same, and the child so produced is
just as perfect as if it came in the natural way.

Independent of its value as a means of insuring offspring, this practice may often
lead to valuable results in another way. It is well known that many childless women
suffer from a variety of complaints which can never be removed while they remain
childless, but which disappear immediately they become mothers. Now in such
cases artificial impregnation enables us to insure them that relief which they perhaps
would never obtain without.

It should also be remarked, that when impregnation has once been effected artifi-
cially, it usually occurs afterward naturally, without any difficulty.

At the termination of our great war, I was waited upon by an officer, who had
been wounded at the battle of Shiloh. The whole of the penis was shot away, leaving
the testicles unhurt ! His secretion of semen was abundant, and it was often ejected
in large quantities, with considerable excitement. He was married only a month
before joining the army, and his wife had not conceived. Of course any connection
was out of the question, although an artificial penis had been adapted to him, by
which he could urinate with comfort. Both himself and wife, however, were in-
tensely desirous of having children, but thought, of course, there was no hope for
them.

Being aware of his condition, I spoke to him of the practice of artificial impreg*
nation, which he heard of with the greatest joy, and at once consulted with his wife
on the matter. The result was that they both agreed, and the operation was per-
formed successfully the first time. That child is living now, and is as fine a boy as
ever gladdened parents' hearts. They have resolved, when he is seven years old, to
have another, or earlier if he should die.

In another case, the man had lost all power of erection, from paralysis, although
the secretion of semen still continued, and there were frequent emissions. They had
had five children before, but all were dead, and they never hoped to have another. By
accident, however, he heard of the practice of artificial impregnation, and wrote to
me about it. An appointment was made, and he paid me a visit, with his wife.
Feeling satisfied, at the interview, that there was no reason why the operation should
not be performed, I undertook it at the proper time, and repeated it four times before
it was finally successful. The result was all that could be wished.

Now who shall say, in these cases, that there was anything objectionable in the
practice ? Bather, I should say, they show its great value, and what a blessing it is
to humanity.

It is true, a cousin of the officer, whose case is described above, did complain, and
thought himself injured, because the child superseded him as heir to the officer's
property, which he had fully calculated upon inheriting. I have also heard some

STERILITY, AND ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION. 455

persons contend that those who cannot have children hy the usual means should
remain without them, and that it is unnatural, if not even sinful, to obtain them by
artificial means. I leave every one to decide this point for himself, and in the mean-
time am prepared to practice the operation for all who need and wish it.

In addition to the precautions already indicated, there are also two others to be
taken. First, the semen must be examined, microscopically, to see if it contains
living animalcules; because if it does not, of course the operation will be useless.
Second, the mucus of the vagina must be examined, to see if it be too acid or too
alkaline, as either of these qualities may cause the death of the animalcules ; and, in
fact, sterility is often owing to this very circumstance.

Of course, if there be any organic disease of the womb, the operation is inadmis-
sible, but a mere displacement is of no moment, and is, in fact, often cured by
pregnancy.

In conclusion, I would draw attention to the fact that artificial impregnation has
long been practiced, in numerous cases, though not till recently in human beings.
Horticulturists, from remote times, have artificially impregnated plants, and crossed
them in every way, by placing the pollen (or semen) of one kind upon the pistil
(female organ) of another kind. Of late years, also, the practice has become habitual
of impregnating fish eggs (or spawn) by the semen taken from a male fish, and merely
added to the water in which the eggs are placed. In this way the semen from one
male can be made to impregnate thousands of eggs. This is artificial impregnation.

It is only necessary to bear in mind that the process of impregnation is the same
in all beings, and merely consists in the union of the male principle with the female
egg. In some beings this occurs within the body, by the process of copulation, as it
human beings, and in others it occurs without the body, as in fishes, and in such
cases the male and female may never come into contact at all.

It matters not how the semen reaches the egg, providing they come together in
the right circumstances ; and in the human being they must unite in the female
womb. But their union may result in a new being just as certainly when they are
united artificially as when they are brought together in the usual way.

CHAPTER XLIU

AGE WHEN BOTH SEXES BEGIN TO BE CAPABLE OF BEING PARENTS, AND WHEN
THEY CEASE TO BE SO.

The Male. — The man is different from the female in this respect, that there is no
positive proof of his incapacity, except in particular cases. As long as he secretes
semen, and can have connection, no matter how imperfectly, it is presumed he may
become a parent. But the female, at a certain age, becomes naturally sterile, so that
the cessation of her capability is fixed.

The age at which the male becomes first capable varies very much, not only in
different races and countries, but also in different individuals. It, of course, depends
on the occurrence of puberty, or the perfect secretion of semen, and this may be
either unusually early or very late. It is often much earlier than is suspected.

In the time of Henry the Eighth, it was decided that procreation could not be
effected before fourteen years, and- that if the wife of a husband under that age had
children, they must be bastards ; but such a decision was absurd, for instances are
numerous enough of perfect capability much earlier than that.

In fact, we read in Tlie Berkeley Manuscripts, that Maurice, third Lord Berkeley,
was married at eight years old, and was a father before he was fourteen. Numerous
other instances are also given of similar precocity. There is one instance recorded
by a celebrated physician of a young woman who slept with a boy of ten years of
age, and encouraged him to take liberties with her, thinking there was no danger,
but who, to her great shame and surprise, became pregnant. In fact, there is no
certain age when capability, in the male, maybe said to begin, nor is it easy to ascer-
tain it with certainty, even by examination. Many who are undoubtedly capable
show no signs of it, while others who give every indication of puberty are still power-
less. I have seen the organs in a boy of seven years very largely developed, and in a
man of thirty scarcely more so than those of an infant, although he secreted perfect
semen.

Of course, the only proof of puberty, or capability, is the secretion and emission
of perfect semen, while its non-secretion is equally a proof of incapability, no matter
what may be the age or apparent perfection of the organs.

The first semen formed, it must be borne in mind, is not always perfect, and that
is the reason why many boys, though fully capable of connection, and having abun-
dant secretion, still cannot impregnate. Very frequently, however, it is perfect from
the beginning.

The age when man begins to be capable is therefore not fixed, and the same may
be said of the age when he ceases to be capable, which is equally undetermined.

There is no question but that many men retain the virile power till extreme old
age, while others lose it very early. As a general rule, the power begins to percepti-
bly wane after fifty years, and by fifty-five, or sixty, the number of animalcules in

TIME OF BEGINNING AND CEASING TO BE CAPABLE OF PARENTAGE. 457

the semen becomes constantly less, and they become also less perfect. As long as a
man secretes semen containing healthy, vigorous animalcules, he may be the father
of a perfect child, no matter what his age may be, even though he may be incapable
of perfect connection. An instance of this may be found in the case of David in his
old age, as recorded in the Bible.

If the animalcules fail altogether, or become too imperfect, no impregnation can
occur. If they are only partially imperfect, conception may occur, but the child will
be imperfect. This, however, is not the case with old men only, but often with
young men, from disease, or debility.

In the year 1813, a curious case was brought up for trial in the English House of
Lords, which turned upon this very point of age. It was called "The Banbury
Peerage Case." The main argument urged against the claimant was this, that his
ancestor could not have been the son of Lord Banbury, because that nobleman was
eighty years old when the child was born ! The judge, however, decided that this
objection was worthless. The law, as he truly said, fixes no age when a man be-
comes incapable, while experience shows that there is no universal natural limit.

Dr. Gregory, of Edinburgh, says a man may be capable till a hundred years, if
not more. Haller says till ninety, at least, and it is recorded that old Parr was a
father in his one hundred and fortieth year. Sir Stephen Eox married at seventy-
seven and had four children, — the first child was born Avhen he was seventy-eight, —
he had twins the next year, and the fourth child was born when he was eighty-one.
Old Parr's son was older than Lord Banbury when Parr himself was a father.

Neither old age nor extreme youth, therefore, are sufficient to make man incapa-
ble. The law knows no limits, nor does science, and from seven years upward the
male may be fully capable of parentage.

Hie Female. — There is also great uncertainty as to the time when the female may
first become capable. Usually not before fourteen or fifteen, but numerous instances
have been known of pregnancy at thirteen, twelve, and even at eleven ! In Abys-
sinia and Bengal, mothers of eleven are not at all uncommon. Probably with us
twelve years may be considered about the limit. In the year 1828, a lady visited
Ballston Springs who was a grandmother, though not quite twenty-eight. In the
Transylvania Journal (vol. vii., page 447) there is a case recorded of menstruation
at one year, and of pregnancy before ten. The girl was delivered of a female child
weighing 7£ lbs., when she was bat ten years and thirteen days old ! This was on
the 20th of April, 1834.

In some parts of Africa, the girls menstruate at eight or nine years, and the same
in Persia, though it does not appear that they begin always to bear children so soon.
Many people suppose the North American Indian females menstruate later than the
whites, but it is known not to be the case, for they observe about the same time.

Many instances of very precocious puberty are on record. Sir Astley Cooper
mentions one at four years, and another even at three and a half. Dr. Francis also
mentions one at four and a half years, in which the sexual organs and the breasts
were similar %o those of a full-grown woman at the same period.

As an almost universal rule, pregnancy never occurs till after menstruation, but in
some rare cases it has occurred before. It is probable, however, that in such cases it
was slight, and had simply escaped observation, as it frequently does in some women.

A similar uncertainty attends also the cessation of the faculty of child-bearing.
As * general rule this faculty ceases when menstruation stops. It is well known,

458 TIME OF BEGINNING AND CEASING TO BE CAPABLE OF PARENTAGE.

however, that many women have borne children after menstruation had ceased for a
considerable time.

The usual age when a woman can no longer become a mother is about forty-five,
or from that to fifty, as the limit. There are, however, numerous cases on record
of pregnancy at fifty-two and fifty-four years of age, and some even in still older
women. At a trial in France, it was shown that a woman of fifty-eight had become
a mother, and many authors have given cases up to sixty years, and even more.
Beck, in his Medical Jurisprudence, quotes a case from the Boston Medical and
Surgical Journal, of a woman at Whitehall, in the State of New York, who became
a mother at sixty-four. Dr. Vandeveer, of Long Island, attended a lady in confine-
ment in her sixty-second year.

Mr. Robertson tells us that out of one thousand cases of pregnancy registered at
the Manchester Lying-in Hospital, four hundred and thirty-six were upward of forty-
six years old, one was fifty-four, one fifty-three, one fifty-two, nine fifty, six forty-
nine, eight forty-eight, and thirteen forty-seven.

It is related that Madame de Stael menstruated at sixty, and Eicherand gives a
case at seventy. Magendie and Rush also relate cases at the same age.

In short, though the limit of menstruation and child-bearing may be said to
be from fifty to fifty-two, still it may be, and often is, protracted much beyond
that.

The reason for this occasional prolongation of capability will be understood from
our previous articles. As long as a female forms perfect eggs, and retains them long
euough in the womb, she may become a mother.

In conclusion, we may state that though no means are known by which the pro-
creative power can be prolonged, in a woman, or brought back when extinct from
age, yet in man it is often different. Many men after having lost nearly all sexual
power, for many years, even in advanced life, have had it restored, by proper treat-
ment, to a considerable extent. In the course of my practice I have seen numerous
cases of this kind, and have now a man of eighty-two, fully capable, more so in fact
than he was at sixty.

The proper course to be pursued to retain, or restore sexual power, must of course
depend upon the peculiarities of the case, and requires a medical consultation. I
will merely say that there are but few men hopelessly impotent, if they only can and
will do as directed.

In many trials for divorce, it is often a question as to the capability of one or
both of the parties. It can, of course, always be known whether a female is capable
or not, by the fact of her bearing children or remaining barren. In regard to the
man, it is always assumed that he is capable, so long as his organs are perfect and he
is capable of connection. But, as already shown, this is a mistake. A man may be
incapable merely from imperfection of the semen, and this can be proved only by
examining it microscopically.

Common justice, therefore, demands, when divorce is claimed because the woman
does not bear children, that the semen of the man should thus be examined, to see if
the fault may not lie with him. I am aware that this is a point not yet allowed in
medical jurisprudence, because the fact is so new, but it is nevertheless a valid one,
and will before long be so regarded.

It must also be borne in mind that barrenness may result not from any imperfec-
tion on either side, but simply from want of adaptation, as explained in previous

TIME OF BEGINNING AND CEASING TO BE CAPABLE OF PARENTAGE. 459

articles. Both may be sterile, in reference to themselves mutually, but not iu
reference to others.

It is an important thing to bear in mind, however, that sterility in the male may
exist along with the power of perfect connection, and that this peculiar state can be
positively proved.

In connection with this subject it may be asked whether a woman can conceive
without her own knowledge, as during sleep for instance ?

This question has occurred as a legal one in many celebrated trials, and is now
fully decided in the affirmative. It is beyond question that a female may be vio-
lated during sleep, and may be impregnated without knowing it. This is a fact that
should be borne in mind, as it may often be important.

There are many peculiar states of the female system, as in some diseases, which
cause a stupor so profound that violation may undoubtedly be effected while it lasts,
without the victim being aroused. Even ordinary sleep may sometimes be heavy
enough to allow of such a crime.

It is, however, highly improbable, though perhaps not impossible, for such to be
the case with a virgin, owing to the intercourse being so much more difficult. Medi-
cal men have held different opinions on this point, but I believe its possibility is fully
admitted, in some exceptional cases. Of course, all such alleged occurrences should
be received with extreme caution and distrust, and subjected to the most rigid scru-
tiny ; for it is much more likely that the female is either deceiving herself, or try-
ing to deceive others, than that so unlikely an event should take place.

These remarks refer only to natural conditions of the female system. If stupefy-
ing drugs have been given, there may be such insensibility and perfect unconscious-
ness that nothing may be known on waking of what has taken place.

In regard to conception, there is no doubt, as before stated, that it can take place
while the female is perfectly unconscious from any cause. She may be simply
asleep, or in a stupor from disease or drugs, and yet if connection takes place she
may conceive. No knowledge or feeling on her part is at all necessary. There are
numerous well-authenticated cases of this kind on record, and I have known several
myself. Women have often been violated while intoxicated, without knowing any-
thing about it, and conception has followed. Capuron mentions a case of this kind,
of a young female whose lover made her drunk and abused her, and she conceived,
but knew nothing of it till she was four months pregnant. Many similar cases are
recorded by other writers.

It should be remarked, however, that in such cases we can scarcely conceive that
any violence was practiced, because, if there were, the female could scarcely fail to
notice and even feel the injury, when awake, and suspect the cause. This must
especially be the case with virgins or very young females, and when such persons
assert that they have been violated or impregnated, and yet knew nothing of it till a
late period of pregnancy, there is at least room for grave doubt and distrust.

On the other hand, it must be remembered that in some very young females,
undoubted virgins, the organs are naturally in such a state as to allow of connection
without the least violence or injury whatever, and women have even conceived, after
repeated connections, who have preserved the hymen unbroken till the time of
delivery.

It is a common error to suppose that a first and only connection never leads to
conception. Many women, and men too, have found out the falsity of this notion,

460 TIME OF BEGINNING AND CEASING TO BE CAPABLE OF PARENTAGE.

to their cost. It is true that a first and only connection does not usually result in
conception ; but this is not owing to any natural law — it is merely owing to the
difficulties ordinarily attending the first act, and its consequent imperfection. In
animals, a single connection, even the first time, usually results in impregnation,
and there is no reason why it should not do so in the human female. If there be a
perfect egg in tbe proper place, and the semen reaches it, conception may take place
from a first and only connection, just the same as from a later one.

It is also equally true that conception may follow violation, whether the female
was conscious of it or not, in virgins as well as in others. Formerly, it was thought
that whenever conception occurred it proved consent on the part of the female, and
many people suppose so even now. There is no foundation whatever for such a
notion, and it has often caused females to suffer gross injustice. No matter what
violence they might be subject to, or even if they knew nothing of it, if pregnancy
followed, it was thought to be a proof that they must have consented, and also that
they must have had more than one connection. The cruel injustice resulting from
such erroneous notions has often blasted the reputations of innocent persons, and led
to despair and suicide.

As a proof that conception may follow connection while the female is unconscious,
I may here mention a case which occurred in my own practice. A young married
couple found it impossible to consummate the marriage, owing to the nervous fear of
the lady, and to the extreme smallness of the organs. The slightest attempt at the
act threw her into convulsions from mere fear and dread. I advised that she should
be placed under the influence of cbloroform, and that the act should be consummated
while she was unconscious. To this she gladly agreed, and the experiment was at-
tended with full success. No injury resulted, and she had no recollection of the
affair at all. Still she conceived, and became the mother of a very fine child. After-
ward no difficulty was experienced.

It is undoubtedly the fact that many women are quite unaware of being pregnant
till a very late period, sometimes even up till the time of delivery. To many this
will appear very strange, but it is nevertheless true. In several instances, where
females have been impregnated while asleep, or during stupor, they have neither
known nor suspected it till the natural result forced it upon their attention. M.
Desgranges informs us of a young female who allowed her lover to have intercourse
with her while in the hath, having the idea that conception could not possibly follow
under such circumstances. She, however, became pregnant, but was totally unaware
of it, and would not believe in her situation till delivery took place. In fact, if a
woman believes, from any cause, that she cannot become pregnant, she may not
know nor suspect that she is so till the last moment. Many have been thus deceived
from putting implicit trust in certain precautions, while others have thought they
could not be pregnant because the hymen was unbroken, or because the act of con-
nection was only partially performed. I have even known married women, who had
borne children before, arrive at the period of actual labor, without an idea that they
were pregnant. The possibility of such ignorance should be borne in mind, as it may
often be important when a woman is accused of concealing the birth of her child.

ON THE STATE OF MIND IN FEMALES AT THE TIME OF DELIVERY.

It is not generally known, but should be universally, that many females during
pregnancy, and especially at the time of delivery, are in a peculiar mental condi-

TIME OF BEGINNING AND CEASING TO BE CAPABLE OF PARENTAGE. 461

tion. Some are really insane, for more or less of the time ; others have peculiar
manias, and very frequently they are quite unaware of the nature and consequences
of their acts.

There is every reason to suppose that, in many cases, where women have de-
stroyed their infants at birth, they acted not from depravity, nor from a desire to get
rid of their offspring, but simply from a morbid impulse, which made them quite
unaware of what they were doing. Many have committed this act who had no motive
whatever for doing it, and some even while strongly desiring children. Instances
are known where mothers have thus destroyed their offspring while in this peculiar
condition, and on recovery, have known nothing about it.

Now, if a poor woman who has been seduced, or violated, kills her child, it is at
once concluded that she does it willfully and knowingly, to get rid of it. That such
is the case sometimes there is no doubt, but at the same time it must not be forgotten
that the poor creature may be really perfectly innocent of any criminal intention,
and may even not have known, at the time, what she was doing.

. It must also be remembered that in a case of illegitimate pregnancy, the poor
mother, from her dread of discovery, anxiety, shame, and sense of injustice, is much
more likely to be thrown into a morbid state of mind than one more happily situated.
There is no doubt but that many such have been unjustly condemned for doing that
for which they were in no way whatever responsible.

CHAPTER XLTV.

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE.

When the mass of the human race get over their present fear of Tcnoivledge, and
realize that it is really power for indefinite good, they will turn their attention to the
improTement of the race, and human beings will be produced, superior, in every
way, to any the world has yet seen. Not only can the body be perfected, so as to be
stronger and more beautiful, as well as free from disease, but the mind also can be
made far superior to the most gifted ever yet known. The power of the mind de-
pends on the perfect development and organization of the brain, and there is no
question but that the brain can be perfected as well as the muscles.

In the brain of every kind of animal we find certain parts developed which are
not found at all, or only rudimentary, in tbe animals below them that have less mind ;
and it is the same in the human race. It is, therefore, only the more perfect brain
which gives man the more perfect mind, and it is only by perfecting the brain that
we can effect further improvement in his mind.

In examining the human brain there are certain parts found, small and appar-
ently rudimentary, whose uses are not at all known. Now it is probable that these
are merely organs not yet perfected or developed, but which may be developed by
judicious attention to training, intermarriage, and selection.

It seems to me more than probable that human beings will, in the future, be pro-
duced with brains, and consequently minds, as far above tbose of our present greatest
men as they are above the brutes ; and that in tbose days men will comprehend and
reason understandingly upon matters which we now esteem unfathomable mysteries,
and far above all human comprehension.

I have full faith that the man of the future will be as far above the present man
as the present man is above the orang-outang.

But for this to be effected marriage must be a science, based upon a knowledge
of physiology and the laws of natural selection and hereditary descent, instead of a
mere matter of chance, as it is now.

"We think it quite right and laudable to so attend to the breeding of animals as to
bring them to the most perfect point of development, and yet we shrink from apply-
ing the same laws to human beings ; though nothing is more certain than that the
one could be perfected equally with the other. Let any one look at an ill-bred,
uncared-for domestic animal, and then look at a thorough-bred of the same kind, and
note the difference, — they are scarcely like the same beings. All the bad points are
carefully bred out, in the improved one, and the good ones developed to the utmost.
The same results would follow among human beings if procreation was made a
science, as I cannot but hope and believe it some day will be.

If men were only rational enough to see this truth and act upon it, we should be
able to gradually perfect the nervous system the same as we do the other organs, and

462

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RAGE. 463

consequently the mind also. Education improves or develops the mind, by caus-
ing a more perfect development of the brain, and this affects not only the indi-
vidual so educated, but also his children, by the law of hereditary descent. Parents
with well-educated brains, on an average, will produce children with better devel-
oped brains at birth than those of uneducated parents. And with continued careful
training and selection, this course of improvement might go on indefinitely ; how
far we cannot even imagine, but doubtless to the production of human beings as far
above the highest yet seen, mentally, as they exceed the merest brutes.

Men have found out how to develop in animals any mental trait they may wish>
as in the pointer and the shepherd's dog for instance, and they have also found out
that the young of these educated animals are more easily trained than the young
of uneducated ones. This is owing to the law of hereditary descent, which gives to
the brain of the young dog a similar development to that of its parent to start with.
The advantage, however, so gained may be more or less lost, in subsequent genera-
tions, by want of care in mating the parents, and so allowing one to spoil the
other.

In the same manner we see particular dispositions and qualities, particular mental
powers, and even insanity, transmitted from parent to child. This is because the
child inherits the same form and kind of brain. Now we all know what wonderful
results have been obtained among animals by proper training and selection in mat-
ing, and beyond doubt still more wonderful results would follow, among human
beings, from similar care. The human brain is more susceptible of impressions by
training than that of any other animal, and there seems no limit to its capacity for
development. Hereditary descent is also more marked in the human animal than in
any other, so that what is once gained can be perpetuated.

I say again, therefore, that when men have progressed far enough to attend to
these matters, as regards their own race, the same as they now do to the lower
animals, human beings will be born immeasurably more perfect, both bodily and
mentally, than anything we can now conceive.

At present, however, it is considered almost blasphemous to speak of such things,
and therefore we go on perpetuating disease and madness, from generation to gener-
ation, when we might easily get rid of them.

In all forms of nervous disease, and especially those affecting the mind and dispo-
sition, this law of hereditary descent is especially operative. And this constitutes
one of the main difficulties in treating such diseases ; for what can the physician do
when the patient has been lorn with a certain kind and form of brain, making him
have inevitably certain mental and moral infirmities ? Neither medical treatment
nor moral preaching can do much good in such cases, and yet in our ignorance they
are all we depend upon.

Fortunately, Nature here steps in with another law, which counteracts gradually
the deplorable effects of man's ignorant inattention. This is Darwin's Law of
Natural Selection, or the gradual weeding out of the more imperfectly developed
beings. Those with the most perfectly developed bodies and minds, by their greater
capacity or power, lord it over the weaker ones, and gradually push them out of ex-
istence. The same as, in a forest, the strongest growing trees inevitably smother and
kill the more tender ones.

At the present time, we often gain, by education and training, a splendid devel-
opment of body or mind in some favored individual, but lose it when that individual

464 HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPRO VEMENT OF THE RACE.

dies. Instead of perpetuating it, or even improving upon it, in hi-s children, the
chances are that it will be lost from want of proper selection in mating, and inatten-
tion to the laws of hereditary descent.

It is well known that marriage is entirely a matter of chance, at the present
time, as to any fitness between the parties. They may be naturally suited to each
other, or they may not ; but such suitability or unsuitability is never taken into ac-
count. The consequence of this is that we go on perpetuating disease, insanity, and
imperfections of every kind, when we could just as easily get entirely rid of these
scourges.

Even our greatest men marry without any thought as to whether their partners
are such as they should be to insure perfect children. By this inattention we lose all
the advantage of their excellent development, and their children, instead of being
superior to their fathers, sink below them, or may be, are even inferior to the ordi-
nary run of children. This is why great men or great women so seldom have children
equal to themselves, although, by proper mating, they might have offspring far
superior.

It is useless, at the present time, to attempt to give rules for scientific procreation,
or even to lay down general principles, for no one would yet act upon them. The
first thing to be done is to educate the public mind up to the point of not ' being
afraid of the subject, and to lead the more advanced minds to see its importance.
The practical application of such knowledge will follow, and people will then wonder
that such an important matter should have been for so many ages neglected.

The question is often asked whether it is proper — aside from social or moral
considerations — for very near relations to marry?

It was formerly thought, and is now by many, that the marriage of near relations,
as brother and sister for instance, must necessarily be an evil, and result in diseased
offspring. Eecent investigation, however, has disproved this, and has shown that it
is not the mere relationship that causes the evil, but simple unfitness. Any marked
peculiarity or bodily condition that is the same in both parties, is nearly sure to be
doubled in their offspring, and as there are few families without some taint or some
objectionable peculiarity, the marriage of near relations, each affected the same way,
increases the evil by doubling it in their offspring. But this is not merely because
they are relations j for two perfect strangers would equally affect their children in
the same way if they were equally unsuited.

Good points can be perpetuated and increased by judicious breeding as well as bad
ones, as breeders of animals well know. And these men invariably breed in and in,
in the closest manner, often between parent and child, brother and sister, and grand-
children and grandparents. So far from this resulting in any inferiority, the very
finest and healthiest animals are thus produced. Of course, the breeders take care
never to breed among relations who have any mutual imperfections, because they do
not want to increase them ; and if any such imperfection should exist, they cross with
some stranger till they get rid of it, and then they continue to marry near relations
in the closest manner.

Near relationships, therefore, are not objectionable in marriage, speaking physio-
logically, providing the parties are naturally suited to each other, but may even be
an advantage. There are, however, other reasons, social and moral, which forbid
and make them improper. I merely speak of them here in a physiological sense.
The subject will be more fully discussed further on.

HEREDlfART DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE. 465

Direct experiment has shown that many disorders can be made hereditary, even
when produced artificially ; especially those connected with lesions of the nervous
system.

All the large blood-vessels, like other parts of the body, have special nerves con-
nected with them, which regulate their action, and if these nerves be cut through,
or destroyed, the blood-vessels and the parts they nourish are singularly affected.
Thus in a guinea-pig, if the nerves connected with the carotid artery be severed, on
one side of the neck, all the parts on that side of the head which are fed from that
artery will become hotter from increased circulation. The eyelid also, on that side,
becomes puffy, and droops. The ear becomes so much hotter, that in white animals
it can be seen congested with blood.

After a while the parts heal, and the animal becomes, in most respects, as before.
The eye, however, remains permanently smaller, with a contracted pupil, and the
lachrymal gland overflows constantly. The eyelid partly recovers its natural state,
but the membrane with which the animal clears the eye remains always congested.
As long as the animal lives this condition continues, and if the affected eye be ex-
amined, after its death, it will invariably be found smaller than the other.

The most singular fact, however, and the one which bears on the question of
heredity, is this : If such an animal breeds, even with another that has not been so
operated upon, the young from that union, though apparently perfect when born,
in a few days exhibit all the above phenomena. Their ears are thickened, corre-
sponding to the one so affected in the parent that was operated upon, and they have
similar small eyes, but on both sides. These young may be close bred, in and in, for
several generations, and all their descendants will exhibit the same peculiarities. In
fact, they seem to become fixed.

It is very singular, however, as shown by dissection, that the nerve which was
destroyed in the first parent, and never reproduced, is yet perfect in the descendants.
In this respect they are just like other guinea-pigs, and yet continue to show the
same symptoms as their mutilated ancestor.

If a certain part of the brain, in one of these animals, be punctured, the ear on
that side becomes gorged with blood, dry gangrene sets in, and part of it falls off,
sometimes in a few hours. The eye also, on that side, bulges out, and becomes
larger.

If one of these animals, so treated, bear young, ever ""^th a perfect companion,
the offspring are affected in the same way. Their eyi .uis enlarge and protrude,
and in a few days their ears drop off from gangrene. I

The young of these diseased animals, aftd their young also, indefinitely, if they
breed in and in, will all show the same peculiarities, but if they breed with perfect
animals, only some of their young will exhibit the diseased condition, while others
will be perfect.

Dr. Brown-Sequard found that he could produce epilepsy, artificially, in guinea-
pigs, by wounding certain parts of the spinal cord, or of the sciatic nerve. And the
epilepsy continued even after all trace of the operation had disappeared.

The sciatic is the great nerve of the leg, and when it is destroyed, the limb loses
all sensation, and all power of motion, so that the animal has no feeling whatever in
it, and drags it about. In consequence of this, the skin becomes rubbed off, so as to
expose the flesh, and then the animal begins to bite and eat it away, so far as there
is no feeling in it. The inner toe, however, retains its feeling, because it receives

466 HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RAGE.

nerves from another source, and this part the animal does not eat. All the wounded
parts soon heal, when the dead portions are gone, and the animal is thus left with a
one-toed foot.

This is one effect which follows from the operation, hut there are others still
more remarkable. In a short time, sometimes in two hours after, a large portion of
the skin of the face, on the side operated upon, becomes peculiarly affected. It loses
all ordinary sensation completely, so that it cannot feel heat, cold, pressure, nor
electricity, but becomes remarkably ticklish.

On tickling it, the muscles of the jaw, nose, and eye, on that side twitch violent-
ly ; and gradually those on the other side become affected also, in the same way.
The twitchings seem to be quite involuntary, and often persist constantly, as in St.
Vitus' dance. Finally, true epileptic fits begin, with convulsive movements of the
head, eyes, limbs, and chest, accompanied often by a sharp cry, and then the animal
falls, just as we see in human epileptics. After a while the fit passes off, and the
animal recovers, but remains more or less stupefied for some time, and occasionally
seems to be really insane ! Eventually the fits come on without any tickling, the
animal having become a confirmed epileptic.

Finally, however, if the animal lives long enough, the convulsions get less violent,
and longer between, till at last they cease altogether, and perfect recovery takes
place. The affected skin loses its peculiar ticklishness, and regains natural sensa-
tion ; the hair falls off from it, and a new growth takes its place. The only differ-
ence then to be found between the animal operated upon and other guinea-pigs is,
that it has but one toe on the side where the nerve was severed.

Symptoms almost identical with those above described occur, in most cases of
epilepsy, in human beings. There are almost always portions of the surface of the
body peculiarly affected, in which a singular sensation arises before an attack, and
spreads to other parts. This is called the aura, and it usually begins in one special
spot. If this spot can be determined and reached, so that it can be removed or cau-
terized, a cure is generally effected. In the same manner the epileptic guinea-pig
can be cured by cauterizing the affected area of skin.

The most important fact in connection with the above experiments, however, is
this, that many of the young of the guinea-pigs so operated upon are affected like
the parents. They are born with one toe only, if the parent had but one, and though
apparently healthy at first, they soon become epileptic, continue so for a while,, and
finally recover as their parents did. The same portion of the skin loses its natural
feeling with them, the hair falls off it, and a new crop grows when the disease is
gone. In short, the young guinea-pig, which has not been operated upon, passes
through the same range of symptoms as the parent that has been, and is even born
with a limb mutilated in the same way.

Now in the animal operated upon, the disease and the mutilation both result from
the cutting of the nerve, and the cure takes place only when the cut nerve glows
and unites again. This is all very obvious, and easy to understand ; but in the
young, who inherit both the one toe and the epilepsy, exactly as in the parent, the
nerve is not severed at all. In fact, the closest observation can detect no difference,
in that respect, between them and other young guinea-pigs. Why then should they
have but one toe, and be epileptic ? This is what we do not know ; we can only
refer to the fact, as an illustration of heredity.

It is worthy of notice also, in connection with this, that insane patients often

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE. 467

have their ears affected, and lose portions of them, just lika the epileptic guinea-
pigs ; probably from the same cause — impaired nervous action of the part.

Sometimes only a few of the young pigs are born epileptic, unless both parents
were so affected, and it is most singular that all so affected are born also with the
one toe only ; the bodily malformation and the nervous disease thus going to-
gether.

Epilepsy may arise from several causes, besides being inherited. It often follows
from injuries to the head, from violent anger, from intense sexual excitement, and
from continued drunkenness. Whatever the cause, if men or women, so afflicted,
become parents, their children are almost sure to suffer in the same way. Such
people, therefore, should never become parents, nor should those suffering from
scrofula, cancer, phthisis, or any other serious constitutional disease. Insanity,
or any dangerous or hurtful mania, should equally forbid parentage, so that all
such causes of suffering and deterioration may be stamped out. Attempts at curing
them amount to very little ; the true policy is not to propagate them.

In the case of the guinea-pigs above referred to, although the young ones showed
no sign of anything wrong in their nervous structures, like that produced by the
operation in their parents, still there is every reason to suppose that, in some im-
portant part of their nervous centers, a lesion did exist. The cut nerve in the
parent was only the line of communication between the outer skin and some point
in the sensorium, and the real injury was done there. When the young were born,
that point in them, in all probability, was similarly affected, and hence they too
were epileptic. The nerve might be intact, but something was wrong in the
sensorium, and the disease did not disappear till the sensorium became perfect.

The fact of the one toe being transmitted makes it almost certain that other
injuries were transmitted also, but in positions where we could not directly trace
them.

The importance of all this, as a matter of heredity, can scarcely be overrated. I
have no doubt myself but that the confirmed dipsomaniac, who will drink, no matter
how he and others suffer from it, has a diseased spot in his brain. There is some
lesion or injury in the great nervous center, as there is in all cases of mania, and
this, or the tendency to it, he may transmit to. offspring. He therefore never ought
to become a parent. Many a woman sacrifices herself by marrying such a man, ta
reclaim him, and nearly always fails ; thus throwing herself away, and running the
risk of becoming a mother of children similarly cursed.

Again I would remark, for it cannot be too often repeated, that by proper
pairing, and observing the laws of heredity, the bodily and mental diseases and im-
perfections, of all kinds, which now afflict us, could be entirely got rid of ; and all
those qualities which are desirable in us be magnified and perpetuated.

At present we try to cure disease by medicine, and vice by punishment or moral
oTiasion, with but indifferent success. We keep lopping away at the constantly
springing branches of the tree of evil, but leave the vigorous root untouched, so
that our labor is fruitless and never ends. By attention to the laws of heredity,
and proper pairing, we should destroy the root at once, and the tree would die ior-
ever.

The bringing of children into the world is not a matter which concerns the
parents alone, nor principally. The future of the children themselves, and of
society, as it may be affected by them, should be considered first. At present it is

468 HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE.

seldom that any consideration whatever is given to either the one or the other. The
thoughtless selfishness of the very poor, in this respect, is often encouraged by their
spiritual teachers, who preach to them that Providence will provide. And this in face
of the fact that thousands of their children, all around them, are born to misery,
crime, disease, and untimely death. They are, however, no worse than the rich,
who often from ignorance, or greed, deliberately marry disease and deformity, and
perpetuate it as a family inheritance.

As a rule, like begets like, and children more or less resemble their parents, as is
well known, but why it should be so is only beginning to be asked. Men have
hitherto been satisfied with the bare fact, without seeking for the reason, but at the
present day it is different. "We want now to know the natural law which thus
connects parents and offspring, and to understand why it is that though they usually
resemble each other, yet at other times they totally differ.

That children generally resemble their parents is a fact of great practical im-
portance to those who choose to act upon it. Among the ancients, especially the
Spartans, practical use was made of the fact, and propagation was so regulated as to
insure the raising of perfect and healthy children only ; who were expected, in their
turn, to be the parents of other children equal to themselves. All the weak, or
malformed, were eliminated without scruple, so that their imperfections should
not be perpetuated. The effect of such a course, as may well be conceived, was to
create a very superior race of people, and had the practice become universal, the race
generally would probably have been, in every respect, much more perfect than it is
now.

Nature herself, as Darwin has so well shown, does much in this way constantly.
The sick and feeble have a less chance of growing up than the strong and healthy,
or of maintaining themselves after, and usually die earlier. Both they and the de-
formed also are less apt to be chosen in marriage, and thus propagate less. Among
savage people this is especially the case ; the strong, skillful, and cunning, among
men, kill off their less fortunate brethren, or monopolize all the means of living ;
while among women those most physically perfect are chosen as wives, in preference
to their less attractive sisters.

By this rude process of natural selection, the human race has, undoubtedly, been
gradually but surely improved ; and the same process, to some extent, is working
even now. As people become civilized, however, this natural mode of improve-
ment is much interfered with, and marriage is determined by other considerations
than those that prevail in the savage state. The sick and feeble are cared for
and protected, and the malformed, or imperfect, are not destroyed, nor left to
perish.

Whether this is, on the whole, a gain, or really more humane, has been ques-
tioned, and with much show of reason. By caring for the diseased, the feeble, and
the malformed, and allowing them to become parents, we undoubtedly propagate and
perpetuate disease, debility, and deformity.

Perhaps the true compromise between care for the individual and care for society,
may be found in simply preventing parentage, whenever, from any cause, it would
be likely to result in undesirable offspring. It would seem as if this were a right
inherent in society for its own protection.

Special cases, in which family traits of a marked character are transmitted, are
numerous enough, and a f«w of them are well worth referring to.

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RAGE. 469

Many family names among the Eomans were founded on such traits, recognized
as permanent. Thus we find Nasones (big-nosed), Labones (thick lips), Capitones
(big-headed), and many others. At the present day, the Austrian royal family is
noted for large lips, and the Bourbons of France for large noses. The prevalence of
this latter feature, accompanied by a peculiar form, is also well known among the
Hebrews.

Very often these family traits are quite persistent, so that nearly all the members
will have them, but at other times they appear only in particular individuals, and
even disappear entirely for several generations, and then come up again. Instances
of this may often be seen in old family picture galleries, where a certain prominent
feature, or peculiar face, can be traced at intervals through a long line of descent, as
if the same person was born over again, from time to time.

It must be remembered that, in all these cases, no care has been taken to insure
these traits being transmitted, and the fact that they are so, to the extent that we
see them, shows the strength of the hereditary tendency. "With the constant inter-
mixture of other blood, which takes place in all families, the wonder is that indi-
viduality is not lost altogether.

A well-known case is recorded of one Edward Lambert, whose body was covered
with a horny shell, somewhat like an alligator's hide. He was the father of six chil-
dren, all of whom were covered with the same kind of shell by the time they were
six weeks old. They all died but one, and he married and transmitted the horny
skin to his sons. For five generations this peculiarity was noted in all the male
members of the family.

A few years ago a Eussian was exhibited in Paris who was covered all over the
body, even the face and eyelids, with long silky hair, like that of a Skye terrier. He
had a son and a daughter, both of whom had the same peculiarity as the father.

The bearded lady will be well remembered by many, she having been exhibited over
most of the United States. She was full-bearded like a man, and had a hairy forehead.
Her daughter exhibited the same peculiarities as the mother.

Many other similar cases are recorded, and in all of them, if the individuals
married, the peculiarity was transmitted to their offspring. Usually in these cases
of superfluous hair-growth, there is some abnormality of the teeth also. At times
they are deficient, and then again they are in excess.

Baldness is often hereditary, and so are peculiar forms of the limbs. Families
have been known in which the male members all had six fingers, or six toes ; and
others in which all the members had a peculiar gait or limp. Hare-lip, and cleft-
palate are very apt to be transmitted, and sometimes albinos appear regularly in certain
families.

"Why or how these peculiarities begin we do not know, but it is obvious that they
result from some constitutional change, and not from any accidental cause. As a rule,
we do not find any artificial mutilation, or impress, become hereditary, no matter how
long it may be kept up. Thus, every male Hebrew is born still with a prepuce, not-
withstanding that every one has been circumcised for thousands of years. And
every flat-head Indian is born with a natural shaped head, although all his ances-
tors., for unknown generations, have had their heads flattened out like a plate, arti-
ficially.

It is probably the same with all peculiarities, bodily and mental. "We can seldom
make them permanent by inducing them artificially, but when we find them appear

470 HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RACE.

naturally, we can perpetuate and increase them by proper attention to mating and
parentage.

This fact should be regarded as a fundamental one in education. Every child
should be looked upon as an individual, with peculiarities of his own, some to be en-
couraged and some to be repressed. Each one has some mental faculty predominant,
and his education and after profession should be based upon that. If he be forced
into any other line, 'for which nature has not adapted him, his life will be more or
less a failure. We cannot create faculties, but when found, we can give them their
fullest development and perpetuate them.

Thousands of valuable lives have been thrown away, and years of time wasted in
trying to make mathematicians and linguists out of those whom nature had not
adapted for such pursuits, but who were perhaps admirably fitted for others. The
true educator is he who recognizes the natural bent and capacity of a child, and
adapts his education to it. Our present plan of trying to form all on the same model,
and to make all follow the same school course, results, for the most part, in a dead
level of mediocrity, or in downright failure.

This educational fault is seen more palpably in girls than in boys, for there is even
less variety with them. They each and all have the same little dab of French, music,
and other so-called accomplishments, but not one is ever educated individually, so as
to turn to the best account the faculties nature has given her. A girl with a real
taste for drawing, and not the slightest capacity or ear for music, must neverthe-
less spend just as much time at the piano as a born musician, and as little at draw-
ing.

It is probable that every individual could attain a fair standing in some pursuit,
if not eminence, if proper attention were paid to their education in the first instance,
and to their profession afterward.

A very remarkable instance of a natural peculiarity being transmitted, is that of
the Ancou sheep, so often referred to. An intelligent farmer in Massachusetts, who
was annoyed by his sheep jumping the fences, and straying away, noted among his
lambs one with very short legs. This being a male, he kept it to breed from, and
soon saw that many of his descendants had short legs also. By keeping these apart,
and mating them together, he soon got a breed well established, with legs so short they
could not jump the fences.

Long-homed cattle and short-horned cattle have also been established in this way,
and recently, in Texas, hogs have been found with solid hoofs, instead of cloven, from
which, no doubt, a race could be fixed, if they were properly bred in and in.

Some families are notoriously long lived, and others short lived ; some are unusu-
ally prolific, and others the contrary. Gout, calculus, and several other diseases are
often inherited, as certainly as the family features.

By care in mating, any peculiarity can be either perpetuated or obliterated. It
can either be bred in or bred out, systematically and certainly.

Tricks of habit may become hereditary, as well as bodily traits. The following
extract from an excellent article in the Cornhill Magazine gives some very singular
instances of this :

"Inherited Tricks. — The inheritance of tricks of habit is one of the most per-
plexing of all the phenomena of heredity. The less striking the habit the more
remarkable, perhaps, is its persistence as an inherited trait. Giron de Buzareingues
states that he knew a man who, when he lay on his back, was wont to throw his right

HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE RAGE. 471

leg across the left ; one of this person's daughters had the same habit from her birth,
constantly assuming that position in the cradle, notwithstanding the resistance offered
by the swaddling bands. Darwin mentions another case, in his Variation of Animals
and Plants under Domestication. A child had the odd habit of setting its fingers in
rapid motion whenever it was particularly pleased with anything. When greatly
excited, the same child would raise the hand on each side as high as the eyes, with
the fingers in rapid motion as before. Even in old age, he experienced a difficulty in
refraining from these gestures. He had eight children, one of whom, a little girl,
when four years of age, used to set her fingers going, and to lift up her hands after
the manner of her father. A still more remarkable case is described by Galton. A
gentleman's wife noticed that when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, he had the
curious trick of raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead,
and then dropping it with a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his
nose. The trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent
of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or more.
The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became sore from the blows
which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced, that was long in
healing, on account of the recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first
caused it. His wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown, as it
made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm. Many years
after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of the family incident.
She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband ; but his nose,
from not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows.
The trick does not occur when he is half asleep, as, for example, when he is dozing in
his arm-chair ; but the moment he is fast asleep, he is apt to begin. It is, as with his
father, intermittent, sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost inces-
sant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was with his father, with
his right hand. One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She per-
forms it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form ; for after
raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of the nose, but
the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and down the nose, striking it rather rap-
idly—a decided improvement on the father's and grandfather's idea. The trick is
intermittent in this girl's case also, sometimes not occurring for periods of some
months, but sometimes almost incessantly."

Similar instances are met with in the experience of most people, but their signifi-
cance is not generally seen.

Peculiar strength or activity is often transmitted, and so are keenness of vision and
iiearing. On the contrary, deafness and poor sight, stammering, squinting, loquacity
or its opposite, taciturnity, are frequently hereditary, and so are peculiar likes and
dislikes. Some families are noted for good memories, and others again for the con-
trary. The family to which the celebrated Professor Porson belonged almost all had
remarkable memories. He himself was so noted that way that it was said he could
not forget anything which he had once known. He could read a book through, and
remember all of it, and how often any particular word occurred in it, and where.

It is not surprising that any remarkable faculty is seldom seen to the same degree
in a man's children as in himself. To use an illustration, suppose a man with mem-
ory fifty per cent, above par marries a woman whose memory is fifty per cent, below
par, the probability is that their children will have only ordinary memories ; the defi-

472 HEREDITARY DESCENT, AND IMPROVEMENT OF TEE RAGE.

ciency of the one will counterbalance the excess of the other. The same is true ol
any other faculty.

It must be remembered, however, when speaking of remarkable capacity, or genius,
that a man may possess either, and yet not become eminent. Besides the faculty, he
must have constitutional energy, strong will, perseverance, and the power of applica-
tion, without which the brightest faculties may lie dormant, or be but half used. A
man of transcendent intellectual gifts may transmit them all to his son, but if the
son inherits from his mother, at the same time, a languid temperament, or constitu-
tional inertness, he will make no use of them.

The law of heredity applies to the whole nature, bodily and mental — to every
part individually, and to its whole collectively. In applying it practically, the influ-
ence of one part upon another must be considered, and also the influence of each upon
the whole. It is only by doing this that we can succeed in working out what is
undesirable, or reducing it to its lowest terms, and in raising to the highest possible
pitch whatever is most worthy of being conserved.

In regard to moral qualities, there is no doubt but they are also transmissible,
equally with the mental. Whole families have been noted, for many generations,
with an inborn tendency to be criminals. Others show simply a tendency to vaga-
bondage, and others again to certain pursuits and occupations. The Hebrews seem
born with a capacity to handle money, and to appreciate the value of jewels. For
centuries they were prevented being anything else but jewelers and money-changers,
and no doubt the faculty thus acquired has been hereditarily transmitted.

Insanity, lunacy, and idiocy undoubtedly run in certain families, and may be
always expected in them at intervals.

In 1,300 cases of insanity, Esquirol found 300 cases of hereditary transmission, and
no doubt there were many others, if the family histories had been traced far enough
back ; for it must be remembered that insanity, like any other established trait, may
miss several generations, and reappear again. It is still there, but lies dormant for a
time. Insanity may also be partial, and in some cases exhibit itself only in eccen-
tricities. Moreau mentions the case of four brothers, whose grandfather died insane.
Their father was simply a shiftless man, incapable of applying himself steadily to any
pursuit, while their uncle, an intellectual man, was noted for many oddities of char-
acter. One of the brothers was a raving maniac at intervals ; another was melancholy
mad ; the third was irritable, with a tendency to suicide ; the fourth was a natural
artist, but exceedingly suspicious and timid.

The insane tendency, in all these cases, was modified by their respective mental
and bodily constitutions, but it was there. One peculiarity of hereditary madness is,
that it seldom shows itself till late. in life, thus often giving rise to false hopes that it
may not occur. In women, it is usually after the change of life, but sometimes occurs
during pregnancy or child-birth. In men, as a rule, it occurs most frequently from
fifty to seventy-five years of age, unless brought on earlier by intemperance or sexual
abuse.

Idiocy usually shows itself in childhood or early youth. Puberty is a dangerous
period when there is a tendency to idiocy, especially with those addicted to sexual
abuse.

Idiots are rare among savages or semi-civilized people, probably because they sel-
dom survive long, no one giving them that extra care which their unfortunate
condition demands. In some communities, idiots are always left to perish, or are

INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING. 473

destroyed. We nurse them, and even allow those with the taint of idiocy to marry
and propagate a race of imbeciles.

The passion for gambling, like that for drinking, is often inherited, and dominates
the whole character. There are born gamblers, born drunkards, and born thieyes
and murderers, beyond doubt ; that is, there are people born with tendencies to these
vices and crimes, so strong that all the ordinary influences cannot restrain them.

The conduct of society toward such erratic members must always be regulated by
expediency, and not by abstract justice, nor by dogmas about moral responsibility.
It is necessary for the welfare of society — nay, even for its very life — that such people
should be restrained, or even put out of existence. And, above all, they should never
be allowed to propagate ! It is bad enough to have natural thieves, lunatics, mur-
derers, or idiots, to care for and control, but it is infinitely worse to allow them to
originate generations of such.

The original Jukes girl, on the upper Hudson, was not only thoroughly depraved
herself, but she originated a family equally depraved. Of eighty descendants of hers,
one-fourth are convicted criminals, and the rest nearly all drunkards, lunatics, pau-
pers, and harlots.

How to deal with this matter practically must, in each case, be left to every per-
son's own judgment ; but most certainly, in view of these facts, no one ought to
marry and become a parent without giving them some consideration.

At present, society can do but little, even in the worst cases, and must, perforce,
see crime, idiocy, and pauperism propagated, without the faintest attempt at inter-
ference. It will not always be so, I feel sure, and the first step toward improvement
must be in giving the subject full discussion, and showing its importance.

About thirty years ago, a book was published in England, called "Marcus on
Painless Extinction," in which were advocated the right, and even the duty, of parents
to put undesirable children out of existence at birth, by a painless process. The
work made an immense sensation, and was finally withdrawn, but it served the pur-
pose of calling attention to a subject previously almost totally ignored. It was
supposed to have been written by an eminent statesman, for the purpose of stimu-
lating public inquiry and discussion. I mention it merely for its historical interest.
The celebrated Malfhus advocated simple moral restraint to effect the same ends — a
means which it is obvious would be effective with very few, and not at all with those
with whom it would be most desirable.

INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING.

These subjects are among those about which people generally know but very
little, but upon which they have very decided and fixed opinions. It is only quite
recently that any attempt at all has been made, systematically, to gather facts bear-
ing upon them, and the facts show, most conclusively, that the popular notions are
erroneous.

This is especially the case in regard to intermarriage, or the union of persons
nearly related. Very few people, except those acquainted with the facts, doubt for
a moment that the marriage of near relations always results in imperfect offspring,
and it will surprise many to learn that there is absolutely no foundation at all for
such a belief.

Ancient history shows that in early periods the nearest relations intermarried

474 INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING.

freely, and it is not easy to say when, or why, the practice was first discontinued.
It is probable that the church, during its most ascetic period, first began to interfere
with the freedom of marriage, for its own profit and advantage. At best marriage
was, in the early ages, only tolerated, as a concession to human weakness, and as a
necessary means of continuing the race. The consent and sanction of the church
was made imperative, on every union, and the church alone decided who should
marry and who should not. At first only the very nearest relations were forbidden
to intermarry, but gradually the prohibition became extended to first cousins, and
then to the fourteenth degree, till finally any degree of relationship or affinity
whatever, no matter how remote, or even god-parentage, was declared a bar to
marriage. It was, however, distinctly understood that the prohibition was not
absolute, in all cases. The church could grant a dispensation, where relations were
determined to marry, and, for a fee, make it lawful for them to do so. This is the
case even now in the Romish church, and cousins may marry providing the priest
has been paid for his sanction. This proves that the objection is considered as
merely ecclesiastical, and not natural, except by those who believe that the priest
can really work a physiological miracle, and really change the blood.

These early theological notions, however, originated and perpetuate even now the
prevailing notions in regard to intermarriage. Even where the church has lost its au-
thority, the old dogmas it taught still rule over men's minds, and form their opinions.

It was formerly thought that the intermarriage of near relations (except with the
special sanction of the church) was sure to entail the curse of heaven upon the
spouses. Not only would their children suffer in many' ways, but their orchards
would be barren, their cattle would die, and in many other ways they would be ac-
cursed. That no real danger of these evils was apprehended is proved by the fact
that they could be averted, in all cases, by a church ceremony, duly performed and
paid for. In fact, near relations might marry, if they could afford the cost.

Even at the present day there are people who believe that a god-father and god-
daughter ought not to marry, and that some punishment is sure to follow them if
they do, though they may not be in any way related. Many churches also discoun-
tenance the union of first cousins, and some clergymen will not marry them. The
civil law, however, fortunately, places no such restriction, and people can now marry
without church sanction.

As before stated, it is only quite recently that any doubt was felt as to the neces-
sary hurtfulness and immorality of the marriages of near relations. The old notion
being fixed that they were so, every case where evil of any kind followed such mar-
riages was carefully noted, while all those cases in which no harm resulted were
passed by.

By degrees, however, independent observers began to present their facts, and to
controvert the prevailing opinions, but they had a hard up-hill fight, the whole
power of the church, of tradition, and of fixed prejudice being against them. It
was only when statistics were collected, and experiments made with the lower beings
and with plants, that the true state of the case came to be seen. Breeders of animals
proved that when a really good kind was once obtained, they could breed in and in,
in the closest manner, not only without harm, but with positive advantage. In cat-
tle, for instance, the children have been crossed with their parents, and the resulting
offspring back again with them both, the last generation being more perfect than
the first.

INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING. 475

The real point established by these experiments, and upon which the whole
question turned, was this : Any character, or quality, good or bad, which is pos-
sessed by both the male and the female will, if they marry, and are prolific, proba-
bly become intensified in their offspring.

As a rule, however, marriages of near relations should be carefully considered,
for this reason. There are few families without some taint, and therefore both may
be reasonably supposed to be similarly affected by it. If they are, they should not
marry. Very frequently, however, the nearest relations are quite unlike each other,
and have no unfavorable tendencies whatever in common. Very frequently, in
fact, first cousins are better adapted, naturally, to marry with each other than with
strangers.

It should be borne in mind also that this law of double inheritance, by offspring,
works two ways. Health, strength, beauty, mental power, and good moral tenden-
cies, if possessed by both parents, may become doubled in their children, just as
surely as disease, deformity, insanity, or immoral tendency. Whether the parents
are nearly related or total strangers does not affect the result in either case. As
remarked before, it is simply their fitness or unfitness, physical, mental, and moral,
that should be considered, and not their relationship. If they are both similarly
tainted, though they may be total strangers, their children will probably be doubly
so ; and if they are both healthy every way, though related in the nearest degree,
their children will probably be healthy also.

It is a popular notion that two persons who are alike should not marry, whether
related or not. But that all depends upon whether the peculiarities in which they
resemble each other are objectionable or not. If so,, that is a reason against the
marriage, but it may be that the peculiarities are such as it would be desirable to
perpetuate, or even intensify, and then the marriage would be one to be desired.

This subject of proper mating in marriage, is, beyond question, the most impor-
tant that can engage human attention ; and the almost total neglect of it, shows how
slow man is to appreciate properly what most concerns him. By due attention to
this matter, when the necessary facts have been gathered, disease and all vicious
tendencies can be annihilated, and man's mental and physical power be increased
far beyond anything we can now conceive !

At present it is all hap-hazard, with the chances the wi-ong way. Men of intel-
ligence, who will not mate their horses, dogs, or cows, without the most careful
scrutiny, in order to insure perfect offspring, will nevertheless marry their children
to disease, vice, and insanity, without a thought !

In some future age, when man comes to be guided by reason and knowledge,
instead of tradition and superstition, the propagation of children will be as carefully
attended to as the propagation of animals is now. But that will not occur till man
learns the fact that he is an animal himself, and subject to the same laws as his fellows.

The remarkable success which has been obtained by improvers of the breeds of
cattle and other animals, shows how much can be effected in this way. These men
have found out, practically, that by proper pairing they can breed out any undesira-
ble quality, and increase any desirable one. The value of domestic animals has been
increased in this way enormously, and there seems no obvious limit to the improve-
ments. This applies not only to bodily characteristics, but to mental and moral
ones also ; our present domestic animals being from birth, incontestably more docile
and teachable than their remote ancestors.

476 INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING.

Much of this improvement has been effected by close in and in breeding, or by
the mating of near relations ; it being a rule with many breeders, when they have
established a good breed, to keep clear of any outside intermixture. All they
regard is the qualities of the animals they pair ; if these are what they wish, rela-
tionship is not taken into account. If a stranger has the desired qualities in the
greatest perfection, it will be taken, if not, a member of the same family will be
chosen.

The same principles are established in regard to plants, as shown by Mr. C.
Darwin in his work on The Fertilization of Plants. After giving the results of his
numerous experiments and observations, he sums up with saying that there is no neces-
sary intensification of taints, and that in and in breeding is harmless, so long as the
sexual elements are sufficiently differentiated. If plants grow constantly in the same
place, and under the same conditions, they gradually exhaust the needed elements,
and thus become less capable of self-impregnation, because they cannot perfect the
sexual element. In such cases, a cross from a plant grown in another locality, results
in more vigorous offspring, but it matters not whether it be a stranger or one of the
same family.

It is quite possible this may be the case, to some extent, with human beings, in
whom new conditions may effect favorable changes, as they do in plants. But all
animals have this advantage, that they are not tied to one spot, as most plants are,
and therefore can vary their surroundings at will.

That crossing is often an advantage there is no doubt, both in plants and animals,
but it is so only when the cross brings some new good quality, or increases one already
established. It makes no difference whether the cross is made with a stranger or
with a near relation that has been raised under new influences.

Mr. Darwin planted cross-bred seeds and in-bred seeds of the same plants, on op-
posite sides of the same pot, and found that the cross-bred ones usually grew much
more luxuriantly than the in-bred ones, but not always. The explanation, no doubt,
was, as before stated, that, in the cross, the male fertilizer was grown under different
conditions, more favorable for the elaboration of the pollen. A new plant raised
from seed in a place well suited to it, would fertilize itself, or breed in, as perfectly
as if it were crossed. It is the same with breeds of animals ; adaptation is what must
be considered, without regard to relationship.

Even if it should be found to be a law of nature that crossing should take place,
to some extent, it would not show that intermarriage is necessarily hurtful ; for the
nearest relatives, among animals, cannot breed so close as the plant which constantly
fertilizes itself ; because animals are all the time changing their conditions, more or
less, while the plant is always fixed, in the same.

Mr. Darwin says, "From the facts given in this volume [TJie Effects of Cross and
Self- Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom], we may infer that with mankind the
marriages of nearly-related persons, some of whose parents and ancestors had lived
under very different conditions, would be much less injurious than that of persons
who had always lived in the same place, and followed the same habits of life. Nor
can I see reason to doubt that the widely-different habits of life of men and women,
in civilized nations, especially amongst the upper classes, would tend to counter-
balance any evil from marriages between healthy and somewhat closely-related
persons."

This remark may be sometimes of practical value. If a union be desired between

INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING. 477

two very near relations, much alike, any possible evil may be much counterbalanced,
as Mr. Darwin remarks, by having them reared apart, under different conditions, or,
at least, kept so as long as possible. This, of course, applies to all animals, human
beings included, and to plants also.

Even the different occupations, and mode of life during the day, of husband
and wife, no matter how much they resemble each other, will help to differentiate
tbem, and so counteract any possible evil from their near relationship.

Observations on individual cases show no more harmful results from intermas-
riage of near relations, than from the marriage of strangers ; and statistics give the
same result.

Mr. George Darwin was perhaps the first man who went into this subject systemat-
ically, for the purpose of getting at the real facts. He found that the prevailing
notions were all based upon conjecture, imperfect observation, and tradition, and
that there was really but very little positively known about it.

He first set to work to discover what proportion of all the marriages, in a given
number, were between first cousins, and found it to be three and five-tenths per cent.
in the middle and upper classes and landed gentry, and four and five-tenths per cent.
among the aristocracy. He then got the statistics of numerous lunatic and idiot
asylums in England and Wales, and ascertained how many of the cases therein were
children of first cousins. The result was about four per cent., or nearly one-half of
one per cent, less than among the children of those not nearly related.

The inquiries were more especially directed to deafness, sterility, low vitality, and
inferior mental and bodily vigor. The results proved that there is, to say the least,
no more danger of either of these defects to the children of first cousins than to those
of other people.

Mr. Darwin found, for instance, that among 366 families which furnished deaf
mutes, only eight were unions between first cousins — that is, a little over two per
cent, only !

He also found that in the peerage, and among the landed gentry, marriages be-
tween first cousins were more fertile than ordinary, and that their children were even
more fertile than usual, whether they married relatives or not.

Statistics show that about twelve per cent, of all marriages, in England, are
barren. But Dr. Bemis shows, from an analysis of 833 cases of marriages of near
relations, that less than seven per cent, of tbem were barren.

In addition to this we have many instances of small communities, isolated from
the rest of the world, where close intermarriage has been the rule for generations, with-
out any special bad results, if not sometimes with advantage.

Dr. Voisin tells us that the commune of Batz, situated on a peninsula, and sepa-
rated from the main-land by a salt marsh, is almost entirely isolated, the inhabitants
having very little intercourse with the main-land. They number about 3,300, and
have intermarried amongst one another for many generations. Dr. V. did not find
amongst them, however, a single case of deaf-mutism, albinoism, blindness, malfor-
mation, or mental disease, although almost everybody was related. The number
of children amongst them was over the average, and they were unusually healthy.
The average of barren marriages was only four per cent., -which is very low in-
deed.

They are a simple but intelligent people, habitually sober, and crime is almost
unknown amongst them.

478 INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING.

Among the Jews, as is well known, marriages of very near relations are common,
and yet they are among the most healthy people in the world, and the most free
from defects, both bodily and mental.

This subject has been treated upon more fully because it is advisable the truth
should be known. It would often be advantageous for first cousins to marry, and it
would be a pity tbat an unfounded notion should prevent it. Of course there may
be family or other reasons why near relations should not marry, but there is no
natural reason why they should not.

In the case of the commune of Batz, above referred to, the founders were proba-
bly all sound, healthy people, and close intermarriage has been advantageous, by
keeping their offspring like them. Had some of their forefathers been deaf, or im-
becile, the intermarriage might have been a great misfortune, by intensifying their
bad traits and perpetuating them.

All which proves, as before remarked, that in marriage it is the sound and healthy
condition of the parties that should be considered, and their mutual adaptation ; it
will then be of little moment whether they are related to one another or not.

IMPROVEMENT OF BKEED.

To show the importance of a proper attention to pairing, in the breeding of ani-
mals, we may mention the fact that with sheep, the improvement of the breed has
practically doubled the amount of mutton from a given number of animals ! The
same result has also followed the improvement of cattle, from whom double the amount
of milk, butter, cheese and beef are now obtained, compared with those of former times.
In horses, pigs, and all other domestic animals, it is the same ; they have all been
doubled or trebled in value by systematic improvement. So expert have breeders
become, that they will produce almost any form, size, or color that may be desired,
by proper attention to pairing.

It cannot be too often repeated, that the same laws apply to human beings, and that,
beyond doubt, man can be improved every way, physically and morally, as certainly as
the lower animals, and by the same means !

At some future day this will be acknowledged and acted upon, and society will
rightly attribute all cases of vice, malformation, and disease, to its own neglect, and
not to any inherent defect in human nature itself.

Those who would like to see what can be accomplished in this way, even by unen-
lightened people, should read the history of the ancient Spartans, with whom the
admiration of physical perfection was a real passion.

Nature herself, by the process of evolution, is constantly at work perfecting our
race. By the agency of natural selection, the strongest and those of acutest intellect
multiply faster, and endure longer, on the average, than those less fortunate. They
crowd them out, override them, and push them to the wall. It is in this way that
man has emerged from the savage state, and become what he is. Age after age, the
superior ones have overcome the inferior, and their offspring have inherited their supe-
riority. Gradually, but surely, by natural means alone, the breed of human beings
has improved, but very slowly, compared with the improvement which can and will
be effected when man pays as much attention to his own propagation as he now does
to that of the animals he controls.

It should be borne in mind, further, that when an improved breed is once obtained,

INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING. 479

constant care is needed to keep it pure and to perpetuate it. Neglect brings con-
tamination, and degeneration speedily follows, as breeders, botb of plants and animals,
bave found to their cost. None but the finest and most perfect males and females
should be allowed to propagate, and they must be paired with special reference to the
particular qualities we wish in the offspring.

Many physiologists have gone so far as to say that our extreme care of the sick,
and our medical art, is a real misfortune to the race. It keeps alive the sick and
feeble, and so allows them to propagate their debility and disease, whereas, if left alone,
they would die off, and their infirmities would die with them. They say this ma.}
seem cruel to the individuals, but would it not be better so, than that thousands
of others should be born to suffer in the same way ? Would it not be better to
end all this, than to make it permanent ? to purify the race, than to keep it
tainted ?

Nature herself follows this course. She makes no provision for the sick and feeble,
but allows them to die off at once, instead of becoming the parents of others like
themselves. All wild animals cast out and shun the sick and injured of their own
kind, and so prevent them from propagating. This is, no doubt, one great reason
why diseases of any kind seldom become permanent or constitutional among animals
in a state of nature.

Common humanity will, however, always make us care for the sick and feeble of
our kind, mitigate their sufferings, and keep them alive as long as possible ; but it is
not necessary nor advisable that they should propagate. That concerns society more
than it does them.

It certainly is a public calamity when people afflicted with mental or bodily dis-
ease, or moral defects, become parents ! and they never ought to do so.

This is a matter that concerns society at large more than it does individuals, and
society will one day take charge of it. At present, ignorant and thoughtless people
can go on propagating disease, insanity, and criminality, and no one has the power to
hinder them. It is even considered an offense to speak to them about it, or to ques-
tion their right to do as they choose in the matter.

It will not always be so, however, I feel sure, and perhaps these few remarks may
assist in bringing about the much-required change.

Many interesting instances are well known of transmitted tendencies in families,
for many successive generations ; the notorious Jukes family, for instance, already
referred to, almost every member of which is a criminal or pauper from birth, all of
them being descended from one vagabond pair. On the contrary, other families have
been as noted for eminence in other ways. The Napiers, for several generations, have
been distinguished as mathematicians, the Candolles as botanists, and the Darwins
as naturalists.

The true policy of society is to encourage this family transmission of qualities,
even though it may lead to close intermarriage, for by this means the capacity for
particular pursuits is increased, and the special tendencies intensified.

A natural-born scientist, in any department, is rare, and of inestimable value.
Under proper conditions, such a man attains the very highest rank, and makes his
influence felt in all subsequent generations. Mr. Charles Darwin is a man of this
kind, and a striking instance of the influence of hereditary descent. He is, in fact,
\he elder Darwin more fully developed ; and his children are already treading close
upon their father's heels. What some future Darwin may become, if the family tend-

480 INTERMARRIAGE AND PAIRING.

ency continues, we cannot conceive, although it would seem very difficult to surpass
the one we now have.

It becomes a duty, in the members of such a family, to be extremely careful in
regard to marriage, so that the brain development and stored-up mental habits of
their great ancestors may not only be maintained and transmitted, but, if possible, be
even improved upon. In such a case, intermarriage may be extremely desirable, if it
tend to preserve or increase the family capacity and tendency, while marriage with
strangers, if it led to a contrary result, would be a real misfortune to society.

CHAPTER XLV.

HYBRIDS, HYBRIDIZATION, AND CROSS-BREEDING,

Hybrids.

As a rule, only animals of the same kind breed together, and their progeny is of
the same kind. But sometimes animals of different kinds will mate, and their pro-
geny will then be a mixture of the two, or a hybrid, as when the horse and ass breed,
together, and produce the hybrid called a mule. It was formerly thought that ani-
mals of different species could not breed together, and that when any two did breed
it proved them to belong to the same species. This, however, is now conceded to be
erroneous, for not only different species, but even different genera will cross, and it
is only those of different orders which are incapable of intermixing. At what precise
point intermixture between two different animals becomes impossible we do not know,
but it is certain that it becomes rarer the more remote they are from each other.

It is possible that hybridization would be more frequent, even among widely
separated beings, if it were not for differences of structure, which interfere with
copulation and gestation. The male sperm and the female germ, even in those
of different orders, might intermix and form a hybrid, if they could be brought
together under proper conditions. The generative elements are the same in all
kinds of beings, but each kind has a particular mode of congregation and ges-
tation.

We see this exemplified both in plants and animals, many kinds of both being
crossed by artificial aid which never are naturally. Different kinds of fishes, ifor
instance, are crossed this way.

One of our previous articles has explained how the human female may be impreg-
nated artificially, by throwing the semen into the womb with a syringe, and it is
quite possible that in this way animals might be crossed who cannot copulate.

In some cases of hybridization, the male and female of both kinds intermix either
way, and this is called bilateral, or two-sided crossing. Thus we have a mule either
from the male ass and female horse, or from the male horse and female ass. In
other cases the male of one kind can cross with the female of the other, but the pro-
cess cannot be reversed. This is called unilateral or one-sided crossing. Thus the
male goat will breed with the female sheep, but the male sheep cannot impregnate
the female goat.

One-sided hybrids are the most common, and even in the two-sided, one way
always produces a more perfect being than the other. The mule, for instance, which
has the horse for father, is a larger and more perfect animal than the hinny which
has the ass for father. Mules are also more readily and certainly obtained than
hinnies.

We have no means of judging beforehand whether any two different animals
SI 481

482 HYBRIDS, HYBRIDIZATION, AND CROSS-BREEDING.

will cross, for some that seem very near together will not do so, while others, appar-
ently very remote, will.

Although it is laid down as an invariable rule that different orders will not inter-
mix, still there are some alleged cases of their having done so. The jumart for in-
stance, was said to result from the union of the horse and cow, either way, and this
was believed down to the time of Buffon. Thorough investigation however showed
that the so-called jumarts were only hinnies, from the union of a horse with a female
ass.

All the different species of equus, the horse, zebra, ass, and quagga, breed to-
gether ; the dog will breed with either the fox or the wolf ; the lion with the tiger ;
the male sheep with the female deer ; and the hare with the rabbit. A mastiff dog
has also bred with a lioness.

Among birds the swan and the goose ; the grouse and the black cock ; the pheas-
ant and the common fowl ; the canary and the goldfinch will intermix, as also many
others.

Among reptiles, the toad and the frog will cross. And among fishes many curious
intermixtures have been obtained.

Hybrids may be of either sex, but the generative system is usually imperfect, so
that they are either totally barren, or procreate only to a limited extent. Even
when they do procreate, it is usually with one of the parent stock, and but very rarely
with each other. The male hybrid is more usually sterile than the female. The
female mule, for instance, sometimes has a foal by a male horse or ass, but never by
a male mule. In fact, the semen of the male mule usually contains no animalcules,
as before explained, so that it could not impregnate.

One very remarkable exception, however, must be named.

M. Roux, of Angouleme, France, has successfully crossed the hare with the rabbit,
and the hybrid, called a leporide, is found to be both prolific and valuable.

These and similar experiments have been thought to prove that there is not,
naturally, any such thing as difference of species.

It has been asserted that all hybrids gradually lose their fertility, and thus, ii
left to themselves, they would die out in a few generations. This is undoubtedly
true of most of them, but there are exceptions.

I have been assured by those who have carefully observed, that even the mulatto,
the cross between the white and the black of the human species, is not nearly so pro-
lific by itself as it is with either the pure black or white. While lecturing in Wash-
ington, I had much conversation with the late Mr. John C. Calhoun on this subject,
.and also with Governor Tazewell of Virginia, and many others. The universal testi-
mony was that two mulattoes, when married, scarcely ever had the average number
of children, and that their offspring, if they married, had a still smaller number,
while theirs again, when married, were almost invariably barren. At the same time,
either generation would regain its prolificness by connecting with either black or white.

Mr. Calhoun informed me that it was once a law in tbe West Indies, as he had
been told, that all mulattoes of the fourth generation of regular descent were declared
free, but that none were ever found. And it is certain that children of mulatto
descent are very rarely to be met with.

In my visit to the South, by favor of the above-named gentleman, and others, I
had an opportunity of examining a large number of cross-breeds, between black and
white, of various degrees, and the result fully satisfied me that few of them were

HYBRIDS, HYBRIDIZATION, AND CROSS-BREEDING. 483

sexually perfect. In the male the testicles are generally small, and lack firmness,
while in the female the ovaries and womb are also small. The quadroon, and
octoroon, are more perfect than the offspring of two mulattoes, because of the pure
white parentage.

Some cross-breeds seem to be an improvement, in certain particulars, upon their
parents, but as a rule it is the reverse, although it is occasionally advantageous to
breed a certain amount of one kind into another.

The crossing of different vegetables, fruits, and flowers, has undoubtedly given
us many improved and valuable varieties, some of which are capable of continuing
their kind by self-fertilization, while others are not.

Every plant always prefers the pollen of its own species, and will take that alone,
when mixed with other kinds. To effect a cross, therefore, of any flower, its own
stamens must be cut away before their pollen is shed, or it will be sure to be taken
in preference to that of the plant we wish to cross with.

It is the same with animals, the semen of each kind being always preferred to
that of any other animal.

Generally, with plants, the hybrid resembles the male parent more than it does
the female ; and it is most frequently so with animals. Thus the mule is more like
the horse, and the hinny is more like the ass. The mulatto by a white father is also
whiter than the one by a black father.

In addition to the hybrids already mentioned, I also find a few others, which are
deserving of notice.

M. C. F. Eafinesque, professor of botany in the University at Lexington, Ky.,
states that a cat was left alone, for some months, in a cabin in Kentucky, with no
other cats within fifteen to eighteen miles, and yet was found by the owner on his
return with five young ones. They were not young cats, however, but apparently
hybrids between the cat and an opossum. The body, and fur, were like that of the
mother, but the head, paws, and tail were like those of the opossum. These
creatures lived some time, and were shown as curiosities, but they never propagated.
In all probability the cat, when in heat, not meeting with a male of her own kind,
associated with a male opossum. But if this were so it is a very remarkable case of
hybridity, for these animals belong to different orders and types.

M. Rafinesque also says that hunters assure him that the raccoon will cross with
the red fox, and he has even seen the skin of one of these hybrids, which apparently
resembled much that of the raccoon, but was a real mixture of the two. In this case
also the parents were of different orders.

The male buffalo, it is well known, will cross with the common cow, and the
progeny will breed, but the domestic bull will not so readily cross with the female
buffalo. These half-breed buffaloes are now quite common in the West, and are
said to be quite valuable.

The Canada goose will cross with the domestic goose, and the progeny will breed ;
and the same is the case with the common duck and the muscovy duck, though all
these are considered to be of different species.

In all probability many rare and unexpected hybrids could be obtained, by
artificial means, and some of them might be valuable, as well as interesting.

When the pairing animals, or plants, are nearly related, so that their offspring
is not very dissimilar to them, it is commonly called a cross only, and not a hybrid,
but the distinction is only conventional.

484 HYBRIDS, HYBRIDIZATION, AND CROSS-BREEDING.

Figube 118.— Remarkable Hybrid, from the Neto Forest. Drawn from life, by George Landse&r.

HYBRIDS, HYBRIDIZATION, AND CROSS-BREEDING. 485

a few years ago a remarkable hybrid was found in the New Forest, in the South
of England, of which we give an illustration. The account given of it states that
" this remarkable filly (seven months old) was found a short time since in the New
Forest, and is evidently of a mixed breed, between the horse and the deer. Her
mother (a pony mare) was observed to associate with some red deer stags in the New
Forest for some months, and, at last, this foal was seen by her side. The nose
shows a proximity both to the stag and horse ; her forward is round, like that of the
deer ; legs slender and distinctly double ; hoofs pointed, and partly double ; color
brown, lighter under the belly, and tail like a deer.

"This extraordinary animal is the property of T. G-. Attwater, Esq., of Attwater,
at the village of Bodenham, three miles from Salisbury. Dr. Fowler, of that city,
has inspected the hybrid, and is quite satisfied of the correctness of the preceding
statement ; and Colonel Buckley (a keeper of the New Forest) has likewise seen
the animal, and is of a similar opinion."

This is one of the most remarkable and best-attested instances of hybridization,
between animals very remote from each other, that I have ever met with, and proves
that with due care, crosses may be effected to a greater extent than is usually sup-

A gentleman who had lived many years in Africa, and traveled much in the
interior, assured me that the people all fully believe in crosses between the chim-
panzee and native women. They assured him that it was dangerous for a woman to
go alone into the forest, if male chimpanzees were there, because they always seized
and violated them. He said further that he had seen many children singularly
monkeyfied in appearance, which are said to be the result of such forced unions.
What was very remarkable, none of these children spoke. Certainly such hybrids
would not be nearly so wonderful as many of those we have described, and there is
no reason, structural or otherwise, why they should not be produced. The chim-
panzee and the lowest, negro are certainly as nearly related, structurally, as the
lowest negro and the Caucasian, and they breed together, either way.

392 Diseases of the Heart.

the peculiar pneumonia which is not unfrequently favored and even
excited hy the stenosis of the left auriculo- ventricular orifice. Only
let the remedy be administered in a small dose ; this is of paramount
importance. Even if large doses seem to agree at the beginning,
yet in the long run they exert a decidedly pernicious influence.

"We advise the use of Belladonna in all cases where Aconitum
seems indicated by the symptoms. In this kind of disorder Aconite
never exerts a favorable influence. Belladonna is especially indicated
by the paroxysmally increasing pulmonary hyperemia and the
headache which sometimes reaches a terrible degree of intensity.
It is less frequently efficacious in the resulting hepatic derange-
ments.

Pulsatilla cannot be numbered among the prominent remedies;
we would at most employ it in the higher grades of bronchial
catarrh.

Veratrum a!bum competes with Belladonna as far as the affected
organs are concerned ; yet there are symptomatic differences. It is
suitable for cerebral and pulmonary congestions setting in with
pallor and coldness of the outer skin, or with a decidedly cyanotic
tinge.

Opium, in small doses, in the case of drunkards is a main remedy
for celebral hyperemia, less for the respiratory difficulties. In such
cases it often acts with, wonderful rapidity and completeness,
although the effect does not last.

Tartarus stibiatus is indicated by bronchial catarrh with profuse
secretion of mucus, and by a gastric catarrh the symptoms of which
may be compared in the Mat. Med. Pura.

Arsenicum which seems indicated much more frequently than it
really is, has only shown a decisive effect in our hands against the
sleeplessness which is a not uncommon symptom in these disorders ;
it has never seemed to be of any use in affections of the respiratory
organs for which it seems such an excellent remedy if these affec-
tions are not occasioned by valvular defects. Isor does it ordinarily
seem to have any effect in dropsical difficulties.

The remedies we have named so far, are in general adapted only
to overcoming single ailments either acute or subacute ; to this list
we will add the following: Phosphorus, Sguilla, Secale cornutum,
Iodium, Ammonium carbonicum. Another series of drugs has to be
opposed to chronic secondary affections which, although necessary
consequences of the cardiac disorganizations, very often admit of a
diminution, or at least of an arrest of the symptoms.

Anomalies. 393

China and Ferrum here occupy the first rank; the former more
especially, if the ansemic phenomena which are an inevitable con-
sequence of the deficient activity of the left ventricle, are associated
with frequent paroxysms of passing congestions of the brain, and
if the hepatic functions are greatly interfered with. Ferrum is
indicated rather by a tendency to pulmonary congestions and to
hemorrhage from the bronchia, by prominent symptoms of gastric
catarrh, and, like China, by enlargements of the spleen. Ferrum
is not very suitable to old people ; China, on the contrary, is emi-
nently so.

In chronic ailments Arsenicum deserves more attention than in
acute complaints. It may be tried in liver-complaint as well as in
renal affections ; sometimes it renders good service, but more fre-
quently it leaves us in the lurch.

Baryta carbonica has already been mentioned in the bronchial
catarrh of old people ; we likewise recommend it, if the catarrh is
occasioned by valvular deficiency.

Carbo veget. may still afford help, if every other remedy had left
us in the lurch. This remedy embodies in its pathogenesis all the
consequences of the anomalies here treated of: a disposition to atonic
hemorrhage ; the anaemic symptoms in cyanosis ; oedematous swell-
ings, pulmonary oedema ; passive hypersemia of the brain, lungs,
liver, spleen ; chronic bronchial catarrh in every stage, pulmonary
hemorrhage; gastric catarrh. There is scarcely another remedy
that represents so clearly a definite morbid condition. Clinical
results have substantiated the truth of this similarity.

Beside these remedies, those that have been named for fatty
degeneration may likewise be ranked here, especially Plumbum,
Cuprum and Aurum. For single symptoms : Lycopodium and Na-
trum muriaticum are particularly efficacious. The last-mentioned
remedies likewise embrace within their curative range, if help is
at all possible, the last link of this series of consecutive disorders,
namely : local and general dropsy.

The mode of living has an influence upon the final result that
must not be underrated. Bodily motions and exertions are regu-
lated without the least difficulty ; proper dietetic precautions are
easily violated. Inasmuch as the whole tendency of the anomalies,
of which we have treated, is to change the blood to venous blood,
since the interference with the lesser circulation only admits of an
imperfect oxygenation of the blood: our whole aim should be to
furnish the patient with such nourishment as will not require the

PLATE XXXIV.

POSITION OF THE ORGANS IN THE MALE PELVIS.

24, is the bladder ; 23, the rectum ; 14, the kidney ; 16, the large artery, whicu
forks, oue part going to each leg ; 21, the branch going to the left leg, and 22 to the
right. The tube crossing 22 is the ureter, or tube conveying the urine from the
right kidney to the bladder ; 27, 28, are the right and left abdominal rings, filled
vith the spermatic vessels, arteries, veins, and nerves. These are the places -where
ruptures occur. 18, is the large vein, under the artery, and corresponding to it ;
15, the navel ; 25, the pubic bone.

In the chest, 1, the large aorta ; 3, 3, the right and left sub-clavian veins ; 11,
the descending aorta ; 12, the oesophagus leading to the stomach.

PART XIV.

SPECIAL DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OEGANS,
MALE AND FEMALE.

CHAPTEE XLVI.

DISEASES, MALFORMATIONS, AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

It is of the greatest importance that every man should know sufficient of himself
to be able to detect the various derangements of his system at the earliest possible
moment, and that he should also know the proper steps to take for their prevention
and removal. He who knows nothing of this kind, and goes to a physician only when
he feels pain or inconvenience, will often find that he then cannot be benefited, the
favorable moment having gone by unknown to him, through his ignorance. Some
of the most severe and dangerous diseases of the testes, for instance, cause neither
pain nor inconvenience till they are considerably advanced. I shall therefore give
all the indications that can be relied upon, of each disease, and also the treatment
to be pursued, making it in every case, as far as possible, such as may be practiced
by the person himself.

HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE TESTICLE.

This is sometimes called a swelled or ivatery testicle. Properly speaking, this is
but seldom an affection of the testicles themselves, but of the scrotum in which they
are contained. There are three kinds of hydrocele : first, that in which the fluid

Fig. 119.

Fig. 120.
A case of Hydrocele laid open.

Figtob 119. -a. The Penis much contracted. 6. The Scrotum, c. The Testicle. /. The lunica
Vaginalis, which, it will be seen, is double, from being reflected over the Testicle, which is on the
outside of it. q. Is the water, which is between the two folds of the Tunic, h. The Spermatic Cord.

Figuke 120.— External appearance of the Hydrocele, showing the veins also in a case of Vari-

C0CFigtjke 121.— Wasted Testicle. 1. Shows the left Testicle perfect. 2. Shows the right Testi-
cle wasted away, as it often does from masturbation, and sometimes from hydrocele.

490 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

collects in the substance or tissue of the scrotum; secondly, that in which it is
secreted by one of the coats of the scrotum ; and thirdly, that in which it collects in
the spermatic cord.

First Variety of Hydrocele. — This is scientifically called Hydrocele (Edematodes,
and it is usually connected with general dropsy, or arises from the treatment of some
of the other varieties. It is, however, but seldom met with, and rarely arises of
itself. In some cases it has been brought on by wearing an improperly-constructed
truss, by blows, or even by tight clothing, but much more frequently it is only a
consequence of some other disease, particularly dropsy of the abdomen, which is
likely to extend to the scrotum. In this form of disease the testicle is usually softish
at first, and when pressed the mark of the finger remains of a white color for some
time after. As it progresses, however, the scrotum becomes harder, and perfectly
smooth, the penis enlarges, particularly at the prepuce, and in very bad cases the
skin inflames and sloughs away.

The treatment of this form of hydrocele must vary somewhat according to the
conditions under which we find it. If it results from general dropsy, it can be cured
only by the removal of that, and will require but little local treatment. If there be
any injurious pressure, it must be immediately taken away, and frequently the doing
so will effect an immediate improvement without anything further being done.

The local treatment, after attending to the above directions, must consist of fre-
quent bathing with cold alum water, one ounce to a pint, or of simple cold water.
A suspensory bandage must also be worn constantly, except when the patient caiii
remain perfectly still, without standing too long. The bowels must be kept free,
and but little fluid drunk. The following mixture may be taken for four days, and
then omitted four days, and so on alternately till it has been taken twelve days in ali,
unless the swelling is obviously going down after the first four days, which it will
often do, in which case it need not be continued.

R. Hydriodate of potassa, thirty-six grains ; distilled water, one ounce. Dose, ten
drops, morning and night, in half a tumbler of water.

Second Variety of Hydrocele. — This is usually called Hydrocele of the Tunica
Vaginalis, the fluid being secreted by the inner coat of the testicle, and, therefore,
contained in the cavity of the scrotum. The swelling is observed on one side only,
in most cases, like a smooth egg or pear-shaped tumor, of a natural color. It begins
at the bottom of the scrotum, and gradually progresses upward, until it sometimes
reaches the top and presses against the abdomen. It is quite soft to the touch at
first, and the fluid may be distinctly felt to fluctuate or shift its position as the tumor
is moved. As the disease progresses, however, it becomes harder, and does not fluc-
tuate, and in form it becomes more decidedly oblong.

From the above description, it will be seen that this form of hydrocele is easily
distinguished from that previously described, because in this the swelling is observed
on one side, and commences at the bottom, while in the other it is diffused more or
less over the whole scrotum at once, and is evidently in the skin, or cellular tissue.
Sometimes, it is true, both halves of the scrotum may begin to fill up with fluid, but
even then each one is sufficiently distinct from the other for both to be distinguished,
and for the nature of the affection to be readily seen.

A very good way to examine a hydrocele is to place a candle behind it and look
,n front, when it will usually appear semi-transparent, and sometimes so perfectly so
that the testicle may be distinctly seen in the middle of the water, like the yelk of an

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 49J

egg in the midst of the white. When the testicle cannot be seen in this way, it is
often difficult to find it, and its position can only be ascertained by a hardish feeling
in the back part of the swelling near the top.

The quantity of fluid secreted in some of these cases is very great, as much as six
quarts having been removed by Mr. Cline from Gibbon, the great historian. There
may, however, be but a small portion, and it may remain for many years, or even
during a person's life, without increasing, though the probability is against this, and
ia some cases it increases very rapidly.

It is singular, also, that even in some very bad cases there is but little distress,
and, except from the inconvenience of its weight and size, many patients suffer but
small annoyance from it. Sometimes, however, it causes a troublesome sense of un-
easiness and pressure in the testes and groin, and occasionally even produces numb-
ness of the limbs. When very large, the penis is drawn into the swelling, so that it
appears smaller, and its erection becomes difficult and painful ; the spermatic cord is
also pulled down, and becomes tender, and the motion of the limbs is much inter-
fered with.

There is not much to be feared from a hydrocele of this kind, if the general health
be good, unless it be complicated with a real swelling of the testicle ; the case then
becomes very difficult, and nothing can be done till the testicle itself is cured. I
have known a man of sixty years of age who had a hydrocele from the time he was
fourteen ; it was of a considerable size, but had never much incommoded him, nor in
any way interfered with his health or functions. The difference in the symptoms of
a hydrocele and a swelled testicle will be pointed out in the article on Sarcocele.

The causes of this form of hydrocele are but little known. It is undoubtedly
brought about, in some cases, by injuries, such as blows, pressure upon the saddle in
horse-riding, and by badly-made trusses. Too much standing will also dispose to it,
particularly in those with a relaxed state of the muscles. In general, however, it
results from some constitutional tendency, the nature of which is unknown, and
which cannot be ascertained before the effect is produced. In most instances, its
beginning is altogether unknown to the patient, and it progresses so slowly and in-
sidiously that an advanced stage may be reached before anything wrong is suspected.
I have known young men suppose it was merely a natural increased growth of the
parts.

The Treatment. — In the early stages, it is sometimes sufficient to use cold lotions
two or three times a day, as prescribed for the first variety, particularly that of alum.
Frequent cold bathing, in addition, will assist, and if the bowels be kept free and but
little fluid be drunk, the hydrocele will occasionally go down considerably, or even
disappear altogether. I would advise any one to continue this simple treatment even
if it only arrested the disease, for though it might not positively cure at first, still if
it keeps matters from becoming worse, Nature herself may work a cure in time. A
suspensory bandage should be worn from the very first, and as much rest should be
taken as circumstances will allow. After using the simple alum-wash for some time,
if the swelling still continues, the following lotion may be applied instead, night and
morning :

R. Powdered Peruvian bark, one ounce ; boiling water, one pint. Boil these for
ten minutes, and then add, when cold, half a pint of spirits of camphor.

This is perhaps the best lotion that ever was used for this purpose, and has done
more good than all others put together. The parts should be bathed with it for

492 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

about ten minutes before the suspensory bandage is put on in the morning, and for
the same time after it is removed at nigbt.

In some cases, the following wash has been found to succeed, even where the other
did not :

R. Sugar of lead, one ounce ; laudanum, a teaspoonful ; water, one pint.

This is to be used as a lotion, the same as the other, and both must be applied
cold.

Very little can be done by internal medication, except to keep the bowels free,
though occasionally the following recipe may assist :

R. Vinegar of colchicum ; vinegar of squills, and nitric ether, of each half an
ounce — to be mixed. Of this mixture a teaspoonful may be taken in a drink of water
three or four times a day. Frequent bathing, and clothing the body warmly are also
beneficial.

When all these means fail, however, as they too often do, some kind of operation
must be resorted to, either to give temporary relief, or with a view to cure. It is
customary, for the first purpose, to puncture the sac of the scrotum with a sharp in-
strument, and let out the water. If nothing more be done than simply letting out
the fluid, it will usually fill again, though occasionally it does not. To effect a per-
fect cure, the scrotum is injected through the same wound, after the fluid has all
escaped, with some astringent solution. Cold water only is used by some prac-
titioners, but more frequently a mixture of two parts port wine to one of water. So-
lutions of iodine and of hydriodate of potassa ha^ve also been used, and in some cases,
the same fluid that was discharged, but the port wine and water appear to act the
best of any.

The manner in which this injection appears to effect the cure is this : it excites a
considerable degree of inflammation in the testicle, and also in the coats of the tunics,
so that they grow together, and in this way the cavity in which the water accumu-
lated is entirely obliterated.

In most cases, if properly performed, this operation is quite successful, causes but
little pain, and is perfectly free from danger. In some instances, however, it is un-
successful, owing to the fluid not being well injected, and occasionally there is much
more inflammation caused by it than what is desirable, attended by serious constitu-
tional irritation. The puncturing instrument, and the tube to convey the fluid,
must be very carefully introduced, so as not to injure the testicle, but they must also be
carried sufficiently far to insure all the water being discharged. The proper place to
make the puncture is nearly at the bottom of the tumor, behind ; the fluid may re-
main in about five minutes, and about as much must be injected as was drawn out.

Sometimes a difficulty occurs in this way : after the fluid has escaped, the tunica
vaginalis draws together, so that the opening into it does not correspond with the
opening outside, and if the instrument has become displaced before the injection is
thrown in, it is difficult again to introduce it. In fact, it is better if this occurs to
leave off till another day, and operate again, for the attempt, if too often made, may
cause serious and useless inflammation. There is also danger, if the instrument is
put in again, that it may not go into the cavity, but merely into the substance of the
skin, and the fluid is then thrown into the cellular tissue, and not only does no good,
but may even remain and produce a real dropsy of the scrotum, or hydrocele wdema-
todes, the same as described under the head of the first variety.

In fact, some surgeons purposely perform the operation in such a way as to

DISEASES AND DEBANOEMENTS OF TEE MALE SYSTEM. 493

change the hydrocele into a simple dropsy of the scrotum, by letting the fluid into
the cellular tissue, by simply introducing a needle. The new disease is certainly
more easily cured than the former one, and the pressure of the water on the scrotum
often prevents any more being secreted in the tunic, but still in many cases a cure is
not effected, and sometimes is made more difficult. I would much rather advise the
total discharge and injection.

This operation is very simple and successful in skillful hands, but often fails from
want of skill or proper care. If too much inflammation follows, poultices must be
applied and other simple means used to subdue it, and the patient must keep still.
It must be borne in mind, however, that considerable inflammation is necessary, to
effect a cure. I once knew a man who operated upon himself with a common pen-
knife and a small catheter. He effectually discharged all the water, but knew noth-
ing about injecting anything in return. At the end of two years there was but
little accumulated again, and he thought so little of what he had done, that he said
he should always repeat the operation himself, as often as might be necessary.

It is sometimes necessary to do this to young children, and it must be remem-
bered that in them the testicle is much lower than in adults, and greater care is,
therefore, needed not to wound it.

A simple dressing of mild ointment, or even of wet cloths is all that is needed
after the injection is withdrawn.

Some practitioners have used setons, and others galvanism, to cure hydrocele, but
though each method has been successful in some cases, yet they are not more so than
the injection, which is much more simple, and causes much less pain. Either of
these methods may, however, be tried, if that fails.

After the water is drawn off, the testicle should be carefully examined, as it can
'then be readily felt, because if there be any swelling of it, or any indications of
cancer, the injection must not be thrown in till that has been beneficially treated.

In some persons the water will accumulate in spite of all, and it is necessary to
discharge it frequently. In infants it will often disappear spontaneously, without
any treatment, but it rarely does so in adults, though I have known some in whom
brisk exercise alone would disperse it.

Sometimes this form of hydrocele is congenital, or exists from birth. In these
cases the fluid descends from the abdomen, the opening between it and the scrotum,
by which the testicles descended, not having closed. Many persons have been
deceived by this affection, and have taken it for a rupture, but a little careful ex-
amination will soon disclose the truth. By gently compressing the tumor, the fluid
will rise into the abdomen, through the ring, and return again when the pressure is
withdrawn. To a certain extent this trouble is more general than is supposed, and
is frequently ascribed to wrong causes. It is advisable to have it attended to as early
as possible, because there is danger, if left over the first month, of its continuing
during the whole of childhood, or perhaps even till adult age, and leading to other
derangements.

In the early stages, and sometimes even after it has existed long, it is possible to
cure it in a very simple manner. The water must be gently pressed back into the
abdomen, and then a truss or bandage of some kind must be worn, so constructed
that the pad will press exactly on the ring, and thus prevent the fluid from return-
ing. In a short time the passage grows up, and there is then no further danger.
The period required to effect a cure varies much in different cases ; thus in some it

494 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

will be complete in two or three weeks, while in others it requires as many months,
or even much longer. Cold lotions must be used in these cases as with adults.

In case of failure, with these means, which will sometimes happen, the only-
other remedy is the injection, the same as already described. The operation is
precisely the same as for an adult, but must be conducted with more care, there
being more risk of serious inflammation. It must be recollected also that while the
injection is being made the upper part of the scrotum must be held firmly together,
just by the ring, to prevent the injected fluid from passing up into the abdomen,
which it would otherwise do, and perhaps cause serious trouble. A truss or bandage
must be worn for some time after the operation, to prevent any more fluid coming
down, and also to retain the bowels in their place.

Third Variety of Hydrocele, — In this form of hydrocele, as already explained, the
seat of the watery effusion is not in the scrotum, but in the spermatic cord. It may
occur in two ways, first in the substance, or cellular tissue of the cord ; and secondly,
within certain cavities in the sheath or tube itself.

The first form of spermatic hydrocele is very rare, and is but seldom of much
account. It is similar in its nature to the first form of hydrocele in the scrotum,
or hydrocele cedematodes ; in fact, it is the same disease only confined to the sheath
of the spermatic cord. Its causes are also in all probability the same, and it requires
the same treatment. "When it results from general dropsy, which is usually the case,
no cure can be expected until that is remedied.

The palliative treatment must consist in wearing a bandage and using cold
astringent lotions, and it is but seldom that anything more is required. Occasion-
ally, however, the swelling becomes so great as to cause serious inconvenience, and
the patient insists upon having relief immediately. Under such circumstances the
only mode of proceeding is to open the swelling, and so let the fluid escape. There
is, however, some danger in this, and in most cases it is better not to perform the
operation. Many persons have mistaken this affection for a small hernia, or a
swelled vein.

The other form of spermatic hydrocele is usually termed encysted hydrocele of the
spermatic cord, because the fluid is contained in one or more sacs. The swelling in
this case is in the form of an egg, and situated between the testicle and the groin.
It is usually firm to the touch, with no fluctuation, and perfectly distinct from the
testicle, which may be felt below it. Sometimes the sac of fluid is near to the ring,
and can be pressed up into the abdomen, so that it will disappear, but only to return
immediately the pressure is withdrawn. In such cases it may easily be mistaken for
a hernia or rupture, unless proper care be taken. On examination, however, it will
be found that the vessels of the spermatic cord can be distinctly felt, even when the
tumor is down, by merely pressing it on one side, which is not the case in rupture.
The functions of the bowels also are not interfered with in hydrocele, while they are
very much so in hernia, when it is down.

Occasionally the watery tumor descends much lower than usual, and may then
be taken for hydrocele of the tunica vaginalis. It is only requisite, however, to re-
member that when the fluid is contained in the scrotum it surrounds the testicle,
which can scarcely be felt through it, but when it is contained in a sac, in the sheath
of the cord, it is always either above or on one side of the testicle, which is quite
separate from it.

The treatment should consist at first in fomentations, as directed for the other

DISEASES A ND DEBANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 495

yarieties, and in keeping the bowels perfectly free. This plan is the best one with
children, who are often afflicted in this way. A mixture of two parts alcohol and
one of water, is very good to use night and morning, or either of the recipes already
given. With regard to internal medicines, they are perhaps less proper in this va-
riety than in either of the others, but if thought necessary there are none better than
those before advised.

Sometimes, especially in children, a small puncture may be made and the fluid
let out, but in adults this is often of little use, as the sac fills up again. To prevent
this the port wine injection must be used, or the sac must be fairly cut 'out. Some
practitioners merely lance it open the whole length, and Sir Astley Cooper was accus-
tomed to insert a seton, a plan which I have known to succeed frequently, both in
children and adults. The particular plan to be pursued must, however, depend
upon the circumstances of the case, and I should advise every one to hesitate about
submitting to any operation, if they can keep tolerably comfortable, and get no worse
without it, which they nearly always «an if they will persevere with the simple direc-
tions given, and wear a suspensory bandage.

In children the following lotion, applied freely two or three times a day, will in
most cases cause the water to disperse without any further treatment :

R. Hydrochlorate of ammonia, one ounce ; distilled vinegar, four ounces ; water,
six ounces.

The same lotion, with half the water, will also be excellent for adults-

S.ARCOCELE, OR CHRONIC FLESHY SWELLING OF THE TESTICLE.

This affection is the real swelled testicle, or chronic fleshy enlargement of the
substance of that organ.

The causes that lead to this enlargement are various, and some of them not yet
understood. Cancer and scrofula are perhaps the two most frequent causes, but it
often arises when they do not exist, and when no other immediate agency can be
debected. Sometimes a chronic swelling will take place in the testicle, and after
existing for a considerable time, entirely disappear without any evil consequences.
More frequently, however, the result is more serious, and a malignant tumor is event-
ually developed, either cancerous, scrofulous, or sarcomatous.

Sarcomatous Tumors are of various kinds, and are the same in the testicle as in
other parts of the body. The most frequent kind is that called medullary, because
it resembles the substance of the brain. It is a most dangerous affection, and unless
attended to at the very earliest moment is nearly sure to be fatal. The whole sub-
stance of the testicle is converted into a kind of white pulp, similar in appearance to
the brain, and in a short time the disease is propagated along the absorbents till it
attacks all the neighboring parts. The glands in the groin soon swell to an enormous,
size, and slough and bleed, and eventually the lower part of the abdomen becomes
affected in the same way till the parts are all destroyed and the patient sinks. This
is thought by some to be the same disease as fungus hamatodes, and in many respects
it closely resembles cancer. There is, however, sufficient difference between them
to enable the surgeon to distinguish with ease, but to the patient the distinction is
of little consequence, each being equally dangerous, and the treatment bemg the
same for both.

Sometimes the mistake may be made of confounding sarcoma with hydrocele,

496 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

unless a strict examination be made. In hydrocele, it must be recollected, the swell-
ing begins at the bottom, and gradually extends upward to the abdominal ring, but
no farther ; it is also semi-transparent, and fluctuating. In sarcoma, on the con-
trary, the swelling is evidently in the whole substance of the testicle at once, and
extends upward into the spermatic cord ; it is also not in the least transparent, and
is much heavier than water. From want of attention to these points of difference
the swelled testicle has often been punctured, to let out the water.

Cancer in the Testicle is precisely the same in its origin and progress as in any
other part "of the body. The testicle becomes the seat of a hard tumor, through
which dart deep-seated lancinating pains, which shoot up to the loins, and down the
limbs. Eventually this becomes an open sloughing ulcer, which destroys the sub-
stance of the organ, and gradually extends to the abdomen, causing a profuse offen-
sive discharge, and a rapid impairing of the general health.

Scrofula of the Testicle. — This disease is scarcely ever met with except in those
who plainly exhibit a scrofulous habit of body. It causes a swelling of the testes
similar to that of cancer in its feel and appearance, but unaccompanied by any of the
lancinating pains. When the tumor is cut into, it seems filled with a whitish or
yellow substance like curds or soft cheese, along with a small quantity of pus. The
commencement of this affection may be very slow and insidious, and for a long time,
even after it has become fully established, nothing serious may be indicated. There
is nothing to alarm the patient much till the tumor breaks open and becomes an
ulcer, its progress then is often very rapid, and all the neighboring parts speedily
become diseased and destroyed.

The causes of that peculiar tendency to scrofula and cancer wbich many persons
exhibit are as yet unknown to us ; they are, however, in all probability what is termed
constitutional, and not produced by any accidental agency after birth, though there
may be many causes that will excite or call out these diseases, when they would
otherwise have remained dormant, either for a longer time or perhaps altogether.

The treatment of the various forms of sarcocele above described may be given in
a few words, for unfortunately but little can be done with them.

In some few cases of simple swelling, of the medullary or fatty character, it may
perhaps be dispersed, in the very earliest stages, by using leeches and cold lotions or
mercurial ointment externally, with mercury and iodine internally, but this can
seldom be depended upon. Unless such means evidently decrease the swelling
immediately, no further time should be lost with them, or the chance may go by of
doing good by other means. The removal of the testicle, by an operation, offers the
only chance of effecting a certain cure, and this is of no use either unless performed
at first, for if the disease has progressed till the neighboring parts are attacked, the
removal of the testicle will not check it. Unfortunately, many patients delay having
this necessary operation performed till it is too late, and they then conclude it is in
itself of no use. It must be borne in mind that some of these cases are very rapid
in their extension, and that the surrounding parts may be deeply affected without
giving any sign of it. In cancer, especially, it is necessary to operate as early as
possible, for even when the testicle itself shows but slight signs of the disease, it
may have extended to the loins and abdomen. There have undoubtedly been many
cases of sarcocele, of all the above kinds, that have been entirely cured by removing
the testicle, and which have never appeared again.

In general only one testicle is diseased, and that only needs removing, though

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 497

there is danger of both becoming affected by delay. The operation itself is compar-
atively simple, and not attended with so much pain or danger as many might sup-
pose it to be.

It is very common, as before remarked, to find sarcocele accompanied by hydro-
cele, and frequently, on evacuating the water in hydrocele, the testis is found en-
larged, though there were previously no signs of it.

It is generally conceded that blows or other violence may produce simple indu-
ration or hardness of the testicles, leading to medullary or fatty tumors, but not to
cancer or scrofula, though they may excite such diseases to break out. The too
frequent irritation of bougies and injections is also suspected of injuring in the same
way.

FUNGUS OF THE TESTICLE.

This affection is different from either of those previously described, though it has
some resemblance, at certain stages, to cancer. It is fortunately more capable of
being beneficially treated, however, and is not so likely to extend to other parts.

It is supposed to be caused by bruises or other violence, or by gonorrhoea and gleet,
particularly when injections have been used. The first indication is a simple swelling
without pain, which bursts and forms an abscess discharging pus, and from the
opening a fungus begins to protrude. This fungus may attain an immense size, if not
removed, extending to the abdomen and becoming very virulent. The discharge also
may become so profuse as to cause much general debility and constitutional irritation.

In the first stages of the swelling, when it is known to arise from external
violence, it may sometimes be reduced by leeches, warm fomentations, and poultices,
with purgatives used internally, and even after the abscess has opened fomentations
and poultices may be sufficient to prevent any extension of the mischief. When the
fungus has appeared, these simple means become useless, and resort must be had
either to caustic or the knife to remove it. In my opinion, the caustic is the best
remedy, and seldom fails to remove the diseased growth without any injury to other
parts. If the disease has not progressed too far, it may often be cured without
injuring the testicle at all, though it was formerly thought necessary to castrate in
every case, and some practitioners even do so now.

I once knew a man who had one of these fungous growths, arising from a bruise,
who was cured by the daily use of powdered burnt alum, dusted over the fungus,
and followed by a warm linseed poultice. This was done morning and night, and
by these means only, combined with the use of simple purgatives, and the solution
of hydriodate of potassa internally, as directed for hydrocele, he fully recovered in
about six weeks. The testicle, however, remained hard, and in all probability its
power was lost.

In all cases of bruising, or other violence, the timely use of rest, poultices, and
warm fomentations, may prevent many of these evils.

There are several other kinds of tumors and swellings of the testicles occasionally
met with, besides these mentioned, but they do not differ essentially, either in their
nature or treatment, and often it is scarcely possible to distinguish between them.
One peculiar form of cancer is frequently met with in England amongst chimney-
sweeps, and is caused by the irritation of the soot lodged in the furrows of the
scrotum. It is met with sometimes, but rarely, on the hand or foot. It is com-
monly termed the sweeps' cancer.
32

498 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

HEBNIA HUMOBALIS, OECHITIS, OB INFLAMMATION OP THE TESTICLES.

This sometimes appears to arise from some unknown constitutional cause, and
comes On very slowly, but more usually it is from some obvious agency, and assumes
from the first an acute form. It arises frequently from blows, falls, bard riding,
and strains, but most generally from the use of injections and bougies, in gonorrhoea
and stricture, or from the performing of operations like those for bydrocele. I have
also known it to follow intense sexual excitement, where gratification was impossible
and the semen bad no tendency to escape involuntarily. In children it very fre-
quently follows or accompanies the mumps.

Inflammation of the testicle usually commences with slight pain and soreness in
the part, attended by swelling, which is at first soft and yielding, but gradually
becomes hard, and sometimes hot and very painful. The scrotum loses all its rough
ness by swelling so much, becoming smooth and red, and occasionally so tender that
it can scarcely be touched. As the inflammation progresses, the swelling extends up
the spermatic cord, and severe pain may be felt in the loins, and sometimes even in
the limbs, till the patient suffers the most excruciating agony.

In many, even of the most severe cases, but little pain is experienced, and the in-
flammation will subside, under proper treatment, leaving no evil effects whatever
behind. There is danger, however, of its being followed by abscess, or hydrocele, if
neglected, even if it does not excite tumor or fungus. A loss of sexual power is also
apt to follow inflammation of the testicle, either from its deranging the structure of
the organ, or from its obliterating the passage in the vas deferens, and thus preventing
ever after the passage of the semen from the testicles to the urethra.

Orchitis arises much oftener from gonorrhoea than any other cause, the inflamma-
tion extending from the urethra, along the vas deferens, till it reaches the epididy-
mis, and finally the testicle. The epididymis is always first attacked in these cases,
and very frequently the disease extends no further, when it is called an epididymitis.
If it reaches the testicle, it is then called hernia humoralis.

When the inflammation accompanies gonorrhoea, it will generally be found to arise
whenever the discharge is suddenly checked, and immediately the discharge is allowed
to return the inflammation ceases. This shows the close sympathy there is between
the urethra and the testes, and what danger there is in irritating the urethra in any
way. I have known inflammation of the testes arise in one hour after using a strong
injection.

The treatment of this severe affliction must consist, in the first place, in perfect
rest on the back, the scrotum being supported by a suspensory bandage or truss. Cold
lotions must be freely and frequently used, and the bowels opened regularly with salts
or castor oil. No stimulating food or drink must be taken, and the mind must not be
agitated, nor the feelings excited in any way. The best lotion is a mixture of half a
pint of water to half a pint of alcohol, with a large spoonful of laudanum added.
If the pain be very severe, this lotion may be made hot, or a hot linseed or bread
poultice may be applied. A hot bath is also frequently of service.

A perseverance in these means will usually reduce the inflammation and pain in
one or two days, unless the exciting cause continues to operate. In very severe cases,
however, particularly those from bruises, it may be necessary to apply leeches, or to
open some of the veins of the scrotum, which nearly always gives relief if the blood
flows freely. If the pain be so bad that the patient cannot rest, he may take twenty

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 499

or thirty drops of laudanum at bed-time, in a little flax-seed tea or barley-water, or in
simple water alone if these are not to be obtained conveniently. The following pills
are the best for this purpose, however, when they do not disagree with the stomach,
which unfortunately they are apt to do, but they may be tried :

B. Opium, with soap, twenty grains ; camphor, half a drachm ; to be made up
into twelve pills, with as much simple mucilage as may be requisite. One of these
may be taken every sis hours if required.

The following ointment, applied externally, may also give great relief from pain
when the lotion fails to do so :

R. Belladonna ointment, two ounces ; camphor, one drachm ; paregoric elixir,
one drachm.

This must be mixed into an ointment, and a portion rubbed carefully over the
tender parts as often as the pain becomes severe.

"When the inflammation has been fully subdued, there is danger of the testicle
being left permanently hardened, or indurated, which is nearly sure to destroy its
power, if it does not originate other diseases. To prevent this, if the slightest hard-
ness remains, it must be frequently bathed with hot water and poulticed, or if these
fail, it must be rubbed with the camphorated mercurial ointment. Galvanism has
been used with success when the hardness resisted all other means, and as it is a safe
remedy it may be always tried. The only internal medicine likely to be of use is the
solution of hydriodate of potassa, before directed, and even this should be but seldom
taken. The regular use of the camphorated mercurial ointment, followed by hot
fomentations, is the most generally successful treatment.

The best remedy in some cases of acute orchitis, particularly when arising from
the sudden stoppage of a gonorrhoea! discharge, is compression. This is effected by
means of strips of sticking-plaster, which are stuck firmly around the organ, and also
passed underneath, the pieces being about a quarter of an inch wide, and long enough
to go round and meet. These of course cross each other, and when drawn pretty
tight, and made to adhere fast, they press considerably, and draw the whole organ
together. The parts require to be shaved to apply them, and they must be reapplied
as often as they work loose, or as fast as the swelling shrinks. In most cases, the
patient experiences great and immediate relief from this application, owing to the
support it gives ; it must always be used, however, ivith the suspensory bandage.

Compression is, in general, only appropriate in cases of acute orchitis arising from
gonorrhoea, though it may be advantageously resorted to, in some few instances,
when it originates from other causes. I have used it when the swelling arose from
intense sexual excitement, and also in one or two instances from blows, and with
advantage ; but generally the treatment before given will obviate the necessity for
compression if it be persevered in. Latterly, the compression has been effected by
means of collodion, a substance made by dissolving gun-cotton in ether, which sticks
much more forcibly, and is applied more readily.

The symptoms of epididymitis are the same, and so is the treatment, as when the
whole organ is attacked, which it is nearly sure to be eventually if the epididymitis
continues.

There is always reason to fear that a severe attack of orchitis will permanently
injure the testicle, more or less, by obliterating some of the seminal tubes, even if it
does not close the vas deferens, or harden the epididymis. One testicle, may, how-
ever, be inflamed, and suffer, while the other remains perfectly sound. After having

500 DISEASES AND DEBANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

been once inflamed, the testicle appears more susceptible of the same misfortune again,
so that those who have suffered from it should be as careful as possible to avoid sub-
sequent attacks, or the evil effects will probably increase each time. Impotence not
unfrequently follows orchitis.

Sometimes the inflammation ends in suppuration, the matter escaping by numer-
ous little sinuses or openings, which eventually close and heal when all is discharged.
In all these cases, however, the testicle is more or less wasted, and sometimes entirely
destroyed. At other times, the pus will not discharge at first, but assumes the form
of a firmish curdy mass, similar to the substance of the brain, and remains for a long
time. The organ is then much more liable than before to inflammation, and its
internal structure gradually undergoes a change by which its secreting powers are
totally lost. In some of these instances, the testicle becomes nearly as hard as a stone,
and on being dissected appears much like cartilage or bone.

In some persons acute orchitis much resembles rheumatism, being affected by the
changes of the weather or by exposure, and coming and going again in a short time.
Indeed, some writers speak of it then as rheumatism of the testicle, and treat it the
same as that affection in other parts of the body. I have known some men so ex-
tremely sensitive in this organ that an attack of orchitis was sure to follow if they
merely pressed the testicles on crossing the limbs, and especially if they rode on
horseback. In fact, many a severe case has arisen from being thrown forward upon
the pommel of the saddle.

Inflammation of the testicle sometimes appears in very young infants, not more
than a few days old, and without our being able to assign any cause. I have thought
sometimes that it arose from teething, and at other times from an improper mode of
carrying the child, by which these organs were bruised. I saw one instance wherein
the inflammation, which was very severe, appeared on the day ofbirth. In general,
these infantile cases can be cured by simple fomentations, or cold lotions, with a dose
or two of castor oil. When very severe, a leech may be applied, and three or four
grains of the powder of mercury and chalk given. When arising from mumps, it
usually subsides when the primary cause is removed, though it may remain after-
ward, and must then be treated as above advised.

It is somewhat disputed among medical men whether these inflammations in
infants ever permanently injure the testicle or not, but I am persuaded they often
do so, and, in all probability, many a man has been made impotent for life by this
affection when a child. It is, therefore, of the first importance not to neglect this
trouble, though it may be but slight, as the after effects may be serious.

It is proper to remark here that the mumps arise in adults as well as in children,
and that they may affect the testicles, and cause impotence, as well at one period as
at another. Such cases as these afford a singular proof of that remarkable sympathy
which exists between distant parts of the body, but the nature of which we cannot
explain.

Either of the following recipes give excellent cooling lotions, applicable to all
cases :

R. Lime-water, one ounce ; alcohol, seven ounces ; mixed together.

R. Hydrochlorate of ammonia, one drachm ; cold water, five ounces ; alcohol,
one ounce ; mix together.

The last lotion is an excellent one to apply to the scrotum and perineum. In
many persons, however, hot fomentations succeed much better than cold lotions.

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 501

It Is often very beneficial, particularly when the pain is severe, to cause a little
nausea or vomiting ; for which purpose a quarter of a grain of tartar emetic may
be given every three or four hours, till the effect is produced. This frequently gives
great relief, and in a short time, when all other means fail.

In very obstinate cases, attended with pain, two or three grains of calomel should
be given, at bed-time, mixed with eight or ten grains of Dover's powders. This may
be given two or three times a week.

It is sometimes a good plan to use the plaster of ammonia and mercury to strap
the testicle with, in the manner before described, so as to gain the advantages of
compression and the effects of mercury together.

If the inflammation and tenderness all subside, but the swelling and hardness
continue, the following solution may be rubbed over the scrotum every three or
four days :

R. Iodine, one drachm ; iodide of potassium, half a drachm ; alcohol, one ounce ;
dissolve all together.

In many persons, particularly those of a scrofulous habit, acute orchitis has a
tendency to assume the chronic form, after the first severe symptoms have subsided,
and this is perhaps a worse state than the other. In chronic orchitis a deposit of
yellowish matter takes place, in different parts of the testicle, at first soft but grad-
ually becoming harder, till at last the organ feels like a stone. This matter blocks
up the seminiferous tubes, and destroys their power of secretion, so that impotence
ensues. It was formerly the custom to call such cases scliirrhus, but this is im-
proper, as it might lead to the idea that they assume a malignant form, which is not
the case. Chronic orchitis may either follow from the acute form, or it may arise
spontaneously, like scrofulous affections of other parts ; and it also frequently follows
a long course of intemperance or licentious indulgence, and may even be produced
by the long-continued and injudicious use of mercury.

This form of the disease may give rise to but little inconvenience for a long time,
though the swelling may be of considerable size, unless a blow or strain be expe-
rienced, when the symptoms become immediately acute, and relief is sought for.
Usually in a few weeks the swelling is observed to point in some particular part of
the scrotum, and eventually it breaks, discharging some pus, together with a fungous-
looking body, which appears rough and bleeding. In a short time the opening en-
larges, and more or less of the testicle itself passes through, the whole forming a
granulated tumor of a yellowish white color, studded with pale red or black patches.
This tumor is tightly embraced round its neck by the edges of the opening through
which it passed, and which become very thick and red. A thin watery discharge
flows from it, often mixed with semen, but rarely with blood.

As soon as this break occurs, and the parbs pass through, great relief is felt, and
the disease may remain for a long time without undergoing any further change.
The tumor itself is rarely tender, but may be handled, cut, or burnt with caustic,
with but little inconvenience. It is not unusual to find this singular protrusion in
scrofulous children who have had inflammation of the testicle.

It was formerly the custom always to remove the whole testicle when afflicted
with this fungous growth, but now the practice is seldom resorted to. The pro-
truding part is cut off with the knife, or burnt off with caustic, and the skin of the
scrotum being then brought over it, the wound is healed, and no further trouble is
experienced. In many cases a cure is even effected spontaneously, or by means of a

502 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SFSTEM.

simple wash of six grains of nitrate of silver to one ounce of water, with some inter*
nal alterative medicine.

The best medicine in chronic orchitis is blue pill, Jive grains of which should be
given every night, with one grain of opium, till the gums feel a little sore.

In some cases a better treatment is to administer the compound extract of
sarsaparilla internally, and sprinkle the fungus itself with equal parts of powdered
savin and sulphate of copper, occasionally varying the medicine by giving a little
of the wine of iron, particularly if the patient be weakly and sinking.

It must be admitted, however, that inflammation of the testicle is, in any form
and under any mode of treatment, a disease extremely dangerous to the patient's
sexual powers, though it may not compromise his life, nor interfere much with his
general health.

OSSIFICATION" OF THE TESTICLE.

In some few cases, the testicle has been known to ossify or become more or less
converted into bone. The causes of this degeneration are unknown, and unfortu-
nately we know of no remedy. I have thought, in some few cases I have seen, that it
was more likely owing to excessive continence than anything else, but it is impossible
to decide.

The ossification generally commences in the middle, and may be felt like a hard
kernel, which gradually extends till the whole organ is affected. In all cases when
a hardness of this kind is felt, immediate resort should be had to fomentations and
poultices, because it may be but a simple induration which they will remove.

It is probable that ossification and induration most frequently arise from orchitis,
particularly when there have been many consecutive attacks.

ARREST OF DEVELOPMENT AND WASTING OF THE TESTES.

The testes, like other parts of the body, are liable to be arrested in their develop-
ment, from causes unknown to us, and this arrest may either be permanent or the
development may be completed at some after period of life. I have known instances
of men, at various ages, with testes remarkably small, and passions nearly dormant,
in whom a sudden development took place from the sight of some female who excited
their desires to an unusual degree. In all probability these persons would always
have remained as they were, but for this occurrence, as many others similarly
circumstanced do ; and we have thus a proof of the decided influence that the
awakened feelings may have on physical development.

In one instance where I was consulted, in a case of this kind, the left testis was
about the size of a small hazel-nut, and the other still smaller, the person being
about twenty-eight, and possessing the usual feelings of his sex, though in a slight
c'egree. Many circumstances induced me to thiuk that the organs were healthy,
and that in all probability their further growth would ensue, under proper treat-
ment, and from the new impetus given to his desires by his wish to marry. I,
therefore, advised a stimulant plan of treatment, similar to that which will be
directed in a subsequent article, and advised him to wait patiently. The result
justified my opinion ; the organs began to enlarge very soon, and in two years' time
were of full average size, so that he had no misgivings whatever about marrying.

It is very often the case that persons who had scrotal hernia in childhood have

DISEASES AND uiSEANQEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 503

the testes small, owing to the pressure on the cord of the instrument worn to cure
it, and with some who have had mumps their full growth is never attained.

Any causes that prevent the full supply of blood from going to the testes will pre-
vent their growth, or cause them to waste, and it is in this way that many such
cases arise. If the spermatic arteries be small, which supply them with blood, they
do riot receive sufficient nutriment, and, therefore, cannot grow nor secrete much
semen. These arteries are very long, and exposed to several causes of injury as they
proceed through the abdomen, so that they frequently become more or less injured,
and the testicles suffer in consequence. Sometimes they are pressed upon by the
other parts, in passing through the ring, and at other times they are affected by
aneurism, or their walls thicken and partly close up the passages. In old people, the
spermatic arteries are very apt to become more or less obliterated, and this is the
chief cause of that wasting of the testes so often seen at that period of life. To fully
prove this, the spermatic artery of a dog has been tied, leading to one of the testes,
and that in a short time was completely wasted away, while the other remained per-
fect. It has even been proposed to perform this operation, which is comparatively
simple, instead of castration, when we wish to destroy the procreative power in
animals. Such facts make it evident that the power of the testes, and consequently
the amative propensity of any man, depends materially upon the size of the spermatic
arteries — probably much more so than upon any peculiar structure of the brain. It
is certain that if these arteries be destroyed in early life, no amativeness can ever be
felt, nor any procreative power be established. A knowledge of this fact teaches us
that the extent, both of the power and the propensity, is very much, if not entirely,
under our control, if the supply of blood admitted to the testes can be duly regu-
lated. This is a point never before attended to in medical practice, that I am aware
of, but I have satisfied myself of its correctness by repeated experiments, and I look
upon it as being of the greatest value. There are many means by which the amount
of blood flowing to the testes may be regulated to a great extent, some of them
increasing and others decreasing it, as I have shown in many of the cases described.
It is often the case that badly-fitted trusses, by pressing on the arteries, will cause
the testes to waste, while, on the contrary, an ill-made suspensory bandage, or even
tight clothing, by chafing the parts, will draw the blood to them till they are
intensely excited, or even till inflammation ensues. This shows us what principle
to act upon in practice, adapting the appliances to the peculiar circumstances of the
case. Hot stimulant applications will bring the blood to any part, while cold
astringent ones will drive it away, and these alone, judiciously used, will often ac-
complish more than all the internal medication, or mere moral chiding ever yet
tried. Besides these, however, there are various other means, mechanical and
medical, which will be described as we proceed, and sometimes instalments may be
constructed, for special cases, that will effect almost miraculous results.

I have sometimes used a modification of the instrument called the congester,
Hhieh will be described in a subsequent article, for the purpose of drawing blood
to the testes, and of enlarging permanently the spermatic artery. In short, all the
means resorted to for causing an increased flow of blood to the penis may be used, to
a certain extent, and in a modified form, to the testes. As before remarked, I have
had numerous patients, of all ages, whose testes had always been too small and inact-
ive for the performance of their functions, and yet, by appropriate treatment, most
of them have attained their proper growth and full powers-

504 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

Wasting of the testes, after they have been of a proper size, is a much more seri-
ous matter, as it usually results from some disease that is likely to permanently
destroy them, though occasionally the causes of it are under our control, and the loss
may be repaired. In addition to all the causes above enumerated that prevent de-
velopment, we may also enumerate hydrocele and hematocele, of long standing, and
also scrotal hernia, all of which may cause the testes to waste, by the continued press-
ure which they exert. Spermatocele will also lead to the same result, as stated in
the article on that disease. Too long-continued and strict continence will also waste
the testes in many persons, notwithstanding what is said to the contrary by some
writers. These organs can no more preserve their powers when entirely unused than
others can, nor is it in any way conducive to their health to leave them totally inact-
ive. I am aware that it has been said that those who take vows of celibacy still
preserve these organs, and in full development, but that has very little weight, be-
cause no one can tell what may have been the actual observance of those vows, nor
how far involuntary action may have taken place. I am myself fully convinced,
from numerous observations, that total inaction of the testes, in every form, is most
certainly followed, in most cases, by their wasting and decay. I have known men
who boasted that they were strictly continent, and had been so for years, without any
apparent injury of this kind, but on proper examination I have satisfied them that
the semen passed almost constantly in the urine. It is scarcely necessary to say that
liuch an action was unnatural, and decidedly injurious. The assertion, made by some
theorizing physiologists, that the semen, when not discharged, is absorbed into the
blood and invigorates the system, is unsupported by a single fact, or even by plausible
reasoning, and therefore requires no refutation. Many a man who has prided him-
self upon his immaculate purity, and denounced those who were unable or unwilling
to totally abstain, has been himself the victim of a constant pollution, both unpleas-
ant and injurious. True virtue consists in a proper use of those powers given to us,
and not in their total abrogation.

There are several causes of a nervous character that will also lead to wasting of
the testes, such as paralysis of the lower part of the body, or injury of the spine in
the neighborhood of the nerves leading to them, and sometimes even long-continued
anxiety of mind. The most frequent causes, however, are probably inflammation
and the mumps, particularly in early life. Excessive indulgence not unfrequently
ends in gradual wasting, and masturbation still oftener, especially if accompanied by
intemperance in strong drink. I have known intense excitement followed by inflam-
mation and subsequent wasting in a very short time, and I have known inebriates
wake from their dreams of intoxication to find themselves impotent, in numerous
instances.

There are some drugs which exert an influence this way occasionally, and to a very
marked degree. Mercury will in some, if long continued, so will opium, and iodine
still more frequently and decidedly. It is, therefore, the duty of the physician to
watch well the effects of all such remedies. Tobacco, I am satisfied, is decidedly in-
jurious to many men, and when used to excess, will impair the tone and energy of
these organs to a great extent ; in several instances, I have had good reason to attri-
bute wasting of the testes to its influence.

Injuries of the head must also be enumerated as occasional causes of wasting of
the testes, though we cannot explain why. Several instances of the kind have been
noticed, particularly by army surgeons, and the fact is established beyond doubt.

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 505

Baron Larrey gives a remarkable case, which came under his own notice, it was thai
of a soldier, a healthy, robust man, with strong sexual propensities and endowments,
who had a portion of the back part of his head cut off by a saber blow. He re-
covered from the wound, but lost the senses of sight and hearing on the right side.
Pain was also experienced down the spine, and a peculiar creeping feeling in the
testicles, which also began to waste, and in fifteen days were no larger than beans.
He completely lost all desire for sexual enjoyment, and apparently even all remem-
brance of it. M. Lallemand also mentions a case, of a French soldier similarly
injured in the expedition to Algiers, who speedily experienced wasting of the testes,
loss of sexual desire, and all power of erection.

Bruises of the testes are nearly certain to be followed by inflammation and wasting
if severe, and few injuries cause more acute physical suffering, or affect the system
more generally. Sickness, vomiting, and death-like fainting generally result from
bruises of these organs, and sometimes even delirium. Constant pressure, from almost
any cause, even though slight, will also cause wasting, as is seen in many persons
who pass much time on horseback. It was even the custom formerly, in Turkey, to
make eunuchs by squeezing the testes instead of castrating, and some persons operate
upon animals in the same way now when they wish to emasculate them, the squeezing
causing them to waste away. Cutting these organs with sharp instruments, so as
not to bruise them, may not be followed by any evil effects whatever. Many instances
have been known of their being cut and torn considerably, both by accidents and
during surgical operations, but with no detriment to their powers, unless inflamma-
tion or mortification has ensued. Fanatics and insane people have injured themselves
in this way frequently.

In Lapland, those among the male reindeer which are not needed for pairing,
have the testicles destroyed while young, by the old women, who chew them with
their gums till they are all broken up. This is done in place of cutting them out
at a later period.

All that we can do in these cases of wasting of the testes is to find out, if possible,
the immediate or exciting cause, and remove it. Very frequently, however, no cause
whatever can be ascertained, and often when it can e it is not under our control.
Still no such case should be left unattended to, and its treatment, if any be thought
advisable, should not be neglected a single day.

TUBERCULAR DISEASE, OR CONSUMPTION OP THE TESTICLE.

This is essentially the same disease as consumption of the lungs, being character-
ized by the production of tubercles in the substance of the organ, which eventually
suppurate and break, and entirely destroy its substance. In most instances, the
patients are either decidedly scrofulous or evidently disposed to consumption, and
generally both testes are attacked, either together or consecutively.

The symptoms are usually a slight uneasiness, in some particular part of the
testicle, which is soon followed by violent swelling, either in the body of the organ
or in the epididymis, but with very little acute pain, if any. The swelling feels
uneven, or studded with little lumps, one of which eventually projects and bursts,
discharging a quantity of pus, and thick curdy matter of a yellowish color. It may,
however, be a year or more after the swelling occurs before it breaks, though when
one opening is formed others are apt to follow. The opening evidently communi-

506 DISEASES AND DERANGEMESTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

cates with the interior of the organ, and after venereal excitement it is not unusual
for semen to flow from it, along with the pus.

In some few cases the tubercles will heal, and the wound close, leaving the testicle
only partially wasted, but more frequently they continue to discharge till it is all
completely gone, or till the whole system is so affected that death ensues. Occasion-
ally the whole testicle will pass through the wound, and will remain protruded till
it is entirely gone.

This affection occurs sometimes in children of a scrofulous habit, and completely
destroys the testes in a short time.

The treatment must depend upon many circumstances, such as the patient's age,
general health and habit of body, and mode of life. As a general rule, it must be
constitutional, or calculated to act on the whole system, so as to induce a beneficial
change in its action. The alterative medicines are therefore most to be relied upon,
such as mercury, iodine, and sarsaparilla, and in cases of tonic debility iron must
be administered. The diet, ah-, and climate, also exert much influence. Con-
sumptive people are always more or less liable to this affection, and I am persuaded
that in many it exists sufficiently to impair the power of the organ,- and cause partial
impotence, even when it does not proceed to the suppurative stage.

FOREIGN BODIES IN" THE SCROTUM ALONG WITH THE TESTICLES.

Sometimes little round bodies like peas are found in the tunics, composed of firm
cartilaginous matter or bone. I have seen one as large as a marble, and hard as
ivory. It is seldom there are more than three of them. The origin of these bodies
can only be conjectured, though they are probably only diseased secretions (like
those sometimes found in the joints), which were first attached to the tunics, and
then became loose.

Worms, hydatids, and other living beings are very rarely met with, though they
have been occasionally.

In some instances the scrotum has contained the remains of a foetus, which had
evidently descended from the abdomen along with the testicle, as explained in a
former article.

NERVOUS AFFECTIONS OF THE TESTICLES.

The testes, like other parts of the body, are subject to several kinds of nervou?
affections, which frequently cause exquisite misery, though they may not lead to any
positive injury.

Irritable Testis. — This is a form of nervous disease in which the testis is in a
constant state of peculiar uneasiness and irritation, rather than acute pain, though
sometimes it is more painful in one particular spot. It is so exceedingly sensitive
that the touching of the dress, or the mere rubbing of the scrotum against the
limbs, causes such distressing annoyance that the sufferer dislikes even to move.
Sometimes the irritation extends up the cord, so that the movements of the bowels,
or the passage of urine, become exciting causes, and the patient cannot even cough
without an increase of his misery taking place.

In some cases this morbid sensibility affects both testes, and in others only one,
which is usually the left. It does not appear to cause any alteration in the parts,
nor swelling, except occasionally a little fullness, particularly of the cord, and some

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 507

relaxation of the scrotum. It is seldom that an attack passes off Ten soon, but
more usually it lasts several months, during which the sufferer loses all relish for
society, and almost all capability for enjoyment in any form. All his thoughts are
fixed upon his sufferings, and the idea takes possession of his mind that he will
never be better, or that he will be impotent, or die of cancer, and some request
their physicians to castrate them, to avoid these dreaded evils.

The causes of this distressing affection are partly constitutional, it being chiefly
met with in those who are naturally weak, irritable, and disinclined to physical
exertion, or to be hypochondriacal and dyspeptic. It is, however, produced, in
most cases, by some derangement of the genital organs themselves, more especially
such as are brought on by masturbation, excessive indulgence, or involuntary
emissions. Young persons of a nervous habit and strong sexual feelings, are also
liable to it while unmarried, and I have been consulted in many such cases which
could not be benefited by any kind of treatment till marriage took place. In
a modified form it is often experienced about the period of puberty, in conse-
quence of the great and unusual activity of the organs at that time, and much evil
may result if a word of advice and caution be not then given. The young person
will in all probability discover that a temporary relief can be obtained by the vicious
practice of self-indulgence, and not knowing that this will really increase the
irritation, eventually he goes on with the practice till his health is seriously im-
paired and his sufferings aggravated almost beyond endurance.

The treatment of irritable testis depends in a great measure upon the peculiar
condition of the patient, and the state of his general health. In many cases it is so
entirely of a nervous character that we need merely advise a change of air and scene,
or cheerful company, or some interesting mental occupation, in short, anything that
will arouse the sufferer to activity, and turn his thoughts away from his affliction.
If he be dyspeptic, it is essential that his digestive organs should be attended to, and
if he be costive, which is often the case, the bowels must be brought to a more regu-
lar state before improvement can even be hoped for. In cases where there is great
debility, tonics must be used, such as the steel drops, or Peruvian bark, and a gener-
ous diet must be advised, with a little wine. The use of cold ivater externally is of
the very first importance, as it gives tone to the parts, and removes the morbid sen-
sibility, more perhaps than anything else. The parts should be freely bathed with
it two or three times a day if possible, or at least night and morning. In obstinate
cases, a plaster of belladonna ointment may be placed over the whole scrotum, or
laudanum may be used as a lotion. A good suspensory bandage is also very fre
quently of great service.

In addition to any treatment, however, and still more essential, is a knowledge of
the cause of the trouble. If any of the above-named practices are persisted in, or if
the patient's situation in life is unsuited to his temperament, no great good can pos-
sibly result from medical treatment alone. These things must therefore be spoken
of, either to the patient himself or to his guardians.

It is not necessary to perform castration for this disease, as it is for some others,
because it is not a serious one, and generally either subsides of itself in time, or can
be relieved by appropriate treatment.

In one instance, a gentleman was affected with this morbid irritability, in one of
his testes, just before the time appointed for his marriage; and was so convinced that
it was but the beginning of a greater evil, that in spite of all advice to the contrary,

508 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

he insisted upon having the organ removed, which was done. Directly after, how-
ever, the other began to be as irritable as the lost one had been, but this of course
he was not so desirous of parting with, and therefore bore with the trouble. He was
married and had no further trouble afterward. The removed testicle was perfectly
healthy and sound.

Neuralgia of the Testes. — This is a nervous disease of a much more serious char-
acter than the one already described, and more difficult to treat. It is characterized
by acute pains, sometimes lancinating and at others dragging or pricking, which are
usually accompanied by spasms of the cremaster muscles by which the testes are
drawn forcibly up to the groin. In general these pains come on periodically, as in
other cases of neuralgia, and between the paroxysms the testes are often perfectly free
from pain, even when handled, though there is occasionally a little morbid sensibility
in them, with perhaps a little soreness on the edge of the hip-bone. The attack may
last only a few minutes or many hours, and is usually confined to only one testis ;
some patients have it come on twice a day, others once a day, and some again only
once in several days. Some are affected with sickness and vomiting, and others with
shiverings and cold perspirations, while others again experience such intense agony
that they roll upon the ground and groan, or perhaps faint away.

In nearly every instance when examinations have been made of the testes so
affected, after their removal, no alteration whatever has been detected in their struc-
ture, nor any indication of disease to which the neuralgia could be ascribed. In
some long-continued cases, where the pain has been great, there has been a little
swelling and inflammation, but this is rare.

The causes of neuralgia of the testes are but little known, or rather, perhaps, not
known at all. It is met with at all ages, and in almost every variety of constitution,
though most frequently attacking those who are subject to derangements of the
digestive organs. It very often appears to result from some disease of the testes,
particularly orchitis, and from varicocele, or disease of the kidneys. Many persons
experience it from gravel, and still more from the passage of a stone from the kid-
neys to the bladder. Gouty subjects are liable to it, and so are those affected with
enlargement of the prostate gland.

In the treatment of neuralgia of the testes, the first thing is to ascertain if there
exists any other disease, which may possibly cause it. The digestive organs must be
attended to, and the patient must be advised to avoid all causes of mental disquiet,
or nervous agitation. Internal medication is seldom of much use, though in some
cases relief is obtained by taking iron, in various forms, particularly the pills of the
carlonate of iron, and if the attacks be regularly periodical, quinine may be of ser-
vice, in doses of five grains, three or four times a day. Turpentine is occasionally
very efficacious, in the following form :

R. The yelk of one egg ; oil of turpentine, three drachms ; syrup of orange-peel,
and syrup of tolu, of each two ounces ; laudanum, one drachm.

These are all to be well mixed together, and three table-spoonfuls to be taken
daily.

Warm fomentations of hops, or poppy heads will sometimes benefit, but at other
times ice-water will be still better. A blister may be put upon the scrotum, if all
other means fail, and a quarter of a grain of morphia placed on the raw surface. A
belladonna plaster will sometimes relieve, or an ointment composed of one grain of
aconite to one drachm of lard, rubbed over the parts twice a day. The tincture of

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. K0$

aconite is sometimes still more efficacious when rubbed on the scrotum with a snonge,
and will often so benumb the parts that no pain will be felt for hours. Twenty or
thirty drops of laudanum are sometimes beneficial, internally, and the following
preparation still oftener :

S. Extract of hyoscyamus, five grains ; acetate of morphia, half a grain ; to be
taken twice a day.

Neither bleeding nor mercury appears to be of any use in this disease, but galvan-
ism, properly applied, is frequently of great service.

When the disease is too severe to be borne, or seriously affects the patient's health,
if all other means fail, castration may be performed. It should not be done prema-
turely, however, nor without due consideration, for sometimes the disease will subside
spontaneously, after enduring a long time ; and even when the operation has been
performed the neuralgia has often remained in the cord as severe as ever. I have
known the disease remain for two years, causing the most agonizing suffering nearly
the whole time, and then go off and never return.

Several cases of this singular disease have lately come under my care, and in no
two of them has the same treatment been beneficial. Each one has had to be studied
and prescribed for separately, but in none was an operation necessary.

In all cases of severe pain, the hypodermic injection of morphia is the best mode
of giving relief. It is applicable in swelled testicle, and all other diseases here de-
scribed. The operation is simple, and once instructed, the patient can perform it
himself.

SPEBMATOCELE, OK SWELLING OF THE TESTES FROM ENGORGEMENT OF SEMEN.

It is very seldom that this affection is met with, though it sometimes occurs from
obstructions in the vas deferens and urethra. It may also arise in falling of the cord,
from its becoming twisted or knotted, and from swelling of the prostate gland,
causing pressure on the ejaculatory ducts. The symptoms are swelling and heat in
the testes, with a distinct sense of fullness in them, and aching pain. There is also
usually considerable priapism and intensity of sexual desire, but not always.

The treatment consists first in removing all causes of obstruction, if any exist,
and then in cold lotions and rest, with purgatives. Sometimes spermatocele is met
with as the simple result of undue continence, but this is rare. The effects of it, if
long continued, may be inflammation of the testicle, with hydrocele, and ultimately
complete impotence. If the means above directed do not give relief, leeches may be
applied to the perineum, or general bleeding may be practiced from the arm. The
diet should also be very spare and simple, and the drink cold water. The mind must
not be allowed to be idle, nor the imagination too much excited, and the body must
be inured to regular and brisk exercise in the open air. If, notwithstanding all
these, the trouble still continues and threatens to be serious, nature indicates but one
more mode of relief, which is sure to succeed. In very obstinate cases of spermato-
cele, the pressure of the semen has been known to burst the seminiferous tubes, and
I am persuaded from what I have seen that it frequently injures the structure of the
testicle. I once saw the testicles of a young man dissected, who died in an epileptic
fit brought on by an intense struggle to suppress all sexual desire. They presented
the most confirmed case of spermatocele perhaps ever seen, being engorged with
semen till much larger than the natural size, and evidently in a state of chronic

510 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

inflammation. The tubes were blocked up with hardened semen, almost of the con-
sistence of cheese, and many of them were broken and run together. In a short time
the structure of the organs would have been completely destroyed. The vas deferens
and epididymis were also engorged in the same manner, and in many parts were be-
ginning to change their structure.

To mitigate the severe pain, the hypodermic injection of morphia will be found
especially serviceable.

SCROTOCELE, OR RUPTURE OE THE INTESTINES OR OMENTUM INTO THE SCROTUM.

To understand the nature of this affection, it is necessary to refer back to what
has already been stated. During foetal life the testes are contained in the abdomen,
from which they descend into the scrotum about the ninth month, by an opening
called the abdominal ring. After they have descended this opening usually closes,
and no further direct communication then exists between the two cavities. In some
cases, however, this closing up is not accomplished before birth, and then there is a
liability for the intestines, or their covering, the omentum, or both, to descend after
the testes into the scrotum, forming the scrotal hernia. In most cases this takes
place very early, but it may be delayed some months or years, and has taken place as
late as the thirtieth year. The symptoms are much the same as those of other
ruptures, excepting that the tumor is found in the scrotum. If the bowel is com-
pressed in the ring till the passage in it is obstructed, great suffering results, with
inflammation and nearly certain death if relief is not obtained. I have known infants
suffer severely from this trouble, and in fact be almost lost from it, without any idea
on the part of their parents as to what ailed them. I have also known boys become
subject to it suddenly from leaping, or from straining of the bowels, and suffer the
most dreadful tortures before they told how they suffered, or before anyone found out
what was wrong.

If the rupture exists from birth, the testes cannot be felt while it is down, because
they are covered by it, but when the rupture occurs in after-life the testes can be felt
behind, in the lower part of the scrotum. In some cases the hernia is small, and de-
scends only a small distance, so that no great inconvenience is experienced, and it
may exist in this way for years, or even for life, but there is always danger of its be-
coming worse. Occasionally a quantity of fluid descends from the abdomen, either
with a rupture or without, constituting a true hydrocele, but differing from that oc-
curring in after-life by the fluid returning into the abdomen when pressed upward.
Children are sometimes born with a large accumulation of fluid in this way, and in
others it appears a few days after birth. In these cases the fluid also usually disap-
pears into the abdomen when the patient lies down, and may be kept there when
erect by pressing the finger on the abdominal ring, but immediately the finger is
taken away it reappears.

The treatment of scrotal hernia is much the same as that of other ruptures, and
when properly conducted usually produces a cure, unless there is some malformation
of the parts that cannot be corrected. The protruded parts are first pushed back
into the abdomen, leaving the testes in their place, and then a properly-con strncted
truss is worn that presses on the abdominal ring, to prevent their return. If this be
worn regularly, and the parts never allowed to fall again, the passage will generally
close up, and the cure be thus made complete in a few weeks. The older the patient

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 511

is, however, the longer time it will require to effect a cure, and the greater chance
there is that it may not take place at all, in which case a truss must be constantly
worn.

Great care is required in applying the truss that it does not press on the intestine,
or on the testes, for if it does so, great pain and perhaps inflammation may result.
It must also be carefully ascertained that the testes are in the scrotum, because if
they are not the truss will be improper, as it will prevent their descent.

In congenital hydrocele the fluid may be kept back, more or less completely, in
the same way as the intestines, and in young persons it usually absorbs in the course
of time. In very bad cases of scrotal hernia, when the intestine is strangulated, and
cannot be replaced by external manipulation, an operation is needed, which consists
in cutting the neck of the sac, or the ring, a little larger, so as to allow of its return.
This, however, must always be performed by an experienced surgeon, and in such
hands is perfectly safe and comparatively easy.

Parents cannot be too careful in observing their children, so as to detect any
trouble of this kind at the earliest moment. From want of attention this way a
scrotal hernia may take place, and produce serious effects, before anything of the
kind is suspected, and the proper treatment may thus be too long neglected. A
severe fit of crying is very likely to bring this on, in infants who are disposed to it,
and hard coughing may do the same in after years. It is very seldom cured, so as
to do without a truss, after puberty.

VARICOCELE AND CIRCOCELE, OR SWELLING OF THE VEINS OF THE SCROTUM AND
SPERMATIC CORD.

Varicocele is simply a swelling of the veins on the surface of the scrotum, and
is never of a serious nature, unless caused by other diseases. It appears to arise
spontaneously in many cases, but more frequently follows severe fatigue, long
standing, or debilitating diseases. All that is required is for the patient to wear a
suspensory bandage, use the cold astringent lotions directed in hydrocele, and rest.
If he be of a full habit of body, it may also be requisite to order a low diet for a
time, and the strict use of cold water as a drink.

Circocele is a swelling of the primary veins of the spermatic cord, within the
scrotum, and may become much more troublesome than varicocele, though it is but
seldom serious. The swelling is felt in the scrotum like a firm knotty tumor, on
one side of the testicle, and becomes larger when the patient coughs or strains, but
subsides when he lies down. It is on this account that circocele has sometimes been
mistaken for a rupture of the omentum into the scrotum. It only needs a proper
examination, however, to show the truth. "When the patient lies down, push the
tumor up into the abdomen, and press the finger firmly on the abdominal ring, then
let him rise, and if it be a rupture the tumor cannot descend again while the finger
is held there, but if it be a circocele it reappears immediately.

It is seldom that anything more is experienced than a sense of weight and un-
easiness in the parts, except in severe cases, and then there may be pains in the back
and loins, with weakness in the thighs, and eventually a wasting of the testicle.

The treatment must be almost precisely the same as given for other swellings.
Cold astringent lotions, the suspensory bandage, purgatives, and rest, by lying upon
the back, is all that can be generally advised, though there may be particular

512 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

circumstances in each case to indicate something more. There are cases so severe
as to require the removal of the testicle, but fortunately they are rare.

Many sufferers would escape this affliction if they would wear a suspensory
bandage in time, when the swelling and inconvenience are first observed, and many
would have no return of it if they did not leave off the supporter too soon. The
veins on the right side appear to be seldom subject to swelling, nearly all the cases
being on the left side, though occasionally both are affected, but the left always the
most so. This is probably owing to the position of the colon, or lower part of the
large intestine, which descends on the left side, and by pressing on the veins pre-
vents the blood from freely returning, and thus causes the swelling below. It is on
this account that persons who suffer from constipation are most liable to varicocele,
and that it is always worse when the bowels have been long unmoved and are full.
It is for the same reason also that the left ovary, in females, is most apt to be affected
with varicocele. Among other general causes of this disease may be mentioned
excessive indulgence, masturbation, inflammation of the testicles, and ruptures or
tumors in the abdomen. Very fat people are sometimes affected with it, owing to
the pressure of the fat in the lower part of the abdomen, and those who wear trusses
are liable to it from the pressure of the instrument, unless it be well made, and
carefully adjusted. Eiding, hard running, leaping, and lifting will also bring on
swelled veins, and sometimes even burst them, particularly if the scrotum be much
relaxed. It is most frequent at the age of puberty, though met with occasionally at
other periods.

The characteristics of this disease are so clearly marked that a mistake can seldom
occur in regard to it ; the cord is plainly observed to be swelled, the enlargement
being greatest below, on the testicle, and on pressure it feels like a roll of knotted
cords, or a bunch of earth-worms. This swelling is always greatest at night, or
after exertion, and from coughing or straining in any way. It may also be reduced
by lying down, and by the application of cold. Many patients discover that it iii
nearly always much better after coition, and they are, therefore, apt to indulge
frequently, under the idea that it does them good. This, however, is a great and
fatal mistake, the temporary relief being merely owing to the contraction of the
scrotum, and to the increased speed of the circulation, which always occurs im-
mediately after coition. As soon as this temporary excitement is over, the relaxation
is greater than before, and the swelling of the veins increases, as all those who
have tried the experiment well know.

In general, if taken early, the disease may be readily checked by the means already
described, but if neglected it may become very severe and obstinate, and sometimes
give rise to neuralgic symptoms. There is also danger of wasting of the testes, as before
remarked, owing to the circulation of the blood being impeded, and the usual supply
of nutriment being thus cut off. Many instances of this kind are related in medical
works, and I have seen several myself. In some cases the testes will waste away, and
almost totally disappear in a few months after the varicocele commences. This, of
course, destroys all sexual power and feeling, and makes the patient a eunuch. It is
therefore advisable, if all the usual means fail of arresting the swelling, and particu-
larly if wasting commences, to resort to some other treatment, and several modes have
been adopted by different surgeons, with varied success. Sir Astley Cooper, and some
others, used to cut away a piece of the scrotum, and then draw the parts together and
let them heal. This, of course, made the scrotum less, and by drawing the testes

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 513

firmly up to the abdomen, afforded a beneficial support to the parts above. In many
instances this operation has effected a cure, but in others the relief from it has been but
slight. The disease has also reappeared, with all its former severity, many years after
being cured in this way. This operation is not applicable to all cases of the disease,
and even in skillful hands is frequently attended by great danger.

Besides this plan, some surgeons have cut through the veins, or tied them, and
sometimes even cut part of them out. Of course, either of these plans leads to the
destruction of the testes, besides being liable to cause inflammation of the veins, and
other serious results, and they are therefore very objectionable, though often successful
in caring the varicocele. M. Delpech, a celebrated French surgeon, operated upon a
man in this way, and cured him, but the testes afterward wasted away, and this
being unexpected and undesired, the man was so enraged that he assassinated the
surgeon.

The only treatment that can effect a cure without sacrificing the testes is the
application of pressure in such a way as to lessen the circulation of the blood in the
veins, without stopping it entirely. This can sometimes be accomplished by a pecul-
iarly formed truss or bandage, and at other times by a ring ; but the making and
fitting of these instruments is a matter of great difficulty, and requires to be done for
each case separately. I have often had the pleasure of affording relief in this way,
but only after immense trouble on my own part, and great perseverance and patience
on the part of the patient.

When nothing else can be done, castration must be performed, and our surgical
records give us many instances of this operation being resorted to.

HEMATOCELE, OK SWELLING OF THE SCKOTTTM AND SPERMATIC COED FROM THE
EFFUSION" OF BLOOD.

This affection differs from hydrocele in being an effusion of blood, instead of water,
either into the scrotum or spermatic cord. It is sometimes caused in performing the
operation for removing the fluid in hydrocele, by wounding one of the blood-vessels,
and thus allowing the blood to run into the cellular tissue, or tunica vaginalis. It may
also occur spontaneously from the rupture of a branch of the spermatic vein, and may
result from blows or sprains, the same as effusions of blood in other parts of the
body.

This accident is rare, and seldom serious. If the patient keeps perfectly still, sup-
ports the scrotum with a bandage, and uses fomentations of hops, boiled in vinegar, or
spirits of wine and water, or vinegar and water, and keeps the bowels gently relaxed,
nothing more will in general be required. Sometimes, however, the blood-vessel re-
mains open, the blood keeps flowing, and the swelling becomes so large, and presses
so much on the testes that great distress is experienced. In these cases, an incision
must be made, the blood let out, and the vessel tied, unless it can be closed by pinch-
ing it together externally, which may be done if the place of rupture is discovered.
if there be any inflammation, it must be combated by leeches, cold lotions, and other
usual remedies, and if it suppurates, a poultice must be applied.

PRURIGO, OR ITCHING OF THE SCROTUM.

This is one of those annoying complaints, which though not at all serious, are
still sufficient to make any one suffering from them completely miserable, and even
33

514 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

sometimes almost desirous of death, as the only means of relief. The itching is
sometimes felt without there being any unusual appearances in the parts, hot more
frequently a number of roundish red pimples are seen on the scrotum, which, by the
patient's scratching to relieve himself, often become much enlarged and highly in-
flamed. In long-continued cases, the skin becomes considerably thickened and very
hard, and a disagreeable discharge takes place from the sebaceous glands. I have
known persons so tormented with this disease as to be frequently delirious, and utterly
unable to obtain the slightest alleviation of their distress.

The real causes of prurigo are entirely unknown to us, but it is undoubtedly much
aggravated, if not brought on, in many instances, by want of proper cleanliness. The
plentiful and regular use of cold water would prevent more of this trouble than any
kind of medication can ever cure. In many persons, the secretions of the parts are
naturally very acrid, and if not speedily removed, they are sure to irritate every spot
they touch.

Old persons are most subject to this complaint, though it occasionally attacks oth-
ers, and it is usually confined to the genitals exclusively, but will sometimes extend
down inside of the thighs and round the anus.

The treatment must be chiefly external, unless there be habitual indigestion or
constipation, in which case a few simple alteratives may be of service. If constipation
exists, a little epsom salts may be taken, and if the stomach be disordered, five grains
of Plummets pill may be given every other night, for five or six nights. The patient
must be particularly cautioned not to rub the parts, and his dress should by no means
be allowed to chafe them, nor should it be too warm and close. Even at night, the
bed-clothes must be light, and the bed itself hard and cool. But little exercise should
be taken, and that very gentle, and the parts should be thoroughly washed twice a
day with warm soap and water. A cooling lotion may also be used during the day,
of vinegar and water, with a little laudanum, or what is often better, two grains of
bichloride of mercury to two ounces of water. Equal parts of citrine ointment and
fresh lard also form an excellent application to be rubbed well over the parts at
night. Sulphur ointment benefits in some cases, and a sulphur vapor bath still
more so in others. It is especially important that the diet should be simple,
light, and unstimulating, and that no alcoholic or fermented liquors should be
taken.

Sometimes the itching arises from the presence of certain peculiar little parasitic
insects, in which case they may be readily destroyed by rubbing on a little of the
white precipitate powder occasionally. In fact this may also be used with a prospect
of benefit whenever the skin is not much broken.

ELEPHANTIASIS SCROTI.

This terrible disease is fortunately extremely rare in this part of the world, but
still it is necessary to describe it in order to complete our treatise. It appears in the
form of a peculiar swelling of the scrotum, caused by the infiltration into its integu-
ments of a jelly-like albuminous fluid, which accumulates in some cases to a most
enormous extent. The outer surface of the skin appears rough and chapped, or
covered with large brown scales, so that it has somewhat the appearance of an
elephant's foot. Sometimes, but not very frequently, a number of ulcers are formed,
and the chapped places discharge an offensive sanious secretion.

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

515

This disease is chiefly confined to Barbadoes, though found in other of the West
£ndia Islands, and also in Egypt, Africa, Greece, and the East Indies.

The size of the scrotum is sometimes almost past belief, and yet in some of the
very worst cases, the patients enjoy excellent health, without any disturbances of the
functions of other parts of the system, which shows that the disease is purely local.
Mr. Liston removed one of these tumors which weighed forty pounds, which had
been nineteen years growing ! M. Delpech removed one that weighed sixty pounds

Figure 122.

Figure 123.

and Baron Larrey saw one in Egypt that weighed over a hundred pounds. Instances
have even been known of their weighing oVer two hundred pounds, and sometimes
the patients have even been able to sit upon them like a seat. Very often they hang
down to the ankles, and are four or five feet in circumference. There is no cure for
this affection, so far as yet known, and the only remedy is to remove it with the
knife, which has frequently been done with perfect success. Dr. Picton of New

516 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

Orleans, removed one of these tumors from the scrotum of a negro, in 1837, which
weighed fifty-three pounds, and had been growing for ten years. Much larger ones
have, however, been removed, and sometimes even without destroying, or in any way
injuring the genital organs, so that the patient has been as well and perfect after-
ward as ever he was before. It is, however, extremely difficult to preserve the gen-
itals, and generally they have to be removed along with the diseased mass. The
great danger is from loss of blood, and from this many of those operated upon have
died. A Chinese named Hoo Loo came over to London to be operated upon for this
disease, and Mr. Key removed the tumor, which weighed fifty-six pounds, but the
poor man died from loss of blood.

Elephantiasis, though common in some parts of the world, is rare in the United
States. The following case occurred at the Colored Home in this city.

The patient's name was Isaac Newton, native of Georgia, aged 22. He was
admitted to the hospital March 20, 1866. He had previously enjoyed general good
health, and was in good condition when admitted. About eight years before, while
leaping a fence, he fell astride the rail and bruised the scrotum. Some pain and
swelling followed, which, however, passed off, and about three months after it began
to feel uncomfortable, and the skin commenced to thicken, the thickening increasing
till it extended up the penis, and reached the prepuce. It then grew rapidly till
at last it hung down near to his ankles. Its appearance when at the hospital is
shown in Figure 122.

At first it pained him very much, but latterly he was only inconvenienced by its
size and weight, which hindered his walking, his general health being remarkably
good — his weight without the tumor, 159 pounds. The tumor weighed, when re-
moved, 63J pounds. His sexual desires were perfect, and he had occasional erec-
tions and emissions.

This enormous tumor was successfully removed, in the presence of many noted
surgeons and medical men, May 30, 1866 — Dr. G-. F. Hollick being at that time
house physician. The patient was placed under the influence of ether, and the
operation lasted nearly an hour, including the dressing. It was remarkably success-
ful, and on August 6th the wounds were almost entirely healed, the parts had
assumed their natural appearance, and his general health was much better. He was
even gaining flesh.

April 2, 1867, he was discharged from the hospital, and returned to Georgia.
The parts then presented the appearance shown in Figure 123.

FALLING OF THE SPERMATIC COED.'

From various causes the sheath of the cord is liable to become excessively relaxed,
and weakened in its attachments, so that it falls down more or less into the scrotum.
This is indicated by a sense of weight and fullness in the scrotum, and by dull pains
in the groin, with uneasiness in the testicle. On examination, a kind of knotty
tumor is felt just over the testicle, or down on one side of it, which may be gradually
pushed up into the abdomen, and which draws itself up to a great extent when the
person lies down. This tumor is the cord, which has fallen in a heap and presses
on the testes. In the morning it is seldom to be seen, except very slightly, but
usually reappears when the patient has been on his feet a short time. It is also
worse in hot weather, and after great fatigue, or much nervous agitation. Strain-

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

517

ing from constipation will also tend to bring it down worse, and so will sexual ex-
cesses.

This is simply a local
weakness, but it may never-
theless lead to very unpleasant
consequences if allowed to
continue unchecked. The
constant pressure on the testes
becomes very painful, and
may lead to inflammation, or
hydrocele, and ultimately the
cord may form false attach-
ments and grow fast in its
wrong position, so that no
means can afterward remove
it. The treatment is simple
but requires perseverance.
The parts must be regularly
bathed with cold astringent
washes, such as alum- water
and solution of sugar of lead.
This must be done at least
morning and night, and, if
possible, two or three times
during the day, the fluid
being dashed on the groin,
and under the perineum, as
well as on the scrotum. The
dress must not be too warm
between the limbs, and no
lifting or straining must be
practiced. As little standing
as possible is also advisable,
and constipation must be par-
ticularly avoided. The most „ ™s is a very common disease, and a very troublesome one.
. •> ■•i1 " wlU "e seen now tne veins axe swelled and knotted, and now

essential requisite, however, the Scrotum is stretched downward, as if a heavy weight were

is a suspensory bandage, or hun& in *he,.sfro*umv . '. . . , , .. . . „ ,

, , The Testicle itself is buried under the mass of fallen cords

in very bad cases, a truss, and blood-vessels, and the pressure they exert, often causes it

made to press on the abdo- to ™"fte1.awa7- . ' „' . ,, ^

. . „ „ „ . The line shows where the Scrotum should be.

mmal ring. Both these in-
struments should be put on before the patient rises in the morning.

Falling of the cord usually results either from general debility, straining, sexual
excesses, or fatigue upon the feet. It may occur only on one side or on both.

Figure 124. — Varicocele, falling of the Cord, or dropped Testicle.

RELAXATION OF THE SCROTUM.

This affection is something like falling of the spermatic cord, being produced
by similar causes, and requiring similar treatment. It results from a weakness in

518 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

the fibers of the dartos and great cremaster muscle, owing to which the weight of
the testes pulls down the scrotum and elongates it, sometimes to a great extent. In
some men I have known it hang, when they have been long upon their feet, full six
inches below the pubes. Besides the inconvenience of the falling itself, it is nearly
certain if it continues too long, to bring on falling of the cord, and probably hydro-
cele. It always causes an annoying sensation of weight and dragging, with more or
less pain in the groin and weakness in the limbs.

The only treatment required is the regular use of cold astringent washes, as
directed in falling of the spermatic cord, with the constant wearing of a suspensory
bandage. The same precaution must also be observed as to regulating the bowels,
and avoiding excesses and fatigue. If cold water and the suspensory bandage were
resorted to in time, and perseveringly, these affections would scarcely ever become
very bad, unless from sudden straining. Sometimes, however relaxation is caused
by unusual weight in the testes, from swelling, tumors, or hydrocele, and, of course,
can be removed only with the cause producing it.

DISEASES OF THE VASA DEFERENTIA.

The vas deferens is only a small tube, and is liable to several accidents that will
impede the proper performance of its functions.

It is not unfrequent after a recovery from hydrocele, or hernia humoralis, for the
vas deferens to become partially obstructed, or even totally obliterated, owing to its
having partaken of the inflammation, and its walls having, in consequence, grown
together. When the obliteration is complete, the individual is, of course, sterile,
because there is no passage for the semen. The testicle may be perfect in its action,
but the semen cannot leave it, and this not only produces sterility, but sometimes
leads to fatal inflammation of the testicles, from their being constantly overcharged
with semen, and unable to relieve themselves. When there is only a partial obstruc-
tion the patient experiences a singular difficulty in the evacuation of the semen,
which is effected very slowly, and often with great pain. In some of these cr^es the
orgasm will be over and the erection gone down before the semen begins to flow, and
then it comes in drops for a considerable time causing great inconvenience and
annoyance.

Unfortunately we know of no remedy for this difficulty when it has long existed,
but when it is merely a temporary result of acute inflammation, it is of course only
necessary to subdue that to give relief. The great point is to prevent such an action,
by checking all inflammatory action in the testes, and other parts which lead to the
vas deferens, before it becomes affected. This trouble is mostly caused by neglecting
hydrocele and orchitis too long, or by improperly treating them, though it may also
be brought about by blows over the groin. A temporary obstruction of the vas
deferens often arises from its being pressed upon by a swelled vein, or by tumors in
the testicle and groin, in which case it is of course relieved only when such cause is
removed. It is advisable to let such causes exist as little time as possible, because
the retention of the semen may injure the testicle. I have known an improperly
constructed truss press on the spermatic cord and close the vas deferens, so that the
person was quite sterile while he wore it.

Sometimes the vas deferens becomes dilated, or relaxed, so that its size is much
increased, and it nearly or quite loses the power of retaining the semen, or becomes

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 519

go full of it as to produce inconvenience. The causes of this trouble are unknown,
though it most probably results from retaining the semen, when it is nearly ready
to flow, as often as from any other cause. I have known men afflicted in this way
who habitually tried to prevent the flow from continuing, from a mistaken idea that
if they could lessen the discharge they would not be so much weakened hy coition.
It is scarcely necessary to say that such practices do not lessen the discharge, but
merely make it finish afterward in an unseen and dangerous form.

It is not easy to ascertain when the vas deferens is enlarged or relaxed, but when
there is good reason to suppose it is so the treatment is simple. Cold lotions of
alum- water or sugar of lead, as recommended in former articles-, must be constantly
used, or ice may be frequently applied so as to astringe the parts, and all improper
habits must be immediately abandoned.

In addition to these, the vas deferens is liable to several other affections, as scrof-
ula and tumors for instance, which are, however, veiy rarely seen, and as their treat-
ment in no way differs from that for the same affections in other parts, they do not
require any special notice. In some few cases the vas deferens has been totally ab-
sent from hirth, while the testes and other organs were perfect. In this state the
semen is formed, erection even occurs, but there is no emission, because there is no
passage from the testes. This condition of the parts is nearly sure to lead to orchitis,
or spermatocele, from the irritation of the retained semen, unless the patient's desires
are weak, or kept much under control. If the vas deferens of an animal be cut out,
or tied, it is found that the testicle still secretes the semen, though it cannot escape,
showing that the power of secretion is not lost by the impossibility of emission.

DISEASES OE THE SEMINAL VESICLES.

The precise use of these two organs is yet a matter of dispute among physiolo-
gists, some regarding them as real glands, by which a peculiar liquor is secreted to
mix with the semen, while others look upon them as mere reservoirs in which the
semen accumulates previous to its emission. When dried and injected, the vesicles
are seen to be two tubes convoluted and turned upon each other so closely that their
parts look like cells. The ends of these tubes open into the vas deferens, just where
the ejaculatory duct commences.

It appears certain that the vesicles have considerable contractile powers, and this
has favored the idea of their being intended to contain the semen, and afterward eject
it during coition. "When examined after death, however, they do not contain semen,
but are rilled with a yellowish fluid apparently peculiar to themselves. Their pre-
Dise use is therefore as yet unknown.

They appear to be subject to obstruction and obliteration like the vas deferens,
but we have no means of detecting such derangements, nor can we propose any
remedy.

HYPOSPADIAS.

This term means a case where the end of the urethra does not come to the end of
the penis, but opens underneath, the passage not reaching the whole length of the
organ. This state of things sometimes follows severe venereal cases, and other acci-
dents, but its causes when congenital are of course unknown to us, and unfortunately
but little success generally attends its treatment.

520 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

This malformation is a cause of great trouble and annoyance in urinating, and
interferes more or less with the power of impregnating, though it by no means pre-
vents it altogether, as was formerly supposed.

Sometimes the opening is close by the fraenum, and during erection it is firmlv
closed, owing to the pressure, so that the semen cannot escape from the urethra. La
such cases there cannot be impregnation, unless the semen flows after the erection
has somewhat subsided, but this it will not always do, because it may run backward
into the bladder, and in such cases the patient is necessarily impotent.

When the semen escapes freely, providing it be within the female organ, concept
tion may or may not take place, according to circumstances, let the opening be where
it may.

At other times the opening is so near the body that the semen, when it does
escape, cannot enter the female organs. In such cases the only resort left is artificial
impregnation, as before explained.

The nearer the opening is to the end of the penis, generally speaking, the more
chance there is of success, and the nearer it is to the body the less. In some situations
any kind of treatment is out of the question. When it is close to the body, the urine
and semen run down the scrotum or perineum, causing constant irritation and
annoyance, unless an instrument be worn to prevent it.

Sometimes there are two openings, but they seldom communicate, and the fluids
nearly always escape by one only.

It was formerly considered, even by the most eminent surgeons, that it was im-
possible to operate with any prospect of success in these cases, from the nature of the
parts, and from the constant flow of urine ; they therefore advised to leave them
alone, and provide the sufferer with the best remedial instruments, to lessen the
inconvenience. In modern times, however, success has attended numerous at-
tempts to correct this malformation, and under favorable circumstances it is always
attempted.

The mode of operation is simply to pass a small sharp-pointed instrument
straight through the penis, along where the natural opening should be, and thus
make an artificial passage, which is kept open by bougies till the cut edges have
healed and there is no danger of it growing up again. When this is fully accom-
plished a catheter • is introduced, and the edges of the old opening underneath are
made raw and held together, by needles or other contrivances, till they adhere, and
thus the opening is closed. In this way a new passage is formed in the proper direc-
tion, and the old unnatural one is permanently obliterated. There are, however,
many circumstances that may make the success of the operation very uncertain, and
some that may forbid it being attempted.

In general the proper canal of the urethra exists, but in a small state, and is closed
only at the very end by a thick membrane. This membrane may usually be easily
cut through and the canal enlarged by bougies, by which means, if the false opening
can be closed, a perfect cure can be obtained. Sometimes, however, there is no trace
of the urethra, and the passage has to be cut through the solid flesh the whole dis-
tance, which is apt to excite so much inflammation that no bougie can be worn, and
then all grows up again. The false opening is also so large in some cases, or the
edges are so thin, that it cannot be closed, and then the new opening may be of little
use, though it be formed. In some of these cases, however, a small tube can be worn
internally, extending just past the opening underneath, so as to conduct the semen

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 521

and urine to the proper opening at the end ; or a piece of gum elastic, or oiled silk,
may be worn firmly over the opening, externally, to effect the same object. By such
means many a sufferer has been enabled to urinate in comfort in the natural way,
and many an impotent man has become a father.

Instances have been known where the false opening was between the testicles, or
even in the perineum, and yet it has been perfectly closed and a new one made the
whole length of the penis. Such operations, however, require great skill in the
surgeon and much endurance in the patient.

In many instances, when the false opening is near the end of the penis, it will be
found that the proper passage is continued the whole length of the organ, and merely
closed at the mouth by a skin. I knew a man who was troubled in this way, the
opening being just at the base of the glans, who could close it with his finger and
send the urine along the natural passage till it made the skin at the end project.
Having heard me explain about this in some of my lectures, he determined to try
and operate himself. Accordingly he took the sharp end of a penknife, and where
the skin projected strongly he made a small puncture very readily, through which the
urine escaped immediately. The inflammation soon subsided, and the new opening
remained, so that by always closing the old one with his finger, he could urinate as
well as if nothing was wrong. I told him that the old opening could be easily closed
permanently by another slight operation, but he felt so well content with what was
already done, and suffered so little inconvenience, that he would not consent to any-
thing further.

One of the greatest difficulties is in keeping a catheter in sufficiently long to make
the urine flow down the new passage while the old opening grows together. Very
often the place will be nearly closed, and then a rush of urine will come and break it
open, destroying all that had been done. In old cases, also, the edges are apt to be
very thin and ragged and the orifice large, so that a perfect juncture is next to im-
possible. If there is any scrofulous tendency also, the probability of it ever closing
is very small. In many of these cases, as in external abscess of the prostate gland,
the wound may be perfectly healed for a time, but break out again without any
apparent reason.

Many of these deformities can be corrected in infancy, or early youth, and they
should therefore be always shown to experienced surgeons immediately they are de-
tected, and not concealed as they are by some parents. It is difficult to say to what
age success is possible in such cases ; probably there is no particular limit. Some
have been operated upon at thirty, and others even at forty or more, but the earlier
the better. In general the development of the penis is more or less imperfect above
the false opening, and when the full generative power is desirable this must also be
corrected, by means explained in another article. Sometimes it is even necessary
to effect this development before the operation can be performed.

EPISPADIAS.

This affection is precisely the reverse of the former, the false opening being on
the top of the penis instead of underneath. It is much more rare than hypospadias,
and is somewhat more difficult to treat, owing to the opening being farther from the
natural passage. The orifice will sometimes be near the end and sometimes close by
the pubic bone, occasionally being a little on one side.

522 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF TEE MALE SYSTEM.

The mode of operation is exactly the same as in hypospadias, but, as before re-
marked, it is more difficult, and the chances of success are less.

PHTMOSIS.

In this malformation the skin of the prepuce comes completely over the glans, and
the opening at the end is so contracted that it can never be drawn back. This con-
dition of the organ is both unpleasant, annoying, and dangerous, because it prevents
proper cleanliness, and thus disposes to various diseases. The secretion of the
glandulae odoriferae is apt to accumulate under the skin, and, in conjunction with the
urine, to create serious inflammation. Calculi will also form, like those in the
bladder, and the swelling will sometimes be so great that neither semen nor urine can
pass. In many cases of phymosis the swelling is so great as to cause severe pain
during erection, and the glans is so compressed in consequence that the semen cannot
escape, and thus the individual is impotent.

The means of giving relief are very simple. It is only necessary to introduce an
instrument carefully under the skin and cut up the prepuce, so as to let it open.
This may be done with but little trouble or pain, and with slight danger from in-
flammation if a simple dressing of cold water be applied. It is sometimes necessary
to cut off the edges of the wound a little with scissors, particularly if they are any-
ways callous, or ragged. The whole prepuce is at times so hard and unyielding that
it becomes necessary to practice complete circumcision.

PARAPHYMOSIS.

In this case the prepuce is drawn back over the head of the penis, compressing tb e
organ like a tightly-drawn cord. In some it is permanently in this situation, while
in others the patient has drawn it over the glans and has not been able to slip it back
again, owing to the smallness of the opening and the swelling of the parts. When it
results from this cause, it will often be sufficient to use cold lotions for a time, to re-
duce the swelling, and then lubricate the parts with some belladonna ointment, when
the prepuce may be drawn over without difficulty. Sometimes a little bleeding may
be necessary, or a few leeches on some of the neighboring parts.

The only certain cure is to cut the prepuce in the same way as for phymosis, which
will of course prevent any return of the difficulty. Patients with phymosis are very
apt to change that trouble into paraphymosis by their attempts to draw the prepuce
back and to stretch it.

In young children both these states may exist without causing any great annoy-
ance, but as they approach puberty serious trouble may be experienced suddenly.
It is, therefore, very necessary for parents to observe such accidents, and watch their
progress, particularly near puberty, so that the surgeon may be applied to in time.
Many a man has suffered for life, both physically and morally, from neglect of this
kind while he was a child.

I once knew an instance of a youth who had a permanent paraphymosis that had
never caused him any trouble till he was about twelve years old, when it began to
pain him whenever he urinated, and later, when erection occurred, severely. "When
about fourteen years of age, in consequence of some unusual irritation, the parts
swelled very much, and the prepuce was drawn so tightly around that the glans was

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 523

perfectly strangulated. Not being in the habit of speaking about such matters to
his parents, he concealed it till the agony was so great he could hold out no longer.
On a physician being sent for it was found that the parts had begun to gangrene,
and the urine had been retained so long that inflammation of the bladder had also
supervened. By prompt treatment the most urgent symptoms were alleviated, and
after a time the prepuce was cut through, so as to give permanent relief. The
patient, however, came very near losing the organ itself, if not his life, through want
of a proper confidence and habit of communication between him and his parents.

Both phymosis and paraphymosis may result from the inflammation attendant
Upon other diseases, particularly those of a venereal or syphiloid character, and then
it is usually only requisite to remove the primary affection to give relief, though .
sometimes the operation is needed.

It is necessary to state here that many a child has become addicted to masturba-
tion, and has perished in consequence, simply from having a neglected phymosis ;
the secretion accumulating under the skin, causing constant irritation and leading
to manipulations that would not otherwise be thought of.

I have known many men operate upon themselves, and successfully too, for both
these affections ; a penknife, or pair of scissors being the only instrument used. No
cutting should, however, be practiced on these parts when there is venereal disease,
because the wound may inoculate, and thus the disease be spread.

In some persons the prepuce is absent altogether, and attempts have been made,
under such circumstances, to form a new one by bringing forward the skin below,
but no great success has attended the operation, nor is it at all essential. The only
reason given for desiring it is that the glans is apt to lose part of its sensibility when
constantly uncovered, which is undoubtedly the case, as may be seen among Jews and
others who have been circumcised ; but this is a slight inconvenience, even if it is
not often an advantage, as it certainly makes the person less liable to contract disease.

PARALYSIS OF THE MUSCLES OE THE PENIS.

I first observed this affection in the person of a patient, aged about fifty-three,
having previously seen no account of it whatever. Since then I have met with other
cases in persons of different ages, though always past thirty. In the first case it was
apparently the forerunner of general paralysis, an attack of which was experienced
some two months later, but partially recovered from. In other cases I have also re-
garded it as a sign that general paralysis, or apoplexy, was threatened, though it did
not always immediately follow.

In this disease the secretion of the semen is not affected, nor is the flow of blood
interfered with, the organ becoming as full and as firm as before, but there is no
power to raise and direct it. The first case yielded in the course of a week to gal-
vanism, and some others were alleviated by warm baths and stimulant lotions, but
others again remained, notwithstanding all that could be done. These were mostly
old people, with an obvious predisposition to paralysis. In some cases I have had
reason to think that the attack was brought on by previous sexual excesses.

PRIAPISM, OR INVOLUNTARY ERECTION.

By this term is meant an unnatural and involuntary erection of the penis. In
some persons it occurs only at intervals, but in others it is constant for a long time,

524 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

and constitutes a real state of disease. Priapism is not always accompanied by pleas-
urable feelings, though, it usually is, but, on the contrary, it is sometimes painful. In
some persons it comes on suddenly, without any premonitory symptoms whatever, but
in others it commences gradually, and is frequently indicated by a sense of fullness in
the testes, or of pain and heaviness in the head. The patient is utterly unable to con-
trol the erection in the slightest degree, nor in general can he by any means prevent
it, while the morbid state continues. I have known men who always suffered from
this immediately they went to bed, so that their rest was much disturbed. In one
young man, especially, the health suffered seriously. Every night, when he had been
in bed about an hour, the priapism would commence, and such was the effect on his
nervous system that sleep was out of the question while it continued. Very often,
for several nights together, he did not sleep more than a single hour, and yet there
was in general but little sexual feeling, and that only at first, the sensation after-
ward being merely one of intense and harrowing excitement. The next day he
suffered from headache, pain and weakness in the back, and soreness in the organ
itself. In no instance did he have emissions during these attacks, and this is a pe-
culiarity I have frequently observed.

The causes of this troublesome affection may be various, and sometimes can only
be surmised. In many cases, especially among young persons in vigorous health and
»f perfect development, it results from an actual excess of semen, which first causes
spermatocele, and then leads to a chronic inflammatory condition, by which the erec-
tion is constantly excited. This condition may exist in those who are not at all
disposed to lascivious thoughts, and even in those who are constantly striving against
them, though it is of course made much worse by indulging such thoughts. Most
commonly in these persons the priapism continues till an involuntary emission takes
place, and then it disappears for a short time, till the semen has again accumulated
in too great quantity. There are some, however, in whom these emissions never
occur, and in them the priapism is frequently a constant state, and becomes eventu-
ally a real disease. In the early stages marriage is, of course, the only certain and
effectual remedy, though much mitigation may be effected by means that will here-
after be pointed out ; but when the organs have become diseased or chronically
inflamed, marriage would be highly improper till a healthy condition is restored.

It is not always the case, however, that priapism results from seminal accumula-
tion, or superabundant energy, for it is sometimes experienced by those that are
rather deficient, or, at least, below the average. I have even observed it in those that
were nearly sterile. In these cases it is induced by a diseased condition of the brain,
and is usually considered a mere moral affection, though, like many other moral
affections, it is simply an indication and consequence of physical disease. In this
state there is constant desire at first, sometimes amounting to furious erotomania,
but eventually all feeling and desire will vanish, while the priapism will remain, and
sometimes even continue after death. Long-continued debauchery is also sometimes
followed by obstinate priapism, and eventually by absolute impotency. In the Med-
ical Repository for April, 1824, is a case of this kind communicated by Mr. Callaway.
The patient, during a fit of intoxication, associated with a female three times in
succession, having emissions each time, but no subsidence of the erection, a circum-
stance which I have often known to occur during intoxication. To his great surprise
the erection still continued the next morning, and it remained for sixteen days, in
spite of all the means used to reduce it. The surgeon then made an incision with

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 535

the lancet, just below the scrotum, and immediately there escaped a large quantity
of thick black blood, mixed witb clots. On pressing the penis the blood all flowed
out of it, by the opening, and it immediately became flaccid. The man was impotent,
however, afterward, for no erection ever took place again, owing probably to the cells
of the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum having grown up, from inflamma-
tion. The continued erection was apparently owing, in this case, to inflammation
at the lower part of the penis, or in the perineal muscles, which caused the veins to be
so pressed upon that the blood could not return by them, or perhaps the veins them-
selves were swollen and closed up. Some men have brought on a similar condition
of the parts by keeping themselves too long excited, without allowing emission to
take place, a practice which is very reprehensible, and which not unfrequently causes
spermatocele, or even orchitis.

If the erection be too powerful, or too long continued, it will often cause tempo-
rary impotence, by so compressing the urethra that the semen cannot traverse along
it. When this occurs the semen either escapes afterward, slowly, or else mixes with
the urine.

Long-continued priapism is always hurtful, and is very likely to destroy the
power of erection altogether, ultimately ; it is, therefore, desirable that we should
know its various causes, and the best means of treating it. Persons who are not
properly informed respecting its nature are apt to consider it as simply a result of
loose thoughts, and that only a proper effort is required to overcome it. This is
a great mistake, as we have already shown, and one which leads both to the neg-
lect of proper treatment and also to uncharitable judgments.

In addition to the general causes of this affection, already enumerated, there
are also several others that have a tendency, more or less, to originate or aggravate
it. Want of proper cleanliness, hot clothing, particularly if it chafes, and the too
frequent use of warm baths may be mentioned, and also several other diseases, such
as gonorrhoea and spermatorrhoea. The gravel, and inflammation of the bladder
also excite the penis very much in some persons, and the piles will do the same in
others. Stimulating and highly-seasoned food, and. hot or vinous drinks have the
same tendency, and sleeping in a very warm soft bed is apt to assist. The use
of bougies and injections will often produce priapism, and. certain medicines still
more frequently. Cantharides, phosphorus, and opium, perhaps act the most ener-
getically in this way, but there are others whose effects are very decided, and they
all act very differently at times, and upon different persons. The reading of lascivi-
ous books, or listening to loose conversation, undoubtedly operates in a similar
manner to these physical agents, and the indulgence of lying in bed of a morning,
half awake, has the same tendency.

The treatment of priapism must of course be regulated by the cause that pro-
duces or aggravates it. When it is mainly produced by neglect of properly regulat-
ing the mind, or controlling the desires, the cure must depend entirely upon the
individual's own self, or rather upon his strength of mind. When it arises from a
too stimulating diet and drink, aided by a deficiency of muscular exercise, which is
very often the case in young persons, nothing more is required than to live low,
drink cold water, keep the bowels free, and bathe the parts frequently with cold
water. If there be a too great secretion of semen, with no sufficient involuntary
discharge, marriage is indicated. If there be any other disease, it must first be
cured, and if there be heat and pain in the head, particularly in the back part, it

526 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

must be frequently bathed in cold water, and kept cool, precisely the same as for in-
flammation of the brain, of which in fact the priapism is often only a symptom. Dur-
ing the paroxysm the parts may be bathed with warm water, or a warm enema may be
given. Sitting in a warm bath is sometimes the best plan, or over hot steam. In
obstinate cases leeches may be applied to the penis, or a vein may be opened in it,
but one of the best remedies is to give sufficient tartar emetic to cause sickness ; this
generally relieves the priapism. Two ordinary sized pills of gum camphor have
been found efficacious in some persons, and simple fasting, till faintness ensued, in
others. When the paroxysm is over, strict attention must be paid to the diet, cloth-
ing and general conduct, as before indicated, to prevent a recurrence.

I have had some patients with whom I have had to use various mechanical con-
trivances, to prevent the priapism occurring at night, or while the curative means
were being employed. A simple bandage, drawn tightly round the organ when
flaccid, will often prevent the erection, but a better plan is to use two grooved pieces
of wood, one of which must be placed above the penis and the other below so that
they can be drawn together by a band, or screw. The organ can be compressed so
tightly by this machine, while in its ordinary state, that erection cannot possibly
take place. Several of my patients were unable to sleep till provided with an instru-
ment of this kind.

The longest period I ever knew an attack of priapism to last was six weeks, and
that was in a married man. It first began during a short absence from home, and
was kept up by the impossibility which he experienced, on his return, of discharging
the semen, owing to the swollen and inflamed state of the parts. He suffered from
ispermatocele, and slightly from orchitis, and was further troubled by violent desire,
which he was unable to gratify. Connection was possible, but without emission, and
consequently without gratification. I was much afraid, from the violence of the
attack, and from the symptoms, that permanent impotence would follow, but by
careful treatment, perseveringly attended to, he completely recovered.

I knew one instance in which priapism followed a blow on the head, from which
the person died, and it remained after his death, the parts being so firmly congested,
and so rigid, that nothing had any effect upon them. In several instances I have
known priapism follow the application of blisters to the neck and back, even in
young children, a fact that should not be lost sight of, either by physicians or
parents.

DISEASES OF THE URETHRA AND THE PARTS CONTAINED THEREIN.

The urethra, as before explained, is a long canal passing from the bladder down
the penis, for the purpose of conveying the urine out of the body, and also for con-
ducting the semen, it being the common passage for both fluids.

The membranous walls of the urethra are rather thick, and are elastic, and the
interior is lined with a mucous coat similar to that inside the bladder. The size of
the urethra is different in different parts ; thus a little way in from the external
opening, or meatus urinarius, it expands considerably, and then contracting again
expands still larger at about two-thirds of its length down. The substance of which
the walls of the urethra are composed appears not to be the same in its whole length,
being membranous in some parts and in others spongy, almost like the corpus spon-
giosum. It therefore participates in the act of erection, and its concurrence is very
essential to the proper emission of the semen. Where it first opens at the neck of

DISEASES AND DEBANQEMENTS OF TEE MALE SYSTEM. 627

the bladder it is wide, but drawn together by certain muscles, excepting when the
urine is evacuated, when the muscles relax and allow it to open. It is not by the
drawing together of the walls of the urethra alone, however, that the urine is pre-
vented from escaping, but partly by the presence of the veru montanum. By refer-
ring to the plate of the situation of the male organs, the position of this part will be
readily understood. It is a small fleshy protuberance, placed on the lower wall of the
urethra, just where it opens from the bladder. In shape it is like a cone, with the
small end pointing toward the end of the penis. The neck of the bladder closes
around this little protuberance while the urine is retained, but during evacuation it
relaxes and opens a little, and the fluid then passes on each side of the montanum,
which thus acts a similar part to the stopper of a bottle. Many cases of incontinence
of urine arise from irritation of the veru montanum, which becomes so tender that
the neck of the bladder is kept constantly open to prevent pressure upon it. This
irritation may arise from various causes, but most usually we can only guess what
they are. The mode of subduing it is simply to use general means for subduing
inflammation, such as are suitable for all the neighboring parts. An irritating
quality of the urine is very apt to give rise to it, particularly when very acid, and
then it is readily corrected by taking a little carbonate of soda every morning before
breakfast, and drinking freely of gum-arabic water. I had one patient who suffered
terribly from this cause, without knowing, till explained to him, what it was. Im-
mediately the smallest portion of urine was secreted in the bladder it felt as if a
piece of red-hot iron was placed in the neck, and all command over it was instantly
lost, the urine escaping in spite of all his efforts. The smarting, burning, and prick-
ing sensation he described as most horribly torturing, without there being any ap-
parent possibility of relief. He had been told by some practitioner that it was stone
in the bladder, but I felt assured, after careful examination, that it was inflamma-
tion of the veru montanum, and advised him accordingly. I prescribed hot fomen-
tations of poppy heads, on the pubes and perineum, with leeches also on the peri-
neum, and inside the thighs. Internally I directed him to take the following.powders,
with a dose of castor oil every evening, and to drink plentifully during the day of
barley water :

R. Dried leaves of uva ursi, or bearberry, one and a half drachms ; bicarbonate
of soda, one drachm.

To be mixed together well, and divided into twelve powders, one of which to be
taken three times a day, in the barley water.

The effect of this treatment was evident on the second day, the inflammation
having subsided considerably, and by the third day he was quite well, with the ex-
ception of a little soreness when urinating.

Inflammation of the veru montanum is also very apt to be produced by retaining
the urine too long, when the bladder is very full, and particularly by trying to pre-
vent the escape of semen, during coition, which is sometimes done by pressing the
penis at its lower part. The effects of this practice, which is often resorted to undei
the idea of preventing conception, are most serious ; in addition to the inflammation
already referred to, it also leads to involuntary seminal losses, as will be explained
further on. Such destructive practices would never be attempted if men were not
so thoroughly ignorant of everything relating to their physical systems, and while
that ignorance remains it will always cause more disease than medical science will
be able to cure.

528 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF TEE MALE SYSTEM.

The vera montaimm is also very apt to become diseased whenever the prostate
gland is affected, the two parts sympathizing so intimately together.

The semen enters the urethra just at the lower end of the vera montanum, by
two small openings, which are very liable to be more or less closed when this organ,
or the prostate is inflamed, and thus the flow of semen is partially and sometimes
totally prevented.

Sometimes the montanum will swell till it completely fills up the neck of the
bladder, so that neither urine nor semen can possibly escape till it has been reduced^
It is also liable to be the seat of cancer or scrofula, like the prostate.

The urethra is liable to congenital malformations, as well as to subsequent acci-
dents, and some of these may be of a serious character. In some young persons it is
permanently contracted, so that the escape of urine is attended with great difficulty
and pain. This fault, however, usually amends with the growth, and with constant
use. Children so circumstanced are a very long time in discharging their urine,
which flows in a small stream, and with more or less distress. In very severe cases
bougies may be used to dilate the passage, but it is better, if the trouble is not too
great, to wait till toward puberty, and see if nature herself will not effect an improve-
ment. Still more rarely there are found congenital strictures, or they come spon-
taneously, without any apparent cause. If these are not very bad, it is perhaps better
to wait till fourteen or fifteen years of age, before operating, as the changes in the
system at that time are very great, and an improvement may occur naturally. If
they are too severe, however, or endure beyond that time, it will be necessary to use
the bougie, which is in reality the only effective remedy in such cases. Many youths
cause stricture by compressing the penis in masturbation, and bruising the urethra.
I have known many do this to prevent the semen from escaping at the moment of
ejaculation, from the notion that if this was done the practice would not injure
them. It is of course unnecessary to show the fallacy of such a notion, but it may be
advisable to explain again what becomes of the seminal fluid in such cases, for very
often not a particle is seen. At the moment of ejaculation the semen escapes by jets
into the urethra, from the ejaculatory canal, through certain small openings, called
the ejaculatory ducts — which are shown in the plates — and then flows down the
canal and escapes from the body. If, however, the urethra is compressed, so as to
prevent it from escaping externally, it must flow in some other direction, and the
only other way is into the Madder, which it enters by forcing open the neck and
passing on each side of the vera montanum. It is then expended as much as if it
bad left the body in the natural manner, as it comes away with the next flow of
urine. In the meantime its presence irritates the bladder, and its passage in this
reverse way is very apt to cause inflammation in the vera montanum and prostate
gland, and even to produce stricture, as before explained, with a weakness of the
ducts disposing to involuntary seminal losses.

The urethra is also unusually irritable in some persons, without any particular
disease, and burns and smarts when they urinate as if they had gonorrhoea. Some
men, and even some children, have more or less of this trouble, either constantly or
at times, and suffer from it considerably. It will generally be observed in such per-
sons that the urine is high colored, and deposits a reddish or yellowish sediment on
being allowed to stand, indicating either gravel or chronic inflammation of the blad-
der. The best treatment is that given for inflammation of the veru montanum, fur-
ther back, and the best preventive is to pay strict attention to the diet and drink.

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 529

Nothing should be eaten or drunk that is heating or stimulating, or that is likely
to produce constipation, which always aggravates these troubles. Spirituous and
fermented liquors are very bad, and coffee is usually injurious. The best drinks are
soda-water, barley-tea, gum-arabic water, and mucilage of sassafras pith, or bene
plant. A little carbonate of soda taken every morning is a perfect preventive in
some, and a little magnesia in others. All excesses must be carefully avoided, and
the bowels kept constantly free. A frequent warm kill is nearly always beneficial.

Many of the diseases of the prostate gland, and many of the operations upon the
penis are frequent causes of stricture and inflammation of the urethra, and they
therefore require, on that account, the utmost care and attention. It is not unfre-
quently the case, in unskillful hands, that after a perfect cure of one of these diseases
a stricture is left that is a worse evil than the original one.

THE PROSTATE GLAND.

The uses of this organ, like those of the vesicles, have not yet been satisfactorily
determined. It was formerly thought to be a simple gland, intended to secrete a
peculiar liquor which was necessary to mix with the semen. This view, however,
has been lately somewhat modified, and it is now considered to be rather a collection
of several glands or follicles forming one mass or organ together. These little folli-
cles secrete a peculiar whitish fluid, which is conveyed by a number of small ducts
into the urethra, close by the veru montanum, where the semen enters. It is probable
that this fluid is, in some way or other, essential to the perfection of the semen as it
leaves the body.

The prostate gland is liable to several forms of disease, some of which are both
painful and dangerous, and all of which, unfortunately, are but little capable of
treatment. It seems specially liable to engorgement, or swelling, and to scrofulous
and cancerous indurations. Sometimes also it becomes cartilaginous, or even almost
bony, and at other times calculi or stones form in it, similar to those found in the
bladder. Inflammation and abscess of the prostate gland are very apt to follow im-
proper treatment for gonorrhoea, particularly when bougies or injections have been
used, and it is also a frequent consequence of cauterization for curing involuntary
seminal losses. Blows on the perineum may also give rise to it, or too severe and
long-continued pressure, from horse-riding, or using a hard seat, or even from very
tight small-clothes. This trouble is both an annoying and a serious one, and fre-
quently excessively painful. When the prostate is simply swollen, it merely causes
a sense of fullness and uneasiness in the perineum, with difficulty in urinating or
discharging the semen, and in passing the bowels. The reason for these impedi-
ments will be evident when the situation and connections of the organ are borne in
mind. The smallest increase in the size of the prostate makes it press on the urethra
and partly close it, so that the flow of urine is necessarily obstructed, and the orifices
of the seminal tubes being also compressed, the flow of semen through them is sim-
ilarly intercepted. In very severe cases a total stoppage of both urine and semen
occurs, which if not relieved may lead to inflammation of the bladder and testes of
the most acute and dangerous character. "When this stage has been reached the pain
and suffering become most intense, and if the inflammation and swelling are not
speedily reduced, an abscess forms, which eventually breaks and discharges its con-
tents, when some little relief is obtained, though the disease has then assumed a
34

530 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM.

much, more annoying form, and is more difficult to treat. If the abscess breaks in-
ternally, there is a continual flow of pus or matter from the urethra, attended by
severe smarting and pain when the urine or semen is passed, and by a constant irrita-
tion in all the neighboring parts, which acts on the nervous system in the most dis-
tressing manner. Occasionally the abscess breaks externally in the perineum, which
is, if possible, still more troublesome. The pus keeps flowing in the same manner,
only not from the urethra, and the same constitutional irritation is experienced, but
the pain in urinating is not always so great.

The treatment of this trouble must depend upon the stage at which it has arrived,
and the causes that produced it. While there is simply slight swelling and inflam-
mation from bruises or blows, every means must be taken to remove it as speedily as
possible. The patient must keep perfectly still, lying on his back most of the
time, while fomentations of hot water, with laudanum, are freely applied to the peri-
neum, or flannels dipped in the hot fluid may be placed between the limbs and
pressed up against the perineum, changing them frequently, and using them as hot
as they can be borne. The bowels must be freely moved with castor oil, and the
diet must be light and unstimulating. A very good practice is for the patient to
sit in hot water, for half an hour at a time, or over the steam of it. These means
persevered in, when the uneasiness and difficulty are first felt, will often subdue the
inflammation, and prevent any further evil consequences. A general warm bath,
during which hot teas are taken, to promote perspiration and the flow of urine, are
also of great service, and when the bruise is very bad, as shown by blackness of the
skin, leeches must be applied, either on the perineum or inside of the thighs.

If the inflammation be of a chronic form, not produced by any external violence,
the best application is the mercurial ointment rubbed on the perineum till it pro-
duces a decided effect on the system. Along with this may also be taken the solution
of iodide of potassium, prescribed in hydrocele, the bowels being kept regularly open
with salts or castor oil. Cold lotions must be frequently applied of alum or sugar
of lead, and no spices or alcoholic liquors must be taken on any account. Sexual
excesses are particularly hurtful in this complaint.

Very many incipient attacks of inflammation of the prostate might be cured in
this way, and the swelling dispersed, if proper attention were paid to the diet and
strict temperance practiced in all things.

Most frequently, however, this trouble continues, and either forms an abscess or
an indolent tumor, which every now and then enlarges so much that the flow of
semen and urine is entirely stopped, causing intense suffering, and a palliative
operation has to be performed to give relief. Many patients suffer from regular
periodical attacks of this kind, and in others they come on always after any little
extra bodily exertion, or mental anxiety. In these cases the use of purgatives
internally, with cold lotions and belladonna or hellebore plasters externally, will
frequently mitigate the severity of the pain and cut short the attack. A grain of
opium may also be taken, when the suffering is most intense, or thirty drops of
laudanum, in some gum-arabic water. The ointment of belladonna and camphor,
prescribed in inflammation of the testicle, will also frequently be found of great
benefit, and many experience decided relief from leeches to the perineum and thighs.
The nature of the operation to be performed, in any extreme case, depends upon
the peculiar circumstances attending it, and must be left to the judgment of the
physician. The internal application of caustic is practiced by some, and others use

DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF THE MALE SYSTEM. 531

the lancet freely, but there are both risk and difficulty in both. At the very com-
mencement of the disease it is sometimes possible to introduce a catheter without
much trouble, and this may serve to keep the urethra open while the other means
are employed to reduce the inflammation. The catheter, however, is not admissible
when much force is needed to introduce it, nor when it increases the inflammation.
One of the most reliable proofs of swelling of the prostate gland, when the tumor
cannot be felt externally or in the rectum, is the impossibility of passing a catheter,
owing to the enlarged prostate having blocked up the urethra.

Inflammation of the prostate gland may terminate in induration, or permanent
hardness, and also in mortification, as well as in abscess or dispersion. When morti-
fication ensues, it is of course exceedingly dangerous, if not necessarily fatal, and we
have no known remedy to cure it. The induration will sometimes exhibit a decided
scrofulous tendency, and pursue the same course as scrofulous testicle, and at other
times it will become perfectly cartilaginous, or bony.

When calculi or stones form in the prostate, it is sometimes possible to cut them
out, providing their presence is so evident that there can be no mistake, but this is
very seldom the case. Like most other diseases of the prostate, the indications of this
are so obscure, that its precise seat and nature in most cases can only be guessed at.

Sometimes the stones will be discharged, by way of the urethra, and relief im-
mediately follow. Warm bathing and fomentations probably tend to facilitate this
mode of escape, by relaxing the parts. I have known persons who had long suffered
from all the usual symptoms of enlarged prostate, be perfectly relieved after voiding
a few calculi, seldom larger than a pea.

Among other means of obtaining relief, occasionally successful in prostatic en-
largement, I may mention injections in the rectum of cold thin starch and laudanum,
frequently repeated. Galvanism I have also tried, and in some cases with marked

Chronic enlargement of the prostate gland is rather common amongst old men,
particularly those who have led a sedentary life, or been addicted to sexual excesses,,

EXCESSIVE SENSIBILITY OE THE GENITAL ORGANS*

Sometimes the sensibility of the genitals is so much exalted, either naturally or
accidentally, that emissions occur upon the slightest excitement, and the indi-
vidual is thus made impotent from inability to perfect the connection. This con-
dition is in reality a diseased one, and ought so to be considered, as much as any
other we have described.

The seat of this extra sensibility is sometimes in the testes or vas deferens, or in
the ejaculatory ducts, but most frequently in the glans penis. When it is very great
the organs are thrown into a violent orgasm almost at a touch, and emission occurs
at the very first attempt. I have known men married for years who never had per-
fect association with their partners during the whole time, and simply from this
cause. They were in no respect whatever deficient, nor even subject to nervous ex-
citement, but were unfortunately affected by this excessive sensibility. Other men J
have known who dare not marry at all from this cause, feeling sure that if they did
the marriage could never be consummated.

The causes of this trouble appear to lie in the peculiar structure of the glans, the
Skin of which is unusually delicate, while its nerves are ramified into thousands of

532 DISEASES AND DERANGEMENTS OF TEE MALE SYSTEM.

minute twigs, which are distributed to every point of the surface. The exquisite
sensibility thus produced is so great, in some, that the mere touch of the clothes is
sufficient to excite, and the patient is thus kept in a constant state of irritation.
Sometimes a similar state is induced by disease, particularly by inflammation, the
penis being then as tender as the surface of an abscess just before it breaks, and feeling
the slightest pressure or friction.

When this excessive sensibility is produced by any disease, it will usually disap-
pear when the disease is cured, but when it is natural the removal or modification of
it becomes much more difficult, though great relief can nearly always be obtained,
The first requisite is to remove all extraneous sources of irritation, and to attend to
the diet, clothing, and general regimen ; then the great point is to harden the shin of
the glans, so that the nerves may be more thickly covered, and their sensibility re-
duced. This must be effected by the constant use of astringent washes, or caustics,
and in certain cases by the use of galvanism. Every one is familiar with the effect
of certain substances on the hands, in making them hard and destroying the delicacy
of their touch, and it will be readily seen that the same means will deaden the
sensibility of the glans and other parts. Lime-water is very good in some cases, and
water saturated with iron-rust in others, but the best agents are the astringents, such
as alum-water, solutions of tannin, or white oak bark, or gum kino or catechu.
These must be used every day, as washes, and the glans kept covered with cotton
soaked in them. They will always do good, and frequently effect a perfect cure, bu'fc
when they are not sufficient, caustic must be employed, and this must be done by a
physician.

PLATE XXXV.

DESCENT OF THE TESTICLE INTO THE SCROTUM.

In the foetus, before birth, the abdomen and scrotum form one cavity, the scro-
tum being in fact only a part of the abdomen, as seen in the plate.

3. The testicle, just under 2, the kidney. The testicle has to descend from that
position down into the scrotum 7 (through 6 to 7).

The descent is gradual, from the sixth to the ninth month, the testicle going by
degrees from 3 to 4, to 5, to 6, and finally into the scrotum (7) at birth.

After birth the opening from the abdomen into the scrotum closes up, except
what part of it is filled by the spermatic cord.

The first position of the testicle, it will be seen at 3, is the same as that of the
female ovary.

10 is the large intestine ; 12, the navel string, or umbilical cord.

PLATE XXXV.

Descent of the Testicles.

CHAPTER XLVH

6PEBMAT0RRHCEA, OK EXCESSIVE LOSS OP SEMEN-.

This is a subject of more importance, as regards human health and happiness,
than perhaps any other that can be mentioned, and yet it is one about which scarcely
anything is known, except by a few individuals. I do not hesitate to say that more
evil effects, ten times over, are produced by this almost unsuspected cause than by all
the diseases already enumerated, and perhaps even than by nearly all other dis-
eases put together. And not only is it destructive to the body, by preventing its
proper development in youth, making it a mass of disease in mature life, and causing
its premature decay and death, but it is equally baneful to the mind. By its influence
the vivacity and energy of youth are changed to a listless indifference, the vigor of
manhood is destroyed, and the calm, peaceful content of mature life is turned into
despondency and gloom. Many a young man with mental powers capable of making
bim both eminent and happy, and with every requisite of bodily health and strength,
has terminated a short-lived miserable existence by suicide, or dragged out his life in
a state of idiotic imbecility through this unsuspected disease.

The excessive loss may either be the result of licentious indulgence, or it may
occur without the individual's cognizance, the effects being much the same in either
case, though apt to be ascribed to other causes in the latter case, and also to be often
underrated.

The fact that the semen does frequently escape in an involuntary manner is gen-
erally known, there being but few men who have not so suffered more or less, and it is
also well known that such involuntary losses are very injurious to health, but the real
extent, either of the disease or its evil effects, are known to but few. The only cases
known to occur, by people generally, are those in which the escaped semen is actually
seen, but very frequently the loss occurs and is never suspected. In like manner,
the only effects of this disease that are usually taken cognizance of are those which
are plain and obvious ; but there are many others, much more to be dreaded, that
can only be detected and assigned to the right cause by those practiced in observing
them. Many men suffer the extreme of wretchedness and disease, become insane,
and die prematurely, from this complaint, without ever having dreamed of anything
of the kind. Frequently, too, their medical advisers are equally in the dark, and go
on attempting to cure the mere effects, while the grand cause of all is left untouched.
Spermatorrhoea, as I shall show further on, when excessive, may produce symptoms
similar to those of almost every disease the system is subject to, and thus lead to
the belief that there is disease of the heart, liver complaint, dyspepsia, and a hundred
other affections, of which there is in reality no trace whatever. It may also mate-
rially impair the powers of the mind, or prevent their proper manifestation, and so
change the feelings and disposition that the individual can scarcely be recognized
as the same person, by his conduct.

534 SPEBMATOBBSCEA, OB EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

The ravages of this destructive disease are not confined to any particular class,
age, or condition, nor is it always a consequence of vicious conduct, as some suppose,
but, on the contrary, it frequently attacks the most virtuous and exemplary. Some
of the causes that lead to it may operate as well upon the healthy and strong as upon
the weak and sickly, and attack the middle-aged married man, of temperate habits,
as well as the licentious unmarried youth. It is therefore of the utmost importance
that this destructive pestilence should be unveiled, so that every one may know how
to guard against it and ward off its evils.

To understand why it is that spermatorrhoea leads to such manifold and diversi-
fied evils, it will be necessary to refer to the organic and sympathetic connection
between the generative organs and the rest of the system, the intimacy and extent of
which are but little known.

To a considerable extent, the genital organs are in direct connection with the
urinary, and in some places the same parts are common to both. The lower part of
the large intestine, or the rectum, is also in close juxtaposition to them, as may be
readily seen by referring to the illustrations of the male system. Any disease, there-
fore, which affects the genital organs is very apt to derange them likewise, and it is
quite possible that the secondary disease may be more severe than the primary one.
Every one knows that diseases of the bladder, kidneys, urethra, and rectum are
quite common, and frequently very distressing, while the causes of them are often
undiscovered. In many such cases, they are only symptoms, the primary trouble
being spermatorrhoea.

The great cause, however, of the genital organs exerting such a general influence
over every part is their intimate connection with the nervous system. There is no
other process carried on in the body that requires so much nervous power as the for-
mation and evacuation of the semen, and no other is therefore so exhaustive of the
vital energy. Even in youth the amount of this power required is very great, to
effect the full formation of the seminiferous glands ; in fact, Nature seems to put
forth so much effort for this purpose that every other part is stimulated at the same
time, and thus the perfecting of the genital organs is the means of developing the
whole system.

This is the reason why those who are castrated are always imperfect, both in body
and mind, and die early. If the testes are removed, there is no other part for which
nature will sufficiently exert herself to stimulate the whole, and consequently the
development is only partial. Those who have ever seen eunuchs will have had suf-
ficient proof of this, but any one may observe the same thing in mutilated animals.
Compare the ox with the bull, for instance, or the entire horse with the castrated
one, and it will be at once evident that the form of the body, and the disposition, are
completely changed. Even in after-life the vital energy required to secrete the semen
invigorates the whole system, and disposes it to a constant activity that would other-
wise not be exhibited. Men deficient in this respect are never noted for their enterprise
and love of adventure, but are always inclined to be calm, inactive, and retired, even
when possessing genius. Nearly all men of strong, energetic minds and daring dis-
positions are of warm temperaments, or, in other words, have a plentiful secretion of
semen. It is, therefore, an essential and important agent, both for perfecting the
system in early life and also for rousing it to sufficient exertion afterward, and beyond
doubt a deficiency or superabundance of this fluid may exert a decided influence on
the character of the individual. In all probability, many are dull and inactive from

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 535

deficiency in this respect, while many others are too impulsive and restless from
excess, and yet the truth is seldom suspected. It is too much the custom with phys-
iologists to regard only the brain as being concerned in the production of mental
characteristics, and to consider it as the sole fountain of that mysterious influence
which is constantly exerted over every part of the system. A truly philosophical
view of the subject will, however, I am confident, show that there are other parts
whose action should by no means be overlooked, and among the most important of
these are the genital organs.

A due consideration of these facts explains the true philosophy of sexual indul
gence, and shows why licentious excess produces so many and such severe evils. In
a healthy state, Nature goes on supplying the necessary nervous energy, both to the
testes and the rest of the system, till a superabundance of semen is formed, and then
there is experienced a desire for its emission, the gratification of which is, physio-
logically speaking, under such circumstances, both proper and healthful. It is, in
fact, only the expenditure of the overplus energy, and does not in any way weaken or
destroy. If, however, by artificial excitement, or factitious desire, the seminal emis-
sion occurs before this superabundance exists, it becomes exhaustive, and seriously
impairs the vital energy. Indulgence should therefore be allowed only when this
overplus power excites to it, and any man can easily tell when that is by studying his
feelings and experience, and by not giving way to artificial excitement.

When the seminal emission occurs oftener than nature properly provides for, the
nervous energy expended is no longer a useless superfluity, but a portion of the com-
mon stock, and its abstraction necessarily weakens the power of the whole system.
For a time Nature can, by extra effort, supply the deficiency thus produced, but if
the excess be too long continued this effort at last fails, and then a general prostration
ensues. The career and ultimate end of any licentious debauchee will well illustrate
this, and should act as a timely warning to shun the same evil path.

The reason why the victim of excessive seminal discharge suffers from almost
every ailing of body and mind, will now be evident. The stomach cannot digest, the
heart cannot propel the blood, nor the brain think, unless they are each supplied with
a due amount of nervous power, and if most of that be expended in the production
and evacuation of the semen, of course those organs will be deficiently supplied, and
will consequently perform their functions imperfectly. Here, then, we have the cause
in such cases of dyspepsia, heart disease, dullness of the intellect, insanity and a
thousand other evils.

Besides this exhaustion of the nervous energy, however, it is also probable, from
observations recently made, that the semen requires for its perfect formation some
important and subtle elements of the body, the abstraction of which, in too great
quantities, is highly injurious. It has been supposed, and with considerable plausi-
bility, that a part of the seminal fluid is identical with some portion of the brain and
nervous substance, and that this common material is produced for the use of both re-
spectively. This explains why the mind is nearly always active in those who are of
a warm temperament, because the brain is nourished by a part of the same material
which is produced to form the semen. It also shows why the mind must suffer when
the semen is expended in too great quantity, because the very substance the brain re-
quires is that taken away, and it suffers, in fact, from want of its proper nutriment.
In confirmation of this it has been stated that the brain has actually been found
wasted and softened in many persons who have died from licentious excesses, and I

536 SPERMATORRHOEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

have myself observed the fact, after death from masturbation. In one case especially,
the color and consistence of the brain were so remarkably different from those of a
healthy person that no one conld fail to observe it ; in fact, it had the very same
appearance as in some states of acute disease, and I have no doubt but that in many
of these poor victims the brain is constantly in a state of inflammation, or wasting
away. This is probably the true cause of that distress in the head, dimness of sight,
and loss of hearing that many of these patients complain of, and which sometimes
continue till they become deaf, blind, and insane.

This explanation of the way in which spermatorrhoea produces such various evils,
will make our detailed account of its effects easily understood, and will also make
clear the philosophy of its proper treatment, and what should be done for its pre-
vention.

CAUSES OF SPERMATORRHCEA.

There are undoubtedly many causes of spermatorrhoea with which we are but
imperfectly acquainted, and probably many that are not yet suspected. Mr. Lalle-
inand remarks that " when it occurs spontaneously, during sleep, in a healthy and
continent individual, it doubtless exerts a beneficial influence on the economy, by
freeing it from a source of excitement, the prolonged accumulation of which might
derange the animal functions. Iu these cases it has an effect analogous to that pro-
duced by the bleeding at the nose, during youth." If, however, the discharge be-
comes excessive, or continues longer than the state that first produced it, great evil
may follow, as already shown. Probably the most frequent cause of spermatorrhoea
is too frequent sexual excitement, especially in the form of masturbation. This
leaves the organs in a state of irritation which stimulates them to constant activity,
and makes them perfectly independent of the will. At first the emissions are always
attended by erections and pleasurable sensations, during sleep, but in time they begin
to occur without either erection or sensation, and finally take place in the day-time,
whenever the bowels are moved, or the urine passed, and in extreme cases there is a
constant running away of the semen without any intermission. To understand the
reason of this constant and uncontrollable escape of the semen, I must refer to some
of tne anatomical details given in the description of the male organs. It is there
shown that the semen passes, from the testes, along a pipe or duct, called the vas
deferens, which opens into the urethra, through the prostate gland, by two little
mouths called the ejaculatory ducts. These mouths are always shut in a healthy
state, except under the influence of sexual excitement, and then they open to let the
semen through, but afterward firmly close. If, however, they are called upon to do
this too often, they become irritated or relaxed, and consequently are more disposed
to open from slight causes, and have less power to close again. They are especially
liable, when irritated, to be acted upon by the urine, which passes over them, and as
the bladder itself soon partakes of the same irritation, the urine is being constantly
passed, and is nearly always mixed with semen. The pressure of the rectum on the
prostate gland, when the bowels are moved, will also cause the ducts to open, and
this is the reason why many persons always lose semen when at stool. The ordinary
motions of the body even will do the same, in bad cases, and more especially riding,
running, leaping, or coughing. Finally, the ducts entirely lose the power of closing,
from relaxation, and then the semen is constantly dribbling away.

Whenever the semen can be seen, there can of course be no mistake as to the

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 537

nature of the trouble, but very often it flows involuntarily without being visible, as
before stated, and thus the individual may suffer without its being suspected what
from. The manner in which this occurs will now be understood, — the ducts become
sensitive to the touch of the urine, which in a healthy state produces no effect upon
them, so that every time that fluid passes they open and allow the semen to escape
along with it. The bladder itself being irritable also, owing to its intimate connec-
tion with the diseased parts, the urine cannot be long retained ; the smallest quan-
tity causes an irresistible desire to expel it, and thus the individual is constantly
urinating, and constantly passing semen at the same time. It is only very recently
that this fact has been ascertained, and doubtless numbers have died in this Way, as
before remarked, without the slightest suspicion being excited as to the cause of
their death. The means by which this mode of seminal escape is ascertained are
simple and sure, in practiced hands, as I can testify from abundant experience.
They consist in examining the urine with a properly constructed microscope, which
exhibits in it the presence of the seminal animalcules. These minute animals are
nearly always to be found in the urine of those afflicted with spermatorrhoea, and
their presence of course proves the escape of semen beyond a doubt. It is quite com-
mon for patients to remark that the urine is thick and ropy, particularly the last
drops, and it is usually thought that this arises from inflammation of the bladder,
but in most cases it is only from being mixed with semen. In this way I have been
able to ascertain the true nature of a person's disease in numerous instances, and to
apply the proper remedy, where previously they had been treated only for some
symptom- of that disease, and of course without any permanent benefit. Many
times I have had respectable married men, of temperate habits, come to me with
every symptom of spermatorrhoea, but who assured me that they had never been
troubled with anything of the kind. They judged so, simply because they never
saw anything pass from them, and they did not know that it could occur in any
hidden form. On showing these people the semen in their urine they were amazed,
and deeply regretted the want of information that had prevented them from know-
ing the cause of their suffering before. I have no doubt but that this hitherto un-
detected form of spermatorrhoea has been the cause of incalculable misery to thou-
sands, and that it has condemned numbers to insanity and untimely death. It is
perhaps necessary to remind the reader here that when the loss occurs in this way, it
is from the ducts being irritable, and not from being relaxed. When really relaxed
or open, the semen escapes, more or less, at all times.

It was remarked above, in speaking of the causes of involuntary seminal emis-
sions, that it probably arose most often from too frequent sexual excitement, espe-
cially in the form of masturbation. It may be as well to remark, however, to avoid
misapprehension, that too frequent excitement in any form may act in the same way.
There are undoubtedly many married men who much exceed the bounds of true
moderation, and they are apt to think that no harm will follow from such excess,
because it is legitimate. This is a great and a fatal mistake ; such men are just as
liable to suffer as if their gratification was sought under any other circumstances,
and I very often have such come to me for advice. The physiological laws, by which
health is maintained, are quite distinct from those moral enactments demanded by
the welfare of society ; and the observance of one of these can never give immunity
for the infringement of the other.

It is not, however, excessive indulgence only that will cause spermatorrhoea, for

538 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

the very opposite of it may do the same. There are few men of warm temperament,
if healthy, that can remain long strictly continent without having involuntary emis-
sions during sleep. These, as before remarked, are sanitary efforts of nature to
relieve herself, and when not too frequent may be beneficial rather than hurtful.
Unfortunately, there is always a tendency, if the continence continues, for them to
become more frequent, so as eventually to constitute a real disease, and thus many a
virtuous young man, who has never indulged in any form, is subject to the same
misfortunes as the licentious debauchee, or the victim of masturbation. This is a
.truth as important to be stated as any other, though its announcement may seem
strange to those who hear it for the first time. There are, fortunately, many means
that can be used, in such cases, to lessen this tendency to an undue increase of the
discharge, and therefore these persons should know of their danger, in order that
they may see the necessity for adopting such means. Over-exertion, or great agita-
tion of the mind, will also cause spermatorrhoea, owing to the sympathy between the
genital organs and the nervous system, and it is frequently produced in this way in
merchants, students, professional men and others. I have known many men of busi-
ness who always had involuntary emissions when they were much troubled about
their affairs, and several law students have assured me that after any unusual appli-
cation they suffered in the same way. Many other diseases of the generative organs will
likewise lead to spermatorrhoea, and so will certain derangements of the neighboring
parts, particularly long-continued constipation of the bowels, piles, and gravel. Cer-
tain medicines also, especially cantharides, phosphorus, iron, and opium, are very
apt both to produce and aggravate it, and so will the use of tobacco, alcohol, and
heating or highly-seasoned food. Among occasional causes still less likely to be sus<
pected than any above referred to, may be mentioned worms in the rectum, various
skin diseases, and diseases or injuries of the brain. Syphilitic and gonorrhoeal affec-
tions also leave a tendency to spermatorrhoea, and often directly produce it. I have
become satisfied also that in many children there is a predisposition to it, inherited
from their parents, accompanied, in many cases, with a congenital weakness of the
parts, which is frequently denoted by incontinence of urine. The most frequent
cause, however, is sexual abuse, though the disease may not assume a very aggravated
form till many years after ; the follies and vices of youth being thus, in many instan-
ces, the originators of disease and misery in mature life.

The general effects already described may follow from great seminal loss occurring
in any way, but when that loss is involuntary these effects are usually more severe,
and several others are experienced that do not always accompany voluntary indul-
gence, even when excessive. In fact, involuntary loss is generally indicative of exten-
sive and confirmed disease, and of course its symptoms are various.

Some of the first effects are exhibited upon the parts more immediately connected
with the genitals, particularly the urinary organs. The irritation speedily extends
from the ducts and vas deferens to the urethra, and finally to the bladder, which be-
comes in consequence so sensitive that it cannot retain the smallest quantity of urine
without inconvenience. The patient is therefore constantly desirous to urinate,
though but little fluid escapes when he does so, and is thus kept in a state of con-
tinual annoyance, so that he dislikes to join company, or to go anywhere in public,
for fear that he should not find opportunities for relieving himself.

I have known men made completely wretched in this way, and in one case, re-
cently, the individual was compelled to give up a profitable and pleasant occupation

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 539

merely because he could not remain at his post sufficiently long at a time. Ulti-
mately this irritation may become so bad that all voluntary power over the bladder is
lost, and the urine then escapes constantly, without the patient being able to control
it. This irritation of the bladder is usually one of the first indications that a man
has exceeded the bounds of moderation, though it does not always occur, even in the
most confirmed cases of involuntary emission.

When the irritation has existed long in the bladder it is apt to extend along the
ureters to the kidneys, and to produce there all the symptoms of inflammation of the
kidneys, and of gravel, with great weakness and pain in the back. It is difficult to
convince many patients that they have not these diseases, and still more difficult to
show them, when they are uninformed, how their troubles really arise. In fact, I have
known numerous cases where physicians themselves have been deceived, and where
they have prescribed for these mere symptoms, supposing them to be the primary dis-
ease, without ever suspecting the truth.

Another part very apt to suffer from spermatorrhoea is the rectum or large intes-
tine, which is in direct communication with the prostate gland and seminal vesicles,
as may be seen by the illustrations. In some persons there is a constant feeling as if
the bowels were about to be moved, with a bearing down sensation, and a partial
protrusion of the intestine. In others there is a general uneasiness around the anus
and perineum, which causes the patient to be continually shifting about on his seat,
and moving as if he were in pain. Occasionally there is considerable irritation, or
itching, and very often severe piles, from the circulation of the blood being impeded.
In short, the rectum may be affected in many different ways, and so may the rest of
the intestines from their connection with it. Sometimes there will be a partial
paralysis of their muscles from the deprivation of nervous power, which, by arresting
the peristaltic motion, will cause obstinate constipation. At other times the mucous
coat partakes of the general irritation, and then we have diarrhoea exhibited, and no
medication whatever can check it, so long as the spermatorrhoea continues.

Another symptom of spermatorrhoea sometimes met with is a peculiar irritation
of the urethra and meatus urinarius, or external opening from the penis. This irri-
tation is sometimes very slight, and only experienced after urinating, but at other
times it becomes quite severe, and pretty constant, resembling, in fact, a real gonor-
rhoea, and being even accompanied by a discharge, showing the existence of inflam-
mation. Many men have become much alarmed from this symptom, supposing it to
be an infectious disease, and in several instances I have known it the cause of mutual
suspicion, and much domestic unhappiness.

These local effects are usually the precursors of more general and severe ones, the
connection of which with the true cause of all, it becomes more difficult to trace.
In addition to a universal lassitude and weakness, there is experienced a remarkable
loss of power in the lower limbs, owing to which the patient finds it impossible to
walk far, or to stand long upon his feet, without being overcome with weariness,
and feeling numbed in the legs and thighs. The slightest exertion makes him trem-
ble and look pale, his heart flutters, or stops beating altogether, and he experiences
a tendency to faint.

This distressing debility is sometimes so excessive that the individual becomes
almost unable to move, and yet he may not be much fallen away, nor look very sick,
so that uninformed persons are apt to think it is mere idleness or pretense. In the
course of time, however, the stomach begins to suffer, and becomes so weak that diges-

540 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEME2T.

tion is imperfectly performed, and then emaciation follows, which frequently becomes
a complete and rapid wasting away. The loss of nervous power sometimes affects the
diaphragm more especially, and then there is great difficulty in breathing, which with
other sensations, leads to the belief that the lungs are diseased. And when this
occurs along with palpitation of the heart, which originates much in the same way,
the poor patient is in a state of constant worriment and fear, nothing being able to
convince him that he has not consumption and heart disease all at once.

The head is not exempt from the general influence, and headache, rush of blood,
dizziness, and constant drowsiness, are commonly complained of. Partial dimness,
or loss of sight, is also frequently observed, as if a cobweb had been spread over the
eye, which fills with water, and looks red on the slightest extra use of it. The eye-
lids, however, are more disposed to inflammation than the eye itself, and it is impos-
sible to do them any good while the spermatorrhoea exists.

The most marked effects, however, are exhibited in the mind audi feelings. Men-
tal activity becomes as difficult and unpleasant as bodily, and the patient becomes
dull, listless, and moping, his memory fails, his judgment weakens, and all power
of application seems lost. When he sits down to study anything, the powers of the
mind appear to wander, so that he cannot bring them to bear on the desired point,
and frequently he wakes up from a kind of dream and finds that he has quite forgotten
the subject altogether. This listless abstraction often gets so bad that the individual
is unfit for business of any kind, and not unfrequently it degenerates into insanity.
I have known several instances of men failing in their business from this cause,
which I have no doubt is oftener connected with human mistakes and errors than
people suppose. In youth, especially, this effect is a very serious one, and the bright
prospects of many a promising young man have been crushed in this way, without
either himself or his friends suspecting the cause. If the records of college and
business failures, and of our lunatic asylums, could all be properly written, the num-
ber of victims in each who have been made by this disease would astonish every one.
And probably we may add also that moral failing has not unfrequently had the
same origin.

The feelings and dispositions of patients of this class, in most cases undergo as
decided changes as their mental powers, and equally to their disadvantage. Some-
times they become melancholy and sensitive to such a degree, that they burst into
tears from the slightest cause, and constantly think they are purposely subjected to
trials and insults that no one around them dreams of. At other times they be-
come irritable and peevish; keeping all around them in as great a state of irritation
as themselves, and firmly believing they are the most ill-used people in the world.
Occasionally there is some peculiar form of monomania exhibited, one person believ-
ing that he is constantly pursued by some enemy, who wishes to deprive him of his
life or fortune, while another firmly believes that some terrible misfortune is about to
overtake him, from which he can by no effort whatever escape. It is but seldom
there is any tendency to violence exhibited, at least toward others, the powers being
too much depressed, but sometimes the patient will injure himself. Many instances
are on record of monomaniacs, of this class, castrating themselves, under the idea
that they could never be better while the genital organs remained. In general, there
is a decided aversion to the opposite sex, and a shyness and embarrassment in ap-
proaching them. Many reputed hermits and woman-haters have been men of this
kind.

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 541

In snort, there is no end to the aberrations and yagaries of mind and feeling in-
duced by continued spermatorrhoea.

There is, however, one melancholy effect of this disease, occasionally seen, which
I would willingly pass over, if it were not necessary to disclose the whole truth, so
that the real extent of the evil may be seen.

The effect I refer to is a tendency to unnatural habits and vices, which, in such
cases, charity bids us look upon as resulting from a diseased brain, sympathizing
with the derangements of other parts.

The following cases are selected partly from my own note-book, and partly from
M. Lallemand's celebrated work, Des Pertes Seminales :

Case I. (Communicated by Dr. McDougall, in the preface to his Translation of
Lallemand. )

" K. H , get. thirty-nine, passed the early part of his life in the country, and

was in the habit of taking much and violent exercise. About the age of sixteen he
entered a banking establishment in London, in which, by great diligence and steadi-
ness of conduct, he rose, before he was twenty-five, to the post of cashier. The af-
fairs of the house fell into disorder, and ultimately a bankruptcy occurred ; Mr.

H , from the amount of confidence reposed in him by the partners of the firm,

was much harassed during these unfortunate proceedings. Soon afterward he be-
came manager of a large mercantile establishment in the city, and about this time
commenced some speculations in foreign bonds. From fluctuations in the share
market, he was a loser to a considerable extent ; his mind was much harassed, and
he began to suspect those about him of dishonesty toward their employers. On

investigation these suspicions were proved to be totally unfounded ; Mr. H gave

way to great violence of conduct, and resigned his situation. About this time his

father died, and Mr. H was much disappointed at finding that property which

he had incorrectly believed entailed, and consequently his, as eldest son, was left by
will to be equally divided between himself and the rest of his family. His conduct
at this period was of the strangest description. He dreaded to go out into the streets
of the town where his family resided, refused to join in their meals, and ultimately
abruptly left their house to return to London. In 1837, his state had become such,
that in consequence of his repeated letters, members of his family visited London,
and on their return took him with them into Devonshire. About this time his
mental disorder put on a decided aspect ; and I had then, as well as later, ample
opportunities of observing his conduct ; and frequently heard his complaints. Emis-
saries were constantly on the search for him to arrest him for unnatural crimes com-
mitted in London ; every one who met him in the street read in his countenance
the crimes he had committed ; tailors made his coats with the sleeves the wrong
way of the cloth, in order to brand him with infamy ; the sight of a policeman in
the street alarmed him beyond measure ; and often if a stranger happened to be
walking for some little time in the same direction as himself, he would exclaim that
he was one of the emissaries sent to seize him. At other times he would lock him-
self in his room and weep by the hour. He never took his meals with the family,
and never tasted food or drink, without first preserving a portion for chemical analy-
sis, as he was convinced his friends were in a conspiracy to poison him slowly, in
order to wipe out the memory of his crimes. These ideas haunted him night and
day. His digestion was much disordered ; his sleep broken and restless, and his
bowels excessively constipated. His face became flushed, and periodical attacks of

542 SPERMATORRHEA. OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

cerebral excitement occurred, during which, lie complained of vertigo, noise in the
head, loss of sight, etc. He complained also of loss of memory, and frequently of
bodily weakness, and lassitude. The best medical advice the neighborhood afforded
was obtained, unavailingly ; the opinions of the gentlemen consulted were that Mr.
H was laboring under aggravated hypochondriasis, complicated with monoma-
nia. "Various causes were suggested as giving rise to the disorder, but no previous

case of insanity was recollected in any branch of the family. Mr. H now began

to talk of leaving England for America, in order to avoid his persecutors ; and to
prevent this he was placed under the care of a private keeper. While with this per-
son he frequently and bitterly complained of constant pollutions while at stool, with
darting pain, and a sense of weight between the rectum and bladder. He had also
urethral irritation, attended with discharge, pains in his loins, and in one groin,
weakness of his legs, thick urine, piles, and obstinate costiveness. He kept a diary
at this time, which is at present in my hands. Not a day is passed in this diary
without mention of the distressing seminal discharges from which he suffered. These
were treated as of no importance by his medical attendants, although he never ceased
to complain of them, and solicited aid so long as he continued in confinement in
England. When led away from his disorder into any discussion on public matters,
he was, however, a most amusing and instructive companion ; as a man of business
he was equally acute, and to a stranger, as long as nothing was done to offend him,
he was, to all appearance, a man of observation and experience in life. For about
two years and a half he was under the care of various gentlemen, devoted to the
insane, and at length he was discharged from an establishment near Bath, by the
visiting magistrates, as a person confined without due cause. His first act was to
commence legal proceedings against his friends for his detention, and having gained
his action, he immediately proceeded to London, and waylaid and violently assaulted
a gentleman of high commercial standing in the city. After this offense he was con-
fined for a considerable period, in default of bail, and immediately on his liberation,
it is believed that he proceeded to America. From this time nothing was heard of
him until September, 1843, when a letter was received by a gentleman who for-
merly attended him, in which he stated that the same course of persecution was pur-
sued toward him in America, as had been followed in England. He complained of
not being able to obtain efficient medical treatment, although lie had applied to the
most eminent practitioners at Cincinnati, and afterward at Philadelphia and New

York. After this, nothing more Avas heard of Mr. H until the year 1845, when

an American newspaper was forwarded to his friends by an unknown hand, contain-
ing an account of his death, and of an inquest held on him, headed ' Death of a Her-
mit in West Jersey.' It was stated that he had lived on a small farm, entirely alone,
with the exception of a dog, and that he had shunned all intercourse with his neigh-
bors. He was taken suddenly ill, applied to a neighboring farmer for assistance, but
died in the course of the following day. From information subsequently obtained
by his friends, it is believed he died of apoplexy, or perhaps, in one of the attacks of
congestion of the brain, from which he frequently suffered before he left his native
country.

"The symptoms of this unfortunate case strongly resemble those of the thirty-
second and fifty-sixth cases related by M. Lallemand. It was more aggravated, how-
ever, and presented the somewhat uncommon feature of the patient's discovering the
frequent pollutions, and constantly complaining of them ; these, unfortunately, being

SPERMATORRHOEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN 543

treated as matters of no importance. Mr. H 's insanity at first, constantly had

reference to his having either committed or been accused of committing unnatural
crimes, and this idea never entirely left him, although during the latter part of his
life, his more prominent hallucinations had reference to imaginary persecutors con-
stantly watching him, and endeavoring to ruin him by spreading false reports, and
to poison him by adulterating his food, and infusing noxious gases into the air.
There can be little doubt, on taking into consideration his complaints of weight
between the rectum and bladder, with darting pains, etc., in the same region, that
the pollutions arose from irritation in the neighborhood of the prostate ; and I think,
that if at an early period of his disease this had been relieved, there would have been
considerable hope of his recovery from the hallucinations he manifested."

This case I have selected as one that gives a great number of the symptoms
usually observed, and as being well calculated to give a correct idea of the immense
series of evils that often follow from this disease. The next case is also one of Dr.
McDougall's, and is equally instructive. It is a perfect copy of numbers that have
come under my notice.

"The other case to which I have alluded as particularly attracting my attention,
and which came under my notice about the same time, was that of a young man of
high intellectual power and general talents, studying medicine. This gentleman
was one of my most constant companions, when almost suddenly, a serious change
came over him — he shunned society, especially that of females, was morose, taciturn,
and frequently shed tears ; he sat sometimes for hours in a kind of abstraction, and
on being aroused from it he could give no explanation of his thoughts and feelings ;
he constantly expressed to me his" conviction that he should never succeed in his
profession, and frequently exclaimed, that he was ruined both here and hereafter —
body and soul — and by his own folly. About twelve months previous to this depres-
sion of spirits, he had a very severe attack of blennorrhagia, with orchitis and phy-
mosis. This left a degree of irritability in the bladder, which required him to pass
jrine frequently. His digestion became so disordered that the simplest food would
not remain on his stomach, and he had frequent eructations of fluid, which blazed
like oil if spit into the fire. This gentleman's father was a physician, and being
naturally anxious for his son, obtained for him the advice of many of the most emi-
nent of the faculty. No improvement took place however. After he had been six
months in this state, I had an opportunity of spending three weeks by the sea-side,
and my friend accompanied me. We slept in the same room, and he was scarcely
ever out of my sight. Before our return, his health was almost re-established, and
his spirits had returned to their natural condition. Twelve months later, however,
he again fell into the same state of despondency, and .this time his condition was
much worse than on the former occasion. He frequently remained in bed three
parts of the day, and no threats or entreaties on the part of his father, could induce
him to get up. His intellectual faculties were totally prostrated, and a vacant stare,
which took the place of his natural lively expression, induced considerable fears of
his ultimately becoming idiotic. I was the only person who possessed any influence
over him, which may perhaps be attributed to his feeling that I was aware of the
cause of his disorder. This state continued between three and four months, during
which time I was with him as much as my other duties would permit, and frequently
showed him the folly of the course he pursued. At the expiration of this time he
gradually recovered. He has since had a slight relapse once only ; he has pursued

544 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

his professional studies with success, and is at present a medical officer in her majes-
ty's service.

" On this case, I need only remark, that the symptoms did not arise from in-
voluntary seminal discharges, but from excessive discharges caused by abuse. The
various treatment recommended by the distinguished practitioners consulted, proved
unsuccessful, because the origin of the disorder was unrecognized, and the remedies
consequently useless, while the habits of abuse were continued."

The following case is one of M. Lallemand's, and is chosen here as an illustration
of the fact, already stated, that this disease may exist and become very serious, in
married persons. It also shows how physicians may easily mistake the symptoms for
those of other affections.

"In the month of January, 1824, I was requested to see M. de S , affected

with symptoms of cerebral congestion, from which he had suffered for some time.
During several consultations I gathered the following facts :

" M. de S was born in Switzerland of healthy parents, and his father died

suddenly of affection of the brain. M. de S , possessing a strong constitution

and an active mind, received an excellent education, and at an early age turned his
attention to the study of philosophy and metaphysics ; he afterward studied moral
philosophy and politics.

"After having spent some years in Paris, pursuing'his favorite subjects, he was
obliged to undertake the management of a manufactory, and to attend to details
which wounded his pride. He became, by degrees, peevish and capricious — passed,
■without apparent cause, from an extravagant gayety to a profound melancholy — was
irritated by the slightest contradiction — showed no pleasure at fortunate events — and
gave way to anger on improper occasions ; at length he appeared to feel disgust and
fatigue at correspondence or mental exertion."

At this period he married, and Dr. Butini, of Geneva, his medical attendant
and friend, wrote respecting him, as follows :

" With this marriage the most happy period of his existence seemed to com-
mence ; but soon the germs of the disease, which so many causes had contributed to

produce, became rapidly developed. It was perceived that M. de S wrote slowly

and with difficulty, and his style presented signs of the decay of his faculties ; he
stammered and expressed his ideas very imperfectly ; he experienced, also, at times,
attacks of vertigo, so severe as to make him fall, without, however, losing sensibility,
or being attacked by convulsions.

" One day an attack which frightened the patient seriously, and left a deep im-
pression on his family, came on whilst writing an ordinary letter. His medical
attendants attributed this attack, which left a weakness of the right side of the body,
to apoplexy. Twenty leeches were applied to the anus, and the danger seemed at
an end.

"Similar attacks, however, occurred at Geneva, Montpellier, and several distin-
guished practitioners were consulted : some of these, struck by the misanthropic
irritability of the patient, and his solitary habits, regarded the affection as purely
hypochondriacal or nervous ; others, taking into consideration his digestive disorder,
considered it an affection of the liver ; but the great number were of opinion that
there existed a chronic affection of the brain, such as encephalitis, or chronic menin-
gitis, arising from hereditary predisposition. This last opinion was held by Dr.
Bailly (of Blois).

8PEBMAT0RRH(EA, OB EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN, 545

"At all these consultations, the necessity of abstaining from serious occupation,
the utility of traveling — of various amusements, and of a strict regimen — and the
importance of free evacuations from the bowels by means of purgatives and injec-
tions— were agreed on. Many of the practitioners recommended the frequent applica-
tion of leeches to the anus, with milk diet, etc. ; others thought that assafcetida, baths,
and camphor, were indicated.

"None of these modes of treatment produced any considerable amendment; the
leeches weakened the patient, and the milk diet disordered his stomach. His consti-
pation continued. Cold plunge baths, and cold effusion to the head, relieved the

insupportable spasms M. de S experienced in his legs and face ; the waters of

Aix, in Savoy, and the use of douches also appeared to produce some improvement.

" Still M. de S became more irritable, and at the same time more apathetic.

His attacks were more frequent and more violent, and he manifested greater indiffer-
ence toward the persons and things he had before been partial to. The weakness of
his limbs increased to such an extent that he frequently fell, even on the most level
ground. His nights were restless, his sleep very light and often interrupted by
nervous tremors, or acute pains accompanied with cramp. The cerebral congestion
increased, and the imminent fear of apoplexy rendered leeches to the anus, venesec-
tion in the foot, tartar-emetic ointment, blisters, mustard pediluvia, and the appli-
cation of ice to the head, necessary.

"Notwithstanding the employment of these energetic measures, another violent
attack of congestion occurred. I was summoned on this occasion, and I found the
patient restless, agitated, and incapable of remaining two minutes in the same place ;
his face was red, his eyes projecting, injected, and fixed, his physiognomy expressed
extreme dread ; his walk was uncertain, his legs bending under the weight of his
body ; his skin cold, and his pulse small and slow.

" The last circumstance attracted my attention, and I also recommended the
application of leeches to the anus. M. de S- — immediately threw himself into a
violent passion, and asserted that leeches had always weakened him without giving
him any relief. I was too much afraid of the occurrence of apoplexy to pay
attention to this assertion, and I succeeded in obtaining the application of six
leeches.

" The next day I found the patient very pale, and so weak that he was unable to
walk — a source of much annoyance to him, as he manifested a constant desire for
motion. An cedematous swelling of the parotid gland and of the right cheek fol-
lowed, which was succeeded, a few days after, by a similar state of the left leg and
foot.

"Sleep had become indispensable, and the patient was much reduced from the
want of it ; he told me with tears in his eyes, that he had lost his appetite and could
no longer relieve his bowels. I also learned that he was habitually costive and flatu-
lent ; that he often had recourse to injections and purgatives in order to relieve his
obstinate constipation, and, lastly, that his walks, and the evacuation of his bowels
had lately become the sole objects of his thoughts and conversation.

" Having observed analogous symptoms in almost every person affected by diurnal
pollutions, I made further inquiries respecting the attack, in which it was supposed
that the right side had been paralyzed, and I was soon convinced that the intellectual
powers had been wanting, and not the power in the hand which held the pen : botb
sides of the body had, in fact, retained an equal degree of strength.
35

546 SPEBMAT0BBH03A, OB EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

" Struck by a remark of Dr. Butini's respecting the progress of the disease soon

after marriage, I made inquiries of Mme. de S , and learned that the character

of her husband had become so uncertain, irritable, and tormenting, that his friends
thought he must be unhappy in his marriage. I then suspected that the origin of
the patient's disease had been mistaken, and I requested that his urine might be
kept for my inspection. The appearance of the urine was sufficient to convince me
that my suspicions were well founded ; it was opaque, thick, of a fetid and nauseous
odor, resembling that of water in which anatomical specimens have been macerated.
By pouring it off slowly I obtained a flocculent cloud, like a very thick decoction oE
barley ; a glairy, ropy, greenish matter remained, strongly adherent to the bottom
of the vessel, and thick globules of a yellowish white color, non-adherent, like drops
of pus, were mixed with this deposit. I was therefore convinced that spermatorrhoea
existed, together with chronic inflammation of the prostate, and suppuration in the
kidneys.

"Notwithstanding the state of M. de S 's intellect, I was able at a favorable

moment to obtain further information. At the age of sixteen, he had contracted
blennorrhagia ; this he carefully concealed, and succeeded in curing by the use of
refrigerant drinks. The following year the blennorrhagia returned, and was removed
by astringents. Two years afterward, from drinking freely of beer when heated, the
discharge again appeared, and after some time it again returned, from the effects of

horse exercise. Since that time M. de S had felt little sexual desire, and had

abstained from intercourse without regret. Ejaculation during coitus had always
been very rapid. Fully convinced by combining all these circumstances, I explained
to M. de S the nature of his disease, and he promised me to observe carefully.

" The next day he called me aside, and told me that the last drops of urine were
viscid, and that during an evacuation of the bowels, he had passed a sufficient quan-
tity of a similar matter to fill the palm of his hand.

"Eight days after, another attack of cerebral congestion occurred, followed by
stertorous breathing, cold skin, and an inappreciable pulse ; the patient fell into a
kind of syncope, of which he died on the 1st of March, 1824."

Not long since I had under my care the editor of a newspaper, whose case was
almost identical with the one above, and who was first made sick, as he informed
me, by excessive agitation during an election campaign.

Constipation has been spoken of as a cause of spermatorrhoea, but few persons
would suppose it could have the effects that sometimes follow from it. The next
case, however, will convince the most skeptical, and though it is not often that we
have such a severe case, there are yet plenty that are bad enough.

" M. de B consulted me in the month of May, 1834, respecting a cerebral

affection, on whose nature distinguished physicians could not agree, but which all
regarded as very serious.

"He was of a middle height with a large chest and a well-developed muscular
system ; his hair brown and curly, his beard thick, his face full and deeply colored.
Notwithstanding these signs of apparent strength and health, I noticed that his
knees were slightly bent, and that he was unable to remain longstanding without
shifting the weight of his body from one leg to the other ; his voice was weak and
husky ; the motions of his tongue seemed embarrassed, and he articulated his words
in a confused manner ; his attitude was timid, and his manner had something of
incertitude and fear ; he had been married fifteen davs.

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 547

"His mother-in-law and his young wife, who accompanied him, informed me
that within this period he had several attacks of congestion of the brain, during
which his face was highly injected. At the first of these attacks the surgeon, called
in the night, had bled him to the extent of three pounds, in order to prevent
apoplexy; repeated venesection, and the frequent application of leeches, had relieved
such attacks of congestion, but had not prevented their recurrence. . The patient had
become subject to attacks of vertigo, and was unable to look upward without feeling
pddy ; his legs had become so weak that he had fallen several times, even when
talking on level ground ; his ideas had lost their clearness, and his memory failed
Rapidly.

"These symptoms had spread consternation through both the family of my
patient and that of his wife, especially as several practitioners of reputation were
agreed as to the existence of some serious disease of the brain, although they could
not decide as to its nature. Most of them, however, were inclined to suspect ramol-
lissement (softening).

" The countenance of the patient during this recital, the coincidence of the con-
gestion with the period of his marriage, and the bad effects of blood-letting, made
me suspect the nature of the disorder, and induced me to carefully question him sepa-
rately. When we were alone, he told me, stammering, that an unexpected occurrence
immediately after his marriage, had at first prevented any conjugal intimacy, and
that afterward he had found himself completely impotent. He attributed this mis-
fortune to the attacks of cerebral congestion, and to the bleedings he had undergone.
On further inquiry, however, I discovered that he was affected by diurnal pollu-
tions.

" The following is the history I obtained from this patient by dint of question-
ing : — At the age of sixteen he possessed a very strong constitution, and an ardent
and passionate character. At school he contracted the habit of masturbation, and at
the end of three months he had frequent nocturnal pollutions, with pain in the chest
and troublesome palpitations, which warned him of the danger of the vice, and he
renounced it forever. When he became free from the restraints of school, he sub-
dued the ardor of his temperament by the most violent exercises — especially that of
the chase — and he attached himself to agricultural pursuits with much energy.

" This new mode of life so completely re-established his health, that he was tor-
mented by energetic and continued erections, to subdue which he employed river-
baths, even in the coldest seasons. He never committed excesses of any kind, and
had never suffered from any blennorrhagic or syphilitic affection.

"In 1831, the erections were slightly mitigated, but he became very much consti-
pated, which he attributed to the constant use of horse exercise.

" In 1832, he experienced some numbness and creeping sensations in his feet and
legs.

"In 1833, frequent dazzling of sight occurred, with vertigo, difficulty of vision,
and flushes of heat toward the head and face ; the patient attributed all these symp-
toms to the effects of his still-increasing constipation.

" At the same time that these symptoms occurred, the patient's erections became
rarer, less energetic, and after a time, incomplete ; his fitness for intellectual labor^.
diminished ; the cerebral congestions became more frequent, and more severe j^SC
face became habitually very red ; his head burning ; an almost constant fixed' pain
came on in the orbits, and his character became fickle and contradictory.

548 SPEBMATOP.BHCEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

" His family physician attributing all these disorders to a state of plethora, caused
blood to be drawn several times without benefit.

" In March, 1834, M. de B engaged himself to a young lady, who lived

about two leagues from his estate ; and in order to visit her without neglecting the
care of his property, he was obliged to make long and frequent journeys on horseback ;
shortly before his marriage these journeys became so frequent that he might be said
to pass the greater part of his time on horseback. His constipation now increased to
such a degree, that he passed forty days without fecal evacuation ; during his efforts
at stool he passed semen in large quantities, and in jets, although the penis remained
flaccid. He had previously, several times, noticed the same occurrence, but as he
attributed it to his long-continued continence, he paid little attention to the circum-
stance. His urine was constantly muddy ; it was passed slowly and with difficulty,
and threw down a large quantity of thick and flocculent deposit.

" M. de B awaited the period of his marriage with a vague uneasiness, of

which he could not imagine the cause ; he was much attached to his betrothed, but
nevertheless he experienced more embarrassment, than pleasure in her society.

"I have already stated what occurred after his marriage. I should add, that
having examined his genital organs, I found them, contrary to my expectations, of
unusual development ; the testicles were large and firm, but the scrotum was slightly
relaxed. The patient experienced a strange tingling in the organs, and at times felt
as if they were compressed by a band of iron. These sensations increased when near
his wife, and the penis diminished in size and became retracted toward the pubes, in
proportion as he endeavored to excite erection.

" The union of all these circumstances could not permit any doubt to remain on
my mind as to the nature of his disease ; it became evident that all idea of cerebral
affection must be abandoned, and that the diurnal pollutions, with all the symptoms
of which they were the cause, must be referred to the patient's constipation.

" The first indication to be fulfilled, therefore, was to relieve the constipation ;
indeed, I hoped this was all that would be necessary. The youth of the patient, the
development of his genital organs, and the strength of his constitution induced me
to suppose that his cure would be prompt and easy. Things did not, however, follow
so simple a course.

"The next day the patient began to use ascending douches, and was put on a
vegetable diet with iced milk.

"The first douches caused the evacuation of an immense quantity of fecal matter,
in lumps as hard as bullets, and it was not until after the sixth douche that the feces
were of normal consistence ; I then caused the temperature of the water to be lowered
to about 88° of Fahrenheit, and afterward to about 81°. The last few douches were
given at about 68°. After the twelfth douche had been administered, they were
omitted, the bowels having acted regularly every day, without the necessity for the
slightest straining.

"By this time, the patient's countenance had lost its purple tint, and presented a
more natural appearance ; the stunning sensations, of which he had complained,
diminished by degrees, and at length disappeared entirely ; his legs regained their
strength, and he was able to continue in a standing posture for a long time without
fatigue, and to take long walks without inconvenience ; his voice resumed its natural
tone, his eye regained its expression, and all his motions acquired firmness.

" At the expiration of a fortnight, the spermatic discharges during defecation had

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 549

ceased entirely, but his urine still continued thick. His erections had already acquired
sufficient energy to make him believe himself cured, but ejaculation took place almost
instantaneously. The use of ice and cold lotions did not ameliorate his condition.

" Such was M. de B 's state at the end of a month, when, in order to act directly

on the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts, I determined to cauterize the prostatic portion
of the urethra. As soon as the inflammation had subsided, his erections became more
perfect and energetic, yet ejaculation still took place too rapidly. The period for

using the mineral waters having arrived, I sent M. de B to Aix, in Savoy, where

I visited him shortly after. He had experienced very little benefit from the use of the
waters, either externally or internally.

"I now prescribed douches, alternately very warm and very cold, on the perineum
and loins, the spout being changed when the sensation, either of cold or heat, became
very intense. The bath was ended after about twenty or twenty-five minutes, by the
cold douche, and the patient's skin remained highly injected for some hours afterward.

"The effects of these douches were conclusive ; after the first, the patient's erec-
tions acquired a degree of vigor and duration which reminded him of his early tor-
ments. He continued the use of the douches for some days after his re-establishment,
and when he left Aix the functions of his genital organs were perfect. Ejaculation
was a good deal protracted by the use of the douches.

"I have entered into a somewhat lengthy detail of this case, because the subject
affects gravely the most serious interests of society, as well as the happiness and peace
of families. Besides, I confess that I was much interested by the unhappy position
of a young man whose misfortune was undeserved, and could not have beea foreseen,
as well as by that of his wife, a young woman scarcely of age, who was obliged to
enter into the most unpleasant details.

"It is evident that in the case of M. de B , the constipation was the cause of

the involuntary seminal discharges. The patient had practiced masturbation, it is
true, and nocturnal emissions followed ; but he had continued the vice only three
months, and his health, though disordered for a short time, was soon re-established
by the use of violent exercise. M. de B— — was even tormented during several years
by erections, which must have been very energetic, if we may judge by the means he
took to subdue them. From this time he had never committed any kind of excess,
and he had never suffered from either blennorrhagia or syphilis. There is then no
circumstance in the history of his life, except his constipation, which would account
for the involuntary discharges.

" But to what is this constipation to be referred ? After all I could learn from
the patient concerning his mode of life, I could only refer it to his constant horse

exercise. In fact, M. de B sometimes passed whole days on horseback, either

for the purpose of hunting, or of superintending the management of his property.
Shortly before his marriage, his rides became more frequent and longer, and his bow-
els at this time did not act during forty days. The weakness of his legs, the stunning
sensations, etc., increased in proportion as his costiveness became more confirmed.

" This case recalls to my mind the well-known observation of Hippocrates on the
impotence of the Scythians, and I have no doubt that his opinion was founded on
analogous facts. I shall treat this subject more fully in another place ; but since at
present I am considering the causes of spermatorrhoea which act on the seminal vesi-
cles through the influence of the rectum, I report this striking case showing the effects
of long-continued horse exercise.

550 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEW.

" M. de B was of a well-marked sanguineous temperament, and accustomed

to nutritious food ; he had a large chest, powerful muscles, and a highly injected
countenance ; it is therefore by no means extraordinary that he should have been bled
frequently for the relief of the cerebral congestions to which he was subject. On the
night of his marriage, the blood rushed to his head with greater force than ever, so
that an attack of apoplexy was much feared ; the weakness of the legs, the frequent
falls, and the attacks of vertigo, were therefore afterward attributed to an advanced
stage of disease of the brain. This was a very natural opinion, but it was an incor-,
rect one ; I doubted it from the commencement, although the patient was brought to
me in consequence of a supposed cerebral affection. I formed a different impression,
because I had previously seen many analogous cases. There exists in all tbese patients
something peculiar in the expression of the eyes, in the position, in the voice, and in
the general appearance — something of timidity and bashfulness— which I am unable
to express, but which is instantly recognized by the experienced, although perhaps it
is incapable of explanation. However this may be, the relation of the above case
should draw attention to the subject.

"I admit that venesections seemed to be clearly indicated in the case of M. de

B , but the loss of blood never produced good effects, either immediate or remote ;

and by analyzing the case carefully, his attendants would have seen that under this
treatment the attacks increased in frequency. But preconvictions throw a thick veil
over the most acute perceptions.

"The ascending douches put an end to the constipation ; but freedom of fecal
evacuation did not suffice to cure the disease. The seminal discharges, during the
passage of feces, diminished, indeed, or perhaps .entirely ceased ; but the patient's
urine remained thick and muddy, and his erections were incomplete. The applica-
tion of ice and of the nitrate of silver, and the use of sulphurous waters, were not
sufficient to effect his cure ; yet there could not have existed any organic change in
his genital organs. "We can therefore only attribute the continuance of the seminal
discharge, during the emptying of the bladder, to relaxation of the ejaculatory canals,
produced by their long habit of allowing the semen to escape in a passive manner,
showing how necessary it is to put an end to the habit as early as possible."

It is obvious to my mind that, in this case, as in many others, the great cause of

M. de B 's troubles was his enforced continence. The constant fever of suppressed

sexual excitement, and the engorged state of the spermatic vessels, could not fail to
cause serious organic derangement.

The next case shows the effects of worms in the rectum, both in producing and
keeping up the spermatorrhoea, and also in first leading to masturbation, in child-
hood.

"M. E , a student of medicine, enjoyed good health in his childhood, but

about the age of fifteen was tormented by frequent and prolonged erections. One
evening, for the relief of the itching, of which the extremity of the penis was the
seat, he rubbed the organ violently between his hands. This led to the establish-
ment of masturbation as a habit, or rather as a passion, the patient practicing it
sometimes as often as eight or ten times a day. His health by degrees became so
altered that one of his friends suspected his practices, and told him the dangers of
his situation. By degrees he corrected himself, though not entirely before he had
attained his twentieth year. On his renouncing masturbation, nocturnal emissions
supervened, and often occurred two or three times a night. They diminished after

SPEBMATOBBHCEA, OB EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEJY. 551

a time, but without ceasiug entirely, and seminal emissions during defecation and
the emission of urine were added to them. Thus his health became daily more and
more disordered for nine years, notwithstanding absolute continence, a severe regi-
men, and the use of sedatives, tonics, and anti-spasmodics. At length he grew
incapable of any mental exertion. In 1837, he came to Montpellier, at the age of
twenty-nine, in the following condition : — Extreme emaciation ; face pale ; appear-
ance stupid and confused; intellect dull; reasoning powers much affected, the
patient being incapable of connecting two ideas on the most simple topic of conver-
sation ; loss of memory ; constant headache, referred to the forehead and temples,
and increased by any mental excitement, being then accompanied by nervous tremors
and an almost idiotic state ; sleep broken and unrefreshing ; constant sighing ; fre-
quent attacks of congestion in the head, especially at night ; violent noise in the
ears, resembling the sound of a waterfall ; vertigo ; stunning sensations, giving rise
to a constant fear of apoplexy ; timidity carried to a ridiculous extent ; panics of fear
even during the day ; character gloomy, taciturn, restless, and irritable ; horror of
the least noise and of all society ; irresistible restlessness ; great weakness ; abundant
sweats after very slight exertion ; almost constant coryza ; frequent dry and hard
cough ; pains in the base of the chest, the region of the heart, and along the spinal
column ; appetite voracious ; dragging at the pit of the stomach ; difficult digestion,
accompanied with the development of flatus ; grinding of the teeth during sleep ;
burning at the point of the tongue ; darting pains in the bowels, especially in the
rectum ; obstinate constipation, alternating with violent attacks of diarrhoea ; stools
containing much mucus, and sometimes streaked with blood ; periodical pains at the
margin of the anus, in the perineum, penis, and testicles; urine passed in large
quantities, and very frequently, always throwing down a whitish, thick, and very
abundant deposit ; involuntary emissions during defecation, both when constipated
and relaxed ; frequent and prolonged erections by day as well as by night, with con-
stant presence of erotic ideas.

"On sounding this patient, I found the urethra very sensitive, especially toward
the neck of the bladder, and I consequently thought that the nocturnal and diurnal
pollutions were kept up by a state of irritation arising from masturbation. I there-
fore proposed cauterization. This was performed on the following day, and produced
the usual immediate effects, but its curative effects did not take place as I had antici-
pated. I then directed the patient to notice his feces, and a few days afterward he
told me that he had observed numerous little worms, passed in his stools. I now
ordered enemata of cold water, and salt and water, which, however, produced only a
momentary effect, probably because the ascarides inhabited the upper part of the
intestine. A few doses of calomel, however, caused them to disappear without re-
turning ; and from this moment the involuntary diurnal emissions ceased entirely,
the nocturnal emissions became more and more rare, and the patient's re-establish-
ment progressed very rapidly. M. E returned to his studies with ardor, and long'

afterward all functions were perfectly well performed.

"It appears evident that the irritation caused by the ascarides in the rectum first
led this patient to practice masturbation, and afterward kept up involuntary seminal
discharges. I did not discover this at first, because the history of his case, sent me
by the patient, was so long, and was characterized by such disorder and want of clear-
ness, that I was unable to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions from such a chaos ;
his answers were still more vague and unconnected, so that my attention had beeo

552 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

chiefly attracted to the state of his intellect, and the abuses he had committed. But
after seeing the little success of cauterization, and again reading his notes, I paid
more attention to the circumstances attending the commencement of his practicing
masturbation, and I noticed several symptoms to which I had not before attached
importance, such as grinding of the teeth during sleep ; burning pain in the point of
the tongue ; pain in the rectum, and. at the margin of the anus ; the stools always
containing mucus, and sometimes being streaked" with blood ; and especially the fre-
quency and duration of the erections, and the constant presence of erotic ideas."

I have met with many instances in which great irritation of the genitals was pro-
duced by worms, and I have no doubt but that the tendency to masturbation is often
caused by them, in botJi sexes ; a fact that parents should bear in mind.

That the tendency to spermatorrhoea is often hereditary, I have no doubt, and I
have met with some remarkable proofs of it in the course of my practice ; but as they
are not of a nature to be readily understood by those not accustomed to observe them,
it is not necessary to give the details. I have known many instances of brothers — in
one case of Jive — all of whom suffered from excessive involuntary emissions, at the
same age, and without being addicted to abuses of -any kind.

Peculiar congenital predispositions often exist, particularly in those of a nervous
character, though few practitioners are aware of their real extent. M. Lallemand
gives some excellent illustrations of this kind of cases, and I can select many such
from my own note-book. The following will, however, be sufficient :

"In general, such patients were of sickly constitution and more or less marked
nervous temperament ; they had been delicate from childhood, and subject to various
spasmodic disorders. Some of them presented involuntary twitching of the muscles
of the face, hesitation of the speech, etc. ; their imagination was active, and their
moral and physical sensibility very acute. They were very restless and bore contra-
diction, or mental excitement, badly.

"In childhood they presented local symptoms, which indicated peculiar suscepti-
bility of the urinary organs, every impression of fear or anxiety showing itself in this
direction. "What would have produced shuddering or palpitation in other children,
in them caused a secretion of clear watery urine, which they were obliged to dis-
charge frequently ; a sense of constriction of the hypogastrium, and a sense of titilla-
tion generally accompanied its discharge. This condition of the urinary organs
continued more or less severe in all the cases until after puberty, when it became
joined with other symptoms. One of these patients one day experienced at the age
of sixteen a fit of irritability and impatience, which, however, he succeeded in re-
pressing ; and he then felt sudden and impetuous desire of micturition : whilst emp-
tying his bladder he perceived a large quantity of pure semen discharged with the
last drops of urine. This occurrence was the forerunner of nocturnal and diurnal
pollutions, which at the age of twenty-seven, had entirely ruined his health. An-
other, at the moment of competition for acollege prize, was unable to find an expres-
sion he wanted : at the same time he felt a want to make water, which he resisted by
firmly crossing his legs ; but his impatience increased and he shortly experienced an
abundant emission, without either erection or pleasure. A third patient suffered in
the same way under similar circumstances ; he saw the moment approach for sending
in his thesis ; the more he endeavored to hurry, the less freely his expressions flowed ;
at length, on hearing the clock strike, he suffered from so great mental disorder that
he nearly fainted ; at this moment emission took place. A fourth having mounted

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMES'. 553

oe. a high gutter of a house to take some sparrows' nests, looked down into the court
below, and was suddenly seized with such terror that he fainted ; on recovering and
escaping from his dangerous situation he found that he had had an abundant semi-
nal emission. The same circumstance occurred to a fifth, who, in descending a
ladder missed his footing and fell. Another patient told me that if he looked down
from a height, or only fancied himself on the brink of a precipice, he felt a sense of
contraction in the genital organs, which passed rapidly to the base of the penis, and
ended by causing emission. The motion of a swing produced the same effects in a
seventh.

"Almost all these excitable persons were exposed to erection, and even to pollu-
tions, whenever they rode on horseback.

" Although all these involuntary discharges were caused by extraordinary circum
stances, I should not have paid much attention to them if they had not been followed
by nocturnal and diurnal pollutions, which the most trifling circumstance rendered
very profuse. The disease, however, did not always put on a serious aspect immedi
ately after these singular accidents ; very often, indeed, it only injured the patient's
health long afterward ; but as its gravity could not be explained by any occasional
cause, I feel myself compelled to admit the existence of a congenital increased nerv-
ous susceptibility of the genito-urinary organs. Everything indicates, in fact, that
the organs of these patients were rather excitable than weak and relaxed ; and this
condition was congenital, because manifested from the earliest infancy. This exces-
sive sensibility of the genital organs is, however, not always preceded by a similar
condition of the urinary apparatus-

"In all these cases, tonics and excitants always produced bad effects ; proving
that the genital organs were not suffering from atony or weakness."

SYMPTOMS BY WHICH THE SPEEKATOEEHCEA MAY BE DETECTED.

In addition to the effects already enumerated, there are several other symptoms
of spermatorrhoea that are veiy useful to note, for the use both of the physician and
patient. Some of them are such as are observed in various diseases, but others are
peculiar to this affection, and enable us to ascertain its existence when positive evi-
dence is not to be obtained.

Many persons suppose that in all cases the involuntary discharge of semen is indic-
ative of disease, and it alarms them very much. In many cases, however, the
emissions occur in those that are continent, from excess of semen, and may then be
beneficial rather than hurtful. This is often the case when they are in great quan-
tity, though this peculiarity is apt to alarm, from the idea that the injury is propor-
tionate to the quantity lost. M. Lallemand remarks that :

" The most abundant nocturnal pollutions are far from being always the most
hurtful. When they arise from true spermatic plethora, they often relieve erotic
excitement, with its accompanying agitation, anxiety, uneasiness, and indefinable
trouble in all the functions. They are followed by a general feeling of comfort ; the
head becomes clearer, the ideas more rapid, and the motions more nimble ; there is
more inclination to amusement, and to every kind of occupation. I admit that noc-
turnal pollutions do not often produce such good effects, but then they are not often
the result of spermatic plethora ; they may, too, easily lose their character, so that
habit alone tends to make them more and more frequent. In the greater number of
cases, however, these evacuations are of very little importance.

554 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

"But this state of excitement is too violent to last long : by degrees the organs
become fatigued. Deprived of their natural functions, and consequently being un-
strengthened by regular exercise, they may at last fall into a state of atony, or the
seminal vesicles may preserve the habit of contracting, under the influence of slight
or indirect excitement. The evacuations now produce effects quite opposite to those
experienced in the beginning. There are on waking, feelings of discontent, idleness,
weight in the head, disorder in the ideas, etc., but this condition passes off in the
course of the day, and the patient is quite well on the following morning, if no fur-
ther emission take place. After a time, these effects become more serious and last-
ing, and two or three days are required to remove them completely. There is, bow-
ever, no disease as yet, because the economy is not permanently disordered, but
tbere is a degree of instability in the patient's health, a valetudinary condition, the
progress of which it is necessary to arrest."

Lascivious dreams are usually considered only as causes of noctural emissions,
but they are in fact produced, in most instances, by the excitement existing prima-
rily in the genital organs, and are therefore symptoms of excessive vigor, in the first
stages, rather than of weakness, or disease. So long as they only present pleasant
images, without any disagreeable sensations, and are not followed by lassitude and
weakness in the morning, they are not indicative of anything serious. But when
these dreams are filled with filthy and disgusting ideas, horrible sensations, and
night-mare, during which the discharge occurs without any pleasurable feeling, and
is followed by distress next morning, they are sure signs of disease. 'As a general
rule, the danger commences when the pleasurable accompaniments of the dream
begin to fail, and when the discharge occurs without any sensations at all, or with
disagreeable ones, it is truly a bad symptom.

Diurnal, or daily losses of semen are in general worse symptoms than nightly
ones, and they are especially bad if they occur spontaneously or from mere exercise.
When they occur during the movement of the bowels, or while urinating, though
they are usually indicative of a diseased state of the parts, yet they may be made
much worse by constipation, gravel, and other affections of the neighboring organs,
a fact that should be borne in mind when estimating their value. From not having
these circumstances explained to them many persons lose semen in this way, perhaps
for years, without knowing anything about it. When their attention is directed to
the occurrence, however, it will generally be easy for them to detect the escape,
whether it occur with the urine or after defecation. When with the urine there is
a sensation as if something heavier than usual is passing, which creates a slight
pricking or tingling sensation, and the urine looks thick and cloudy, with globules
floating in it like half-dissolved gum-arabic. If the escape occurs during the move-
ment of the bowels, a similar sensation is felt, and the end of the penis will be found
covered with a glutinous fluid, which sometimes drops, but rarely runs away. More
frequently the flow does not take place till the movement of the bowels is over, and
perhaps not till the patient is dressing himself ; it then comes suddenly, the whole
quantity being discharged at once. This is preceded by a kind of shock, felt in the
perineum and neck of the bladder, and sometimes with slight erections, accompanied
by pleasure. In some cases a discharge occurs in this way of simple mucus, mixed
with the fluids of the prostate and vesicles, and this should be suspected when losses
of this kind are complained of, till a proper examination is made. These mucous
discharges, however, never consist of more than a single drop or two at most, and

SPERMATORRHOEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 555

are quite thin and transparent, while the seminal emission is both thicker and more
opaque, and in greater quantity. If the patient empties his bladder before going to
stool, the appearance will be more obvious, and if he observes a thick gummy dis-
charge, during or after the passage of the bowels, there can be no mistake as to its
being real semen.

It is more difficult to ascertain the presence of the semen when it escapes in the
urine, because it is so diluted, and undergoes several changes. I shall therefore be
particular to give all the indications that can be relied upon in such cases. In the
first place, it must be recollected that the semen never escapes during the first flow
of the urine, but always with the last few drops, or even after the bladder is fully
emptied. There is in general the peculiar sensation already described, with slight
pleasurable feeling, and a few spasmodic jerks of the neck of the bladder, by which
the expulsion of the last drops is effected. This is quite sufficient to distinguish
spermatorrhoea from gleet, or a discharge from urethral inflammation, as in such
cases the mucus always escapes with the first flow of urine, and is not accompanied
by any of the sensations above described. The appearance of the urine also, if care-
fully noted, will nearly always be sufficient to indicate the nature of the affection.
The presence of the semen is nearly always indicated by the gum-like globules men-
tioned above, and also by numerous little irregularly-formed granules, somewhat
like bran, which settle to the bottom of the vessel. These granules are soft, and fall
down before the urine cools, without ever adhering to the sides of the vessel, which
distinguishes them from gravel. In short, no other discharge furnishes anything
like these granules, so that their presence is a sure proof of involuntary emission.

Sometimes patients have peculiar sensations in other parts of the body whenever
a pollution occurs ; thus some experience a pain in the nipple or back of the neck,
some a cold chill and shivering, while others feel a burning heat round the anus, and
after these sensations they always observe the flocculent deposit in the urine.

As the disease progresses the bran-like granules become fewer in number, and
smaller, and at last almost totally disappear, so that the existence of the spermator-
rhoea has to be ascertained by other symptoms. The urine is still clouded with the
gum-like deposit, and there settles to the bottom a number of little brilliant points,
something similar to what is seen in newly-boiled mush. Like the granules, they are
soft, and do not adhere to the vessel. These different appearances result from the
altered condition of the semen, which, as the disease progresses, gradually loses its
usual character, and eventually becomes totally changed.

I have known patients, much engaged in study, in whom involuntary emissions
occurred in a very singular manner. They would experience, while sitting perfectly
still, a sensation in the perineum or at the root of the penis, as if the parts were sud-
denly drawn together and pinched. So distinct and strong is this felt sometimes
that the person immediately starts and compresses the part in his hands. The sen-
sation lasts but a short time, however, and nothing further takes place, if he remains
still, but immediately he begins to exercise, or the next time he urinates, a quantity
of semen escapes. This shows that the emission really occurs when the sensation is
felt, but there is no action of the muscles to expel it till the parts are in some way
made to act for other purposes.

IMPOTENCE FROM INVOLUNTARY EMISSION.

Whenever impotence is not obviously owing to any of the causes enumerated in

556 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

another part of this work, it is nearly always the result of pollution, and perhaps,
as a general rule, it arises from this oftener than from anything else. There are
two modes in which it may be brought about by this cause : first, by the destruction
of the powers of the genital organs, from general weakness ; and, secondly, from a
peculiar change which it leads to in the semen. For erection to take place, there is
always needed the presence of healtby semen in the seminal vesicles, and if this does
not exist, of course no erection can occur, and impotence necessarily follows. Any
cause, therefore, which impairs the vitality and health of the semen must lead to
impotence, and nothing does this more surely than long-continued involuntary emis-
sion.

The mode in which involuntary emission, or spermatorrhoea, from any cause,
affects the semen appears to be this : It has already been explained how the seminal
animalcules are produced from certain little grains or vesicles fonud first in the semen
of the testicles, which break open and allow the animalcules to escape.

Now these little beings are the most essential part of the seminal fluid, and with-
out them it can neither act properly on the male organs, nor impregnate the female
ovum. If, therefore, their development is prevented, impotence and sterility must
result, and this is what really follows from spermatorrhoea. It is necessary for the
semen to remain a certain time in the vas deferens, and vesicles, after it leaves the tes-
ticles, so that the granules may burst, and the zoosperms become perfect, and if it be
expelled from the body too soon, this has not time to occur. The precise time requisite
for the semen to remain in the body,af ter being formed by the testes, is not known, and it
probably varies, both with different individuals, and also under different circumstances
in the same person. For a time, the organs can, if healthy, perfect the semen rapidly,
so that a man can expel it very frequently, and yet have it healthy, but if this excess
is continued too long, the power of the parts gradually weakens, and the semen is at
length discharged imperfect. This is precisely what follows eventually, both from
licentious excess and from involuntary emissions ; the semen has not been allowed to
remain in the organs sufficiently long, and when it is expelled no animalcules are
found in it, but only the granules from which they would have been developed had
it remained. These are what are seen in the urine, in cases of long-continued involun-
tary emission, like little shining points, and probably also the bran-like grains, observed
at an earlier period, are the granules in an undeveloped state. In many cases of long-
continued spermatorrhoea, both from excess and involuntary, the change is still more
decided, so that the semen is merely like thin gum-water, and utterly incapable
either of stimulating erection or of impregnating. This is the true explanation why
those who are exhausted by excesses, and those who have long suffered from involun-
tary emissions, become impotent and sterile, and it shows us what is really needed to
effect a cure. If we can arrest the discharge, and restore a certain degree of tone and
vigor to the organs, the semen may again be retained sufficiently long, and may
become perfect, so that the power of erection and impregnating may be again enjoyed.
The chances of this are lessened, however, in proportion to the time the flow has
continued, and at a certain stage all our efforts are fruitless. I have, however, known
some remarkable instances of restoration, even under the most unpromising circum-
stances. In one instance, a man aged forty-seven came to consult me, who had been
perfectly impotent for nine years, during which he had not experienced the slightest
manifestation of sexual power, nor scarcely ever been free from a discharge, which,
however, was almost like water. According to his own statement, this unfortunate

SPERMATOBRHCEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 557

condition was owing to former licentiousness, his indulgence having been excessive
till the wretched state of his general health, and finally his complete loss of power,
compelled him to abstain. I was obliged to say to him that the chances of restora*
tion were so small as scarcely to be worth calculating upon, and that I should not be
justified in giving him any hopes at all. He was so exceedingly anxious, however,
and pressed me so earnestly to take him under my charge, that I did so, though with
considerable reluctance, and with great misgiving. Fortunately, he was a man of
wealth and leisure, and disposed to follow out implicitly all tbe directions given him,
The particular plan of treatment that was followed is not necessary to be described here,
as I shall speak upon it generally further on, but the result is stated as an instance of
what can be sometimes accomplished, even under very unpromising circumstances.
I had this patient under my constant care for fifteen months, at the end of which
time his sexual powers were sufficiently restored to allow of his marrying, which he
did, and became a father. It took three months to stop the constant emission, and
after that six months more elapsed before. animalcules began to appear in the semen,
after which his improvement was very decided, though in all probability his powers
will never be equal to what they were before, nor will they endure so long as thej
otherwise would have done.

In cases where impotence is but partial, or has existed only for a short time
proper treatment can nearly always effect a decided improvement. Every moment
however, is precious in such cases, and no man should feel indifferent even to a slighf
falling off in his sexual vigor, if it continues, and if he desires to preserve his powers
A short delay may lose all chance of restoration ; and it should be recollected alsc
that, in most instances, the derangements which cause impotence have often serious
effects, and generally so impair the health as to endanger life.

I am almost daily seeing instances of weakened power from spermatorrhoea, and
though I am compelled to admit that in some of them relief is hopeless, yet in manj
the result of the treatment is most satisfactory, and highly encouraging to those simi-
larly affected. There is occasionally one result of spermatorrhoea different from any
of those above described, and which is sometimes of considerable importance, both
socially and as a point in medical jurisprudence. Some patients, of vigorous habits
of body, will continue to secrete the semen, and retain their powers of association even
after the disease has existed for a considerable time. They may, however, be sterile
though not altogether impotent, and the fault of barrenness is ascribed to the female,
because no defect exists, so far as can be seen, in the husband. These men are able
to associate, as before remarked, and to emit semen, but on examining that fluid,
none of the animalcules are found perfect ; they being either all dead or half-formed.
The semen, in short, is perfect enough to stimulate the male organs to a certain extent,
but not perfect enough to impregnate the female ovum, and I have no doubt but that
many cases of supposed barrenness in females are owing merely to a defect of this
kind in their husbands. I have known men affected in this way, who were remark-
ably active and vigorous, and in whom no imperfection whatever could be suspected
till pointed out by the microscope. M. Lallemand was the first author who alluded
to this important subject, and his remarks are well worth reading :

"Infecundity. — Impotence is an absolute cause of infecundity, because it prevents
the conditions necessary to fecundation from taking place ; but although the act of
coitus may be accomplished, it does not follow that the person should always be able
to perpetuate his species. Stricture of the urethra may prove an obstacle to the

558 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

discharge of seminal fluid, or the fluid may be directed toward the bladder, or the
parietes of the urethra, by deviation of the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts. The
secretion may be altered in its nature ; it may only contain imperfect spermatozoa,
etc. A man may, therefore, be unfruitful without being impotent. On the other
hand, I have met with many patients suffering from diurnal pollutions, who had
children exactly resembling them, even during the duration of their disease. Indeed,
I have seen several cases in which the disposition to involuntary discharges was
hereditary, and they affected both father and son. The disease is, however, essentially
irregular in its progress ; it may continue long without doing serious injury to the
health ; long remissions may be experienced, or even a perfect cessation of the com-
plaint for a longer or shorter time. We may easily conceive, therefore, that in the first
degree, or during one of the periods of remission, fecundation may take place. When
the disease is further advanced, however, many causes concur to render coitus un-
fruitful. Ejaculation is weak and precipitate, so that the seminal fluid cannot be
thrown into the cavity of tbe uterus ; it is not sufficient in order to fecundate, simply
to spread the fluid over the vagina ; it must be projected with sufficient force to pass
through the orifice of the uterine neck. Besides, in these cases the erections, even
when they permit sexual intercourse, are incomplete and of very short duration ;
emission takes place without energy and very soon, so that during such rapid acts
the uterus and Fallopian tubes have not sufficient time to experience the excitement
necessary to carry the semen to its destination, even when it passes the neck of the
uterus. The semen itself also undergoes great changes, to which perhaps the loss of
the fecundating power is chiefly attributable. Microscopic researches have eluci-
dated this formerly obscure subject ; I have discovered, for instance, that the sper-
matozoa undergo changes similar to those of the fluid which serves as their vehicle ;
these changes are exceedingly important, and are owing to defective formation.
Spermatozoa may be met with in a less thick and less opaque fluid than natural ; for
they are not produced by the same parts, or in the same manner ; but when the
secretion is perfectly thin and watery, the functions are so seriously affected that the
animalcules are altered ; they are less developed, less opaque, and less active than
natural; indeed, they are so transparent that peculiar precautions are necessary in
order to make sure of seeing them ; their motions are weak, slow, and cease very
soon ; and they rapidly undergo decomposition. All these characteristics show how
much their texture is relaxed, and how imperfectly they are organized.

"It is evident that the least arrest of development in the spermatozoa must prove
an insurmountable obstacle to fecundation, even if the only function of the animal-
cules be to carry the liquor seminis to the ovum. When, however, their imperfect
development only arises from a too rapid formation, it may soon be obviated. It
suffices that the involuntary discharges should cease for a few days only, in conse-
quence of some accidental cause, or of one of the spontaneous changes of this extra-
ordinary disease, in order for the desires to become more lively, the erections more
energetic and prolonged, and for the function to be accomplished in a natural man-
ner. Fecundation is therefore possible, as I have previously stated, during the whole
duration of one of these intermissions.

" This is not the case when the spermatozoa are malformed, rudimentary, more
or less deprived of tail, etc. ; for these changes only take place when there is a serious
alteration in the structure of the testicles. I have taken every opportunity of dis-
secting the testicles altered in these cases, and I have always found the secreting

SPERMATORRHOEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 559

structures paler, drier and denser than natural, and the cellular tissue more resisting,
and with difficulty allowing the secreting ducts to be separated one from another.
Sometimes half or two-thirds of the testicle was transformed into a fibrous or fibro-
cartilaginous tissue, mixed in a few cases with tuberculous matter. It is the same
also in the epididymis, where I have even seen traces of ossific deposit in the midst
of cartilaginous indurations. These changes, caused by previous inflammation,
perfectly explain why the development of the spermatozoa can no longer proceed
normally.

"Although, in such cases, the secretion of semen may be more or less diminished,
pollutions may still be present if the seminal vesicles have shared the inflammation
by which the testicles have been affected, as happens in most cases of orchitis arising
from blennorrhagia. I have at present a patient who presents a remarkable example
of both these effects arising from this cause : he is now forty-one years of age, and
had blennorrhagia, followed by inflammation of both testicles, at twenty-five. Soon
after his recovery, he married, but has never had children, although the act has been
performed regularly, if not frequently. He became subject to nocturnal and some-
times diurnal pollutions, which increased by degrees. His health became disordered,
but coitus was still possible. The semen passed, and even emitted its character-
istic odor, but never showed under the microscope other than very small and brilliant
globules, without any appearance of tail, but easily distinguishable from globules of
mucus, the dimensions of which are five or six times larger. The epididymis of both
sides is voluminous and irregular. One testicle is adherent to the skin of the scro-
tum, and the other appears smaller than natural.

"Malformation of the spermatozoa, therefore, arises from deep-seated changes in
the tissues of the testicles, changes which do not permit the animalcules to assume
their normal form, and, therefore, render infecundity permanent.

"To sum up then. Involuntary seminal discharges may oppose fecundation pre-
viously to actually producing impotence, by diminishing the energy of all the phe-
nomena that concur to the accomplishment of the act, and by preventing the com-
plete development of the spermatozoa, as well as the elaboration of the fluid which
acts as the vehicle for them.

"These conditions may be rapidly altered by the simple diminution of the invol-
untary discharges, and fecundation may again become possible.

"This cannot be the case when infecundity depends on malformation of the sper-
matozoa— such malformation arising from permanent alteration in the organs that
supply them."

Microscopic Examination of the Semen. — This is a subject of great interest to
every one, and of immense importance to the physician and patient. The proper
mode of pursuing such examinations has been so well explained by M. Lallemand
that I cannot do better than copy his remarks, to which I will add here that with
good instruments there is no difficulty whatever in the process.

"Microscopic Examination. — Since the discovery of the spermatozoa, their pres-
ence in the seminal fluid has attracted the attention of all who have sought means
of distinguishing it from other fluids. Microscopic examination of the spermatozoa,
however, not only requires an excellent instrument, but certain precautions which
may be dispensed with in the investigation of coarser objects. As the spermatic
animalcules can be seen only by means of transmitted light, it is necessary that the
glass on which the fluid to be examined is placed should be of uniform thickness,

560 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

and without bubbles or stride. The fluid to be examined should be covered by an-
other layer of extremely thin glass made on purpose, and not by portions of mica,
which are seldom free from cracks, and never perfectly transparent. This thin layer
of glass is indispensable in order as much as possible to diminish the thickness of the
fluid, to render it perfectly uniform, to hinder evaporation, and prevent the object-
glass from being soiled by it. A single drop of fluid suffices for a complete observa-
tion, a larger quantity always proving inconvenient. The little glass that covers the
liquid must be firmly pressed down, so as to spread it out, arrest the currents that
take place in it, and drive out the air bubbles. Although the glasses should seem to
touch each other, the spermatozoa move with perfect freedom in the space between
them, so long as they preserve their energy, and evaporation has not proceeded too
far : should such be the case, however, a drop of tepid water favors and much pro-
longs their motions. However thin the layer of fluid may be, it is impossible to
comprehend its whole thickness at once with a very high power, and it is, therefore,
necessary to alter the focus frequently in order to be sure that nothing escapes obser-
vation. And this is especially important in examining a drop of fluid obtained from
diurnal pollutions, because there are frequently only two or three spermatozoa con-
tained in it. It is also necessary to change the position of the reflector frequently,
in order to vary the direction and intensity of the light. The spermatozoa are often
exceedingly transparent in cases of disease, and a very bright perpendicular light is
by no means the best for showing them. Varying the density of the fluid under
examination, either by adding water or by permitting evaporation, is also often use-
ful. The semen contains matters furnished by the seminal vesicles, the prostate,
and the urethra, and when the fluid is too thick, these matters hide the animalcules.
A drop of water applied to the edge of the covering-glass penetrates underneath it,
and the spermatozoa are more isolated, at the same time that their contour is ren-
dered more defined by the diminution in density of the fluid. On the other hand,
the refractive power of the spermatozoa differs little from that of the fluid in which
they are contained, and their thinnest portions are traversed by the light without
affording any distinct images to the eye. In this case there are only seen very small
ovoid brilliant globules terminated by a little point. As soon as the water be-
gins to penetrate between the glasses, the rapid motion set up prevents the objects
from being clearly distinguished ; but as soon as rest has been re-established the tails
of the animalcules appear, and their dimensions seem to have increased in conse-
quence of the diminished density of the surrounding fluid : water suffices to produce
this result. It is more sensible, however, when a small quantity of alcohol is added ;
but the forms of the animalcules are, after a time, altered by this agent ; and it
is, therefore, advisable to use water only when it is intended to keep the prepara-
tion.

"Evaporation sometimes produces not less remarkable changes in the seminal
fluid. I have frequently in cases of spermatorrhoea failed to perceive anything in
the fluid under examination for half an hour, an hour or more ; then suddenly an
animalcule has made its appearance ; then a dozen, and then perhaps a hundred in
the space of a few minutes. The following morning, when desiccation has become
complete, there are no longer any traces of these animalcules, or, at all events, I have
been only able to distinguish their tails, the other parts of them being fixed in the
dried-up mucus. The absorption of a drop of water has restored the phenomena
observed the night before.

SPERMATORRHOEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 56]

" These phenomena are easily explained ; when the refractive power of the sper-
matozoa is the same as that of the circumambient liquid, the light traverses the
whole in the same manner, and the mass appears homogeneous. But evaporation
acts more rapidly on the liquid than on the organized bodies contained in it ; and
when the difference of density alters the refractive power, the forms of the sperma-
tozoa are momentarily defined, because they have become more transparent than the
remainder of the fluid. When desiccation is complete, however, the animalcules
again disappear, because the refractive powers of mucus and dried animalcules are
again equal. The absorption of a small quantity of water reproduces the same phe-
nomena, which may be repeated almost indefinitely, since the matter confined be-
tween the two layers of glass undergoes no other appreciable alteration.

" In order to be enabled to discover spermatozoa quickly, in cases of disease, it is
necessary that they should be well studied in healthy cases. This may be accom-
plished in the following manner : — After coitus there always remains a sufficient
quantity of seminal fluid in the urethra to serve for precise and complete microscop-
ical examination. This may be obtained by pressing the canal shortly after the act,
and receiving the drop of fluid from the orifice of the glans on a plate of glass. In
this drop of fluid thousands of animalcules may be seen, agitating themselves like so
many tadpoles in a pool of stagnant water, only that the tails of the spermatozoa are
relatively longer and thinner, and that the head presents a brilliant point near its
insertion. Generally the number of these animalcules prevents them from being
easily examined, and it becomes necessary to spread them out by introducing a small
quantity of water, and pressing firmly down the thin glass that covers them ; they
are found most separated on the edges of the fluid. If the water added be of the
temperature of the body, their motions become free and lively, and continue so until
cooling and evaporation affect them. By avoiding these two causes of disturbance,
the motions of the spermatozoa may be kept up during several hours.

" However long a time may have elapsed after coitus, there are always spermato-
zoa in the urethra, provided they have not been washed away by the passage of urine.
Although the point of the glans may be quite dry, and pressure along the whole
length of the canal may not produce the least dampness, still on passing urine, living
animalcules may be obtained from the first drop which escapes. This may be re-
ceived on the glass, and is, perhaps, the easiest and most natural mode of obtaining
spermatozoa for microscopic examination.

" It is evident that the same experiments may be applied in the case of nocturnal
pollutions, as well as in all other seminal discharges, in whatever manner they may
occur. But many errors may arise from commencing with cases of disease, for it is
during perfect health when the spermatozoa are most active, and their development
most complete, and they live longer after coitus than after any other kind of seminal
discharge.

" Having thus described the means by which my microscopic observations may
be verified, I proceed to show their results.

" Spermatozoa.— Out of thirty-three bodies which I have examined for sperma-
tozoa, I only twice found these animalcules in the testicles. In one of these cases the
patient died from the effects of a fall, on the day following it ; in the other acute gas-
troenteritis was the cause of death. The seminal fluid was most abundant, and con-
tained the greatest number of animalcules, as in the former case. The other patients
died of chronic diseases, after protracted sufferings. One only among them died on
36

562 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN:

the second day, of acute peritonitis, but he was seventy-three years of age. In thirty-
one of these patients the testicles were soft, pale, and as though withered. On sec-
tion they presented a grayish aspect, and did not furnish any liquid ; the structure
was almost dry, and contained a few blood-vessels ; the secreting canals were easily
separated from one another, and could be spread out under the microscope without
breaking. They presented very brilliant granules, all of exactly the same appearance,
about the size of the head of a spermatozoon, ten times smaller than corpuscles of
blood or mucus, and differing from the latter by the constancy and regularity of
their form. These brilliant bodies, which occupied the place of the spermatozoa,
are worthy of notice, because they offer considerable analogy to the appearances pre-
sented by the semen under certain circumstances.

"In order to observe what is present in the secreting canals of the testicle, it is
necessary to spread out a portion of one of them under the microscope, after having
examined it dry to allow a drop of water to penetrate between the two glasses, and
to follow the changes which take place ; then to press down the glass so as to flatten
the parietes of the canal, rupture it, and press out a portion of its contents ; lastly,
these must be examined again when desiccation is complete, for the spermatozoa
found in the canals are then best seen.

"In the epididymis I have never found spermatozoa, except in the two cases in
which they were also found in the testicles. In all the others I met with these ani-
malcules only in the vas deferens, or seminal vesicles. There were no animalcules at
all to be found in the patient who died at the age of seventy-three. It has always
seemed to me that the animalcules were less numerous in proportion as the patients
had suffered long ; and in extreme cases I have generally found them only in the
seminal vesicles. The fewer the spermatozoa the more difficult were they of detec-
tion, on account of their extreme transparency. In some cases I have only suddenly
discovered them after examining for an hour or two, the liquid having previously
appeared quite homogeneous. The dimensions were the same as those of the best
developed animalcules, but they were pale throughout their whole extent, and more
transparent than the surrounding fluid. Complete desiccation often caused them to
disappear altogether ; but the same phenomena could be reproduced by the absolu-
tion of a small quantity of water.

"In cases of phthisis, caries of the vertebra, white swelling, etc., I have had
great difficulty in distinguishing the animalcules, probably because these diseases do
not cause death for a long time.

" I have almost always found in the seminal vesicles, especially at the bottom of
any depression, a thick, grumous, brilliant matter, varying in its aspect and color,
but considerably resembling thick paste, and more or less transparent ; with a high
power the granules of this matter appear large, irregular, more or less opaque, and
without any constant shape. They are evidently the products of the internal mem-
brane of the vesicles, for they are found with similar characters in the accessory ves-
icles of the hedgehog, rat, etc., which never contain seminal animalcules, and do
not communicate directly with the vasa deferentia, which, again, never contain any
similar substance. This matter is, therefore, analogous to that secreted by the
prostatic follicles, Cowper's glands, etc. Its functions are the same, and for many
reasons it merits special attention.

" The secretion of semen diminishes in all serious diseases, and seminal evacua-
tions become very rare, especially toward the last. It is not, therefore, astonishing

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 563

that the products of the mucous membrane predominate in such patients over those
of the testicles, and that such mucus should become more consistent during its long
residence in the depressions of the vesicles. Hence, the difference observable between
the semen obtained from the vesicles after death, and that which is passed by a healthy
person. Nevertheless, after long-continued continence, more or less large granules
are often seen in the semen of a healthy person, and these are perfectly distinct from
the fluid part. When the emissions are more frequent, granules of the same kind
may be observed, but much smaller. These facts are important when applied to
explain several symptoms of diurnal pollutions.

"I have already stated that on causing the patients to make water in a bath, the
semen passed may be easily recognized by means of its globules which whirl about in
the middle of the cloud formed toward the close of micturition. From what we
have just seen, it is evident that these globules come from the internal membrane of
the seminal vesicles. They may be wanting in very severe cases, where the semen
has no time to acquire consistence ; but their presence leaves no doubt as to the
existence of diurnal pollutions, because they can only be furnished by the seminal
vesicles. On the other hand, I have invariably found spermatozoa in the urine of
patients who observed this phenomenon in the bath. The same remarks hold good
when applied to the globules which the urine deposits in certain cases of diurnal
pollutions, and which have been compared by some to grains of bran, by others to
millet seed, pearl barley, etc., according to their size^ These globules are perceived
as soon as the urine is passed ; they are roundish, very soft, and do not give any sen-
sation when squeezed between the finger and thumb ; they cannot, therefore, be con-
founded with urinary salts, which are deposited only when the urine has cooled,
have a crystalline form, and give the sensation of a hard body to the finger. The
vesical mucus also is only deposited on cooling, and does not furnish brilliant gran-
ules. As to pus, its appearance is easily determined. I have found animalcules
whenever these globules appeared in the urine ; and hence it is that I have pointed
them out as certain signs of diurnal pollutions.

"I have also noticed that in some cases the urine, when held against the light,
presents in the middle of a flocculent cloud multitudes of quite characteristic brill-
iant points. These are smaller, and consequently lighter, globules than those which
in other patients fall to the bottom of the vessel. They are neither observed in the
mucus of the bladder nor in the prostatic fluid, which alone present clouds analogous
to those of diurnal pollution. Such brilliant points also arise from the seminal vesi-
cles, and their presence is, therefore, an indication that the urine contains semen.
This I have often verified with the microscope. I should, however, warn those who
wish to repeat my experiments, that it is not in the midst of the flocculent cloud
that the zoosperms are to be sought, but at the bottom of the vessel, to which they
soon fall on account of their greater specific gravity. The results of all my observa-
tions of the dead subjects, therefore, convince me of the influence of serious and
long-continued diseases on the functions of the spermatic organs. But it is not only
in the morbid state that these experience great variations ; remarkable differences
may exist between healthy individuals, not only in the quantity of semen secreted in
a given time, but also in the number, appearance, and dimensions of the spermatozoa.
In this respect I have observed differences amounting to a third, and, in some cases,
to half. The comparison is very easily established. When the semen is kept under
a thin glass, as I have before described, it is not in danger of undergoing any

564 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

changes, and may be always, by tbe addition of a drop of water, compared with a
recent specimen.

"Notwithstanding the facility witb which nocturnal pollutions may be recog-
nized, I have submitted the semen collected after them, by individuals in various
conditions of health, to microscopic examination. At first, when the evacuations
are still rare and the semen preserves its ordinary characteristics, the animalcules
do not present any remarkable circumstances in regard to their number, dimen-
sions, etc. ; but when the disease has reached a sufficient degree of gravity to affect
the rest of the system, the semen becomes more liquid, and the spermatic animalcules
less developed and less lively. Their number, however, does not as yet sensibly dimin-
ish ; indeed, in some cases, it seems increased. As the disorder advances, the erec-
tions diminish, the semen becomes more watery, and the animalcules are often a
fourth or a third less than natural, and the tail is often distinguished with difficulty
under a power of three hundred diameters. At a still later period the animalcules
become fewer, and in two individuals, in the last stage of the affection, the semen no
longer contained animalcules, although it retained its characteristic smell. Examined
with high powers and every proper precaution, I only found, in this semen, brilliant
globules, all exactly alike, and about the same size as the head of a spermatozoon.

" The microscopic examinations which I have made of semen passed during efforts
at stool give analogous results. When such discharges only take place accidentally,
and at long intervals, the semen is thick, whitish, impregnated with a powerful
smell, and abundantly furnished with well-developed animalcules. I have sometimes
even found a few alive after an hour or two. But when these discharges become so
frequent or habitual as to constitute disease, they become less abundant and the se-
men loses its normal properties. The spermatozoa are generally smaller than in
the healthy condition, and always less lively. I have some preparations in which
they are only of half the ordinary size, and I have never been able to find a single
living animalcule a few minutes after the fluid had been expelled. When the disease
has become much aggravated, the spermatozoa become rare, and they are sometimes
replaced by ovoid or spherical globules, similar to those of which I have already
spoken. In three patients, in an extreme state of disease, I found nothing else, al-'
though they passed as much as a dessert-spoonful of semen at each stool. Such
cases, however, are exceedingly rare.

" In diurnal pollutions happening during the passage of urine, the following
means may be employed to show the presence of spermatozoa :

" The urine should first be filtered in a conical filter, when, on account of their
weight, the greater number of the spermatozoa will remain on the lowest part of the
paper. By taking this portion and turning it upside down in a watch-glass contain-
ing a few drops of water, the animalcules become detached from the paper by degrees,
and fall to the bottom of the fluid in the glass. After twenty-four hours' maceration
in this position, the paper may be taken away, and the spermatozoa may be readily
obtained by using a drop from the bottom of the fluid in the watch-glass for examina-
tion. This mode of proceeding is a sure one, but it requires considerable time and
trouble for its performance. I have already stated that the urine does not always
contain spermatozoa in cases of diurnal pollutions ; therefore the urine of the same
individual would perhaps require examination on many occasions, before the cer-
tainty of their presence could be established, and few medical men in active practice
have time to devote to such experiments. I, for one, should have long since given

SPERMATORRHEA, OK EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 565

up treating these patients, had I been obliged to repeat in every case such long and
tiresome examinations. Ten days or a fortnight are sometimes passed without the
appearance of spermatozoa in the urine, and hence all who are accustomed to micro-
scopic researches will admit the indefinite amount of trouble and time required.

" Fortunately, however, there is a more simple method by which such examina-
tions may be conducted. It will be recollected that the semen always escapes either
with the last drops of urine, or immediately, or soon afterward. By directing the
patient, therefore, to compress the urethra immediately after micturating, and to re-
ceive the drop of fluid pressed out on a piece of glass, sufficient animalcules will be
obtained from the walls of the urethra for microscopic observation. These being
covered with a thin lamella of glass, may be either at once placed under the micro-
scope, or may be allowed to dry, and examined at a future time, a drop of water
being previously added. This mode of examination is, therefore, easy for all prac-
titioners who possess a good microscope, after they have accustomed themselves to
the inspection of the spermatozoa in their natural state. The changes which I have
mentioned as occurring in the semen must be borne in mind, however, and the
animalcules must not be expected to appear either so large, so well-defined, or so
numerous, as in cases where there is no disease."

TEEATMBNT OF SPEBMATORRHCEA.

In treating spermatorrhoea there are two things necessary to be ascertained : first,
the primary exciting cause, and secondly the existing cause, if such there be, that
keeps up the disease. Most usually we discover that masturbation has been indulged,
or that the patient has been addicted to excess, and it is, of course, necessary that
such evil practices be immediately and totally abandoned before any improvement
can be hoped for. Next, we must see if there be any skin disease, piles, constipation,
worms, gravel, or any other cause that may keep up the irritation, and when this has
been removed the actual treatment of the parts themselves may begin. This treat-
ment must consist in the application of those means best calculated to remove the
irritability or relaxation existing in the ducts and seminal vesicles, and to give tone
to the testes. So long as the ducts and vesicles retain their irritability, or remain
open, the semen must necessarily escape, and it becomes therefore absolutely requisite
to remove such disability, and restore to them that power of contraction which they
possess in a healthy state.

In some recent cases very simple treatment will suffice. If the patient leaves off
all bad habits, avoids constipation, attends carefully to his diet, takes no stimulants
either in food or drink, and carefully bathes himself in cold water round the parts,
night and morning, a decided improvement will often be experienced. He must,
however, avoid all excitement of the mind or feelings, never over-fatigue himself, and
not lie in bed after he is awake in the morning. These directions are more especially
applicable to those incipient cases, common among young men, when the emission
takes place at night, usually in consequence of a dream. It will generally be found
in such cases that the loss occurs toward morning, and most frequently when the
patient is half asleep and half awake, a state which is very apt to produce sexual
excitement. Many young men have told me that they ne^ver had an involuntary
erection except at such times, and that if they ever remained in that half-dreamy
condition it was nearly certain to occur. However disagreeable it may be, therefore,

566 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

the patient must rise immediately he is awake, unless it he too early, and he feels con-
fident he can go sound to sleep again. Many persons whenever they awake and feel
any tendency to erection, always rise and bathe themselves, and then lie down again,
and by these means escape the emission. It is particularly important also that late
suppers should be avoided, and that no coffee should be drunk and no tobacco used.
This is very necessary, for many of my patients assure me that a single cigar toward
bed-time will insure an emission, in spite of all the precautions they can take.

If all young men were to observe these directions habitually, they would seldom
be troubled with involuntary emissions at all, because the parts would be so strength-
ened, and all irritation so promptly subdued, that it would scarcely ever arise,
unless from excessive abuse or masturbation. The remarks which I formerly made
as to the importance of regular occupation, both for body and mind, are also particu-
larly applicable here, there being no doubt but that idleness very much predisposes to
all these evils.

Internal medication is seldom of much benefit, but unfortunately most persons
think the contrary, and this great and fatal error is often the means of perpetuating
the disease. Men think, when they are afflicted with involuntary emission, that it is
only necessary to take certain drugs to be made well again. They accordingly either
allow the evil to go on till it becomes incurable before they do anything at all, or
else they rely upon the medicine alone, and neglect all other means. The conse-
quence is that they obtain no relief from what they have taken, and find that the
time has been uselessly lost during which a cure was possible. I do not hesitate to
say tbat any man, by observing the simple advice already given, will be more bene-
fited without any medical treatment whatever, than he can be by the best he can
receive if that advice be neglected. It is true that a little medication is occasionally
beneficial, but it is not of a specific character, or adapted to all alike, but must be
varied according to circumstances, and in all cases it should be regarded merely as
assisting, and not as being capable of curing alone. It is more especially when there
is gravel, or considerable irritation of the urethra and bladder, that good can be done
by medication, and even then it is of a simple character. If there is any heat and
burning when the urine is discharged, with a discharge of thin mucus at the beginning
of the flow, the following pills will be beneficial :

R. Balsam of copaiva, two drachms ; magnesia, seven grains. To be made into
pills olfour grains each, of which two may be taken three or four times a day.

Or the common capsules of copaiva, or cubebs, may be used.

If the urine is high colored, and deposits a red sediment upon the sides of the
vessel, indicating gravel, the following powders will be better :

R. Dried bearberry leaves (uvm tirsi), one drachm and a half ; bicarbonate of
soda, one drachm. Mix them, and divide into twelve powders, of which one may be
taken three times a day in water.

These powders are also excellent when there is simply irritation of the bladder,
causing a frequent desire to urinate. For this particular trouble, it is also advisable
to drink but little, and never to use hot fluids of any kind, nor spices, wines, spirits,
or coffee. A little gum-arabic is useful, kept in the pocket and swallowed occasionally
during the day.

There are few cases in which these means will not, at least, give some relief, even
if they do not cure, but it may not be immediate. This is a fact that should be borne
in mind, so that discouragement should not be felt because the relief is not experi-

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 567

enced at once. The disease,, it should be remembered, has nearly always existed a
long time, and has assumed a chronic form, so that it can only be successfully attacked
in a gradual manner, by slowly producing a change in the action of the parts.

Nevertheless, I have known many benefited almost immediately, and very often I
hear the remark, that in one week from the time of commencing the treatment, the
emissions decreased one half in frequency. To ascertain the extent of the improve-
ment, and as a guide to the physician, every one afflicted in this way should keep a
diary, or date the times when the emissions occur, so that it can be seen whether they
are really decreasing in frequency or not.

One of the best means for applying cold water, both for the purpose of strength-
ening the genitals, and also for relieving constipation, is by means of what is termed
the ascending douche; that is, by a stream or jet directed upward. This must be
made to play forcibly on the perineum and against the anus, by the patient sitting
over the jet. The effects of this treatment, after a time, are often strikingly benefi-
cial. I have known patients who had previously never passed a night without emis-
sions, remain for two weeks without experiencing anything of the kind ; and I have
known the most obstinate constipation, in some instances of near three weeks' duration,
completely cured by it in less than a month. It is, in fact, one of the most valuable
remedies we possess in the treatment of spermatorrhoea, and has cured more than
perhaps all other means put together. Those who cannot employ a proper apparatus,
may use a large and powerful syringe, bent at right angles, so that the jet can be
thrown up against the perineum, scrotum and anus. It should be used morning and
night, for about five minutes. The man mentioned in the last article, who had been
impotent for nine years, owed his cure to this cold douche. I have often found
nothing else necessary, even in very bad cases, except proper- attention to the diet and
regimen.

In case of worms in the rectum, which often keep up spermatorrhoea by their
irritation, there are few things that succeed better in dislodging them, and subduing
the irritation, than enemas of cold water. These seem to paralyze the worms, so that
they lose their hold, and are expelled with the fluid as it returns. They also cool
and give tone to all the neighboring parts in a very marked manner, and are, in short,
valuable remedies in the treatment of spermatorrhoea. In some instances, they will
cause erections from the very first, though the person may have previously been al-
most impotent.

When the loss evidently occurs more from general weakness than from irritation,
the plan of treatment must be somewhat varied. Warm bathing may then be ad-
vised, with a generous diet of meat and wines, and the occasional administration of
tonics and bitters. Galvanism is also of very great service in many of these cases of
debility, applied directly to the parts, or to them and the spine. It will frequently
impart a feeling of warmth and vigor from the very first, and restore the natural
powers sooner than almost anything else. The patient should, however, be particu-
larly cautioned not to use any of the stimulating medicines, cordials, and tonics, so
urgently recommended for this debility. These are mostly composed of Spanish flies,
or phosphorus, and are very hurtful, though they may appear to do good for a time.

Several of the mineral waters are highly useful in spermatorrhoea, especially those
that contain iron ; and those that contain sulphur are also of service when used as
baths.

When there is any considerable nervous irritability, with restlessness, loss of sleep,

568 SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN.

or bad dreams, a narcotic may be of service. A few drops of laudanum may be
taken at bed-time, or some of the camphor and opium pills, directed in a former
article. If the stomach cannot bear opium, it may be given as an enema, either by
putting a few drops of laudanum in some starch- water, or by using a decoction of
poppy-heads. Some patients even introduce an opium pill, containing one grain,
into the rectum at bed-time, and leave it there till morning. This will frequently
prevent emission, but is apt to act too strongly on some persons.

McMun's elixir of opium is the best preparation to use, instead of laudanum, or
crude opium.

Occasionally setons are of service, placed inside the thighs, or acupuncture with
needles, but these must always be directed and applied by the physician.

The position in bed is frequently of some consequence in very irritable persons,
and should be attended to. There is no doubt that lying on the back is very apt to
cause pollution, by the heat it produces in the loins, and sometimes will continue
it notwithstanding everything else that can be done. So well aware are some persons
of this, that they invent peculiar contrivances to prevent them ever resting on the
back, even for a moment. One of my patients used to wear a broad leather belt at
night, with spikes on the inside behind, so that if he turned on his back while asleep,
these hurt him, and waked him up. Another wore a pointed piece of wood, so ad-
justed that he could not turn on his back at all, and by these means he avoided the
emissions that used to occur almost nightly. Sometimes it is sufficient to merely sleep
upon a hard mattress, with a piece of oiled silk or india-rubber cloth under, to keep
the parts cool ; or, what is still better, a sheet of lead may be tied over the back and
loins when retiring. I have known some patients speak very highly of the effects of
'his metallic shield.

"When there is decided irritation of the genital organs, manifested by redness at
the end of the penis, burning when making water, and mucous discharge from the
urethra, it becomes of the first moment to prescribe a proper diet, consisting chiefly
Df milk. This should be used freely, both as food and drink, either thickened with
rice, isinglass, or sago, or even with gum-arabic. The beneficial effects of this
diet will soon be evident in the decrease of all the inflammatory symptoms. Very
little meat must be used with it, but plenty of potatoes, which are not only nutritious,
but have also a decidedly good effect on the urine. Some fruits are very excellent,
particularly strawberries, and ripe peaches, and so are tomatoes, but any very acid
ones are objectionable. If the milk disagrees with the stomach, which it will
sometimes do, a few grains of magnesia may be added to it, or two or three spoon-
fuls of lime-water, which will generally correct all such tendency. The copaiva and
magnesia pills may also be used, or the powders of bearberry leaves, as formerly di-
rected. Wines, coffee, spices, and spirits must be rigidly avoided in all such cases,
and, in fact, every kind of excitement, as far as possible.

Cauterization. — This is a process which usually is resorted to when all other
modes of treatment fail, though some physicians practice it from the first. To un-
derstand how it operates, the action of caustic, when applied medicinally, must be
borne in mind. If we have any diseased surface, such as an open ulcer, or an in-
flamed mucous membrane, the caustic not only burns off that diseased surface, dul
by its energetic action, so alters the condition of the parts, that the disease is fre-
quently removed altogether. This is why it is applied to all virulent sores, and to
mflamed sore throats, eyelids, and other parts. Now in confirmed cases of sperma-

SPERMATORRHEA, OR EXCESSIVE LOSS OF SEMEN. 569

torrhoea there is always either a relaxed or an inflamed condition of the ducts, ure-
thra, or vas deferens, and it is evident that if the caustic can be applied to them, in
a proper and efficient manner, it will, in all probability, affect them in the same way
that it does other parts when similarly diseased. The great difficulty, however, is
to find a means to apply it in the situation required. The ducts being placed at the
bottom of the urethra, completely out of sight by any means, and with great diffi-
culty ever reached, it becomes a question as to how they are to be operated upon.
This has been decided however by M. Lallemand, who has invented an instrument
which enables us to apply the caustic to the ejaculatory ducts, with almost as much
certainty as to any place on the exterior. This instrument consists of a silver tube,
open at the end, and adapted to the size of the passage, down the inside of which passes
a kind of piston, furnished at the end with a piece of lunar caustic. When the tube
is introduced into the urethra, the caustic is contained inside of it, but when the open
end of the tube has reached the ducts, the piston with the caustic on it is pushed out a
little way for a moment, and of course burns the surrounding parts : it is then drawn
back into the tube and the whole apparatus is immediately abstracted. By these
means the ducts, the mouths of the prostatic vessels, and the neck of the bladder are
effectually cauterized, without any of the other parts being touched. The perform-
ance of this operation is certainly a little difficult, and requires great manual skill,
with an intimate knowledge of the structure of the parts. An unskillful person,
who could not properly manage the instrument, or not judge correctly of the proper
distance to introduce it, might not only fail of doing good, but even do harm. Many
practitioners, also, cause great mischief by letting the caustic remain too long, and
burning too much, or by acting only on the healthy parts, and leaving the diseased
ones untouched. In short, though the operation is frequently of the greatest benefit,
when properly performed, and capable of effecting a complete cure in the very worst
of cases, it is also exceedingly dangerous when improperly performed, as too many
know. Not only may the irritation be made much worse, but the most severe in-
flammation may follow from it, so as to prevent the discharge of urine, and lead
to abscesses and ulcers of the most incurable kind. Even in successful cases, and
under the most favorable circumstances, great distress is nearly always experi-
enced, and the pain is not unfrequently very severe. Many persons are much
alarmed, and even though greatly benefited, cannot bring their minds to submit a
second time to it.

In general, however, one operation is sufficient, and when a repetition is required
it should seldom be under six weeks or two months after. I have seen patients in a
miserable state who had been cauterized too frequently, and with too short intervals,
and in all probability, cauterization has, on the whole, done more evil than good.
The discovery of certain new remedies, and improved modes of treatment, enable us
now to dispense with it altogether, except in some very rare cases, and it is but very
seldom resorted to.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES IN PRODUCING AND CURING IMPOTENCE AND SPER-
MATORRHOEA.

There are a few medicinal substances that act in a direct manner upon the genital
organs, some beneficially and others hurtfully, but the greater number operate upon
them indirectly. This is a subject about which there is great ignorance, as I before
stated, and an immense deal of imposition and pretension. It has always been a
favorite notion with the public, that there are specific medicines capable of arousing
the sexual ardor under almost any circumstances. From this notion has originated
all the various cordials, stimulants, and elixirs, that are constantly pressed upon the
attention of the impotent and sterile. None of these things are in the slightest
degree capable of accomplishing what is promised of them, as well-informed people
are aware, but the public generally are deceived and much injured thereby. There
is no doubt but that aD immense deal of disease and incurable impotence is caused
by the use of these preparations, and much good will result from cautioning the
public against them. Very lately it has been ascertained that certain drugs can be
made to have a remarkably beneficial action, in particular cases of loss of power,
but each case requires a peculiar dose and mode of administration, which makes it
impossible to prescribe for all alike. These agents, however, are probably not known,
even by name, to the parties who compound the preparations above referred to, and
it is fortunate they are not, for if they were, more mischief would be done than by
the things now used.

It is, however, not only the action of those drugs that may be beneficial that we
haye to study, but also those that may be hurtful, and among them will be found
many that few persons have suspected of having any influence on the genital organs
at all. Purgatives, for instance, are popularly thought to act only on the bowels,
and not to influence sexual vigor at all, but the fact is, they often exert a very marked
influence in that way. It is well known that aloes, gamboge, colocynth, and several
other purgatives irritate the bowels very much, and this irritation may be extended
to the neighboring parts, particularly near the rectum, and in this way they excite
the flow of urine in some persons, by irritating the bladder, as well as operate upon
the bowels. Now the spermatic ducts, and prostate gland, lie close to the rectum,
and of course are subjected to this irritation as much as the bladder, and are equally
liable to become unusually sensitive. I have known many persons, in fact, who
always had involuntary emissions when they took purgatives, and who were obliged
to be exceedingly careful in consequence when they did so. When there is any
tendency to spermatorrhoea, therefore, the possible effect of purgatives must be borne
in mind, both by the physician and patient, and in case they are absolutely needed
those only must be chosen that are least irritating, particularly to the lower part of
the bowels.

570

INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES ON IMPOTENCE AND SPERMATORRHEA. 571

Tobacco is an article that exerts a most decided action, in numerous cases, upon
the generative organs, though few persons suspect it of doing so. Like opium, and
some other narcotics, it often stimulates at first, but afterward greatly weakens the
sexual powers, so as to bring on complete impotence in many cases. I am satisfied,
from my own observations, that it frequently leads to involuntary emissions, and
keeps them up notwithstanding all that can be done for them. Many young men,
patients of mine, have remarked that a cigar at bed-time would be certainly followed
by emission before morning, and they found it necessary in consequence to abandon
its use. It is true that these results are not generally seen except the tobacco is used
in great quantity, but there are some persons that are affected by a very small por-
tion, and who therefore never surmise that it has any influence upon them at all. I
once saw a young man, a great smoker, who suffered from constant pollution, and
who had been perfectly impotent for five years. He had submitted to every kind of
treatment, even to cauterization, but only obtained temporary relief, and at last
totally despaired of ever being benefited. On hearing his statement, and learning
what had been done for him, I was much surprised, because there were no indications
of severe disease, nor were the parts themselves in an unhealthy condition, though
relaxed, and the testes still secreted perfect semen in considerable quantities. Dur-
ing our conversation he accidentally alluded to his smoking habits, and said he fra
quently used from two to four dozen cigars a day. I was immediately struck with
the similarity of his case to that of a great opium chewer whom I had seen, and I at
once concluded that the tobacco was the cause of the mischief. On explaining this
to him he could scarcely be brought to think it possible, but eventually he agreed to
follow my advice and gradually leave it off. The result even exceeded my expec-
tations, for I was much afraid that some permanent mischief had been done. He
began to mend immediately, and though considerable lowness of spirits, weakness,
and loss of sleep were experienced at first, yet all these effects ultimately passed off,
and he felt better, and was stronger than while using the tobacco. The most marked
effect, however, was the checking of the spermatorrhoea. When I first saw him, he
passed semen constantly in his urine, and frequently in the night. He had little or
no erection, and such nervous palpitation of the heart occurred, whenever any slight
sexual feeling was experienced, that he became utterly powerless, and would un-
doubtedly have been impotent from that cause alone. This all passed off, the invol-
untary discharge ceased, and his sexual powers returned as strongly as ever. Con-
trary to my advice, he commenced using the tobacco again, thinking that it would
now cease to affect him, but in three days all the old symptoms returned, and he
became as impotent as ever. On leaving off his smoking, however, he gradually
recovered again, though with more difficulty than at first, which made me caution
him not to relapse again, for fear the reaction might eventually fail altogether. I
iave even known married men seriously injured in this way, by merely using tobacco
as a domestic indulgence. In one instance a gentleman, engaged in a somewhat
harassing business, was induced by a friend to smoke a few cigars at night, to steady
his nerves! He found, however, that though he could readily stupefy himself, yet
his nerves were no steadier, particularly in the morning, and what was most singu-
lar, to him, he lost all sexual power and desire, and become so weak he could scarcely
stand. In this dilemma he consulted me, and gave me a full history of his proceed-
ings and experience. On examining his urine, I found, as I expected I should, that
the semen escaped with it, and in such quantities that his impotence and weakness

572 INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES ON IMPOTENCE AND SPERMATORRHOEA.

were no longer to be wondered at. I at once told him to leave off his tobacco, gave
him a slight tonic, cauterized the ducts, and directed him to go and bathe in the salt
water for a few weeks. He did so and returned perfectly cured.

I could, in fact, give numerous cases, both among single and married, showing the
effects of this poisonous drug, and I do not hesitate to say tbat I tbink it has more
to do witb many of these complaints than has been hitherto supposed.

In the thirteenth Annual Keport of the Massachusetts State Lunatic Asylum, are
some excellent remarks on the use of tobacco, which, though they are intended to
apply chiefly to its influence in predisposing to insanity, are nevertheless of great
general interest, and I therefore quote them :

"Alcohol is not the only narcotic which thus affects the brain and nervous sys-
tem. Opium produces delirium tremens and probably insanity. Tobacco is a po\*
erful narcotic agent, and its use is very deleterious to the nervous system, producing
tremors, vertigo, faintness, palpitation of the heart, and other serious diseases. That
tobacco certainly produces insanity, I am not able positively to observe ; but that it
produces a predisposition to it, I am fully confident. Its influence upon the brain
and nervous system generally, is hardly less obvious than that of alcohol, and if used
excessively is equally injurious. The young are particularly susceptible to the influ-
ence of these narcotics. If a young man becomes intemperate before he is twenty
years of age, he rarely lives to thirty. If a young man uses tobacco while the
system is greatly susceptible to its influence, he will not be likely to escape injuri-
ous effects that will be developed sooner or later, and both diminish the enjoyments
of life and shorten its period.

" The very general use of tobacco among young men at the present day, is alarm-
ing, and shows the ignorance and devotion of the devotees of this dangerous practice
to one of the most virulent poisons of the vegetable world. The testimony of med-
ical men, of the most respectable character, could be quoted to any extent to sustain
these views of the deleterious influence of this dangerous narcotic.

"Dr. Rush says of tobacco — 'It impairs appetite, produces dyspepsia, tremors,
vertigo, headache, and epilepsy. It injures the voice, destroys the teeth, and imparts
to the complexion a disagreeable, dusky brown.'

"Dr. Boerhaave says that 'since the use of tobacco has been so general in Eu-
rope, the number of hypochondriacal and consumptive complaints has increased by
its use.'

"Dr. Cullen says, 'I have known a small quantity snuffed up the nose to pro-
duce giddiness, stupor, and vomiting. There are many instances of its more violent
effects, even of its proving a mortal poison.'

"Dr. Darwin says, 'It produces disease of the salivary glands and the pancreas,
and injures the power of digestion by occasioning the person to spit off the saliva
which he ought to swallow.'

"Dr. Tissot once saw the smoking of it prove fatal.

" Dr. Pilcher details the particulars of a case of a medical student whom he had
been requested to see. ' This gentleman suffered under all the symptoms of phthisis.
There was muco-purulent expectoration, night sweats, etc. The mucous membrane
of the throat, epiglottis, and the neighboring parts, was coated with a brown fur.
The patient had been an immoderate snuff-taker ; he was told to discontinue the
snuff ; he did so, and recovered.'

"Dr. Chapman says, 'By a member of Congress from the West, in the meridian

INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES ON IMPOTENCE AND SPERMATORRHEA. 573

of life, and of a very stout frame, I was some time since consulted ; he told me that,
from having been one of the most healthy and fearless of men, he had become " sick
all over, and timid as a girl." He could not even present a petition to Congress,
much less say a word concerning it, though he had long been a practicing lawyer,
and served much in legislative bodies. By any ordinary noise he was startled or
thrown into tremulousness, and afraid to be alone at night. His appetite and diges-
tion were gone, he had painful sensations at the pit of bis stomach, and unrelenting
constipated bowels. During the narrative of his suffering, his aspect approached the
haggard wildness of mental distemperature. On inquiry, I found that his consump-
tion of tobacco was almost incredible, by chewing, snuffing, and smoking. Being
satisfied that all his misery arose from this poisonous weed, its use was discontinued,
and in a few weeks he entirely recovered.'

" 'Distressing as was this case, I have seen others, from the same cause, e^en more
deplorable. Two young men were in succession brought to me for advice, whom I
found in a state of insanity, very much resembling delirium tremens. Each had
chewed and smoked tobacco to excess, though perfectly temperate as regarded drink.
The further account given me was, that in early life, adopting this bad practice, it
grew with their growth. Dyspepsia soon occurred, attended by great derangement
of the nervous system, and ultimately the mania I have mentioned. But I have also
seen the same condition very speedily induced.'

"Dr. Franklin says he never used it, and never met with a man who did use it
that advised him to follow his example.

"The venerable John Quincy Adams, in a recent letter on the subject, says that
in early life he used tobacco, but for more than thirty years he had discontinued the
practice. 'I have often wished,' says he, 'that every individual of the human race,
affected with this artificial passion, would prevail upon himself to try, but for three
months, the experiment which I have made, and I am sure it would turn every acre
of tobacco-land into a wheat-field, and add Jive years to the average of human life.'

" Some cases have come under my observation which show the injurious effects
of tobacco where no evil was suspected.

" A respectable merchant, who abstained wholly from ardent spirits, applied to
me for advice. He complained of great weakness, tremor of the limbs and joints,
with lassitude, general prostration of health, and depression of spirits. Knowing
that he used tobacco freely, I advised him to discontinue it entirely ; he soon became
better, and after a time was wholly relieved from these disagreeable symptoms.

"A distinguished clergyman informed me that he had been an extravagant snuff-
taker ; that for years he had had a disagreeable affection of the head, and his health
was not good. He did not attribute either to his use of snuff, but thinking it a filthy
habit and a growing evil, he resolved to leave it off. He was surprised to find the
difficulty in his head almost immediately left him, and his general health became
quite good.

"A gentleman of athletic frame, and about twenty-four years of age, applied to
me for advice. He complained of insufferable faintness and distress of stomach,
morning-sickness, vomiting, trembling, and prostration of strength. He diminished
his tobacco considerably, and was immediately better, but had not resolution to
abandon the pernicious practice.

"In our experience in the hospital, tobacco in all its forms is injurious to the
insane. It increases excitement of the nervous system in many cases, deranges the

574 INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES ON IMPOTENCE AND SPERMATORRHEA.

stomach, and produces vertigo, tremors and stupor in others. It is difficult to con-
trol its use "with the insane, and though considerable suffering comes from its entire
abandonment, it cannot be generally allowed with safety.

" One patient, while at labor, found a quantity of tobacco, and hid it in his bed.
He used it freely, became sick, lost his appetite, and confined himself to his bed
completely intoxicated. After some days diligent search was made, and a store of
tobacco was found in his straw bed ; when this was removed he almost immediately
recovered, and in a few days was well as before.

" A person who came into the hospital a furious maniac, soon became calm and
improved favorably. He labored in the field with propriety, and exhibited every
indication of a favorable convalescence. Suddenly, without any apparent cause, he
again became very violent and insane. It was soon discovered that he had in some
way obtained tobacco. After he ceased to use it, he again became calm and conva-
lescent.

" An aged lady was brought to us very insane. The practice of her friends for
some time had been to give her ardent spirits to intoxicate her at night, and tobacco
and snuff, in unlimited quantity, for the day. All these were withdrawn at once ;
her sufferings for some days were great ; but after a time she became calm, and got
better as soon as the influence of this excitement was over.

" I have already exceeded my intended limits in the detail of cases.

"It is very natural to suppose that an article possessing the active properties of
this fascinating narcotic, should produce most deleterious effects upon health — par-
ticularly upon the brain and nervous system.

"The uninitiated cannot smoke a cigar, or use tobacco in any form, without un-
pleasant effects, — how then can it be possible that a poison so active can be used with
impunity ? The stomach and brain, subjected to such influences, will become dis-
eased, and show their effects as certainly as if alcohol were used. If asked my med-
ical opinion, which was safest, four glasses of wine or four quids of tobacco daily, I
should say unhesitatingly the wine. Of the two evils this would, in my opinion, be
the least. Tobacco is the strongest, most dangerous narcotic — the habit of its use
is the strongest, and most difficult to overcome, and the influence felt from it most
baneful and destructive to health."

Opium acts similarly to tobacco, but much more fatally, the exhaustion caused
by it being much less readily recovered from. In fact, if a man once becomes impo-
tent from using opium, it is a great chance if he ever recovers his powers.

Dr. McDougal says that many of his friends, inveterate smokers have remarked
to him that a decrease of their sexual desires was one of the marked effects of their
indulgence, and I have frequently been told the same. M. Lallemand also gives
several instructive cases in which this fact is forcibly illustrated. The following is
a counterpart of many that I see :

"I have a young man of very nervous temperament at present under my care,
on whom nocturnal and diurnal pollutions have brought on pain in the loins, palpi-
tation, difficulty of breathing, etc., symptoms which were supposed to arise from
disease of the spinal cord, cardiac affection, and commencing phthisis. Among the
exciting causes of these involuntary discharges, the effects of smoking occupy the
chief place. The following is the patient's statement :

" ' At twenty years of age I wished to accustom myself to smoking, but a day
never passed without my experiencing complete intoxication, attended with vomit-

INFLUENCE OF .MEDICINES ON IMPOTENCE AND SPEBMATOBBHCEA. 575

ing, vertigo, and trembling of the limbs. I continued the habit, however, and I
soon began to perceive that my sight became weak, and that I lost my memory ;
my hands shook, and my digestion became much disordered. I noticed also great
debility of the genital organs ; my erections ceased, and at the age of twenty-two
I found myself completely impotent.' This patient had rarely practiced masturba-
tion, and had never committed any excess when he first began to smoke ; his health
had, previously, been excellent. It is therefore evident, that the impotence, as well
as the other symptoms, arose from the action of tobacco. Impotence at the age of
twenty-two can only be produced by involuntary seminal discharges, provided there
be no physical disability. In the present case there was no doubt on the point, the
patient himself having discovered diurnal and nocturnal pollutions.

" The action of tobacco on those who smoke for the first time, is too well known
to require description ; more or less disorder of all the functions, varying according
to the constitution of the individual, invariably arises from it ; and this disorder
always presents more or less of the characteristics of poisoning by narcotics. These
effects go off by degrees as the patient becomes habituated to the use of tobacco, and
generally, after a time, cease to be manifested at all. Some nervous and excitable
individuals are unable to accustom themselves to the habit, as in the case just men-
tioned ; in others again, smoking becomes an artificial habit, which, in many cases,
is almost a necessity.

"But this empire of custom has its limits, beyond which the narcotic influence
reappears. In such as are not easily affected, this acquired habit is generally sup-
ported with impunity ; but even then, if it be indulged in to excess, it must, after a
time, be injurious. Thus it is that the most accomplished smokers often experience
vertigo, cephalalgia, anorexia, etc., when they have remained long in an atmosphere
densely filled with smoke, which is then drawn into the lungs, and probably produces
worse effects than when merely drawn into the mouth, or swallowed, as in smoking.

" In a word, then, if the power of habit can prevent the momentary effects of
smoking from showing themselves, the frequent repetition of the use of tobacco
produces more lasting effects on different organs. Disorder of the digestive organs
is well known as occurring in inveterate smokers ; that of the genital organs has not
hitherto been noticed. [Many inveterate smokers among my professional friends,
have mentioned to me the diminution of their venereal desires, as one of the effects
of tobacco. I believe, however, that it is by no means rare."— H. J. McD.]

CHAPTEK XLIX.

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

A veey few years ago only it was thought wrong even to allude to such a subject
as, masturbation, much less to openly speak or write about it. Fortunately, however,
people have become more rational, and now'begin to see that this and similar prac-
tices are of the most hurtful character, and that no successful efforts can be made for
their removal till they are more fully and generally understood. Various books have
been published, lectures have been delivered, and even sermons have been preached
bearing upon this subject, till much general information about it is now disseminated,
and a very general desire is expressed for something more complete and scientific than
has yet appeared. The greater part of the books written on the subject of onanism
or masturbation are very incomplete, and not accompanied by those physiological
and medical details that are requisite to give a clear view of the evil. The effects of
this vice may be partly given in such works, though in an incomplete form, but the
manner in which they are produced, their connection with other evils, and the phi-
losophy of their treatment, cannot be understood without such a work as the present.
I have therefore delayed speaking upon this subject till all the other topics have been
introduced, so that the unnatural character of the vice and its terrible consequences
may be clearly obvious.

The mere tolerance of discussion on this subject is a great point gained, and
there is now a very general conviction that such a discussion is not only desirable,
but imperatively demanded by the best interests of society. It is both curious and
instructive to see how this tolerance has been gradually gained, and how a per-
ception of the manifold evils of self -abuse has extended, though slowly, from a few
philosophers to the great mass of the medical profession, and from thence to non-
professional persons, till at last it has even been made the subject of legislative action.

I shall now proceed to show, by extracts from ancient medical writers, how this
subject was regarded by eminent minds in former ages, and then to exhibit the more
perfect knowledge and greater interest of modern times, including the approval, by
existing legislators, of investigations bearing intimately upon it.

Several of these extracts are taken from the celebrated works of Tissot and others,
pnd some being from the writings of the Fathers of Physic, who lived centuries
before Christ, allowance must be made, in some few cases, both for unintentional ex-
aggeration, and also for deficiency in scientific accuracy. Generally speaking, the
statements are fully authorized, and the pictures by no means overdrawn ; in fact, it
is often the case that the whole truth is not told, simply because it was not known.

"Hippocrates, the oldest and most correct observer, has already described the dis-
eases produced by abusing the pleasures of venery, under the term dorsal con-
sumption. 'This disease,' says he, 'arises from the dorsal portion of the spinal
marrow. It principally attacks young married people, or the licentious. They have

576

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 577

no fever, and although they eat well, they grow thin and waste away. They have s.
sensation of ants crawling from the head down along the spine. Whenever they go
to stool, or evacuate their urine, a considerable quantity of very thin seminal fluid
escapes from the urethra. They lose the power of procreation, yet often dream of
venereal pleasures. They become very weak, and walking produces shortness of
breath ; they have pains in the head and ringing in the ears, and finally an acute
fever (Libiria) supervenes, and they die.'

" Some physicians have ascribed to the same cause a disease which he has described
in another place, and have termed it the second dorsal consumption of Hippocrates,
and which has some relation to the first. But the preservation of the strength, which
he mentions particularly, seems to us a conclusive proof that this disease does not
depend on the same cause, but seems rather to be a rheumatic affection.

" 'These pleasures,' says Oelsus, in his excellent work on the preservation of
health, 'are always injurious to weak persons, and their abuses prostrate the
strength.' We can find nothing more frightful than the description, by Aretseus, of
the diseases produced by a too abundant evacuation of semen. 'Young persons
assume the air and the diseases of the aged ; they become pale, stupid, effeminate,
idle, weak, and even void of understanding ; their bodies bend forward, their legs are
weak, they have a diegust for everything, become fit for nothing, and many are af-
fected with paralysis.' In another place he mentions the abuse of these pleasures
among the six causes which produce paralysis.

" Galen has seen diseases of the brain and nerves from the same cause, and the
powers of the body impaired ; and he also relates that a man who was convalescent
from a violent attack of disease, died the same night after coition with his wife.

"Pliny, the naturalist, informs us that Cornelius Gallus, the old praetor, and
Titus Etherius, a Koman knight, died in the act of copulation.

"Aetius says, 'The stomach is deranged, all the body wastes, becomes pale, dry,
and the eyes sunken.' These remarks of the most respectable ancient writers, are
confirmed by the moderns. Sanctorious, who has examined, with the utmost care,
all the causes which act on our bodies, has observed that this weakens the stomach,
destroys digestion, prevents insensible perspiration, the derangements of which pro-
duce such evil consequences, disposes to calculus diseases, diminishes the natural
warmth, and is usually attended with a loss or derangement of sight.

"Lomnius, in his fine commentaries on the passages of Celsus, whom we have
just cited, supports the remarks of the author by his own observations. ' Frequent
emissions of semen relax, weaken, dry, enervate the body, and produce numerous
other evils, as apoplexies, lethargies, epilepsies, loss of sight, trembling, paralysis,
and all kinds of painful affections.'

" One cannot read without horror the description left us by Tulpius, the cele-
brated burgomaster and physician of Amsterdam. ' Not only,' says he, ' the spinal
marrow wastes, but the whole body and mind become languid, and the patient
yerishes in misery. Samuel Vespertius was attacked first with a humor upon the
back of his neck and head ; it then passed to the spine, to the loins, to the lower and
lateral region of the abdomen, and to the hips ; this unhappy man was affected with
so much pain that he was entirely disfigured, and was emaciated so gradually by a
slow fever, that he more than once asked to be relieved from his misery by death.'

"'Nothing,' says a celebrated physician of Lou vain, 'weakens the system so
much.'

37

578 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

"Blancard has known simple gonorrhoeas, dropsies, and consumptions to depend
on this cause ; and Muys has seen a man of good age attacked with spontaneous
gangrene of the foot, which he attributed to the same kind of excesses.

"In the Memoir es des Curieux de la Nature is mentioned a case of blindness. It
deserves to be given at length. 'We are ignorant,' says the author, 'what sympathy
the testicles have with the body, but particularly with the eyes.' Salmuth has known
% sensible hypochondriac to become a fool, and in another man the brain to be so
collapsed that it was heard to rattle in the cranium, both from excesses in venery. I
have known myself a man, fifty-nine years of age, who, three weeks after marrying *
young wife, became blind, and in four months died.

" 'The too great loss of the animal spirits weakens the stomach and destroys the
appetite ; and nutrition not taking place, the action of the heart becomes more
feeble; all parts languish, and the patient becomes epileptic' It is true we are
ignorant whether the animal spirits and the seminal fluid are the same ; but observa-
tions show, as we shall see hereafter, that these two fluids are very analogous, and
that loss of one or the other, produces the same complaints. Hoffman has seen the
most frightful symptoms ensue from the loss of semen. ' After long nocturnal pol-
lutions,' says he, 'the patient not only loses strength, becomes emaciated and pale, but
the memory is impaired, a continual sensation of coldness affects all the extremities,
the sight becomes dim, the voice harsh, and the whole body gradually wasted ; the
sleep is disturbed by unpleasant dreams, does not refresh, and pains are felt like those
produced by bruises.'

" In a consultation with a young man, who, among other diseases produced by mas-
turbation, was affected with weakness in the eyes, he says : 'I have seen several
instances of young men who, at mature age, when the body possesses all its strength,
were attacked, not only with severe pain and redness of the eyes, but the sight became
so feeble that they could neither read nor write.' He adds : 'I have even seen two
cases of gutta serena from the same cause.' The history of the disorder which gave
rise to this consultation will be read with interest. 'A young man commenced mas-
turbation when fifteen years old, and having indulged in it till he was twenty-three,
experienced so great feebleness in his head and eyes, that during the emission of
semen there was severe pain in the latter. When he attempted to read anything, he
had a feeling similar to that of drunkenness ; the pupil was extraordinarily dilated ;
the eyes were exceedingly painful ; the eyelids very heavy, and glued together
every night ; they were often filled with tears, and a whitish matter collected very
abundantly in the two corners, which were very painful. Although he ate with a
good appetite, still he was extremely emaciated, and after he had taken food appeared
as if drunk.' The same author has mentioned another case, of which he was an eye-
witness, and which we think proper to mention here. 'A young man, eighteen years
old, who had had frequent connections with a servant girl, suddenly fainted, and
trembled exceedingly in all his extremities ; his countenance was red, and his pulse
very small. He recovered from this state at the end of an. hour, but continued very
feeble. The same phenomena occurred very frequently, with severe pain, and at the
end of eight days there was a contraction and tumor in the right arm, with a pain in
the elbow, which was always increased during the paroxysm. The disease increased
for some time, but was finally cured by Hoffman. '

" Boerhaave portrays these diseases in that masterly manner and with that pre-
cision which characterizes all his descriptions. 'Too great loss of semen produces

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 579

weakness, debility, immobility, convulsions, emaciation, dryness, pains in the mem-
branes of tbe brain, impairs the senses, particularly that of sight, gives rise to dorsal
consumption, indolence, and to the several diseases connected with them.'

" The cases narrated by this great man to his auditors, in explaining to them this
aphorism, which related to the different kinds of evacuations, ought not to be omit-
ted. 'I have seen,' says he, 'a sick man, where the disease commenced by a lassitude
and feebleness in the body, particularly in the loins ; it was accompanied by twitching
of the tendons, periodical spasms, and loss of flesh, so as to destroy the whole body ;
also pains in the membranes of the cerebrum, pains which the patient terms (ardeur
seche) a dry burning, which constantly inflames this most noble organ.

" ' I have also seen one young man affected with dorsal consumption. His figure
was good ; and although often cautioned against indulging in these pleasures, he did
not regard it, and became so deformed before death, that the layer of flesh which
appears above the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae entirely disappeared. The
cerebrum, in this case, seemed to be consumed ; in fact, the patient seemed to be
stupid, and became so stiff that we have never seen the body so immovable from any
other cause. The eyes are so dull that the sight is nearly lost.'

"De Senac mentions, in the first edition of his Essays, the dangers attending
masturbation, and states that all who indulge in this vice will be affected in the flower
of their youth with the infirmities of age.

"Ludwig, in describing the diseases resulting from too frequent evacuations, does
not forget that of the semen. ' Young people, of both sexes, who indulge in lascivi-
ousness, ruin their health by wasting strength which was designed to make them
vigorous, and finally fall into consumption.'

"De Gotter details the sad accidents arising from this cause, but they are too
long to copy. We refer to the work all those who can read the language in which it
is written.

" Van Swieten, after quoting the description of Hippocrates mentioned above,
adds : ' I have seen all these symptoms, and several others, in those unfortunate
people who indulged in self-pollutions. I have employed uselessly, for three years,
all the resources of medicine, for a young man who was diseased, in consequence of
this practice, with wandering, frightful and general pains, with a sensation sometimes
of heat and sometimes of cold, in every part of the body, but particularly in the loins.
Afterward, these pains having diminished, his thighs and legs were so cold that, al-
though they seemed of the natural temperature when touched, he was constantly
warming himself by the fire, even during the warmest days of summer. I noticed
particularly all this time, a continual rotatory motion of the testicles in the scrotum,
and the patient felt a similar motion in the loins.' This account does not mention
whether this unfortunate creature died in three years, or continued to languish some
time longer, which would be more dreadful ; he could not have recovered.

" Kloekof, in a very fine work on the diseases of the mind which depend on the
body, confirms by his observations what we have already mentioned. 'A too great
loss of semen weakens all the solid parts ; hence arise weakness, idleness, phthisis,
tabes dorsalis, stupidity, affections of the senses, faintings, and convulsions.'

"Hoffman had already remarked, that those young people who practice the infa-
mous habit of masturbation lose gradually all the faculties of the mind, particularly
the memory, and become entirely unfit for study.

" Lewis describes all these symptoms. We shall translate from his work only

580 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

what relates to the mind. ' All the symptoms which arise from excesses with females
follow still more promptly, especially in youth, the abominable practice of masturba-
tion, and it is difficult to paint them in as frightful colors as they deserve. Young
persons addict themselves to this practice without knowing the enormity of the crime,
and all the consequences whicli physically result from it. The mind is affected by
all the diseases of the body, but particularly by those arising from this cause. The
most dismal, melancholy indifference and aversion to all pleasures, the impossibility
to take part in conversation, the sense of their own misery, the consciousness of hav-
ing brought it upon themselves, the necessity of renouncing the happiness of mar-
riage, all affect them so much that they renounce the world — blessed if they escape
i suicide.'"

The symptoms here given are precisely such as are ordinarily seen in cases of self-
abuse, but there are many others, arising secondarily, which have only been recently
ascribed to this cause. Idiocy and insanity, for instance, and that general failing oi
all the physical and mental powers, affecting both the individual and his offspring,
which leads eventually to the extinction of his family and name. It is only of late
that proper attention has been directed to these terrible evils, and that they have
been thought to be at all under our control. Formerly they were looked upon as mys-
terious dispensations of Providence, much to be deplored, but only to be met with
patience and resignation. Many eminent writers of the present age have distinctly
recognized the influence of self-abuse in the production of idiocy, insanity, and con-
stitutional degeneracy, and have especially urged the necessity of attending to it
when treating those evils. Among other recognitions of this kind, I have been par-
ticularly struck with one, a legislative document, in which there is more wholesome
truth told and more sound reasoning advanced, than in almost all the medical treatises
on the subject put together. It is a Eepokt on the subject of idiocy, presented to
the Massachusetts Senate, by Dr. S. G. Howe, in February, 1848, in compliance
with a former resolution of that body, directing such a report to be made. I am
only surprised that such a document so valuable should be so little known, and that
the Hon. Senators should not have seen that their duty was to give it as wide a cir-
culation as possible. The influence of such a document, from such a source, must
have been very great, and no doubt would accomplish more good, in the way of pre-
vention, than all their asylums and medical treatment could in the way of cure. In
time this and similar reports will be eagerly sought for, and their great value to the
public at large will be universally admitted. I shall quote from the report here for
the double purpose of corroborating by it my own statements, and also of making it
more generally known.

In speaking upon the necessity that exists for boldly approaching this subject,
notwithstanding the prejudice that many persons feel against doing so, Dr. H. makes
the following forcible and sensible remarks :

" There is another vice, a monster so hideous in mien, so disgusting in feature,
altogether so beastly and loathsome, that, in very shame and cowardice, it hides its
head by day, and, vampire-like, sucks the very life-blood from its victims by night ;
and it may perhaps commit more direct ravages upon the strength and reason of
those victims than even intemperance ; and that vice is self-abuse.

" One would fain be spared the sickening task of dealing with this disgusting
subject ; but, as he who would exterminate the wild beasts that ravage his fields,
must not fear to enter their dark and noisome dens, and drag them out of their lair ;

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 581

bo he who would rid humanity of a pest, must not shrink from dragging it from its
hiding-places, to perish in the light of day. If men deified him who delivered Lerna
from its hydra, and canonized him who rid Ireland of its serpents, what should they
do for one who could extirpate this monster vice ? What is the ravage of fields, the
slaughter of flocks, or even the poison of serpents, compared with that pollution of
body and soul, that utter extinction of reason, and that degradation of beings made
in God's image, to a condition which it would be an insult to the animals to call
beastly, and which is so often the consequence of excessive indulgence in this vice ?

"It cannot be that such loathsome wrecks of humanity as men and women re-
duced to driveling idiocy by this cause should be permitted to float upon the tide of
life, without some useful purpose ; and the only one we can conceive is that of awful
beacons, to make others avoid — as they would eschew moral pollution and death —
the course which leads to such ruin.

"This may seem to be extravagant language, but there can be no exaggeration,
for there can be no adequate description even, of the horrible condition to which
men and women are reduced by this practice. There are, among those enumerated
in this report, some who not long ago were considered young gentlemen and ladies,
but who are now moping idiots — idiots of the lowest kind — lost to all reason, to all
moral sense, to all shame — idiots who have but one thought, one wish, one passion,
and that is the further indulgence in the habit which has loosed the silver cord even
in their early youth, which has already wasted, and as it were dissolved, the fibrous
part of their bodies, and utterly extinguished their minds.

"In such extreme cases, there is nothing left to appeal to — absolutely less than
there is in the dogs and horses, for they may be acted upon by fear of punishment ;
but these poor creatures are beyond all fear and all hope, and they cumber the earth
a while, living masses of corruption.

" If only such lost and helpless wretches existed, it would be a duty to cover them
charitably with the veil of concealment, and hide them from the public eye, as things
too hideous to be seen : but, alas ! they are only the most unfortunate members of a
large class. They have sunk down into the abyss toward which thousands are tend-
ing. The vice which has shorn these poor creatures of the fairest attributes of hu-
manity is acting upon others, in a less degree, indeed, but still most injuriously,
enervating the body, weakening the mind, and polluting the soul.

"A knowledge of the extent to which this vice prevails would astonish and shock
many. It is indeed a pestilence which walketh in darkness, because, while it saps
and weakens all the higher qualities of the mind, it so strengthens low cunning and
deceit, that the victim goes on in his habit unsuspected, until he is arrested by some
one whose practiced eye reads his sin in the very means which he takes to conceal it, or
until all sense of shame is forever lost in the night of idiocy, with which his day so
early closes.

" Many a child who confides everything else to a loving parent, conceals this prac-
tice in its innermost heart. The sons or daughters who dutifully, conscientiously,
and religiously confess themselves to father, mother, or priest, on every other sub-
ject, never allude to this. Nay, they strive to cheat and deceive by false appear-
ances; for — as against this darling sin — duty, conscience, and religion, are all
nothing. They even think to cheat God, or cheat themselves into the belief that
He who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity can still regard their sin with favor.

"Many a fond parent looks with wondering anxiety upon the puny frame, the

582 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

feeble purpose, the fitful humors of a dear child, and, after trying all other remedies
to restore him to vigor of body and vigor of mind, goes journeying about from place
to place, hoping to leave the offending cause behind, while the victim hugs the dis-
gusting serpent closely to his bosom, and conceals it carefully in his vestment.

"The evils which this sinful habit works in a direct and positive manner are not
so appreciable, perhaps, as that which it effects in an indirect and negative way.
For one victim which it leads down to the depths of idiocy, there are scores and hun-
dreds ivhom it makes shamefaced, languid, irresolute, and inefficient for any high
purpose of life. In this way, the evil to individuals and to the community is very
great.

" It behooves every parent, especially those whose children (of either sex) are
obliged to board and sleep with other children, whether in boarding-schools, board-
ing-houses, or elsewhere, to have a constant and watchful eye over them, with a view
to this insidious and pernicious habit. The symptoms of it are easily learned, and,
if once seen, should be immediately noticed.

"Nothing is more false than the common doctrine of delicacy and reserve in the
treatment of this habit. All hints, all indirect advice, all attempts to cure it by
creating diversions, will generally do nothing but increase the cunning with which it
is concealed. The way is, to throw aside all reserve ; to charge the offense directly
home ; to show up its disgusting nature and hideous consequences in glowing colors j
to apply the cautery seething hot, and press it in to the very quick, unsparingly and
unceasingly.

' ' Much good has been done, of late years, by the publication of cheap books upon
this subject. They should be put into the hands of all youth suspected of the vice.
They should he forced to attend to the subject. There should be no squeamishness
about it.

" There need be no fear of weakening virtue by letting it look upon such hideous
deformity as this vice presents. Virtue is not salt or sugar to be softened by such
exposure ; but the crystal or diamond that repels all foulness from its surface. Ac-
quaintance with such a vice as this, — such acquaintance, that is, as is gained by
having it held up before the eyes in all its ugliness — can only serve to make it detested
and avoided.

"Were this the place to show the utter fallacy of the notion that harm is done
by talking or writing to the young about this vice, it could probably be done by
argument, certainly by the relation of pretty extensive experience. This experience
has shown that, in ninety-nine cases in a hundred, the existence of the vice was
known to the young, but not known in its true deformity ; and that, in the hun-
dredth, the repulsive character in which it was first presented, made it certain that
no further acquaintance with it would be sought."

This is speaking to the point, and Dr. Howe never rendered more important sei
vice to suffering humanity than when he laid down these momentous truths.

In another part of the Report the effects of ignorance are made terribly apparent,
■not only upon the unfortunate victim, but also upon society at large, and it is plainly
shown what danger every one runs while that ignorance exists.

"In some families which are degraded by drunkenness and vice, there is a degree
of combined ignorance and depravity, which disgraces humanity. It is not wonder-
ful that feeble-minded children are born in such families ; or, being born, that many
of them become idiotic. Out of this class domestics are sometimes taken by those in

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 583

better circumstances, and they make their employers feel the consequences of suffer-
ing ignorance and vice to exist in .the community. There are cases recorded in the
appendix, where servant-women, who had the charge of little girls, deliberately taught
them habits of self-abuse, in order that they might exhaust themselves, and go to
sleep quietly ! This has happened in private houses as well as in the almshouses ;
and such little girls have become idiotic !

" The mind instinctively recoils from giving credit to such atrocious guilt ;
nevertheless, it is there, with all its hideous consequences ; and no hiding of our
eyes, no wearing of rose-colored spectacles, — nothing but looking at it in its naked
deformity, will ever enable men to cure it. There is no cordon sanitaire for vice ;
we cannot put it into quarantine, nor shut it up in a hospital ; if we allow its exist-
ence in our neighborhood, it poisons the very air which our children breathe."'

These remarks apply also to our public schools, in most of which this vice pre-
vails to an alarming extent, and sometimes in the most open manner. I have been
myself amazed at the revelations made to me on this subject, both by teachers and
pupils, and clearly enough has it been proved, to my satisfaction, how that shunning
of the subject, which many so systematically practice, leads directly to the produc-
tion and continuance of the vice.

In some few cases masturbation is learned accidentally, or a knowledge of it arises
spontaneously, but in a vast majority of instances it is taught, and hence the great
importance of preventing, if possible, those who are addicted to it from contaminat-
ing those who are innocent. Dr. Howe remarks :

" There is one remarkable and valuable fact to be learned respecting this vice,
from observation of idiots, and that is, that some of them, though they have no idea
of right and wrong, no sense of shame, and no moral restraint, are nevertheless en-
tirely'free from it. They could never have been in the practice of it, else they would
never have abandoned it-

"From this may be inferred, that it is a pest generally engendered by too inti-
mate association of persons of the same sex ; that it is handed from one to another
like contagion ; and that those who are not exposed to the contagion are not likely
to contract the dreadful habit of it. Hence we see, that not only propriety and
decency, but motives of prudence, require us to train up all children to habits of
modesty and reserve. Children, as they approach adolescence, should never be per-
mitted to sleep together. Indeed, the rule should be — not with a view only to pre-
venting this vice, but in view of many other considerations — that after the infant
has left its mother's arms, and become a child, it should ever after sleep in a bed by
itself. The older children grow, and the nearer they approach -to youth, the more
important does this become. Boys even should be taught to shrink sensitively from
any unnecessary exposure of person before each other ; they should be trained to
habits of delicacy and self-respect ; and the capacity which nature has given to all
for becoming truly modest and refined, should be cultivated to the utmost. Habits
of self-respect, delicacy, and refinement, with regard to the person, are powerful
adjuncts to moral virtues ; they need not be confined to the wealthy and favored
classes ; they cost nothing ; on the contrary, they are the seeds which may be had
without price, but which ripen into fruits of enjoyment that no money can buy."

In the present state of society it is almost impossible, unfortunately, to prevent
children from being taught this vice, either practically or by verbal instruction, and
it is, therefore, necessary to guard them against it by timely information and. warning.-

584 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

Even if he be strictly kept from vicious associates the child may learn the habit
himself, and may sink and die from it while the parent is glorifying himself on the
success of his precautions.

In the article on Insanity in Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine, the
author, in pointing out the various causes of that terrible affliction, speaks in the
following terms respecting self-abuse :

" Many, however, of those causes, which thus affect nervous energy, favor con-
gestion of the brain, and occasion disease of other vital organs, tending to disorder
the functions of the brain sympathetically. Of these, the most influential are mas-
turbation and libertinism, or sexual excesses ; sensuality in all its forms, and inordi-
nate indulgence in the use of intoxicating substances and stimulants. The baneful
influence of the first of these causes is very much greater, in both sexes, than is
usually supposed ; and is, I believe, a growing evil, with the diffusion of luxury, of
precocious knowledge, and of the vices of civilization. It is even more prevalent in
the female than in the male sex ; and in the former it usually occasions various dis-
orders connected with the sexual organs — as leucorrhoea, displacement of the uterus ;
difficult, or disordered, or suppressed, or profuse menstruation ; both regular and
irregular hysteria, catalepsy, ecstasis, vertigo, various states of disordered sensibility,
etc. , before it gives rise to mental disorder. In both sexes, epilepsy often precedes
insanity from this cause ; and either it or general paralysis often complicates the
advanced progress of the mental disorder, when thus occasioned. Melancholia, the
several grades of dementia, especially imbecility and monomania, are the more fre-
quent forms of derangement proceeding from a vice which not only prostrates the
physical powers, but also impairs the intellect, debases the moral affections, and
altogether degrades the individual in the scale of social existence, even when mani-
fest insanity does not arise from it."

Some persons think that masturbation produces only the same effects as natural
excess, and in no greater degree, but this is a great mistake. There is the same
exhaustion of the semen in both cases, but in self -abuse it is not accompanied by
those natural associations that brkig it about in a pleasing manner, and leave after-
ward a feeling of satisfaction. On the contrary it is induced almost wholly by a
powerful exertion of the imagination alone, aided by manual means that are felt to
be inappropriate, so that the act itself is but a very imperfect gratification, and the
feelings that follow it are rather those of disgust and remorse than of pleasurable
recollection. The facility with which the habit can be indulged also leads to its fre-
quent repetition, and as the concurrence of a second party is not necessary there is
nothing to prevent its growing and becoming fully confirmed. In fact, the individ-
ual becomes a slave to a vice that he himself despises, and which he feels is destroy-
ing him. The mental tortures of remorse, fear, and self-condemnation are then added
to bodily exhaustion, and we need not wonder at the fearful havoc they produce.
The licentious debauchee will often look back with a species of pride and vain-glory
upon his numerous indulgences, even when he feels they are killing him, and he may
even feel over again, by recollection, some of his former pleasures ; but for the victim
of masturbation there is not even this small solace. His pleasure is but incomplete
at best, and clouded by dissatisfaction, while the recollection of it only excites dis-
gust and fearful apprehensions.

In fact the evil effects of excessive natural indulgence, particularly the mental
ttnes, bear no comparison, for severity, with those of self-abuse, nor are they nearly

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 585

so numerous and varied. Natural indulgence, it must also be recollected, cannot be
practiced so frequently as masturbation, and consequently it can never cause such
extensive mischief. It is but seldom that natural excesses cause insanity or idiocy,
except secondarily in the offspring, but solitary vice frequently does so, both in the
individual and in his children.

In the Massachusetts Eeport it is stated that 191 of the idiots examined were
known to have practiced masturbation, and in 19 of them the habit was even coun-
tenanced by the parents or nurses ! 116 of this number were males, and 75 females.
In 420 who were born idiots, 102 were addicted to masturbation, and in 10 cases
the idiocy of the children was "manifestly attributable to self-abuse in the parents!"
These 10 known cases it should also be recollected justify the conclusion that there
are really many more, though not ascertained, and make it clear that much of the
idiocy found among children is owing to sexual vice in the parents ! What a fear-
ful fact is this to contemplate, and how important that it should be duly weighed,
both by the moral reformer and legislator.

In the Annual Eeports of the Massachusetts State Lunatic Asylum are also some
valuable statistics, showing the connection between masturbation and insanity. In
the Twelfth of these Eeports, I find that the number of cases existing in the Institute
caused by self-abuse is set down at One Hundred and Thirty-nine, and yet great
pleasure is expressed that the vice has "fewer victims than formerly." The decrease
in the number is attributed, and justly, too, I have no doubt, if there be a decrease,
to " the information that has been diffused on the subject, and the warnings that
have reached the young through the various channels of intelligence that have been
opened on this hitherto obscure subject."

In the Thirteenth Eeport One Hundred and Forty-five cases are set down as
caused by masturbation, and some very forcible remarks are made on the subject
which I think it will be useful to copy.

"The causes of insanity may be divided into voluntary and involuntary. Of
the former, the principal are intemperance and the secret vice ; other causes may be
of this class, such as hazardous speculation, many religious vagaries, imprudent
exposures, and irregularities. None are so prominent as the two first named, and
none so fully stain the character with guilt, which even the occurrence of hopeless
disease can hardly wipe away. Intemperance disorders the senses, and induces apo-
plexy, epilepsy, and palsy. The cases from this cause are about as favorable for
recovery as the majority of others, but are most sure to return if the habit of intem-
perance recurs. The secret vice produces the very worst form of insanity, because it
is so difficult to avoid the continuance of the cause, and because the energies of the
system are more prostrated by it than by almost any other cause. Such patients
become degraded animals, so entirely abandoned to the habit, that hopeless demen-
tia and driveling idiocy generally follow. A few can be influenced to abandon the
practice, and a few others can be cured in spite of it ; but in almost all cases the
disease will become worse, and these dreadful consequences will ensue.

" The secret vice, though doubtless a frequent cause of insanity, and of other
severe and fatal diseases far more than is generally supposed is most operative in pre-
venting recovery from insanity, arising from this and other causes. It is extensively
and alarmingly the result of an active propensity excited by disease and unrestrained
by reason, moral influences or self-respect. Many cases of a favorable character pro-
gress toward recovery till this practice is commenced, then the patient becomes list'

586 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

less, is inclined to lie down or sit in a bent position, walks moderately, looks feeble,
and feels weak and miserable. His mind loses its energies, its scope is circumscribed
more and more, till this beastly indulgence occupies all his thoughts, and the rem-
nant of all the physical powers are concentrated to this single effort of gross and
debased animal nature. Thus the groveling sensualist lives, often a long life, a
degraded sufferer, without a manly thought or a moral feeling worthy of his nature
or his destiny, and finally leaves the world without the regret of his friends, a use-
less, burthensome, loathsome object of abhorrence and disgust."

In the two Keports, under the head of " Relation of Cause to Recovery," I find
two hundred and seventy-one males enumerated, and twenty-one females, from mas-
turbation and its effects ; and of this number one hundred and ninety-seven males,
and twenty-seven females were incurable ! Only two of the females it will be ob-
served being curable.

These Eeports also throw much valuable light on the relation between masturba-
tion, as a cause of insanity, and different occupations.

Some persons express fear that if this subject be generally discussed, and all are
informed about it, this very publicity will increase the evil, by exciting an amount
of attention that would not otherwise have been given to it. The fallacy of this will
be evident enough, to all those who are acquainted with the nature and extent of
the vice. It is next to impossible to prevent its being known, either naturally or from
tuition, and, therefore, no harm can possibly result from proper information timely
given, while on the other hand, numbers undoubtedly perish for want of it.

If it were true that a knowledge of the nature and consequences of this habit
tends to its being practiced, we ought to find it most prevalent amongst those who
have most of that knowledge, and least so amongst those who have the least of it. The
truth is, however, directly the reverse, as every sensible person would pre-suppose,
and as facts indubitably prove. Those who are educated as physicians, of course,
study everything relating to the sexual system, and are acquainted with all its de-
tails, while mechanics, generally speaking, never study anything of the kind, because
it is not necessary for them to do so. Now, let us see what proportion of the in-
sane, from both these classes, are made so by masturbation.

In the Thirteenth Annual Report, I find that there are in the asylum sixty-two
shoemakers, of whom twenty-four were made insane by masturbation, which shows
that of the insanity existing in this class of the population, who certainly receive but
little of this kind of information, nearly fifty per cent., or one-half, arises from self-
abuse ! Now what is the proportion when we refer to the medical profession ? I
can find physicians made insane by other causes, but neither in that Eeport, nor in
the one for the preceding year, do I find a single case of one becoming insane from
masturbation ! These facts, so far from proving what some assert, that an intimate
acquaintance with the physiology of the sexual system leads to its abuse, prove
directly the reverse, and show conclusively that the best informed go the least
astray.

Other facts in the same Eeport also show that it is precisely this kind of knowl-
edge that is needed, and that no other will either lead the thoughts from it or for-
tify against it. Thus among students the proportion of insane from masturbation
is nearly seventy-five per cent., there being eighteen from this cause out of twenty-five;
the balance of the cases being two from ill health, two from domestic affliction, two
from religion, and one from epilepsy. Among merchants the proportion is abou*

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 587

fifty per cent. ; among lawyers, about thirty-three per cent. ; and among clergymen
fifty-six per cent. !

The most frequent cause of insanity is set down as intemperance, but in numer-
ous cases this has been first produced by masturbation, the patient resorting to alco-
holic and other stimulants, merely as a temporary relief from the exhaustion pro-
duced by this practice. Ill health is also another frequent cause, and how often this
arises from self -abuse is well known. In short, there is no doubt on my mind, after
duly considering all the facts, that solitary vice produces more insanity than all
other causes put together !

Another valuable fact also shown in these reports is the influence of occupation in
leading to solitary vice. It is proved conclusively that light sedentary employments
very much favor the formation of such habits, and that, on the contrary, active out-
of-door occupation has the contrary effect. Thus, among "merchants, printers,
students, and shoemakers, " fifty per cent, of the insanity arises from masturbation,
and only twelve per cent, from intemperance, while among carpenters, blacksmiths,
and others who are actively employed, thirty-five per cent, of the insanity arises
from intemperance, and only thirteen per cent, from masturbation. Among seamen,
again, fifty-four per cent, of the insanity arises from intemperance, and only
eleven per cent, from solitary vice. These facts should be duly weighed by parents
when choosing employment for their sons. Many a youth of sanguine temperament,
urgently requiring a muscular and mental occupation of the most varied kind, is
condemned to the monotonous inactivity of a counting-house desk, the distasteful
plodding of an office, or some merely intellectual profession, and in consequence be-
comes listless, dogged and self-debased. In such cases, the abundant vital energy
that ought to have been expended in active exertion is retained, and by stimulating
the sexual organs to an unnatural degree, leads to solitary vice, both as a gratifica-
tion and a relief.

The effects of masturbation, most frequently met with, are weakness of the eyes,
swelling and soreness of the eyelids, partial deafness, weakness of the limbs and back,
headache, dizziness, flatulence, incontinence of urine, diarrhoea, or obstinate costive-
ness, palpitation of the heart, shortness of breath, loss of memory, and confusion of
judgment, with melancholy, or irritable peevishness. Another effect also met with,
in many cases, is a partial loss of the power of speech, or a tendency to stammer and
stutter. This effect I have often observed in persons who had previously spoken as
fluently as any one, and who could not imagine themselves what the difficulty arose
from. Most frequently it is attributed simply to that loss of self-confidence and that
feeling of shame Avhich all self-abusers experience, and no doubt this does make it
worse, but still the main cause of the impediment is a partial paralysis of the muscles
of the throat, brought on by sympathy with the irritated parts below. Not unfre-
quently there is more or less difficulty in swallowing at the same time, with frequent
sighing and gulping, as if there was wind in the throat. In fact, these symptoms are
very similar to those observed in the hysteria of females, with which they are, to a
great extent, identical, both in nature and origin.

Baldness is also a frequent occurrence to those who practice masturbation, and so
is premature whitening of the hair.

Palsy and epilepsy are more frequently the results of this practice than is usually
thought, and paralysis is quite commonly so. I have known many instances of young
men becoming temporarily paralytic from excessive self-abuse, and very recently I
was called to see an old man who was dying from paralysis brought on in this way.

588 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

These affections, though severe, need not be wondered at when the powerful sympa*
thies of the generative organs are borne in mind, and when it is recollected what an
exhaustion of the vital power is caused by their excessive action.

The best way, however, to exhibit the full effects of this baneful vice is to give a
few illustrative cases, which will not only portray the prominent symptoms, but also
indicate the course of treatment usually adopted. Some of them are contributed by
M. Lallemand, and others I have selected from my own note-book.

"M. D , of Philadelphia, of a very robust constitution, contracted the habit

of masturbation while at school, when only eight years old. The first effect produced
was a frequent desire to pass urine, and at twelve years of age this irritability had
become so great that he was sometimes unable to retain his urine a quarter of an
hour. Before entering a house he always took care to micturate several times in
rapid succession, and notwithstanding this precaution, he soon experienced renewed
uneasiness. He felt as though his bladder was never entirely empty, and the small-
est quantity of urine induced spasmodic contractions. The irritability of the urinary
organs diminished by degrees after the period of puberty, but never ceased entirely,
notwithstanding the various means which were employed on different occasions.

"At the age of sixteen, M. D endeavored to break off his injurious habits by

sexual intercourse, but he found himself completely impotent, and shame induced
him to return to masturbation. He afterward made further attempts to correct
himself, but he experienced nocturnal pollutions, which often made him lose courage.
At length, after many relapses, he succeeded completely, without observing any
further nocturnal emissions. Still, his health, instead of improving, became more
and more impaired. His erections were less frequent, less prolonged, incomplete,
and, at length, gradually ceased, together with all venereal desire.

"At the age of twenty-eight, the state of his urine, its frequent discharge, and
the wandering pains in the perineum and testicles, induced a fear of calculus; sound-
ing, however, only showed a morbid sensibility of the urethra, especially toward the
neck of the bladder.

"In the beginning of May, 1837, M. D came to Montpellier in the following

condition : — Much debilitated ; unsteady in his walk ; easily chilled, and taking cold
veiy quickly ; wandering pains all over his body ; skin dry ; memory impaired ;
digestion difficult ; extremities cold ; scrotum relaxed, and testicles soft, very sensi-
tive, and often causing a dull pain, as if they were forcibly compressed ; the semen
— from the account he gave of the last nocturnal pollutions he had experienced —
clear, aqueous and inodorous ; seminal emissions with the last drops of urine, which
were clammy, and passed with difficulty, and excited a sensation of tickling in the
neighborhood of the anus, which extended to the orifice of the urethra ; he often had
diarrhoea, but at other times was very costive, and his stools were passed with diffi-
culty and pain. He did not, however, often pass semen while at stool.

" I discovered, several days following, the presence of semen in M. D 's urine,

and catheterism showed an excessive irritability of the urethra, especially in the
neighborhood of the prostate, which, on examination, was found slightly enlarged.
Nearly a tablespoonful of blood followed the withdrawal of the catheter. The cir-
cumstances did not leave the least doubt on my mind as to the state of the mucous
membrane in the -vicinity of the ejaculatory ducts, and consequently I immediately
performed cauterization, from the neck of the bladder as far as the membranous

portion of the urethra. Twenty days afterward M. D left Montpellier for Italy,

and when he returned, three months afterward, he was completely cured, no involun-

MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES. 589

tary seminal emissions having afterward appeared. His urine was transparent, and
could be retained seven or eight hours without inconvenience ; its discharge took
place without effort, and was not accompanied by any remarkable sensation. Lastly,
the patient's impotence, which had been present nearly twelve years, had given place
to a virility previously unknown to him. I need hardly state that his physical and
moral energy shared in this regeneration.

" I have often had occasion to notice the connection that exists between the sper-
matic and urinary organs ; and I have shown that there is scarcely a cause of
spermatorrhoea which does not act more or less on the bladder and kidneys. The
cause I am now investigating affords us numerous examples of this connection — of
which the case I have just related is a remarkable instance — the irritation of the
urinary organs having been developed very rapidly, having shown very marked symp-
toms, and having existed alone during several years. The patient was only eight
years of age when he first became addicted to masturbation ; at this early age the
urinary organs alone possessed activity, and therefore they alone were able to suffer
disturbance of their functions ; on this account the symptoms were confined for a
long time to the urinary organs. The character of the symptoms showed that they
arose from a chronic state of inflammation, or from an acute irritation of the urin-
ary organs, and this state must have extended also toward the spermatic organs.
Thus the increased secretion of the kidneys, and the extreme irritability of the blad-
der, would give a very clear idea of what took place in the spermatic organs at the
period of puberty. As soon as the testicles began to act, they fell under the same in-
fluence as the kidneys ; the seminal vesicles were in the same condition as the blad-
der ; in other words, the semen was secreted in large quantities, and was retained a
very short time in its reservoirs. Being therefore imperfectly formed, the usual ef-
fect on the erectile tissues produced by its presence did not take place, and coitus
was impossible at the age of sixteen. The occurrence of impotence at so early an
age is sufficient to show that diurnal pollutions had already commenced, although
the patient did not discover them for a long time afterward. He was still, however,
able to practice masturbation ; and this is a circumstance which has great effect in
preventing persons addicted to the vice, from renouncing their fatal habits. At a
later period, nocturnal pollutions, which occurred after a few days' care, shook the
patient's resolution. This is a much less serious, circumstance than the one just
mentioned, but at the same time much more common. At length the patient left
off his habits, and his nocturnal pollutions disappeared ; yet the disorder of his
health continued to increase. His prudence, exercised too late, did not arise from
the strength of his will, but from the weakness of his genital organs ; the disappear-
ance of his nocturnal emissions did not arise from the remedial measures used, but
from the increase of his involuntary diurnal discharges, of which he only became
aware long afterwards. These common errors are the more dangerous, because medi-
cal practitioners are apt to participate in them.

"In the case of M. D the irritability of the canal was very great, and the

effect of the cauterization was correspondingly prompt and decided."

The above case is a highly instructive one, because it shows both how early the
habit of masturbation may be commenced, and also what a general disturbance of
the economy it may lead to. The following case is also a very important one, and
shows how very readily the symptoms of spermatorrhoea may be thought to indi-
cate other diseases, and what mistakes may be made in consequence :

I am indebted for this very remarkable case to the kindness of Dr. Daniel,

590 MASTURBATION AND OTHER SEXUAL ABUSES.

of Cette. " On the 26th of May, 1836, I was called to F , a haker, aged twenty-
two ; I found him in bed, in the following condition : — great moral prostration, car-
ried even to a hatred of existence ; prostration of strength ; anaemia ; lips pale and
shriveled ; remarkable pallidity ; eyes sunken ; expression of countenance dull ;
great emaciation ; skin hot and dry ; pulse small ; voice hoarse, and so low that it
was with difficulty a few words could be heard by approacbing tbe ear ; constant
cough, scarcely permitting an instant's repose ; general wandering pains, most severe
in the loins, and the sides of the chest ; great irritability of the stomacb — vomiting
being excited after taking almost any kind of liquor or solid food.

"At first I thought that I recognized in this patient the symptoms of phthisis
laryngea, complicated with chronic gastritis ; but the examination of his chest and
abdomen did not support this opinion. The epigastric region was not painful on
pressure ; the respiratory murmur was heard all over the chest, and percussion emit-
ted a healthy sound, except under the left false ribs, where it was slightly dull, and
the patient felt pain.

" His debility did not permit me to practice abstraction of blood ; and indeed,
the pleuropneumonia of the left side did not seem either very extensive or very acute.
I therefore ordered a large blister to be applied over the affected spot, and prescribed
a solution of tartar-emetic, and a strict diet. The pain in the side disappeared, and
two days afterward, the stomach could retain milk and barley-water. Still nothing
explained the patient's emaciation ; his almost total loss of voice, hoarseness and
constant cough. His parents attributed these symptoms to hereditary phthisis, and
mentioned that several members of the family had died of that disease. Minute and

repeated examination of F 's chest, however, assured me that this was not the

case. On the other hand, the symptoms were very severe, and I could not discover
any visceral lesion sufficient to account for them. In this state of uncertainty, your
views on spermatorrhoea attracted my attention. I immediately questioned the
patient respecting his past life, and learnt that at the age of seventeen he practiced
masturbation with such fury that he had frequently passed aqueous semen, mixed
with blood : frightened by these accidents, he had corrected himself completely.
But, after about a fortnight's abstinence, he noticed that his urine contained a deposit
of thick, whitish, flocculent matter. He never attached any importance to this, al-
though during four years, he observed it constantly, and noticed that it was more
abundant after he had been much fatigued in his business. He observed also, that the
last drops of urine were thick and viscid, and that a small quantity of viscid matter
generally remained at the orifice of the urethra. His bad symptoms first com-
menced at this time ; his erections and desires entirely disappeared ; and, by the
time he had attained the age of twenty-one, he was obliged to give up his employ-
ment, and shortly afterward, his symptoms becoming aggravated, he was unable to
quit his bed.

" I examined his urine, and found it in the condition he had described ; the de-
posit contained in it being about an ounce in quantity. I noticed that his testicles
were soft, and his scrotum flaccid. He agreed with eagerness to my proposition of
cauterizing the prostatic portion of the urethra, and I performed it on the following
day. The effect of the cauterization was rapid ; the second night afterward the pa-
tient slept soundly ; the third day, a change was observed in his voice ; and erections
occurred during the night. On the fourth day the patient was able to get up and
take some light food, which was well digested ; his wandering pains had disappeared,
and, by the ninth day after the cauterization, the patient's strength had returned."

CHAPTEK L.

EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS.

These two affections are usually confounded together, but there is considerable
difference in their nature, though their manifestations are similar. In both of them
there is an unnatural excitation of sexual desire, so that it sometimes becomes utterly
uncontrollable, and gratification is sought at any cost. In these cases there is a real
furore, or madness, which arises from disease, and is not a mere moral aberration, as
uninformed people suppose.

Satyriasis arises from a disease of the sexual organs, or of some of the adjoining
parts, which keeps them in a constant estate of irritation, sometimes so great that the
patient cannot obtain the slightest relief, either sleeping or awake, but is kept the
whole time in a state of furious excitement.

The diseases that are most likely to produce satyriasis, are those of the urethra
and prostate gland, though sometimes gravel, or even the piles will originate it.
Dr. Curling remarks that " The irritation attending the morbid condition of the
mucous membrane of the prostatic portions of the urethra tends, in a very mate-
rial degree, to excite both the excessive seminal discharge, and the secretions of
the prostate, and to produce that morbid craving for indulgence and abuse, which
persons who have brought themselves to this state, find so difficult to repress and
resist. It is well known that any irritation at the orifice of an excretory duct
usually acts as a stimulus to the secretion of the gland. Thus, hurtful matter in the
duodenum produces a flow of bile ; and a foreign body in the conjunctiva, as an in-
verted eyelash, a discharge of tears. So it is with the testes, when irritation exists
at the orifices of the excretory ducts. The disorder at this part, moreover, appears
to react on the brain, and to become, in part, the cause of the patient's mind being
constantly occupied with subjects of sexual excitement, and of his indifference and
apathy to other matters. So that the local disease induced by abuse powerfully aids
in perpetuating the mischief, and, judging from the experience which I have had
in these cases, is the object to which our treatment should be first directed."

In many of these cases it is of no use reasoning with the patient, and telling him
to control himself, unless the exciting disease be also corrected ; it would, in short,
be of little more use than telling him he must not give way to a diarrhoea or any
other morbid action. In a note in Dr. Curling's work this truth is well laid down,
and applied to a class of cases for which usually no excuse is thought to exist. The
writer says, " This is a truth, I fear, not sufficiently impressed on the minds of
medical men. One would be loath to offer any apology for the vicious habits and
indulgences to which, it is well known, old men are occasionally addicted, — a mel-
ancholy example of the kind, in the higher ranks of life, having lately been brought
under public notice. I cannot but think, however, that, in many instances, these
cases are not undeserving of professional sympathy, and that the erotic longings which

591

592 EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS.

sometimes continue to distress the aged, long after the period at which, in the course
of nature, they should have ceased, depend as much on physical infirmity as mental
depravity, the former inciting and producing the morbid desires. If these pro-
pensities were regarded and treated as symptoms of disease (and that they frequently
occur in connection with affections of the urinary passage is well known to practical
surgeons), I believe they would often subside, and the distressing results to which
they lead would be altogether avoided."

The same remarks also apply to every other period of life, and especially to youth,
as every physician of experience in such matters must be well aware. I know that,
in numerous instances, the sexual feelings of young persons are preternaturally ex-
cited by local disease, and that their genital organs are thus kept in a state of ex-
citement by causes over which they have no control. This fact should be kept
always in view when considering such cases, and we should recollect that a medical
prescription may often accomplish reform, when a moral precept has failed, of which
the foregoing chapters of this work will furnish many illustrations.

I was once consulted by a married man, the father of a family, whose habits had
always been strictly moral and proper, but who suddenly found himself subject to
occasional fits of the most intense sexual excitement, over which he had but little
control. So completely was he the slave of his morbid feelings, in fact, that it was
with the greatest difficulty he kept himself from the most disgraceful and licentious
indulgence. He had latterly shut himself up alone when one of these fits came on,
and was at other times in constant fear that he should, some time or other, ruin his
reputation forever, even if he did nothing more serious. The condition of this man
was truly pitiable, subject as he was to a state of misery for which, if it were known,
he would receive condemnation instead of sympathy. " Every one would tell me,"
he remarked, with tears in his eyes, " that it was disgraceful, and that I ought not
to give way to it, iut I cannot help it though it were to save my life, and I have sent
for you because I think you must understand my true position." I found, on exam-
ination, that this gentleman was affected with a chronic inflammation of the prostate
gland, and lower part of the urethra, which was liable, from various slight causes,
to become temporarily worse, and to produce that excitation of the genitals above
described. He distinctly remembered that before each of the fits he had either taken
some severe exercise, or been subject to some unusual mental agitation, or perhaps
had committed some error in drink or diet, which seemed to bring it on. But of
late the parts had become so extremely sensitive that the simplest excitement of any
kind brought on an attack, and it was scarcely possible for him to avoid one long
together.

I immediately informed him of the cause of his trouble, and as it was not the
result of abuse of any kind, and apparently not unusually severe, I felt justified in
promising him relief, and immediately put him under proper treatment. The diet
and drink were rigidly regulated, bathing and regular exercise enjoined, and a tonic
of iron and gentian administered. I also found it necessary to use the caustic inter-
nally, and to advise astringent lotions, with occasional injections to keep the bowels
free. Under this treatment the irritation soon began to subside, and in two months
he had no return of his erotic fits. Now if this man had committed some gross im-
morality during one of these periods of excitement, it would have been considered
merely as the result of moral depravity, and nothing would have been thought of but
punishment, instead of medical treatment. It is unfortunately true that moral

EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS. 593

depravity is often the only cause of such improper actions, and then they ought to be
visited accordingly ; my object here is not to apologize for anything of that kind,
but simply to show that there are often other cases, of a totally different character,
which should be considered in a different light.

Satyriasis is very apt to follow from the first attempt at masturbation and from
excessive indulgence, particularly in those who use stimulating food or drink. I
have also known tobacco and opium to bring on an attack, and still more frequently
certain medicines when improperly used, such as cantharides and phosphorus.

Erotomania differs from satyriasis as respects the seat of the disease, which in
this case is in the brain, and not in the genitals, they being affected only secondarily.
It is in fact a species of mania or insanity in which the mind is constantly occupied
with sexual matters, and a constant morbid desire is experienced for indulgence,
sometimes even when the patient is completely impotent. Dr. Copeland draws the
distinction between the two diseases very clearly, and I will, therefore, quote his
words, merely remarking that nymphomania, to which he refers, is merely the same
disease in the female as satyriasis in the male :

"Erotomania — Monomanie erotique of Esquikol — is characterized by an exces-
sive love of some object, real or imaginary. It is a mental affection in which amor-
ous ideas are as fixed and dominant, as religious ideas are in religious monomania or
melancholia. Erotomania is very different from satyriasis and nymphomania. In
the latter, the mischief is in the reproductive organs ; in the former, it is in the
mind. The one is a physical, the other a moral disorder. Erotomania is the result
of an excited imagination, unrestrained by the powers of the understanding ; satyr-
iasis and nymphomania proceed from the local irritation of the sexual organs, react-
ing upon the brain, and exciting the passions beyond the restraints of reason. In
the former, there is neither indecency nor the want of chastity ; in the latter, there
is unrestrained expression of sexual desire and excitement. The one is commonly
caused by ungratified or disappointed affection excited in a virtuous mind ; the other,
by inordinate irritation or indulgence of the sexual passion.

"In erotomania, the eyes are bright, the manner and expressions tender and pas-
sionate, and the actions free, without passing the limits of decency. Self and selfish
interests are all forgotten in the devotion paid, often in secret, to the object of the
mind's adoration. A state of ecstasy often occurs in the contemplation of the per-
fections which the imagination attaches to the subject of its admiration. The bodily
functions languish during this state of moral disorder ; the countenance becomes
pale and depressed ; the features shrunk ; the body emaciated ; the temper inquiet
and irritable ; and the mind agitated and despairing. The ideas continually revert
to the loved and desired object ; and opposition or endeavors to turn them in a dif-
ferent direction only render them more concentrated and determined in their devo-
tion. At last, parents and fortune are abandoned, social ties broken asunder, and
the most painful difficulties are encountered in order to obtain the object of admira-
tion.

"In some cases, the attempts made by the patient to conceal and overcome this
affection occasion a state of irritative fever, with sadness, depression, loss of appetite,
emaciation, etc., which has not inappropriately been termed by Lorry Erotic Fever,
and which, after continuing an indeterminate period, may even terminate fatally.
When a young person becomes sad, absent in mind, pale and emaciated, sighs fre-
quently, sheds tears without any obvious reason, is incapable of mental or bodily
38

594 EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS.

exertion, scarcely speaks to any one, loses appetite, etc. , it is sufficiently evident that
the mind is inordinately possessed by some desired object. If a strong effort be not
made to dispossess it of the predominant sentiment, or if the object of desire be not
obtained, the symptoms become still more distressing. The corporeal functions lan-
guish, the eyes sink, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and the nights disturbed
and sleepless. At last a form of slow hectic is produced ; and the weaker organs,
especially the lungs and heart, are the seat of slowly-produced disease ; the whole
frame is blighted, and the patient sinks from the injurious influence of the mental
affection on the vital organs.

"This form of moral disorder may increase, and affect the intellect in a much
more serious manner, until general insanity or mania is developed ; and, with the
progress of time, it may at last terminate in dementia or incoherent insanity. In
each of these, the primary character of the disorder, or the original moral affection,
will still continue to be manifested by the frequent suggestion of the same train of
ideas, or recurrence to the object of devotion."

The treatment of these cases requires great skill and experience on the part of the
physician, and frequently a continued observation for a long time, in order to deter-
mine what the exciting cause really is. It may be wholly moral or wholly physical,
or it may be partly both, and this must be ascertained before any good can be accom-
plished. The fact is philosophy is required as much as physiology, and the most per-
fect confidence must exist between the physician and the patient. The affections
have often much to do with these peculiar troubles, and it should not be forgotten
that there is a great difference in the temperaments of different persons, and also in
the sensitiveness or impressibility of their natures. Some physicians always recom-
mend marriage in these cases, to single people, and there is no doubt but it is
sometimes what is required, but at other times it is highly improper. In certain
forms of physical derangement especially, marriage would only aggravate the evil,
and the patient would in all probability ultimately become totally unfit for the mar-
ried state. This advice therefore, if followed, would not only fail of doing any good
to persons so situated, but would make two unhappy instead of one. — It will be seen
that some forms of erotomania are identical with what is called, commonly, love
sichness.

Erotomania, or love madness, is a form of mania most often seen among women,
but not unknown among men. It is simply a morbidly excited state of the senti-
ment of affection, or love, and may be exhibited toward very different objects, and
in many different ways; It no doubt always originates in sexuality, and its most
natural form is that of love for one of the opposite sex ; but if it cannot be indulged
in that way, it will expend itself upon other objects. Thus, unmarried females, of
naturally warm affections, often bestow their wealth of love upon children, or ani-
mals, or even upon inanimate objects. Sometimes they become really mad, and
then it is pitiful indeed to see them lavishing the tenderest attentions, or the most
intense devotion, upon something which can never render them the slightest return.
There is not the least thought of self in anyway, nor the least regard for the worthi-
ness or unworthiness of the object. There is nothing but love, absorbing love,
which causes complete blindness to everything but the supposed perfections of the
being beloved. Bodily or moral deformities, the most obvious to others, are either
unseen or totally disregarded, while any desirable attributes which nature may have
totally forgotten, are easily supplied by the imagination in perfection.

EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS. 596

Moore has well expressed this in his well-known lines :

" Oh I what was love made for, if it be not the same,
Through joy and through torment, through glory and shame?
I know not, I ask not, if guilt's in thy heart,
I but know that I love thee, whatever thou art I"

This is love pure and devoted, totally regardless of all else, and ready to undergo
any trial or sacrifice whatever, not only without regret, hut rejoicing in them as a
privilege. Such an intense and absorbing sentiment readily becomes an uncontroll=
able mania, terrible in its fierceness, pitiful in its melancholy, or ridiculous in its
strange eccentricities. Shakespeare gives us some of the best illustrations of love
madness that we have — Juliet, Ophelia, and many others, are perfect, each in its
own way. Even poor old Lear, king though ho be, is one of the same class. All
his love was concentrated on his daughters and when he thought they were
ungrateful, and did not return it, he went raving mad.

In short, love when starved, blighted, betrayed, or slighted, may result in the
most fearful depravity, the most terrible crimes, the most maudlin absurdities, the
most heartrending despair, or the most touching devotion to some beautiful scheme
of mercy and benevolence. Happy indeed when it takes the last direction, as for-
tunately, in women, it is very apt to do.

In those of a pious disposition, thwarted love is apt to become ecstatic devotion.
The Deity, the Saviour, some saint, or favorite preacher, takes the place of the
lover, and is adored with an intensity proportionate to their exaltation.

In all great religious excitements, camp-meetings,, and revivals, it is impossible
to overlook .the part which is played by the erotic feeling. Nothing contributes
more to the fervor and devotion, and to that intensity of emotional activity usually
witnessed at such gatherings. In fact, it is not uncommon to see, on such occa-
sions, exhibitions of erotomania as unmistakable as any to be met with in medical
practice, but disguised, both to the individuals themselves and to those around,
under the semblance of religious ecstacy.

It must be remembered, however, that in erotomania, even in its utmost inten-
sity, there is not necessarily, nor commonly, either indecency or want of chastity ;
on the contrary, there is more often a shrinking modesty and reserve. It is not sen-
sual passion, from organic excitement, but simply excess of love, heightened by
restraint and excited imagination.

In this respect it differs essentially from satyriasis, or nymphomania, as it is
sometimes called ; this results from physical causes, from excitement of the sexual
organs acting upon the brain, and producing intense desire for amative indulgence,
not love but passion, or true sexual mania.

"When in excess, this becomes the fiercest and most uncontrollable of all animal
impulses, constituting in fact a true madness, the victims of which will dare or
endure anything wnatever to procure the indulgence for which they crave. No fear
or thought of consequences, no restraints of morality or decency have the slightest
weight, when the mania is fairly developed.

Indulging in libidinous thoughts, and giving loose rein to the imagination, will
of course intensify the erotic fever, and so far it is due to the patient's own neglect
of self-control ; but beyond and above all this, in cases of real satyriasis, there is a

596 EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS.

physical cause sufficiently powerful to overcome all moral restraint and all consider
ations of prudence.

When there is an excessive secretion of semen, the stimulus to the sexual organs
and to the brain becomes so strong that the will has no power over them whatever,
and, in the absence of natural relief, they will be constantly excited in spite of all
a man's efforts. It is as vain to expect it to be otherwise as it would be to expect
one to become sober when constantly filled with alcohol.

Such a condition could not of course occur where marriage was feasible, and it is
therefore chiefly among the victims of celibacy that satyriasis is found.

In the majority of cases of enforced and undue celibacy, however, nature relieves
herself by nocturnal and other forms of seminal loss, but often at a fearful cost to the
patient. Many a splendid constitution has been ruined, and many a noble mind en-
feebled by these substitutes for natural indulgence. When there has to be either
erotic mania, or involuntary depletion, more or less mischief must result in some
way or other.

In very many cases the individual so urged resorts to masturbation, and this is
perhaps the worst evil of all. From an occasional indulgence, perhaps at first as a
relief only, it rapidly becomes a habit, which every day confirms and makes more
dominating.

The victims of satyriasis are often among the best and noblest of human beings.
It is their constant and determined struggle against nature, and their heroic resistance
to all temptations for relief, natural or otherwise, which makes them finally become
maniacs. Then the ignorant world, looking at them only in their fall, considers them
simply as self-indulgent debauchees, who have willfully made themselves depraved.

The really immoral and the self-indulgent do not resist long enough to become
maniacs, but give way sufficiently early to save themselves, and when prudent in
their indulgences, they often get credit for virtue which they do not possess.

Some people are so constituted that their sexual ardor is always feeble, and it costs
them but little effort to overcome it. They, of course, cannot understand the con-
dition of those differently constituted, and are therefore unable to judge them justly.
To such people these statements will appear uncalled for, if not perhaps exaggerated,
bui, the great majority, from their own experience, will acknowledge them to be
both truthful and timely.

There can be no doubt but that any conditions of society which hinder early
marriages are highly injurious, both to the individual and the community ; for en-
forced celibacy, among those who are sexually potent, means either illicit indulgence
or personal impurity ! It is of no use to half state a truth, and I therefore say, with-
out reservation, that every one, on attaining full maturity, should marry ; for if they
do not, vice and disease are certain to result.

Too much is said about the moral benefit which follows a constant struggle
against temptation ; and a man who is able to contend against his natural propensi-
ties, with more or less apparent success, is said to be in a better condition than he
who naturally and prudently gratifies them. I do not believe it ! And I feel sure
that the experience of every observant physician and student of nature will bear out
what I say. The victory, if indeed it may be so called, is only in seeming, and no
one but the victim himself knows all it has cost. This kind of struggle has, in fact,
ruined tens of thousands of the best of men and women, bodily and mentally, even
when they have escaped open moral wreck.

EROTOMANIA AND SATYRIASIS. 597

The burning, consuming fever of intense sexual desire, resulting from legitimate
physical causes, cannot be overcome except by utter bodily prostration, or by some
determination of the impulse in another direction. The constantly oppressed and
throbbing brain, irritability of temper, waywardness, and tendency to eccentricity
of conduct, if not downright mania, so often met with among our very best young
men, result in this way. As remarked before, those who are naturally self-indulgent-
and who care nothing for consequences, social or individual, Tiave no such experi,
ence, because with them no such impossible repression is even attempted.

On this point I speak strongly, because my professional experience has brought
this matter very forcibly to my attention, and I feel sure that enforced celibacy, in
the healthy and vigorous, is productive of most serious evils, bodily, mental, and
moral.

The records of our lunatic asylums give ample proofs of this ; for it must be re-
membered that most of the cases there recorded as due to masturbation, really result,
primarily, from want of early marriage. Some result, undoubtedly, from hereditary
tendency, and many from disease, bodily or mental, but many more from deprivation
of natural indulgence.

Actual mania, from intense and ungratified desire, is not at all uncommon in
those who rigidly deny themselves all modes of relief. It must be remembered that
it is not a mere moral condition, or one resulting from ill-regulated thoughts, though
this may of course exaggerate it ; but the real foundation of the desire is a bodily
need!

Nature has attached to certain organs peculiar sensations, which are always felt
in proportion to the activity of those organs, and which can no more be totally sub-
dued by any moral effort, than can the feeling of hunger or. thirst. These sensations
when too intensely felt, or for too long a time, always affect the brain and nervous
system generally, besides causing serious derangements in other organs.

This is frequently seen in animals. The elephant, in captivity, is often subject to
mad fits, as they are called, when he becomes dangerous. These are due entirely to
want of sexual gratification. The same thing is seen in the males of other animals,
when kept too long from female association. Monkeys, it is well known, will practice
masturbation in such circumstances, and so, probably, would other animals, if they
had hands.

The peculiar madness in dogs, which we call hydrophobia, is only sexual madness ;
where the male and female are always with each other, it is never seen. In Constan-
tinople, for instance, where dogs breed and live in the streets by thousands, the disease
is unknown.

It is not necessary, however, to pursue this matter further ; enough has been said
to show that it is a subject more for the physiologist and physician than for the mere
moralist and preacher alone.

CHAPTEE LI.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION OF THE SEXUAI

POWERS.

It is unfortunately the case, as our previous articles have shown, that the sexual
power is liable to be impaired, or even totally lost, from a variety of causes, and that
it is exceedingly difficult of restoration. There are, however, many apparently sim-
ple rules which, if duly observed, would prevent much of the injury now experienced,
and there are also many others, equally simple, which will often materially assist in
restoration. The object of this chapter is to point out many of these, chiefly in
the form of suggestions and hints ; the strictly medical treatment having been fully
entered into already.

It is very essential to the preservation of the sexual power that the general health
should be good, and that there should be no serious derangements of any of the vital
functions. When the general health is impaired and the vital energies are low, the
sexual organs are sure to be weakened, and usually more in proportion than any of
the others. Owing to their extensive sympathies also they are sure to be affected by
the diseases of all the other organs, and not unfrequently this sympathetic injury be-
comes very serious. The stomach particularly exerts a great influence over the gener-
ative organs, both beneficial and injurious. Long-continued dyspepsia is nearly always
accompanied by weakened sexual power and desire, and even temporary attacks of
indigestion will, for a time, produce similar effects. On the other hand a healthy
stomach, with perfect digestion and nutrition, is highly conducive to sexual vigor.
We. may even go much further, and show that high feeding is nearly sure to over-
excite the genital organs, or in other words that gluttony leads to licentiousness.
This is a truth too often lost sight of in the education of children, many of whom,
though predisposed to sexual ardor, are stimulated with rich food and exciting
drinks till their passions become overpoweringly strong. In shorb the stomach ex-
erts a most decided indirect influence over the generative organs, and we are thus
enabled, by proper attention to the diet and drink, to either increase or weaken their
power to a great extent.

Next to the stomach, it is important to attend to the state of the bowels, as they
exercise considerable influence over the generative organs, and may affect them in a
very injurious manner. The bad effect of piles has already been alluded to, and also
constipation, but this last disability is of more consequence than it has perhaps been
represented to be. No person must expect to escape seminal weakness who is habit-
ually constipated, no matter how vigorous and healthy the genital organs themselves
may appear to be. It is, therefore, very important, as a means of preserving sexual
vigor, that the bowels should be always properly regulated, and frequently a little
attention to this point is all that is needed to complete a recovery. The opposite

PRESER VATION AND RESTORATION OF THE SEXUAL POWERS. 599

state, diarrhoea, though of course weakening, is not so decidedly hurtful as constipa-
cion, and its effects are sooner recovered from.

Next to the stomach and bowels the urinary organs may be mentioned as exert-
ing great influence over the sexual system. The proof of this has already been given,
but I think it necessary to call attention to the fact here as one of the very first im-
portance. If the kidneys or bladder be affected in any way the genital organs are
sure to be affected likewise, and if the urine have an irritating quality it is nearly
certain to act on the urethra and ducts so as to cause sexual excitement or sperma-
torrhoea. This is particularly important in regard to children, many of whom are
disposed to precocious virility, or to masturbation, simply from being affected with
gravel or with some disease of the kidneys or bladder. Those children most liable to
such troubles usually find it difficult to hold their urine during the night, and it is
very high colored, with a strong odor. Such children are very apt to be subject to
spermatorrhoea in after-life, and also to be addicted to self-abuse ; it is, therefore, very
important that all such affections of the urinary organs should be promptly attended
to. At every after-period of life also such matters require serious attention ; for
many a man is kept diseased and impotent by the same causes, which may operate
so powerfully as to neutralize all attempts at cure while they remain. When any of
these diseases exist, at any period, it is requisite, of course, that the diet and drink
should be regulated especially in reference to them, the urinary organs being readily
affected by those agents.

Constant and healthy exercise of the whole muscular system is also of great im-
portance to the preservation of sexual power. It is true that if a man takes little
exertion, particularly if he lives high, he will be apt to exhibit an unusual tendency
to amorous indulgence, because, as before remarked, gluttony and idleness lead to
licentiousness. This effect, however, is only a temporary one and sooner or later
the individual finds that he has permanently exhausted his vital energy and that his
health and strength are seriously impaired. The vital power that may be safely ex-
pended in sexual indulgence is only the surplus, after every part of the system has
appropriated its due amount, and if more be so expended some part must suffer.
In other words we may suppose that every healthy man has a certain stock of vital
energy, which we will call his capital, to which he keeps adding, more or less, by the
function of nutrition ; this addition may be compared to interest which may be ex-
pended without any loss of capital, and of course without making him any poorer.
If, however, by any excess he expends more than this addition the capital is proporr
tionably diminished, and permanently too, for it can seldom be again made up.

Now, the idle man does not expend enough vital energy on his muscular system
to keep it healthy, but at the same time gives a superabundance of it to the sexual
organs, so that they are over-stimulated, and suffer from excess, constantly causing
a drain on the vital power that soon exhausts both principal and interest, and leaves
the individual completely exhausted.

The philosophy of this has been frequently alluded to in the course of the present
work, but it is so important that I wish to present it in a strong light. I am fully
persuaded that there is no case of precocious or excessive sexual propensity, unless
caused by disease, that cannot be easily subdued by muscular exercise. No matter
how vigorously the seminal glands may act, in a state of leisure, they must become
less active if the body be exhausted by active exertion, and to this rule there is
scarcely any limit. One of the Reports of the Massachusetts Lunatic Asylum

600 PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION OF THE SEXUAL POWERS.

strongly impresses this truth, and shows conclusively that we have, in hard labor, a
certain means of subduing this propensity to its proper limits under any circum-
stances. The application of this truth to young persons is obvious, numbers of
whom are made licentious only by bodily inactivity and over-feeding.

The invalid, or the man whose powers are impaired, must of course husband his
strength, because he does not require exhaustion, but only sufficient exercise to insure
health.

Exercise of the mind is also equally as important as exercise of the body. The
man who is mentally idle is nearly certain to experience too strongly the force of the
animal propensities, and licentious thoughts are too often indulged merely from the
absence of better ones. It must be recollected, however, that too much mental exer-
tion, particularly if attended with care and anxiety, is most destructive to the sexual
power, and frequently leads to impotence, as many of our cases have shown. Those
who wish, therefore, to preserve their virility should endeavor to maintain a happy
medium, laboring with the mind sufficiently for health and utility, and endeavoring
to preserve perfect calmness and equanimity.

PLATE XXXVI.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF SCROTAL HERNIA OR RUPTURE.

Fig. 1. Hydrocele, or formation of water in the scrotum. 7. The testicle. 6,
6, 6, shows where the testicle came down. 14, is the spermatic cord. 15, the large
artery.

Fig. 2. Hernia, or rupture. Descent of a part of the intestines into the scro-
tum, in front of the testicles (7).

Fig. 3. Infantile hernia. Partial descent of the intestines, on top of the testicle.

Fig. 4. Oblique inguinal hernia, or descent of the intestine into the scrotum, as
seen in the adult.

Hernia, or rupture may either be congenital — that is, caused by imperfection of
the parts at and before birth ; or it may occur in after life, from violence, or from
hard lifting and straining.

PLATE XXXVI.

*i&L

Varieties of Scrotal Hernia.

PAET XY

DISEASES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

CHAPTER LIL

MALFORMATION, OE IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OP THE DIFFERENT FEMALE ORGANS.

Malformation, or faulty development of the female organs, is frequently met
with, sometimes from accidents, and sometimes from natural imperfection. There
are so many and such different cases of this kind that it is impossible to enumerate
them all, nor is it necessary. We will therefore confine ourselves to those most
generally found.

COHESION OF THE EXTERNAL LIPS.

Sometimes female children are born with the external lips completely grown
together, so as even to close up the passage from the bladder. In this case great
distress is very soon felt from inability to discharge the urine, and the assistance
of the surgeon becomes immediately necessary. Fortunately, this difficulty is gen-
erally very easily overcome. It is seldom, however, that the adhesion is so exten-
sive as to close completely the urethra ; more generally it is only partially closed,
and the urine escapes in drops or small quantities. More frequently it is only the
entrance to the vagina that is closed, and then the difficulty may not be discovered
till the period of puberty. At that time great distress is felt from the menses not
being able to escape from the womb ; but of this we shall speak in another article.
There are many accidents that may cause this adhesion of the labia, such as chafings,
inflammation from various causes, and irritation of the urine. In some young per-
sons there is a constant disposition to an inflamed state of these parts, and unless
constant attention be paid to cleanliness they are very apt to grow together. In
married persons this sometimes takes place from injuries at childbirth and other
causes. Let it arise how it may, however, or at whatever period of life, the imper-
fection should be immediately removed, as serious consequences often arise from it —
such as violent inflammations, retention of the menses, and even dangerous ulcera-
tions. The surgeon should, of course, be applied to in all such cases, and in young
persons as early as possible, so that all trace of the imperfection may disappear by the
growth of the parts. Very often these things are neglected in children, and then
unpleasant exposures have to be made when the parties are grown up. I have known
■many such left till puberty, or even till marriage, causing then the greatest distress
and difficulty. Where anything of the kind is even suspected, it should be at once
attended to, and parents should bear in mind that very often the regular use of cold
water will prevent the necessity for the surgeon's knife. There is too much neglect
of this precaution .'

In nearly all these cases, especially when taken in time, no Tcnife is required. In
young persons never. There is, therefore, nothing in the operation to terrify. I
have found that the best mode is to gently tear them asunder, or gradually separate

604 IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE GiiGANH.

them with a thin piece of ivory, or hard wood, which may he done with little or no
pain. Care must be taken afterward to keep them apart till the17 heal, or they may
again adhere.

UNION OF THE NYMPHJE.

The nymphae sometimes adhere from the union of the external labia, and some-
times from other and independent causes. This malformation, like the previous one,
may be either congenital or accidental, and its general effects are much the same as
those described in the previous section. In such cases, there is always a difficulty in
urinating ; the nymphae not directing it in a stream in the proper direction, it flows
backward, or over the person, causing great trouble and irritation, and often leads to
the fear that there is gravel, or stone, or weakness in the bladder.

Most of these cases of adhesion are so slight that no cutting is required. I have
treated many successfully with the simplest domestic means, both in children and
adults.

UNNATURAL GROWTH OF THE NYMPHS.

An unusual enlargement of the nymphae is sometimes observed even in very
young children, but is more usually found after puberty. The causes of this un-
natural growth are obscure, and sometimes it appears to arise from a constitutional
tendency. The annoyance, and sometimes even positive suffering, is very great, so
as to seriously impede the performance of several natural functions. Attention
should be paid immediately to these cases, because they have not only a tendency
often to become much worse, bat even to degenerate into gangrene, fungus or cancer.
The use of cold lotions and saline aperients, with perfect rest and careful abstinence
from exciting food or drink, will usually be sufficient to check the evil, if used early.
When these means fail, however, and the enlargement still continues, leeches may be
used, or scarification, and, as a last resort, the parts may be cut away, as is often done
in some parts of Asia for other reasons. Certain habits in young persons, and certain
excesses in adults, have often more to do with the production of this annoyance than
is supposed, and if persisted in will defeat all attempts at cure. Cold water, and
entire absence from all excitement whatever, is often all that is required.

UNNATURAL GROWTH OF THE CLITORIS.

This affection is precisely the same as the last, in its nature and treatment, being
merely located in another part. It is, however, much more annoying, and more
danger- us, and is likely to lead to immorality as well as to serious disease. The
same n eans may be used as are recommended for enlarged nymphae, and, if these
fail, an putation may be necessary. If proper cleanliness be observed, and all im-
proper excitement avoided, this last resort is seldom needed. If it ever does become
necessa ry, however, it is consoling to know that the operation is speedy, safe, and
almost painless. In some parts of the world it is almost invariably performed.

Ian persuaded that more young persons are subject to these two last-named
annoyances than is generally supposed, and I have no doubt but that the unnatural
excitement thus produced is a more frequent cause of deviation from the paine of
rectitude than has ever been suspected ! A timely attention to physical derange-
ments will often prevent moral ones !

IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE ORGANS. 605

Exciting food, indolence, and vicious habits, are probably some of the principal
physical causes of this evil, conjoined with excited feelings from sentimental read-
ing or improper associations.

CLOSURE OF THE VAGINA.

Imperf oration, or want of passage in or to the vagina is sometimes found at birth,
and sometimes arises from accidents in after life. It usually produces no particular
inconvenience till the period of puberty, at which time great distress is often pro-
duced from retention of the menses.

Sometimes this closure is caused simply by the hymen having no passage through
it. In this case, the membrane usually protrudes in a convex form externally, and
the fluid may be felt, like a weight, pressing upon it, whenever any accumulation of
the menses occurs. In one case of this kind, occurring in my own practice, there
had never been a flow though the patient was nearly twenty years old. An exami-
nation soon showed the cause. The hymen was completely imperforate, and pro-
truded in the form of a round ball, from the pressure of the fluid behind. The
abdomen was much distended, the lower limbs were much swelled, and about once
a month the greatest distress was experienced, from the persevering efforts made by
nature to relieve herself. At one of these periods a small incision was carefully
made, and immediately there escaped nearly three quarts of fluid matter resembling
the ordinary monthly secretion, mixed with clots and cakes of dark blood, and mem-
brane. The patient felt immediate relief, and one month after had her menstruae,
and continued to do so with perfect regularity, and without distress. From the suf-
fering previously experienced, and from the wearing down of the system, it was evi-
dent she could not long have survived as she was, and what made her case worse, the
parties prescribing for her had given a quantity of forcing medicine, to bring it on,
as they said, thus increasing the evil. The real cause of the difficulty was never sus-
pected before my visit.

In all cases when the menses do not appear in young persons at the proper time,
it should be ascertained, with certainty, whether any impediment of this kind
exists or not, before any treatment is recommended, otherwise great mischief may be
done,

The most usual symptoms of retention from this cause are, enlargement of the
abdomen, which varies much however at different times, with great tenderness to the
touch,— pain in the loins and back— weight and dragging down in the pelvis— diffi-
culty of breathing — spasmodic starts and twitches — headache — sickness and vomit-
ing— and usually swelling and great tenderness of the breasts. In course of time
nearly all the internal organs become more or less deranged, and we find difficulty
in passing the urine, or inability to retain it, and frequently great suffering whenever
the bowels are moved. In some cases the accumulation has been so great, as to cause
severe pressure on the sacral nerves ; and thus produce numbness and weakness, or
even paralysis of the lower limbs. Sometimes the great enlargement has caused sus-
picion of pregnancy, and much injustice and suffering have in consequence been ex-
perienced. There are cases recorded in which this retention has produced severe
nervous diseases, and even insanity. And in more than one instance the fluid has
been forced along the Fallopian tube into the abdomen, causing inflammation and
death. Dropsy is a very frequent result. In some few instances the fluid is absorbed

606 IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE ORGANS.

after each monthly period, but this is rare, and when it does occur, it leads to great
constitutional disturbance.

Imperf oration of the hymen is not, however, the only cause of closure of the
vagina. There are sometimes false membranes formed, at different parts of the pas-
sage, or the two walls may be even perfectly united in their whole length, forming a
solid body instead of a tube ! I recollect one case of this kind, in which an operation
was performed, and a passage cut, till the womb was reached, and the walls kept
from growing together again till they healed. The passage thus produced was very
small at first, but gradually enlarged, by proper means of distention, to its naturaL
dimensions. This is a very delicate and difficult operation, however, and not unac-
companied with danger. In the case referred to it was perfectly successful, and in a
short time after the menses appeared and became regularly established. The lady
subsequently married, and became a mother, with little more than the ordinary pain
and difficulty. It is proper to remark, however, that such an operation as this is ex-
ceedingly difficult and dangerous, and by many surgeons would not be performed at
all, except when it offered the only chance for preserving the health, or life, of the
sufferer.

This accident has occasionally arisen from injuries at childbirth, and from crimi-
nal attempts at abortion. I have even known it to occur, partially, from other
vicious practices, producing inflammation.

In performing the operation of puncturing the hymen, or other membrane, there
is always some risk of causing inflammation in the womb ; and it should therefore only
be attempted by a competent person ; fatal results having happened from want of pro-
per precautions. It is also desirable to so perform it that the hymen shall not be
destroyed, on account of the moral importance attached to it. A little reflection
will show how culpably negligent those parents must be who remain so ignorant of
the condition of their children, as to allow them to marry with this imperfection,
and yet this has been done ; and, in one case in my own practice, nearly with fatal
results !

Many cases are recorded in medical works in which the vagina has become closed
after a difficult labor, and some even in which it occurred after conception, so that
an opening had to be cut before delivery could be accomplished. Dr. Segalas men-
tions one such case in which the opening could not be made in time, and the patient
died from the bursting of the womb.

PARTIAL CLOSURE, OR NARROWNESS OP THE VAGINA.

This state of the parts is often found at birth, though it may be produced by va-
rious causes afterward. The closing may be so great as to cause a difficulty in men-
struation, with pain, or it may not be discovered till marriage, or even till deliv-
ery.

Many cases are on record, and I have known many such, in which the marriage
could not be consummated from this cause. In one of these, to the great distress of
both parties, a divorce was about to be agreed upon. The lady was brought to me
for another affection ; but this being confidentially mentioned, I remarked that pos-
sibly the difficulty might be overcome. The patient could scarcely be brought to
think so, but ultimately agreed that the experiment should be made. The passage
itself was not larger than an ordinary quill, though there was no difficulty at the

IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE ORGANS. 607

monthly period. By patient perseverance in a proper system of dilatation, with dif-
ferent-sized elastic tubes, filled with air, in less than six months it had attained its
proper dimensions ; and, to the great joy of both parties, the difficulty was fully
removed, and conception afterward occurred.

The narrowness may either exist in the whole length of the vagina, or only in a
particular part — this, of course, requires to be accurately ascertained. In some
cases it arises merely from, a partial growing together of the external lips, and is
then very easily removed. The danger, at the period of marriage, in some of these
cases, is obvious ; in some of them much after-suffering, and even death, has beer.
produced, which might have easily been avoided by a little timely assistance.

This process of enlarging the vaginal canal is one requiring great care and pa-
tience. There are few cases wherein it will not be successful, if rightly conducted,
though there are many in which it may fail from very slight inattention. In all
cases where there is pain or difficulty, at certain times, from this cause, it should be
immediately resorted to. The use of cutting instruments, is seldom, if ever, re-
quired in these cases ; I never recollect one, and I have had a great many, in which,
by the gradual means spoken of, I did not effect a cure. A case is mentioned by
Colombat De LTsere, of a lady tlvirty-four years of age, who had been married since
her fourteenth year, with whom this operation was perfectly successful.

Lacerations, and other injuries, from delivery, frequently produce this difficulty.

The walls of the vagina will sometimes swell from inflammation, and cause a
temporary narrowness, which may be overcome by rest and cold injections. Tumors
occasionally develop, either on the walls or on the mouth of the womb, and partly
fill up the passage. These are probably the worst cases of the kind that can occur.
Many medical authors assert that no attempt to remove them should ever be made ;
in some cases, however, the operation is successful.

"When this narrowness of the passage is not discovered before labor commences,
there is sometimes great difficulty, and even fatal lacerations, from the parts not
giving way readily ; but in general the efforts of nature effect a gradual enlarge-
ment, even in the worst cases. It would be better, however, to attend to the diffi-
culty in time, if it be known. ,

CLOSING OP THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB.

The mouth of the womb may become closed from the same accidents as the va-
gina, or it may be closed from birth. The same effects also follow from its closure as
from that of the vagina, with the exception that it does not prevent the consum-
mation of marriage, though it will prevent conception. The plan of treatment is
nearly the same as that laid down for the vagina, but it is much more difficult and
uncertain, and by many persons is altogether denounced, excepting as a last resource
to preserve health, or life. I have overcome some cases, however, without an
operation, by patient perseverance. Very often this defect exists and is unsuspected„
It should therefore be always looked for, when no other cause of difficulty is known,
particularly in retention of the menses and in barrenness.

ABSENCE OF THE VAGINA, OR WOMB, OB BOTH.

Fortunately these deprivations seldom occur. I have, however, met with some
such, and many are on record in medical books ; it is therefore advisable to mention

608 IMPERFECT DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FEMALE ORGANS.

them. Either the vagina or the womb may be absent, alone, or both may be absent
together. It may also be a congenital defect, or may arise from injuries. The
womb may be absent and yet every other part be perfect, so that no indication of the
defect will be evident, except on examination. Marriage may then be consummated
but must of course be fruitless. Absence of the vagina is of course always discovered
and forbids the possibility of marriage. If the womb and ovaries be perfect when
there is no vagina, we may have the same distress and difficulty as in closing of the
vagina, because there will be no means of escape for the menses if they form.

CHAPTER LIII.

DISPLACEMENT OK WRONG POSITION OP THE PEMALE ORGANS.

The different female organs are liable, from a variety of causes, to be displaced,
or they may even be misplaced congenitally. The womb is most frequently found
out of its proper situation, and its deviations will, therefore, first engage our atten-
tion.

PROLAPSUS UTERI, OR PALLING OP THE WOMB.

This troublesome affliction, scientifically called hysteroptosis, is found at almost
every period of life, and under almost all circumstances. It is, in fact, so general
that it may be considered a kind of heirloom, to which every female may consider
herself born, and from which she may think herself extremely fortunate if she escapes.
It is, in fact, a very rare occurrence to meet with any adult female, particularly if
long married, who is not troubled with it, or has not had it. Married females are
undoubtedly more subject to it than unmarried ones, but it is found to a great ex-
tent even among very young persons. I have known many suffer from it before
puberty, and some even as young as ten or eleven years of age. Cases are on record
where complete prolapsus existed at birth, giving rise to doubt as to the proper attri-
butes of the child. But without referring to these congenital accidents, we have
enough to do, unfortunately, with the disease as it arises in after life.

The primary causes of its fearful prevalence are to be found, undoubtedly, in an
almost entire neglect of the laws of physical health, in the education of young females.
Want of sufficient self-prompted exercise, with free exposure to air and light ; com-
bined with injurious and absurd modes of dress, and too long continuance in con-
strained positions of the body, are some of the evils almost universally prevailing.
These are sure to lead to bodily debility and imperfect development, particularly
when united with over excitement of the mind and feelings. And hence arise the
curved spines, the blanched cheeks, the consumptive lungs, and general state of
weakness so prevalent among young girls; and the still greater evils so general
among adult females. Falling of the womb is more frequently produced by loss of
tone in the muscular system than by anything else ; it is, in fact, nearly always a
result of debility, except among females who perform heavy labors — and with them
it is produced by actual violence, by lifting, straining, or remaining too long on the
bet.

Until these errors in the education and mode of life of females are corrected,
such evils will always exist ; and if any man could prevail on society to adopt a
more rational course in this respect, he would prevent more disease and suffering
than medical art has cured since it was first originated.

Among particular causes of prolapsus uteri may be mentioned, wearing corsets,
'"oo violent exertion, running up stairs, reaching above the head, straining from

610 BISPLA EMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE 0RGAN8.

FrenntE 125. — Ltaerai Section of the Female Pelvis, to show the position of the organs in thevr

A. The bladder. B. The womb. 0. The vagina. B. The rectum, e. The right ovary. /;
The right Fallopian tube. g. The os tincae, or mouth of the womb. h. The meatus urinarius,
or mouth of the bladder, i i. The small intestines, jj. The back bone. k. The pubic or front
bone. I. The right external lip, or labium, m. The right internal lip, or nymphse. n. The hy-
men, o. The opening through the hymen, q. The clitoris, p. The perineum.

Figure 126.— Lateral Section of the female Pelvis,
to show the position of the Womb in the First
< Stage of Prolapsus.
A. The bladder. B. The womb, which is fall-
en down nearly to the middle of the vagina,
which is much enlarged, owing to the womb
being forced down into it. B. The rectum, also
much compressed, i i. The small intestines, also
fallen down after the womb.

Figure 127. — Lateral Section of the Pelvis, t»
show the position of the Womb, and other
Organs, in the Second Stage of Prolapsus.
A. The bladder. B. The womb, now fallen
to the bottom of the vagina, which is much en-
larged, and nearly filled up by the fallen womb.
B. The rectum, which, like the bladder, is
severely pressed, i. The small intestines, still
following the womb.

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 611

constipation of the bowels, injuries at child-birth, or rising too soon after it, frequent
deliveries, and excesses of various kinds.

To understand the nature of this distressing affection it will be necessary to
refer again to the plates. It will there be seen that the womb is placed in the pelvis,
oetween the bladder and rectum, to both of which it is attached, those attach-
ments being the chief means of its support in a vertical position. The ligaments,
both round and broad, act chiefly as stays, to prevent the womb moving to the right
or left particularly when the female lies down. The muscles of the perineum, or
part between the mouth of the vagina and ^he rectum, also play an important paift
in sustaining the womb. The whole of the genito-urinary organs, and the rectum aft
well, are supported by these muscles, which form what is called the floor of the pelvic.
When these muscles are weakened, or relaxed, they allow the parts they should sus-
tain to sink below their proper level, till eventually they become fixed in a wrong
position, and their attachments so weakened that they cannot return. The perineum
is relaxed by straining from costiveness, by violent coughing, and by lifting, all of
which, therefore, lead to prolapsus.

A heavy engorged state of the womb itself also generally accompanies this dis-
ease, and predisposes very much to it by its mere weight. This explains why young
persons are more exempt fnan married ones, because the womb is lighter in them.
It also explains how retention of the menses, or any other derangement which in-
creases the weight of the organ, leads to the same result.

This disease is usually divided into three stages, and will be most advantageously
considered in that way.

First stage. — In this stage we find that the womb has merely settled down as
it were, a little, and instead of being perched on the top of the bladder, as we see it
in Figure 125, it has fallen down between the Madder and rectum, as we see in Figure
126, nearly to the middle of the vagina, which is, of course, much enlarged from the
passage of the womb into its cavity. The immediate causes of this primary displace-
ment are relaxation of the ligaments and the walls of the vagina, assisted in most cases
by increased weight of the uterus, from engorgements. The most prominent symp-
toms are, dull pain in the small of the back, with dragging sensation in the groin,
and fullness or weight round the fundament, and in the perineum, with great lassi-
tude and weariness of the limbs. At this stage the disease is comparitively slight,
and usually yields to simple remedies. It is at this time, therefore, that proper
treatment is most likely to be attended with success, and it should be resorted to
immediately, the prospect of cure being lessened by every day's delay.

In examination the neck of the womb is felt very low down, like a tumor, which
immediately recedes when pushed, but falls back again when the pressure is with-
drawn. The os tineas will distinguish this from a real tumor, but is not always
easy to find, owing to the position of the whole neck being so much changed.

It should be borne in mind here that some persons have the womb naturally
much lower than others, and what would be a real displacement in one, may be quite
natural in another. The neck of the womb is also very long in some persons, and
this circumstance may deceive, unless care be taken.

It is at this time that we often find great relief, or even a complete cure, in some
cases, from cold astringent injections and washes, which give tone and strength to
the relaxed and weakened muscles and ligaments. Good abdominal or uterine sup-
porters are also proper at this stage, as they hold up the intestines, and other organs

612 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

above, and prevent them from pressing upon the womb. Unless made on proper
principles, however, and well fitted, these instruments are more likely to do injury
than good, and this is in fact very often the case.

Cold water is one of the best washes, or injections, that can be used. I would
not advise any mineral astringents at all, but sometimes it may be advantageous to
employ an infusion of white oak lark, two ounces of bark to two pints of water,
boiled down to one pint. A stronger mixture may be made by boiling two ounces
of pounded nut-galls in a pint of water, for ten minutes. These injections should
be employed cold, with a bent syringe, which should be filled about three times at
each application, and used night and morning. Cold water, however, is generally
sufficient, and if it were plentifully used, in time, would be a great preventive. The
cold fluid should also be dashed over the groins and pubes, where the ligaments are
attached, and on the inside of the thighs, as well as used with the syringe.

I have found galvanism, however, the most effective agent, both in relieving im-
mediate symptoms, and also in effecting a cure. . The effect it produces is that of
drawing up the parts, in the first instance, or restoring them to their proper places,
and then strengthening the mnscles and attachments, so that they are able to retain
them. I have known this remedy act, almost from the first application, in so re-
markable a manner, that the patient has imagined herself cured at once. The im-
mediate relief it gives is often surprising, but to effect a permanent cure, it of course
requires to be continued. I have used it myself in numerous cases, and can safely
say with more benefit than from any other means.

The most usual mode of applying it is, from the spine through the ligaments and
womb, externally, but in some cases it is requisite to use it internally. It is better,
however, always to have it administered by some one who has made a study of the
subject, and who fully understands it. There are seldom two cases that can be prop-
erly treated in the same way, and I often find it necessary to vary not only the mode
of application, but also to procure instruments specially adapted for particular
cases.

This derangement is one of those in which it is evident, both from reason and
experience, that medicines can render little or no assistance. They are proper so far
as they can improve the general health, but cannot possibly have any effect in restor-
ing the displaced womb, though females are often deluded into taking them under
that impression, and very frequently to the great injury of their health, as well as
the loss of valuable time.

It is seldom the disease remains long at this stage, for if it be not cured it soon
becomes worse.

Second Stage. — The womb has now fallen still lower in the vagina, and the gen-
eral symptoms have become worse. The increased descent is shown in Figure 127.
The mouth of the womb is near the external opening. The vagina is inverted, or
turned inside out as it were, nearly two-thirds of its length, and is much distended.
The bladder is pressed upon near its neck and so irritated that a constant desire
is felt to urinate, and often a difficulty is experienced in doing so. The rectum
is also pressed upon in the same way, near the fundament, and a sensation is con-
stantly experienced as if the bowels were going to be moved. Both bladder and
rectum are in fact pulled down, out of their places, and their functions materially
interfered with. The ligaments are put upon the stretch, owing to the womb hang-
ing by them, producing a severe pain in the groin, and at the lower part of the abdo-

DISPLACEMENT OB WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE OBGANS. 613

men, accompanied oftentimes with a feeling of numbness in the limbs, from the
nerves being pressed upon. The pain in the back becomes more severe and more
constant, and gradually the whole system becomes deranged.

The nerves of the uterus are connected with those of almost every other organ in
the body, as well as with the spinal marrow, and this explains why it has such exten-
sive and complicated sympathies. There is, in fact, scarcely any organ in the body
but what may suffer, and appear to be diseased, though perfectly healthy, merely
from disease of the womb, which may nevertheless give but few or no indications of
disease itself. This is a matter on which medical men have dwelt but very little
and about which the public generally know still less. Every female, however, ought
to have it explained to her so that she may understand the real cause of her suffer-
ing, and the reason for the proposed treatment. Palpitation of the heart, bilious
derangements, considerable spinal irritation, inflammation of the bowels, difficulty
of breathing, and dyspepsia, besides a host of minor derangements, are often pro-
duced by falling of the womb. When this is the case we must, of course, look for a
cure only by restoring that organ to its place ; but how could a female feel satisfied
that any treatment of the womb would relieve the heart, or stomach, unless she
knew how intimately it was connected with them ?

Many persons suffer much from headache, distressing nervous sensations, with a
feeling of irritability that makes them truly wretched, and with a weakness and
lassitude making the slightest exertion difficult.

In fact, the general symptoms are frequently very similar to those of pregnancy,
and have often deceived persons into a belief that such an event had occurred. Loss
of appetite, sickness, or vomiting, with a sensation of weight and fullness in the
abdomen, accompanied by a feeling as if a large tumor were about to escape by
the vulva. I have known some suppose they were going to miscarry on this ac-
count.

Rest in a reclining position usually relieves all these distressing symptoms, not
only because it is grateful in itself, but because it allows the prolapsed womb to re-
turn, by removing the pressure of the superincumbent organs.

It is of the utmost importance that the womb should not be suffered to remain
fallen longer than can possibly be avoided. If it do, there is great danger that new
attachments will be formed between it and the other organs, and thus it will be
fastened, or grow, in its new position. This accident, in fact, does often take place
in cases that have been left too long ; and it is then almost impossible to afford
relief. The impropriety of using many of the ordinary instruments, when this has
occurred, will be evident. Suppose the organs in a female pelvis had fallen into the
position represented in Figure 126, and were then to become fast, it will be readily seen
that any attempts to force and prop them up will not only be useless, but must cause
great suffering. A careful inquiry and examination should therefore be made into
every case before any treatment is recommended, so that no harm be done at least,
if no assistance can be rendered.

Sometimes a tumor, or polypus, will pass from the inside of the womb, and pro-
trude through its mouth into the vagina. In such cases, without great care, a mis-
take may easily be made, and the tumor be taken for the womb. The mistake has
often been made the other way, and in more than one instance the fallen womb has
been cut out, under the impression that it was a tumor !

Prolapsus, in the first and second stages, does not always prevent conception,

614 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

though it is very apt to do so, partly from the womb being in a wrong position, and
often inflamed, and also because the pain experienced at certain times leads to re-
tirement.

In general, the fallen womb comes still lower in the early months of pregnancy,
but rises afterward. There are instances, however, on record, where it has continued
fallen till nearly the full period, and others where it has fallen completely just be-
fore delivery. In one case delivery occurred while the womb was part in and part
out of the body !

Occasionally a cure has been effected by pregnancy, but much more frequently
the benefit is only temporary, and the derangement afterward becomes worse. This
is very apt to be the case if the woman be of a relaxed habit of body, and rises too
soon after delivery, or walks too far. The reason will be obvious when we reflect
that the womb remains partly engorged, and heavier than usual, for a considerable
time after delivery, while the ligaments, and attachments, which support it, are
weaker. She should, therefore, either rest till the uterus is reduced to its natural
weight, and its supports have become strong, or, if she do move about, do so care-
fully and use an artificial supporter.

When we are satisfied that the prolapsus exists, the next consideration will be the
best mode of treating it, and this must depend somewhat upon circumstances. There
are many unfortunate cases beyond the reach of the physician, in which he can
only be an idle spectator, or at best he can only suggest a palliative treatment, to
give temporary relief. Fortunately, this is chiefly through its having been left too
long. When taken in time, and always the earlier the better, some degree of perma-
nent good may be effected, if not a perfect cure. Sometimes it results chiefly from
some other disease, which of course must be attended to first. Leucorrhea very
often produces prolapsus.

The first thing, in most cases, is to enjoin a recumbent position ; in fact, the
female must lie on her back nearly altogether, during the treatment. This is requi-
site to allow the parts to return to their natural position, and to prevent their falling
again. Sometimes it is necessary first to replace them with the hand. This injunc-
tion to rest, however, is not always requisite, nor proper. There are some females
wlnse muscular systems become lax and debilitated from want of exercise and fresh
air, and who are benefitted most by moderate exertion out of doors, cold bathing, and
a general tonic regimen and diet. A little attention will distinguish one class of
patients from the other. The next desideratum is to restore tone and strength to
the ligaments and attachments, which may partly be effected by the use of cold water,
and astringent injections, as recommended in the first stage. Some practitioners
use caustic, and other violent remedies, but I have never yet been satisfied that any
good has followed them that could not have been effected by simpler means. We
must next endeavor to restore the general health and strength. This is the great
point, for, if the system be left weak and debilitated, the womb will fall again di-
rectly the patient begins to move about. I have known many females who have been
pronounced cured, simply because they were temporarily better from rest, and using
stimulating tonics, but who relapsed immediately they began to walk out. If an
improvement do not take place in the general health, there will always be liability to
a recurrence of the prolapsus, as it is essentially a consequence of weakness and
debility, in most cases. The shower bath, or the douche bath over the loins and
abdomen, when it can properly be administered, is also a useful auxiliary. Galvanism

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. file

is, however, the best agent for general use. It gives strength to the muscles, and
a healthy tone to the organs themselves. Alter the prolapsus is reduced it should
be applied both externally and internally, at least once a day, either alone or in con-
junction with the remedies previously recommended. I have known females who
could not keep up the womb by any supporter they could use, who could retain it a
whole day after the application of galvanism, without any artificial assistance what-
ever. A thorough knowledge of the parts themselves, and of their precise condition
in each case, is requisite however for success, and it is for want of this that so many
have failed.

■Medicine, in such cases, as previously remarked, except when it can assist in re-
storing the general health, is altogether out of the question. Mechanical means,
when applicable, may render valuable aid, but should never be depended on alone for
effecting a cure, nor used indiscriminately in all cases.

The supporter, or truss, is more frequently useful in the first stage, though some-
times it may be worn with advantage in the second. Before recommending it in any
case, however, the physician should be satisfied that he has good reason for doing so,
because it may oftentimes do harm. The parts should then be properly replaced,
and the female should rest on her back some time, by way of preparation, for if the
instrument be put on while the parts are down, it will only keep them down instead
of supporting them.

These necessary preliminaries are generally omitted, and the consequence is that
disappointment, if not aggravation of the disease, is the result. The patient should
also recline while being measured for the supporter, and while it is being adjusted to
her person, so that it may fit properly when the womb is in its place.

In regard to the choice of a supporter few general directions can be given. Par-
ticular circumstances, in many cases, must necessitate a variety of forms and modes
of adaptation. Most instruments of the kind are made to one pattern, and too heavy,
and the point of support is too high, so that they rather press on the abdomen than
support it from below. The point of support should either be in the center, immedi-
ately over the pubic bone, or on each side, so as to press nearly on the ligaments! On
the back it should be supported by a good wide pad or two, or more, so that, it may
not cause too much pressure on any particular spot. The part passing between the
limbs should also be specially constructed, so as not to chafe or inconvenience the
person, and so that it can be easily detached if required, though it will be seldom
requisite to remove it if rightly made. There may also be fixed to this part, with
most persons, a small thick pad to press on the perineum, and assist in supporting it,
the advantages of which will be evident when the supporting power of that part is
borne in mind.

Another instrument is sometimes recommended, called the pessary. The mode
of action and proper construction of which is but little understood. We will, there-
tore, give a full description of it. (

THE PBSSART.

The pessary is a firm body, larger in diameter than the vagina. It is usually
round, oval, or ring-shaped, and on being introduced into the passage pushes the
fallen womb before it, and prevents its descent. Suppose the finger of a glove was
half turned inside out, and then a large marble pushed up the inside, it is evident

616 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

that the part which was inverted will be again put back in proportion as the marble
advances, and cannot return while it remains there. This is precisely the action of a
pessary.

The vagina is much enlarged, on account of the greater
diameter of the pessary, round which it contracts below and
prevents its falling out. The contraction of the muscles
necessarily carries tbe instrument to the top of the passage, so
that it presses against the mouth of tbe womb.

Pessaries have been used from the most remote times
and are mentioned by medical writers among tbe Greeks,
Komans, Egyptians, and Arabians. They were formerly com-
posed of many substances not now used, as leaves, cotton,
wool, and similar articles. They were also impregnated with
drugs, to make them medicinal, and were tbus used for vari-
Figtjbe 128. ous complaints. Sometimes they were constructed of gum,

a. Represents a resin, or wax, or of sheep's bladders, and small bags. At present
fas ebeenSSlSroduced tney are made cnieny of metal, but often of hard wood, ivory,
into the vagina C, and horn, cork, wax, leather, sponge, caoutchouc, or glass.
saPtortsatheSutemsaB. Cork has the advantage of being light, but it is too porous,

and absorbs the fluids, so that it soon rots, and endangers the
health of the parts. Many cases are mentioned where it has led to fatal results.
Covering it with wax or gum partly obviates this objection, but adds to its weight,
and is liable to wear off.

Hard wood, ivory, and glass are too heavy, though they are perfectly clean, and
on that account to be recommended when they can be worn.
Wax and resin are too brittle.

Metals, not easily oxidized, make good pessaries, but are too hard, and will often
corrode in spite of all our precautions ; besides they are too costly for general use.

Most generally they are made now of some elastic substance impervious to mois-
ture, like oiled silk, or caoutchouc, and either stuffed like a pillow, or blown up with
air ; these last being probably the most effective, and liable to the fewest objections.

The form of the pessary has been varied so much by different practitioners that
it is impossible to describe all its modifications. It is only necessary, however, to
speak of those most in use.

The Globe Pessary is the most generally employed in this country and in England.
It is a perfect sphere, and usually made of very thin silver, gilt, or of pure gold. I
have seen some made of glass, but they are too heavy, and liable to be broken. Round
balls of india rubber are also used, and will often succeed very well. The diameter
varies from two inches to two and a half. It must not be so large as to cause pain,
but large enough not to fall out when the person stands up, or coughs, or when the
bowels or bladder are moved. The introduction of a globe pessary of sufficient size,
and properly placing it, so that it will not hurt, or fall out, requires considerable
care and time, and should always be intrusted to a competent person, for though
it may appear a simple matter, it is in reality a delicate and important operation !
One advantage attending this form is that it requires no adjusting, every position
being right when it is once in the vagina, while those having a depression must be
so placed that the lips of the os tincae will rest in it, and those that have a passage
through them must have it so placed as to be vertical.

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 61?

The removal of one of these instruments is often more difficult than its intro-
duction.

The Egg-shaped Pessary is not much used, except by some English practitioners.
It is much more easily introduced, and more easily displaced ; it is generally per-
forated through its center.

The Flat Oval Pessary has to be introduced edgeways, and then turned at right
angles to the vagina. It is difficult to introduce, and is always becoming displaced ;
besides it often causes such intolerable pain that it has to be removed immediately.

The Ring Pessary is in the form of a flat, thick ring, with the central opening
about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. These rings are made of glass, hard
wood, or india rubber. To introduce them, they are passed into the vagina edgeways,,
and then turned horizontal, which is easily done, because the finger can be intro-
duced into the central opening.

The Figure of 8 Pessary is introduced the same as the oval ones, but is not much
used, especially in this country. It is easily deranged, and is liable to many objec-
tions.

The Stem Pessary is one to which a stem is attached, passing down the vagina,
and attached to a bandage passing between the limbs, which is again attached to a
belt passing round the waist. This pessary has many advantages, though it has some
disadvantages. It needs not be so large as the others, because it cannot of course fall
out. It must also of necessity continue at the same height, and cannot well be dis-
placed. The stem, however, is liable to irritate the vagina and external parts, as it
is difficult to so construct them as to suit the form and direction of the parts in all
their various positions.

Spring Pessaries. — The spring pessary has been modified in many different ways
by different practitioners, but is not so generally used as some others after all. In
its most common form it consists of a cylindrical spring, about the natural size of
the vagina, which is contracted a little at the bottom circle till introduced, and then
allowed to spring open, by which means it is held in its place. The upper end is
shaped somewhat like a cup, to support the womb. Sometimes the spring is made
of gold, and left uncovered, and sometimes it is made of steel, and covered with india
rubber.

The Elytroid Pessary is a tube of india rubber, or other elastic material, nearly
in the shape of the vagina itself ; it has a cup for the womb at the upper end, while
the lower one rests on the sides of the vagina just within the vulva.

The Conoid Pessary is in the form of a cone, which is introduced the large end
first. It is chiefly used when the vagina itself is much relaxed.

Besides all these, we have various others, as the cup-shaped, bronards, and the
simple inflated cylinder.

There is also a horse-shoe pessary, and many others of various forms, some prac-
titioners preferring one and some another. Women will sometimes wear one form
with comfort, when they cannot another, but a great many cannot wear any form at
all. Still it is well to try them when all else fails.

Inconvenience and Danger of the Pessary. — It is very seldom indeed that a pes-
sary, of any kind, can be worn without great inconvenience, even if it do not injure.
Frequently the evils resulting from its use are greater than those it is intended to
cure, and it is very questionable whether the benefits derived from its introduction
have been greater than the injuries. It is probable that the instrument, from its very

618 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

nature, will always be more or less liable to tbese objections, though I have no doubt
but that it may be made much more serviceable than it ever yet has been. There are
many cases in which it is not proper to be used, as in all kinds of irritation, inflam-
mation, or ulceration, either of the womb or vagina, — also when there is a tumor, or
polypus, or confirmed fluor albus. It must therefore be ascertained positively that
nothing of the kind exists, in the first place. Then a careful study must be made of
the peculiar circumstances and features of the case, so that the most suitable kind of
instrument may be chosen, and the proper modification given to it. It is chiefly
from neglect of these precautions, arid from treating all cases on the same plan, and
with the same instrument, that so little success has been obtained.

There are few persons in whom the presence of a foreign body, like the pessary,
in the vagina, does not cause great irritation, and ultimately impair the health of the
surrounding organs. Frequently, on their first introduction, such pain is experi-
enced in the loins and groins, and such an uneasy feeling in the passage itself, that
the offending object has to be withdrawn immediately. Sometimes, however, the
first effects are not so unpleasant, and it can be retained longer, but only to produce
other evils at a subsequent period. Among these may be mentioned swelling, numb-
ness, and weakness, of the lower limbs, and swelling of the veins, with difficulty and
pain in urinating, or moving the bowels, owing to the pessary pressing on the blad-
der and rectum. In fact, nearly all the distress produced by the fallen womb itself,
on the neighboring parts, is produced also by the pessary even in a greater degree,
because it is equally inappropriate to the place, and more irritating. This irritation
also gives rise to fluor albus, sometimes to a most profuse extent, or even to ulcera •
tion and abscess. This is particularly liable to be the case if the instrument is not
frequently removed, and both it and the vagina carefully cleansed. This should
never be neglected a single day, for if it be, the fluids which accumulate will become
very offensive, and both excoriate and disease other parts, and corrode the pessary it'
self. A peculiar growth will also be apt to occur, called a vegetation, which resem-
bles bunches of warts, that pour out a purulent matter with a most repulsive odor.
The celebrated Desormeaux was obliged on one occasion to cut away an immense
number of these vegetations, before he could find the pessary, which had produced
ulcerous openings into the rectum and bladder. Professor Cloquet mentions a simi-
lar case, where he had to cut away an immense mass of fungous vegetation in a lady
who was supposed to have cancer of the womb. To the great surprise of all, an old
pessary was found in the midst of the mass, that had been forgotten for ten years !
It was completely covered with the vegetation, and incrusted over with calcareous
matter. A case is even recorded where the instrument had been left thirty years,
and ultimately produced symptoms like those of cancer, which disappeared, however,
when it was removed.

Another surgeon relates that some time after he had introduced a silver gilt pes-
sary, he was sent for on account of the lady being in great distress. He found her
suffering from severe pains in the pelvis, accompanied by a profuse foetid discharge.
She thought all the distress arose from the pessary, and requested him to remove it,
which he did with great difficulty. It was found to be corroded full of little holes,
and covered with a hard stony crust. Another case is mentioned of a cork pessary
having rotted in the vagina, and produced putrid fever, with inflammation of the
bowels. And Delamotte gives the history of a lady from whom he was compelled to
extract a cork pessary, which had been worn three years, to which he had to use in-

DISPLACEMEN1 OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 619

6truments with all his strength. He was unaware of the nature of the obstacle till
it was extracted. It also was completely petrified, like a large calculus from the
bladder. Such cases are numerous, and frequently result in fistulous openings into
the rectum and bladder, so that the contents of those organs escape by the wrong
passage. The celebrated Dupuytren had a case of this kind, where the pessary had
eaten its way into both the rectum and the bladder, and had to be cut away a piece
at a time, with strong pincers. Stem pessaries are apt to produce accidents of this
kind, by the parts becoming displaced and forgotten. M. Lisfranc extracted one
through the rectum, which had become lodged crosswise, with both ends penetrat-
ing ; the patient died.

In those pessaries that have a central opening, as a ring for instance, the neck of
the uterus is apt to become gradually drawn into the opening, if it be left too long
at a time, and strangulated. A foreign medical journal relates that a young girl,
who suffered from prolapsus, was advised to introduce a ring pessary, which she did.
The central opening being large, however, the neck of the uterus was first drawn
into it, and then part of its body. On examination, the strangled part was found
like a tumor, as large as a child's head, protruding from the parts. It was found
impossible to extricate it till the ring was cut through with a saw. She fully recov-
ered. I had a case of this kind myself, but fortunately the lady, being aware from
her feelings that something was wrong, applied for assistance in time. The neck of
the womb had passed through the ring about two inches, but gradually receded as
gentle but continued pressure was made upon it, while the pessary was held fast by
a ribbon. Part of the womb has been cut off in this way, and life has been lost. It
is a very common occurrence for these instruments, when neglected, to become pet-
rified, as it were, or covered with a hard stony crust, which will sometimes be as
sharp as a file, and continually chafe the neighboring parts, producing painful
ulcers, difficult to heal. These extreme evils are, it is true, the consequences of neg-
lect, but still great distress, if not serious injury, will often follow, even in the
most favorable cases, so that constant care and attention are required.

The pessary itself should be smooth and light, and not easily corroded by the fluids
natural to the parts. It should be easy of removal, and cleansed, together with the
organs, every day. And further, it should never be introduced, if there be any dis-
ease or irritation, till that be removed.

TREATMENT AND PROBABILITY OF CUBE.

The treatment, so far as it can well be laid down generally, has been already given
in the preceding sections, so that we have now but little to add.

The first thing to be done is to make sure that the case is one of prolapsus uteri,
and not one of tumor or polypus. It must then be ascertained how long the pro-
lapsus has existed, and what stage it is in ; whether the womb is capable of being
returned to its place, or has formed adhesion ; and whether there be any other dis-
ease of the organs co-existing. If there be any other disease, local or general, which
may be supposed to be a principal, or even an exciting cause, that must be first re-
moved. Then, if the displacement be recent and slight, rest or exercise must be
enjoined, according to the condition and previous habits of the patient, with astrin-
gent washes and injections, and the cold bath. Change of air, attention to diet, with
any other means that will give tone to the system, will also assist. If these means

620 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

are not sufficient, galvanism must be resorted to, under a competent practitioner.
All these means must be tried first, leaving the application of mechanical supports
till last. I have known the curing of an obstinate constipation of the bowels com-
pletely remove all tendency to prolapsus of the womb.

If all these means fail, a supporter or truss may be tried, providing there are no
circumstances to contra-indicate it, such as the womb having adhered, or fallen too
low, as in the second stage of prolapsus, when the truss is seldom proper.

"When all other trusses have been tried sufficiently long without effect, a pessary
may be resorted to, if there be nothing in the case to make the experiment improper.
It must first, however, be carefully ascertained that there is no inflammation or ulcer-
ation. Great care must then be taken in properly adapting the instrument, so that it
may be worn with ease, and constant attention, for some time after, must be bestowed
upon it, to make sure that no injury is being done, and that no alteration is required.
If all things remain favorable, and the female herself be strictly attentive to cleanli-
ness, much relief may be afforded, and possibly a permanent cure effected, by the
pessary.

Other means have been recommended and tried by different practitioners, but none
of them have been much used. Thus some advise the patient not to rise on the feet
for a long time, but to lie with the pelvis higher than the shoulders, in some cases for
a month or more. Others use little bags, called sachets, filled with tan or port wine ;
and others again form a tampon or plug of some astringent material. It has even
been proposed to make the vagina nearly solid, by cutting the two walls, and making
them grow together ! This has actually been done in several cases with complete
success, so far as the operation is concerned, but not with the cure of the disease !

Pregnancy sometimes cures prolapsus uteri, but oftener leaves it worse than be-
fore. It is sometimes, too, a dangerous complication.

The general tendency of a prolapsus, if not attended to, or if improperly treated,
is to constantly get worse, and ultimately to attain the final stage.

Third Stage. — The third stage is that where the womb is completely prolapsed, or
protrudes through the external opening. It is usually termed a complete hysteropto-
sis. When this event occurs, many of the ordinary symptoms of the previous stages
are relieved, because the pressure of the womb upon the rectum and bladder is re-
moved. The ligaments and attachments are more stretched, however, and the pulling
and dragging pains in the back and loins are greatly increased. There can be no
mistake as to this stage, because the organ itself may be seen and felt, like a round
ball or tumor, between the limbs of the patient. Sometimes this tumor will project
six or eight inches, or more. It is composed not only of the womb, but also of the
inverted vagina, the bladder and rectum, and uterine appendages, all of which have
been dragged down by it. The neck and mouth of the womb may always be distin-
guished, though much contracted, and at the menstrual period the usual flow will
occur from the os tincse. In most cases, the exposure of this tender organ to the ex-
ternal air, the irritation of the urine, and the friction of the limbs and dress produce
violent inflammation, so that it will swell and excoriate, or even become mortified.
Sometimes it will remain extruded, however, for a long time with trifling inconven-
ience, and ultimately become as hard and callous as the external skin. A lady once
called upon me, who stated that she was much alarmed by the appearance of a tumor
between the limbs, which had appeared suddenly, as she was running up stairs. It
was not remarkably tender, nor did it cause her much pain, except occasionally a sharp

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF TEE FEMALE ORGANS. 621

twitch in the groin. It disappeared when she laid down, and sometimes it was not
perceivable for a day or two together, if she rested more than usual. This had been the
case six months when I saw her. On making the necessary examination, I at once
told her it was the womb itself, completely prolapsed. She was greatly surprised and
alarmed, and requested me to do what I thought requisite to return it immediately.
I at once saw the case was very favorable for treatment, because there was no irrita-
tion, no soreness being felt even when it was pressed by the hand. A gentle pressure,
rightly directed, soon restored the womb to its place, and relieved the sensation of
weakness she complained of. The next desideratum was to prevent its falling again,
and to remove the tendency to it. If she could have remained perfectly still, nothing
more would have been required during the treatment, as it only came down from ex-
ertion. She was required to be constantly on her feet, however, and therefore some
artificial support was necessary. A truss would not serve the purpose, so I had a
pessary constructed for her, which served the purpose effectually ; she could walk,
run up stairs, and perform any other active motion without the prolapsus occurring
again. I then advised her to take the cold bath regularly, use astringent injections
at night, when the instrument was removed, and pay strict attention to her diet, so
as to produce regular action of the bowels without medicine. This was persevered in
for about two months ; she then, by my advice, left home for a month, and went to
the sea-side to bathe. At the end of that time, she felt so strong that she thought the
pessary might be dispensed with ; it was accordingly carefully left off by degrees, and
since then, nearly twelve months, she has remained perfectly well.

Cases have been known where female children have been born with this deformity,
as previously mentioned, so that their sex has been a matter of doubt. The celebrated
Saviard mentions a case of this kind, where the person was commanded, by the civil
authorities of the place where she resided, to wear men's clothes. He, however, re-
duced the prolapsus, and at once established her sex. Many such cases are on record,
and very often, before their nature was known, they gave rise to many of the state-
ments we read of in old works respecting hermaphrodites, which were frequently
only deformities of this kind.

The first thing to be attempted in complete prolapsus is to return the womb to its
proper place. This can generally be accomplished, though not always. Sometimes
new attachments have formed, where it has been left too long, and then all attempts
may fail. At other times the difficulty arises from the small intestines, and other
parts, having followed the womb, and filled up the cavity it used to occupy.

It is generally considered by surgeons, in spite of all these difficulties, that there
are but few, if any, of such cases in which reduction is impossible. We certainly
ought not to despair of any recent case, when we reflect that Saviard reduced one in
an adult that had existed from birth.

After the womb is replaced, means must be taken to keep it there, till the muscles
and ligaments are sufficiently strengthened to retain it themselves. Sometimes sim-
ple resting on the back will be sufficient, at others we must use mechanical supports,
as with the lady I mentioned.

It is very often the case, unfortunately, that the natural strength of the parts
never returns, and some kind of instrument has constantly to be worn. After the
reduction is effected, the treatment is, of course, much the same as for the preceding
stages, which it then resembles, excepting that there is an unusual degree of relax-
ation.

622 DISPLACEMENT OB WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

If this unfortunate state of things should occur during pregnancy, and some are
more disposed to it at that time, every endeavor must still he made to return the parts
to their places, to obviate the great danger and inconvenience that would necessarily
follow from the pregnant womb remaining without the body, though i+. has done so
even till delivery. If the womb be too large to return, it must be supported, care-
fully kept from all irritation, and the patient reclined on her back till the period of
birth occurs, which may then take 7)lace without extraordinary difficulty. There
have been instances known where all attempts to return the protruded womb have
failed, and where the sufferer has merely been partially relieved by using a suspensory
bandage of some soft and elastic material, or by lying constantly in a recumbent
position.

In some of these cases the organ becomes gangrened, or mortified, and to save the
life of the patient it becomes necessary to remove it altogether. This operation of
extirpating the womb, though necessarily a dangerous and painful one, is not neces-
sarily fatal, it having been performed with perfect safety and success by several dis-
tinguished surgeons. It may be performed in two different ways, by the knife or by
the ligature, each of which has been tried, and each has its advocates and opponents.
With proper attention, bestowed in time, this dreadful alternative need scarcely ever
be resorted to, and fortunately it is very seldom indeed that a necessity for it arises.
I know one lady who had the womb and the greater part of the vagina cut out,
nearly fifteen years ago, on account of a cancer, who perfectly recovered, and has
enjoyed excellent health ever since.

ANTEVERSION AND RETROVERSION OF THE WOMB.

These are two displacements not so common as ordinary prolapsus, but still more
frequent than even many practitioners suspect.

Anteversion is a displacement of the womb by its falling forward upon the blad-
der, toward the bones of the pubes. By referring to the plates, the nature of the
displacement will be readily understood. In the natural state the womb is nearly
balanced on the top of the bladder. Now if the bladder be suddenly made smaller,
from discharging its contents, and any force from behind — as the passage of the con-
tents of the rectum, for instance, push the womb forward at the same time, it will
be evidently liable to fall over toward the pubic bone, or between the bladder and
vagina, and thus produce an anteversion.

Retroversion is a displacement of the womb by its falling backward between the
rectum and the vagina, being precisely the reverse of anteversion, and produced by
directly opposite causes,. If the bladder be too full, the womb will be raised upright,
and then a slight concussion from jumping, sudden lifting, or running, may throw
it over completely, or retrovert it. In this case, the mouth of the womb presents
forward against the bladder, and the top or fundus of it against the rectum ; in th9
firmer case, the mouth presents against the rectum, and the top against the bladder.

Anteversion appears to be most frequent in the non-pregnant, and retroversion in
the pregnant state ; both may occur, however, in either, though not after four
months gestation, the womb being then too large to fall into the pelvic cavity in
this way. Retroversion has been known to occur in virgins.

Both accidents may take place either gradually or suddenly, so that the symp-
toms may be either immediately acute or continue to increase. The sensations are

DISPLACEMENT OB WBONG POSITION OP THE FEMALE ORGANS. 623

much the same as those from ordinary prolapsus, but usually more severe. Drag-
ging pains in the loins, small of the back, and thighs, with a feeling of weight and
bearing down in the pelvis, similar to labor pains, are first experienced,, followed by
uneasiness in the rectum and bladder, with a constant desire to urinate and move
the bowels. Generally, however, both motions are difficult, if not impossible, and
frequently the urine will stop altogether in the midst of the flow, every attempt to
expel it being productive of increased distress. This is followed in a short time by
inflammation of the womb, which causes the most acute suffering. The menses
either cease altogether, or flow continually, and usually a leucorrheal discharge also
supervenes. Gradually the whole system becomes deranged, the appetite is gone, the
strength fails, fever sets in, and if relief be not given speedily, a fatal result may be
expected. The immediate cause of all this difficulty is the jamming of the womb
into the small basin of the pelvis, which leads to inflammation, both of it and the
neighboring parts. The mischief is of course made greater by any circumstance
that increases the volume of the womb, as when it becomes engorged from reten-
tion of the menses, or from pregnancy. Sometimes, when the displacement occurs
at the change of life, the impacted womb, not having any function to perform, will
lose its vitality and become smaller, from wasting away.

It will be readily seen that these accidents are very serious during pregnancy, not
only from the difficulty of replacing the womb then, but because sometimes it cannot
be replaced at all, in which case the most imminent danger will be experienced. The
womb will necessarily keep growing larger and larger, though the space in which it
is confined cannot hold it when empty, without great inconvenience ; consequently.
it is subject along with the bladder and rectum, to violent and increasing pressure,
producing the most intense inflammation, which must ultimately be fatal if not re-
lieved. Under such circumstances, it is recommended by the most eminent surgeons
to immediately produce abortion, or even to puncture the womb, to make it smaller
by removing its contents, and so permit its return. We have many cases on record
where this has been done with perfect success ; but still it must always be regarded
as a fearful alternative under such circumstances. If proper attention be bestowed
by the female herself upon her feelings, and by her medical attendant upon her proper
treatment, immediately the accident occurs, relief may in general be obtained by
some of the means hereafter to be mentioned.

The cause of these displacements may be either a defect in the" form of the parts,
or some external violence.

If the pelvis be too large, the organs will be liable to gradually fall, or to be
easily forced down. If the womb be too easily movable, it will also predispose very
much. The most frequent causes that produce these displacements suddenly are
certain violent contractions of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, as in vomiting,
obstinate constipation, straining to expel the urine, or a sudden fright. Also, blows
on the abdomen, falls and lifting, particularly when the article raised is pressed
against the front of the body— all which are more liable to effect the injury in the
early months of pregnancy.

A very frequent cause of retroversion, particulary if the woman have a capacious
pelvis, is too great fullness of the bladder. Many a one has had it produced in this
way from want of convenience on a journey. The bladder becoming constantly
fuller, gradually elevates the womb, until it becomes perpendicular, and then from
simply descending a step, rising from the seat, coughing or sneezing, it is thrown

624 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONo- POSITTON OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

completely backward, or retroverted. The female feels immediately disposed to bear
down, and every time she does so only increases the difficulty by forcing the womb
still lower. Sometimes on emptying the bladder it returns again, and the only sign
left of the displacement is a numbness over the ligaments, owing to their having been
so stretched. If the female be two or three months pregnant, however, this return
is not very likely to occur without assistance, and will be difficult even with it.
Those who are so situated should therefore be careful, and not place themselves under
circumstances where the urine cannot be evacuated when required. Indeed, as a
general rule, it is injurious for females to allow the urine to accumulate too much
*t any time, as it constantly disposes to these accidents, and gradually weakens the
uterine supports.

It is probable that in every case of retroversion, unless it occurs from some very-
sudden violence, the round ligaments are more or less relaxed, and that this relax-
ation is a principal predisposing cause. In any case, these ligaments are very much
stretched when the womb is retroverted, as it hangs by them, and though they
undoubtedly have some elasticity, and may shorten again when the womb is replaced,
yet this does not always occur. When once they have been strained in this way, it is
probable they seldom or never fully regain their former strength, so that one accident
of the kind makes a recurrence more likely. Allowing the bladder to remain too
long full will effect the same injury to some extent, because while the womb is thus
constantly elevated, the ligaments are more or less distended, and thus gradually
weakened.

In anteversion the broad ligaments are much stretched and gradually give way,
sometimes even rupturing. The bladder is pressed against the symphysis pubis, and
the rectum against the curve of the sacrum. Sudden emptying of the bladder, after
it has been very full, will throw the womb forward, and be very likely, when com-
bined with any of the accidents previously mentioned, to produce an anteversion,
particularly if the womb itself be engorged and heavy, and the rectum full. Strong
purgatives, from the straining they produce, are also likely to assist, and certain ex-
cesses, which by all means should be avoided.

The general symptoms of these two accidents are in general so similar that it is
sel-lom possible from them alone to distinguish an anteversion from a retroversion.
A proper examination, however, leaves no doubt, and must always be resorted to if
there be not absolute certainty without it. Mistakes have been made, even by emi-
nent surgeons, leading to serious results. The celebrated Levret had a patient
whom he supposed suffering from a stone in the bladder, and upon whom he even
performed the usual operation for removing it, though there was nothing of the kind
to be found. The patient died from the operation, and upon examining the body,
it was discovered that she had an anteversion of the womb, which caused the whole
difficulty ! The same displacement has also been taken for a tumor and for dropsy,
owing partly to retention of urine in the bladder.

Usually there is great inflammation and swelling of the parts, which it is very de-
sirable to reduce, and for which purpose baths, injections, and other means may be
used, as circumstances may render most advisable. In many cases, the replacement
of the womb has been declared impossible, simply because it was attempted while in
a swollen state, and afterward, when the swelling had subsided, it has been effected
without difficulty. It is particularly necessary also that the bladder and rectum
should both be emptied, because when full they fill up the pelvis very much, and

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 625

Figure 129. — Anteversiorii1
g. h. i. The womb. c. The blad- " .
der. e. The rectum, a. The front 'v '
bone. k. The vagina, /. The lig-
aments.

Figure 130.— Retroversion.
b. e. The womb. i. The liga- 'i
ments. /. The bladder, d. The
vagina, g. The rectum.

626 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

prevent the uterus from rising. In case the urine cannot be expelled naturally, the
catheter must be used without delay, as there is danger, if the bladder becomes too
full, that it may burst from the constant pressure upon it. The passage of this in-
strument, however, is often difficult in these cases, owing to the neck of the bladder
being so compressed, and the direction of the passage so changed. Very frequently,
when all these indications are fulfilled, and the patient lies down, with the hips
higher than the shoulders, the womb will replace itself, or will require but little as-
sistance. I know a lady who is constantly liable to retroversion from very slight
causes, particularly if riding long in a shaking vehicle, or having to retain the urine.
She has learnt, however, to treat herself, and usually does so successfully. Her first
care is to empty the bladder, to effect which she sometimes has to introduce a cathe-
ter, which useful manipulation she acquired on purpose. She then passes an enema
of thin starch and water, cold, which has the double effect of emptying the rectum
and soothing irritation. After these operations she lies down, with her pelvis ele-
vated on two pillows, and in most cases the womb returns to its proper place at once.
In some cases where it is not convenient to do all this, the patient need not be left
entirely unaided, for frequently immediate relief is afforded by passing the finger
into the vagina, and raising up the womb a little. Cold injections, enemas and
bathings, are the most valuable preparatory aids, to be followed by the recumbent
position. I knew one case where the patient conceived the idea of standing on her
head, and she certainly found it to have the desired effect ! Nor need we wonder at
this, for in that position the womb would be most likely to return, being assisted by
its own weight ; and besides, the pressure of the intestines and other organs would be
entirely removed, which of itself might often be sufficient, for there is no doubt but
their weight lying on the womb has a great deal to do with the accident.

The usual mode of assisting, when absolutely necessary, is by endeavoring to draw
down the neck of the womb, which of course causes the top to rise, or by pushing the
top upward, either from the rectum or the vagina, according to the way it lies, the
patient being on her knees and elbows. Sometimes a large bougie, or pessary, is
employed to force the womb upward, and a kind of blunt hook to pull it down ; but
generally the hand only is used, and this is decidedly the best.

There is often, however, great difficulty in effecting this reduction, and it may
even become impossible. In one case, where the woman died, the uterus was so
firmly fixed that the bones had to be sawn asunder before it could be extricated.

Supposing, however, that the reposition has been effected, we must then follow up
with baths and injections, to remove all trace of inflammation, and afterward endeavor
to restore the firmness and strength of every part, particularly the ligaments. A
douche bath on the groins is very good, or cold wet cloths, with the injections of
oak bark, before mentioned, and galvanism. The female must keep still for a long
time, avoid constipation, live single, and never allow the bladder to become too
full.

The misfortune is, that when either of these accidents occurs it leaves such a
peimanent weakness afterward that there is always danger of it again. When this
is the case a pessary may be worn, if possible, but it should be made with especial
reference to the requirements of the case ; one side of the upper part should have a
prclongation, or lip, which may be so placed as to support the womb whichever way
it falls. In those cases where the weight of the bowels is a chief cause, a truss may
Oe of service, but it should be applied with great care, and its effects well watched.

DISPLACEMENT OB WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE OBGANS. 627

as it may increase the evil, particularly in retroversion, which I have reason to sus-
pect is. often caused by these instruments.

The systematic application of galvanism, in conjunction with cold water, if
rightly persisted in, will scarcely ever fail of effecting a cure, when that is possible.

ANTEFLEXION AND RETROFLEXION OF THE WOMB.

These two derangements are so like the two previously described, in their nature,
symptoms, and mode of treatment, that any extended description of them is scarcely
necessary.

Anteflexion is a falling of the upper part of the womb forward, behind the bone
of the pubes, while the lower part keeps its place. It is in fact a bending of the
womb, so that the upper part points downward.

Retroflexion is a bending of the womb backward, so that the upper part is parallel
with the rectum, while the neck is still in its proper situation.

These derangements may properly be considered as slight cases, or first stages of
anteversion and retroversion ; they are caused by the same accidents, and may be
cured by the same means. They are seldom met with, because they soon become
righted, or assume a more serious form. Sometimes this curvature of the womb is
natural, or it may arise from disease. It nearly always causes barrenness, because
the bending closes up the passage in the neck of the womb. This is one cause of
that state of deprivation generally overlooked, and which can frequently be removed
by a simple change in position during coitus.

OBLIQUITY OF THE WOMB.

This is still the same malposition in a yet slighter degree. It consists in a mere
leaning of the womb either to the front or to one side. In the non-pregnant state
this is so slight a disorder that it seldom requires or receives any special attention.
In the pregnant state, however, it is more serious, as it may not only cause great dis-
tress but make the labor both difficult and dangerous. In such cases, the mouth of
the womb does not present toward the passage of the vagina, but to the back, or to
one side, so that the child cannot be expelled. If the medical attendant, however,
understand the difficulty, it is easily corrected.

Many women are troubled with obliquity of the womb during pregnancy. In
some it always leans over on one side, and in others, to the front ; it has been known
to hang completely over the external parts so as to cover them, and even to reach
nearly to the knees. A properly formed truss will usually correct the obliquity.

Lying constantly on one side may lead to this wrong position, or leaning forward
too long at a time ; changing the position when sleeping will sometimes effect a cure.

INVERSION OF THE WOMB.

This accident, which consists in the womb itself being turned completely inside
out, like the finger of a glove, is fortunately so rare that very few practitioners have
ever seen a case. It always results either from pregnancy, tumors, or some disease
that much softens and relaxes the os tincse.

One of the most frequent causes is pulling away the after-birth too soon, and with

628 DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

violence. The upper part of the womb is very likely to be pulled down in this way,
and the whole organ inverted. Too violent bearing down is apt to lead to the same
result ; or a delivery while standing, particularly if the child hang by the cord while
that is fast to the womb.

Inversion may occur either along with prolapsus or without it, though most
usually they accompany each other. Some authors even consider inversion as merely
the last and most serious stage of prolapsus.

Turning the womb, and replacing it, in such cases is a difficult operation, and
medical writers are not agreed as to the best mode of performing it. Fortunately
the relative superiority of their different modes can seldom be tested.

From the accounts we have of the few cases observed, this is evidently a very
dangerous accident, and will most probably result seriously in a short time if relief
be not obtained. In every case the treatment must be suggested, in a great meas-
ure, by the circumstances of the case, and the practitioner must depend more on his
own judgment than on the recorded experience of others.

The usual mode of proceeding, after removing all inflammation by soothing
washes and fomentations, is to indent the lower end of the inverted womb, or push
it inward, like the bottom of a glass bottle, and keep gradually forcing it further
and further till it all passes through the ring of the neck, and is turned right again.

The whole must then be replaced in the pelvis, if there be prolapsus, and the pa-
tient must lie still, use cold injections, and, if necessary, a pessary, to prevent a re-
lapse. When the inversion occurs from the weight of a tumor, that must of course
be removed before a cure can be expected. This operation of turning the womb
back again must be proceeded with slowly and patiently, so as not to irritate it, the
inside being now, it should be borne in mind, on the outside ! A mixture of one
ounce of olive oil, and three grains of extract of belladonna, will make it much
more easy, and will relax the neck to a great degree, if gently rubbed upon it,
Some authors have advised to cut small slits in the neck to make it expand mors
readily, but I cannot think such an operation necessary.

If all attempts fail, and the womb shows signs of gangrene or mortification, it is
usually recommended to remove it, either by the ligature or the knife, as in cases of
irreducible complete prolapsus.

In some cases the inversion is not complete, the upper part of the womb being
merely bent in, or forced partly through the neck. If this be unaccompanied by
prolapsus it may remain a long time undiscovered, the symptoms not being usually
more severe than those of ordinary falling of the womb. There are, in fact, so many
of these uterine derangements, which, in their prominent symptoms resemble each
other, that nothing but an accurate examination can distinguish them from each
other.

Perhaps the most frequent cause of this accident is violence at childbirth. More
than one case is on record where an unskillful attendant, in removing the after-birth,
has pulled down the womb and turned it inside out. Nay, it has even been literally
torn from the body under these circumstances !

FIXTURE OF THE WOMB, OR IMMOBILITY.

It frequently happens after an inflammation of the womb, or adjacent parts, that
the inflamed surfaces will grow together, so that the different organs will all be

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 629

united to each other, and fixed fast to the body. The womb and its appendages are
very apt to be attached in this way, and so become immovable. Such an accident,
when low down, may not cause any inconvenience unless pregnancy occur — it may
then result seriously. The nature of the danger will be obvious, if we consider that
the womb is naturally loose, and that it both expands and rises up in the body as
gestation proceeds. If, however, it should become attached to any part, that attach-
ment must either be violently ruptured, or it will prevent the requisite change of
dimension or position.

Suppose the attachment to be to the bladder, or rectum, it is evident that, as the
womb rises, those organs must be pulled up with it, causing great pain, and serious
derangement of their functions. If the ligaments become attached they will confine
the womb, and prevent it rising up as it enlarges. The result of such a state of
things must either be a premature discharge of the contents of the womb, or the
tearing asunder of the unnatural attachments, in which case there is danger of rup-
tured blood-vessels, great inflammation, or abscesses.

It is now known that these adhesions are a very frequent cause of abortion, owing
to their preventing the requisite motions of the womb. The celebrated Madam
Boivin published a work on this subject, in which numerous cases are given, and
which first made medical men aware of its importance.

I know a lady now who has miscarried nine times in succession, apparently from
this cause. The womb is evidently attached to the right side by a kind of hard band
which may be distinctly felt, and which effectually prevents any rising up on that
side. At about four months she feels this band stretch, and the strain upon it will
be at times so great that it seems as if it must break. On the opposite side the womb
rises, but not on this, so that it is tilted over as it were. The pain she suffers is
very great, and constantly increases till about six months and a half, when the
abortion occurs — that being the most usual period in such cases.

It frequently happens when the adhesions extend to the fallopian tubes, that
conception is prevented, and it would be well if it always were so, the danger from
gestation being so imminent, and the probability of miscarriage so great. Unfortu-
nately in such cases, though we are certain of the nature of the mischief, but little
assistance can be rendered. It has been said, it is true, that in some instances the
adhesions have been destroyed by using mercurial ointment externally, but I am
afraid the remedy will not be found generally successful. The greatest care must
be used when there is prolapsus — after childbirth — and in case of accidents, to sub-
due all inflammation as early as possible, and so prevent these adhesions — for cer-
tainly little can be done toward curing them.

Sometimes the adhesion occurs at the upper part of the womb, while it is fully
expanded, in the last months of pregnancy ; and the danger is then equally great,
if not greater, than in the former case. No particular inconvenience may be expe-
rienced till after delivery, but then the womb, as it retracts and begins to descend,
necessarily hangs by the attachment, and in this way is often suspended from the
stomach, liver, or colon. These organs then become deranged, painful, and inflamed,
so that a fatal result may soon follow, unless the attachment break ; in which case
there is danger of haemorrhage or abscess. "While the adhesion remains, the proper
contraction of the womb cannot take place either, so that there is constant flooding
from its large blood-vessels remaining open.

I have known females with adhesions of this kind, most likely by cords or bands,

630 DISPLACEMENT OB WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE OBGANS.

who almost constantly felt a dragging and pulling at the stomach, as if, to use their
own words, everything was going to be torn out of their bodies. These symptoms
would be relieved by lying down, or by pregnancy, because these elevated the womb
and relieved the strain on the other organs.

Certain viscious and degrading habits, in young persons, are apt to produce these
difficulties, by the continual irritation they keep up, and so are certain excesses in
adults.

HYSTEROCELE, OB HERNIA OF THE WOMB.

This derangement is precisely the same as a common hernia, or rupture, except-
ing that it is the womb instead of the intestine.

Very few cases, indeed, have been known to occur, so that our description need
not be very extended. Most usually the hernia occurs in the non-pregnant state, the
womb forcing itself between some of the muscular fibers and appearing just under
the skin, like a small pear-shaped tumor. A part of the organ only may protrude, or
the whole of it, and sometimes the ovary and tube will follow. The treatment is
precisely the same as that of a common rupture, the protruded part being pushed
back and a truss worn to prevent its return.

The most frequent causes are blows upon the abdomen, violent lifting and strain-
ing, and a former csesarian operation.

Cases have been known where pregnancy has occurred along with a uterine rup-
ture, so that the development of the womb and the foetus has taken place outside of
the abdomen. In some of these the womb has hung down nearly to the knees, and
has been cut open and the child taken out, without, however, saving the patient's
life. In one case by lifting up, and gently pressing on the protruded organ, it re-
turned into the abdomen, and the female was safely delivered.

The ovaries are also liable to hernia, from similar causes, and also from various
diseases. The treatment is the same as in hernia of the womb, unless the ovary be
diseased, in which case it is extirpated.

CYSTOCELE, OR HERNIA OF THE BLADDER.

The bladder, like the intestines and womb, is liable to protrude between the mus-
cular fibers, or through natural openings, and so form a hernia. Both sexes are liable
to this accident in certain modes alike, and the female in certain modes peculiar to
herself, which are the only ones necessary here to describe.

The causes and symptoms of cystocele are mostly the same as those that produce
prolapsus uteri, the action having taken place in the bladder instead of the womb.
These two displacements have, in fact, often been mistaken for each other, and it
Sometimes requires careful examination to distinguish them.

The most usual form of this derangement in females is that called vaginal cysto-
cele, where the bladder is forced backward into the vagina, either by pushing the walls
of the vagina before it, or by passing between their fibers. In this case the bladder
may be felt, like a tumor at different parts of the vagina, according to the distance
it has descended, or it may even protrude through the external lips. In examining this
tumor it will be found of a different shape to the prolapsed womb, and with no opening
like the os tincse, which will always distinguish the one from the other. The passage of

DISPLACEMENT OB WBvJVV POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 631

the urine is either stopped altogether, or is difficult and attended with pain, particu-
larly if the bladder has passed through a small opening, and afterward filled. Inflam-
mation usually sets in soon after the accident, and fatal comsequences may speedily
ensue.

Cystocele is both dangerous and difficult to treat at any time, but particularly
when it occurs during delivery, for if the bladder be in the vagina at that time it
will be very liable to injury, besides being a serious impediment to the passage of the
child. In one case of this kind, which came within my own experience, the bladder
was first emptied by the catheter, returned to its place, and retained there by the
hand till the child was expelled. This rupture occurred, apparently, from violent
bearing down labor pains while the bladder was full, and showed no signs of return-
ing after the parts were restored to their natural state. Sometimes the protruded
bladder, being quite full, will completely block up the vagina, so that the labor can-
not proceed, and the passage will be so compressed and twisted that the catheter can-
not be introduced. In this case the bladder is usually punctured in the vagina, and,
when its contents are evacuated, is returned to its place, and the labor terminated.
Great care must be taken, however, to ascertain, with certainty, what it is that pre-
sents under these circumstances, the fallen bladder having been mistaken for the bag of
water, and ruptured accordingly. It is quite easy, however, to distinguish them, as
in a case of cystocele, the tumor is unconnected with the mouth of the womb, while
the protruded membranes proceed from it.

In the non-pregnant state the fallen bladder may prevent the flow of the menses,
and other fluids, and lead to inflammation of the vagina or womb. The plan of
treatment is to return the bladder, by gentle pressure, to its place, and then use
astringent washes to close up the opening by which it escaped. A pessary may also
be necessary, with a small projection to press on the rupture.

When the bladder is not protruded between the vaginal fibers, but merely pushes
the walls before it, the operation is much more easy ; the after treatment, however,
is the same as already described.

"Women who have been too frequently pregnant, or long subject to leucorrhea,
and those who keep the bladder too full, are most liable to cystocele. Lifting, strain-
ing, running, sneezing, and violent coughing are very frequently immediate causes,
and may even produce it in very young persons. I once had a case of a young girl
only ten years of age, in whom the bladder descended completely through the
external lips, in consequence of violent straining from the whooping-cough. The
distress was very great, and the necessity for immediate relief most urgent. The
bladder was full, and -very tender, and the catheter could not be introduced. I at
once put the patient in a warm bath, and then had her laid upon the bed with the hips
much elevated. By these means, with a little assistance, the bladder partly returned,
so that the catheter could be introduced, the urine was then drawn off and it returned
entirely. A small plug of soft lint was worn against the opening in the vagina till
the cough subsided, and with occasional injections of oak bark effectually prevented
a return. The vagina, however, was much inflamed, and considerable leucorrhea
followed ; the parts were much relaxed, and the hymen completely destroyed.

Excessive crying has led to hernia of the bladder in infants, and so has the use of
strong purgatives. In young girls it has often been produced by the busk, or bone,
in the front of the corsets.

In some cases the bladder will not appear in the vulva, but will descend into one

632 DISPLACEMENT OB WMONQ POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

of the external lips, which will sometimes attain an extraordinary size. The treat-
ment is the same in this case as in the other.

Great care must be observed by those who have once suffered from cystocele, as
it is easily brought on again, and every time makes it more difficult to cure.

VAGINAL ENTEROCELE, OR HERNIA OF THE INTESTINE INTO THE VAGINA.

This is a rupture where the bowels descend into the vagina, in the same manner
that the bladder does in cystocele. It is brought about by the same general causes
that produce other hernias, and can only be treated in the same way. It is more'
frequent just after confinement than at any other time, though it may be met with
occasionally in non-pregnant persons.

The symptoms of this displacement are not, in general, so severe as those attend-
ing cystocele, unless the bowels descend to a great extent, and sometimes they will
completely fill up the vagina, or even protrude externally, so that the flow of the
menses, and the passage of the bowels will be both prevented. When this oc-
curs during delivery, it may completely prevent the child from passing down the
vagina, and then there is danger, both from the suspension of the labor and from
the bruising of the bowels. In such a case the hernia must be immediately reduced,
and, fortunately, this can nearly always be readily effected.

If the protrusion has taken place in the front part of the vagina, next the bladder,
ih.e patient must be placed on her knees and elbows, but if it has taken place in the
back part, next to the rectum, she must be placed on her back. The tumor must
then be pushed gradually but firmly toward the opening, and the lower part of it
worked in with the fingers. In a short time it will begin to move in quickly, and
at last will slip by the hand and pass entirely into its place. The cylindrical pessary
and astringent washes must then be used to effect a cure.

The protruded bowel is so different from the bladder or womb, that with ordinary
attention the one cannot well be taken for the other. Such mistakes, however, have
been made, and they show how extremely careful we should be to ascertain with cer-
tainty what is wrong.

After enterocele has once happened it is very likely to occur again, particularly
if left a long time without being reduced.

The descent may take place, as in the case of the bladder, into the lip, instead of
down the passage, and is then called vulvar enterocele or pudendal hernia. The
lip will be swelled, and a firm tumor may be felt in it, as large sometimes as an
egg, but becoming smaller when the patient lies down. Its reduction and after
treatment are the same as in the ordinary form. I have known females suffering
from this pudendal hernia who could not imagine what the swelling of the external
lip was owing to, and who vainly tried to reduce it by washes and lotions. They
were amazed when told it was a descent of the intestines. Those who labor too hard
during gestation are very liable to this accident, particularly if they have borne many
children. I once had a poor woman under my care who was afflicted with both
cystocele and enterocele at the same time, from lifting a pail of water. Both of them
were reduced, however, and fortunately did not return.

INVERSION AND SWELLING OE THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE VAGINA.

It is neceesary to describe this disorder, though it is not a very common or dan-
gerous one, because it is frequently mistaken for hernia, or prolapsus uteri, from
which, however, it differs materially.

DISPLACEMENT OR WRONG POSITION OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 63S

In this case the lining membrane of the vagina is distended, and partly separated
from the other membranes, either from inflammation or from the infiltration of fluid
between them. It falls down, sometimes even through the external lips, and has
the appearance of a thick fleshy ring, or cushion, with an opening in the center.
The descent, however, may not be complete, or the ring may be a considerable dis-
tance up the vagina, and sometimes there will be two or more rings, one above the
other. The manner of this descent may, in fact, be well compared to the falling
down of the lining of a coat sleeve, when partly unsewn.

The causes of falling of the vagina are such as those that produce the various
hernias and prolapsions already described, and also all those that have a debilitating
effect on the system. Miscarriage, the employment of instruments in childbirth,
continued leucorrhea, excesses, and the vicious habits previously referred to, may
also be enumerated. It frequently accompanies falling of the womb, cvstocele, and
enterocele, all of which are, in fact, frequent causes of it.

The immediate symptoms are comparatively slight, consisting chiefly in an un-
easy sensation of something hanging from the vagina, or lips, with dragging, dull
pains in various parts ; unless, indeed, the membrane has descended very far, or be-
come much irritated. In this case, the pains become acute, darting to all parts of
the abdomen, and the membrane itself being much inflamed, may speedily ulcerate
or gangrene, particularly if chafed, or bathed by the urine. The bladder will also
sympathize, so that a difficulty will occur in urinating, and a quantity of mucus
will discharge from the vagina.

Sometimes the protruded part will extend four or five inches from the lips, and
be as large as the wrist, particularly during pregnancy.

The treatment of prolapsus vagina is simple, but often tedious. The first thing
is to reduce the swelling and inflammation, without which, of course the parts can-
not return. To effect this, all causes of irritation must be removed, the patient
must be still for some time, and use cooling lotions or injections, in conjunction with
general tonic remedies. Instruments are seldom or never needed, either at the time
or after ; indeed, simple rest and cold water would cure most cases, if resorted to in
time. Some practitioners use caustic, but I have never seen any good from it in
these cases. Occasionally, the protruded part, when long exposed, will become so
ulcerated that the removal of it is absolutely necessary. This operation has been
performed several times with success, though it is not unattended with danger.

This affection may occur at almost every age and period, but not so frequently
m the unmarried, though I have met with it in young persons from nine to twelve
years of age. Many are subject to it at the turn of life, at which time it is very
troublesome and difficult to cure. Sometimes it comes on suddenly, but most usu-
ally by slow degrees.

When it takes place at the time of delivery, it is a very troublesome and danger-
ous complication, as it interferes with the passage of the child very much. In such
eases the protruded membrane is often lacerated severely, and once I saw it nearly
torn completely from the vagina.

The ring or cushion produced by this prolapsus may be mistaken for the fallen
womb or bladder, unless carefully examined. The difference, however, will soon be
apparent, by pushing on the center of the tumor through which the finger will pass
leadily, and reach the os tincse beyond.

CHAPTEE LIV.

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

This includes all inflammations, morbid growths, and corrosive diseases of the
female organs.

INFLAMMATION OF THE VULVA AND EXTERNAL LIPS.

Inflammation is very apt to arise in these parts from a variety of causes, with
some of which we are unacquainted, and it may become very troublesome, if not
serious. Injuries at child-birth very often produce this kind of inflammation, but it
frequently arises in young persons from a mere want of rigid and constant attention
to cleanliness in these parts. The natural secretions are apt to become acrid, when
long retained in the folds of the vagina and labia, and then they irritate every part
with which they come in contact. This irritation is sometimes of the most annoy-
ing character, and often disposes to those vicious habits we have referred to. When
allowed to continue too long unchecked, it produces an offensive purulent discharge,
sometimes tinged with blood, and perhaps terminates in ulceration, abscesses, or
mortification.

The treatment at first is very simple ; constant bathing, either with cold water or
cooling lotions, rest, and regular action of the bowels, will be sufficient in nine
cases out of ten. A small piece of alum, or borax, about the size of a hickory nut,
to a pint of water, makes a good wash ; or a little sugar of lead water, or Goulard's
lotion. Ointments of all kinds I think objectionable. "When the parts are very
sore, equal parts of port wine and water will be a good application.

It may be advisable, when the two lips are much inflamed, to soak a piece of soft
lint in the lotion, and keep it between them till they heal, as they are apt to grow
together.

If there be any derangement of the menses, or constipation of the bowels, it must
be immediately corrected— such derangements frequently producing or keeping up
this inflammation. Worms will also do the same, particularly the small flat ones in
the rectum (Ascarides), which will sometimes even pass into the vagina. Great
attention must be paid to the diet, which must be light, cooling, and laxative. No
coffee nor alcoholic drinks must be used, nor spices, nor unripe fruits.

There is one form of this disease especially to be dreaded. It is usually called
Carbuncle of the Genitals, or Eruption, and first commences with great heat, red-
ness, and swelling, and terminates in livid colored spots, which soon become small
ulcers. If not checked it will rapidly become fatal, from mortification or inflam-
mation of the neighboring parts. The treatment consists in the application of cool-
ing lotions or injections, as before, with washes of camphor, chlorine, and nitrate
of silver. The bowels must be opened freely with salts, and other cooling purga-

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 635

fcives— nothing irritating must be eaten or drunk — perfect rest must be observed —
and leeches may be freely applied, if thought advisable, to the parts.

If neglected, this inflammation may produce deep angry ulcers, that will eat into
the parts, and even produce fistulas into the bladder or rectum. The surgeon is then
needed ; and, in spite of all his skill, at this stage he fails often in giving relief. It
is therefore especially important to attend to it in time ! And still more important
to observe, in young persons, that attention to cleanliness and regularity of function,
■which may prevent it altogether.

The number of cases of this kind that have come under my care painfully con-
vince me of the great want of information on all these important matters that so
universally prevails among females, and which directly leads to so many of their dis-
tressing afflictions.

PRURIGO OP THE VULVA, OR ITCHING OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS.

This disease, though not so immediately dangerous as some others, is perhaps the
most distressing that can be met with.

It consists in an intolerable and incessant itching of the parts, which nothing
seems to allay. Sometimes it is so bad that the female is almost tormented to death ;
she cannot see company, or walk out, and often shuts herself up alone in her agony.
Many have fainted from it, and some have even become delirious. I have seen
patients whose hands it was necessary to tie to prevent them tearing themselves to
pieces.

The causes of pruritus appear to be most of those that produce simple inflamma-
tion, which it very frequently accompanies or precedes. Pregnant females are very
liable to it, and in some it will continue, in spite of all that can be done, till after
delivery, when it usually disappears. I have known it produce abortion. Some
females always have it at the menstrual period, and others during nursing. Occa-
sionally there is a little eruption attending it, but not always, though the parts are
generally swollen and red. Parasites are sometimes the exciting cause, and should
always be destroyed immediately.

The treatment consists in first attending strictly to the diet, which must be
light and unirritating, and to the regular action of the bowels and womb, and in
using the cooling washes and lotions before mentioned. If the itching still continues,
use either of the following washes to the parts : — Sub-carbonate of potash, three
drachms ; water, four ounces. Put a teaspoonful of this into a quart of warm water,
and use it three times a day. — A teaspoonful of eau de cologne to a pint of warm water.
— Sulphate of zinc, half a teaspoonful to a quart of warm water. Both of these may
be used many times in the day. — Borax, half an ounce ; sulphate of morphia, six
grains ; pure water, half a pint. This last seldom fails of giving relief. It should
be applied three or four times a day with a piece of soft linen, the parts being first
washed with warm soap and water. A teaspoonful of laudanum will sometimes
answer as well as the' six grains of sulphate of morphia.

Caustic has been employed, and blisters to the inside of the thighs, but such vio-
lent remedies are seldom either necessary or serviceable. I have known the parts to
be deeply scarified with the lancet, and even burnt with a red-hot iron, without at
all alleviating the pruritus.

In young persons it seems to be often produced by constipation, worms, and gravel ;

636 VITAL AXD OEGANIC DISEASES.

bat it most probably depends, essentially, on some impurity, or irritating qnality in
the blood, or in the natural secretions of the parts, which shonld therefore never be
allowed to remain long unwashed.

Sitting in cold water, and the application of ice to the parts, has given relief. I
have also effected many cures almost instantaneously by means of a small galvanic
plate, so constructed as to be worn just within the vulva.

All remedies must of course be applied with caution during pregnancy, and it
must be recollected that sometimes the disease will continue, more or less, till after
delivery, though the distress from it may be much alleviated.

YAGESTTIS, OE INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA.

This is frequently a mere extension of some of the other inflammations already
described, and may be produced by precisely the same causes. It often follows a
tedious labor, particularly if instruments have been used, and is frequently produced
by marriage, especially if that occur at an improper time, or if there be any malfor-
mations or displacements. Excesses of all kinds are apt to produce it, and the pres-
ence of any foreign body, as a pessary for instance ; also stimulating food, sudden
cold, or violence.

The most general symptoms are pain in the groins and over the pubis, a feeling of
intense heat and tightness in the passage, as if it were filled up with something —
difficulty in urinating, and pruritus. On endeavoring to touch the os tineas, the
passage will be found nearly closed, from swelling of its walls, and very tender. In
a few days a discharge begins to flow from the vulva, at first like gum-water, but
gradually becoming thicker, till it is like cream, and often of a green or yellowish
color.

In most cases, the inflammation passes off in about ten days, and may leave no
ill effects. Sometimes, however, it becomes chronic, and then it terminates in leu-
corrhcea ; and occasionally it produces abscesses, or ulcers, when long neglected, and
causes fistulas.

The treatment is precisely the same as that for inflammation of the lips and
vulva, excepting that the lotions must be used internally, by means of a female
syringe. In young persons just married, all that is required, in many cases, is to
separate for a short time from their husbands.

If an inflammation of the vagina last too long, the walls will be apt to grow
together, and so produce a stricture, or narrowing of the passage, which may be a
serious difficulty in child-birth, as well as at other times ! It is, therefore, advisable
fo subdue it early.

. METBITIS, OE INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.

This disease more frequently results from delivery than from any otner cause, and
appears to accompany puerperal fever, or, as some sttppose, is identical with it, at
least in some of its forms.

It is found, however, in the unimpregnated state, and may result from a variety
of causes. The inflammations already described may extend to the womb ; it may
be injured by blows, or other violence, and irritated by the retention of the menses.
During prolapsus it is always being chafed and compressed, or exposed to the exter-
nal air, and mav thus become inflamed.

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 637

Marriage may produce inflammation of the womb in some temperaments, and a
state of singleness in others. Difficult menstruation, irritating injections, forcing
medicines, tight corsets, constipation, stimulating food, pessaries, and solitary vices,
may also be enumerated. Powerful mental emotions, particularly in hysterical per-
sons, are also frequent causes, and highly excited feelings, especially those connected
with certain temperaments. When it occurs during pregnancy, it is very apt to lead
to abortion.

The inflammation may be seated either in the substance of the womb, or merely
in the mucous membrane, and it may extend through the whole organ, or be con
fined to particular parts of it.

The symptoms of inflammation in the mucous membrane of the womb are dull
but constant pain in that part of the organ affected, and in the loins, which grad-
ually extends to the neighboring organs, so that the passage of the urine, or fasces,
causes great distress. A sensation of weight is also experienced, which disposes the
female continually to bear down, and strain, the same as in labor. The abdomen
swells, becomes painful, and very tender to the touch, so much so that sometimes
the weight of the clothes can scarcely be borne. The patient has chills followed by
fever, and suffers from languor and restless anxiety, which, in severe cases, may lead
to delirium. These symptoms are soon followed by a discharge of mucus, more or
less profuse, according to the extent of the inflammation, which may be either thin,
like gum water, or of the consistence of cream, and sometimes resembles pus.

This, it must be understood, is a description of the symptoms usually accompany-
ing the disease when it affects the whole or greater part of the womb.

"When it is confined to some particular part, as to the neck, for instance, the pain
and swelling are chiefly confined to that part, and the general symptoms are more
local and less severe.

The treatment usually adopted, is that which appears most likely to quickly
reduce the inflammation. The bowels must be opened freely, perspiration must be
induced, and the hands and feet kept warm. Fomentations must be applied to the
abdomen, and diluent drinks freely taken. Hops or poppy heads make an excellent
fomentation, and barley, or tamarinds soaked in water, with a little sweet nitre, an
excellent diluent drink. A vapor bath will often be very effective in promoting
perspiration, and relieving the soreness, and a large meal poultice placed on the
abdomen will frequently allay the pain. Bleeding is generally resorted to somewhat
freely, and leeches, or cups, to the inside of the thighs, the vulva, and the abdomen ;
but I am inclined to think that the inflammation can usually be subdued by other
means. The patient should lie on her back, with the knees raised, and the clothes
should be kept from bearing upon her.

A decoction of poppy heads may also be used as an injection, in the vagina, and,
if the pain be very acute, a teaspoonful of laudanum may be added to it. A mustard
plaster will frequently alleviate the pain considerably, when applied on the abdomen,
or back, or inside of the thighs. Blisters have been recommended, but they irritate
the patient too much, and it is very important to keep her still. She should not be
moved, on any account, more than is absolutely necessary. The vapor bath must be
given under the bedclothes, so that no moving, or carrying to it will be required.
If the purgative does not operate soon, an enema should be given, as it is particularly
important for the bowels to act. The enema may be composed of thin starch and
water, warm, with a large spoonful of castor oil.

338 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

But little food, of any kind, should be taken till the inflammation is subdued,
and then it should be light, chiefly fluid, and very plain. All stimulants must be
carefully avoided, whether solid or fluid. The room must be well ventilated, and
the patient kept quiet.

If these means, with such others as the particular circumstances of the case re-
quire, be faithfully persisted in, tbey will, in most cases, subdue the inflammation
in a short time ; but great care must be taken, and perfect rest observed, till all
signs of it are gone, as there is always danger of it increasing again, from slight
causes.

When the inflammation is seated in the substance of the womb itself, the symp-
toms are always more acute, the danger greater, and the result more uncertain. The
treatment must be more energetic, and our attention more unremitting.

If the inflammatory action be not subdued very soon, the most serious results are
to be feared. The general distress increases, the skin becomes hot and dry, the coun-
tenance is anxious, the throat parched and sore, the breathing difficult, sickness sets
in, or hiccough, the breasts swell and become tender, and the head throbs and burns
till the patient raves in furious delirium. The urine is generally red and hot, and
the passing of it, or of the contents of the bowels, makes the sufferer scream with
agony. She rolls her eyes, picks at the bedclothes, grinds her teeth, and draws up
the limbs till they press against the abdomen.

If the pain seems to concentrate at one point, and becomes more poignant, and
the patient suffers from night sweats and headache, with inaction of the bowels, it
may be suspected that an abscess is forming. This will sometimes break and dis-
charge from the vagina, and at other times will form a fistulous opening through
the abdomen, the groin, or at the inside of the thigh. The quantity of pus thus
poured out is in some cases enormous ; usually the patient sinks immediately after
the abscess bursts, but if she can be sustained, the wound may hear after all is evac-
uated, and a perfect recovery may take place.

The last stages are generally marked by a cessation of heat and pain, by involun-
tary action of the bowels, coldness of the extremities, convulsions and faintings. If
there be gangrene or mortification, a black foetid discharge takes place from the va-
gina, and sometimes from the bowels.

When this is seen there is scarcely a hope, and very frequently the disease is thus
fatal in two or three days from its commencement, though some will linger two or
three weeks.

On examining the womb in those who have died in this way, it is frequently
found to be quite softened, or even converted into a kind of putrescent pulp which
almost runs into fluid when pressed upon.

Both forms of inflammation of the womb are much more dangerous when they
occur during childbed, as all those are aware who have seen the rapid and fatal ter-
mination of puerperal or child-bed fever. Most cases of ordinary inflammation, in
the non-pregnant state, terminate favorably, with proper care, though they may be
lingering, and leave much general debility.

The principal danger, after the acute stage is passed, is of the disease becoming
chronic, which form, though less severe, and not so imminently dangerous, is still
much to be dreaded.

Chronic Metritis, or inflammation of the womb, may be produced by the same
causes as acute inflammation, or may follow from it. There are, however, certain

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 639

circumstances and conditions that dispose to it more than others ; as, for instance, a
lymphatic temperament, habitual depression of spirits, scrofula, bad air, low damp
situations, ill-ventilated houses, a constant use of stimulating food or hot baths, and
indulgence of certain feelings. The immediate causes are the same as those already
enumerated, and also cold— particularly from sitting on cold damp seats — tight cor-
sets, and habitual constipation.

The symptoms are much the same as those in the acute stage. The inflamma-
tion, however, does not extend so much to the neighboring parts, nor does the uterut
swell up so suddenly, nor become so excessively tender ; sometimes, in fact, it does
not swell at all. There is always severe pain in it, however, which is much in-
creased when the female stands long, or walks far, or when she is shaken too much
by riding, when the bowels are moved, or the urine passed, and particularly at cer-
tain other times ! There is also great heat and burning, with a sensation of fullness
and weight in the loins or groin. The female becomes irritable, impatient, or sad,
or is subject to nervous tremblings.

This disease is frequently mistaken by practitioners for something else. Many
look upon it as a purely nervous affection, and go on treating the patient for the
mere nervous symptoms, while the real disease remains untouched. And many
others, who do discover the true disorder, consider it incurable, and either give it up
entirely, or merely administer palliatives, to relieve urgent symptoms and satisfy the
patient. It is necessary to say, however, that it is often impossible to ascertain the
truth from any of the above-named symptoms alone, because they accompany many
other complaints, and an accurate and careful examination is frequently indispensable.

I once had a lady call upon me who had been suffering for two years from what
was called, by some physicians, hysteria, and by others dyspepsia, with liver com-
plaint. She had almost constant pain in the lower part of the abdomen, which made
her dread moving the bowels, for fear of increasing it. The urine was scanty and
high colored, the menses irregular, and the bowels mostly constipated. To use her
own words, " the whole inside seemed as if it were burning up." The limbs were
weak, the appetite capricious, and the whole nervous system in a terrible state of de-
rangement. Sometimes she would suddenly go very sallow, with the eyes much con-
gested, and at other times she would be very pale, and faint, or sick. From an
attentive consideration of the case, I became convinced that none of the previous con-
jectures about it were correct, but that it was a case of chronic metritis. A careful
examination with the speculum proved this conviction to be well founded, and I at
once began to treat her accordingly.

The first thing attended to was the diet, which was directed to be very plain.
The quantity of food was rather limited ; all spices, coffee, pickles, and warm drinks
Were forbidden ; meat allowed but once in the day, sparingly, and never smoked or
salted. Alcoholic drinks, of all kinds, were strictly prohibited, and in their place
was substituted cold lemonade, with a little cream of tartar, barley water, and tama-
rind tea, or simple cold water.

A cold shower bath was directed to be taken every morning, immediately on ris-
ing, to be followed by a short, gentle walk when the weather was favorable. After
breakfast she was advised to lie on the sofa for an hour, and after that to take another
walk before dinner. The same in the afternoon as in the morning. Several times
during the day, but particularly morning and evening, an injection was used of cold
thin starch and poppy heads. The thin starch alone was also used daily as an enema,

640 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

at first, till the bowels began to act regularly from the improved diet, and then it
was omitted. During the first week the abdomen was also fomented every night
with a strong decoction of hops. Every hind of excitement was guarded against,
either from reading, company, or other causes, The natural warmth of the feet,
which she had not felt the whole time, was restored by means of friction and the
application of galvanism, and the whole surface of the body, which was habitually
chill, was well rubbed every morning till a healthy glow was produced. The only
medicine given was a little cinchona, after the second week.

In three weeks she had sensibly improved, the burning sensation was no longer
felt, the soreness and pain was gone, except when she walked a little too far. The
appetite became good and steady, and her strength much greater. The nervous
symptoms began to amend immediately the general health was improved, so that
she soon became quite cheerful. A steady adherence to this plan of treatment com-
pletely cured her in about seven weeks, and she went home with such a knowledge of
the disease, and the causes which produced it, that in future she will most likely be
able to prevent it altogether.

In severe cases it is advised, and may sometimes be advantageous, to apply leeches
to the perineum, or groins, or blisters to the inside of the thighs and abdomen. I
am of opinion, however, that a strict perseverance with the milder course I have de-
scribed will usually succeed without them.

A teaspoonful of laudanum may sometimes be added to the injection, or fomen-
tation, when the pain is severe, and if it occur in a spasm, like cramp, galvanism
will give immediate relief.

ENGORGEMENT, OR ENLARGEMENT OF THE WOMB.

Cases of chronic enlargement of the womb, commonly called engorgement, are
quite common, or rather, they are very frequent. When treating on falling of tho
womb, we stated that engorgement was a frequent cause of it, and such is now known
to be the fact. In many cases of supposed polypus, or tumor, there is merely a
swelling or engorgement of the womb, which has also been mistaken for dropsy.

The causes that lead to this disease appear to be much the same as those that pro-
duce inflammation, with which the engorgement is sometimes accompanied, though
not always. "Whatever has a tendency to excite these organs, or to chill the surface
of the body, so as to derange the circulation and produce internal congestion, will be
most likely to cause engorgement. Among other causes may be specially enumerated,
sentimental or impassioned reading and conversation, insufficient exercise in the
open air, cold, constipation, derangement of the menses, particularly their stoppage,
improper diet, and excesses of various kinds.

The symptoms of this disease are often quite obscure at first. Sometimes there is
considerable pain, similar to what is experienced in metritis, but at other times there
is scarcely any pain at all, though there is always more or less uneasiness and feeling
of weight. The enlargement of the abdomen may be slight, or it may be very con-
siderable, so as to simulate dropsy.

If the disease continue long, the patient is apt to become hysterical, or suffer
from cramps and creeping of the skin. The stomach will become deranged, and
sickness and vomiting may ensue, with very irregular action of the bowels. The
breasts will also frequently enlarge and become painful, precisely as in pregnancy, and

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 641

the patient will be restless and nnable to sleep. The menses sometimes stop alto-
gether, for several months, and then a flooding ensues for weeks together ; in some
cases they never stop for more than a day or two at a time. Very often there is a
purulent and foetid discharge from the vagina, almost constantly, as if the womb
were ulcerated or gangrened.

There are two varieties of this disease, different in some of their symptoms, but
similar in their effects, and requiring a similar mode of treatment. In the one case
there is hardness of the womb, commonly termed induration, as well as swelling,
while in the other case it is sometimes even softer than natural.

The general treatment at first should be similar to that for chronic inflammation.
After which regular bathing, exercise on horseback, and chafing over the womb with
liniments may be added. Dashes of cold water on the lower part of the abdomen
are also useful, and cups to the inside of the thighs. If the disease still remain ob-
stinate, a seton or blister may be used on the loins. Another plan of treatment called
firing has also been found useful. It may be imitated by taking a small flat-faced
hammer, and plunging it for some minutes in boiling water, then on taking it out
press it suddenly and firmly on the skin, for a few seconds, heating the instrument
afresh for each application. The number of applications may be ten or a dozen
on each side of the backbone, at the small of the back, or in the groins. The pain
is by no means so severe as might be expected, if the operation be performed quickly,
and it may be done in five minutes. I have known many patients prefer it to either
cups or blisters. The effect is often very beneficial.

It should be borne in mind, however, that the mild plan of treatment will usually
succeed, though it may take longer time ; and this is a disease that requires patience
and perseverance, in both patient and physician, to no small extent. Sometimes it
is necessary to advise a state of singleness for a time, but at other times marriage will
be beneficial. This can be decided upon only after a careful consideration of the
peculiar circumstances of the case.

One of the chief resorts of the general practice of the day is copious blood-letting
in various ways, but particularly by leeches and cups, to the abdomen, perineum,
vulva, thighs, and mouth of the womb. This is sometimes continued daily till the
patient fa ints. As I have before remarked, however, I think the same effects may
be produced by milder means.

If the swelling be not reduced there is danger of a purulent accumulation, and of
abscess, or, in case of induration, it will be likely to end in cancer.

During the engorgement there is nearly always either prolapsus of the womb, an-
teversion or retroversion, the unusual weight causing its displacement.

Hemorrhage, or bleeding, sometimes accompanies engorgement, but not always.
Tubercles, or small ulcers, are also frequently developed in the womb itself, particu-
larly on the neck, and most frequently in those who are badly fed, who live in ill-
ventilated houses, and who are scrofulous.

SCIRRHOUS, OK CANCEROUS ENGORGEMENT OF THE WOMB.

It is not my intention to enter into a description of the nature and treatment of

cancer of the womb, for several reasons. It is a disease fortunately but seldom met

with, and is in no way different from cancer in other parts of the body. Besides, so

little is known of its nature, and so little is agreed upon respecting its treatment,

41

542 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

that any extended account would be merely a record of contradictory opinions, while
a meagre one would be utterly useless.

Scirrhous, or cancer, will, however, produce enlargement or engorgement of the
womb, so similar in some respects to that already described, that it is necessary to
distinguish them.

In scirrhous engorgement the womb is always very hard, and feels in lumps or
knots ; it increases in size very slowly, and when examined by the speculum, the
neck appears of a yellowish white color, like ivory. The pain is often darting and
very severe, though sometimes there is none at all.

It may be years before this state of things alters, and the cancer opens into an
ulcer, or it may do so very soon. It is also possible, I think, beyond doubt, to
resolve or remove the cancerous tumor, by pursuing much the same mode of treat-
ment as we have prescribed for simple engorgement. There is no question but that
many cases of undoubted cancerous tumor in the womb have been completely cured
by such a course. There are cases, however, in which the treatment must be modi-
fied from numerous causes, and in which the result is always uncertain and much to
be feared.

RHEUMATISM OF THE WOMB.

This is a disease about which very little is yet known. There are but few medi-
cal works, even the most recent, that contain any allusion to it, and but few medical
men who ever treated a case. It is, nevertheless, more common than is suspected,
but from its resemblance to other diseases is confounded with them.

Kheumatism may settle in the womb after having existed in other parts of the
body, or it may attack the womb first. The same general causes that produce the
disease elsewhere will also produce it here, or it may probably be a consequence of
other diseases. The symptoms are, for the most part, so precisely similar to those
of ordinary inflammation that one cannot be distinguished from the other, and they
have, therefore, usually been confounded together. It is of the greatest consequence,
however, to distinguish them if possible, because the treatment proper for one dis-
ease will be highly injurious for the other. There is no doubt whatever but that
many cases of mere rheumatism have been treated as cases of metritis, and with fatal
consequences. Often, on examining the bodies of those who have died from supposed
inflammation of the womb, no trace of inflammation could be found! The infer-
ence is, that no inflammation existed, but merely rheumatism, which possibly ended
fatally merely through this mistake.

In rheumatism of the womb, there is usually more or less cessation of pain at in-
tervals, during which but little soreness is felt on touching. On lifting up the
womb also, the pain will often cease entirely, while in inflammation it is always in-
creased. The peculiar gnawing, grinding pain of rheumatism is also very distinct
from that of ordinary inflammation, and is always recognized by those who have
ever felt it before.

This disease is most likely to occur during pregnancy, and is then very apt to
lead to abortion. An attack of it during child-birth will often stop the labor alto-
gether, the woman using every effort to keep still, on account of the agony that any
straining produces. The muscular fibers of the womb are also cramped and stiffened
by it, in the same way as the muscles are in other parts of the body.

The treatment of this agonizing disease must be similar to that of rheumatism in

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 643

other parts of the body. Brisk purgatives, warm baths, hot fomentations, contain-
ing opium and camphor, to the abdomen ; anodyne draughts, sweating medicines,
and blisters to the loins. In the non-pregnant state, galvanism will be the best
agent, and if there be any derangement of the menses, it must be immediately cor-
rected. When rheumatism stops suddenly in any other part of the body, it is very
apt to fly to the womb, if that organ be weak, or its functions deranged.

In every case, therefore, where there is a painful affection of the womb resembling
inflammation, the physician should satisfy himself, as far as he can, that it is not
rheumatism, and should always bear in mind, at least, that it may be so, particularly
if the patient has had rheumatism in other parts.

I have no doubt whatever but that many of those cases so often met with, where
females suffer excruciating pains in the womb, varying in intensity at different times,
and with no apparent inflammation, are really cases of uterine rheumatism. I have
a case now of this kind ; the lady has been suffering for three or four years, at times
almost to distraction, without obtaining the slightest relief from any treatment she
has received. Some physicians treated her for uterine inflammation, others thought
a polypus was forming, and one alarmed her by suggesting a cancer. On examination
I found the womb very little larger than usual, and not hard except when drawn up
with pain. No pain was experienced on raising it up, but, on the contrary, great
relief. I became convinced, from these and other symptoms, that it was a case of
uterine rheumatism, and I have now treated it for some time on that supposition
with the happiest results. In fact she may be considered cured, excepting that there
is still a little sensibility just before any sudden change in the weather.

I would particularly recommend both physicians and patients to bear this disease
in mind, especially in many of those cases when they are puzzled to tell what is the
matter.

LEUCOKEH03A, OB FLUOB ALBUS.

This disease, ordinarily termed the whites, is, perhaps, even more common than
prolapsus uteri. In large cities particularly, and in certain districts, it is almost
universal, occurring in both married and unmarried, young and old, from mere in-
fancy to extreme age. It appears in the form of a discharge from the vagina,
like mucus, or pus, or sometimes even like green water, or milk, or curds and whey.
Its color also varies, being white, yellow, greenish, or reddish brown, and sometimes
it is quite colorless. The quantity may be either small, so as to merely make a show,
or it may be larger, sometimes even to half a pint or more in the day.

The discharge itself is very annoying, and causes great distress, but it is also
accompanied, in most cases, with more or less constitutional disturbance, which may
even become serious.

Leucorrhoea often follows from inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
•vagina and uterus, but more frequently, perhaps, from tonic debility and weakness.
It may therefore be produced by any causes that give rise to inflammatory action, or
to general prostration. Among these may be enumerated, deranged menstruation
— cold — want of exercise and fresh air — late hours — exciting reading, company, and
conversation — depression of spirits — vicious habits — too early, or too late marriage,
— exciting food and drink — the use of shell-fish — stimulating medicines — excesses—
too much warm bathing — cold, damp, or ill-ventilated houses — thin shoes — the irri-
tation of a pessary, or injury at child-birth, especially by instruments — frequent

644 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

labors— and insufficient clothing. To these may be added numerous others, and
generally all those that debilitate the system. All large cities seem to be so many
hot-beds to engender this and other female diseases. In them puberty is preco-
ciously developed, exciting circumstances abound, and the daily habits of females are
calculated to make them weak, and susceptible of cold from the slightest exposure.

In some persons leucorrhcea appears to be constitutional, and probably results
from a scrofulous taint. Particular temperaments are also apparently more disposed
to it than others. Women of a nervous habit— those with light or reddish hair, and
thin transparent skins, and those who swell and puff up in the limbs, from slight
exertion, are instances.

The intimate connection between the uterine system and the great nervous cen-
ters is also another source of this disease ; and hence it is often produced by sudden
Mght, continued anxiety, disappointment, grief, and passion. Every other organ
in the body is also connected, in the same way, with the womb, so that their de-
rangements may cause leucorrhcea. It will likewise frequently result from the sudden
suppression of some other discharge, as diarrhoea, vomiting, profuse perspiration,
hemorrhage, or the secretion of milk. The incautious healing of old ulcers, skin
eruptions, setons, or issues, or even the stoppage of a common cold, may also pro-
duce the same effect. Sometimes it appears to prevail epidemically, and in some sec-
tions of the country almost every female has it. This is mostly in damp, low situa-
tions. I know some females who always have leucorrhcea in the spring and fall, and
others who have it all the winter. I knew one in whom it took place suddenly, from
fright, at seeing a child fall out of a window : and another in whom it occurred aftei
three nights watching with a sick friend. Very often I have seen it follow the stop-
page of the menses, though only for a single term, and also from a long-continued
constipation of the bowels. In short, everything that deranges, weakens, and dis-
eases other parts of the system, will thus disease the womb, whose mysterious and
extensive sympathies connect it with every other organ in the body.

In cases of leucorrhcea it must be first ascertained if there be any exciting cause
that produces it, and if so, that must be first removed. Very often the disease de-
pends merely on some other derangement, or on the presence of some irritating for-
eign body, the removal of which is all that is required. Most usually, however, it
is regularly established, so that the inflamed, or debilitated state of the mucous
membrane exists independent of these external causes, and may be either acute or
chronic

Acute leucorrhosa is always attended with more or less of inflammation, and some-
times with slight fever. The discharge, though small and thin, at first, becomes in
a short time quite profuse, and highly colored. I have known it in some soak
through a dozen napkins in a day. Generally there is pruritus, and similar pains to
those felt in metritis, with difficulty in urinating, and burning heat. Certain feel-
ings are also apt to acquire undue strength, from the irritation, and hysterical symp-
toms supervene, with general restlessness and irritability.

This form of leucorrhcea sometimes disappears and returns again, at regular inter-
vals ; between the monthly periods for instance. It may, however, continue an in-
definite time unchanged, or it may become chronic. It is usually this form that
occurs at particular seasons, from violence, strong mental emotion, and sudden
cold.

Chronic Leucorrhcea. — This does not always follow the acute form, but may

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 645

arise from independent causes, most frequently from mere debility. Women of a
lymphatic temperament are most subject to it, or those most exposed, or those who
have been weakened by frequent child-bearing, and other causes 1 It also frequently
accompanies deranged menstruation.

As a general rule there is no great pain felt in chronic leucorrhoea, nor is there
any irritation, but it is nearly always accompanied by distressing weakness and lan-
guor. When of long standing, however, the symptoms may become more serious,
particularly if the discharge be copious and thick. The female will then complain
of a weight, with pain in the back, and in the lower part of the abdomen. The
appetite will often become capricious, with sickness at the stomach, palpitation at
the heart, headache, giddiness, pain in the breast, and coldness in the feet. The
skin feels chilly, and the head hot ; the eyes ache and feel too heavy to keep open.
The hysterical symptoms become more decided, and sometimes we see the patient
cast down with melancholy, while at other times she will have fits of laughing, cry-
ing, intense passion, and other uncontrollable emotions.

The external indications of this state of disease are very marked. The face is
pale, the eyes dark underneath, the eyelids swollen and heavy, every motion seems
a labor, and the general air of sadness indicates the misery with which the poor suf-
ferer contends.

Eventually, if the disease be not checked, the general health suffers still more.
The continual discharge causes such weakness that the patient cannot stand, or walk.
The skin becomes sallow, the breath foul, the flesh soft and loose, and the limbs
swollen as if with dropsy. The stomach becomes acid and full of wind, the bowels
tormented with colic pains, but obstinately costive, and the urine becomes small in
quantity, high colored, and very thick. Finally, the debility both of body and mind
is so great, and the distress so overwhelming that the patient sinks in despair, and
often prays for death to relieve her misery.

In numerous cases, however, it will continue for years in a comparatively mild
form, without ever attaining this extreme stage, though there is always danger of
its doing so.

Treatment of Leucorrhoea. — It must be carefully borne in mind that the too
sudden stoppage of a long established or very profuse leucorrhoea may cause great
mischief, particularly if it be accomplished by a mere local application. The mere '
drying up of the discharge is not a cure, of itself, unless accompanied by an improve-
ment in the general health.

In the acute form the first thing to attend to is the diet, the regulation of which
alone will often effect a great improvement. Everything heating or stimulating in
the food must be carefully avoided, and the drinks must be mucilaginous and diluent,
like those prescribed for chronic metritis. Injections and enemas must be used also,
of the same kind as those recommended in metritis, and the bowels must be kept free.
A strong decoction of poppy-heads with a half ounce of lor ax to the quart, is an excel-
lent injection for this complaint ; so also is the oak bark, mentioned when treating
on falling of the womb. They should be used tepid, and four or five times a day.

Internal medication may be of use, if it can in any way improve the health, or
decrease the morbid action. Purgatives have this effect to a certain extent, by ex-
citing the mucous membrane of the intestines, and so relieving that of the vagina
or womb. Many cures have been thus effected by purgatives alone, particularly with
rhubarb, which is also a good tonic. Even continued sickness and vomiting will

646 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

sometimes produce the same effect, and hence some physicians have cured their
patients by repeated doses of ipecac.

External irritants, as blisters or liniments for instance, to the abdomen, loins
and thighs, or mustard poultices, are of great service. Setons, or issues may also be
used, and leeches, or cups, "with repeated frictions all over the body, to produce
proper action in the skin.

All these means, however, are intended for the first period, that is, while i: inani-
mation exists, but when that has subsided the course must be varied. The diet may
then be more generous, and tonics may be given, such as the aromatic tincture of
iron, bitter teas, or even a little good port wine and Peruvian bark. The injections
may also be made a little stronger, so as to be more astringent, and some fresh ones
may be used, as alum, or sugar of lead, water, or a solution of sulphate of zinc, or two
parts of port wine to one of water. The patient must keep still ; in fact, she must
have perfect rest, and must be warmly clothed. If it be the proper season, sea bathing
will be of great service at this stage, or, in the absence of that, a shower bath every
morning, with good rubbing after. Thick shoes must be worn, and plenty of exer-
cise taken in the open air.

The application of galvanism, by means of a large metallic bougie, will often
complete a cure sooner than anything else. It seems to impart tone to the membrane,
and effects a change, both in the character and the quantity of the discharge, in a
very short time. I have used it in a great number of cases, and can safely recommend
it, as a means likely to be successful when everything else fails. One of the most
remarkable cures of this disease perhaps ever performed, I had the gratification of
effecting by means of galvanism. The patient had suffered for thirteen years, and
was in the worst possible condition ; so weak she could scarcely walk, and so dejected
that it was difficult to rouse her to the slightest effort. I began by prescribing a
generous diet, there being no inflammation, and the frequent use of slightly astrin-
gent injections, like those referred to. The body was well rubbed after a shower
bath, every morning, and a preparation of rhubarb and iron was given internally.
This checked the discharge, and improved the general health considerably, in about
three weeks. I then began the application of the galvanism, every day, and con-
tinued it for three weeks more, at the end of which time the discharge was completely
stopped, and the general health so far restored that the patient declared herself
quite well. She recovered her flesh, the sallowness left her skin, the limbs became
strong, and cheerfulness took the place of the melancholy that had formerly over-
whelmed her. The change was indeed miraculous, her friends scarcely knew her,
nor could she help fearing, to use her own expression, that it was too good to be
true ! I have heard from her repeatedly since, hoAve-ver, and she still retains her
health.

Great imposition is practiced in the advising of specific internal remedies for this
disease. I have known many celebrated practitioners even completely drench their
patients with drugs, under the delusive promise that they would stop the leucorrhoea.
Excepting in the way already pointed out, there are but few of them that have even
the slightest effect in that way. The only medicines that seem really to act on the
mucous membrane of the vagina in this disease are turpentine, some of the balsams,
copaiva, cubebs, and tolu, for instance. One scruple of sulphate of iron, and two scru-
ples of aloes, with as much Venice turpentine as will mix them together, is an excel-
lent preparation ; it should be made into twenty pills, and one should be taken three

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 647

times a day. The common copaiva capsules are also often good ; two of them may
be taken three times a day.

In France and England they also employ copaiva in the form of injection, or
enema, or in what is termed a bougie, or suppository, which is formed by mixing up
the balsam with wax, or fat, and a little opium, till it is like dough. It is then
moulded into the form of a bougie and introduced into the passage, where it may be
Worn for half an hour, morning and evening.

In the chronic form of leucorrhcea there are no inflammatory symptoms to com-
bat, the disease is become constitutional, and cannot be treated successfully by local
medication alone. The injections and baths may be used as already directed, and
also medicines, but more attention must be paid to that course of treatment called
tonic and alterative. The strong bitters, such as cinchona, gentian and absynthium,
are excellent tonics, -and may be taken alternately with the different preparations of
iron, such as the muriate, — the aromatic tincture, — or the compound mixture, — and
particularly the syrup of iodine of iron, ten drops of which may be taken three times
a day. The turpentine and iron pills, previously advised, may also benefit, or the
copaiva capsules and suppositories.

It will be a great error, however, and will lead to much disappointment, if too
much dependence be placed on any kind of medication, external or internal. It is
nothing more than an assistant agent at best. The chief good must result from that
change in the air, diet, habits, and general regimen, which effects a modification, or
alteration, in the action of the system. There are many medicines that are capable
of driving back the disease, or rather preventing it from showing itself for a time,
but this is not curing it. The tendency still remains, and on suspending the medi-
cine the disease again appears. Galvanism may be used, with more prospect of good
than from any medicine, if conjoined with the plan of treatment laid down.

Leucorrhcea is, however, in most cases, so complicated with other affections,
either as cause or effect, that we can scarcely approach to any general plan of treat-
ment. The kind of medicine, and the quantity of it ; the particular diet and regi-
men ; and the mode of applying the galvanism, must all be varied in almost every
case. By pursuing a certain course with one patient, merely because it was success-
ful with another, we may make matters worse, instead of effecting another cure.
There are few diseases, in fact, so difficult to treat as this, or that so frequently defy
all treatment. A very old practitioner once remarked to me, that he would rather
undertake to cure cancer, or consumption, than leucorrhma ; and he certainly had
good reason for making the remark. At the present time, however, a little more
success may be reasonably expected, because the causes that produce it are better
understood.

It should always be borne carefully in mind, that a mere discharge from the va-
gina does not constitute a leucorrhcea, nor always indicate one. The discharge may
arise from other diseases, particularly from an ulcer, abscess, or cancer in the womb.
This must, of course, be ascertained if possible. It is not always easy to do so, how-
ever, and hence arises a great deal of uncertainty. The character of the discharge
itself is the only sure indication of the place it comes from ; that poured out by the
vagina having different chemical properties from that which escapes from the womb !
the pus from an abscess, and the discharge from an ulcer, are also very different, in
many respects, from the secretion of a diseased mucous surface. . .

It is, perhaps, advisable to remark here, that the leucorrhceal matter is sometimes

(548 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

infectious, and, in married persons, may produce effects on the husband usually
thought to arise from other diseases only ! Ignorance of this fact I have often
known to produce unpleasant domestic consequences, and great distress of mind.

POLYPUS OP THE WOMB.

This disease consists in the growth of a foreign body in the womb, called a poly-
pus or tumor. It is a somewhat prevalent affection, and a very serious one too.
Our notice of it, however, will be brief, on account of the obscurity that hangs over
the whole subject.

Uterine polypi are found to vary in size from a small nut to a man's head, and
in weight from half an ounce, or less, up to twenty or thirty pounds. Their color
is sometimes whitish, at others red, and at others again it is brown, or even black.
Sometimes they are quite soft, or spongy, and at others hard, like gristle. Generally
they are solid, but sometimes we find them hollow.

The symptoms attending a polypus are almost all those of every other disease, so
that there is scarcely a single affection of the womb but it has been mistaken for.
It is particularly liable to be confounded with the different uterine displacements, as
already stated, and with inflammation of the womb, dropsy, or pregnancy.

The dangers from polypi are numerous. In the non-pregnant state they give
rise to profuse floodings and other discharges, which often reduce the system to a
state of complete prostration, besides deranging the functions of nearly all the other
organs. The probability is also that they will terminate in gangrene or cancer. In
the pregnant state, in addition to all these evils, they are apt to produce abortion,
or to seriously impede the progress of delivery. In short, there are few diseases of
the womb more serious, and in every case where there is the slightest ground for
suspicion, the most careful scrutiny should be instituted, in order to ascertain
whether it exists or not.

This is also particularly desirable when it is borne in mind that the fallen, or in-
verted womb, is often mistaken for a tumor, to the great peril of the patient.

The causes that produce these tumors are but little known. Probably all those
that lead to inflammation of the womb might be enumerated, including a peculiar
lymphatic temperament, or scrofulous taint. There is good reason to believe, also,
that those condemned to sedentary occupations, like our unfortunate dressmakers
and others, are more liable to them. They also appear to be more prevalent at cer-
tain periods of life — between thirty and forty-five years of age for instance. In very
old, or very young persons, they are seldom met with, though occasional cases have
been observed at sixty years, and others at fifteen, or even younger.

It is supposed that, in every case, there is some immediate cause which first starts
the unnatural growth, such as a bruise, or an injury at child-birth, either from the
hand, or instrument, or from tearing away the placenta. Injuries occurring at mar.
riage may also lead to the same result, and so may the wearing of a pessary, or cer-
tain excesses. The mode in which these causes act has been compared to that of the
puncture of an oak tree, by the insect called the Gynips Gallce. Immediately after
this little fly has punctured the bark, and deposited its egg, a swelling begins, which
gradually increases, like the tumor in the womb, and eventually forms what is called
a gall-nut.

The situation of the tumor may be either at the neck of the womb, so as to protrude

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 649

into the vagina, or it may be completely inclosed in the uterine cavity, and is then
very difficult to' discover. Sometimes it will form in the vagina instead. The hollow
polypi spoken of have been mistaken for the womb itself, and many practitioners,
on cutting one out, have been needlessly alarmed from the supposition that they
bad removed that organ. The most serious mistake, however, is that of taking the
womb for a tumor, and operating upon it as such, which has been done more thap
once.

The length of time a tumor may be in growing, or before it compromises the
health of the subject, is very uncertain. It may remain quite small for many years,
or may never increase, and sometimes, though very rarely, it will disappear. At
other times its growth will be alarmingly rapid, and a fatal result may occur imme-
diately after its discovery. There is never security while one remains, no matter
bow indolent it may appear, as a slight cause may make it immediately active. I
recollect a case of a lady who suffered many years, and eventually died from a dis-
ease which none of her physicians could make out. She was wasted by a continual
discharge, sometimes bloody, and sometimes like pus from an abscess. Severe pains
darted through the abdomen, loins, and groins. The womb was excessively tender
and swollen, and the limbs so weak that she could scarcely stand. The whole sys-
tem seemed to sympathize, and became completely prostrated ; the slightest motion
of the intestines, or bladder, caused an increase of suffering, amounting sometimes
to complete agony. At last all action seemed to cease as if from a blow — she fainted
while attempting to urinate, and never recovered. On examination after death, an
enormous tumor, or polypus, was found inside the womb, which had begun to gan-
grene, and which caused such pressure on the intestines and bladder that the wonder
was how they had performed their functions so long. The weight of this tumor
was about nine pounds, and its size that of a large cocoanut. From her own account
it had been nearly seven years in growing, and came first from the use of instru-
ments in a difficult labor. Like most other polypi it was connected with the womb
by a small pedicel, or neck, not larger than the little finger.

Females have married, conceived, and been safely delivered, with a polypus in
the womb ; but no one should ever expect to do so, the probability being very much
against such a happy result.

Treatment of Polypus Uteri. — This is of two lands, medical and surgical. The
medical treatment consists in supporting the strength of the patient — in checking the
discharge by means of rest and injections — and in trying to bring about the absorp-
tion of the tumor, which is sometimes effected by a proper attention to diet, con-
joined with the administration of iodine. It is necessary to say, however, that there
have been but very few cases where this plan has succeeded, and it can never be de-
pended upon. Sometimes, but still more rarely, the tumor is expelled by the natu-
ral efforts of the womb, precisely as the child is in labor. Medical men have often
been deceived in such cases, and have not found out their error till the woman, whom
they thought pregnant, has brought forth a tumor, instead of a foatus. I knew one
case where a lady was relieved of one that had troubled her many years, through slip-
ping on the stairs. She felt something escape, and on looking found the tumor, about
as large as an egg, on the floor. It had been connected with the womb only by a
small stem, or pedicel, not thicker than a quill, which was broken. The smallness
of this neck had probably prevented its growing so fast, and allowed it to escape by
readily breaking with the shock.

Q50 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

Galvanism has been tried, and I can say, from experience, with success. In some
cases it will cause an absorption of the tumor, and in others it will bring on uterine
contractions and so lead to its expulsion. It is true we can seldom tell beforehand
whether the tumor is one of that kind likely to be benefited by this agent, but still
it should always be used before resorting to any operation, because it can do no harm,
and has, undoubtedly, often succeeded.

The surgical treatment of polypus consists of five different operations, each of
which is resorted to according to circumstances, or the predilections of the operator.
First, cauterization, or burniug it off, either by hot irons or by caustic substances,
a plan that can seldom be adopted at all, and is not likely to be very successful when
it can. It is scarcely ever resorted to now. Secondly, avulsion, or torsion, or the
twisting and tearing it off by means of instruments. This plan is very generally
adopted, particularly with certain kinds. The small neck which these tumors often
have makes such a process comparatively easy, and the twisting of the vessels prevents
any great loss of blood. The pain is seldom very great. Thirdly, the crushing process,
which is also very often used. It consists in crushing, or breaking the tumor, either
with the fingers or with proper instruments. This seldom produces much pain, as
the tumor is not usually endowed with much vitality. Fourthly, the ligature. This
consists in tying a ligature, or cord, round the neck of the polypus, and tightening
it each day, till the neck is eaten through. This has sometimes succeeded, though
it has often to be abandoned on account of the inflammation it gives rise to. In
many cases, also, it is not possible to affix the cord round the neck, though there are
many ingenious instruments contrived for the purpose. This mode, when available,
has some advantages ; there is no cutting to alarm the patient and no bleeding, the
tumor being gradually severed from the womb by the destruction of its connecting
link. Besides the danger of inflammation, however, already referred to, it is annoy
ing to the patient to have it examined, and the cord tightened every day. Fifthly,
excision, or cutting it away with the knife. This mode of operating, though ap ■
parently the most serious, is in reality, in most cases, the most simple and the least
dangerous. The neck, it must be recollected, is generally small, so that no great
hemorrhage occurs, which is the chief thing to be dreaded, and inflammation is not
nearly so likely to arise as from any of the other modes. Excision is, therefore, gen-
erally practiced when circumstances will allow. I recollect one case where the tumor
was so large that when the neck was cut through it could not be passed through the
vagina till it was cut into four pieces.

After the operation, by either method, cai'e must be taken to heal the wounded
surface, and to keep down all inflammation.

When the tumor is located in the vagina, or on the external parts, as it sometimes
is, the removal is, of course, more easily effected. Great care must be taken, how-
ever, that the supposed tumor is not the prolapsed bladder, intestine, or womb.

HYDROMETRA, OR DROPSY OP THE WOMB.

This disease is very rare, and I refer to it chiefly because it is likely to be con-
founded, when it does occur, with polypus or tumor.

Hydrometra consists in the accumulation of a fluid substance either in the walls
of the womb or in its cavity, constituting a real dropsy. So few cases have been
seen that the causes of it cannot well be traced. Most likely it is produced chiefly by
deranged menstruation, or by any of the causes of ordinary inflammation.

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 651

Instances are on record where the womh has been distended, by watei within it,
till as large as at the full period of pregnancy. Indeed, one surgeon records a case
where eighty-five pounds of fluid was evacuated from the womb, and another informs
us that he found the organ, after death, large enough to contain a child ten years of
age!

The symptoms are similar to those of polypus, with the addition of fluctuation, or
motion, like that of ordinary dropsy.

This is more a disease of the married than of the single state, and is not nearly so
dangerous as many others we have treated upon.

The treatment varies with the urgency of the case. Sometimes a little emmena
gogue, or forcing medicine will expel the fluid, and a course of tonic medication
afterward will prevent its return. It may be necessary, in some cases, to open the
mouth of the womb and remove any obstructions, or puncture any membrane that
may prevent the escape of the fluid. Cases have been known even where the womb
was opened externally, the same as when we tap for ordinary dropsy of the abdomen.
In one instance, fifty-three pounds of bloody fluid escaped, and though the patient
was fifty years of age she perfectly recovered.

Care must be taken here that pregnancy be not mistaken for a uterine dropsy, an
error not impossible to be fallen into.

One form of hydrometra occurs during pregnancy, and consists simply in a greater
accumulation than usual of the amniotic liquor. It is seldom dangerous, but by
concealing the motions of the child, it may make the pregnancy obscure.

In concluding our remarks on hydrometra, it is perhaps advisable to say a few
words on another disease, supposed by some to exist, called physometra, or wind in
the womb ! Many curious accounts are given by old authors of this affection, but
they are generally looked upon as fabulous. Thus, one tells us of a woman who had
been long sick, with symptoms similar to those of hydrometra, from whose womb
there escaped a kind of bag or bladder, full of wind or gas, which hounded on the
floor ! Many other accounts equally curious and equally incredible might be given,
but it is sufficient to say that the structure and conditions of the parts make any
such aeriform collections improbable. Immediately after childbirth, it is true, owing
to the alternate expansion and contraction of the womb, air may be sucked up and
expelled again, and gas may be generated from the decay of a portion of the placenta
if it be too long retained ; but these accidental accumulations are not the result of

I have known some females much alarmed by the escape of air from the vagina
from its being so unusual, but it is in reality a very simple affair, and of no conse-
quence whatever. This subject, in fact, has only been alluded to from our desire to
leave nothing unexplained, and to quiet unfounded apprehension,,

HYDATIDS OF THE WOMB.

This is a name given to a peculiar kind of growth occasionally formed in the
womb, the nature of which is not very well understood.

Some hydatids are merely cells or bladders growing together like a bunch of
grapes, and filled with a white or yellowish colored fluid. Others are longer, some-
what like a bean, each one distinct by itself, and furnished with a kind of claw by
which it is attached. Others, again, are egg-shaped, and occasionally they are of no
^articular form.

652 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

It is generally considered that the single hydatids, with the claw, are living single-
celled beings, and those in bunches aggregated cells. It is certain that many of
them, when expelled from the womb or vagina, will move in warm water, and
apparently live for some time after, but others again shrivel up immediately they
are separated from the body. Their nature will be better understood by referring to
the previous chapters on cell growth, and on the development of parasites.

The causes that give rise to these morbid growths are very obscure ; probably we
might enumerate most of those that have a tendency to irritate, excite, and disease
the uterine organs.

The symptoms of hydatids also are not at all distinctive. Most usually they are
taken for those of pregnancy, hydrometra, or metritis. The enlargement of the abdo-
men which tney cause will sometimes be as great as that at the full period of gesta-
tion, or even greater ; but does not take place so rapidly, and is unaccompanied by
any movements like those of the child. The breasts will swell, however, and the
menses usually stop, which makes the female think she is certainly pregnant,
particularly when she becomes sick at the stomach, and nervous, as is usually the
case.

These symptoms may continue for a long time, and m iy even remit with periods
of perfect ease, till at last the hydatids are suddenly discharged, their expulsion
being often preceded and accompanied by pains and floodings, so similar to those of
child-birth, that the woman cannot be persuaded she is not really a mother, till the
morbid mass is shown to her. Sometimes the whole mass will come away at once,
like a large bunch of grapes, and at others, portions will come at intervals. When
all the hydatids are removed she usually recovers her health, and may suffer no after
inconvenience ; the disease being seldom serious in its results.

Some kinds of hydatids are found to exist in the unmarried state, but most usu-
ally they are found in the married, and, . in many cases are probably connected
with an imperfect conception. Frequently they are found along with a blighted
foetus, and very often the duration of their development, and the period of their
expulsion, occupy a definite time, like a real conception. In general, they are ex-
pelled about the seventh month ; but sometimes they remain till the twelfth or four-
teenth. The expulsion is usually followed by a lochial discharge, swelling of the
breasts, or even milk fever, the same as a real birth.

When the hydatids are retained too long, severe symptoms may arise, such as
flooding, swelling of the limbs and face, with general emaciation, and fainting fits,
that may even terminate fatally ; but this is seldom the case.

]STo precise directions can be given as to the treatment of these cases, because we
never can be sure that hydatids exist, till we see them expelled. The same general
treatment recommended for metritis, may be adopted to relieve urgent symptoms,
and means may be taken to bring on the expulsion if we are satisfied that the hyda-
tids are there ; but it must always be recollected that there may he a real pregnancy,
so that no such means should be resorted to unless there is an absolute certainty as
to their existence.

I once saw a case of a lady who had been supposed pregnant, and who was actu-
ally attended for labor, from whose womb was expelled a small pailful of hydatids,
after which she perfectly recovered.

The single hydatids, with claws, may exist either in the womb, or in the vagina,
even near to the external lips. Their origin is enveloped in complete mystery.

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 653

Dr. Ryan gives us the following account of hydatid tumors in his GyncecO'
Pathology : —

"Another kind of tumor which frequently attacks the womb, is the hydatid. It
is generally observed, inconsequence of destruction of the foetus, in the early months,
retention of some part of the placenta after delivery, or abortion. There are no
diagnostic symptoms, and consequently the disease is often mistaken for pregnancy,
or for various morbid affections already described. The size of the womb does
not correspond with the supposed period of pregnancy, and there is no motion or
quickening perceived. In some cases, the health does not suffer. I have known a
case of hydatids continue for fourteen years, and during the greater part of the time,
there was no derangement of health. This case was mistaken for pregnancy, by sev-
eral medical men, during the period ; indeed, one of them sat up four nights, ex-
pecting delivery, the uterine pains were so severe ; and yet there was no pregnancy,
and of course no delivery took place. This woman in eight years afterwards, was
attacked with uterine pains, fully as severe as those of labor, and expelled a number
of hydatids, with a large quantity of water ; she discharged some pints, mixed with
purulent matter.

When the orifice of the organ is enlarged, and the tumor extensive, the hand
may be introduced to expedite the process of expulsion, and to excite the contractions
of the womb ; but this should only be resorted to in case of hemorrhage, or other
urgent symptoms.

" There is generally pain, fever, and constitutional disturbance during, or aftei
the expulsion of the hydatids ; in the case that I have just described the most vio-
lent symptoms of peritonitis set in, and nearly destroyed the patient. In such dis-
ease, the usual remedies are to be employed. The expulsion of hydatids has been
mistaken for abortion, even by the justly celebrated Dr. Cull en. Dr. Hamilton
stated in his lectures, that one of his father's patients being ill, Dr. C. was
called in his absence, and declared the lady had miscarried. This opinion was the
innocent cause of destroying domestic happiness in that family ever afterwards, as
she and her husband had lived separately for two years. On Dr. Alexander Hamil-
ton's return, he declared the bodies expelled were hydatids, and that there was no
abortion ; but the parties were never after happy. Dr. Hamilton also mentioned
that a Dumfries practitioner wrote to him concerning a wonderful case, where a
female who had aborted expelled seventeen ova; of course these were hydatids.
Hydatids vary from the size of a pea to that of an ox's bladder ; they are usually
small oval bodies, composed of a membrane which surrounds a quantity of fluid, and
have a strong resemblance to the ovum in the early months of gestation. Sometimes
there is but one hydatid ; at other times there will be several, of various sizes ; they
may be attached to each other, like bunches of grapes, or included one within the
other. There is a living animal floating in the center of each hydatid. Though the
abdomen may be swelled as large as in the last months of pregnancy, yet there will
be no motion felt ; the breasts will be flaccid, and no child can be discovered. There
may be some slight pain ; but there will be indistinct fluctuation in most cases.
"We can distinguish this complaint from ovarian dropsy ; the swelling being in the
womb in the one, and in one side in the other.

"The duration of the complaint varies very considerably. I have observed the
disease continue for fourteen years ; I have seen it so early as the tenth year. There
is often a copious discharge of water from the vagina when a hydatid bursts, and the

654 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

tumor of the abdomen will become suddenly diminished. Dr. John Clarke knew a
lady to whom this happened, while sitting in an eating-house, and she literally del-
uged the floor. This disease usually terminates in this way, after any sudden or
violent exertion. It has been attempted to remove the fluid through the orifice of
the womb, but that is a very doubtful operation ; because, if there be more than one
hydatid, the sac of one may be evacuated, but that of every one else left untouched.
Sometimes the bag or sac comes away, and without much pain. Hildanus mentions
the case of a woman who supposed herself pregnant ; but, dum noctu marito ren
haberet, a sudden inundation swept away all her hopes. I have seen a female, aged
thirty, who, during menstruation, expelled a number of small white worms, resem-
bling white silk, cut short, and these were from hydatids ; the expulsion of them was
always accompanied by a discharge of water, and not from the bladder. There is a
similar case recorded by a Mr. Wellson, in one of the early numbers of the Edinburgh
Medical Commentaries, vol. iii., p. 36. This disease is often combined with preg-
nancy, or with a mole, and rarely appears alone. Dr. Monro secundus proposed the
injection of some bitter infusion into the uterus, as recommended by Cockson ; which
now can be accomplished by means of the patent syringe. When expulsion is likely
to be effected and uterine contraction or pain present, some think the ergot of rye
might be used with great advantage, by increasing uterine contraction ; and more
probably expelling the whole of the hydatids from the womb. I have been told of a
case where tbe obstetrician introduced his hand, and brought away a basinful of
these substances. Very early in my practice, I was requested to tap a girl ten years
old, who had ascites, evident fluctuation, tense abdomen, on the parietes of which
numerous veins were evident. To my great astonishment, no more than six ounces
of fluid escaped, though the canula was clear, and the fluctuation most evident ; this
was decidedly a case of ovarian or saculated dropsy, or perhaps hydatids. When Ave
bear in mind that hydatids are vesicles, formed of a thin membranous coat, filled
with serum ; sometimes cemented together in the form of a great bunch, and hang-
ing by one or more pedicels ; sometimes distributed into separate divisions, fixed by
different pedicels, which may be filled with limpid, turbid, or purulent fluid, we can
readily conceive how the perforation of one of these, which may vary from the size
of a millet seed to that of an inflated ox's bladder, may be followed by a considerable
discharge, and yet that the abdominal tumor will not be much diminished, and fluc-
tuation will remain very evident. This disease was described by JEtius."

Eestoring the healthy state of the womb, and cleansing the passages regularly
with injections, usually prevents any further increase of these morbid growths.

CALCULUS, OR STONE IN THE WOMB AND VAGINA.

Very few people Lave ever heard of such a disease as this, and I have no doubt
but the mention of it will excite considerable surprise. In looking through medical
books and periodicals, however, many cases of it may be found narrated, and I have
certainly seen two myself.

The body called the stone is sometimes hard and brittle, exactly like a stone from
the bladder, with which it might readily be confounded ; at other times it is softer,
like bone or chalk. The origin of these bodies in so strange a situation is a matter
of dispute ; some of those in the vagina may be formed from the urine passing in,
but those in the womb are most probably derived from a crystallizing of the saline

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 655

matters which naturally exist in the secretions of the parts, or from their incrusta-
tion round a tumor or hydatid. In cases of extra uterine pregnancy also, small
pieces of bone may pass down the Fallopian tube, and form a nucleus. So may for-
gotten pessaries or other foreign bodies which are often introduced into the vagina,
for various purposes.

These calculi may exist during the whole of a person's life without causing any
great inconvenience. They have frequently been found in the womb, or imbedded
in its walls, in making dissections. In some cases, however, they produce the most
violent inflammation, and all the symptoms that usually accompany polypus, or even
abscess, or mortification.

If we are satisfied that one exists, by feeling it with a sound, it must be grasped
with a pair of proper forceps, and so removed. It may even be necessary, if it be
large, either to cut the os tinea?, to allow of its passage, or to break the stone itself
into small pieces. The occasional necessity for these operations will be evident, when
we reflect that uterine calculi have been found from the size of a pea to that of a
child's head, and weighing from a few grains up to four or five pounds. One surgeon
gives us an instance where he removed forty-two small stones from the womb.

The natural power of the uterus itself will frequently expel these unnatural sub-
stances, and, when we are satisfied they exist, we may, if they are not too large, ad-
vantageously assist its contractile tendency.

In one of the cases which I saw, the stone was expelled along with the menses,
and caused a sensation like the passage of a large clot. It was about as large as a
pea, and brittle as glass. The symptoms arising from it had been very slight, but
sufficient to indicate that some foreign body was in the womb, which was supposed
to be a small tumor.

INFLAMMATION OF THE OVAEIES AND FALLOPIAN TUBES.

All the appendages of the uterus are liable to inflammation, the same as that organ
itself, and in many cases it is extremely difficult to tell in what part the diseased
action really exists, till the discharge of the morbific matter occurs.

The causes that lead to inflammation of the ovaries and tubes are, probably, the
same as those that produce metritis. It appears, however, from observation, that
deranged menstruation, or excessive excitement, is more apt to inflame the ovary than
the womb. And so are long-continued attacks of hysteria, and the use of forcing
medicines, or those intended to produce certain feelings. The important part which
the ovaries fulfill, in the secretion of the menses, and in the process of conception,
keeps them constantly active, and therefore peculiarly liable to these causes of dis-
turbance. Inflammation of the ovaries, called ovaritis, is also more likely to attack
those persons of certain temperaments, unless they exercise great control.

The symptoms of ovaritis are, burning pain in the groin, which darts all over the
abdomen, down the thighs, and into the loins ; a difficulty in passing the urine, or
moving the bowels, sickness, fever, thirst, general depression and restlessness, with
lassitude and weakness of the limbs. A small round swelling appears in the groin,
or in each groin if both ovaries are inflamed, and gradually extends over the whole
abdomen, which becomes hot and tender to the touch, and eventually so sensitive
that the slightest pressure upon it will cause sympathetic spasms, and convulsions,
of the lower limbs. These symptoms of course vary according to the intensity of

656 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

the attack, and the extent of the inflammation, which may either be confined to the
ovary, or tube, or extend to the uterus, or other parts.

Inflammation of the Fallopian tubes is characterized by almost precisely similar
symptoms, so that we cannot distinguish it from ovaritis ; this, however, is vf little
consequence, as nearly the same treatment is indicated for both.

An ovaritis may subside, like any other inflammation, and either disappear alto-
gether, in about eight or ten days, or pass into the chronic form. "When it contin-
ues the result is similar to that of metritis ; suppuration ensues, and an abscess forms,
usually about the twelfth or fourteenth day. This is indicated by chills and fevers,
languid circulation, and acute throbbing pain in the tumor. The pus eventually
makes an opening and is discharged, either through the walls of the abdomen, or
into the rectum, bladder, or peritoneal cavity, or down the tubes into the womb and
vagina. After this discharge the patient may recover. Very frequently, however,
the termination is lamentably different ; symptoms set in precisely like those of puer-
peral fever ; the whole of the organs in the pelvis and abdomen become intensely
inflamed, their functions cease, fever and delirium supervene, and a fatal issue soon
occurs.

When it passes into the chronic form the symptoms gradually subside, though
they remain always subject to sudden increase, from slight causes, and the swelling
may eventually disappear. More frequently, however, it becomes permanently hard-
ened, or gangrened, or cancerous. It is seldom that any of these diseased states are
cured. They may remain, however, for years before they wear the sufferer out, though
sometimes they cause death very suddenly.

The treatment of ovaritis, in the acute stage, is similar to that of metritis. A
cooling, unstimulating diet — diluent and acidulated drinks — poultices and leeches to
the swelling — warm baths, and injections of poppy-heads, or starch and laudanum-
purgatives — and absolute rest. Plentiful bleeding is almost invariably resorted to,
and, if the inflammation cannot be made to subside by other means, it may be advis-
able, but should be avoided if possible.

If in spite of all these means an abscess forms, it must be opened, when ripe, at
the safest and most convenient point, and when all is discharged the wound must be
encouraged to heal. If gangrene, or cancer, arises, the treatment will of course be
the same as for those diseases when in other parts.

When ovaritis becomes chronic, we must endeavor to draw off the inflammation,
by making increased action elsewhere ; this is called the revulsive treatment. For
this purpose we may employ blisters, or setons, or stimulating frictions, to the groins,
loins, and inside of the thighs. The ointment of hydriodate of potash is excellent to
rub over the ovary. Injections of laudanum and starch will also assist, and occa-
sional enemas, of starch alone. The bowels must be kept free, and the diet rigidly
attended to. Perfect rest must be observed in everything. In conjunction with
these means, we may advantageously employ alterative medicines, mineral waters,
particularly those containing iodine, and sea bathing. Warm clothing must be,
worn, and care taken against catching cold. The result of this treatment, if it be
rigidly persisted in, is a perfect cure, in many cases, but the duration of the disease
is always uncertain.

The operation of cutting out the diseased ovary has frequently been performed,
but is now pretty generally condemned by the most eminent surgeons. It is found
by statistics that nearly one half of those operated upon die of the operation ; and of

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 65T

those who recover, it is questionable whether life is prolonged much, if any, beyond
what it would have been without it ! The operation is, in short, a fearful one,
uncertain as to the slightest good, and frequently attended by accidents of the most
unlooked-for and serious character. The patient's chance is, in my opinion, in most
cases, better without it than with it.

It is perhaps advisable to remark, in conclusion, that in some forms of ovarian
inflammation, the patient is subject to an intense degree of excitement, which sets
all self-control at defiance, and leads to moral consequences that would never have
been dreamt of in a state of health. As I have already remarked, moral evils more
frequently arise from physical diseases than many persons suspect.

DEOPST OF THE OVARIES AND FALLOPIAN" TUBES.

This disease exhibits itself in the form of an accumulation of fluid in one, or
both of the ovaries, or tubes. It is sometimes contained in one vesicle, or bag, and
sometimes in several, either associated together, or each one distinct by itself. This
fluid, or water as it is termed, is sometimes clear and colorless, and at other times
thick and slimy, and occasionally it is reddish, or like coffee grounds. The quantity
may vary from half a pint, or less, to five or six gallons, or more. It may be secreted
in large quantities in a very short time, or years may elapse before sufficient is accu-
mulated to occasion inconvenience. The dropsy may also be attended by considerable
constitutional derangement, or the patient may not be at all incommoded, except by
the size of the tumor. I knew one case where the patient had been so swelled, for
nearly twelve years, that she could scarcely force herself through an ordinary door-
way, and yet enjoyed tolerable health all the time. The causes of this disease are
not very well understood, though it is generally supposed to result from previous
inflammation. There is little doubt, however, but that it may arise independently
from the same causes that produce ovaritis, and from various injuries.

The earliest symptoms of ovarian dropsy are also very obscure. In general there
is neither pain nor inconvenience, of any note, and what is experienced is very apt
to be taken for the results of pregnancy, particularly as there is usually a similar
swelling of the abdomen and breasts, suppression of the menses, sickness, and ca-
pricious appetite. Both patient and physician are often deceived by these signs.
The gradual increase of the tumor in the groin, however, after the usual period of
gestation is passed, and the occurrence of a deep-seated permanent pain in the same
part, soon create suspicion of the truth. This tumor is in most cases movable, but
not always, and may be years before its size is noticeable. Sometimes it feels m
lumps, and is painful, at others ifc is perfectly smooth, and may be pressed without
producing any suffering. Generally it projects more on the one side than the other,
and falls over when the female lies on the opposite side, but when both ovaries are
affected, both sides appear the same. It never however projects at front like a preg-
nancy, or like the engorged womb. As already remarked an ovarian dropsy may not
seriously compromise the health, at least not for a long time, but, as a general rule,
there is more or less trouble occasioned by it. The enlarged tumor, for instance,
sometimes presses on the intestines, bladder, and stomach, and impedes their func-
tions, producing costiveness, difficulty in urinating, and sickness. It is also liable
to displace the womb, and produce anteversion, or retroversion, or prolapsus. The
patient also feels a severe pulling and dragging, when she stands or when she lies on
42

658 VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES.

her side, and sometimes suffers from difficulty of breathing, owing to pressure on the
diaphragm. Various other symptoms, too numerous to mention, are met with in
different cases.

Some authors consider this disease as always the result of a cancerous condition
of the ovary, and if it be so, it is probably the most favorable form in which the can-
cer could exhibit itself. Both the mode, and the time of its termination, are so un-
certain that little can be said about them. Patients hare lived to be sixty or seventy
years of age, who have had dropsy of the ovary most of their lives. Sometimes the
cyst, or bag, will burst, and the fluid will then either be absorbed, or escape through
some of the passages, or perhaps produce peritoneal inflammation. The pressure on
the different organs may also lead to other kinds of inflammation, and a fatal re-
sult may thus be brought about. General dropsy is also likely to be produced, and
various forms of cancer or gangrene. In short, though some escape death, and even
severe suffering, for many years, the disease has nearly always a fatal termination,
sooner or later. Those who are cured, either spontaneously or by medical treatment,
are extremely fortunate, and considering how prevalent the disease is, their number
is fearfully small.

Medical men are but little agreed as to the best treatment in ovarian dropsy ;
each one usually adopting a plan of his own, and for the most part merely as an ex-
periment. Almost every drug in the pharmacopoeia has been used — all kinds' of baths,
blisters, pressure, firing, puncture, — and a host of other means, all of which have
been adopted, praised, condemned, and abandoned, in their turn. It is probable
that each of these plans may be useful under certain circumstances, and that no gen-
eral treatment can be advised that will suit all cases, excepting such as improves the
health, and removes any irritating causes that may exist.

As a last resort, when medical treatment fails, either of two operations may be
performed ; that of tapping, or cutting out the ovary, and, unfortunately, the suc-
cess hitherto attending both of them has been so small that neither seems to be jus-
tified by the result.

The operation of tapping is, in fact, scarcely considered as a means of cure, but
merely as a means of relieving the patient for a time, when the accumulation of fluid
has become very great. In many cases the tapping is followed by immediate death,
and in many others it undoubtedly shortens life, though it may occasionally prolong
it. In the " Philosophical Transactions " is an account of a case of dropsy where
the woman was tapped one hundred and fifty-five times, and as much as five thousand
seven hundred and ttventy pints of fluid drawn off ! It is supposed that life was thus
prolonged several years. Many other such cases are on record.

Sometimes, after the fluid is evacuated, an astringent injection is thrown in, to
stop any further secretion, and in some cases, it is stated, successfully, though in
others with the most alarming results. There are many circumstances, in short,
that make the operation altogether inadmissible, and some of them cannot be fore-
seen.

The removal of the ovary is, probably, a still more objectionable experiment.
The results of it for simple induration have been alluded to elsewhere, and it is
sufficient to say that it is no more successful for this disease than the other. A few
are cured by it, and many die from it. On the whole, the opinion of that cele-
brated surgeon, John Hunter, is probably near the truth, that patients would probe*
oly live longer if they were not meddled with.

VITAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES. 659

Dropsy of the Fallopian tubes apparently results from the same causes as dropsy
of the ovary, and can seldom be distinguished from it. The same remarks, however,
as to treatment, apply to both.

Besides these accumulations of fluid, however, the ovaries frequently contain
hydatids, and various other substances.

Most of these ovarian diseases are found to prevail at that period of life when the
uterine system is most active, namely, from twenty-five to forty-five. They are sel-
dom or never seen after the change of life, nor before puberty, and are chiefly con-
fined to those who have borne children.

The female organs are, of course, liable to many other diseases, which have not
here been alluded to, because they belong equally to other parts of the system, and
it is our intention now to confine ourselves to those peculiar to the sexual
only.

CHAPTER LV.

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS, AND OF THE

NEKVES.

In addition to malformation, imperfect development, displacement, and organio
disease, the female organs are also liable to become deranged in tbeir functions, either
as a result of some other diseases, or from independent causes. These functional dis-
eases require special and distinct notice, and will solely engage our attention in the
present chapter. The most important of them are connected with the process of
menstruation, the nature and objects of which have already been explained.

AMENORRHEA, OR NON-APPEARANCE, OR STOPPAGE, OF THE MENSES.

The menstrual discharge may either stop after it has once commenced, or it may
fail to appear at all, and the causes that lead to this suppression, or non-appearance,
may be either constitutional, or accidental.

Among the constitutional causes may be mentioned certain peculiarities of tem-
perament, such as that denominated the sanguine, which disposes to congestion of
the different organs, thereby diverting the blood from the uterus. This is generally
denoted by a full habit, florid complexion, and great activity. The lymphatic tem-
perament, in which there may be great fullness of form, but accompanied by debil-
ity, disinclination to motion, and slow pulse. A scrofulous taint appears also to
operate in the same way, and hence we often see scrofulous girls, and those with
either of the above temperaments, much later than others in commencing to men-
struate. Among the accidental causes may be mentioned all those which deteriorate
the general health, such as living in a damp situation, not being .sufficiently exposed
to the sun and air, improper or insufficient food, want of exercise, or excessive labor,
and depression or over excitement of the mind and feelings. The occurrence of
leucorrhcea, before puberty, is very apt to prevent the menses from commencing, and
this is oftener the case than is suspected. Sudden cold should also be particularly
mentioned, and the action of strong medicines. Even scents, and powerful odors
in general are supposed by many to have an injurious influence. The celebrated
Haller especially alludes to the smell of pennyroyal as having the effect of prevent-
ing the menstrual flow. Many other diseases undoubtedly cause amenorrhoea, by the
increased action they produce elsewhere, and so, I am convinced, will excessive study,
by the excitement it keeps up in the brain.

All these various causes may of course suppress the flow, when already established,
as well as prevent its appearance.

Many times I have known the receipt of some bad news, a sudden fright, or

660

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF TEE FEMALE ORGANS. 661

severe disappointment, cause instant suppression, and such, vivid emotions as anger,
jealousy, or excessive joy will also undoubtedly do the same. Even frightful dreams
have had this effect, or the sudden start from hearing a clap of thunder, or the firing
of a cannon.

In addition to all these there must further be mentioned many of the different
diseases, displacements, and improper developments of the uterine organs, already
described — some of them having a morbid effect, and others merely opposing mechani-
cal obstructions.

The symptoms and effects of suppression, or non-appearance, are numerous and
often serious, and may be either local or general. Among the local symptoms are
pains and dragging feelings in the loins and groins, with a sensation of weight in the
pelvis, and great weakness in the limbs. Sometimes there is also inflammation of
the external parts and a peculiar excitement, which becomes, in some cases, exces-
sively annoying, or leads to vicious habits. .

The general symptoms are much modified by individual peculiarities, though
there are some of them pretty constant in most cases. Thus, we nearly always
observe a feebleness and languor of the system, and the loss of that freshness which
characterizes healthy youth. The eyes become dull and surrounded by a dark circle,
the heart palpitates, the breathing is difficult, the head is dizzy, or constantly
aching, pains like those of rheumatism dart about the limbs, and severe cramps often
occur in various parts of the body. The mind and feelings also suffer, so that the
patient is dull, impatient, irritable, and melancholy, and so acutely sensitive that the
slightest disappointment or contradiction will make her weep. Some, of peculiar
temperaments, on the contrary, are singularly excited. They will be continually
moving about, though they have no particular reason for doing so, and impatiently
seek every kind of amusement and gay society. I have known some of these patients
even become ungovernably impetuous and so disposed to activity that the ordinary
quiet female occupations were irksome to them.

These symptoms may continue for a considerable time, or they may be speedily
followed by more severe ones, particularly by inflammation. Most usually, however,
they are succeeded by leucorrhcea, dropsy, diarrhoea, nervousness, convulsions, epi-
lepsy, St. Vitus dance (chorea), or delirium. The flesh wastes away, or hangs flaccid
on the bones, the skin is cold and sallow in its color, and the whole system seems to
rapidly decay. Eventually, the abdomen enlarges, the breasts swell, the stomach
sickens, the appetite disappears, or becomes capricious, and a sensation of discomfort
and misery creeps over the sufferer, till she almost loathes existence.

When the suppression occurs suddenly, the female often feels many of these symp-
toms at once, and very acutely. Thus, some will suffer instantly from a dragging,
bearing-down sensation, or from pain in the back, while others will be seized with
headache and giddiness, or even faint away ; others will be attacked with leucorrhcea,
diarrhoea, or inability to pass the urine, and others, again, will be taken with a chill
and fever.

One of the most singular consequences of suppressed menstruation, however, is
the appearance of another discharge in some other part of the body, which apparently
acts, to a certain extent, as a substitute. The leucorrhcea, and diarrhoea, already
referred to, act in this way to a certain extent ; but what we have more especial
reference to at present are, hemorrhages, or discharges of blood, from various parts
of the body. These have been known to occur from the nose, the ears, the bowels,

662 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE OBGANS.

the nipple, the bladder, the armpits, under the nails, from ulcers or other sores,
and from the gums or teeth. Sometimes these discharges will occur with the same
regularity as the real one ought to do, and really'answer for it ; but at other times they
are irregular, or almost constant.

Lastly, we may mention, as some of the ultimate consequences of suppression,
hydrometra, engorgement, gangrene and cancer of the womb, with various chronic
affections in other parts, and insanity.

In commencing to treat amenorrhoea, the greatest care and circumspection is re-
quired. It may be merely a consequence of some other disease, the removal of which
is all that is required to effect a cure. Thus it is produced by disease in the stomach,
the heart, and the spine, and by consumption. It may also be occasioned merely by
a closing of the natural passages, as in imperforate hymen, or closed vagina, and then
of course these only require opening ; and lastly it may be the result of pregnancy,
which the patient is either unaware of, or wishes to conceal. The practitioner must,
therefore, use the greatest precaution, so that he do no injury, either from his own
inadvertence, or from the criminal deception of his patient.

It must also be borne in mind that some females are much later than others, and
that some, again, stop much sooner, from natural causes. There must, therefore,
be no hurry in prescribing, unless derangement in the general health indicates its
immediate necessity. Again, in many cases, a considerable time elapses after the
first one or two periods before another occurs, and without any ill effects. I have
known the interval between the first and second period be extended to more than
twelve months. This is apt to be the case when puberty commences unusually early.

When we are satisfied that the amenorrhoea is really due to some morbid condition,
and not to any of the above causes, a careful study must be made of the patient's
constitution, habits, and mode of life, before judicious treatment can be recommended.
Very frequently nothing more is required than a proper attention to the general
health, particularly in those of a weakly constitution, or lymphatic temperament, and
in those who have been prostrated by a former sickness. In such cases, the happiest
results often follow a change of air and the adoption of a nourishing diet, with a
little good wine ; the use of mineral waters, particularly those containing iron ; cold
baths, with good dry rubbing after ; plenty of exercise, especially walking or riding
on horseback, and dancing. There is no doubt but this difficulty often arises from
the early abandonment of youthful recreations. The absurd notions of society con-
demn, in young girls, those exhilarating sports and pastimes so conducive to happiness
of mind and health of hodj, and the necessity for which in boys is universally ac-
knowledged. The perfect development of the system is sacrificed to false ideas of
propriety, or rather, disease is chosen with fashionable observance rather than health
■without it. There is no doubt whatever but that the too early abandonment of the
hoop and the skipping-rope creates an early necessity for the doctor !

The state of the mind and feelings must also be carefully attended to, as their de-
rangements have frequently much to do with this disorder. The patient's friends
must carefully remove all causes of excitement or unhappiness, and endeavor to pro-
mote a state of cheerfulness and contentment. The morbid melancholy and senti-
mental dreaminess brought on by reading trashy romances is very hurtful, and should
be broken up by exciting mental and bodily activity. I have known many young
females attacked with suppression from attending protracted religious meetings, love-
feasts, and camp-meetings.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 663

When such means fail, medicines may be resorted to, and it is but justice to say that
they are often successful in this disease, though they so lamentably fail in many others.
The best article, and the one most generally used, is iron, which is prepared and
used in numerous different ways. The particular preparation of this metal most
suitable for any given case must of course depend on a variety of circumstances, and
had better be indicated by the medical adviser. As general formulae however, bene-
ficial in most cases, and not likely to injure, the following recipes will be found ex-
cellent : — Sulphate of iron, two drachms ; extract of absynthium, four drachms ;
syrup of saffron, enough to make it into a paste. This must be divided into one
hundred and fifty pills, one to be taken three times a day. Or, sulphate of iron,
one drachm ; extract of gentian, enough to mix it up. Divide into thirty pills, and
take one three times a day. Or, in case there be any indications of scrofula, M.
Lugol recommends protiodide of iron, six grains ; starch, twenty-four grains, and
sufficient syrup of gum, to make it up. This is to be divided into twenty-four pills,
one of which may be taken morning and night. The compound iron mixture may
also be tried, or the aromatic mixture, in the usual doses, as advised for leucorrhoea.

Warm injections may also be used, if the age and condition of the patient will
allow, and warm baths or fomentations at bed-time, with hot bitter teas.

Stronger remedies are of course known, but they are not mentioned here, because
they should not be employed except under proper advice, and they might be
used under mistaken notions, or from criminal intentions, for other purposes. The
above recipes are as simple and harmless, in all states of the system, as any that
can be used.

In those cases where the disorder arises from an opposite state of the system,
that is, from too great a fullness, and determination of blood to other parts, the
treatment must be different. In these cases we must commence by prescribing a
rather spare and mild diet, chiefly vegetables, with cold drinks. Cold bathing
should also be practiced, and violent exertions, either mental or bodily, carefully
avoided. In case such means, when fairly tried, do not accomplish what we wish,
warm foot and hip baths may be used, and warm injections and enemas, with stimu-
lating and aromatic fomentations to the external lips, or vulva. The medicines
already referred to may also be used, but sparingly, and with caution, and also warm
purgatives, as the compound aloetic pill. These means should be tried for about a
week before the turn is expected, or ought to occur, and continued for several
months if necessary. It frequently happens that no effect is perceived for a long
time, but if the symptoms do not become alarming, it is better to persevere with
these modes of treatment than to adopt a more powerful one. Some authors speak
very highly of the good effects of leeches, applied to the external lips, a few days
before the period is expected.. And others recommend them to be applied to the
Ireasts ! The reason for this apparently strange recommendation being the inti-
mate sympathy between the breasts and uterus, owing to which any increased action
in the one, is usually corresponded to by the other. I have frequently applied a
mustard poultice to the breasts with the happiest results.

Sometimes the non-appearance of the menses is owing merely to a torpor, 01
want of action in the uterine organs, which is generally denoted by the manners oi
the young person, and by the want of development in other parts of the system.
She is cold and indifferent, takes no pleasure in the company of the other sex, and
exhibits no sympathy or desire for companionship with those who do. The pelvis

664 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

is usually small, and the breasts but little developed. In these cases, it must be
recollected tbat there may be no great necessity for menstruation, and, at all events
we should not be in a hurry, nor use powerful remedies to bring it on, unless we
have good reason for doing so. If the health suffers from its absence, however, we
must interfere, and may then advantageously advise the remedies last mentioned,
with warm frictions over the abdomen, and the use of flannel around the pelvis.
The patient should also be taken into company, to the theater, and to balls, and
may be allowed a rather generous diet, with a little wine. Sometimes a cup is
placed on the os tincae, or if the state of the parts will not allow of it there, on the
external lips. Sitting over the steam of hot water is also excellent, and dashing hot
water on the pelvis.

In those cases of suppression brought on by powerful mental or moral emotions,
or by sudden excitement, we must first endeavor to calm the system as speedily as
possible, by enjoining rest, quiet, warm baths, cheerful company, and a little seda-
tive medicine, as a few drops of laudanum, for instance. Then, after a time, the
more active means may be resorted to, but very carefully. If the suppression arise
from intense excitement in the uterus itself, which is sometimes the case, cold baths,
and injections with laudanum, and saline purgatives, will usually subdue it, and
effect a cure. Various other medicines have been used in this disease, but I am not
aware that any of them have been found more efficacious than iron, which itself is
only an occasional assistant. In fact, the uncertainty and frequent inefficacy of
medical treatment is generally acknowledged, and has led to the use of many other
means, but few of which have, however, been more successful. Among the most
efficacious of these may be mentioned the congester, or pneumatic apparatus, in-
vented by Dr. Sunot. This consists of a kind of large air-tight case, which may be
fitted to any part of the body, or even inclose half of it, and from which the air may
be drawn by an air-pump. On fixing this to any part, and exhausting the air, it
acts like an immense cup, drawing the blood to that part with great force. It may
even be made to act so powerfully as to cause the blood to exude itself through the
pores of the skin. The lower part of the body may be thus acted upon to determine
the circulation toward the pelvis. I have had one of these instruments in use for
some time, and can safely say that it is one of the most powerful and certain means
of bringing on the menstrual flow that we possess. In fact it can scarcely fail ! I
have known it bring on profuse flooding in five minutes after its application, though
the patient had never been unwell for over two years before ! Great care must of
course be taken in its use, so that it be not employed too powerfully, nor too much.
It is often applied to the lower part of the body to relieve headache, which it does
by drawing away the blood. Cases have been known, when using it for this pur-
pose, in which it has produced a flow from the womb in females long past the turn
of life !

Galvanism, however, if resorted to in time, and in a proper manner, will almost
supersede everything else, in this disease. I have employed it in many hundred
cases of amenorrhoea, and with such uniform success that I look upon it as nearly
certain ! In many instances, even after long suppression, the very first application
has brought on the flow, and in one instance it did so at the third trial, though the
patient had reached her twenty-fourth year without having menstruated. In every
case, if the simplest means do not succeed, I should advise galvanism before any
powerful medication whatever. The manner of its application varies in different

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 665

cases ; sometimes it is sufficient externally, one pole being placed on the lower part
of the spine, and the other on the abdomen, just over the pubis ; but at other times
it is necessary to apply it more or less internally, in various ways not necessary to be
here described. Neither pain nor serious inconvenience attends its use, nor can any
injurious consequences follow, even if it do no good.

On the use of galvanism in arnenorrhcea, the editor of Copeland's Dictionary re-
marks, in a note : " Galvano-electricity, or electro-magnetism, deserves more particu-
lar mention as an emmenagogue remedy. We have succeeded in some chronic cases
of arnenorrhcea, that had resisted all other means, by daily sending a current of elec-
tricity through the uterus, or by inserting one conductor in a tub of warm water, in
which the feet were immersed, and applying the other over the cervical vertebrae,
thus transmitting the fluid through the spinal axis. Dr. Ash well states that Dr.
Golding Bird has recently employed the same remedy with extraordinary success in
the treatment of out patients at Guy's Hospital (London). In some of the cases,
where, after the condition of the alimentary canal had become healthy, the arne-
norrhcea continued, with slight pallor and weakness, electric shocks passed through the
loins quickly induced menstruation. In others, its continued repetition, three or
four times a week, led to a similar result ; and instances were not wanting where a
shock suddenly produced a flow. It is, however, a powerful remedy, and should be
employed cautiously, lest it may depress the nervous system, and thus protract the
disease. When moderately applied, it often rouses into activity the energy of torpid
organs and parts ; but when used in excess, it may altogether destroy their excita-
bility. It should not be employed in cases of local congestion or general plethora,
nor during pregnancy, and it should seldom be used alone."

There is one mode of applying both galvanism and the congester, and also some
other means, which will be understood by referring to the explanation of the cause of
menstruation. It was there stated that this phenomenon was produced by the period-
ical ripening of the ovae, and that it consequently depended on the occurrence of that
event. The healthy and regular action of the ovaries is therefore an essential point,
and is always wanting, more or less, in this disease. Our applications, therefore,
are frequently required to them, and to them only ! I have often brought on the
menses by simple friction in the groins, over the ovaries, and by stimulating lini-
ments, when all the ordinary means failed. In like manner, we may apply to the
same parts blisters, cups, and leeches, or even galvanism, which, in fact, I generally
administer in this way first. The patient will often feel a stimulus all through
the uterine system, immediately the ovaries are thus excited, and the reason why is
obvious, when their functions and sympathies are borne in mind. I knew a lady
subject to suppression, who always succeeded in bringing back her courses by a simple
treatment, founded on some information I gave her on this subject. She used to
apply a mustard poultice over each ovary, after taking a warm hip bath, and then,
on retiring to rest, drink freely of some hot bitter tea. No medicine was required.

In some cases, the menses will reappear after marriage, but not always ; and some-
times they will stop from that cause. This is a matter both very difficult and very
delicate to advise upon, but it is one that should be seriously considered, neverthe-
less, for the wrong proceeding in regard to it has condemned many a young person
to years of disease and suffering. A physician of experience, by duly weighing all the
circumstances of the case, will seldom be at a loss what course to advise, and fre-
quently this is all he need attend to ! Some females are attacked with this disease on

666 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

becoming widows, and others, on the contrary, are cured of it. A subsequent mar-
riage will also have totally opposite effects on persons of different temperaments and
constitutions.

The state of tbe mind and feelings, as already shown, is of paramount impor-
tance, and must be particularly attended to. A disappointment in love will often
cause derangements of this kind, wbile its happy progress, and true return, will as
frequently cure them, when all other means fail.

Those cases which arise from the natural passages being closed, have already been
spoken of, in a previous chapter, and their treatment described. I merely refer to
them again, for the purpose of pointing out how necessary it is to know if any such
difficulties exist, before resorting to medical treatment, or recommending marriage.
I read a case in a medical work lately, of a lady who consulted an eminent physician
to know why she was barren. She had never menstruated, but had been married
some time. Most likely she had been treated for the suppression, medically, and
her friends thought, as it did not succeed, that marriage would effect a cure. On
making the requisite examination, it was discovered that there was actually no womb,
though all the other parts were perfect ! The grief and disappointment to all par-
ties may be imagined, and one is forcibly impressed, by so lamentable an occurrence,
with the impropriety, if not criminality, of allowing marriage to take place under
such circumstances, before a proper investigation had been made. Another' case in
point also is that of mine, referred to when treating of narrowness of the vagina.
And I have had another, since commencing this work, of a very curious kind. The
lady had never menstruated, though she was very sick, and had enlargement of the
abdomen, every month. All kinds of medicines had been given to her, but they only
increased the distress. She was then advised to marry, and assured that she would
be better. She did so, but was no better. Her friends then brought her to me to
have the galvanism, or congester applied. I told them, however, that I could not
use either, till I knew that no physical impediments existed, which I strongly sus-
pected there did. Investigation proved this to be the case ; about three-fourths of
the distance up the vagina there was a membrane, similar to the hymen, completely
closing the passage, like the parchment on the top of a drum. This obstruction
prevented the escape of the menses, and had also made other difficulties, which could
not be overcome, and which occasioned the more distress because they were not un-
derstood. I chose a time, midway between the two monthly periods, and, after
carefully reducing all inflammation in the parts, punctured the membrane with a
small lancet, introduced through a speculum. About a quarter of a pint of blackish
fluid, like thick coffee-grounds escaped, and in rushing out, widened the puncture
considerably. A few days after I widened it still more with a bougie, and continued
to do so, till it was as wide as the rest of the passage. She remained alone till the
next period, when the menses appeared quite regular, and without distress. The
other difficulties were also removed, and she is now a happy mother.

I could mention numerous instances of a like kind, occurring in my own practice,
both in married and single, of which I have notes, with full particulars.

DYSMENORRHEA, OR PAINFUL MENSTRUATION.

There are many cases met with in which the menses occur with regularity, and
in sufficient quantity, but accompanied by severe suffering — most usually in the

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 667

form of pains in the back, groins, abdomen, and tbighs, with a kind of grinding
contraction of the womb, burning heat in the parts, and pruritus. Sickness at the
stomach, vomiting, shuddering fits, cramps in the limbs, and severe headache are
also frequently experienced, and various hysterical symptoms, such as choking in
the throat, yawning, restlessness, irritability of temper, and sudden prostration of
the strength.

These sufferings may either commence with the discharge, or begin several days
before, and may continue some time after it has ceased. Very frequently in these
cases the discharge is small in quantity, and escapes by drops, as if with difficulty,
and at other times it is chiefly composed of clots, or membranes, or fleshy threads.
Sometimes, however, it flows perfectly free, and is quite natural in appearance.

Both married and single are liable to dysmenorrhoea, though it is more frequent
in the single. It frequently disappears after marriage, but not always, though it
usually does after childbirth. Pregnancy, however, is not so likely to occur with
this disease ; the same conditions that cause the pains being also likely to prevent
conception.

The causes of dysmenorrhoea are not well ascertained. It is found, however, most
frequently in those of a nervous or bilious temperament, and in those who are easily
susceptible of great excitement. It is probably very often connected with some im-
perfect development of the parts, and with various diseases of them, such as chronic
inflammation of the womb, ovaries or tubes. It may also result from obstinate
constipation, dyspepsia, mental disturbances, and particularly from certain excesses.
It most usually begins immediately after, or with the first menstrual flow, and when
established is pretty constant in its appearance, though sometimes it will remit for a
few periods.

The treatment of this troublesome disease is by no means agreed upon, for very
seldom are two different cases benefited by the same. The first step is of course to
ascertain if it result from some other derangement, which it so frequently does, and
then remove that. Irritability, or chronic inflammation of the womb, being a very
frequent cause, great relief is often obtained by warm hip baths and enemas, with
warm injections of poppy-heads, and starch and laudanum. Hot diluent drinks
should also be freely used, and warm purgatives, like the compound aloetic pill— in
short, the same treatment that was recommended for metritis. Taking an emetic of
antimonial wine, just when it is commencing, will relieve some, and a dose of aloetic
pills for two days before will prevent ib in others. The acetate of ammonia, com-
monly called mindererus' spirit, will very often give immediate ease ; twenty drops
of this may be given in a glass of water, and if no relief is obtained, twenty more
may be given in half an hour. It should not be given beyond the third dose, how-
ever, because it has a tendency to check the flow, and for that reason, in fact, it is
better not to be given at all, if other means will succeed. Various medical prepa-
rations are in use for the same purpose, none of which are serviceable in all cases.
The following recipe is, perhaps, as generally useful as any : — Camphor, one scru-
ple, with just sufficient spirits of wine to dissolve it ; gum arabic, one drachm ; cin-
namon water, one ounce. Sweeten it to taste, and drink half of it when the pain
commences, and the remainder in two hours after, if necessary. Or the patient may
procure a quarter of an ounce of gum camphor, and make it into pills of the usual
size, two of which may be taken when the pain begins, and two each hour after if
necessary, till six are taken. This is as often useful as any elaborate prescription.

668 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

Laudanum is very generally taken internally, but should always be avoided, if pos-
sible, on account of the uncomfortable feeling it produces afterward. The best
way is to use it as an injection, or enema, which does all the good without any sub-
sequent evil. Hot poultices, or fomentations, ai-e often serviceable over the womb,
or a small blister on the loins. Very often, however, all medical treatment is use-
less, and some other plan must be resorted to.

Dr. Mackintosh supposed the difficulty was owing to a stricture of the passage in
the neck of the womb, and he therefore proposed to introduce a bougie to dilate it.
This has been frequently done, and with occasional success. The operation itself is
comparatively easy ; a small bougie being introduced first, and larger ones in succes-
sion, as far as required. In most young persons, however, this cannot be done, and
in all cases it is objectionable. Fortunately other means are known, much more cer-
tain, and less repugnant to the feelings.

Galvanism is here again our surest dependence. Its effects are, in fact, some-
times as astonishing as they are gratifying. The application is seldom needed in any
other way than externally, as in suppression, and it usually relieves in a few min-
utes, if not instantly! Dr. Mackintosh was quite right when he supposed the
difficulty often owing to a stricture, but most generally it is merely a temporary spas-
modic one, which is apt to return directly the bougie is withdrawn, but which the
galvanism effectually relieves.

It is necessary to state, however, that the length of time necessary to administer
the galvanism is uncertain, and that it may exert little or no influence in preventing
the difficulty at the next period. My usual plan is to apply it till the pain is fully
abated, then in about five minutes withdraw it and await the result, but keep the in-
strument ready. In many cases there is no return, but in others it has to be con-
tinued, more or less, for some hours, or even during the whole period. I then re-
commence its use about two or three days before the next turn, and continue it up
to the time. In this way a cure is effected as often, if not oftener, than by medi-
cines, particularly if proper attention be paid to the general health, and to the re-
moval of other diseases. I have also occasionally advised the use of a small gal-
vanic bougie, which the patient can apply herself, and with the happiest results.

One of the most obstinate cases of this disease I ever saw, came under my notice
in Philadelphia. The patient, a highly respectable married lady, had suffered from
it for many years. Her general health was very good, constitution sound, and her
periods perfectly regular, though the quantity was frequently small. She had never
been a mother. Every means that could be suggested had been tried in her case,
without the slightest good, and the most eminent physicians had abandoned it as
hopeless. The only relief attained was by laudanum, which was taken till it liter-
ally stupefied her. The distress usually commenced nearly a week before the period,
with drowsiness, languor, and weakness in the limbs, followed by qualms at the stom-
ach. For the first day of the flow she seldom suffered much more, but on the sec-
ond the spasm commenced, with the most agonizing pain in the womb, and loins,
and with vomiting and chills. This would continue more or less for that and the
following day, during which time she was confined to her bed, and groaning with
pain, so that sleep was impossible. When the attack was over, she would be left so
weak, and her nerves so shattered, that it took her a week to recover, and thus one-
half of her life was spent in misery, and the other half in dread of it. A strong
dose of laudanum would somewhat relieve her, and force sleep, but left her much

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 669

worse after — it merely made her insensible. During all this time she was exces-
sively irritable, and unhappy in her disposition ; but fortunately, those around her
knew the cause, and acted accordingly. Having heard one of my lectures, she sent
for me to ask my advice, remarking, when she first saw me, that she had no hope
from medicine, having taken it for years, almost like her daily food ! I at once
suggested the galvanism, but certainly with no flattering prospect of success. At
the next period it was accordingly applied, immediately the pain began, instead of
taking laudanum, and to the great joy of all, it eased the pain almost immediately.
It was found necessary, however, to continue it more or less during the whole day
and night, for immediately it was withdrawn the pain returned. In this way she
lay in tolerable ease, while the battery was playing upon her, which it has often
done almost through a whole night's sleep. We were disappointed, however, in our
expectations of a permanent cure, for at each succeeding period the same symptoms
returned, though they were always relieved by the same means. The galvanism
supplied the place of the laudanum, and With none of its injurious effects, so that
she was not troubled so long before, nor after. In fact, she often remained quite
well up to the time of the attack, and rose immediately it was over as well as before.
Her general health became better, her strength increased, and she became much
stouter. In this way she has kept on for about two years under my notice, some-
times being a little worse, and at others suffering scarcely at all. I mention this
case, because it shows how much relief may be obtained by galvanism, even in the
worst cases. I have no doubt but that a resort to it in time would have effected a
cure.

I tried the bougie in this case also, but it did no good whatever, neither did the
emetic, nor baths. It is probable that if she becomes a mother, the difficulty will
disappear ; and the treatment, when she was first attacked, ought to have been
directed with a view to bringing about that event.

During the time I was treating this, I had another similar case in a young un-
married lady. The symptoms were almost precisely the same, and so severe that
for two or three days she was compelled to leave her employment, and go to bed.
Medicines or baths did her no good whatever. The first application of the battery,
however, gave instant relief, and after continuing it for about half an hour, the
symptoms did not return. It was afterward applied just before the period, and in-
variably prevented the attack. Eventually, in about six months, its continued use
seemed to wear the disease out, so that it returned no more.

Like all other remedies, of course, it will sometimes fail, and it did so in one
instance, which I mention for instruction. It was that of a young lady whose occu-
pation was teaching. She was intellectual, of a nervous temperament, and very
industrious, and I have no doubt but that it was her incessant mental occupation
that kept up the disease, for she was remarkably well in every other respect. In-
deed, in many other such cases I have known rest, and quiet of mind, with cheerful
out-door occupation, effect a perfect cure alone.

At the present time, I have quite a number of patients under treatment by gal-
vanism, for this disease", and in the great majority of them, it is effecting the most
beneficial results.

I knew one lady who got tired of the warm bath and hot teas she had been using
for so long a time, and who plunged in despair into a cold lath ! To her surprise it
gave her immediate relief, and she ever afterward resorted to it. I have known others

670 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

again, who found ease in dashes of cold water, cold injections, and even ice, or wet
wrappers upon the abdomen. The shower-hath is also frequently beneficial, begun
immediately after one period and continued till the next. In short, there are many
means of giving relief, but a cure is generally difficult, and sometimes impossible,
except through some of the changes in life we have referred to, or by a continual
judicious alterative treatment.

Many poor seamstresses and waiters in stores suffer from this disease to a great
extent, their occupation making all treatment useless, and their circumstances com-
pelling them to continue it.

The whole difficulty, as already remarked, is often caused by the formation of
membranes and clots, which irritate in passing away. I have known some of them
as large as the hand.

Dr. Ryan gives us the following account of these cases, as most usually seen:
"The woman experiences severe pain the first day of menstruation, and suffers
as severely as if in labor, or by abortion. She often experiences relief by the expul-
sion of one or many membranous substances from the womb. These membranes are
somewhat like the skin of a gooseberry, and are smooth on each surface, thus differ-
ng from the decidual membrane. The membrane is so like the covering of the
nfant in the early months of pregnancy, that a lady, who was a patient of Dr. Ham-
lton's, thought she miscarried ten times a year, for three years. Denman and
Dewees were of opinion that a female, thus affected, could not have children ; but
Morgagni asserts the contrary, as also Hamilton and Burns. If one healthy period
without pain occurs, even at an interval of seven years, conception may take place.
Hamilton described cases of pregnancy under these circumstances, and I myself have
frequently known pain attend menstruation for months after marriage, and concep-
tion take place. I attended with Mr. Bradford, of Fleet Street, a patient aged
twenty-three, who labored under dysmenorrhea since the occurrence of the evacua-
tion in her fourteenth year, and still she was pregnant. She never passed any mem-
branous shreds. I know another lady, aged twenty-one, who always suffered severe
pain during menstruation, which was much increased by marriage. She is pregnant,
however. She never discharged portions of membrane."

PROFUSE MENSTRUATION, OR FLOODING.

This disorder is usually spoken of as occurring in two forms : Menorrhagia, when
there is merely a large quantity of the menses themselves ; and metrorrhagia, when
the discharge occurs at any other times than the menstrual period.

In menorrhagia, or profuse menstruation, the quantity may be large, and yet
come in the usual time, or it may be many days or even weeks in coming, so that in
some cases there is only a few days between the termination of one period and the
beginning of another. Sometimes there is actually no cessation at all, the flow being
incessant, while at other times the separate periods will be short, but close together.

It is very difficult to decide when there is profuse menstruation, the quantity
secreted by different females varying so much. Each one, in fact, appears to have a
quantity peculiar to herself, depending on some peculiarities in her constitution.
Thus, one will never have more than a mere show, while another will discharge half
a pint, or a pint, and yet both enjoy excellent health. The only means we have of
judging is, by observing the general health. If this suffers, and the patient is weak

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 671

and nervous, with no other apparent cause to make her so, we may reasonably con-
clude that the discharge is too great.

Thin, delicate females generally lose more than those who are full and robust,
and in some the quantity varies much at the different seasons and turns of life.

The causes of menorrhagia are, debility, or plethora, various uterine diseases, and
derangements of the other organs.

The treatment must of course depend on what we consider to be the exciting
cause, and on the condition of the patient. The only general directions that can be
given are, to rest, and particularly to lie much on the back, with the pelvis elevated.
Those of a strong constitution, and full habit, should also live on a low diet, drink
freely of lemonade, or tamarind tea, keep the bowels open, and use the cold shower-
bath. Those, on the contrary, who are weak should use a nourishing diet, with good
wine, take warm salt-water baths, and ride out much in the fresh air.

When this treatment does not succeed, the same means may be adopted that will
be pointed out presently for metrorrhagia, but we should never be in a hurry in
resorting to medication, for it is seldom needed, and frequently injurious.

Metrorrhagia. — This term includes all those hsemorrhages, or discharges of blood
from the uterus, not connected with menstruation, pregnancy, or gestation. These
occur at almost every period, having been found in females past the turn of life, and
also in children, from a few years old, down to a few months or even days I They
are more frequent, however, during the prolific period, and with the married than
the single. The causes that produce them are various. Among the predisposing
ones may be mentioned all those that produce metritis, or ieucorrhea ; such as cold,
improper diet, violent emotions, excesses, and debility, or a too great fullness of the
system. Also too frequent child-bearing, and marriage,, particularly if that take
place at an improper time, or when there exists some physical impediment !

Among the exciting causes of metrorrhagia may be enumerated violent exercise,
particularly hard riding on horseback, or in a jolting carriage, lifting, straining,
coughing, and blows upon the abdomen. It may also be brought on by other dis-
eases, particularly by inflammation of the uterine organs, or others, and by constipa-
tion, or diarrhoea. It often follows from fever or other debilitating diseases, and from
long-continued grief, severe study, or exhausting labor. Irritation of the breasts,
especially by the child during nursing, will frequently cause flooding, and continue
it in spite of any treatment.

There are many nervous females in whom flooding will occur from the slightest
mental agitation, and many others in whom every little deviation from health is fol-
lowed by the same results.

The bleeding produced by polypi, tumors and ulcers, or by the different displace-
ments of the uterine organs, or by violence, is not properly a disease in itself, but
merely a symptom, and usually stops immediately the cause is removed.

Sometimes the discharge will be small at first, and gradually increase ; and some-
times it will occur very frequently, while at others weeks or months may intervene
between the attacks. In some persons it is almost constant, and in others it comes at
regular periods, like the menses. The quantity is of course equally variable, from a
few drops to a full stream, or sufficient to cause fainting, and even death, in a short
time. In these cases, however, it is most usually brought on suddenly, by some vio-
lence or strong emotion, and may then be fatal before assistance can be rendered. I
have known a female lose a full quart of blood in this way in less than an hour.

672 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

Occasionally a flooding is preceded by pains in the uterus, like those of dysmen-
orrhoea, and by a sensation of fullness, heat, and weight in the pelvis. The breasts
also swell, the pulse quickens, and a general lassitude pervades the system. The face
becomes pale, the skin creeps, the feet and hands become cold, and frequently there
is pruritus of the external parts. These symptoms are usually modified, by the first
rush of blood ; but if this be too great, or too long continued, the patient complains
of a sinking in the stomach, her lips lose their color, her eyes become dim and her
hearing dull, she breathes with difficulty, her pulse almost stops, and at last fainting
or convulsions terminate the fatal scene.

In those cases where the discharge is great, and frequently renewed, a new train
of symptoms sets in. The patient's strength is completely prostrated, her digestion
becomes imperfect, her appetite disappears, the skin becomes of a sickly dead white
color, and a black, puffy circle surrounds the eyes. In a short time the limbs swell
and fill with water, the abdomen also becomes dropsical, dull pains are felt in the
stomach, and various nervous diseases supervene. This state of things may continue
for a long time, or may be suddenly terminated by convulsions and death.

In regard to the treatment of metrorrhagia or flooding, it must be remarked that,
in most cases, it results from some other primary disease, the removal of which is
the first and most indispensable requisite for success. A careful study must there-
fore be made of the patient's constitution and habits, with a view to this desirable
result.

To arrest the bleeding, the female must lie on her back, on a mattress, with the
pelvis elevated, she must be very lightly covered, kept perfectly quiet, both in body
and mind, and breathe pure cool air. The feet and hands, however, should be made
warm. Her diet must consist of barley-water, rice, milk, jelly, or very ripe fruit,
and she may drink abundantly of lemonade, tamarind tea and ice-water, and eat
oranges, cherries, and other ripe acid fruits. In obstinate cases a tea may be given,
made of two ounces of comfrey root, or one ounce of rhatany root, boiled in a pint of
water, and sweetened. The bowels may also be relaxed, with about three drachms
of cream of tartar, and, if they are very costive, which is usually the case, enemas
must be given of thin starch and castor oil.

If in spite of all these means the bleeding still continue, or the patient begins to
be exhausted from it, injections may be used, of alum-water, ice-water, vinegar and
water, or white- oak bark with thirty or forty drops of laudanum to the injection,
which should be retained some time. A few drops of laudanum may also be used in
the comfrey or rhatany tea, before mentioned ; or thirty drops may be added to an
enema. The root of the common black currant, and of the ground blackberry, or
dewberry, also make an excellent tea to arrest flooding. A handful of each of
these, boiled in two quarts of water for twenty minutes, makes perhaps the best prep-
aration for this purpose that could be given. It may be sweetened to taste, and the
patient may drink half a teacnpful every quarter of an- hour. Cold wet towels
may also be laid on the abdomen and under the loins, and, if nothing else stops the
flow, and she be rapidly sinking, a cold hip-bath may also be tried.

The great dependence of most practitioners, however, in these cases, is upon
bleeding, and opium. Some advise the blood to be taken from the arm, others from
the feet, or hands, or by leeches to the temples, between the shoulders, or inside of
the arms. The theory being that a new direction is thus given to the sanguine dis-
charge, which leaves the uterus to fly to the wound. Though the philosophy of this

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 673

may not be very evident to all persons, yet there is no doubt but the practice ia
sometimes beneficial ; I think myself, however, that the same good may be usually
effected by other means.

In those cases where the discharge is chronic, we must first endeavor to increase
the patient's strength. Her diet should be nourishing, but not stimulating, and she
may use a little good old wine, with Peruvian bark, or other bitters. The compound
mixture, or aromatic tincture of iron, already mentioned, may also be given, and
occasionally some of the comfrey, or rhatany tea, or that of the black currant roots.
She should also use the cold shower bath every morning, ride out gently into the
fresh air very frequently, and go to the sea-side ; in short, do anything that will pro-
mote the general health.

The ergot of rye has also been used, in long-continued cases, and savin, but
their action is violent and sometimes dangerous.

It is not always prudent to check a profuse uterine haemorrhage too suddenly, for
it is sometimes a salutary effort of nature to relieve herself from some greater evil.
We ought rather to promote the general health, and let it gradually cease itself.
An issue may be established, inside the thigh, if any bad effects result from the
stoppage.

After the flow is stopped, great care must be exercised to prevent its return. A
light diet should be adopted, all stimulants avoided, and before each menstrual
period careful rest should be observed. Excitement should be particularly guarded
against, especially of a certain kind, warm clothing should be worn, and late hours
avoided.

In those severe cases, when the gush of blood is almost instantaneous, and so great
as to endanger life in a very short time, we may employ, temporarily, mechanical
means to prevent it. The best of which, and the most readily prepared, is called
the tampon or plug. It may be made of linen rag, cotton, or sponge, in the form of
a ball, and introduced into the vagina like a pessary. It should be large enough to
completely fill up the passage, but must not be introduced more than about two
inches, for fear of irritating and inflaming the mouth of the womb, which is then
very sensitive.

A very good way to make the plug is, to cut out round pieces of soft linen cloth,
then pass a stout thread through the middle of each and press them close together,
till the mass is an inch thick. The string is convenient for pulling it out again,
and should always be attached to every one. A small bag filled with tan, or ashes,
or sawdust soaked in alum-water, is also very excellent. These plugs should not be
withdrawn in a hurry, unless severe symptoms supervene, and when they are re-
moved, care must be taken not to disturb or irritate the parts. If the danger be
imminent, and there be not time, or means to prepare a tampon, the lips and vulva
should be firmly pressed together with the hand, till other means can be procured.

CHLOEOSIS, OE GEEEN SICKNESS.

This is a name given to a peculiar disease usually characterized by a pale greenish
color of the face, which is also swollen and puffy, and by general debility and de-
rangement of most of the functions. It has also been called white jaundice, white
fever, and morbus virgineus.

Great doubt and uncertainty prevails as to the nature of this disease, and its
43

674 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

origin. Thus some suppose it to originate in the digestive, some in the assimilative,
and some in the uterine organs, while others attribute it to debility of the nervous
system, and others again to an imperfect state of the blood. It cannot be owing,
however, merely to derangement of the digestive or uterine functions, because, in
some cases, both these functions are perfectly performed, though not usually. An
imperfect state of the blood, on the contrary, always exists in this disease, and is
probably produced by nervous debility and derangements, which may therefore be
regarded as the primary cause.

The singular alteration in the composition of the blood, in this disease, is very
remarkable, and a knowledge of it is highly important, as an index to proper medi-
cation and nutrition. If we take one thousand parts of the blood of. a healthy
woman, and analyze it, we shall find, after allowing for loss, the solid materials to
be about one hundred and fifty parts, iron eight parts, and water seven hundred and
sixty parts. But if we take a thousand parts of the blood of a chlorotic patient, the
solid materials will only be about one hundred parts, iron hut four parts, and water
eight hundred and fifty parts ! From this it is evident that in chlorosis the blood is
more watery, and contains less solid matter, and iron, than in the healthy state. This
deficiency of the solid parts explains the wasting and flabbiness of the muscles, while
the increase of water explains the puffy or dropsical state of various parts. The use
of iron in the blood is not yet ascertained, but that it is necessary there can be no
doubt, nor can there be any question as to its deficiency causing many diseases. The
quantity naturally existing in the human body is much greater than usually sup-
posed. The wife of an eminent man in France now wears a ring, made of the iron
extracted from her husband's blood, which he lost during a lengthy sickness. It has
even been proposed, on the death of any great man, to make a medal of the iron
from his blood, and thus perpetuate a remembrance of him, instead of raising a
monument.

It is supposed that this deficiency of solid materials in the blood, is owing to in-
sufficient nervous power in the vessels that form the blood ; but be that as it may,
we find, as will be seen farther on, that using a diet which contains much of these
solids, namely, fibrin and albumen, and taking iron internally, are the only means
of curing chlorosis.

This disease is found chiefly in young unmarried women, though occasionally
met with in the married, in the pregnant, in those that have borne children, in
those past the change of life, and in children, and in some rare instances, even in
men. It is, however, more especially a female disease, and in the great majority of
cases, is attended by obstinate and peculiar uterine derangement.

The supposed causes of chlorosis are both numerous and various. Perhaps
the most frequent are, precocious puberty, growing too fast, a feeble constitution,
scrofula, menstrual derangement, melancholy, and mental excitement, and especially
certain vicious habits. Late marriage, or widowhood, should also be mentioned,
and disappointment in love ! In addition to all these, there are also undoubtedly
many general causes, such as cold, damp, and dark dwelling-places, bad air, insuffi-
cient or improper food, and a sedentary, luxurious, or indolent mode of life. Drink-
ing vinegar, and eating green fruits, are also specially alluded to by some authors.

The symptoms are so peculiar, and characteristic, that chlorosis is more distinctly
marked than almost any other disease we have mentioned. At the commencement
the patient is dull, listless, and melancholy ; she is disinclined to any motion, and

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 675

sighs or weeps, without knowing what for. The face swells, the eyes become heavy
and languishing, with a black puffy circle around them. The hands and feet are
cold and pale, like the lips ; the breathing is difficult, the appetite capricious, and
the digestion imperfect. The bowels are usually costive, and the evacuations like
white clay. The heart frequently palpitates on the slightest exertion, or mental
emotion, and a constant inclination is felt for sleep, or to remain perfectly inactive.
On using the stethoscope, the heart, and some of the large arteries, are found to
have peculiar sounds, different from those in health, and the blood when drawn is
pale and thin. The ankles also swell, as in dropsy, but when the finger is pressed
upon them the mark does not remain, as it does in that disease.

If the disease, progresses unchecked, all these symptoms become worse. The pa-
tient feels the most unaccountable likings, or disgusts, and exhibits the most depraved
tastes. Some will eat charcoal, chalk, plaster from the walls, dirt, ashes, and even flies,
spiders, and other insects. Some will have no appetite at all for food, while others
will eat so ravenously, that they can never satisfy themselves. Pain at the stomach
is usually felt after eating, or vomiting occurs, and the tongue is, in most cases,
swelled and coated with mucus. Flying pains are also felt in the neck, shoulders,
arms, and down the spine. The urine becomes pale and scanty, and the bowels sub-
ject at intervals to a watery diarrhoea.

Leucorrhcea is a common attendant upon chlorosis, and is generally accompanied
by amenorrhcea, though sometimes there will be more or less flooding. The patient
is often worse at the menstrual period, suffering pains like those of dysmenorrhoea,
with great depression of spirits, or even partial delirium. The discharge is found
to be very thin and light colored, and when left on the napkin, it divides into two
distinct parts, one rather sticky, like starch, and the other watery. When dry, it is
nearly colorless.

In addition to all these, the most troublesome nervous symptoms arise. The
patient either becomes irritable, passionate, and revengeful, or else completely cast
down, so that in her despair, she thinks of suicide, or wishes for death. She is
either sleepless, or disturbed by horrible dreams ; her head aches, her sight is dim,
her limbs tremble, and she experiences a constant ringing, or buzzing in the ears.
Sometimes there is frequent toothache, **^ occasionally twitching of the limbs,
and of the muscles of the face. "heir \

Finally, this state of things becomes ^xni/e and worse. Constant pain is felt in
the back of the head and upper part of the spine. The abdomen swells and hardens,
the skin looks quite green, the difficulty of breathing becomes greater, the diarrhoea
is more constant, fever sets in, and the whole system seems rapidly to waste, as if
it melted away! The last stages are frequently marked by general dropsy, pinching
up of the features, and blueness of the lips. There is seldom any shock, or struggle
even at death ; but the sufferer seems to gradually sink and die from mere debility
and marasmus.

The duration of this disease is altogether uncertain. It is seldom fatal itself,
though it may lead to fatal results by bringing on other diseases, or it may gradually
wear the patient out, by exhausting her strength. Fortunately, there are few diseases
more certainly curable than this. Under proper treatment it seldom lasts longer than
a month or two, and very frequently can be cured in a week. I have even seen a
patient who was drooping like a tender flower in the sun, and too weak to stand,
Visibly improve in Uoo days !

676 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

The treatment must be first commenced by removing all causes that may be
thought likely to continue, or bring on, the chlorosis, particularly all other diseases.
The patient must then be placed in a warm and dry situation, where she can breathe
pure air. Her clothing should also be warm, and her body well rubbed every morn-
ing after a shower bath. Flannel, worn nest the skin, has frequently a very excel-
lent effect, and should always be adopted, unless the other means mentioned keep
the surface of the body quite warm without it. The diet should consist of eggs,
roast meats, rice, tapioca, sago, and milk. Eipe fruits may also be used, and celery
is excellent. Good wine may also be used with advantage, and, as a general drink,
lemonade, or tamarind tea. All articles that are found not to sit well on the
stomach, or that are indigestible, should be carefully avoided. Unripe fruit, salads,
and pastry, are generally unwholesome. The object of this kind of diet it will be
seen is twofold ; first, to gently stimulate the flagging energies, and restore the fail-
ing strength ; and, secondly, to supply those solid materials, namely, albumen and
fibrine, of which, as we have before shown, the blood in chlorosis is deficient.

Exercise in the open air is indispensable, but the manner of it must depend on
the patient's strength and habits. If she can walk, so much the better, but if too
weak for that, or if it distress her, she should ride — either on horseback, which is
most desirable, or in an open carriage. Eowing in a boat, and sea-bathing are also
very good. It is very desirable, however, let her exercise as she may, that it should
be done in company with others, so that there may be the additional stimulus of
emulation, and the excitement of conversation. In fact, cheerful associates, and
pleasing mental occupation, are highly important. Traveling may also be recom-
mended, both on account of the change of air, and of scene. All causes that tend
to either excite, or depress the mind, should be most carefully avoided, and also all
reading that calls forth the sensibilities too strongly. Corsets should not be worn,
nor should the patient sit up late at night, nor lie too late in the morning.

In very many cases the above-mentioned general means will be quite sufficient to
effect a cure ; but when they are not, medication must be resorted to ; and of all
medical substances, iron is the most generally useful in this disease ; in fact, it is
almost a specific. The particular preparation used, is not of so much importance
as giving it early, and freely. Any of th iron mixtures and pills already mentioned
may be employed, or any of the folk youri : Compound iron pills, two pills of five
grains each, to be taken three times & day. Carbonate of iron pills, dose the same
as the other. Syrup of iodide of iron, twenty drops twice a day, in half a tumbler
of water. This is particularly useful where there is any tendency to scrofula.
Tincture of the muriate of iron, ten drops three times a day, in half a tumbler of
water. Sulphate of iron and subcarbonate of potash, each half an ounce. These
must be rubbed separately to very fine powders, and then thoroughly mixed together,
with sufficient thick mucilage of gum tragacanth to make it into a paste. This
must then be divided into forty-eight boluses. One of these may be taken morning
and night, for the first three days, and one three times a day on the second three
days ; on the third three days, two may be taken morning and night, and one in the
middle of the day ; on the fourth three days, two three times a day ; on the fifth
three days, three three times a day ; and on the sixth three days, four pills three
times a day. This quantity may be continued till the disease begins to disappear,
after which the dose may be decreased in the same way it was increased, or, if the
patient seems nearly well, it may be decreased before arriving at the largest quantity.

DERANGEMENT OF TEE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 677

This is the favorite prescription of a celebrated physician, who depends on it for
curing almost every case. Citrate of iron two drachms, sulphate of quinia half a
drachm, water one ounce. Mix these together, and take twenty or thirty drops in
half a tumbler of sweetened water, half an hour before breakfast, dinner, and sup-
per. The sulphate of iron and gentian pills, formerly mentioned, are also excellent,
and so are the iron and rhubarb pills, sold by the druggists, two of which, of five
grains each, may be taken twice a day. These last have the advantage of opening
the bowels, which should be particularly attended to ; they may therefore be bene-
ficially taken along with any of the other kinds occasionally. It is very desirable
not to leave off taking the iron too soon, merely because there is a slight improve-
ment, for by so doing we may cause a relapse. Ehubarb may also be used alone, if
necessary, and in case that does not relieve the bowels, enemas should be resorted to.

Emetics have been employed by some physicians, in chlorosis, and drastic pur-
gatives by others, but they are seldom either of service or needed. If iron be prop-
erly administered, in connection with a proper course of diet and regimen, -it will
scarcely ever fail, unless there be a complication with some more serious disease.
Immediately after its use is begun the dull eye will brighten, the skin regain its
color, the functions become healthy and regular, the nervous symptoms will become
less severe, and the strength will gradually return. The philosophy of this will be
evident, when we remember that iron is an essential constituent of the blood, and
that in chlorosis the quantity is much smaller than usual. By giving it in medicine
therefore, we simply supply artificially what has become naturally deficient.

If we have reason to suppose that the chief exciting cause is the predominance
of certain feelings arising from over action of the uterine organs, it may be advisable
to suggest marriage. In case that is not possible, however, the treatment must be
varied, so as to reduce the uterine excitement. Cold baths, and injections, unstimu-
lating diet, saline purgatives, and active occupation may be recommended. These
moral causes are frequently the most active ones, and they are the most difficult to
remove, because few persons understand them, or know their power, and still fewer
know that they can and mostly ought to be, attacked chiefly by physical means !

The subjects of chlorosis are the most interesting perhaps of all that come under
the physician's care. Delicate and sensitive, stricken by a disease from which they
deeply suffer, but which often leaves their beauty untouched, or even heightens
its attractions, they excite the liveliest emotions of pity, and the most ardent desire
to render them assistance. Like many other of the affections previously described,
this is, unfortunately, very general. A large portion of those now under my care,
are victims to it. I am sorry to see this, but some consolation is derived from the
fact that relief may confidently be expected by most of them.

When chlorosis commences just before puberty, which it often does, it frequently
disappears with the appearance of the menses, and if there be indications of them,
it is better to wait awhile, before commencing medication.

Chlorosis may be very easily mistaken for several other diseases, unless care be
taken, particularly for jaundice. But no person of competent experience, and who
devotes proper attention to his cases, is likely to make such an error. The pecu-
liar state of decay and weakness, called anemia, or decline, has also been taken foi
ehlorosis by inattentive persons.

678 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

HYSTERIA.

We now come to the most mysterious, confusing, and rebellious of all female dis-
eases. Almost every woman has either experienced or seen what is called hysterics,
and the name is so frequently given to the most opposite and discordant symptoms,
that it is requisite to explain what is hysteria, and what is not ; at least as far as
we can.

The name hysteria is derived from the Greek word for the womb, it being gener-
ally considered as essentially a uterine affection. The symptoms of this disease com-
prise, if we were to enumerate them all, those of nearly every other disease under
the sun. In fact, they are so numerous, so various, and so changeable, that describ-
ing them all is out of the question. We must therefore confine ourselves to a brief
enumeration of the most prominent ones, and more especially of those most fre-
quently found at the commencement.

In some eases, the attack, or hysterical fit, comes on suddenly, but more frequently
it is preceded for several days, by more or less derangement of the general health.
The female suffers from headache, cramps, palpitation of the heart, numbness of the
limbs, coldness of the hands and feet, rush of blood to the head, and redness of the face,
with yawning and restless anxiety. She becomes dejected, or melancholy, and will
sigh, or burst into tears, and then as suddenly laugh in the most immoderate man-
ner, and without any apparent reason for it.

When the fit really commences, she feels in some part of the abdomen a sensation
as if a large round ball, or globe, was moving about ; which, after appearing to roll
in various directions, generally rises, on the left side, up to the chest and throat, and
seems to stop up the passage, so that the patient appears to choke, and is in mortal
fear of suffocation. During its progress, this ball seems to distress every organ it
passes, and to leave a most oppressive sensation of weight in the chest. In severe
cases this is followed by fainting, after which she may either slowly recover, or may
have other fits in rapid succession. There may be, however, merely slight convul-
sions, followed by partial loss of sight or hearing, and confusion of the mind.
Sometimes the convulsions will be so violent that two or three men can scarcely hold
her, and if not prevented she may seriously injure herself. The body will occasion-
ally twist or bend in various ways, the teeth clench, the eyeballs roll, the nostrils
distend, and saliva work from the mouth, nearly as in epilepsy. The head is usually
thrown back, in long-continued attacks, and the female tears at her throat, owing
to its constriction. The cheeks and nose are most frequently cold and white, though
sometimes the center of the cheek will be red, as in fever. In many cases the abdo-
men swells, and very often there is a severe stitch in the side. Partial or complete
loss of consciousness, or delirium, may occcur either during the attack, or subse-
quently, though some females are perfectly sensible the whole time. The senses are
in some cases rendered remarkably acute, so that the patient will hear the slightest
whisper, or smell the faintest odor, and see everything that is going on, even though
her eyes seem closed. This peculiarity has caused many to be suspected of impo-
sition, by those not acquainted with the disease. This suspicion has also been
strengthened by another circumstance : the patient nearly always tells whether she
is going to have another attack or not, and is seldom or never wrong. This fore-
knowledge, however, is simply the result of her sensations, and need excite neithei
wonder nor uncharitable distrust.

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 679

When the violence of the fit is passed, there is generally observed a singular rum-
bling of wind in the abdomen, and great quantities of it are discharged by the mouth
from the stomach. Vomiting may also ensue, or confused palpitation of the heart,
with labored breathing and twitching of the muscles, A severe, fixed pain in the
head is also frequently felt in one particular spot, with singing in the ears and bright
sparks float before the eyes. Generally, the sufferer utters most piercing cries, so
peculiar that they can never be mistaken by those who have once heard them, and so
frightful that few can help feeling alarmed at them. In fact, there are few exhi-
bitions of human suffering more likely to appall and excite consternation than an
hysterical fit, especially among those to whom it is new. Fortunately, all these symp-
toms are not observed in every case, for some patients will remain, between the attacks,
in a partial stupor, or sleep, during which they will smile and appear quite happy. It
has been supposed, in fact, by some that this dreamy, hysterical state is the real
mesmeric sleep, or somnambulism.

The final cessation of the attack is often denoted by sighing, sobbing, and crying,
or immoderate laughter, similar to what is usually observed at the commencement.
This is followed by a gradual subsiding of the more violent symptoms, and by moan-
ing, or deep sighs, after which the heart beats more quietly, the breathing becomes
regular, and a gentle heat, with perspiration, appears on the surface. It should also
be particularly mentioned that there is nearly always felt a most pressing desire to
urinate, and if this be impossible, the pain and anxiety thus excited may bring on
another fit. This should be remembered by those who may be with such cases.
Another remarkable circumstance may also be mentioned ; immediately the patient
recovers, an abundant mucus secretion flows from the vagina, though previously it
was unusually dry and constricted. This is a proof how much the uterus sympa-
thizes in this disease. I have known this take place to such an extent as to lead to
the belief that the urine had escaped involuntarily. A temporary loss of voice may
also take place, but it need occasion no special alarm.

"When all is over, there seldom remains anything more than a general weakness,
with mental dejection, and occasionally dullness of memory, with a disposition to
day-dream, though some will complain of soreness in the limbs, and a sensation as if
the head had been struck with violent blows.

The above-mentioned symptoms may either be all observed in any attack, or only
a few of them, and they are exhibited so irregularly that anything like a classification
of them into stages is out of the question. Their intensity may also be very great, or
so slight as to excite no apprehension. Occasionally there are other symptoms added,
such as hiccough, or a tendency to bite, as in hydrophobia, and sometimes others
of a still more unusual character ! The attacks may all be over in a few minutes,
or they may last hours, days, or weeks, and sometimes will become periodical. It
is difficult to say when a patient is cured of them, since they may return at intervals
of six months or a year. There may also be only one fit at a time, or several,
and they may either decrease in violence, or the last one be as bad as the first. The
effects on the appearance of the patient are also various ; thus some will even become
more full of flesh, and look better, while others will fade and become thin. This
last is more frequently the case, especially with those who have had much leuchor-
rhea. -Many will have a very jaded and dejected look, and become melancholy and
apprehensive.

As the patient advances in life the disease usually decreases ; but if it do not.

^80 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

and is unchecked by proper treatment, it may subside into various other diseases, as
metritis, epileptic fits, hypochondriasis, amenorrhea, ovaritis, and several others, and
thus become fatal. Sometimes it terminates spontaneously by profuse sweating,
diarrhea, eruptions of the skin, or vomiting, and it has often been stopped by a sud-
den fright.

One thing should never be forgotten in regard to hysterical attacks, and that is
the possibility of the female appearing dead, though still alive ! There is no ques-
tion but many have been buried alive while in this species of trance, and in several
instances they have awaked during the preparations for their funerals. A celebrated
anatomist (Vessalius) actually began to dissect a female in this state, who came to
life again. I have a patient at the present time who was found sitting in her coffin,
with her shroud around her, when the undertaker came to nail her up. The way to
avoid such lamentable mistakes is easy ; the supposed body should not be buried till
there be unequivocal signs of decomposition. Very few days will elapse, in any case
of death, before the abdomen turns green, and then there can be no mistake. I once
saw a case myself of supposed death, in which some of the friends had actually pro-
posed preparations for interment, but after five days of perfect trance the female
woke perfectly unconscious of the lapse of time.

The causes of hysteria are as obscure as the symptoms are diversified. Probably
some of the most frequent predisposing causes are, weak constitution, scrofula, indo-
lence, a city life, bad physical and moral education, nervous or sanguine tempera-
ments, the over-excitement of certain feelings, and religious or other enthusiasm.
It is also most common between puberty and the change of life, but is nevertheless
found in quite young girls, and in old women. Young persons just about being
regulated are very subject to it, and those who have deranged menstruation, also
widows, those who have no children, and those in whom the change of life is about
to take place. Some of the immediate causes are, the first period, suppressed men-
struation, late marriage, chronic inflammation of the womb, vicious habits, and long-
continued constipation. "Vivid mental emotions, and excited feelings, may also be
specially mentioned, such as anger, fright, disappointment, particularly in love, read-
ing sentimental and exciting romances, and disagreeable, painful, or sorrowful sights.
Some authors also suppose there is an hereditary disposition to hysteria, and others
that there is a peculiar temperament which disposes to it. It is certain that imita-
tion has much to do with it, or, in common parlance, it is catching, for very often
when one female is taken in an assembly, many others will also be attacked from see-
ing her. M. Andral mentions a case where a young lady was attacked with hysteria
in a school, and so many of her companions followed in the same way, that it was
found necessary to close the school for a time to get rid of it. The same thing has
often been seen in churches and other public assemblages, and particularly at camp-
meetings and love-feasts. At some of these places quite a number of persons may be
seen raving, rolling on the ground, crying, laughing, and exhibiting all the usaal
symptoms of hysteria, simply from excitement produced by the preaching. I knew
one young lady who went to a camp-meeting, and was there attacked with hysteria,
which lasted nearly a whole day ; the people around said she was experiencing re-
ligion, and evidently thought her very fortunate. She continued liable to a return
of the attack for six months after, but gradully recovered from them by attention to
her general health, and by avoiding all excitement.

Women disposed to hysteria are generally capricious in their character, and often

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 681

whimsical in their conduct. Some are exceedingly excitable and impatient, others
obstinate or frivolous ; the slightest thing may make them laugh, or cry, and exhibit
traits which ordinarily they are not supposed to possess. Like children, the merest
trifles may make them transcendently happy, or cast them into the most gloomy de-
spair. Very frequently they are made much worse by seeing that those around them
have no real commiseration for their sufferings, and perhaps even think they are not
real. A delicate attention, and properly exhibited sympathy, will soothe and calm
the excited feelings more than almost anything else.

Various other diseases, particularly of the uterine organs, may also produce hys-
teria, and many apparently slight causes, such as breathing a close, bad air, either in
a public assemblage, or in a bed-chamber, and even particular odors ! Thus, some
will be attacked if they smell mush, or certain flowers, as roses, for instance ; others
again at hearing certain sounds, or merely touching certain substances. M. Orfila
mentions the case of a young lady who fainted if she saw flax-seed tea made. M.
Eostan says he has seen hysteria, with loss of voice, and strangulation, produced even
by the color of a certain flower ! And many such cases have followed from smelling
orange flowers and violets. Particular pieces of music, or the reading certain pas-
sages from books, will affect some, and the sight of certain animals will affect others.
A case is mentioned of a young lady who always had an hysterif orm attack if she heard
the clock strike five, her father having died at that hour ; and I knew one who suf-
fered in the same way whenever she saw a ladder, her husband having been killed by
falling from one. In short, there is no end to such cases.

There are several other causes, both of a moral and a social nature, that have
much to do with this distressing affection, but which I have hitherto only partially
alluded to. They are so important, and so little understood or suspected, that I feel
desirous of presenting them with other authority in addition to my own. I have,
therefore, made the following extract from Copeland's Medical Dictionary. The
extract is part of the article on hysteria, and is especially deserving the attention of
parents and guardians ! Its importance, I trust, will excuse its introduction,
though some of the truths in it may be as painful as they are novel.

"There is perhaps no other malady which depends so much as this upon the
management of childhood, and on the moral and physical education of early life. A
luxurious and delicate mode of living and of rearing ; a neglect of whatever pro-
motes the powers of the constitution, especially of suitable exercise in the open air,
and of early hours as to sleeping and rising ; an over-refined mode of education, and
the excitement of the imagination and of the emotions, to the neglect of the intel-
lectual powers and moral sentiments ; too great devotion to music, and the perusal
of exciting novels ; the various means by which the feelings are awakened and acute
sensibility is promoted, while every manifestation of either is carefully concealed ;
and studied endeavors to dissemble desires which struggle to be expressed, all serve,
especially at a period when the powers of mind and the conformation of the body
are approaching development, to produce that state of the nervous system of which
hysteria is one of the most frequent indications. About the period of puberty in
females, various circumstances connected with their education tend to weaken their
constitution, to excite their emotions and desires, and to cultivate their imaginative
and more artificial faculties at the expense of their reasoning and moral powers.
Whenever numbers associate previous to, or about the period of puberty, and espe-
cially where several use the same sleeping apartment, and are submitted to a luxuri-

«82 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

ous and over-refined mode of education, some will manifest a precocious develop,
ment of both mind and body ; but in proportion to precocity will tone and energy
be deficient, and susceptibility and sensibility increased. In these circumstances,
also, organic sensibility, particularly as relates to the uterine system, often assumes
a predominance powerfully predisposing to hysterical affections. There can be no
question, although the subject has been but rarely approached by British medical
writers, that indulgence in solitary vices and sexual excitements is not an infrequent
cause of this, as well as of other disorders. Numerous writers have insisted upon
the propriety of giving due consideration to this source of mischief, as well as to the
ennui and chagrin attending celibacy and continence. I agree with Dr. Conolly in
believing that English practitioners pay, perhaps, too little attention to these and
other related circumstances ; and that, in a country where the passions and emotions
are so carefully suppressed or concealed, they sometimes seem to forget their silent
operation on the frame, and charge the medical writers of other countries with being
somewhat fanciful and extravagant.

" Besides the above, there are various circumstances connected with the social
state that tend to develop these conditions of the uterine organs and nervous system,
in which hysterical disorder originates. M. G-eorget remarks that the progressive
steps of life, as youth passes away, are sources of painful moral affections, especially
to- the frivolous, the vain, and the unmarried of the sex. These affections increase
the susceptibility of the nervous system, and, with numerous other circumstances
yet to be mentioned, dispose to the nervous disorders of the more advanced epochs
of life. There can be no doubt that pampered modes of living; an early or hq-
bitual indulgence of temper, or of the emotions and desires ; the use of wines am 1
liquors, even within what may appear the bounds of moderation ; late hours, am 1
late rising ; insufficient modes of exercise, or the want of it, and of pure air, negiee t
of the requisite exposure to light and sunshine ; and sedentary occupations, particu •
larly in over-heated and crowded apartments or factories, more or less predispose tha
female constitution to this affection. Some writers believe that the use of tea and
coffee has a similar effect ; it is possible that the former, especially green tea, taken
too frequently or in excess, will weaken the nervous system, and that the latter will
sometimes excite the uterine organs. The influence of climate is not very manifest ;
temperate and changeable regions certainly furnish more numerous instances of ner-
vous disorder in females than very warm or very cold countries ; but as much is pro-
bably owing to the state of manners and society in the former as to climate. Even
dress has some effect in the production of hysteria ; inordinate compression of the
waist by stays not only weakens and displaces the digestive organs, but favors local
determinations and congestions, and deranges the uterine functions."

Hysterical attacks are not of themselves dangerous, though they are sufficiently
alarming, as they usually subside without much after disturbance, unless dependent
on some other disease. Nothing, in fact, is so astonishing to some persons, as to
see a delicate female immediately after an hysterical fit. Judging from appearances
during the attack, they would readily suppose that the danger was really imminent,
and that a slow recovery was the best thing to be expected. But when all passes off
in a few minutes, with no indications whatever of the frantic violence so recently
exhibited, they are naturally surprised, if not suspicious. It should be remembered,
however, that an imitation of one of these fits, even if it were fully possible, would
exhaust much more than the fit itself, or most likely would produce complete pros*

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 683

tration. There is no doubt, however, but that many females can work themselves
into hysterics, and that many do so, particularly when angered, slighted, or disap-
pointed.

In regard to the starting point, or original seat of hysteria, there seems to be no
doubt of its being in the uterus, which becomes subject to a peculiar excitement, or
disturbance, that exerts a wonderful sympathetic influence on the whole Dystem.
The uterus, it must be remembered, is the controlling organ in the female body,
oeing the most excitable of all, and so intimately connected, by the ramifications of
its numerous nerves, with every other part. The multitudinous and diversified
symptoms attending its derangements need not therefore surprise us, nor need we
wonder that they are not found in other diseases. The ancients compared the womb
in the female body to another living being, controlling and directing the body in
which it existed ! It should also be -remembered, in relation to hysteria, that it is
most frequent at that age, and in those temperamens in which the uterine system is
most active. In some instances, men are liable to similar affections, and when they
are so there is always noticed in them more or less of what is termed the hysterical
temperament. In fact, they much resemble females in their nervous systems.

In treating hysteria, the first thing is to relieve the paroxysm or fit, and then try
to prevent its return. The first proceeding, if the attack be violent, should be to
take care that the patient does not hurt herself by her violence. She must be held
firmly, but not so as to injure, or unnecessarily restrict her motions. Every article
of clothing should be removed that is in the least tight on any part of the body, and she
should then be laid down, with the head elevated. Every person should be imme-
diately sent away, except those whose assistance is really needed, and they should be
careful not to hurry and appear confused, nor make unpleasant or desponding remarks
about their patient, because she may both hear and understand them, though to all
appearanee insensible. Fresh air is indispensable, and it should play upon her as
speedily and freely as possible. Strong odors, as ammonia, salts, vinegar, or burnt
feathers, should also be applied occasionally to the nostrils, and cologne or cold water
dashed on the temples, forehead, and cheeks. If the mouth can be opened, a tea-
spoonful of cold water should be poured in it, with about three drops of ammonia
added, if it can be conveniently obtained. The hands and feet may also be chafed
with advantage. In case the attack still continues, a small enema of cold water may
be given, containing about twenty drops of laudanum, or cold water may be sprinkled
on the chest and down the spine. Fifteen drops of sulphuric ether may also be poured
into half a pint of water, and a large spoonful of the mixture given every three-quar-
ters of an hour. In very violent or long-continued attacks, an enema of thin, cold
starch-water may be used, with three grains of camphor, ten of assafcetida, and fifteen
of laudanum added to it, after being well mixed in a thick portion first. The whole
body may also be well rubbed, particularly down the spine, and mustard plasters ap-
plied to the abdomen, inside of the thighs and arms. Spirits of camphor, or oil and
hartshorn, may also be used as a liniment, and the spine and limbs well chafed with
them. As soon as ever she can swallow, let her have a drink of cold water, but don't
ask her any troublesome questions, nor make any remarks.

After all the above means have been tried, we may resort to vaginal injections, as
those of poppy heads, or starch and laudanum, recommended in metritis. Frighten-
ing the patient, or speaking harshly to her, has been recommended by some, but I
much doubt the utility of such means. Other practices are also resorted to, the

684 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

character of which betrays a curious opinion as to the nature of the disease ! I would,
however, caution those who recommend them as to the probable moral consequences
afterward, and I assure them that it is seldom or never the case that the same good
cannot be effected by less objectionable means.

To prevent a return of the attack, we should employ what are termed antispas-
modics and tonics. Various teas may be drunk, as those of mint, balm, mugwort,
boneset, and camomile. Tincture of myrrh, assafcetida, musk, and castor, gum
ammoniac, acetate of ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia may also be taken, various
preparations of all which are kept at the druggists'. Vaginal injections should also
be continued, of starch and laudanum, assafcetida and camphor, and the bowels must
be kept free. If the shock be not too great, a shower bath every morning will be of
great service, or a cold plunge. If the patient be very weak and debilitated, we may
give her any of the preparations of iron recommended in chlorosis, particularly the
carbonate of iron pill, or that of extract of gentian and sulphate of iron, and keep
the bowels free with pills of iron and rhubarb. A little good port wine, with Peru-
vian bark in it, may also be of service, and an excellent effect is sometimes produced
by repeated enemas of olive oil. Sulphur baths have also been recommended, and
occasional blisters to the abdomen and inside of the thighs or arms, and on the spine.

The diet must, of course, depend on the condition of the patient. If she be of a
full, plethoric habit, it should consist of vegetables, light soup, milk, rice, sago, and
ripe fruits, with milk or water for drink. Meat should be taken sparingly, and never
highly seasoned, and spices or pastry should be forbidden. If, on the contrary, she
be thin and delicate, the diet may be more nutritious ; meat maybe used more freely,
and a little wine allowed. Sea-bathing, traveling, riding horseback, and removal to
a dry, warm climate, should also be recommended. The mind must be constantly
but pleasingly occupied, and the feelings interested in some innocent, cheerful pur-
suit. All kinds of sentimental and romantic reading must be avoided, but amusing
books of travels and descriptions of scenery may be allowed. Music or poetry, when
indulged in to excess, and with those of an excitable temperament, is often highly
injurious. More domestic occupation, and less fanciful idling, would prevent numer-
ous disorders in many young females.

In the article already quoted from Copeland's Dictionary, are some further re-
marks on the peculiarities and predisposing causes of hysteria, whose great value must
be an excuse for inserting them.

''Hysterical disorders of the mental faculties consist not merely of the states al-
ready mentioned, but of others of a less decided, but not less morbid kind. Hyster-
ical females are not merely capricious or whimsical, but they often become enthusiastic
for a time in the pursuit of an object, or in cherishing an emotion by which they
have been excited. In many puch cases, the nervous excitement and vascular tumes-
cence of the uterine organs determine the character of the mental disorder, elevating
certain of the moral sentiments, or of the intellectual manifestations, to a state of
extravagance, passing in some instances into delusion or monomania. Many cases of
puerperal mania are merely extremes of the hysterical disorder of the moral and intel-
lectual powers or states of the mind. All these more extreme forms of mental affec-
tion are observed only where, in connection with much local or uterine irritation,
there is great deficiency of nervous energy generally, and of mental power in particu-
lar, or where, with such deficiency, there has been either much injudicious culture,
or perversion, or improper excitement of the imagination.

DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS, 685

" Females sometimes become passionately attached to an object, and this passion
may advance even to nymphomania or monomania. The same person, on experi-
encing a disappointment in her affection, or if she be placed in circumstances entirely
preventing the enjoyment of her passion, often becomes enthusiastically religious,
especially if strongly excited by powerful popular preachers. After field preachings, or
other ministrations of an exciting kind, the most hysterical females, especially those
who have experienced the fully developed fits on these occasions, have become, at
least for a time, the most religious. In this, however, there is little to regret ; there
is no harm, and generally much good, from this direction of the feelings, unless, in-
deed, advantage be taken of this excitement by certain tartuffes — especially at love-
feasts, etc. — a circumstance by no means rare.

"The hypochondriacal feelings, the desire to deceive, or to simulate various dis-
eases, or the delusions which sometimes possess the minds of hysterical females, may
be classed with the foregoing, as requiring a similar plan of treatment. In all of
them the indications of cure are, to remove irritation or vascular turgescence of the
uterine organs ; to improve the general health ; to strengthen the nervous system ;
to calm the imagination, and to guide the moral impulses of the patient. The means
by which the physical portion of these indications are to be fulfilled have been suffi-
ciently explained. The most efficient, however, of these means are not likely to be
adopted by the patient if she is entirely uncontrolled by friends. Few will re-
sort daily to the shower bath, or even occasionally to terebinthinate enemata, or
submit to a course of tonics, or to a suitable regimen, etc., while she believes her
health but little affected. Even when the hysterical disorder is of a very painful
kind, the variability or capricious state of her mind leads her to run from one phy-
sician to another, before opportunity of administering aid is afforded to any. At
last the most notorious charlatans, particularly those who either excite the body
through the mind, or the mind through the body — the animal magnetizers, the
homceopathists, the St. John Longs of rubbing celebrity, and the Campbells of celes-
tial bed notoriety — fix her attention. At such medical bagnios, there is something
promising gratification as well as excitement, and at such places hysterical as well
as hypochondriacal patients 'most do congregate.'

'■' Oe the Prophylactic Treatment oe Hysteria. — The avoidance of the oc-
casional causes is the chief part of this treatment, and this is very difficult. The
moral emotions and desires constitute the principal of tbese causes, and the preven-
tion of them is not in the power of the physician, and considering the general frailty
of our nature, rarely in the power of the patient. A physician sufficiently acquainted
with human nature and with human life and society, will frequently discover the
connection of the complaint with the feelings and be able to give useful hints to the
patient or her friends, as to the moral as well as to the medical management of the
complaint. But his proper business is to correct the predisposing or constitutional
cause, and to enable the patient to resist the exciting causes. An indolent, a lux-
urious, and an unoccupied life leads to late hours in bed, to an excited state of the
imagination, to susceptibility of the nervous system, to irritation and turgescence
of the generative organs, and to general or local plethora. It cannot be sanguinely
hoped that females will relinquish ease, luxury, and enjoyment, for the dread of
a distant and contingent ill. Most physicians of experience must have often ob-
served the influence of these causes on the health, and have met with instances
of females who, when in ease and luxury, were subject to hysteria, having become

686 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

entirely free from it when reverses of fortune obliged them to employ both mind and
body.

" Much depends upon the moral and physical education of females about the
period of puberty in preventing hysteria. If more time were devoted to air and
exercise and less to mere accomplishments — if less strenuous efforts were made to
cram much ill-assorted knowledge into the mind during a very limited period — than
usually is the case at the present day, an improved state of nervous energy and ol
constitution generally would result. There would, consequently, arise a race of
females possessed of stronger minds, and better able to make good wives and healthy
mothers, than those too frequently met with*in the easier ranks of life. Of all the
physical influences by which the human constitution is permanently impressed in
early age, there are none so powerful as light, air, and exercise. Females, while the
frame is being developed, should strictly observe early hours, so that the period of
repose should never be prolonged much after the dawn of morning. The propriety
of sleeping in a large, well-ventilated room, cannot be disputed. It will be prudent,
where more than one must sleep in the same apartment, to have separate beds,
each no larger than is necessary for one person ; and if the room is sufficiently large
and airy, three, but no more, should sleep in it, preferably to two. When very
early rising is enforced, the kind of bed on which growing females should sleep, is
not very important, although a hair mattress is, perhaps, the best ; but- the bed-
clothing should be light and the sitting as well as the sleeping apartments ought to
be moderately cool and airy.

" The kind of exercise which is most serviceable is that taken in the open air, ana
in the light of day, and which brings into action the voluntary muscles generally,
especially those of the lower extremities. It should preferably be on foot, and be
regular, daily, and neither too little nor excessive. Sydenham, Fuller, Mandeville,
and Manning advise riding on horseback, as affording the briskest motion, and oc-
casioning the least fatigue. It ought always, however, to be used when the stomach
is most empty, for, after a full meal, it retards digestion, rendering it uneasy and
llatulent. It is most serviceable when hysteria is associated with retention of the
menses, and a chlorotic state of the system, or when there is torpid action or obstruc-
tion of the digestive and abdominal viscera. In cases of this description, the advice
given by Mandeville will be found of great benefit. This is, to rise before six, to
have half an hour's exercise in a swinging chair, flying horse, or the common swing-
rope, and then breakfast ; some time afterward to get on horseback, for at least two
hours, either galloping or trotting as much as her strength will permit her ; and,
immediately after this, to be undressed, and assiduously chafed or dry rubbed for
a considerable time, till her skin looks red, and her flesh glows all over. Manning
observes that frictions are useful, not only in the cure of the paroxysm, but also as
a prophylactic. He directs them to be used on the extremities and trunk of the
body, and especially on the abdomen, when the digestive organs are weak. If hyste-
ria be attended with the anomalous symptoms already noticed, or assume an irregu-
lar form, friction applied daily and assiduously along the spine will be of great
service. Sailing has been recommended by Dr. Gilchrist in the treatment of hyster-
ical and other nervous complaints, and in certain circumstances it will be found
useful.

" Cold bathing, particularly salt-water bathing, and the shower bath, will gen-
erally be serviceable at this period of life, if females have no particular dread of

DERANGEMENT OF TEE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS. 687

either, and if the surface of the body be afterward well rubbed, and smart exercise
immediately taken. For delicate constitutions, with a predisposition to the disorder,
it will be preferable to commence with a warm salt-water bath, or with a tepid
shower bath, the temperature being gradually lowered to the usual grade. Sponging
the surface of the body also, every morning, with salt and water, or with water con-
taining some vinegar or a little of the nitro-muriatic acid, the temperature being at
first tepid, but gradually reduced to the usual mean of cold, will generally prove
most beneficial, not only in preventing the complaint, but also in removing it."

It has already been remarked that hysteria frequently depends on some other dis-
ease, particularly on deranged menstruation, or indigestion. These primary disorders
must of course be removed before a real cure can be hoped for, no matter how suc-
cessful the palliative means may have been. A careful study must therefore be made
of the patient's constitution, habits, and general state of health.

An opinion prevails very generally that in all these cases marriage'^ advisable, and
in the great majority this is perhaps true, but not in all ! It is sometimes a very difficult
matter to advise upon, and it must be recollected that, if the experiment is unsuc-
cessful, two persons may be made unhappy instead of one, without any advantage to
the patient ! It is seldom, however, that a competent person, of sufficient experi-
ence, will fail to indicate the proper course, particularly if his inquiries be answered
with truth and candor. "With those of a lymphatic temperament, and in torpor of
the uterine organs, I have frequently employed galvanism, with marked benefit, par-
ticularly to the ovaries and os tineas. Some authors have recently recommended
a sudden and unexpected burst of music, as a means of cutting short an hysterical
paroxysm, and others have recommended a systematic use of music, suited to the
case, as a means of actual cure ! This is certainly a more pleasant remedy than
many others, and may be in many cases quite as successful.

There are two peculiar forms of hysteria, or rather two kinds of hysteriform
attacks, which, by some authors, are considered to differ from hysteria, properly so
called. These are named gastrospasm, or spasm of the stomach, and cerebrospasm,
or brain spasm. The first of these usually commences with severe pain, or spasm in
the stomach, and there is little or none of the usual suffocation, or feeling of the ball
rising. The general treatment is the same as that already given for hysteria, but in
addition, if the pain continues, a teaspoonful of compound spirits of lavender may
be given every half hour, till three or four are taken, and a mustard poultice may be
put on over the stomach. If this does not relieve, and no fainting or convulsions
ensue, an emetic may be given, such as a teaspoonful of antimony wine in half a tea-
cupful of warm water every ten minutes, till it operates. In the cerebrospasm, a
dash of cold water on the head, or a warm hip or foot bath, will be useful, in addition
to the general treatment.

There is so little that is peculiar in these varieties, however, excepting what we
have already mentioned, that any further attempt at distinguishing them is unneces-
sary.

HTSTEEALGIA.

This disease is also called neuralgia of the womb. The symptoms are much the
same as those of severe dysmenorrhea or metritis, but there is no inflammation or
swelling. The pain, however, may be terribly severe, resembling that of tic douieuieux,
or neuralgia in the face ; some persons have been made almost delirious by it. The

088 DERANGEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS.

treatment should consist of bathing, narcotic enemas, and injections, purgatives, and
mustard poultices or blisters to the abdomen and thighs — in fact, much the same
course as for rheumatism of the womb and for metritis. If it comes on periodically,
quinine must be used, the same as for intermittent fever.

The causes of hysteralgia are too obscure to be definitely stated. Very frequently
it is produced by other uterine derangements, and also by excesses, and by violence;
or by improper marriage. It is very rarely met with.

CHAPTEE LVI.

GENERAL REMARKS ON PEMALE HEALTH AT ETERT PERIOD OP LIFE, AND ON
CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OP PEMALE DISEASE, AND ITS TREATMENT.

Puberty and Menstruation.

Previous to the establishment of puberty, the female system presents no remark-
able peculiarities to distinguish it from the male system, but when that event occurs
a complete change takes place, many new functions being performed, which exercise
a controlling influence over all the others. The nature and extent of that influence
has already been pointed out incidentally, so that we need do no more here than
refer to its importance as connected with female health.

The establishment of the menstrual discharge is an event which every mother
should carefully watch for in her daughter, so that no untoward accident may pre-
vent it. About the time when it is expected, the young person should be questioned
as to the state of her health and feelings, and her occupation and mode of life should
be regulated in anticipation of the change.

The objects to be accomplished are, to favor the development of the uterine sys-
tem, so that its functions may be properly performed, and at the same time to prevent
any undue excitement, either general or local. The regulation of the diet is here of
the first importance ; it should be sufficiently nutritious, but easy of digestion, and
not stimulating. Milk, rice, sago, young meats, and ripe fruits are appropriate for
food, with milk, water, or weak wine and water, for drink. All heavy meats, unripe
fruits, pickles, strong beer, spices, spirits, coffee, and pastry must be forbidden. Tea
may be taken occasionally, very weak, but is better left alone ; and a little light
sharp beer may be drunk, if there be sinking and debility, or claret wine.

Warm baths should be taken every other day, followed by a cold shower, and by
good hard friction of the skin. Bodily exercise, in the open air, must be rigidly
enforced, and of the most exhilarating kind. The young person should be encour-
aged to run, and to ride, to use the hoop, skipping-rope, and battledore, or other
instrument of sport, as much as her inclination prompts. The body should be warmly
clad, but not confined in any part, and the shoes should be thick enough to protect
the feet from damp. Corsets and paper-soled slippers, if they have unfortunately
been adopted, should be thrown aside, and the hair should not be bound in a close
hard knot on the head, as that prevents perspiration, and keeps up a constant heat,
which is a certain source of headache to many.

It is particularly important that the young person should know the reason for
these cares, and that she should be told the nature and importance of the event
which is about to occur. She will then be more disposed to observe all necessary
regulations, and to communicate any symptoms she may have of its commencement.
I have seen so many instances of the evil effects of keeping young persons ignorant
44 689

690 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

on this matter, that I am desirous of directing attention to it in a forcible manner.
Many, in their ignorance, are dreadfully alarmed at the first flow, and fancy some-
thing dangerous, or disgraceful, has happened to them ; they therefore endeavor to
stop it, for which purpose some put their feet in cold water, or put cold wet cloths
on their persons ; others walk till they are exhausted, and others again even take
drugs, which they are told of by older companions. The mischief which may result
from such practices is incalculable ; serious disease, with a life of suffering, or even
death, may reasonably be feared. And even when such things are not done pur-
posely, they may be unintentionally, by those who are ignorant of themselves, and
with the same evil result.

I once saw a most lamentable instance of this kind. A young lady of a delicate
constitution, and retiring habits, entirely uninformed respecting herself, was sud-
denly surprised by the first menstrual flow. Her alarm was great, but her diffidence
prevented her from alluding to the circumstance to her mother, with whom in fact
she had but little confidential communication. One of her elder companions how-
ever, taxed her with it, and she confessed the truth, saying innocently that she did
not know how to stop it ! Her friend unthinkingly said that standing in cold water
would stop it, for she had done so one night when she wished to go to a party !
The poor victim of ignorance did the same, and was not troubled with another ap-
pearance for near six months. During this time she became very unwell. ' She had
a constant headache, with dizziness, dimness of sight, ringing in the ears, rush of
blood to the head and face, with sickness at the stomach, and severe pains in her
back, and in her abdomen, which was also much swollen. Her appetite was most
capricious, her skin sallow, and her hands and feet almost constantly cold. She
became at last almost too weak to walk, and so low spirited and dejected, that the
slightest word made her cry, while her mind was so weak that at times she could
scarcely be called sane. Ultimately she became delirious, and raved for about three
weeks, when she partly recovered, but similar attacks afterwards occurred, more or
less, every month. Many physicians of the greatest eminence had attended her, but
no good whatever seemed to result from their prescriptions. I found, on inquiry,
that they supposed it to be a case of non-appearance of the menses, with chlorosis.
Being desirous of ascertaining the actual truth however, I requested a female friend
to question her closely, during one of her rational intervals. She did so, and the
poor sufferer made a full confession. I then at once recommended a course of treat-
ment, which I thought likely to restore the suspended function. Her diet was made
light and nutritious. She was taken to the sea-side and bathed regularly, and kept
pretty constantly in the open air, on horseback. The only medicine given was a few
pills of iron and gentian, and occasionally of iron and rhubarb, to keep the bowels
free. A warm hip bath was administered every other day, and a warm injection at
the same time. In addition to this, galvanism, was applied to the uterus, in the
manner indicated in the article on amenorrhcea, and also to the ovaries. No effect
was observed for the first month, her delirious spell coming on as usual, and the
other symptoms remaining much the same. About three weeks after, however, or
nearly seven weeks from commencing the treatment, while she was riding out, the
discharge came on quite suddenly and profusely. She was very sick and faint dur-
ing the whole time it lasted, which was about four days, but after that she felt much
better, and more lively. No delirious spell followed, and at the end of a month she
menstruated again without any distress. From that time forward she began to im-

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 691

prove, her strength returned, her feelings became more under control, and her mind
regained its original vigor. A little attention was bestowed, for some three or four
months, for a few days before the periods were expected, to insure their appearance ;
and a regular mode of life was enforced, beyond which nothing further was done.
She is now perfectly healthy, both in body and mind, though she came so near
being a victim to absurd prejudice and lamentable ignorance.

It must be borne in mind however, as already stated, that there is considerable
irregularity as to the time of appearance, duration, and quantity of the menses, so
that it is very difficult in some cases to decide whether assistance is really needed or
not. Thus the usual age at which puberty becomes established is, fifteen, but in
some it may be natural for it to commence two or three years earlier, or later. The
usual time for the flow to continue is four days, though it may be occasionally not
more than two, or one, or it may extend to a week, or more, without any injury.
The average quantity discharged is probably about six ounces, and yet some perfectly
healthy females never have more than a mere show, while others may have a pint or
more. It should be observed, however, that these irregularities are comparatively
rare exceptions ; the great majority of females, when healthy, observe nearly the
above rule, both as to time and quantity. The only directions therefore, which can
be properly given are, to observe well the general health; if that suffers in conjunction
with any of these irregularities, it is desirable they should be attended to immedi-
ately ; but if the person remains well, it is best to wait a little and observe. With
young persons however, it is necessary to be watchful, because many symptoms of
disease may either be concealed by them, or pass unnoticed, till great injury is done.
The moral condition of young females about the period of puberty is also a matter
of great importance. All high-wrought excitement, produced by reading fictitious
adventures and scenes, and all sickly sentimentality, from reading mawkish romances,
or listening to romantic companions, are very injurious. I have no doubt but such
things produce numerous cases of hysteria and hypochondriasis, if not more serious
disease. I need not reprobate those books, or associates, of a still more objection-
able character, as these will never of course be openly allowed, but I would wish to
caution against the too frequent contamination, from both sources, which occurs
unsuspected. In various ways these books are obtained, and read, by hundreds who
are supposed to be totally unacquainted with them, their real character being un-
known, except by those who read them. The dangerous excitement thus produced
may lead to the most deplorable results, both moral and physical, as every physician
of experience well knows. With some temperaments, a too frequent attendance at
the theater, or ball-room, may be followed by similar results, and very frequently I
have known irremediable mischief produced by the vicious teachings of elder com-
panions, particularly at boarding-schools. A more direct allusion to these things is
neither necessary nor desirable here, but it was my duty to give a warning about
them ! Suffice it to say, that the evil is more extensive than is supposed.

The most proper and healthy education is that which fully develops the body,
giving it strength and beauty, and which occupies the mind with useful and pleasing
realities, rather than with mere fictitious dreamings. Bodily idleness, and empti-
ness, or trifling occupation of the mind, combined with improper food, produce more
licentiousness and disease than any other causes whatever ! And active employment,
with a well regulated diet, will do more toward preventing or removing these evils,
than all the drugs in the materia medica, or all the moral precepts ever promulgated.

692 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

It is not generally known that the health of young persons may be seriously
affected by too close contact with the old. Such is undoubtedly the case, however,
and the fact should be stated. On this point Dr. Copland remarks as follows : —

" A not uncommon cause of depressed vital power is the young sleeping with the
aged. This fact, however explained, has been long remarked, and is well known to
every unprejudiced observer. But it has been most unaccountably overlooked in
medicine. I have, on several occasions, met wi-th the counterpart of the following
case : I was a few years since consulted about a pale, sickly, and thin boy of about
five or sis years of age. He appeared to have no specific ailment ; but there was a
slow and remarkable decline of flesh and strength, and of the energy of all the func-
tions— what his mother very aptly termed a gradual blight. After inquiry into the
history of the case, it came out that he had been a very robust and plethoric child
up to his third year, when his grandmother, a very aged person, took him to sleep
with her ; that he soon afterward lost his good looks ; and that he had continued to
decline progressively ever since, notwithstanding medical treatment. I directed him
to sleep apart from his aged parent ; and prescribed gentle tonics, change of air, etc.
The recovery was rapid. But it is not in children only that debility is induced by
this mode of abstracting vital power. Young females married to very old men suffer
in a similar manner, although seldom to so great an extent ; and instances have
come to my knowledge where they have suspected the cause of their debilitated state.
These facts are often well known to the aged themselves, who consider the indul-
gence favorable to longevity, and thereby often illustrate the selfishness which, in
some persons, increases with their years."

It is very important to caution young persons against carelessness during their
periods, particularly against exposing themselves to cold in any way, taking too vio-
lent exertion, eating anything indigestible, or giving way to violent mental emotions.
A quiet state, both of body and mind, is most favorable, with just as much exertion
as feels agreeable. Cold baths may be injurious, unless regularly taken previously.
I know many who use them always, not only without injury, but with benefit. As
a general rule, it is best to make but little change, unless particular indications point
out its propriety.

It should also be recollected that the mind and feelings of young persons at this
age are naturally in a very peculiar and interesting condition, and require the most
careful and delicate attention on the part of their parents and guardians. They
begin to experience new sensations and wants, and to be troubled by new thoughts
and vague ideas, which stimulate curiosity, and excite the imagination to the high-
est pitch. A forced state of ignorance is very apt to aggravate this dangerous con-
dition by enshrouding with mystery everything which is desired to be known. Under
such circumstances, the most exaggerated and ridiculous fancies are indulged, even if
worse consequences do not ensue, and wrong notions are entertained respecting them-
selves, and their future condition, which may have a most lamentable influence on
their health and happiness. When nature prompts inquiry it is worse than useless
to attempt to conceal ! The suppression of useful truth then, can only leave the
mind open to receive dangerous error ! A prudent parent or guardian will always
know what to impart, and when to impart it, and will feel the obligation to in-
struct her charge to be one of the most sacred duties.

It is neither necessary nor advisable to treat all the vagaries and caprices of
young persons with indifference, or deride them, but on the contrary they should be

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 693

respected, and sympathized with, or even judiciously indulged, rather than rudely
condemned. It should be recollected that these fanciful notions are realities to them,
and that it is not by harshness, but solely by kindness, and obvious interest, that we
can so far gain their confidence as to convince them of their error. It should also
be borne in mind that the female is always subject to certain powerful influences,
unknown to the other sex, which modify her whole character, and which make it
necessary to judge her with charity, and treat her with kindness and indulgence.
Especially should this be remembered with the young and inexperienced, and with
those who have been surrounded by unfavorable circumstances. I have known many
an apparently severe indisposition, which had defied all medical skill, yield imme-
diately to the condolence of trusted friendship ; and in numerous cases I have seen
kindness and sympathy effect a thousand times more, than pills and potions ! Nor
need such a circumstance excite any especial wonder or unjust suspicion, when the
peculiarities of the system in females are recollected. With them the extensively con-
nected uterine organs are constantly exerting a paramount influence on the nervous
system, either by their own functional activity, or by the stimulus they receive
through the brain. Woman is therefore essentially a creature of impulse and intense
emotion, and in justice should be so treated. With her an unhappy feeling, a capri-
cious fancy, or a wrong idea, should be considered as real a cause of disease as a
tumor or a cancer ! This is true of women at all ages, and in all conditions, though
sometimes more so than at others. With her also moral treatment is often more
efficacious than medical, and is therefore more appropriate. A kind look, or expres-
sion of sympathy will light up the languid eye, send a healthy gush through the
veins, and impart a wholesome stimulus to the whole system, while drugs will only
produce greater prostration of the vital energies. The nature of many female dis-
eases, therefore, particularly those of a nervous character, is essentially different from
any experienced by the other sex, and their treatment should of course be different
also.

THE CHANGE OF LIFE.

The uterine organs eventually lose their preponderance, their functions cease, and
they exert but slight influence, either direct, or indirect, on the rest of the system.

This great change, called the turn of life, does not take place however without a
struggle, and before it is fully brought about the female is liable to many serious
accidents. The final stoppage of the menses being in fact as momentous, to some
persons, as their first appearance, or even more so, and exerting as powerful an in-
fluence on their health.

Many diseases which had lain dormant before, sometimes break out with fatal
virulence immediately the change takes place, and many others that had remained
comparatively slight, may become seriously aggravated. These evils, however, are
by no means necessary or usual results of the change, but mere accidents, resulting
from disease or a bad constitution. The cessation of the menses is as natural as their
first appearance, and the constitutional disturbance resulting from it is also as likely
to be beneficial as injurious. In fact, many females when they fully get over it,
seem to become much younger and more healthy. They regain their flesh, their
color, and their strength, and actually appear more juvenile at fifty than they did
at thirty-five or forty !

Much unfounded apprehension exists both as to the danger at the turn of life,

694 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DTSEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

and its effects on the person. Unless the system be much diseased or debilitated,
however, there is no particular cause for fear. It is true that every one feels more
or less indisposition for a time, which may inconvenience and alarm, but which can
nearly always be relieved by judicious treatment, and frequently prevented entirely
by timely attention.

The usual age when the change commences is from forty to forty-five. It is
sometimes, however, protracted to fifty, and even sixty, and in this country it not
unfrequently takes place as early as thirty-five, or thirty ! It may come on suddenly,
so that the female, after having a period as perfect as usual, never menstruates again.
Most usually, however, it is established by degrees, the quantity either becoming less
and less, or the time between longer and longer, or both. Sometimes it will stop for
a long period, and then appear again, as in the case of a lady whom I know. Sha
ceased menstruating when she was forty-two, and commenced again when she was
forty-six, and continued quite regular till she was forty-nine, when it ceased again;
she is now fifty-three, perfectly healthy, and with no signs of its re-establishment.

When any especial disease arises at this period, it must, of course, be treated tha
same as at any other, always remembering that it may disappear of itself, when the
change is fully established. This is particularly the case with many of the slighter
disturbances, such as headache, palpitation, dizziness, dimness of sight, and nervous-
ness. We should not be too much in a hurry, therefore, to commence any strong
treatment, but rather wait and observe, and assist nature when the indications are
obvious how to do so.

It is particularly desirable that females should not resort to medicine, as many do,
to make the change take place safely. Numerous preparations are palmed upon
them by interested persons, which they are told, and believe, will save them from all
danger. jSTo specific of the kind is known, and in the nature of things cannot exist.
The only precautions that are necessary and proper, are those which tend to preserve
and improve the general health. These should be rigidly observed at all times, bui
particularly so now.

The body should be warmly clad, and regularly bathed, out-door exercise shouli
be habitually taken, the diet properly regulated, so as to be nutritious, but not stimu-
lating, and the mind should be kept tranquil and cheerful. In short, much the same
regulations should be observed in this respect as those we advised at the commence
ment of puberty. With women of a full plethoric habit, there is danger, when the
excitement subsides in the womb, that it may take place in some other organ. In
this way apoplexy is frequently produced, and palpitation of the heart, or various
congestions and inflammations. The way to avoid this danger is for the female to
lower the tone of her system by adopting a spare simple diet, cool acid drinks, and
the shower bath, and to constantly exercise in the open air, so that the blood may be
equally distributed over the body. She should avoid all intense mental application,
or strong emotions, and not think of the change that is taking place. Some persons
make themselves very unhappy in this way, and greatly increase the danger of their
situation. They cannot help thinking of their past condition, and dreading the
future. Their thoughts, especially when associated with others peculiar to certain
temperaments, keep up the excitement in the womb, and protract the struggle. Such
persons should recollect that the change may be the very reverse of what they fear,
providing they observe proper precautions, and keep themselves tranquil. As already
observed, many females regain their health, and improve iri appearance, and suffer

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 695

no deprivation but that of fruitfulness ! Proper advice, acted upon in time, will
effect this great change safely in most cases.

For some time previous to the critical period, or at least as soon as she feels inti-
mations of its approach, the female must be particularly careful of catching cold, or
of exhausting herself by late hours, or by breathing a close atmosphere. She should
attend carefully to her diet, eat nothing indigestible, and use no spices nor alcoholic
drinks. She should also avoid all hinds of excitement, and accustom herself, in every
particular, to a regular and calm mode of life. Cold bathing, followed by good fric-
tion with rough towels, should be practiced, with sea-bathing at intervals, if practi-
cable.

If there should be any congestion or inflammation in the uterine organs, it must
be subdued by injections and fomentations, and other means pointed out in the article
on metritis. The headache and dizziness is usually amended by a few purgatives, or
low diet, and the shower-bath. Constipation of the bowels, which is a very constant
and troublesome attendant at this time, should be combated first by change of diet
and friction over the abdomen, and if these do not relieve it, injections of starch
and olive oil may be used, or a seidlitz powder taken every other morning.

Id conclusion, I would wish particularly to impress on my readers the fact that
this change is not, necessarily, a dangerous one, but that most of the evils usually
attending it arise from irregular modes of life, improper diet, and excesses of various
kinds ! A more strict observance of the laws of health would either prevent them
altogether, or, at least, much mitigate them.

USEFUL HINTS FOR ALL AGES.

Women are in every way more sensitive than men, and require more precaution to
preserve their systems in health. Want of knowledge respecting themselves also
makes them more inattentive, and silly fashions often force them to adopt habits of
the most injurious kind. Many causes of discomfort to them, and even of serious
disease, are apparently so trivial that they remain unsuspected, or at best they are
merely acknowledged. Some of these will now be pointed out, and commented upon.

There can be no doubt but that many young females suffer much from being pent up
in ball-rooms, and other such places of resort, where the air is hot and unwholesome,
and the associations productive either of excitement, questionable as to its good, or of
envy, pride, and fretfulness. This is not, of course, meant to apply to rational, inno-
cent, and exhilarating amusement, which is most beneficial under proper arrange-
ments, but to those assemblages where amusement is the excuse, and rivalry, jeal-
ousy, and all kinds of unhappiness the actual realities.

In leaving these heated rooms, flushed with the exertion of the dizzy waltz, it is
seldom that any precaution is taken by females, unless some one else advises it.
They rush into the cold air with their arms and bosoms uncovered, drink ices while
streaming with perspiration, and walk on the cold, damp ground with shoes that
afford no protection. The consequences are they take cold, suffer from irregular
menstruation, leucorrhcea, metritis, or consumption. All such obvious improprieties
might easily be avoided, and are more productive of disease than is usually sup-
posed.

As a general rule, females should wear flannel, particularly around the pelvis,
to guard against sudden changes. This is particularly desirable when puberty ia

696 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

about being established, during menstruation, and at the change of life. Those who
accustom themselves to the shower-bath, however, will not be nearly so liable to take
cold as those who do not.

Bad air, and strong odors of all kinds, have great effect on most females, partic-
ularly on the nervous. For this reason it is injurious for them to frequent croAvded
assemblies, or to sleep or live in ill- ventilated apartments. In like manner, the use
of scents, which is so general, is very objectionable, or even the smelling of flowers,
if too long indulged. We are told of a lady, daughter to one of the Counts of Salin,
who died from inhaling the odor of a rose, and of another who was found dead in
her bed from having left a bouquet of lilies in the chamber. A celebrated literary
lady also nearly met her death from a quantity of flowers, which her friends had
left on her birth-day, as testimonies of esteem, being placed in her bedroom. And
many instances have occurred of fainting, hysteria, and even miscarriage from
similar causes.

The philosophy of this apparently singular phenomenon is easily seen, when the
extreme sensitiveness of the female nervous system is called to. mind. The olfactory
nerves are irritated by the odorous substance, and the irritation is conveyed by them
to the brain, which again transmits the disturbance to the uterus and every other
part of the body. In short, the odor acts through the sense of smell, the same as a
disgusting object does through the sense of sight, or a disagreeable sound through
that of hearing.

Too frequent warm bathing is an injurious habit, though a warm bath about
once in a fortnight is advisable, and it should always be followed by a cold shower.
The plentiful and regular use of cold water, both on the surface of the body and by
vaginal injections, is one of the best preservatives of female health. By cold water
I mean that which is about the temperature of the body, or nearly as we find it when
exposed to the atmosphere during summer. Very cold water is apt to cause colds,
leucorrhcea, and other disorders. This part of the female toilette is too much neg-
lected in this country, and many evils arise in consequence of that neglect. In
several of the preceding articles it has been shown how excoriations, inflammations,
and adhesions, arise from a want of habitual bathing of the parts, especially in young
persons; and how these physical annoyances lead frequently to moral evils ! This
subject I wish to direct particular attention to again, and to remind females that
the most scrupulous attention to cleanliness, in this respect, should be observed,
both in the young and in adults. I have no doubt but that many cases of leucorrhcea,
pruritus, prolapsus, and other evils, are produced by neglect of it. The French
article of furniture, called the bidet, should have a place in every lady's dressing-room,
and will be found a source both of comfort and health. The female syringe should
be of tolerable capacity, but small in the part to be introduced, and curved, and the
end should be pierced with several small holes. These may always be obtained at the
instrument maker's or druggist's. Napkins used by females should be of soft linen,
and never employed roughly, and for particular purposes, should always be well aired
and warmed when worn.

In regard to female dress there are many things merely absurd, and which,
therefore, need not be noticed here, though their correction is desirable, but there
are others positively injurious, and which on that account require to be mentioned.
The use of thin shoes, particularly at certain times, has already been adverted to,
and cannot be too strongly condemned, and also the practice of exposing the bosom

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 697

and arms to the cold air, after having been in a hot room. Close or heavy bonnets,
and those of materials that will not allow ventilation through them, are decidedly
injurious, by heating the head, and so is the habit of twisting and tying the hair
into a hard knot. The use of corsets has been so frequently deprecated, and its evils
so forcibly exhibited, that any special notice here is unnecessary. Suffice it to say,
that there are few more fruitful causes of disease, particularly of prolapsus uteri,
hernia, dyspepsia, liver complaints and consumption. The corset, in short, destroys
both health and beauty, by interfering with the functions of the different organs,
and by deforming the body ! It is strongly to be hoped that a better taste is now
arising, and that the female body will no longer be thought so imperfect naturally
as to require crushing and squeezing into shape!

Around the body the dress should be perfectly loose, and no tight garters, brace-
lets, rings, shoes, or straps, should be worn. Tight shoes frequently cause headache
and redness in the face, by preventing the proper circulation of the blood to the ex-
tremities, and tight garters cause numbness and weakness of the limbs. It is desira-
ble, also, that the dress should not press the breasts too hard, particularly at the
menstrual period, or during pregnancy or nursing ; but it is advisable for it to sup-
port them a little when relaxed.

In the article on the causes of disease, in Copland's Dictionary, I find the follow-
ing apposite remarks, strongly confirmatory of what I have stated, and containing
many valuable hints besides :

"Dress, even, has a very evident influence in creating a predisposition to disease.
Too little clothing, particularly in females, favors the occurrence of difficult and
suppressed menstruation, pulmonary disease, and disorders of the bowek. It was
remarked during the French revolution, when it was the fashion to dress classically,
— which was almost a state of semi-nudity, and more appropriate to the warmer
climates of Athens and Eome than to those of the north of France and this country,
— that pulmonary diseases, rheumatism, suppressed menstruation, bowel complaints,
catarrhs; and amongst the children, who were exposed with naked busts and
thin clothing, croup, and other diseases of the air-passages and lungs, were un-
commonly prevalent. On the other hand, too warm clothing is a source of disease,
sometimes even of the same diseases which originate in exposure to cold ; and
often renders the frame more susceptible of impressions of cold, especially of
cold air taken into the lungs. The remarks now offered may be applied to over-
heated sitting and sleeping apartments, and to warm soft beds and bed-clothing.
These relax and weaken the frame, dispose to disorders of the kidneys, urinary and
sexual organs, and render the system much more susceptible of injurious impressions
from without. A predisposition is thus produced, not only to catarrhs, inflamma-
tions, affections of the lungs, and rheumatism, but to irregularity in the menstrual
discharge. It has been remarked that the females in Holland, who generally use
very warm clothing, warm apartments, and warm beds, are very subject to excessive
menstruation and fluor albus. Females, also, become disposed to various diseases,
particularly those affecting the pulmonary organs and heart, from wearing very tight-
laced and unyielding corsets. Indeed, those dressed in this manner can scarcely call
the intercostal muscles into action, and can breathe only by means of the diaphragm.
The mechanism of respiration being thus impeded, the requisite changes are not
fully produced upon the circulating fluid ; and congestion supervenes in the lungs,
right side of the heart, and parts situated below the seat of pressure. This cause is

698 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

especially injurious to females during growth and pregnancy ; for the chest should
be fully and freely expanded, especially at these periods, in order that the circula-
tion through the lungs and heart may be unimpeded ; and that the blood should
experience those changes without interruption, that are required for the develop-
ment of the body and of the foetus. The functions, not only of the lungs and heart,
but of the liver, stomach, and bowels, are materially interrupted, and even these
organs themselves are removed from their natural positions in respect of each other,
by this cause. This is more remarkably the case as regards the colon, which, by
the squeezing together of the hypochondria and lateral regions of the abdomen, is
thrown into unnatural duplicatures ; the passage of faecal matter along it being
thereby impeded, and habitual costiveness, with all its consequences, produced."

Exercise in the open air is as indispensable as proper food, and no female can long
remain healthy in body, or comfortable in mind, without it. There are hundreds
of women who pass whole days and weeks in the house, and sit, or lie in bed, nearly
the whole time. The consequence is they are always sickly, low-spirited, irritable,
wearied, and often wearisome. They become dyspeptic, sallow, and weak ; their
hands and feet are cold, and their heads are continually aching, dizzy, or confused.
Those who understand the simplest principles of physiology will see the reason for
this, and if those principles were more generally understood there would be less of
this irrational conduct seen. In the course of my practice I frequently find it neces-
sary to speak upon these subjects, and have known many cases in which my remarks
have worked a reform. The exercise of females, however, should be less violent than
that of men, and never carried to the extent of producing much fatigue. It should
be varied as much as possible, and adapted to the wishes and wants of the individual,
and should invariably be pleasing and agreeable. Tending the flower-garden, seek-
ing plants for the study of botany, or rambling in the fields or by the sea-shore, and
riding on horseback, particularly in cheerful company, are all excellent. So is danc-
ing, but not in a close hot room, nor late at night, nor when the body is bound up
in a tight dress, or the feet pinched in tight shoes. Under these circumstances the
mere exercise will not counterbalance the other evils. With young persons real play,
or even actual romping, is required, to exhilarate both mind and body, and send the
blood bounding to the utmost extremities of the system.

A celebrated French physician, M. Tronchin, used to command his nervous
female patients to scrub the floors, wash the clothes, and perform every other menial
labor, and such was his influence that ladies of the highest rank would be seen on
their knees, and at the wash-tub, working like their servants, and eating the same
"food. Though this treatment was unneoessarily harsh, yet its good effects were so
palpable, in numerous cases, that none refused to follow it. In Eussia, at the present
time, when a fashionable lady is worn out with dissipation, and wretchedly nervous
from idleness, it is customary to take her to the cottage of one of the poorest peas-
ants, in the forest, and there she wears the same clothes, eats the same coarse food,
sleeps on the same kind of bed, and performs the same labor as the peasant women.
This is continued sometimes for months, without any relaxation, and usually effects
a complete cure.

Copland's remarks on the influence of external circumstances, of various kinds,
on the bodily and mental health of young females, are very excellent. In the article
on "Age" he says :

"Period of Girlhood.— From the seventh or eighth year to the epoch of com-

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 699

mencing puberty, is chiefly characterized by the continued growth of all the struc-
tures, and the development of the manifestations of mind. Toward the middle and
end of this period, the physical and mental distinctions of sex become more and
more apparent. The frame, when free from disease or hereditary taint, evinces a
sthenic diathesis, a predominance of the sanguine, or sanguineo-nervous temperament,
and a liability to nearly the same diseases, particularly those proceeding from infec-
tion and inflammation, that prevail during childhood. There is a greater liability to
be affected with idiopathic continued fever ; with scrofulous enlargements and inflam-
mations, particularly of the lymphatic glands ; with various nervous affections, as epi-
lepsy, convulsions, chorea, etc. ; with cutaneous eruptions ; with inflammations of the
throat and air passages ; with tubercles, especially in the lungs and alimentary canal ;
with flexures of the spinal column, and with verminous diseases. The nervous sys-
tem possesses great susceptibility of impressions, moral and physical ; and inflamma-
tory action has a marked disposition to give rise to new formations, unless when
appearing in the advanced stages, or as a sequela, of eruptive or infectious fevers,
when it generally occasions serous or sero-albuminous effusions.

" These diseases of this period generally require antiphlogistic remedies and evacu-
ations, especially purgative, either alone or in suitable combination, unless proceed-
ing from depressing causes, particularly those of a specific kind ; and even there the
necessity of resorting to alvine evacuations, by means of laxatives, or purgatives com-
bined with tonics, is imperative. The vital resistance is usually well marked, except-
ing in those who have been deprived of wholesome nourishment and pure air, or
whose constitutions are radically in fault ; and in these, whilst tonics and other
means of restoration are required, the due evacuations of morbid secretions and accu-
mulations is equally necessary. Care also should be taken during this, as well as in
the preceding period, not to allow the young to sleep in the same bed with the old,
nor even with those advanced in age or debilitated, nor with too many — not more
than three — in the same sleeping apartment, which ought to be large and well aired.
"Want of attention to this is one of the chief causes of disease in early life in London,
and other large towns. Academies and boarding schools for both sexes are continu-
ally furnishing numerous proofs of this too generally overlooked cause of disease, not
only at this, but also at a later stage of life. Attention is also necessary to the exer-
cise of both the mind and the body. Active amusements in the open air are now
particularly required. As this period advances, the mental powers acquire such a
degree of development as to admit of their further improvement and active exertion,
not only without risk to the organization with which they are related, but with the
certain prospect of advancing them nearer to the perfection to which our natures
may attain.

" During this and the earlier terms of life, frequent changes of locality and of
air, particularly from one healthy and open situation to another, and especially to
one which is more salubrious, where this can be obtained, are extremely beneficial,
both in promoting tbe development of the frame and in removing diseases, particu-
larly those of a chronic kind, or which affect the digestive and assimilating organs.
In many of these diseases, more advantage has been derived from change of air than
from the use of medicine. But, during advanced convalescence from these and febrile
diseases, the benefit obtained from change of locality is most remarkable. "

"The Period of Adolescence, commences with the first appearance of puber-
ty, and extends to the twentieth year of females, and the twenty-fourth of males.

700 GENERAL REM ABES ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

Puberty appears at various ages, according to the climate, the circumstances con-
nected with education, and the constitution of the individual. The usual period, in
this country, is from the twelfth to the fourteenth year for females, and from the
fourteenth to the sixteenth for males. In the northern parts of the island it is often
a year or two later, in both sexes. It is frequently observed earlier in boarding schools,
both in respect of males and females. In the latter (in London or its vicinity), I
have not infrequently met with instances of menstruation at ten and eleven years ;
especially in sanguine and plethoric constitutions, and where the apartments, par-
ticularly those for sleeping, have been crowded and close.

" This is one of the most important epochs of human existence ; for during it the
natural development of the sexual organs imparts a healthy and tonic excitement
throughout the economy ; bringing to their state of full perfection all the organs of
the body and all the manifestations of mind, excepting those that are derived from
experience. The organs of respiration and voice have acquired their full growth and
tone, the muscles their due proportion, and the cerebro-spinal nervous system its
beautiful organization ; placing man, by the exercise of its admirable functions, at
the head of all animated creation, the dread of all other animals, the wonder of him-
self. It is chiefly during this period of life that the mind becomes stored with ideas,
derived both from the learning of the ancients, the science of the moderns, and the
arts and accomplishments of highly civilized life ; and is more particularly and more
ardently engaged in decomposing the information thus acquired, and recombining it
in new and useful and attractive forms.

"As the functions and destinies of this period are important, so they require the
.supervision of the experienced and the good. For, with this development and activity
of both the physical and mental powers, the instinctive feelings and emotions of our
uature have also reached the utmost limits of their activity ; and many of them,
particularly those which are related to the perfect condition of the reproductive
organs, acquire an ascendancy, that both the dictates of reason and moral restraint
are required to control. Hence the propriety, both at this and the preceding period
of life, of improving the moral affections of the mind ; of inculcating sound prin-
ciples of action and conduct, founded on moral and religious obligations ; and of
placing them in such relations to the feelings, the intellectual manifestations, and,
moreover, to the accomplishments, the elegancies, and the endearments of life, as to
render them attractive to a state of mind and constitution which is more easily
allured by example than taught by precept.

" The evil practices which both sexes are liable to acquire at this period of life,
and to which they more commonly become addicted when they associate in numbers
at seminaries and academies, demand the strictest prevention. They have been too
generally overlooked, both morally and medically, from the circumstance of their
consequences having been imperfectly appreciated. There is no practitioner of ob-
servation and experience, — none even of limited knowledge, — who is altogether
unacquainted with the physical exhaustion, the mental torpor, and all but annihila-
tion of existence, which is the ultimate result of indulging them. From this source
frequently spring, impotency hereafter ; the extinction of families and hereditary
honors — honors which such persons are incapable of achieving ; the infliction, dur-
ing after-life, of many of the diseases which proceed from debility, and the exhaus-
tion of the nourishment and vital energy of the various structures and organs ;
numerous nervous and convulsive maladies, as hysteria, epilepsy, neuralgia, chorea,

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT- 701

melancholia, mania, idiotcy, etc. ; the dangerous or fatal visitation of fevers, dis-
eases of the heart, disorders of the digestive organs, premature baldness and old age,
the formation of tubercles, and the production of pulmonary consumption ; and,
lastly, the transmission of weak and decrepit bodies and minds to the offspring, of
scrofula, rickets, verminous complaints, marasmus, hydrocephalus, convulsions, tu-
bercles, chorea, etc. ; the curse is visited on the children to the third and fourth
generation, until the perpetuated punishment extinguishes the very name of the
transgressor."

Many of the occupations in which females pass much of their time are decidedly
hurtful to them. Sewing, and other kinds of work which require them constantly
to sit, with the head drooping forward, are among the worst. Sad proofs of this are
seen in numbers of poor dress-makers and milliners, who are constantly complaining
of headache, dizziness, dimness of sight, ringing in the ears, difficulty of breathing,
and palpitation at the heart ; without enumerating more serious disorders, which,
however, are common enough among them. One hour at a time is long enough for
any female to sit with her needle, and that should always be followed by some active
exertion.

In regard to food, enough has already been said for general directions, at each
period of life. It is advisable to add, however, that women, owing to their compara-
tive inactivity, require simpler and less stimulating diet and drink than men, and
that they suffer more from excess or impropriety in eating and drinking. Every in-
dividual should carefully observe for herself how she feels after different kinds of
food and drink, and by such means she can establish much better rules, in regard to
her diet, than, any physician can do for her. There are few women that are not in-
jured by the habitual use of spices and pickles, or strong coffee or tea. In fact,
both drinks should be used sparingly, and very weak, especially by the nervous and
by those who wish a clear complexion. White bread is neither so wholesome nor yet
so nourishing as that with the Iran in it, though a mistaken notion prevails to the
contrary. Bran bread contains more of the elements required for the support of the
body than pure flour bread ; it also relaxes the bowels in an easy and natural manner,
while white bread almost always constipates them.

Constipation of the bowels is a very general complaint among females, and pro-
duces the most disastrous results. It should always be attacked by change of diet,
exercise, friction over the abdomen, enemas, or galvanism, rather than by purgatives,
with which many women seriously injure themselves.

The state of the mind and feelings has a very important influence on female
health. Cheerfulness and contentment keep the nervous current equable, dispose to
activity, and favor the proper performance of all the functions, while discontent, fret-
fulness, and irritability have precisely the contrary effects. Many females, owing to
a fault in their education, are constantly tormenting themselves, and displeasing
others, by getting irritated or fretting about mere trifles of no real consequence what-
ever. Such persons are always nervous or miserable, and constantly disposed to ill
health in consequence. They should endeavor to school themselves into a little more
indifference about such things, and remember that putting themselves about over a
little annoyance only makes it greater, without doing any possible good. This tend-
ency to distress themselves about small evils, and to fix their inclinations so strongly
on trivial things is extremely unfortunate, both for their own welfare and for the
comfort of others. It arises entirely from the trashy education which most females

702 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

receive, and from the frivolous nature of their occupations. By directing their
thoughts to more ennobling objects, expanding their minds, enlarging the sphere of
their observations, and by extending their sympathies, this tendency is removed.

All powerful emotions, as those of anger, envy, jealousy, and hate should be care-
fully avoided. They derange the stomach, liver, womb, and other organs, and de-
stroy the equilibrium of the nerves. A fit of anger will cause vomiting, diarrhoea,
flooding, miscarriage, fatal apoplexy, and other serious results ; and habitual ill
temper, envy, and dissatisfaction will produce sallowness of the skin, melancholy, or
hysteria.

The celebrated Tissot gives us an instance of a female who was taken with con-
vulsions whenever she heard her rival's name mentioned, and history tells us of a
French princess who died from jealousy when she heard that her husband had be-
come attached to another lady. An Athenian lady is recorded to have lost her speech
from anger, and another, we are told by Buchan, died from the same cause. Grief
has produced similar results, and so has shame, and even avarice, of which we have an
instance in the niece of the celebrated Liebnitz. He had left her all his fortune, and
immediately on his death she broke open his trunks, which were filled with gold, and
died almost immediately from joy at the sight. Had there been nothing, she proba-
bly would have died from her disappointment. The only way to avoid these evils is
to keep the mind occupied with some useful and pleasing pursuit, and strive to be
cheerful, contented, and calm, and never to worry about trifles, or what cannot be
avoided.

In regard to the smaller matters connected with the toilette, it may be thought by
some that they are unworthy of notice in such a treatise as the present. I think dif-
ferently, however, and for these reasons : many preparations are used by females which
have an injurious influence in various ways, and many others might be used that
would have a contrary effect. The objects in view in employing these articles are,
the removal or concealment of defects, and improvement of the appearance, which,
in themselves, are laudable enough, and I consider it my duty to assist in accom-
plishing them. A pleasing appearance is desirable in all persons, but especially in
females, and it is advisable, within proper bounds, to encourage their efforts to pro-
duce it.

There are few among the thousand and one articles prepared for the toilette that
are useful, and very many that are positively hurtful. Among these may be men-
tioned the different cosmetics for whitening and smoothing the skin, which almost
invariably produce the contrary effect. Nearly all these preparations are composed
of oxides of mercury, antimony, arsenic, and other poisonous substances, and they
frequently cause eruptions, palsy, convulsions, sore eyes, and salivation. The dis-
tilled waters are perhaps the least objectionable articles of the kind, though I scarcely
think any of them equal to clear soft water alone. The ordinary metallic rouge is
decidedly hurtful, and when persons will use something of the kind, the vegetable
rouge had better be substituted. This is extracted from the red sanders wood, or
alkanet wood, steeped in alcohol, and also from cochineal. Instead of pearl powder
there is the preparation of steatite, or French chalk, which may be used for whiten-
ing the skin, and which is not likely to do any injury.

The only real beautifiers of the complexion are a regular life, proper diet, exercise
in the open air, and pure water. Health of body, and cheerfulness of mind, will
send a healthy glow to the cheek, make the skin clear and smooth, and impart

GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT. 703

vigor and elasticity to the limbs. When the skin becomes harsh and discolored
from dissipation, exposure, the use of paints and washes, irritable feelings or other
causes, there are few external applications that will do it any good. Some prepa-
rations will certainly make it appear for a time clear and ghastly white, but they
do so by partly destroying its vitality, and eventually leave it discolored, eruptive
and wrinkled, thus accelerating old age instead of retarding it. M. Colombat de
L'Isere gives the following recipe for a lotion, which will soften and otherwise im-
prove the skin without doing it any injury : — Balsam of raecca, ten drops ; sugar,
one drachm ; the white of one egg ; rose water, six ounces. Mix all these articles
well together, and strain the liquor if necessary. A soft linen rag may be used to
rub it on the face at night, and it must be carefully washed off with clear soft water
and some mild soap in the morning. Sweet almond ointment is also very good, if
fresh and pure ; but the best ointment is made from cucumbers. Equal parts, by
weight, of thin sliced cucumbers and pure lard should be boiled together till the
cucumbers become crisp ; it should then be strained and set aside to cool. This is
an excellent application for the skin, and may be advantageously used for various
eruptions. It may be colored, if desired, by putting in a little alkanet root while it
is boiling, and scented by a few drops of essence of roses. For chapped or discolored
lips there is nothing equal to this ointment.

Many of the soaps sold for the toilette have a bad effect on the skin, from containing
too much alkali. Those that become hard and crack should be particularly avoided.
Almond oil soap, properly prepared, is tolerably good ; but the best appears to be
a preparation made by the French perfumers, called liquid soap or oleine. Glycer-
ine soap, tar soap, or that containing carbolic acid, are also excellent. All those
chemical soaps for cleansing the skin and removing spots, etc., so much vaunted,
should be shunned like the plague. They are chiefly composed of arsenic and other
poisonous substances. Borax soap, however, is both harmless and beneficial ; or a
weak solution of borax, not stronger than half an ounce to the quart of water.

The employment of depilatories, or preparations to remove superfluous hairs, is
exceedingly dangerous. These articles chiefly consist of quick lime, arsenic, and
other caustic substances, and frequently produce ulcerations, palsy, paralysis, blind-
ness, and various organic derangements. Their use must also be constantly persisted
in, because, though they remove one crop of hair, they cannot prevent others from
appearing, so that the use of them must keep the skin continually covered with a
paste of virulent, caustic poisons.

Most of the preparations for dyeing the hair are also poisonous, and sufficient in-
jury has been done by them to warrant us in decrying their use. The hair itself is a
great ornament to the head, and most females feel desirous, and very properly, to
have it soft, clean, and abundant. There is no doubt but most of the pomatums,
greases, and other articles sold for the purpose of making it so, not only fail, but even
produce the contrary effects. The head and hair should be frequently well washed
with the solution of borax above given, or with tar soap, and when dry thoroughly
combed with a very fine comb. This will not only cleanse it, but also polish it, and
make it soft and glossy. A little clear perfumed oil may be used, mixed with
cologne, but no paste or pomatum. If there be dandruff, it should be removed
with the comb and brush, and after the head is well washed and dried a little of the
cucumber ointment may be rubbed on the scalp occasionally. The chief causes of
dandruff are heat of the head, by study or exciteu feelings, the use of close bonnets.

704 GENERAL REMARKS ON FEMALE DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT.

or tne habit of keeping the hair constantly twisted up very tight, and the want of
regular washing to cleanse the skin and open the pores. Calmness of mind, regu-
lation of the bowels, and the shower-bath will frequently remove this trouble-
some disorder, without anything else. Pure lay rum is an excellent preparation to
rub the scalp with when there is dandruff. It should be well rubbed in the roots of
the hair. The article called vaseline, made from petroleum, is a very excellent thing
for the hair or skin.

The use of hot curling-tongs makes the hair harsh, and spoils its color, and even
disposes it to turn gray. Metallic combs are apt to cut it, and should therefore not
be used. It is an excellent plan to stroke it downward frequently with a horse-hair
glove, which will soften it and give it a high polish.

The teeth we need say but little about, if they are decayed, as it would be better
for ladies, in that case, to apply at once to some good dentist. I would caution them
particularly, when needing assistance, not to resort to any of the empirical nostrums
advertised, but seek assistance at once from some really scientific man. There is no
doubt, however, but that a vast deal of the decay in the teeth, so universally found,
might be avoided. General good health, maintained by proper diet, exercise, and
other means already pointed out, would prevent much of the evil, particularly if the
inside of the face was as regularly cleaned as the outside ! Most persons leave their
mouths entirely untouched, so that the decaying food and the vitiated fluids are con-
stantly acting on the teeth, and soon corrode them. A soft brush and clean tepid
water, used night and morning freely, would prevent much of this decay ; and if half
a teaspoonful of fine chalk were well washed round the mouth and teeth for five
minutes before the brush is used, it would come as near preventing it altogether as
probably anything can. Many of the tooth powders used contain acids and other
injurious substances, and none of them are a bit superior to fine chalk.

The mouth should be carefully rinsed after taking any acids or medicine, and very
hot or very cold substances should never be introduced, as they injure the teeth by
sudden contraction and expansion of their substance. Magnesia is an excellent sub-
stance to use, either as a tooth powder or to rinse round the mouth at night, as it
neutralizes any acid that may be found ; or the solution of borax mentioned above.
Good mild soap, especially borax soap, is, perhaps, the best thing of all to brush the
teeth with, both to cleanse and to preserve them.

CHAPTER LVII.

ON SOLITARY VICES, AKD OTHER ABUSES.

It is seldom the case that this subject is broached to females in any form, but
every person at all acquainted with it will admit that it ought to be so, and perhaps
more especially to them than to other persons.

It is not only necessary on account of females themselves being often the victims
of these vices, but also because, as mothers, they of necessity exercise a supervision
over the conduct of their children of both sexes, and they therefore ought to be ac-
quainted with every matter of importance to their welfare.

I am convinced that much of the evil we see arising from this cause, in children,
would be prevented if mothers were better informed about it, and had their attention
properly awakened in time.

Some persons suppose that solitary abuse is altogether confined to males ; but
this is a great mistake. It is doubtless most frequent with them, and in general
affects them most injuriously ; but it is useless to deny that it is .extremely preva-
lent even with the other sex, and likewise leads in them to the most serious conse-
quences.

The nature of my professional experience necessarily brings me much in contact
with peculiar cases of this kind, and I feel it my duty to refer to this subject in
the most emphatic manner, more especially as it has hitherto been generally over-
looked.

In no other place could it be so appropriately treated upon as in a work of this kind,
intended for the special instruction and warning of both males and females.

From various causes, many of which have been alluded to in our previous arti-
cles, and others which will be as we proceed, the sexual instinct or desire is often
awakened at too early a period, or excited to a most immoderate degree. Sometimes,
even in mere children it is strongly developed, so as to lead to unnatural practices
at the most tender age, and at other times it becomes so ungovernably intense that
everything is forgotten or disregarded in the blind craving for its indulgence.

In our hoarding schools for young females, it is well known to medical men that
these vices are fearfully common, though from their nature they are seldom alluded
to. The physician contents himself with treating the effects, but never alludes to
foe cause ! I have known cases where every pupil in such establishments has been
.fed astray in this manner, and to the most alarming detriment of their health.

From vicious association, or some other cause, one among the number learns the
habit and teaches the others, till all become contaminated, and usually without sus-
pecting either any great impropriety or any injurious result.

I know that many of the most pure-minded and virtuous young females have
been thus led astray, and when made aware, either by proper instruction or by dear-
bought experience, that they have been doing wrong, they often experience the most
45 705

706 02? SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES.

poignant remorse. It is their fault, however, in only a slight degree, for most of
them are kept so entirely ignorant of all they ought to know respecting themselves,
that the wonder would be if they kept in the right path. Parents have much to
blame themselves for in connection with this subject, particularly mothers ; and I
trust these few remarks will awaken their attention to a matter of such momentous
importance.

Some time ago, I made an allusion to this subject in one of my lectxires to
females, and was surprised at the number who afterward spoke to me corroborating
my statements. Many aged persons, and mothers of experience, voluntarily testified
to the truth and value of what I had said, and urged me to press this matter still
more than I had done.

One venerable lady, particularly, confessed to me that when she went to a boarding
school, in her young days, these vices were so prevalent, and the effects upon the
health of the scholars were so alarming, that it was thought some epidemic disease
must prevail, and they all went home.

Another lady informed me, with the greatest agony of feeling, that her daugh-
ter came home from school to die from these practices, and confessed it to her
parent on her death-bed.

I have also received numbers of letters, from females of all ages, making similar
confessions, and asking what they must do to recover from the effects of their
thoughtless practices. Among them, I select the following one, as the writer is now
no more, and I know that no one can even suspect who she was, nor indeed would
any of her numerous friends and admirers believe the possibility of her ever having
been the victim she was :

" Dear Friend : — It is with feelings of deep shame and remorse that I sit down to
make this confession ; but in the hope that it may save others from the abyss into
which I have fallen, and also be the means of some little good to my own unworthy
self, I feel that I ought not to fail in doing so. You, I know, can both sympathize
with and excuse me — perhaps more so than I deserve ; and I will, therefore, unbur-
den my mind of a terrible weight which has lain heavily upon it for years.

I am now advanced in life, being fifty-one years of age, and the mother of two
children — one, alas ! a sufferer from his mother's folly while she was yet a child.

I was first taught the nature of sexual feelings, and how to excite them, by a
servant girl, when only eleven years of age ; and being naturally of a warm and ex-
citable temperament, the gratification was very great, and was frequently indulged
in. I had not the slightest idea, when first commencing this disgusting practice,
that it was wicked or hurtful, nor did I even suspect so till my health began to fail.
Fortunately, an old medical book fell in my way, which spoke upon these matters,
and that first opened my eyes to the sin of my conduct. Oh ! that such books as yours
had then been written, and that one had fallen in my way ; years of suffering and
mental anguish might have been spared me, and my dear child would not have been
a living memento of his mother's folly.

The symptoms which I first began to experience, when about fourteen or fifteen
years of age, and which increased as I advanced in life, were of the most distress-
ing character. Extreme languor and weakness, with a disinclination to either bodily
or mental exertion, accompanied by a miserable lowness of spirits that nothing alle-
viated, were my constant attendants. I hated myself —I could not enjoy life — and I
feared death. My head was always heavy and full, and my eyes often red as if with

ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES. 707

constant weeping, while my judgment became gradually weaker, and my memory
failed, till I could neither decide what to do in future, nor remember what I had
done. Fortunately, I was so circumstanced that others took care of me, or I know
not what I should have done.

My physicians attributed my sinking health to dyspepsia, to the change of life,
and various other causes, and prescribed medicines and change of air, but not one
seemed to suspect the real cause of the evil.

For years I struggled on in this way, striving against the demon of strong desire
with all the strength I had, but only to fall at last. Each act of gratification seemed
to become more urgent than the former, and also to prostrate me, both bodily and
mentally, still lower than before. At last I became utterly prostrated, and lay for
many weeks at the point of death, from mere weakness and exhaustion. Providen-
tially this was the means of my salvation. The bodily exhaustion seemed to weaken
my morbid excitability, and my fear that I really should die gave me new courage,
so that with returning strength I broke the shackles which had hitherto bound me,
and became free. From that time I never once debased myself with the degrading
practice again, and my health and appearance so improved, that my friends could
scarcely believe it was me they saw.

I, however, still suffered from a shattered nervous system, and though well, com-
pared with what I had been, felt that, more or less, the consequences of my fault
would follow me to the grave. At times I would be attacked with fits of melancholy
and extreme depression of spirits, without any apparent cause, and would become so
wretched that death would have been a relief. My old weakness of the limbs would
also come on occasionally, and my mind, I feel convinced had not its natural power.

At twenty-two years of age I was married, and lived happily with my husband
for twenty-one years, having during that time three children, of whom one died.
The youngest of those living, from his birth, exhibited the same unfortunate tend-
ency of the nervous system as his mother, and, with horror I confess it, was evi-
dently born with a disposition to the same evil habits. Oh ! the hours of watching
and intense mental agony I endured while rearing up that dear child, and oh ! the
bitter accusations my own heart brought up against me, for I could not doubt tW.
his moral infirmity was inherited from myself.

As soon as he could understand, I hesitated not to speak to him openly and can-
didly about it, and by gaining his confidence and love, was enabled to save him from
certain destruction, though not altogether from suffering.

For myself, I still suffer, though none suspect the cause, and I daily see, among
my dear young friends, many bright buds of promise withering away, as I did, and
no one dreaming why.

Wherever I can. I speak on this matter, in such cases ; but the ignorance of par-
ents is so great, it is not always possible to do so with advantage. I have the satis-
faction, however, of knowing that many have been saved by my efforts in this way,
and thus my own fall has perhaps been the means of keeping others in the right path.

Oh, with what delight I first heard your lectures, and read your books ! At last,
said I, a better day has dawned, and females will no longer be compelled to suffer
and die from mere ignorance. May you be spared to complete your work, and may
the satisfaction of feeling that you do good, ever attend you.

Most truly yours,

708 ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES.

This letter is but one out of a large number equally interesting and instructive,
but from the private nature of most of them, and also because the writers are still
living, I do not deem their publication to be proper.

The symptoms arising from solitary vice are well sketched in the above letter,
though they are often much more severe, and many are experienced which are not
there mentioned.

The hospital, the lunatic asylum, and the grave would tell fearful tales respect-
ing this habit, if their records were truly written.

The immediate effects of this vice are, great lassitude and depression of spirits.
This is followed, after a time, by other symptoms, many of which are never sus-
pected to arise from this cause. Most generally the memory soon begins to fail, and
the mind cannot be directed to one thing for any length of time, but wanders con-
tinually ; sometimes it even becomes unsettled altogether, and complete fatuity re-
sults. The senses are very apt to fail, particularly the eyes, which become affected
in various ways, from mere weakness to every degree of inflammation, and even blind-
ness. The hearing will often become affected, and the head will be subject to a dis-
tressing fullness, with dizziness, noises, and soreness all over. The individual be-
comes excessively nervous, full of apprehension, irritable, and wretched. He dislikes
society, from mere incapability of exertion, becomes at last melancholy, or mad, and
often terminates his existence by suicide. The different organs become more or less
deranged, and perform their functions imperfectly : this is particularly the case with
the digestive apparatus, the kidneys, and bladder. In males, the genital organs
themselves begin to fail ; they shrink away, the gratification becomes less, and finally
complete impotence and aversion follow.

All these symptoms are, it is true, seldom found in one person, but more or less
they characterize every case. Some persons will begin to experience them very soon,
while others will not for a long time. It is but rare, however, that any one who
practices abuse will miss them altogether.

I do not hesitate to say that a very large portion of the human race are guilty of
this excess, probably the great majority, and that a large portion of the evils and
suffering which afflict society are produced by it. Indeed, I believe that licentious-
ness, in one form or other, is the cause of nearly all the disease, both of body and
mind, which exists !

Solitary vice, however, is much more prevalent than any other form of licentious-
ness, and much worse in its effects. Dreadful as are the consequences of excess, in
the natural way, they are but trivial compared with those which follow from solitary
vice ; nor do I think they can, under any circumstances, equal them.

Most persons are aware that this practice prevails, and that it is injurious, but it
is only those who have long been familiar with it, as a subject of practice and study,
that can be aware of its great extent and fearful effects. The truth, in fact, can
Scarcely be believed by those not familiar with it. My own opportunities for acquir-
ing information have been very great, so as to make me acquainted with this terrible
evil in every particular, and I do not hesitate to say that it is the master evil of the
present day ! I am firmly convinced that it leads to more disease of body and mind,
more suffering and premature decay, than all other causes put together ! Here I
make no reservation, nor do I exaggerate, but, on the contrary, I feel convinced that
my statement is under rather than over the truth.

This vice is almost universal, the exceptions to it being very rare, particularly in

ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES. 709

the rising generation. I believe it may be safely asserted that ninety-nine out of
every hundred are addicted to it ! And such are the circumstances in which young
people are now placed, that, instead of its decreasing, it is every day becoming more
confirmed and extended.

I have reason to suppose that it is as general in the one sex as the other. If there
be any difference, it is possible that females practice it most ; but simply because
they less frequently have natural indulgence in their power.

It is often commenced in extreme youth — nay, even in childhood. I have known
instances of children not more than eight years of age, and even younger, being ad-
dicted to it. In most of these cases no such thing was suspected, and the poor
victims were fast hurrying to an untimely grave. Even when told, their guardians
could scarcely believe the statement, till their own observation convinced them it
was true. They were then extremely anxious to have the evil removed, which, for-
tunately, was in most cases accomplished. It is not merely an error of youth, how-
ever, but becomes a confirmed and growing habit, to which the individual is a victim
all his days. I have known middle-aged, and even old persons, who had never been
able to emancipate themselves from it.

"With regard to the commencement of this practice, some persons have supposed
that it must always be learned from another, or at least that some intimation must
be had of its nature before it is begun. This, however, I know is not always neces-
sary. From various causes, most of which we have stated in a former part of this
work, the genital organs become precociously developed, and highly sensitive. This
produces slight irritation and uneasiness, to relieve which the hand is directed to
them, the friction of which produces a neAv and pleasant sensation before unknown.
When once this has been experienced, the desire to create it again becomes irresisti-
ble, and with each new indulgence the habit strengthens and becomes more con-
firmed. In most cases the individual is completely ignorant of the nature of this
new indulgence, and knows nothing of its probable consequences. This knowledge,
if given in time, would often destroy the habit, but it is seldom given till too late to
be of service ; indeed, in most cases, the victim has to find it out by dear-bought
experience.

Nevertheless, this practice is most generally acquired from others, and for this
reason prevails in nearly all institutions where young persons are congregated ; nor
can this be prevented under present arrangements. Many conductors of these estab-
lishments are unacquainted with the existence of the evil ; others use every means
they can devise to prevent or suppress it, though often without success. From the
nature of the practice it cannot be prevented, when there is a disposition to it, unless
the offender is kept under constant surveillance !

In my public lectures I have always made this a special topic, speaking the truth
upon it without reserve, but in charity, and with a sincere desire to do good. This
has made me the confidant of hundreds, who would never have disclosed their fail-
ings to any one else, and has enabled me to gather more facts bearing on the subject
than, perhaps, ever came in the way of any one individual before. It is neither use-
ful nor just, however, to expose the weaknesses of human nature, more than is neces-
sary for their correction : I shall, therefore, only make use of the information I have
thus acquired in a general way, and for that purpose.

"When in New York City, a few years ago, I was accosted, after my lecture on
this subject, by an old gentleman, who desired to speak with me in private. "When

710 ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES.

we were alone, he said to me : " Doctor, you are the first person I ever heard speak
plainly on this evil practice, and as I am, unfortunately, aware, by sad experience,
of the truth of your assertions, I felt much interested in your discourse, and resolved,
if you thought fit, to communicate the details of a case with which I am but too
familiar." I thanked him for his confidence, and he gave me the following par-
ticulars :

He had a son, a fine, healthy, lively child, about eleven years old, whom he sent
to a celebrated academy for young gentlemen, in the suburbs of a neighboring city.
For the first six months he continued to receive the most flattering accounts of his
son's progress, and was highly pleased with him when he returned home at the vaca-
tion. In a short time after he was surprised and grieved to hear that his health was
failing, and that he was much more backward than formerly. Medical advice was
sought immediately, and the assurance was given that there was nothing serious the
matter, and that he would probably rally in a short time. The child kept on in this
manner for twelve months longer, gradually becoming worse, until at last he was
brought home. The father described his condition at this time as most distressing.
He was thin as a skeleton, weak in body and mind, and completely sunk in a deep
despondency, from which nothing seemed permanently to rouse him. At last he
took to his bed, and died before he was thirteen. One night, however, while he was
sick, the father was sitting up with him, and, being weary, leaned back in his chair,
with his eyes closed, as if asleep. While in this state, some motion of his son par-
tially roused him, and through his half-open eyes, he saw him in a situation which
left no doubt that he was practicing masturbation. The feelings of the father can
better be conceived than described. Being a man of information, he partly knew
the consequences of this vice, and immediately the idea rushed upon him that this
was the cause of his son's sickness, and he at once resolved to discover if his suspi-
cions were true. In the morning after, he began to talk with his child about his
school-fellows, asking him as to their practices in play, etc. ; and at last fixing his
eyes upon him, he asked him if any ever practiced this habit before him ? The child
burst into tears, and laid his head in his bosom. By a little gentle management he
led him to confess that he had been addicted to this vice ever since he went to
school, having been taught it by a playmate. Sometimes he practiced it three or
four times in a day. He also assured his father that there was not one he knew in
the school but what did the same, it being considered a meritorious thing, and one
which every boy should aim at. The poor fellow had become partly aware, himself,
that it was causing his misery, and wished he had not done it ; but it had become
so much a part of his nature, he could not refrain. The father felt as if a thunder-
bolt had broken upon him. Here was his only child stricken before his eyes, and
nobody suspecting the cause till it was too late. Said he to me — "I hope my sad
experience may enlighten some one else in time."

A short time after, while lecturing at the city where his son was sent, I was in-
troduced to the principal of the very school, whom he had already mentioned to me
by name. Finding him a man of intelligence, I commenced talking on the subject
of solitary vice, and observed that he appeared much interested. As confidence be-
came established, he at last confessed that the prevalence of this practice among hia
pupils was a constant annoyance to him.

"I know," said he, "that my establishment is only like others, for I do not think
there is one in which it does not prevail more or less ; but as I know how baneful it

ON SOLITARY VICES, AND OTHER ABUSES. 711

is, I am deeply concerned about it. I find it impossible to prevent it altogether, do
what I will. All our scholars sleep separate, and we keep a constant eye upon them,
but still I know the evil exists ; and by some accident or other, each new-comer be-
comes tainted with it. I am firmly convinced that there is no institution where
young people are brought together but in which the practice may be found, and I
have no faith in any means preventing it but such as you propose. "

Numerous indeed are the melancholy instances of this kind daily to be met with.
Many a youth, robust with health, and with every indication of the highest talents,
is sent by his parents to some seminary to complete his education, and returns after
a time debilitated in mind and body, and without either hope, energy, or capability.
They mourn over his ruin, but never dream of what caused it ; and even if told,
could not, in many cases, understand how it had been brought about. I have a case
of this kind in my mind now. It is that of a young man who had made the highest
attainments, and who gave promise of being one day among the first and greatest in
the land. His friends looked upon him with pride and confidence, and gloried in
the prospect of his future exaltation. But alas ! a blight came over their hopes ;
he began to fade, his mind became imbecile, and at last he sank far below the ordi-
nary standard, without even tbe desire to rise. He was pointed out to me by a relative,
who also told me that it was the practice of solitary vice, learnt at college, which had
made him the melancholy wreck he was.

On another occasion, an old man spoke to me after my lecture, and told me that
he had a son who had long been in a desperate condition, whose cause of complaint
he had never been able to ascertain. "But," said he, "from what you say of the
effects of this practice, I think that must be it ; I will, however, ascertain if possible
immediately." The next week I saw him again, and he told me that he had asked
the medical man, who had his son in charge, whether he thought such was the case,
and he immediately replied, "Yes! now you have asked me I can tell you. It is
that practice, and nothing else, which has brought your son to his present pitiable
condition. I did not like to mention it to you before, for fear you might be, like
many others, merely offended with me for speaking the truth ; but since you ask, I
presume you desire to know." The young man was then so weak he could scarcely
stand, and so much affected in his mind that a person was kept with him continually,
to prevent him committing suicide. 1 saw the father, a little time after, again, and
he told me, with tears in his eyes, that his son had died in the mean time. " Had it
not been for you," said he, " I should never have known what killed him. I have
now another child, much younger, who might have died in the same way ; but now
I know the evil, I trust I shall be able to prevent it."

Another case, somewhat similar, came under my notice of a little girl, who had
been taught the practice by a female servant with whom she slept. The mother for-
tunately discovered it before the evil was gone too far, and by a proper course of
moral and medical treatment it was soon suppressed altogether, and she perfectly
recovered.

In one instance I knew a boarding-school where fourteeu young females resided,
which had to be entirely broken up on account of this practice. One after another fell
sick, and all eventually were sent home ; previous to which, the principal ascertained,
from the confession of one among them, that for a length of time they had all been
addicted to this vice. Nine out of these fourteen died in less than five years after i

CHAPTER LVIII.

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP.

The very lowest beings have more in common with man than most people im-
agine. Not only have they the same bodily organs and functions, and the same
emotions ; but they have also the same mental powers, and moral impulses, though
of course infinitely less in degree. Even love itself, with all its toying and dalliance,
to say nothing of mere sensual pleasure — may be experienced by creatures so far
down in the scale as to be scarcely considered sentient.

The accounts given elsewhere of the snail and its amours, will prove this, but we
will also give some further illustrations, both for their interest, and also because they
will serve to broaden our views of life in general, and show that man has not a mo-
nopoly either of mind or of the finer feelings.

In regard to the snails, Agassiz remarks, that no one who has seen them, during
their amours, can have the least doubt that they allure and excite each other by ap-
propriate movements before the embrace ; and Mr. Lonsdale stated a fact to Mr. 0.
Darwin, which would show that they are even capable of some degree of permanent
attachment. He placed a pair of these animals, one of which was quite feeble, in a
small garden, not well provided with food for them. The strong one in a short time
climbed over the wall into a better provided garden on the other side, leaving his
sickly companion behind ; apparently it was deserted ; but strange to say, twenty-four
hours after, the truant returned, and the two then went over the wall together. It
would seem as if the strong one went to explore, and really returned with the news
of belter quarters to its weakly companion.

Among some of the cuttle-fishes a very singular mode of impregnation takes
place. The whole of the male element accumulates in one of the arms, or tentacles,
which is then cast off, and becomes an independent being, which attaches itself to
the female by its sucker, and lives so for a considerable time, till the impregnation
is fully effected, when it falls off and dies. This cast-off fragment is so much like a
real separate animal that Cuvier actually described it as a parasite, and named it the
hectocotyle. There are several instances known, however, in which the male organ
in hermaphrodites becomes a separate being by itself, living an independent life of
its own.

In many of the crustaceans, like crabs and lobsters, the male has certain of his
limbs peculiarly shaped, as hooks, or pincers with which he can hold the female
during the copulation. He also often carries her about with them for weeks together,
as if to fully secure her to himself. These singular organs appear to be used solely in
connection with the generative act, as no other use for them has been discovered.
It is probable, however, that they are often used to fight with, for the male crusta-
ceans, like those of the higher animals, will fight over their females.

712

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP. 713

As a rule, these singular parts are not fully developed till the male is full grown ;
while he is immature they resemble the corresponding parts in the females.

Mr. Bate tells us that he once took a male and female sand-hopper, such as we
find on the seashore, who were together, and separated them, putting the female
with a crowd of others in a vessel. Some time after, he put the male in the same
vessel, and he at once dashed in among them, selected out his own partner, and took
her away ; this showed memory, recognition, and attachment, even in this humble
being.

Indeed the mental power shown by some of the crustaceans is quite marked. Mr.
Gardner tells us of a burrowing crab which be once watched, and down whose hole
he had rolled a shell. The crab not only brought out the shell and carried it to a
safe distance, but seeing two others so near his hole that there was danger they also
would fall in, he carefully removed them also. Now this showed both appreciation
of danger, and reason enough to take precautionary measures against it.

Canestrini assures us that the female spider will often choose one out of a num-
ber of males, that have been fighting for her favors, and drive the rest away. In
doing so she probably discerns some points of perfection in the chosen one, which
make him more pleasing to her. It is often, however, a very perilous thing to be
the favorite, for not unfrequently the lady makes a meal of her paramour.

As a rule, male spiders are remarkably small, and to this they no doubt often owe
their safety. Compared with the females, they frequently resemble small parasites
rather than animals of the same kind, and literally can hide themselves about her
limbs and body. In fact, nature appears to have reduced them to little more than
moving male organs, intended solely to serve the purpose of impregnation. They
seem to be fully aware of the danger they run in making amorous advances, but, as
in most other beings, the sexual impulse is too strong to be resisted. Still they dis-
play great caution, skill, and agility in their approaches, and know when to seize the
most favorable moment.

Some others of the same order of beings have suckers with which they hold the
female during the act of coition ; and in some insects the females are so provided,
and hold the males.

In short these contrivances for enabling the sexes to be conjoined, in the act of
copulation, are very varied, and often remarkably curious. Sometimes the jaws are •
modified to serve this purpose, and at other times some of the limbs ; thus the males
of some insects resembling dragon flies have immense jaws, smooth and toothless,
with which they hold the female without hurting her. In some wasps also there is
the same peculiarity, while the females use the same parts to burrow in the ground
with, to make their nests.

The females of some water-beetles have their wing cases deeply grooved, or cov-
ered with hairs, or sometimes with holes in them, to give the males better hold ; the
males themselves being provided with parts adapted for using these aids.

It is common with insects for the male to be smaller than the female, and some-
times remarkably so, as in the case of the spider. The cocoon of the male silk-
worm is so much smaller than that of the female that they can be separated by weigh-
ing ; and a similar disparity is found in other cocoons. Still there are exceptions
to this rule, especially among the beetles and dragon flies, and in those males who
have to carry the female in the air, during the copulative act, as some do.

It would be a great mistake to suppose that only the larger, more perfect, or

714 INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP.

handsomest among the lower beings show signs of sentiment in their loves. Sir J.
Lubbock tells us that the males of certain little, ugly, misshapen, dull-colored insects
pay the most assiduous court to females, coquetting with them in the most amusing
manner ; running round them, and butting heads with them, playfully. The female,
for her part, pretends to run away, and the male runs after her, gets in front, and
faces her ; while she, as if bashful, turns away, and he faces her again. Then they
whip one another with their antenna?, and toy together in all kinds of amusing ways.
Evidently they enjoy this, and it seems certain that the enjoyment is the same as
that which is experienced by the males and females of beings higher in the scale.

It is supposed that the peculiar note of the male of some insects, as the locust for
instance, is uttered for the purpose of attracting the females, and indeed they have
been seen to flock around a male while thus singing. This is particularly noticeable
in the seventeen-year locust, the male of which only drums, and evidently for the pur-
pose of calling the females to him, and probably exciting them. They may also be
frequently seen to select, or choose, one particular female out of the number so called.

The male cricket will also place himself at the entrance to the burrow in which
is the female, and sing in a peculiar manner till she appears, when he caresses her
with his antennae, and in other ways shows his admiration.

M. Fabre, in describing the cerceris, a wasp-like insect, tells us that he has fre-
quently seen the males fighting for the possession of some particular female, she all
the while looking on, and when the fight was over flying away with the conqueror — all
which is very human like. The same insects recognize each other, even when they
have been long separated, and show real attachment. Huber tells us that ants which
had been separated for four months, recognized, and caressed each other when they
met, though mixed with strangers.

The ticking noise of the common death-watch is made by the female to call thin
male, and the males may often be called to a particular spot by imitating the noise ,
It is probable that they are thus often attracted by the ticking of a watch.

Butterflies are very demonstrative in their amours. The males will fight fiercely
for possession of the females, and often mutilate each other's wings in their combats.
The females will also coquet with their admirers, refusing some and encouraging
others. A pair will often spend an hour or more in dalliance before copulation.

During the marriage flight, the males of some kinds support the females, but in
others the females support the males. This is owing to difference in structure.

Several kinds of fishes, especially sharks and rays, which copulate, are provided
with claspers to hold the female; and an old fisherman, who had often watched them,
assured me that the act is often prolonged for half an hour or more, in sharks.

The capelin does not copulate, but the males assist the female in a very curious
way in laying the spawn. They are provided with a ridge of close-set scales, like a
stiff brush, and one of them will get on each side, so as to support her, and then both
together run her swiftly over the sandy beach, where the spawn is deposited. The
brash-like scales enable them to hold her, and to keep her up, she being heavier than
the males on account of the spawn.

This assistance to the females in laying the eggs is paralleled by other beings, as
by some frogs for instance, as explained elsewhere. It is quite probable also that the
action may cause the male to emit the sperm at the same time, and thus insure fertili-
zation of the ovae.

The males of many fishes fight for the females, and some of them pair in single

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP. 715

couples. The male stickleback also makes the nest, in which the female lays her
eggs, and conducts her to it with most undoubted indications of pride in his work,
and admiration and love for his partner. The combats between the male sticklebacks
over the females are most furious, and often result in serious injury.

The male salmon is even worse in this respect than the stickleback, and numbers
of them are killed every season while fighting over the females. The conquerors
always drive away the defeated ones, and guard the wives they have fought for with
the greatest jealousy.

M. Carbonier gives some curious details as to the courtship of a Chinese fish, the
macropus, which he kept in confinement for the purpose of studying them.

The males are most brilliantly colored, and seem to take great pleasure in dis-
playing themselves before the females ; while these, as if to show their appreciation,
swim slowly around, and evidently derive pleasure from contemplating them.

It is not all mere play, however, for the males contend with each other fiercely
for the possession of the females, and each seeks to obtain one for himself. "When he
has succeeded, he waits upon his bride when she emits the eggs, and cares for them
in a very curious manner. He blows air from his mouth into the water, so as to
make a little disk of froth, which floats on the surface. In this raft of froth he de-
posits the eggs, taking care to keep it always in good order, and watching it till the
young are fairly hatched.

The males of some other fishes retain the eggs in their mouths till they develop
into young.

In these instances, as in some others which have been mentioned, the male plays
the principal part in the actual hatching of the eggs, and caring for them. He
in fact does much that usually falls to the female's share in the higher animals.

It is worthy of especial note, that though the eggs of the female fish can be im ■
pregnated artificially, without any association whatever with the male, as in our fish-
breeding establishments, still, naturally, the two sexes do seek each other at the timu
of spawning, and seem to delight in the association. It appears from observation
that, as a rule, the female never deposits her eggs, if she can avoid it, except in pres •
ence of the male, and he, on his part, never fertilizes them except in her presence.

This proves that all animals, during the pairing time, even cold-blooded fishes,
are amatively excited, the two sexes evidently seeking each other's company, and
deriving pleasure from the association.

The males use force, artifice, and allurements of various kinds to obtain female
partners, and these, on their part, exhibit caprice, choice, or dislike, and coquet just
like human beings themselves. In short, it is love and courtship in the lowest beings
as in the highest. Even where there is no actual union of the two sexes — no bodily
contact of any kind — there is evidently some form of pleasure in the mere act of
bringing the sperm and germ together, as in the case of the fishes last mentioned.
With them there is evidently a gratification in each other's presence, or close prox-
imity merely, at the time when impregnation occurs.

Some of the male sticklebacks are also excellent nurses of the young, taking the
fondest care of them till able to fully shift for themselves. They will gently take
them back to the nest when they stray too far, and constantly guard it against all
enemies. The female, on the contrary, would destroy her own young if the male
did not drive her away. In this instance, therefore, as in many others that have
been noticed, the two sexes seem to change characters and duties.

716 INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP.

Some of the pipe-fishes and sea-horses possess pockets, or sacs, in which the
eggs are hatched, similar to the pouches of marsupial animals. But, strange to say,
in some species the female has the pouch, and hatches the eggs, while in others it is
the male. So curiously do the different offices, in the process of reproduction, change
places between the two sexes.

Keptiles would seem, to most people, still more unlikely to give any exhibition
of love-making ; nevertheless they often do so, and sometimes very remarkably.
Some of them also have parts of their structure curiously modified, to enable them
to hold the female, and these modifications may be temporary, occurring only in the
pairing season. Thus, in the common newt {Triton palmipes), the hind feet are
usually webbed, so that he swims well, but in the pairing season tbe web disappears,
leaving the claws free, which enables him to hold the female more securely in the
act of cohabiting. He is very eager in his pursuit of his partner, and makes a great
display of himself before her, by vibrating his broad tail, and elevating the crest on
his back. This crest also, it is worthy of remark, is only developed during the pair-
ing season.

The male crocodiles also, like their small brethren the newts, make a great dis-
play of themselves before their female partners, by fighting together fiercely, and
by splashing and pirouetting around them in the water ; at the same time emitting
a powerful musky odor.

Indeed most animals, at such times, emit a peculiar odor, which probably attracts
the other sex, and may thus enable them to find each other. It may also cause
excitement.

The male lizards are very pugnacious, and fight fiercely for the females during
the pairing season. Very frequently one will lose his tail in the combat, and when
this happens the victor always swallows it.

Birds are very gallant, and practice many curious habits in their amours. Some
of these exhibit both intellect and taste in a remarkable degree. The tower iird for
instance, makes a real bower, often of considerable size, and ornaments it with all
the bright and curious objects it can find. It is not a nest, nor a dwelling-place,
but simply a play-place, where the birds resort at certain times, especially in the
pairing season, for the purpose of amusement and amative enjoyment. The neat-
ness, taste, and real beauty of some of these love-bowers is really surprising.

Other birds even plant gardens before their places of assemblage, and keep them
always full of flowers. They begin by carefully removing every weed, stick, and
stone, so as to have a perfectly smooth bed, which they carpet with moss, and then
bring flowers and arrange them with great taste. As fast as they wither new ones
are brought, so that the garden is always bright and fresh. This also is prompted
by gallantry, and by the desire to have their love-making, in every way, as pleasing

Some birds sing only at the pairing season, and others assume their most brill-
iant colors at that time, the object apparently being to attract their partners, and
to cause mutual admiration.

No animals fight more fiercely for the favors of the females than do birds of all
kinds, and sometimes they have special weapons for the purpose.

The males of the beautiful and tiny humming-birds even will fight, in the love-
season, with the most reckless ferocity. Not unfrequently indeed death ensues from
their combats. The same thing occurs with many other birds, and often the excite-

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP. 717

ment of battle so carries them away that they can be readily captured by their ene-
mies. Usually in such encounters, tbe female looks placidly on, and goes off with
the victor. This, however, is not always the case, for sometimes she will watch the
fight between two of her admirers, and when they are both exhausted, or one dead
even, she will quietly take herself off with some new-comer, who has not fought at
all.

The males of some birds, as the polygamous ruff, for instance, are so remarkably
pugnacious, especially in the spring, that whole companies of them will fight to-
gether in the fiercest manner, so as often to kill one another. These fields of bat-
tle are always at the places where the females are about to lay their eggs ; and the
ground will often be so trampled during the fight that the fowlers easily find it, and
as the birds come day after day to fight at the same place, they are easily caught.

Some birds, however, it is said, never fight. Audubon particularly mentions one
of our woodpeckers (Picus Auratus), the males of which never fight, though sev-
eral of them may be courting a female at the same time. These peaceable wooers
are, however, very exceptional, for as a rule the males always fight, and especially in
pairing time.

The capercailzie, and the Hack cock, like the ruff, fight in companies, assembling
daily for the purpose, for weeks together. The black cock also practices a peculiar
love-dance, and sings a peculiar love-song, which the Germans call ialz, in pairing
time. In fact, the bird seems crazy from amative excitement. He utters the
strangest noises, and indulges in the most curious antics, jumping about, often in
circles, spreading and flapping his wings, stretching out his neck, and rubbing his
head along the ground. So absorbed does he become in these capers that he seems
both blind and deaf, and may be shot readily, or even caught by the hand.

After these curious dances are over, the combat begins, and often rages furiously
for several hours ; very often the same dancing-places are visited year after year, and
a very victorious male will frequently make a kind of triumphant tour from one to
another, in a single day, fighting at each.

Grouse also fight in companies, in the same way, but only in the breeding

Audubon tells us that the female of the Virginia goat-sucker holds a kind of
court, where she calls around her a number of male admirers, and from among them
makes her choice ; the favored one then fights the others and drives them away.
Contrary to the usual course, in this case, the pairing comes first, and the combat
afterwards.

Some good observers, however, assure us that the male birds often make sham
fights only, just to display themselves before the female, so that she may the better
choose among them. Audubon indeed says, that after one of these make-believe
combats, both victors and vanquished will go off together to seek the female, and if
she does not at once make a choice, the fictitious struggle recommences. The male
field-starlings will often fight fiercely in flocks, but if the female appears they cease
fighting at once, and all rush after her as if they were crazy.

The male birds of many species have a peculiar song, or call, during the breed-
ing season, by which they attract, and appear to charm the female. And what is
very remarkable, certain parts either grow, or change in form, at that season, to
enable them to make these songs or calls.

The male turkey scrapes his wings on the ground, the peacock rattles his wings,

718 INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP.

and the male grouse drums, to call or please the female ; that this is so is proved by
the fact that after one has made this drumming noise the females near will all fly
to him.

Our common grouse, it is well known to hunters and naturalists, perform a very
curious love-dance, during the pairing season. They will assemble in large num-
bers on some level place, and then run round and round, in a regular circle, some to
the right and some to the left, till they wear the ground quite bare. During the
dance, they indulge in the most comical antics, and the most extravagant gestures.
Hunters call them partridge dances.

The solemn long-legged heron even makes himself equally ridiculous by his ab-
surd capers, while courting ; and of all birds the disgusting carrion vulture makes
himself as ludicrous as any of his fellows, at such a time.

That the female bird makes a choice from among her admirers is beyond doubt,
and probably this is usually determined by some real or fancied superiority in their
singing, or greater splendor in their plumage ; but sometimes it is merely the con-
queror in battle that wins her affections. Very frequently, as stated before, the
males meet and fight, or practice their peculiar dances, for many days, or even
weeks, before the actual pairing takes place. Thus our partridge dances often last
over a month, and so with snipes, who frequent the same ground often for many
years in succession.

Mr. Darwin shows admirably how this process of selection operates to effect im-
provement, or change, in many ways. Thus the best fighters and singers, and the
handsomest in plumage, being constantly preferred, will in consequence propagate
more than the less favored ones, and, by the law of heredity, transmit their superior
i Qualities to their offspring.

It does not appear that the males show any particular preference in regard to the
females, except in some few instances, but take them as they find them.

Some birds in Australia make regular hillocks on which to fight, and others
i (cratch large hollows for the same purpose.

Either from disparity of numbers in the two sexes, or from mere caprice, there
are frequently unpaired birds, both male and female, and these, though coming to-
gether, do not always mate, which would seem to show that one, or both, are diffi-
cult to please.

Although, when paired, the two birds usually remain together during the whole
breeding season, yet it is not always so. A very close observer assures me he has
frequently seen a quarrel, apparently about the nest, followed by a separation, the
male going off, and the female finding a new mate. As a rule, when the male is
killed, the female soon obtains another, or even several in succession. In one case,
when the males were shot, the widow got three new ones the same day.

Sometimes if the female be killed, after the eggs are laid, the male will find $
new partner, and they will rear the brood between them.

Although the usual habit is for birds to pair, still we sometimes find two, or eveffl
three females to one male, and one nest ; and still more rarely, two or more males to
one female.

In polygamous birds, as the common fowl for instance, it is the best fighter who
monopolizes several females for his own use, and drives the other males away.

In connection with their young also, birds show more of real human feeling ot
sympathy, and more intelligence too, than they commonly get credit for. Darwiu

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP. 71$

mentions a case where a game-keeper killed all the young hawks in a nest, except
one, whose wings he clipped. This he did so that the old hirds might still come to
the nest and be shot. They were shot, and then two others came to feed the poor
solitary orphan, and they too were shot ; but still others came, till three pairs had
been thus killed, one after the other. Should not the bird's nature have full credit
for this ?

With many kinds of birds, when paired, if one dies the other always pines away,
refusing to be consoled. And a bird fancier assures me that when two birds have
long been kept together, if one be taken away the other often refuses to eat, and dies.
That those who have long been together can recognize each other, when again put
together, after a long separation, is well known, and they often show unmistakable
delight at the reunion. Their memories are undoubtedly good, for pigeons will
return to their old homes even after they have been kept away from them many
months.

Birds are not only kind to young ones, to others as well as to their own, but often
to each other. Thus blind birds have been fed and protected by their fellows ; and
when crippled have been carefully tended till well.

There are, therefore, more of the elements of humanity in the bird than is
usually supposed, both sympathetic and intellectual. Even caprice, jealousy, and
coquetry are plainly shown by them, and also sudden attachment, or love at first
sight. Thus Darwin gives an instance where a wild duck, reared in captivity, left
her mate, of her own kind, instantly, when a male pintail was put in the water with
her. Something in the new-comer took her fancy at once, and she divorced herself
without scruple from her legitimate spouse, in order to enjoy his society, though he
Reemed at first both shy and afraid of her.

On the contrary, some females cannot be made to accept certain males by any
means whatever. They may be confined with them, and kept away from all others,
but to no purpose ; — that particular one they will not have. Some male birds, how-
ever, like certain men, appear attractive to all the females they meet with, and are
invariably preferred before all their fellows. Breeders call them gay birds, and they
often are obliged to confine them when their particular breed is not wanted.

Many instances are recorded where females have deserted males who had lost
their gay feathers, and taken others who still retained them. Albinos, it is stated,
are never chosen by their own kind for partners, but this may be only from their
strangeness.

It is not always the male that courts the female, though usually so ; but in some
instances the female courts the male. This is the case with the pea fowl ; and accord-
ing to Audubon, with the older wild turkeys. The female capercailzies also ma-
neuver round the male while he is dancing, and evidently try to attract him. The
females will also fight over the males, with some kinds, reversing the usual practice.

Some female birds are also much larger and fiercer than the males, and when
this is the case, it is the male that sits on the nest and hatches out the young, while
the female feeds him, and fights, if necessary, for the protection of her partner and
progeny. This is the case with the Australian emu, but, strange to say, the female
here has also an irresistible tendency to destroy her young, and the male, who has
battled and cared for them, has to defend them against the mother the best way he
can. This rage seems to last even for some time after nesting, so that if the two
come together they almost always fight, and the female is usually the victor. This

720 INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP.

seems singular love-making and parentage, but is probably as pleasing to them as
other modes are to other birds. To show the singular contrasts nature presents us
with, in regard to these matters, the male ostrich is much larger aud more powerful
than the female, and yet he also takes the whole care of the eggs and young, equally
with the small gentle emu.

Among the mammalia, till we ascend to civilized man, the male almost always
wins the female by the law of battle, or by simple violence. The very weakest and
most timid, when excited by the erotic fever, will combat for female favors. Even
two male hares have been known, when so stimulated, to fight till one was killed.
Moles, squirrels, beavers, and sheep are equally pugnacious and daring at such times.

In fact, fighting is the rule, and many animals are provided with special weapons,
such as horns and tusks of various kinds, which seem to be used only or chiefly in
these sexual struggles. The victor drives away his rivals, or kills them, and enjoys
his bride or harem alone. It is seldom that the males, in the season of heat, will
tolerate each other's company at all ; and yet instances have been known of two or
more, acting in concert against a common rival too powerful for either to master
alone.

A gentleman residing at the Eaulkland Islands, imported an English stallion, with
some brood mares ; there were also two droves of wild mares on the Island, each
with their wild stallion, and these in turn attacked the English horse, and tried to
get his mares away from him, but failed. They were then seen to come together,
and while the one fought with him the other endeavored to make off with the cove-
ted females. They were however all captured together, by running them into a cor-
ral, the wild stallions refusing to leave the mares.

The bony horn of the narwhal, and the prodigious tusks of the elephant, are both
used in fighting for possession of the females. Even the male ornithorhynchus has a
kind of spur on his fore leg, with which he apparently fights, and which is pro-
vided with a bag of fluid, like that at the root of a snake's poison fang ; but it is quite
harmless. This spur, however, serves another purpose in all probability, for there is
a hollow in the corresponding part of the female's leg, in which the spur fits, and
most likely this enables him to hold her better during copulation.

It is singular that the stag, if castrated, never renews his horns, showing the
connection they have with his sexuality. With the male reindeer, however, it is
not so, for he may be castrated and still renew his horns as before. Eunuchs, it is
well known seldom have beards. Earns when castrated do not always lose their
horns entirely, but even when they retain them they become smaller.

Captain Bryant, gives us some very interesting details in regard to the wooing of
seals, who are naturally very intelligent. Their tendency appears to be polygamous,
each male keeping as many females to himself as he possibly can. The Captain says :
"Many of the females, on their arrival at the island where they breed, appear to be
desirous of returning to some particular male, and frequently climb the outlying
rocks to overlook the rookeries ; calling out and listening, as if for a familiar voice ;

then changing to another place they do the same again As soon as a female

reaches the shore, the nearest male goes down to meet her, making a noise mean-
while like the clucking of a hen to her chickens. He bows to her, and coaxes her,
till he gets between her and the water, so that she cannot escape him. Then his
manner changes, and with a harsh growl he drives her to a place in his harem, and
this continues till the lower row of harems is nearly full. Then the males higher up

INTERESTING FACTS RELATING TO PAIRING AND COURTSHIP. 721

select the time when their more fortunate neighbors are off their guard to steal their
wives. This they do by taking them in their mouths and lifting them over the
heads of the other females, and carefully placing them in their own harem, carrying
them as cats do their kittens. Those still higher up pursue the same method, until
the whole space is occupied. Frequently a struggle ensues between two males for the
possession of the same female, and both seizing her at once pull her in two, or terri-
bly lacerate her with their teeth. When the space is all filled, the old male walks
complacently around reviewing his family, scolding those who disturb or crowd the
others ; and fiercely driving off all intruders."

The male of the common fowl, it is well known will commonly run down and
capture the hen by main force ; but he will also use stratagem, when it suits his
purpose better. He will pretend to find something to eat, and call the females round
him to have it, but when they have all come he changes his note, and at once seizes
one without further ceremony. A young cock, who is obliged to keep away from
the flock for fear of the old ones, will often adopt this stratagem.

The power of the amative mania in dogs is well known; while under its influence
they have no regard for anything but the object of their pursuit, and will endure
anything rather than abandon it. Still, Mr. Mayhew assures us, the females will
often make a decided choice from among a crowd of suitors ; evidently showing a
preference for some particular dog. The females of small breeds, he says, almost
always choosing a large male. Breeders also notice that sometimes particular ani-
mals always pair together, and will not do so with others. Mr. Cupples even gives
an instance where a female, who had been separated from her favorite male, would
never after associate with another, although in condition. Whether the male showed
equal constancy is not stated ; but most probably not. Instances have been known,
however, of male dogs refusing to associate with strange females, when kept apart
from those they had been accustomed to. Stallions and mares, bulls and cows, and
even boars and sows, have been known to show a marked individual preference, and
to exhibit much constancy in their attachments.

One strange peculiarity about the sea seal, may here be mentioned. During the
breeding season the nose becomes lengthened, sometimes to a foot or more, and is
capable of being erected like a trunk. What purpose this serves is unknown, but as
it occurs at that season, it is doubtless in some way or other connected with pairing.
It would be interesting to know if this would occur in males that had been castrated ;
the probability is it would not ; for the males of several animals that have scent bags,
as the musk-deer for instance, fail to develop them when they are castrated, and
castrated deer, as before stated, develop no antlers.
46

CHAPTEE LIX.

MARRIAGE, AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN, AMONG DIFFERENT PEOPLE, AND AT
DIFFERENT PERIODS.

The laws and customs which regulate the relations of the sexes to each other
rary very much, among different people, and in different parts of the world. Like
all other laws and customs, they also change, though often very slowly, in every so-
ciety from age to age.

From want of authentic records of very early times, we do not know what laws
and customs then existed, nor can we judge of this by comparison with what we
see among primitive people at the present day, for we have no means of deciding how
far they may correspond.

There is, however, good reason for supposing that in the very earliest associations
of human beings, when they were first emerging from the lower type, the relations
of the sexes were but little different from what we see among gregarious animals
generally. Probably at a later period, in the earliest organized societies, all the mem-
bers of that society mated together freely, or from inclination merely. This is what
is called communal marriage, all the men and women being husbands and wives to
each other. Indeed this manner of association is even now practiced in certain parts
of the world, according to some travelers.

The first breaking up of this custom would probably arise from the dawning of
taste, or a feeling of admiration for some particular form of body, or face ! No
matter how rude and uncultivated this may have been, according to our notions, it
was quite sufficient to cause a social revolution. Immediately any females began to
bethought superior to the others, in anyway, they at once became special objects
of desire, and would promptly be taken possession of by those males superior to
the others in strength, the inferior females being left to the inferior males. The
woman would then become a real possession — would belong to her master — like his
horse, or other animal, and would be forbidden to associate with any other man. And
just as large flocks and herds were desired, so would a large number of wives be
coveted, and each man, according to his power, would seize all that he could. Thus
arose polygamy, probably the first form of marriage.

So long as the number of the sexes were about equal, and no notion had arisen
that one female was more desirable than another, there could be no motive for exclu-
sive association, either with one or more. But immediately one became more desirable
than another, then all was changed, and the desired one, if obtained, became private
prope ty.

Selfishness and the wish to outshine others in the amount of their possessions,
would operate with many even stronger than mere sexual desire, so that they would

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN 723

procure more wives and concubines than they could ever possibly enjoy. This we
see in the case of David, and others of the Jewish patriarchs ; and at the present day
with many African potentates. Whenever might habitually makes right, women,
like other possessions, will always be unduly appropriated by the most powerful.

One immediate result of the desire for private possession of women would be, in
all barbarous communities, the utter abandonment of all pretense of seeking, from
motives of mutual liking or attachment. The female would be at once taken posses-
sion of, without any reference whatever to her wish or preference. Superior strength,
cunning, or wealth, would then alone determine to whom she should belong.

So long as communal marriage was the rule, or promiscuous association, all pairing
would result from some preference, or choice, and so far all alike, men and women,
would be free and equal ; but immediately the custom became established for each
man to have only his own wife, if the community were rude and barbarous, the woman
became a possession — a slave. So far, then, she gained nothing by the change, but,
on the contrary, lost immensely. It was, however, a necessary step in the progress
which will lead, eventually, to a far better condition than any in which she has yet
been placed.

No matter how obtained, by purchase, force, or stratagem, a woman, as a wife,
has always been considered, in barbarous or savage societies, as a mere possession, like
an animal. Nor is this idea entirely obliterated even at the present clay in the most
civilized communities. It crops out in many of our laws, customs, and ways of think-
ing and speaking. The term, my wife, is still used by many with the same intent
and meaning as my dog, or my horse. In some of the most backward villages of
England the notion is still held, by the common people, that a man can sell his wife
at public auction, and such sales actually take place occasionally, the parties believing
them to be legal. The usual process is for the man to lead the woman to some pub-
lic place, tie a halter round her neck, and then ask for bids. The highest bidder
pays his bid, removes the halter, and takes the woman. This is probably a tradition-
ary remembrance of what used to occur in old times. It is quite common even here
for a man to remark of his wife — " she belongs to me " — evidently with a sense of
proprietary right ; nay, it is not unfrequent for a man to claim a woman as his, who
may not want him, and we often see instances of such men killing women for refusing
them and preferring others. We are still far from admitting, at least in practice,
that women have the same rights, in regard to marriage, as men, and should be
placed, in all respects, upon an equality with them.

Polygamy appears to have prevailed, more or less, with all people, at some period
of history ; and it is natural it should do so, not only for the reasons already given,
but for others equally cogent.

During the wars which always prevail among uncivilized people, the male cap-
tives, on prudential grounds, as well as to gratify revenge, would always be slain, but
the women would be spared, and be taken as wives and concubines. The Jewish
Chronicles of the Bible show how universal was this custom, and how it was sanc-
tioned both by custom and by religion. God himself is represented as directing the
Israelites to slay all the men, but to keep all the maidens for themselves.

Slavery also contributes very much to polygamy, the prepossessing female slaves
being naturally taken for wives and concubines.

A natural result of polygamy is prostitution, because when a large portion of the
women are monopolized by a few men, the remaining women must suffice for the

724 MARRIAGE AND TEE POSITION OF WOMEN.

larger number of men. The same result must always follow when, from any cause,
a considerable portion of the young people in society are unable to marry. The sexes
will associate, and all the restraints of prudence, fear of consequences, or moral prin-
ciple, amount practically to very little when they are kept unduly separated. Such
restraints operate excellently on particular individuals, but they make small impres-
sion on the masses of society.

As communities become settled, with established laws, and some notions of equality
arise, polygamy naturally declines, and the number of wives held by one man neces-
sarily becomes less. This is seen in Turkey, where, at the present day, the number
of wives is usually but two, and seldom over four, except with the Sultan himself.
And though the wives may be purchased now, as they were in old times, still they are'
not now sold again, as they used to be, but are kept as wives, and treated with con-
sideration. In fact, in Turkey we now see polygamy gradually dying out, and being
superseded by monogamy. There is no doubt that the institution as now existing
there, though repugnant to our ideas and customs, is nevertheless shorn of many of
its objectionable features, and is every day ameliorating more and more.

Lady Duff Gordon relates an anecdote which well shows this. A gay Englishman
was boasting of his numerous conquests among the fair sex, and rallying a sedate Turk
who was present on his polygamy. The Turk replied, " It is true, I have, known
four women during my life. One of them is dead, and mourned ; and the other
three are living, honored and respected, in my house, and will do so till they die.
Now, where are all yours ? "

Notwithstanding all we hear about the terrible Turks, I believe it will be found,
on unprejudiced observation, that polygamy has always been less objectionable with
them, in practice, than with any other people. And their treatment of women, on the
whole, will compare favorably with that of any other people on the same plane of
development. Certainly they show themselves superior in this respect, in many
ways, to the Hebrews, and other ancient and modern peoples, from whom, in fact,
they took their polygamous practices ; the Turks not being noted for polygamy till
after their contact with Christian nations.

!Ry the Hebrew law, polygamy is not at all condemned, but, on the contrary,. fully
sanctioned ; as also is the keeping of concubines. And though Jews always conform,
in regard to marriage, to the customs of the countries in which they live, yet so far
as their religion is concerned, they may be polygamists. Indeed, many contend that
it is the same with Christians, so curiously are the customs of remote ages perpetu-
ated, historically, though long abrogated in practice.

Most savage people are polygamous, at least the great men among them, and con-
sider single marriage highly disreputable. Thus, when the Pandyan king was told
that among Europeans every man had but one wife, and lived with her till death,
he was perfectly shocked. " Why," said he, "how indecent — just like wanderoo mon-
keys ! "

Nevertheless there are some savages who always live in single marriage. This is
the case with the Veddahs, in Ceylon, who, according to Sir John Lubbock, have a
saying that death alone can part husband and wife.

Probably the main causes which would determine the practices of men, in regard
to marriage, would be the scarcity or abundance of food and women. When the
means of living were easily obtained, the maintenance of a numerous household
would be no burden, and a man would take as many wives as he could get ; but when,

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 725

on the contrary, those means were hard to get, he would lessen the number, and fre-
quently would, from necessity, have to be content with one.

As before remarked, when from frequent wars between different tribes, many of
the men were killed, there would be an excess of women ; and as many would be left
over after all had one each, the rich and powerful would take one or more extra, and
thus would arise polygamy.

Among the peaceable tribes, when the sexes were in nearly equal numbers all the
time, single pairing, or monogamy, would be the rule.

When a rude people happened to be so situated that the means of living were pre*
carious and scant, they would promptly get rid of all useless or superfluous mouths,
by killing off the old and sick, as many savages do now. Female children would also
be killed, as being comparatively useless and burdensome when grown up. Indeed,
female infanticide is now practided, to a considerable extent, in many countries not
at all barbarous. Such a practice, however, always arises from deficient subsistence,
and never prevails where food is abundant and easily obtained.

In such a society, the number of males would soon be much greater than that of
the females, and so far from one man having many wives, it would not be possible
for every man to have even one. This would soon originate the opposite of polyg-
amy, or polyandria ! By this is meant the institution of one woman having many
husbands ; or perhaps, more properly speaking, of one woman being wife to many
men. This arrangement prevails even at the present day, especially in certain parts
of Thibet. A recent traveler has lately given, in Blachwood's Magazine, a very
interesting account of the practical working of polyandria, as he there saw it. "We
are so much in the habit of thinking that nothing can possibly work well which is
opposed to our own customs, that it will surprise many to learn that the system,
so far as can be judged, is practically free from objection.

The most usual arrangement is for a whole family of brothers to have but one
wife amongst them. Each man is a husband to her, and the children have all of
them as fathers in common. The traveler assures us that the domestic harmony,
and mutual affection all round, would compare very favorably with anything of the
kind to be found in our own society. And there is this to be said about it, that
there is far less danger of the children being left fatherless, or the wife a lonely
widow, than in a single marriage. It is quite possible, indeed, that there would be
much less jealousy and selfishness displayed than when the woman was the private
possession of one man alone. It is also quite unlikely that they would all unite in
ill-treating her ; some of them would be sure to take her part, and protect her in
•case of need. The general household would also be better provided, with so many
males working for it instead of one, and there would be much less danger of want.
If one should fall sick, or be disabled, there would still be the others to depend upon ;
and, in short, a family would always be in less danger every way, that had so many
supporters and defenders. Among the Todas, a girl can accept or refuse any man
she pleases ; and Azara tells us that the Guana women, before marrying one or more
husbands, bargain for all kinds of favors and privileges.

The same traveler also assures us that he saw no reason to suppose that the
women suffered either injury or sense of degradation in any way, and on the whole,
were remarkably well treated and content, considering the rudeness of society generally.

Among the hill-tribes of India, polyandria also exists, modified more or less, but
always, it would seem, as a consequence of scarcity of food, the female children.

726 MAEBIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

as being most useless, being largely made away with. In one village in Eastern
India, Col. McCulloch could not find a single female cbild ; all were killed from
scarcity of food.

A curious variety of polyandria prevails in some parts of Africa, as we learn from
recent travelers there. A woman when she marries may ally herself to her husband
for only a portion of the time, instead of for always, and the rest of the time she is
free to go with any other man she chooses. The proportion of time she thus keeps
to herself depends mainly upon the dower she brings. If she be poor, her friends
can obtain perhaps only one day in the week for her, but if she be rich they will
claim two, three, or four days, during which her husband has no control over her
whatever, and she may do as she chooses. She must, however, be true to him on
the days in which he is legally entitled to her.

Whether the man has equal liberty on the off days, and what arrangements are
made in regard to the children, we are not informed.

Amongst the ancient Britons, at the time of the Eoman conquest, so we are in-
formed by Caesar, there existed a peculiar institution, which may be called a mat-
rimonial club ! Ten or twelve families would live together under the same roof, the
husbands having all the wives in common, the children of each woman being
fathered by the man whom she first married. The members of these singular asso-
ciations were also frequently nearly related, being all brothers and sisters, uncles and
nieces, and cousins of all degrees.

St. Jerome speaks of this practice as still existing in his day, and it appears to
have lingered long even after the introduction of Christianity.

Among the ancient Hebrews, it may be remembered, as recorded in the Bible, a
man often married two or more sisters at the same time. In the Hebrides, accord-
ing to Solinus, a very singular custom prevailed in regard to the king. He was not
allowed to possess any property of his own, but could use that of his subjects at
pleasure ; and this arrangement extended even to wives. He was not allowed one
of his own, but was free to associate with all those of his subjects at his pleasure.
This singular rule was established to take away from him all motives for plundering
and oppressing the people, because he could never make anything by doing so.

The Sultan of Morocco takes a wife from the family of every great chief in his
empire, and thus associates them all with him, and as the child of either one may
succeed him, it prevents jealousy, and keeps them all loyal.

What is called the morganatic marriage, which occasionally occurs among royal
personages in Europe, may be called a modification of polygamy, and is perhaps a
remnant of it.

The king, or other monarch, who is already married to some one of similar rank
to himself, also contracts another marriage with some one of lower station. This
is called the morganatic marriage. Both are legitimate, in the sense of both women
being lawful wives, and taking social rank as such, but the queen only is the consort
of the sovereign, and her children only can succeed to the throne, those by the other
wife being simple citizens, unless specially ennobled, and taking her name only.
Such a marriage is not detrimental to the woman's character.

The word morganatic comes from the old Gothic Morgjan, meaning limited, or
curtailed, which shows how far back the custom originated. The marriage is also
called vulgarly, left-handed, but it is perfectly legitimate, only it does not confer on the
wife the title or fortune of her husband, nor on her children any right of succession

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 727

Among the German princes, morganatic marriages have been customary for many
centuries, and in fact prevail even at the present day. The late Archduke John,
for instance — the Reichsverweser of 1848 — married the daughter of the post master of
Aussee, in Styria, and she was afterwards created Duchess of Meran.

It is not only among princes, however, that morganatic marriages are recognized,
but also among the nobility, and in Prussia even the inferior gentry claim the priv-
ilege.

The royal marriage act of England, even practically establishes morganatic mar-
riage ; for though any member of the royal family can marry whom he chooses, still
his wife cannot be queen, nor have any claim on his property, nor are their children
legitimate, unless the marriage was consented to by the reigning sovereign, or by Par-
liament, the sovereign's consent being needed before twenty-five years of age, and
that of Parliament afterwards. Any marriage contracted without such consent has
no legal standing, though it may give the woman a respectable social position, and
it is no barrier to another marriage, with such consent, to another woman, upon
whom the man would confer his title and fortune, and whose children would legiti-
mately succeed. George the Fourth, it is well known, was married morganatically
to Mrs. Jordan, but she nevertheless was never known by any other name.

In early times, in the Highlands, and in some parts of Ireland, there was recog-
nized what was called the hand-fast marriage ! This was, in a certain sense, an
experimental contract, which was terminated after the parties had lived some time
together, if they found that they did not suit each other. Sometimes it was termin-
ated if the woman did not become a mother promptly ; and, indeed, the marriage
was often made a hand-fast one only in order to test this, so that a man who desired
heirs might not be permanently bound to a barren woman.

I have been assured, when in Scotland, that it was often the custom for one of
these marriages to be contracted with this understanding : if the woman became a
mother within a certain time, then the hand-fast marriage was to be made a perma-
nent one, but if she did not, then they separated.

It does not appear that this curious arrangement was regarded as at all discred-
itable in any way. Neither of the parties lost caste by it, nor were the children, if
they had any, necessarily illegitimate ; on the contrary, they often took precedence
of those by any subsequent marriage.

Although in a morganatic marriage, in the feudal ages, the woman was allowed
by courtesy to be a wife, still it was a serious matter for her, being of inferior sta-
tion, if she pretended to anything more. Nay, even if her husband made her his
consort, and gave her his title, she was still held to be a criminal, and was sooner or
later made to suffer. This was undoubtedly with the intention of keeping all suc-
cession in the princely line alone. The consorts, whose children were to be heirs to
the throne, must be of equal rank with the husband, but the wife only might be of
any rank.

A most interesting and romantic instance of this is found in the history of the
beautiful and unfortunate Agnes Bernhauer : she was the daughter of a poor citizen
of Augsburgh, and lived during the fifteenth century. The Duke Albrecht, only
son and heir of Duke Ernest of Bavaria, saw this maiden at a tournament, and fell
violently in love with her, as she did with him, he being remarkably manly and
handsome. Notwithstanding his rank, however, she would consent to no illicit
association, and they were accordingly privately married, he then taking her to a

728 MABBIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

castle which he owned, where they lived together in great happiness. His father,
however, had formed a plan to marry Albrecht to Anna, daughter of the Duke of
Brunswick, and was highly chagrined when he heard of his connection with the
beautiful Agnes, which he resolved to bring to an end.

To effect this, he arranged a grand tournament, which his son attended, but to
which he was refused admission, on the ground that he was living with a disreputa-
ble woman, in open licentiousness. Upon this Albrecht openly proclaimed her his
wife, but all to no purpose ; he was still excluded from the lists. This so enraged
him that he proclaimed her Duchess of Bavaria, his consort, and gave her the retinue
and maintenance of a princess, with the castle of Straubing for a residence.

The poor woman seemed, however, to have a foreboding of evil, for she erected
an oratory and a tomb in a Carmelite convent, to which she used often to retire.

Duke William, Albrecht's uncle, who was much attached to his nephew, took
his part, and while he lived, the couple were not molested ; but at his death, during
the absence of her husband, poor Agnes was arrested, at the order of Duke Ernest,
and executed. She was accused of sorcery ; of having bewitched Albrecht ; and
being bound hand and foot, was thrown from a bridge into the Danube, in the pres-
ence of the whole people. The current floated her to the side of the river, and one
of the executioners, by fastening a pole in her beautiful long hair, held her head
under the water till she was dead.

Albrecht was so maddened by this that he took up arms against his father, and
ravaged the whole country, driving him to such extremity that the emperor, with
the other nobles, had to interfere, and finally made a truce between them ; so that
Albrecht returned to his father's court, and eventually married Anna of Brunswick.

To conciliate his son, Duke Ernest erected a chapel over the grave of poor Agnes ;
but twelve years after, Albrecht removed her remains to the convent at Straubing,
and buried them in the tomb which she herself had erected.

In this case, if the parties had been content to regard the marriage as simply
morganatic, and the Brunswick princess had been also espoused as consort, there
would have been no trouble ; but the act of declaring a plebeian woman duchess,
and refusing in consequence to marry the Princess Anna, was an offense against
royaLy not to be forgiven.

Concubinage, in conjunction with marriage, appears to have existed from the
very earliest times, and to have been viewed in different ways at different epochs.
Among the ancient Bomans, the marriage law was very strict, and in many respects
burdensome, so that free unmarried men got into the habit of forming less onerous
contracts, in the form of concubinage. This was, in fact, an agreement for perma-
nent cohabitation, under certain understood regulations. The children of such
unions were not regarded as legitimate, but still were acknowledged by the father ;
and no doubt by custom, both they and the mother had certain rights, and a recog-
nized position, possibly something like the morganatic families of more modern times.
Even in the reign of Augustus, concubines were allowed to be taken, but only from
women of low position.

The concubines we read of in the Bible and contemporary histories, were proba-
bly merely slaves, with no legal rights nor any recognized position. In fact, the
distinction between the wife herself and the concubine, in this respect, does not seem
to have been very clear in those days.

Betrothment, or agreement to consummate marriage at some future time, was

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 729

once very common, and accompanied by various observances, such as kissing, joining
hands, and exchanging rings or pieces of money broken in two. Such engagements
were held sacred, and those breaking them were subject not only to social and eccle-
siastical censure, but also to legal disability, for they could not contract marriage
with a previous betrothment unfulfilled. Thus Henry the Eighth had his marriage
with Anne Boleyn declared invalid, on the ground that she had been previously
betrothed to the Duke of Northumberland. Church condemnation for failure to
fulfill a betrothment did not come to an end, in England, till the reign of George
the Second. Since then the only redress in such a case is a suit for damages, for
breach of promise — a much more prosaic, but more sensible proceeding.

Not unfrequently, in former times, young children were betrothed to each other
by their parents, even at birth, and such contracts were always regarded as binding
at the proper age. This custom prevails even now in some countries, where women
are appropriated as wives without their consent.

Our modern engagement, with its ring, is a survival of the old custom of betroth-
ment. In fact, in some countries it is still called betrothment, and is regarded as
quite binding. In Scotland a mutual betrothment, legally proved, is in all respects
a marriage, and gives equal rights.

In short, there are many curious modifications both of polygamy, monogamy,
and polyandria to be met with, even at the present day ; and these have not been
established by caprice, or by deliberate choice, but have been evolved by the natural
growth of the societies in which we find them. Each one is the product of the con-
ditions under which that society has existed, and no other arrangement was possible
with those conditions.

In fact, the marriage relations are constantly changing in all communities, even
the most civilized and settled ; but the changes occur so gradually and naturally,
from the changed relations of the sexes generally, that they are scarcely noticed.
The condition of a married woman is now, in many respects, quite different to what
it was a century ago, or less even. She has been freed from many legal disabilities,
and is, in many ways, more a free agent than she used to be. Even in conserva-
tive England, a married woman can now receive and hold property of her own, and
is entitled to her own wages. A few years ago her husband could take everything
from her. In America, a woman's individual rights and liberty are more fully
awarded than in perhaps any other country, but even here she is still under many
disadvantages, and has not full equal rights and justice with man. She is, however,
gradually but surely getting them, and in a few years they will be fully accorded.

Divorce also is now placed on a more rational and just basis than it used to be,
and it is no longer insisted upon that utterly unsuitable people should be indissolubly
bound together, when neither individuals nor society would suffer by their separa-
tion.

In short, the relations of the sexes in marriage, in our own society, as in all
others, are slowly but surely changing in many ways, and marriage, at some future
day, will be very different from what it is now. It would be a great and fatal mis-
take, however, to anticipate these changes, or to bring them about prematurely.
They must come gradually, or be evolved from the natural progress of society. Very
possibly some of the marital arrangements of the future, if we knew them, would ap-
pear shocking to us, and would cause serious evil if now established. But when the
time comes for them, they will be as proper and as useful as our present arrangements.

730 MABBIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

If the good people of a few centuries back could nave seen society as it is now, in its
marriage relations, they would certainly have thought it fearfully deteriorated.

The manner in which men obtain wires, and the customs and observances attend-
ant upon marriage, are remarkably varied. Very often the difference will be great
between peoples living close together, and apparently of the same race, with no
reason, so far as can be seen, why it should be so. Probably accident or caprice
may have established certain customs in the first instance, and then habit or fashion
would continue them.

Among all savage people, the law of battle has always prevailed, in regard to
women, as in regard to all other envied possessions, and they have invariably been,
one of the chief causes of war among men, even within comparatively civilized times.

Not only did men singly contend for women, but tribe would fight with tribe,
and nation with nation. Even in the same community, in friendly contest, men
strove with each other for female favors, the strongest and most skillful carrying off
the prize. Among the North American Indians, Hearne tells us, it was the custom
for the men to wrestle for choice of women. A weak man, so Hearne says, unless he
were a skillful hunter, or in some way had influence with the tribe, could never keep
a wife that a stronger man coveted.

This constant rivalry and effort to excel must have had an excellent effect on the
physical development of the young men, and as the best among them would be pre-
ferred by the best among the women, it would constantly tend, by natural selection,
to the improvement of the race. It was, in fact, a rude way of bringing about the
pairing of the best of both sexes.

Similar customs, more or less modified, prevail among other savage people, the
rale being recognized that "to the victors belong the spoils." And in every way we
can regard it, such a custom is a great step in advance over more barbarous usages.
It made the men more manly, and the women more womanly, because each one
would constantly try to excel in those qualities which the other admired.

The Australian, perhaps the lowest savage of all, has no idea of excelling in any-
thing but cunning and brute force. He has no choice in women at all, nor any desire
to conciliate them in any way, but merely covets them like any other possession.
His custom, therefore, is to lie in ambush, and watch till he finds some woman of
another tribe isolated from her companions ; he then springs upon her, lays her
senseless with a blow from his club, and carries her off. That is the whole of the
courtship ; there is no effort to attract, nor to. please — not the slightest idea, in
fact, of anything of the kind. Perhaps he kills her with the blow ! If so, he simply
leaves her and tries again ; and if next time he strikes less hard, it will be so that he
may not quite kill but only disable.

The desire of the two sexes to please each other, by conduct, or by personal
adornment, is one of the first steps toward improvement, both physically and morally.
It is, in fact, the beginning of civilization.

Even among the lower animals, as already shown, it is one of the most powerful
means of improvement, since it leads, by selection, to the propagation of the fittest.

Anything which excites endeavor in rude human beings, tends to their improve-
ment, either by the development which it causes in their physical and mental powers,
or by the softening of manners and the inspiring of taste. The love of adornment,
which we see in most savages, and which probably first arose from desire to please
or attract the other sex, has been one of the most efficient agents of civilization.

MABBIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 731

Professor Hartz remarks that no matter how poor a man may be, or how miser-
able, he may take a pleasure in adorning himself ; and he might have added, further,
that he is all the better for it. If he have no clothes, nor other personal belongings
with which to decorate himself, he paints or tattoos his bare body, and feels both
gratification and personal pride in doing so. One philosopher has even contended
that clothes were first worn for ornament, and not for use or comfort.

Even the barbarians that lived in caves, during the reindeer epoch, probably
millions of years ago, possessed objects that were valued, in some way, for their
beauty, or singularity, and not for their utility.

The different modes of personal adornment are very curious to note. Many of
them consist, among savages, in mutilations of different parts of the body, or in de-
formities caused artificially. Nor is the tendency yet extinct even in civilized society,
for we still find that contracted waists and crushed feet are thought desirable among
ourselves, just as flattened heads and perforated noses are among the Indians.

Darwin well sums up some of the most remarkable fashions, in regard to the per-
son, in his Descent of Man : " In one part of Africa the eyelids are colored black ; in
another, the nails are colored yellow or purple. In many places the hair is dyed of
various tints. In different countries the teeth are stained black, red, blue, etc. ;
and in the Malay archipelago it is considered shameful to have white teeth, like
those of a dog ! Not one great country can be named, from the polar regions in the
north to New Zealand in the south, in which the aborigines do not tattoo themselves.
This practice was followed by the Jews of old, and by the ancient Britons. In Africa
some of the natives tattoo themselves, but it is a much more common practice to raise
protuberances by rubbing salt into incisions made in various parts of the body ; and
these are considered by the inhabitants of Kordofan and Darfur to be great personal
attractions. In the Arab countries no beauty can be perfect till the cheeks or tem-
ples have been gashed. In South America, as Humboldt remarks, a mother would
be accused of culpable indifference toward her children, if she did not employ arti-
ficial means to shape the calf of the leg, after the fashion of the country. In the old
and new worlds the shape of the skull was formerly modified, during infancy, in the
most extraordinary manner, as is still the case in many places, and such deformities
are considered ornamental." Just as pinched waists and dwarfed feet are with us.

In North Africa it takes a man ten years to get his hair perfectly grown into
shape. In other parts of the world all the hair is shaved off, and even the eyebrows
and eyelashes carefully picked out. On the upper Nile the natives knock out the
four front teeth, so that they may not look like brutes. Others knock out only two,
and think Europeans look disgusting with the whole set perfect. The Malays file
the front teeth to sharp points, so that they look like a saw, and some pierce holes in
them, in which they wear studs. One of the African kings told Sir Samuel Baker
that Lady Baker would be much improved if he would knock out her four front teeth
nd split her upper lip.

Flattened noses are esteemed handsome in some parts, and lips cut open so as to
hold flat broad bits of wood or bone are equally in vogue in other parts. Eings and
other ornaments are of course worn wherever they can be placed, in the ears, lips, and
nose especially, the ear being often made larger than the hand, and pulled doAvn to
the shoulder by them.

In all these cases, the great motive is, as Darwin says, " self-adornment, vanity,
and the admiration of others." . . . With the men of New Zealand, a most

732 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

capable judge say6, " to have fine tattooed faces was the great ambition of the young,
both to render themselves attractive to the ladies, and conspicuous in war."

Some New Zealand girls, when urged by the missionaries not to be tattooed,
begged hard to have a few lines, so that they might not look too ugly when they got
old !

The great impelling motive to all this is exactly the same as what we call fashion
among ourselves. The foundation of it is the desire to attract and please the other
sex, and to outshine all rivals !

Personal peculiarities which are thought disgusting by one people, are considered
desirable by others. Hearne says, " Ask a North American Indian what is beauty,
and he will answer, a broad flat face, small eyes, high cheek bones, three or four broad
black lines across each cheek, a low forehead, a large broad chin, a clumsy hook nose,
a tawny hide, and breasts hanging down to the waist."

The Siamese ladies have small noses, with wide spreading nostrils, a large mouth,
with thick lips, ami high broad cheek bones. Their male admirers, however, con-
sider them much more beautiful than European ladies.

One peculiarity of Hottentot women has been referred to elsewhere, but there is
also another, considered by the male Hottentots to be a great mark of perfection. It
consists in a most remarkable development of the posterior regions, which are some-
times so large that when a woman sits down on level ground she cannot rise straight
up without help, unless she can push herself along to some slope. Burton tells us
that the Somal men, who consider this a great beauty, are accustomed to place the
women in a straight line, all facing one way, and then pick out those who project
the furthest, posteriorily, as being the most handsome.

If there were artificial means of increasing this development, they would undoubt-
edly be adopted, and we should see it still more pronounced than it is. The prefer-
ence given to the largest tends, however, even now that way, by the process of natural
selection.

Any natural peculiarity is thus apt to become desirable, and to be valued in pro-
portion as it is developed. Those savages that have long hair value it in proportion
to its length and abundance, and not infrequently one is chosen chief because his
locks are longer than those of all his rivals. Those savages, on the contrary, who
have but little hair, naturally affect to consider it a blemish in any amount, and care-
fully eradicate every one from their bodies. With them a perfectly hairless body is
the highest beauty, as among some of the New Zealand tribes, who have a saying that
there is no wife for a hairy man!

Some African chiefs have been known to remark, in regard to European ladies,
that they would be passable enough were it not for their white skins, making them
look like ghosts ! With them a black hide is indispensable to any claim to beauty.

Darwin remarks, in regard to the studying of these apparently trivial details, that
no excuse is needed for doing so at all, for, in the words of Shopenhauer, "The finaV
aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than
all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the com-
position of the next generation. . . . It is not the weal or woe of any one indi-
vidual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake."

And this is quite true ; there is nothing more important to the human race than
that which bears upon the association of the sexes, and its result — propagation !

Mr. Windwood Reade informed Mr. Darwin that the Joloffs, a tribe of negroes on

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 733

the west coast of Africa, were remarkable for their uniformly fine appearance ; and
when a friend of his asked one of their chiefs the reason for it, he said, " It is very
easily explained ; it has always been our custom to pick out our worst looking slaves
and sell them." Of course the best looking were kept, and as the females were all
taken for concubines, this accounted for the fine children and future adults. These
negroes simply applied to their own kind the same rules which they found effective
in improving their domestic animals, of which they were skillful breeders. In this
xespect they were ahead of ourselves.

It is a fact worth noting, in connection with pairing, that among animals in a
state of nature, single couples are by no means the rule. Even when the sexes are
equal in number, or nearly so, the strongest males often appropriate a large number
of females to themselves, and the weaker males are left solitary bachelors. This is
seen in cattle, horses, seals, domestic fowls, and many others. From this it has
been argued that polygamy is natural, and is a provision by which the strongest and
most powerful prevail, in propagation, over the feeble.

I am not aware of any instance of polyandria among animals in a state of nature,
or one female habitually serving several males.

One curious result of communal marriages, where all the women of a tribe were
wives to all the men of the tribe, was the tracing of the descent of a child necessa-
rily through the mother, because the father could not be known. Every one's an-
cestry was followed through the female line only, because in this there could be no
doubt nor mistake.

This is the custom now, among many of our own Indian tribes, the mother only
giving name and social position to the children. When Osceola was a prisoner in
Florida, he explained this to one of our officers, who expressed surprise that children
were not always named after their fathers, — "Mother always known," said he;
"father uncertain."

Sometimes even the mother seems to have been ignored, and the children as well
as the women were all tribal, each belonging to the whole community. This points
to a time when the association of the sexes was quite promiscuous, and all interests
were in common. It is quite easy to imagine why such a state of things must have
existed, as a necessity. When the whole tribe was in constant danger, it was the
safest plan ; for every individual, and especially every child and woman, would be
better protected as part of the whole community, than if left to struggle alone.

There is even reason for supposing that, in some instances at least, human beings
have paired, like many animals, only for a season, or for one birth. Indeed, some
travelers assure us that arrangements of this kind exist even now in some parts of
Africa. If so, it is evident how they have arisen ; not from caprice, but from sur-
rounding conditions.

It is not to be supposed that the male, in these unions, would concern himself
about the support and care of the children ; that would be left to the mother, who
would also have to support and protect herself. This, however, she could not do
unless food and shelter were easily and surely obtainable. Such an arrangement,
therefore, could only originate and continue in a state of comparative peace and
plenty.

It is quite probable, as before explained, that in all primitive tribes, the women
were held in common, so that no man could have a wife of his own, all to himself,
in his own tribe. If he wished one he must steal or capture her from another tribe,

734 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN

and then she was his private possession or slave. In all probability this was one of
the first ways in which wives, as private possessions, were first obtained.

A very curious proof that all the women of a tribe were originally considered to
belong to the tribe, is found in what was called the expiation of marriage ! If a man
wished to take a wife to himself, he had to pay something to the community for the
privilege, because it was considered that he was making a private possession of what
properly belonged to all.

It was probably a long time before this common right was fully abrogated, so
that certain women would belong only to certain men ; and none be considered the
common property of the whole tribe. Nor would this new form of marriage be
regarded at all as a step in advance, morally or otherwise, but on the contrary would
be looked upon as a dangerous and demoralizing innovation. Under the communal
system, according to Sir John Lubbock, instead of a woman being esteemed on ac-
count of reserve, or unusual continence, she received honor in proportion to the free-
dom with which she bestowed her favors. And under such a condition of society
this was perfectly natural ; for that which with us now is a social crime, would then
be a public virtue.

A curious form of polygamy formerly existed, under the feudal system, in Prance
and other European countries. The feudal lord, or seigneur, when one of his de-
pendents married, claimed the right to assume the husband's place, on the first
night of the nuptials ! And this right was both claimed and exercised, until a com-
paratively late period. Sometimes, however, the dependent, if rich, would buy off
the privilege, and sometimes it was waived as a favor.

In some parts of Africa a similar right is also asserted by the kings of tribes, and
so far from being resented, it is considered a mark of favor.

Among the ancient Komans, if a husband admired another man, for any bodily
or mental quality, he would often request him to visit his wife, so that their children
might possibly resemble his friend. Similar requests were also not unknown on the
part of the females.

The Spartans habitually encouraged the intercourse of their best men and women,
and, as far as possible, made them the only propagators, without any reference to
special marital relations.

In some of the countries of Palestine and Mesopotamia, it was formerly the cus-
tom for every woman, at least once in her life, to prostitute herself to any one who
wished, in the Temple, on certain public occasions. This was, in fact, a religious
rite, which it would have been sinful to omit ; but probably it was, originally, a
mere survival of the old communal marriage, or an assertion of the right of every
man to every woman.

At a later period the custom became modified, so that certain women only were
set aside, or devoted, for this purpose, and were considered sacred and holy. Those
who sought their favors paid for them, and in this way the priests derived much of
their income. Young girls, even at the present day, are thus devoted to the service
of the temples, in India and Turkey ; and we see from the Bible that the custom
was common in Palestine, even among the Hebrews themselves sometimes, as we
learn from Kings, and Hosea ! These women so devoted were called Kadesh, meaning
pure, or consecrated. See also in Deuteronomy, where it does not say there shall be
no Kadesh, but only that they shall not be of the daughters of Jacob. (Chap. xxii.
vs. 17, 18.)

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 735

One cause of polygamy should be borne in mind, as it still prevails. It is cus-
tomary with the males of many animals, as the gorilla for instance, to fight for pos-
session of the females, and so fiercely that the weaker males are all killed, or driven
away to solitary life. This necessarily leaves several females to each of the males
that survive, and hence polygamy. Now in all probability the same course would
be pursued in all small and isolated assemblages of human beings, in their rudest
state ; a few of the strongest males killing or driving off all the feebler ones, and then
dividing the females amongst themselves. Like other customs, when once estab-
lished, it would be perpetuated long after the conditions from which it originated
had ceased to exist.

It is always a great gain for the women, in any rude community, when the men
begin to have ideas of beauty, and to prefer some to others. The favored ones, of
course, soon become aware of their power, and in various ways make the men pay for
their favors. Even if purchased or taken, forcibly, they are at least cared for and
protected, like any other valuable property, and receive a certain degree of consid-
eration. Tbe women less favored by nature strive to make themselves attractive by
artificial adornments, and by other means, and are thus stimulated to try and improve
themselves, crude though the attempt may be. Taste will also vary, as we always
see it do, and almost every woman would become an object of desire to some man.

If the sexes were tolerably equal in number, and the means of living were easily
obtained, the woman could make her own bargain in marriage, as we find her doing
in many parts of the world at the present day. Many of the marriage customs which
prevail among rude tribes, in widely separated places, illustrate this very well.

Hearne tells us of a woman among our Northern Indians, who repeatedly left her
husband to go and live with her lover ; nor was it considered anything more than the
exercise of a right, or at least a privilege. And among the Charruas, in South Amer-
ica, according to Azura, a woman can divorce herself when she chooses, and marry
again. Among the Abipones, although girls are usually bought from their parents,
for wives, still, even after the bargain is made, they often reject the husband and run
away from him. Among the Patagonians, and in Terra del Fuego, it is the same.
In Fiji, the rule is for the man to seize the woman he wishes for a wife, by force, real
or pretended, and take her to his house ; but if she does not like him, she runs away
to some one else ; if there be no objection, she stays, and that is marriage. "When a
Kalmuk Tartar wishes a girl for a wife, he races with her, she always having a cer-
tain start. If he catches her, she is his wife, but if not, she is free ; and we are
assured by Clark, who was much with them, that he never knew of a girl being caught
unless she wished. The same custom prevails among the Koraks of Northern Central
Asia, and with some of the Malays. In each place the same tale is told — that when
a girl is caught, it is always because she wished to be.

Even in those parts of Africa where girls are bought from their parents, and
beaten if they object to their husbands, they obtain, in some way or other, a certain
amount of freedom of choice or refusal ; for we are told that very ugly mem even if
rich, cannot get wives at all. The girls also, before they are betrothed, insist upon
the men submitting themselves to inspection from every point of view, and showing
off their paces. No doubt those who are not desired hear such comments, from the
objecting fair ones, that their ardor for them is effectually cooled. Sometimes the
women themselves propose to the men, and quite commonly they run off with a
favored lover, rather than accept a husband they do not like.

736 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

This power of choice among the women is in all cases an important agent in the
improvement of the race, because, as a rule, they will naturally choose the hand-
somest men, or those who can best provide for them. Darwin shows conclusively how
this process of selection inevitably leads to the propagation of the largest number by
the finest individuals.

Perhaps one of the best instances known of a community in which males and
females were absolutely on an equality in regard to intercourse, and in which marriage
was simply a matter of mutual inclination, was that of the Sandwich Islands, as de-
scribed by Cook, in his voyages. Marriage, in fact, there was none, men and women
coming together and separating without any ceremony or agreement whatever, just
as they felt disposed. At a grand feast given to Cook, a young man and woman, so
he tells us, performed the rites of Venus in presence of the whole company, without
attracting any particular attention. The queen herself, in such matters, was equally
without restraint, and was evidently surprised — perhaps shocked — at the way her ad-
vances were met.

We must be careful, in such matters, not to judge people so situated exclusively
from our point of view. Such practices, with them, were not licentious, nor in any
way calculated to do harm, as they would be with us. Indeed, Cook distinctly shows
that they were remarkably modest, tender, and affectionate with each other, and with
no idea of immorality. Similar testimony has been given in regard to certain of the
people of Madagascar, with whom the relations of the sexes are equally unrestrained.

It appears, from all that is known, that marriage has everywhere been, primitively,
an individual or tribal arrangement, purely civil, like any other personal contract.
It is always at a later period that the priesthood in any way assume control over it,
and in some countries they have never done so. In several ancient countries of the
Old World, the priests seem to have undertaken the initiation of young people, at the
age of puberty, into the nature of their sexual relations, and to have done so under
the guise of a religious rite. These initiations, which occurred at stated intervals,
always took place in the temple, or in the sacred groves, in strict privacy and seclu-
sion. They were regarded as sacred mysteries. The church, in fact, gradually
assumed the place of the community, and marriage finally could not be legitimate
without its sanction. Still this change was gradual, and not complete till compara-
tively recent times. Among the ancient Hebrews, we read of men serving for their
wives, as Jacob did for Leah, and of men taking women for wives, or having them
given to them by their parents, but no church service or priestly sanction seems to
have been required. Neither do we find anything of the kind among the ancient
Greeks and Eomans till Christianity became the established religion. Then the church
took absolute control of marriage, as it did of many other things which previously had
been controlled by the state alone.

More recently, and especially at the present day, the tendency is again to make
marriage a civil contract only. It is so regarded in our own country, and church
sanction is not obligatory. No ceremony of any kind, nor any set formula is required,
but only sufficient proof of the fact that the parties have mutually agreed to be
man and wife. It is merely to give this proof, that witnesses are required at all, and
when either a minister of religion or a justice of the peace marries a couple, he only
acts as witness ; and any other witness would do as well legally. In fact, the parties
marry themselves, or make their own contract, and the minister, magistrate, or other
person who is commonly said to marry them, only bears testimony to the contract.

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 737

In short, the civil marriage, or contract, properly testified to, is demanded bylaw,
but all religious or other ceremonial sanction is optional, and adds nothing to the
legality of the union.

It is the same with divorce. Formerly this could not take place except by sanc-
tion of the church, but now it is a civil matter only. For certain causes, and by
fulfilling certain requirements, married people can separate, and enter into new en-
gagements, without the church having anything whatever to do with it. Even in
the countries of the Old World which have established churches, as in England, for
instance, these principles now prevail, and over neither marriage nor divorce has the
church any legal control whatever.

It is worthy of remark also that the tendency of modern legislation everywhere is
constantly toward simplifying marriage, and facilitating divorce when shown to be
desirable.

The maintenance of the family relation, as we now have it, by the marriage of
individual men and women in single pairs, is indispensable to the existence of society ;
without it, in fact, society, as it now exists, could never have come into being, nor
could it now continue if such marriage were abrogated. But still there are often
cases in which both social and individual interests will be better served by annulling
the contract than by compelling its continuance, and in such cases divorce should
always be obtainable, providing due provision is made for insuring the rights of all
concerned.

In all settled societies, one essential condition of marriage is a proper care for the
children which may result from it. Whenever marriage ceases to be communal, those
entering into it must make provision for their offspring, if they have any, so that
they may neither perish nor become burdensome to others. Both law and custom
make this imperative, and in fact society could not exist if it were not so.

To discourage illicit unions, the children which may result from them are every-
where subject to various social and legal disabilities, and are called illegitimate. They
not only do not inherit the father's property, but even his name is refused them, so
that they have to be called after the mother. Formerly dastards were often treated
more unjustly even than they are now, and though many of that olass have become
great as statesmen and warriors, still their birth was always a stigma to them. Those
among them who were entitled to bear coats of arms, no matter how acquired, were
compelled to have them crossed with the bend sinister, or mark of bastardy. But,
in spite of this, many bastards were very eminent, and some even, like Falconbridge,
boasted of their origin. William the Conqueror was a bastard, and so was one of the
most famous Austrian dukes ; in fact, history tells of many of them.

Illegitimacy has always been a difficult matter for legal regulation, because it is
manifestly unjust to punish children for no fault of their own, and yet at the same
time the offspring of legal marriage must always occupy a different position from
that of mere concubinage. By the law of Scotland, which is also our law, illegiti-
mate children cannot inherit from the father, nor, with us, does a subsequent marriage
between the parties make them legitimate. In Scotland, however, this is not the
case, for marriage at any time may make legitimate all the children the parties may
have had before, which seems both reasonable and just. The difference arises from
the character of the Scotch law of marriage, which requires only consent and pub-
lication. Any parties not already married, who live together as man and wife, and
who call themselves so, are to all intents and purposes legally married. In England
4?

738 MARRIAGE AND TEE POSITION OF WOMEN.

also a bastard can be made legitimate by a special act of Parliament ; as was done in
the case of the illegitimate children of John of Gaunt, in the time of Eichard the
Second.

Most foreign countries follow the Scotch law, by making a subsequent marriage
between the persons legitimize all the children they may have had before. But
with this condition, that at the time these cbildren were born the parties could have
married if they chose ; or in other words, providing there was then no legal bar
rier to their marriage.

A curious complication occurs sometimes, when one of the parties may have mar-
ried another person, in the mean time, and have had other children by them. The
question then arises whether the legitimized bastards take equal rank and right with
those born in the intervening marriage, and who were undoubtedly legitimate. It
is contended that they do not, but the question has never been legally settled, so far
as I am aware.

In France, if a man acknowledge an illegitimate child as his, during his life, that
child is entitled to a share in his father's property, the same as his legitimate chil-
dren.

There are many curious law-points in regard to marriage and legitimacy, which
Deed not here be discussed, though some of them are very interesting. The law in
England is not, in many respects the same, in regard to these matters, as it is in
Scotland and Ireland ; especially in regard to what constitutes a marriage. In con-
sequence of this, it sometimes happens that parties are legally married in one of
these countries, but not in the other ; and a woman may be a lawful wife in Scot-
land, and at the same time only a concubine in England.

This confusion all arises from the interference of the churches, and marriage by
priests. If the civil marriage alone were everywhere all that was required in
law, and compulsory, leaving the religious rite optional, there could be no uncer-
tainty.

An act passed in the reign of George the Second, in reference to Ireland, makes
any marriage void between Catholics and Protestants, or between two Protestants
even, if celebrated by a Catholic priest. A later act in the time of George Third,
modified this so as to allow the Catholic priest to officiate, providing the parties had
first been married by a Protestant minister. Any priest violating this law is liable
to a penalty of two thousand dollars.

The marriage act of England, at the present time, is the simplest, and perhaps
the most perfect in the world. It simply provides that every marriage must be duly
witnessed and recorded before the registrar of the district in which the parties live.
Very few preliminaries are required, except proper public notice, for a certain time,
in the case of minors. There is no ceremony of any kind, the whole transaction
being regarded, so far as the law is concerned, as a civil transaction, like any other
contract. Any rites or ceremonies, if they wish any, are left to the parties them-
selves, but they are not in any way essential to the legality of the marriage.

The registry contains the names, ages, occupations, and residence of the parties,
and also the names and residences of their parents, with some other particulars.
All these local registries are periodically transmitted to Somerset House, London,
where they are safely recorded, and can be consulted at any time for a small fee.

It is impossible to overrate the immense advantages of such a system, thoroughly
sarried out, over the slip-shod, loose system, or rather no system, of our own coun-

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 739

try. There can never be any of those interminable suits at law, such as we often
have, turning upon the question whether certain parties were ever married or not.
If they were married in England, there is the record to prove it ; and if it is not on
the record they never were married, and that ends it. With us the fortunes and
standings of individuals and families often depend upon memories more or less
treacherous, and oaths more or less unreliable. It is a constant occurrence, after a
rich man's death, for some woman to appear and claim to have been privately mar-
ried to him ! Witnesses are easily found, and she is either bought off, or the estate
is wasted in litigation. Such a thing ought not to be possible, nor could it be if we
had a proper system of compulsory public civil registration.

In New York we have a registry law, I am aware, but it is so imperfect, and s(
badly enforced, thab it amounts to very little, and is evaded in many ways. Cer-
tain religious denominations even oppose any law whatever of the kind, and do all
they can to nullify it. The only true system is to make a public civil registration,
duly attested and preserved, compulsory in every marriage, and the only thing re-
quisite to make ifc legal. Then the parties can please themselves in regard to rites
and ceremonies, according to their views on such matters.

There is nothing in such a law to which any one can reasonably object, and its
benefits are obvious. Even Quakers (who have no marriage ceremony of any kind),
Secularists, Free Thinkers, and denominationalists of every kind, accept such a law
gladly, and acknowledge its advantages.

The law in England, till recently, was very unjust in regard to the property of
married women ; all they possessed becoming the property of their husbands, to do
with as they pleased. Even if anything was left or given to them, the husband could
take it absolutely, as he could anything they might own in any other way. This, how-
ever, is now changed in many ways, and there is no difficulty in securing property to
a married woman's own use and control. Any woman who earns wages, or has an
income in any way, and a worthless squandering husband, can obtain a magistrate's
order securing such wages or income to her own use. And further than this, a law
is now in the process of elaboration, and will assuredly be soon enacted, compelling
any man who neglects to support his wife when he is able, or who abuses her, to
keep away from her, if she requests it. He will have no right to go near her, and
will be liable to punishment if he does, or annoys her in any way. In short, the
whole tendency of modern legislation on these matters, is towards more complete
justice to women.

In Scotland, a rich wife is bound to support her husband ; and in France a father-
in-law is bound to support his son-in-law, even if his daughter be dead. In England
a man cannot legally marry his dead wife's sister, but in the English colonies he can.
Thia prohibition is entirely a church scruple, and will evidently be soon done away
with.

Keeping a mistress, in most countries, would be a sufficient cause for divorce,
but in France it is not necessarily so, unless the husband bring her into the same
house with his wife !

It should be generally known also, that a marriage may hold good in one coun-
try but not in another, for reasons which might never be suspected. Thus a Roman
Catholic man, say of one of the Catholic states in South America, may marry a Prot-
estant woman here, and she will of course be his legal wife, but if they should go
to his own country to live, he could disown and desert her, if they had not been mar-

740 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

ried by a Catholic priest ; eases of great hardships and injustice of this kind have
occurred to English women on many occasions.

In France also, if a man have parents living, no matter what his age, he can-
not legally marry without their consent ; and several cases have occurred where Eng-
lish women have married Frenchmen, and found themselves, when in France, dis-
owned, and no wives at all, merely because the parents did not approve of the
match.

Such are a few of the anomalies, inconsistencies, and injustices, appertaining to
marriage ; some of them arising from church interference, and others from the old
notion still clung to, that woman should be in every way subordinate to man. The
only cure for all such evils is the making marriage everywhere a compulsory civil
contract, between equal parties ; and recognizing the woman's rights in herself and
her property the same as we do the man's, in the fullest sense.

The following sketch of the position and influence of women in ancient Greece,
by James Donaldson, L.L.D., from the Contemporary Review, is exceedingly interest-
ing and valuable, in relation to the matters we have been discussing. It will show
how different have been the notions and practices of men, respecting women, at dif-
ferent periods, and may well make us ask if there be not much we could learn from
these ancient people :

' ' Everything that has life has a course within certain limits predetermined for it,
through which it passes until it finally disappears. The seed of the oak gathers ma-
terials from earth and sky until it fashions itself into the majestic tree. It will not
become a rose or an elm. So it is with the higher animals and man. The lines of
their progress through life are distinctly marked off. But, within the limits special
to each class there are different degrees of perfection. All the individuals seem to
strive after an ideal which none attain, to which some come very close, and to which
all more or less approximate. Man has also his ideal, but, in addition to the instinct-
ive power of soul which strives after the ideal, he has the faculty of being conscious
of the ideal and of consciously striving after it. What is true of man is true of
woman. What is the ideal of woman ? What could we call the complete develop-
ment and full blossoming of woman's life ? I have no intention of answering this
question, much agitated in the present day. I do not think that I could answer it
satisfactorily, but it is requisite for the historian of woman in any age to put it to
himself and his readers. A true conception of woman's ideal life can be reached
only by the long experience of many ages. The very first and most essential element
in the harmonious development of woman's nature, as it is of man's, is freedom, but
this is the very last thing which she acquires. Impediments have arisen on every
hand to hinder her from bringing her powers into full activity. Ignorance, preju-
dice, absurd modes of thought prevalent in particular ages, conventional restraints
of an arbitrary nature, laws that have sought to attain special aims without regard
to general culture and well-being — these and like causes have prevented us from
seeing what woman might become if she were left unfettered by all influences but
those that are benign .and congenial. It is the part of the historian to take note of
these obstacles, and to see what, notwithstanding these, woman can do and aims at
doing.

" The first condition, therefore, of a successful study of woman's history, is to come
unbiased to the task. We must for the time keep in abeyance our prevalent opinions.
There is peculiar need for this in this subject, because, should we have false opin-

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 741

ions, they are sure to be held with a tenacity which is great in proportion to their
falsehood ; and should we have true, we are likely to give them an exaggerated im-
portance and power ; for all opinions on women are apt to be intense. We have
therefore to suspend our ordinary modes of thought, and enter into conceptions and
feelings and a manner of life widely different from our own. Some of these differ-
ences I must explain before I enter on my history.

"And, first of all, the Greeks looked at the relations between the sexes from a
point of view utterly strange to us. Among us there exists a clear and definite doc-
trine which lays down rigidly what is right and what is wrong. The Greeks had no
such doctrine. They had to interrogate Nature and their own hearts for the mode
of action to be pursued. They did not feel or think that one definite course of con-
duct was right and the others wrong ; but they had to judge in each case whether
the action was becoming, whether it was in harmony with the nobler side of human
nature, whether it was beautiful or useful. Utility, appropriateness, and the sense
of the beautiful, were the only guides which the Greeks could find to regulate them
in the relations of the sexes to each other.

"We have to add to this that their mode of conceiving nature was quite different
from ours. To them everything was natural, or if you like supernatural. If wine glad-
dened or maddened the heart of man, the influence was equally that of a god. The
Greek might be perplexed why a god should madden him, but he never doubted the
fact. And so it was with love. The influence which the one sex exercises on the
other is something strangely mysterious. Two persons of different sexes meet. If
we look at them, we see nothing very remarkable in either ; and if we continue our
look for an hour or two, we might notice nothing remarkable going on. Yet a very
extraordinary change has taken place. The hearts of both have begun to vibrate
wildly. The commonplace man has had wings furnished to his mind, and he sees
heaven opening before his eyes, and an infinite tenderness suffuses his soul. The girl,
who could not utter a word in her own behalf before, has had her lips unsealed, and wit
and brightness and poetry sparkle in every sentence which she addresses to her com-
panion. She too flings from her the ordinary routine of daily life, and sees before
her a paradise of purest bliss and unending joy. Whence comes all this inspiration ?
Whence this temporary elevation of the mental powers ? Whence this unsealing of
mortal eyes, till they see the beatific vision? 'From a divine power,' said the
Greeks. And this divine power seemed to them the most irresistible of all. It
swayed the gods themselves. If the gods themselves could not but yield to the
magic power, how could it be expected that a mortal could resist ? The religion of
the Greeks could not, with such a mode of conception, strongly aid them in self-
restraint. It could merely inculcate forbearance and compassion. And this we find
to be the case. In a speech which Sophocles puts into the mouth of Dejanira, she
expresses her conviction that a wife has no right to expect a husband to be always
faithful to her, or to blame the woman with whom he falls in love. ' Thou wilt
not,' she says, 'tell thy tale to an evil woman, nor to one who knows not the nature
of man, that he does not naturally rejoice always in the same. For whosoever resists
love in a close hand-to-hand combat, like a boxer, is not wise. For he sways even the
gods as he wishes, and me myself also ; and how should he not sway another woman
who is such as I am ? So that if I find fault with my husband caught with this
disease, or with this woman the cause along with him of nothing that is evil or dis-
graceful to me, I am unquestionably mad.' Such religious forbearance is not found

742 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

in poetry only. It is inculcated on wives as a strict part of their duty by a female
Pythagorean philosopher, Perictione, who wrote on the harmony of woman, and the
sentiment disappears only before a philosophy such as that of Plato and Aristotle,
which rose far above the common conceptions of the Divine Being.

"Throughout our estimate of women, it is also of great importance to remember
the passionate love of beauty which animated the Greeks. A modern mind can
form almost no idea of the strength and universality of this passion. The Greeks
loved everything that was beautiful, but it was in the human body that they saw the
noblest form of earthly beauty. They did not confine their admiration to the face.
It was the perfect and harmonious development of every part that struck them with
awe. It would occupy too much space to give a full account of this love of the
beautiful, or to bring home the intensity of the Greek feeling. One instance will
suffice. The orator Hyperides was defending the Hetaira Phryne, before a court of
justice. His arguments, he thought, fell on the ears of the judges without any effect.
He began to regard his case as hopeless, when a happy idea struck him, and, tearing
open the garment of his client, he revealed to the judges a bosom perfectly marvelous
in form. The judges at once acquitted her, and I have no doubt that the whole
Greek sentiment agreed with their decision. But we should make an entire mistake if
we were to suppose that the judges were actuated by any prurient motive. One of
the writers who relate the circumstance gives the reason of the decision. The judges
beheld in such an exquisite form not an ordinary mortal, but a priestess and prophet-
ess of the divine Aphrodite. They were inspired with awe, and would have deemed
it sacrilege to mar or destroy such a perfect masterpiece of creative power. And
though no doubt there were low-minded Greeks, as there are low-minded men every-
where, yet it may be affirmed with truth that the Greeks did not consider beauty to
be a mere devil's lure for the continuance of the race, as Schopenhauer represents
it, but they saw in it the outshining of divine radiance, and the fleshly vehicle
was but the means to lead on the soul to what is eternally and imperishably beautiful.

" These are only some of the points in which the Greeks differed widely from us,
and we must realize the difference before we can read the history aright. But this
history has to face other difficulties. The influence of woman is often exercised
most powerfully in such a quiet and unobtrusive manner that no historian can take
note of it. Who, for instance, could narrate the action of beauty and of beautiful
ways upon thousands of hearts ? The influence is silent, but not the less potent.
We have this additional difficulty in Greece, that almost all we know of women
is derived from men. Now men rarely write dispassionately of women. They either
are in love with them, or hate them, or pretend to hate them. They have had sweet
or bitter experience of them. And when they do write about them, they write
according to that experience. But not only is the history of Greek women written
by men, but it was written for men. This fact must be specially remembered when
we have to deal with the utterances of the comic poets, for women did not act in the
plays, nor is it probable that they were even present at the comedies during the best
days of Athens. But men taking the parts of women are sure to act them with all the
exaggeration and license which are natural to such representations. No great stress
must, therefore, be laid on the wild abuse of women which can be culled in large abun-
dance from Greek writers. One early satirical poet divides women into ten classes, of
which only one is good. And he proceeds with his invective very much as if women
did not exist :

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 743

"'Listen, 0 people/ says Susarion, who may be called the inventor of comedy.
'Susarion says this : Women are an evil, but nevertheless, 0 countrymen, it is not
possible to have a household without evil, for to marry is an evil and not to marry is
an evil.'

"A satiric poet gives it as his opinion that 'a man has only two very pleasant
days with his wife, one when he marries her, the other when he buries her.' A
comic poet says pithily, 'Woman is an immortal necessary evil.' Euripides says:

" ' Terrible is the force of the waves of the sea, terrible the rush of river and the
blasts of hot fire, terrible is poverty, and terrible are a thousand other things ; but
none is such a terrible evil as woman. Eb painter could adequately represent her ;
no language can describe her ; but, if she is the creation of any of the gods, let him
know that he is a very great creator of evils and a foe to mortals.'

"Quotations like these could be made in hundreds, but they really tell us little.
They could be matched by a large number of sayings from the same authors, in
which woman is praised to the skies. Euripides was specially blamed as a hater of
women. The remark was made in the presence of Sophocles. 'Yes,' said he, 'in
his tragedies.' And even in his tragedies he has painted women of exquisite tender-
ness of heart, and capable of the grandest self-sacrifice and of the purest love.

" With these preliminary observations, we enter on our task. I can only select
prominent periods. And the first that comes before us is the Homeric. And here
we require all the power of transporting ourselves into different times that we can
command ; for the phenomena are singular and unique. If we look at the external
position of women, we must place the Homeric age exceedingly low in civilization.
Women have almost no rights ; they are entirely under the power of man, and they
live in continual uncertainty as to what their destiny may be. The woman may be
a princess, brought up in a wealthy and happy home ; but she knows that strangers
may come and carry her off, and that she may therefore at some time be a slave in
another man's house. This uncertainty seems to have produced a strong impression
on their character. They are above all women meek. If the terrible destiny comes
upon them, they submit to it with all but unrepining gentleness, and their gentle
ways soon overcome the heart of their warrior tyrants, and they make them their
companions and friends. But low though this position be, it has to be noted that it
is the inevitable result of the character of the times. Might was right. The strong
arm alone could assert a right. The warrior had to defend even what belonged to
him against any new-comer. He himself sacked the cities of others. His own city,
too, might be sacked, and if his wife's fate was to be carried off and to become the
mistress of his conqueror, his own was to perish mercilessly by the cold edge of the
sword. Man and woman alike held their lives in their hands. Women were not
warriors, and therefore they had to depend entirely on the protection of men, and
were consequently subject to them. Such was their external position. But when
we look to the actual facts of the case, nowhere in the whole range of literature are
women subjected to a sway so gentle, so respectful, so gracious. Indeed, it can
scarcely be called a sway at all. The physical force, which no doubt exists, is entirely
in the background. In the front we see nothing but affection, regard, and even def-
erence. The men appear never to have found fault with the women. It was nat-
ural for a woman to love, and she might do what they would deem an eccentric or
disproportionate action in consequence of this influence ; but it was either a man or a
god that was to blame. She was for the time mad. Even in the case of Helen, who

744 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

brought so many disasters on Greeks and Trojans, the men find no fault. She re-
proaches herself bitterly, but the men think that it was Paris who was to blame, for
he carried her off forcibly. How could she help it ? And how could she prevent
Paris falling in love with her ? It was the business of woman to make any man happy
whom destiny brought into her company, to diffuse light and joy through the hearts
of men. Helen was surpassingly beautiful, knew all womanly works to perfection,
was temperate and chaste, according to their ideas, and had a mind of high culture.
All these were gifts of the gods, and could not but attract. The Trojans themselves
were not surprised that Paris should have fallen under the spell of her charms : for
a being so beautiful was a worthy object of contest between Greeks and Trojans.
But she did nothing to excite Paris. She would have been happier with Menelaus.
And when Paris was slain and Troy captured, Helen gladly returned to her former
husband, and again occupied her early queenly position with dignity and grace, as if
nothing had happened. The only woman in regard to whom harsh words are used
is Clytemnestra ; but even in her case the man is much more censured than the wo-
man, and if she had merely yielded to iEgisthus, under the strong temptations, or
rather overpowering force, to which she was exposed, not much would have been
said. Agamemnon would have wreaked his vengeance on the male culprit, and re-
stored his wife to her former place. But at last she became the willing consort of
iEgisthus, and his willing accomplice in the dreadful crime of murder. Yet even
for this it is on iEgisthus that the poet lays the burden of the blame. For this mild
judgment of women there were several causes. First, the Homeric Greeks were
strongly impressed by the irresistible power of the gods and of fate, and the weakness
of mortals ; they thus found an easy excuse for any aberrations of men, but espe-
cially of helpless women ; and their strong sense of the shortness of life and the
dreariness of death led them to try to make the best of their allotted span. Then
their ideas of love and marriage tended to foster gentleness. In the Homeric poems
there is no love-making ; the idea of flirtation is absolutely and entirely unknown.
They no doubt spoke sweet words to each other, but they kept what they said to
themselves. And a man who wished to marry a girl proved the reality of his desire
generally by offering the father a handsome gift for her, but sometimes by undertak-
ing a heavy task, or engaging in a dangerous contest. And when she left her father's
home, she bent all her ways to please the man who had sought after her, and she
succeeded. In the Homeric poems the man loves the woman, and the woman soon
comes to love her husband, if she has not done so before marriage. The Homeric
Greeks are, even at this early stage, out-and-out monogamists. Monogamy is in the
very heart of the Greek heroes. No one of them wishes more than one woman.
There is a curious instance of the power of heroic affection in Achilles. A captive
widow has become his partner before the walls of Troy. She is very fond of him,
and he becomes very fond of her. But there is no proper marriage between them,
and Achilles could not worthily celebrate his marriage in a camp far from his friends
and home. Yet such is his love for her, and her alone, that she is to him a real
wife. And, when Patroklos dies, Briseis, in her lament over him, states that he
promised that he would make her the wedded wife of Achilles, and take her to
Phthia, the native land of the hero, and celebrate the marriage-feast among the
Myrmidons. Probably Achilles had often given her the same promise, though he
knew that his father might assign him a wife, and there might thus be difficulties in
the way, and Patroklos had offered to help him in carrying out his design. If there

MARRIAGE AND TEE POSITION OF WOMEN. 745

was such true love to a captive, we may expect this still more to be the case with
wives of the same race and rank. And so it is. Beautiful, indeed, is the picture of
married life which Homer draws. 'There is nothing,' he says, 'better and nobler
than when husband and wife, being of one mind, rule a household.' And such
households he portrays in the halls of Alcinous and Arete, and in the Trojan home
of Hector and Andromache, but still more marked and beautiful is the constant love
of Penelope and Ulysses. Indeed, Homer always represents the married relation as
happy and harmonious. In the households of earth there is peace. It is in the
halls of Olympus that we find wife quarreling with husband. But the love of these
women to their husbands is the love of mortals to mortals. They do not swear
eternal devotion to each other. They have no dream of loving only one, and that
one forever, in this life and the next. They do not look much beyond the present ;
and therefore, if a husband or a wife were to die, it would be incumbent on the sur-
vivor to look out for a successor. Even when a husband is long absent from his wife,
it is not expected that he can endure the troubles of life without the company and
comfort of one woman's society. Thus Agamemnon takes to himself the captive
Chryseis, and comes to love her better than his wife. Thus Achilles becomes so at-
tached to Briseis as to weep bitterly when she is taken from him ; but when she is
taken from him, he consoles himself with the beautiful-cheeked Diomede. And
Ulysses, though he loves his Penelope best, and longs for her, does not refuse the
embraces of the goddesses with whom he is compelled to stay in the course of his
wanderings. Homer's insight into human nature is apparent in the circumstance
that it is only in the heart of a true woman that he places resistance to the ordinary
modes of thought. The peculiarity of Penelope's affection is that it will not submit
to prevalent ideas ; she loves and admires her Ulysses, and she will love no other.
Contrary to all custom, she puts off the suitors year after year. The time has ar-
rived when every one expects her to marry again. She has seen her son Telema-
chus grow to manhood. She has now no excuse. But still she refuses, waiting
against hope for the return of him who in her heart she believes will return no more.

" After what I have stated, I need scarcely say that the influence of woman was
very great in the Homeric period. The two poems turn upon affection for women.
The Trojan war had its origin in the resolution of the Greeks to recover Helen, and
the central point in the ' Iliad ' is the wrath of Achilles because Agamemnon has
taken away from him his captive Briseis. Ulysses and Penelope, as every one knows,
are the subject of the 'Odyssey.' The husband consulted his wife in all important
concerns, though it was her special work to look after the affairs of the house.
Arete is a powerful peace-maker in the kingdom of her husband Alcinous, and it is
to her that Nausicaa advises Ulysses to go if he wishes to obtain his return. All the
people worship her as a god when she walks through the streets. Penelope and Cly-
temnestra are left practically in charge of the realms of their husbands during their
absence at Troy, each with a wise man as counselor and protector. And the very
beautiful Chloris acted as queen in Pylos. Altogether, the influence of Homeric
women must be reckoned great and their condition happy.

" For this result two special causes may be adduced — the freedom which the
women enjoyed, and their healthiness, possibly also their scarceness.

" The freedom was very great. They might go where they liked, and they might
do what they liked. There was, indeed, one danger which threatened them continu-
ally. If they wandered far from the usual haunts of their fellow-citizens, strangers

746 MAHSIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

might fall upon them and carry them of! into slavery. Such incidents were not un-
common. But, apart from this danger, they might roam unrestricted. They were
not confined to any particular chamber. They had their own rooms, just as the men
had theirs ; but they issued forth from these, and sat down in the common chamber,
when there was anything worth seeing or hearing. Especially they gathered round
the bard who related the deeds of famous heroes, or the histories of famous women.
They also frequented the wide dancing-place which every town possessed, and with
their brothers and friends joined in the dance. Homer pictures the young men and
the maidens pressing the vines together. They mingled together at marriage-feasts
and at religious festivals. In fact, there was free and easy intercourse between the
sexes. They thus came to know each other well, and, as the daughters were greatly
beloved by their fathers, we cannot doubt that their parents would consult them aa
to the men whom they might wish for husbands. Even after marriage they con-
tinued to have the same liberty. Helen appears on the battlements of Troy, watch-
ing the conflict, accompanied only by female attendants. And Arete, as we have
seen, mixed freely with all classes of Phseacians.

"Along with this freedom, and partly in consequence of it, there appears to have
been an exceedingly fine development of the body. The education of both boys and
girls consisted in listening to their elders, in attending the chants of the bards, and
in dancing at the public dancing-place of the town. There was no great strain on
their intellectual powers. There was no forcing. And they were continually in the
open air. All the men learned the art of war and of agriculture, and all the women
to do household work. The women made all the clothes which their relatives wore,
and were skilled in the art of embroidery. But they not merely made the clothes,
but regularly washed them, and saw that their friends were always nicely and beau-
fully clad. These occupations did not fall to the lot of menials merely. The highest
lady in the land had her share of them, and none was better at plying the loom and
the distaff than the beautiful Helen. We have in the sixth book of the Odyssey
a charming picture of a young princess, !N"ausicaa. Nowhere are portrayed more ex-
quisitely the thoughts and feelings and ways of a young girl who is true to her own
best nature ; who is reserved when reserve is proper, and speaks when a true impulse
moves her; who is guileless, graceful, leal-hearted, and tender. Happily I have not
here to exhibit her character, for to do anything but quote the exact words of
Homer would be inevitably to mar its beauty ; but I have to adduce some of those
traits which show how the Homeric girls grew. Nausicaa is approaching the time
when she ought to be married, and in preparation for this event would like to have
all her clothes clean and in nice condition. She goes to her father, and tells him
that she wishes to wash his clothes and the clothes of her brothers, that he may be
well clad in the senate, and they may go neat to the dance. The father at once per-
oeives what desire the daughter cherishes in her heart, and permission is granted; the
mules are yoked to the car, the clothes are collected, and the princess mounts the
seat, whip in hand, and drives off with a number of maid attendants. They reach
the river where are the washing trenches. The clothes are handed out of the car,
the mules are sent to feed on the grass, and princess and maids wash away at the
clothes, treading them with their feet in the trenches. They then lay out the clothes
to dry. "While the clothes are drying, they first picnic by the side of the river, and
then, to amuse themselves, engage in a game at ball, accompanied with singing.
This is a day with Homeric girls. They can do everything that is necessary — drive

MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 743

wash, spin, and sew. No domestic work comes amiss to one and all. And they are
much in the open air. They thus all find active employment. Time never hangs
heavy on their hands. And the strength and freshness of body produce a sweetnes'
of temper and a soundness of mind which act like a charm on all the men who hav<
to do with them. It seems to me that this explains to some extent the phenomena
of the Homeric poems. There is no vicious woman in the Iliad or Odyssey. Some
of them have committed glaring violations of the ordinary rules of life, but they are
merely temporary aberrations or fits of madness. And there is no prostitution. This
healthiness explains also another feature of the Homeric women which deserves no-
tice. There was an extraordinary number of very beautiful women. The district of
Thessaly, from which the whole of Greece ultimately derived its own name of Hellas,
is characterized by the epithet the land of the beautiful women ; and several other
places are so characterized. But their type of beauty was not the type prevalent in
modern times. Health was the first condition of beauty. The beautiful woman was
well-proportioned in every feature and limb. It was the grace and harmony of every
part that constituted beauty. Hence height was regarded as an essential requisite.
Helen is taller than all her companions. The commanding stature impressed the
Greeks as being a near approach to the august forms of the goddesses. As one might
expect, the beauty of the women is not confined to the young girl between the ages
of seventeen and twenty. A Homeric woman remained beautiful for a generation or
two. Helen was, in the eye of the Greek, as beautiful at forty or fifty as she was at
twenty, and probably as attractive, if not more so. The Homeric Greek admired the
full-developed woman as much as the growing girl.

" Such, then, were these Homeric Greek women. The Greek race was the finest
race that ever existed in respect of physical development and intellectual power. Do
we not see, in the account that Homer gives of the women, something like an expla-
nation of the phenomenon ? A race of healthy, finely-formed women is the natural
antecedent to a race of men possessed of a high physical and intellectual organiza-
tion.

" When we pass from Homer, we enter a new region. We do not know how far
Homer's characters are historical. We cannot doubt that the manner and ways of
the men and women whom he describes were like those of the real men and women
among whom he lived. He may have idealized a little, but even his idealizations are
indicative of the current of his age. But we know little of the modes in which the
various states of Greece were constituted, and of the relations which subsisted between
them. We have to pass over a long period which is a practical blank, and then we
come to historical Greece. In historical Greece we have no unity of the Greek nation.
We have men of Greek blood, but these men did not dream of forming themselves
into one nation, ruled by the same laws, and mutually helpful of each other. The
Greek mind regarded the city as the greatest political organization possible, or at any
rate compatible with the adequate discharge of the functions of a state. And accord-
ingly if we could give a full account of woman in Greece, we should have to detail
the arrangements made in each particular state. There are no materials for such an
account if we wished to give it ; but even if there had been, it is probable that we
should not have learned much more than we learn from the histories of the two most
prominent of those states, Sparta and Athens. It is to the position and influence of
women in these states that we must turn our attention.

"To form anything like a just conception of the Spartan state, we must keep

748 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN

clearly in view the notion which the ancients generally, and the Spartans in particular,
had of a state. The ancients were strongly impressed with the decay and mortality
of the individual man ; but they felt equally strongly the perpetuity of the race
through the succession of one generation after another. Accordingly, when a state
was formed, the most prominent idea that pervaded all legislation was the perma-
nence of the state, and the continuance of the worship of the gods. They paid little
regard to individual wishes. They thought little of individual freedom. The
individual was for the state, not the state for the individual, and accordingly all
private and personal considerations must be sacrificed without hesitation to the
strength and permanence of the state. A peculiar turn was given to this idea
in Sparta. Prom the circumstances in which the Spartans were placed, they
had to make up their minds to be a race of soldiers. They had numerous slaves
in their possession to do everything requisite for procuring the necessaries of
life. They therefore had no call to labor. But if they were to retain their
slaves and keep their property against all comers, they must be men of strong
bodily configuration, hardy, daring, resolute. And as women were a necessary part
of the state, they must contribute to this result. The regulations made for this pur-
pose are assigned by the ancients to Lycurgus, but whether he was a real person, or
how far our information in regard to him is to be trusted, is a matter of no conse-
quence to us at present ; for there can be no doubt that his laws were in force dur-
ing the best period of Sparta's existence. And the laws bear on their front the pur-
pose for which they were made. All the legislation that relates to women has one
sole object, to procure a first-rate breed of men. The one function which woman
had to discharge was that of motherhood. But this function was conceived in the
widest range in which the Spartans conceived humanity. In fact, no woman can
discharge effectively any one of the great functions assigned her by nature, without
the entire cultivation of all parts of her nature. And so we see in this case. The
Spartans wanted strong men : the mothers, therefore, must be strong. The Spar-
tans wanted brave men : the mothers, therefore, must be brave. The Spartans
wanted resolute men — men with decision of character : the mothers must be resolute.
They believed, with intense faith, that, as are the mothers, so will be the children.
And they acted on this faith. They first devoted all the attention and care they
could to the physical training of their women. From their earliest days the women
engaged in gymnastic exercises ; and, when they reached the age of girlhood, they
entered into contests with each other in wrestling, racing, and throwing the quoit
and javelin. They engaged in similar contests with the young men, stripping like
them before assembled multitudes, and showing what feats of strength and agility
they could perform. In this way the whole body of citizens would come to know a
girl's powers ; there could be no concealment of disease ; no sickly girl could pass
herself off as healthy. But it was not only for the physical strength, but for the
mental tone, that the girls had to go through this physical exercise. The girls min-
gled freely with the young men. They came to know each other well. Long be-
fore the time of marriage, they had formed attachments and knew each other's char-
acters. And in the games of the young men nothing inspirited them so much as the
praise of the girls, and nothing was so terrible as the shouts of derision which greeted
their failures. The same influence made itself felt when they fought in battle.
The thought that, when they came home, they would be rapturously welcomed by
mother and sister, nerved many an arm in the time of danger. All the training an-

MARRIAGE AND TEE POSITION OF WOMEN. 749

terior to marriage was deliberately contrived to fit the Spartan women to be mothers.
And it is needless to say that all the arrangements in connection with marriage were
made solely for the good of the state. All the Spartan girls had to marry. No one
ever thought of not marrying. There was one exception to this. No sickly woman
was allowed to marry. The offspring must be healthy. And, indeed, if she had had
to consult her own feelings in Sparta, the sickly girl would of her own accord have
refrained from marriage. For the state claimed a right over all the children. They
were all brought very soon after birth before a committee appointed by government,
which examined into the form and probable healthiness of the child, and if the com-
mittee came to the conclusion that the child was not likely to be strong, its death
was determined cm^ 3nt there must have been very few sickly women among the
apartans. If a girl survived this first inspection, she had, as we have seen, her
trials to go through, and only the strong could outlive the gymnastic exercises, and
the exposure of their persons in all weathers during religious processions, sacred
dances, and physical contests. The age of marriage was also fixed, special care being
taken that the Spartan girls should not marry too soon. In all these regulations
the women were not treated more strictly than the men. The men also were prac-
tically compelled to marry. The man who ventured on remaining a bachelor was
punished in various ways. If a man did not marry on reaching a certain age, he
was forbidden to be present at the exercises of the young girls. The whole set of
them were taken one wintry day in each year, and, stripped of their clothing, went
round the agora singing a song that told how disgraceful their conduct was in diso-
beying the laws of their country — a spectacle to gods and men. The women also,
at a certain festival, dragged these misguided individuals round an altar, inflicting
blows on them all the time. Men were punished even for marrying too late, or for
marrying women disproportionately young or old.

" Such was the Spartan system. What were the results of it ? For about four
or five hundred years there was a succession of the strongest men that possibly ever
existed on the face of the earth. The legislator was successful in his main aim.
And I think that I may add that these men were among the bravest. They cer-
tainly held the supremacy in Greece for a considerable time through sheer force of
energy, bravery, and obedience to law. And the women helped to this high posi-
tion as much as the men. They were themselves remarkable for vigor of body and
beauty of form. A curious illustration of this fact occurs in one of the plays of
Aristophanes. An Athenian lady resolves to put an end to the war between the
Athenians and Lacedaemonians by combined action on the part of the wives from all
parts of Greece. She has summoned a meeting of them, and as Lampito the Lace-
daemonian wife comes in, she thus accosts her : '0 dearest Spartan, 0 Lampito,
welcome ! How beautiful you look, sweetest one, how fresh your complexion,
how vigorous your body! You could throttle an ox.' 'Yes,' says she, 'I think
" could, by Castor and Pollux, for I practice gymnastics and leap high.' They
were not, however, merely strong in body, but took a deep interest in all matters
that concerned the state. They sunk everything, even maternal feeling, in their
care for the community. Many stories and sayings to this effect have been
preserved. A Spartan mother sent her five sons to war, and, knowing that
a battle had taken place, she waited for the news on the outskirts of the city.
Some one came up to her and told her that all her sons had perished. ' You vile
slave,' said she, ' that is not what I wanted to know ; I want to know how fares my

750 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

country.' ' Victorious/ said he. ' Willingly then,' said she, ' do I hear of the death
of my sons.'

" Another, when burying her son, was commiserated by an old woman, who cried
out, ' Oh your fate ! ' ' Yes, by the gods,' said she, ' a glorious fate, for did not 1
Dear him that he might die for Sparta ? '

" And their courage was not merely of a daring and physical character. It was
a moral courage. A Spartan had been wounded in battle and compelled to crawl on
all- fours ; he seemed to feel ashamed of the awkwardness of his position. < How
much better it is,' said his mother, 'to rejoice on account of bravery, than be
ashamed on account of ignorant laughter ! '

"It might be supposed, that the peculiar training to which the women were sub-
jected might make them licentious and forward, but the testimony is strong that no
such results followed from free intercourse with the young men. Adultery was
almost entirely unknown.

" Plutarch tells the story that a stranger asked Geradas, one of the yery old Spar-
tans, what punishment their law appointed for adulterers. He answered, ' 0 stran-
ger, there is no adulterer in our country.' The stranger said, ' What if there should
be one ? ' 'He pays a fine,' said Geradas, ' of a bull so large, that stooping over
Taygetus it will drink out of the Eurotas.' When the stranger expressed his sur-
prise and said, 'But how could there ever be so large a bull ?' Geradas replied
with a smile, 'And how could there ever be an adulterer in Sparta ? ' This lan-
guage is perhaps too strong, and there were certain practices allowable which would
not be allowed in our communities. The one object of marriage was to produce
strong children, and any deviation from the ordinary arrangement by which one
woman was married to one man was not only deemed legitimate but praiseworthy, if
it secured strong children. In this way a weak man might lend his wife to a stronger,
and some women had two husbands. There is only one case on record of a Spartan
having two wives, and the case was singular. A greater latitude must have been
allowed to women. But all these cases must have been quite exceptional. The
wives were true to their husbands, the husbands fond and proud of their wives. A
poor maiden was asked what dowry she could give to her lover. ' Ancestral purity,'
she said. A person was sent to try to persuade a Lacedaemonian woman to aid in
some evil practice. ' When I was a girl,' she said, 'I was taught to obey my father,
and I obeyed him ; and when I became a wife I obeyed my husband ; if, therefore,
you have anything just to urge, make it known to him first.'

" Such were these Spartan women for many generations. No word of reproach
can be brought against them. It is true that the free intercourse of the young men
with the young women, and the slightness of the female garments, shocked the ordi-
nary Athenian, and expressions to this effect occur in some writers, especially Euripi-
des. But the general purity of the Spartan women is guaranteed by all the principal
writers who have dicussed the constitution of Sparta as it was during its supremacy
— by Plato, Xenophon, and Plutarch. No doubt the system labored under a
radical defect. It was exclusive ; it drove away all strangers ; it discouraged the
higher culture, at least in the case of the men ; and it suspected all the higher arts
as tending to luxury. And when the crisis came, and the old manners gave way,
vice and weakness rushed in, and men and women became equally bad. It is in the
latter period that the words of blame are heard. Plato justly criticises one marked
defect in the Spartan treatment of women. The lawgiver had looked on woman only

MABBIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 751

as a mother. He had lost sight of every other function. But women cannot spend
their whole lives as mothers. When their infants grew into hoyhood they were handed
over to the instruction of Spartan men. And then what function had the women to
discharge ? Lycurgus, or the Spartan lawgivers, took no thought of this. The
men were under strict regulation to the end of their days. They dined together on
the fare prescribed by the state. They were continually out on military service.
They had other employments assigned to them. But no regulations were made for
the women. They might live as they liked ; there was nothing to restrain their lux-
ury, and they were not taught the military art like the men. This neglect of the
half .of the city, Aristotle affirms, was followed by dire consequences. In his day,
the Spartan women were incorrigible and luxurious. He also affirms that the Spar-
tan system threw a great deal of land into the hands of the women, so that they pos-'
sessed two-fifths of it ; and finally he accuses the Spartan women of ruling their hus-
bands. Warlike men, he thinks, are apt to be passionately fond of the society of worn en.
' And what difference,' he says, ' does it make whether the women rule or the rulers
are ruled by the women ? for the result is the same.' There seems to have been some
truth in this last accusation. Many of the wives were better educated than their
husbands, and the fact was noticed by others. ' You of Lacedsemon,' said a stranger
lady to Gorgo, wife of Leonidas, ' are the only women in the world that rule the
men.' 'We,' she replied, 'are the only women that bring forth men.' There is a
great deal of point in what Gorgo said. If women bring forth and rear men, they
are certain to receive from them respect and tenderness ; for there is no surer test of a
man's real manhood, than his love for all that is noblest, highest, and truest in wo-
man, and his desire to aid her in attaining to the full perfection of her nature.

"The student of the history of woman is continually -reminded of the fact that,
when men lose their dignity and eminence, woman disappears from the scene, but
when they rise into worth, she again comes on the stage in all her power and tender-
ness. We have an instance before us. Sparta became degenerate. Her name almost
vanishes from the pages of the historian. But she was not to die without a final
struggle. In the middle of the third century before Christ, two kings of Sparta in
succession dreamed of putting down the luxury, and restoring the old Spartan disci-
pline and the old Lycurgan laws. And in the midst of their vigorous and heroic
efforts to effect this great change, women again play their part with energy and devo-
tion. The earliest of the two kings was the young and gentle Agis, and almost the
first person whom he consulted on his projected reforms was his mother, Agesistrata,
a woman of great wealth and influence. She was at first utterly taken aback, for the
project included the surrender of all her wealth. But at length she admired her son's
noble ambition, and set her mind, with the aid of some other like-minded women, on
procuring the support of the women of Sparta. The importance of such support could
not be over-estimated. 'They well knew,' says Plutarch, 'that the Lacedaemonian
men were always obedient to their wives, and that they allowed them to meddle in
public matters more than they allowed themselves to meddle in private affairs.' Be-
sides, the women had a great deal of property. Would they surrender their wealth r
Would they give up their luxurious habits ? Would they return to the old Spartan
simplicity ? No ; the movement seemed to have come too late. Some were willing
to sacrifice everything, but others would yield nothing, and a strong party was formed
against Agis. At first this party was put down with a high hand. Leonidas, the
leader, was driven into exile. The daughter of this man, Chelonis, is one of the

752 MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

great characters that emerged during these troublous times. She had been married
to Cleombrotus, who took the side of Agis. Chelonis was in straits what to do, but
she chose to follow the path where gentleness and tenderness were required. She left
her husband, and tended her father in distress, relieving his wants, soothing bis
troubles, and supplicating the victorious party in his behalf. At length the wheel
of fortune turned round. Leonidas became master of the situation. Agis and Cle-
ombrotus were in his hands. Chelonis at once fled from her father, and took her
^iace beside her husband. In the wretched robes which she had worn when plead-
ing for her father, she pleaded for her husband. After much entreaty she prevailed,
N.nd the life of her husband was spared, but he was condemned to exile. Chelonis
had again to make her choice. Her father urged her to stay with him, reminding
her of the kindness he showed her in sparing her husband, and promising every
comfort. But Chelonis did not hesitate. As Cleombrotus rose to go, she gave him
one of her children, and taking the other in her arms, and kissing the altar of the
goddess, she walked out with him to degradation and poverty. Justly does Plutarch
add the remark that, if Cleombrotus had not been entirely corrupted by vain glory,
he would have deemed exile with such a woman a greater blessing than any kingdom.
The fate of pure-minded Agis was worse than that of Cleombrotus. No mercy was
shown him, and he was put to death by strangulation. His mother, Agesistrata,
waited to hear what was to become of him. The officer, who knew that Agis was
dead, delusively told her that no violence would be done him. She wished to see
him, and take her old mother with her. Permission was granted. The two women
entered the prison. The doors were shut. The grandmother was requested to go into
the chamber where Agis was. She went in, and was strangled. Then Agesistrata
entered, and saw her son lying on the ground, and her mother hanging by a rope.
She calmly helped to take the dead body down, and stretching her alongside of Agis,
laid both the bodies out and covered them ; and, falling upon her son and kissing
him, she said, '0 my son, it is your gentleness and goodness that have ruined you.'
'If that is your opinion,' said the officer, 'you had better go the same way.' She
bravely held out her neck, and said, 'May this turn out for the good of Sparta !'
And thus was stamped out the first effort for the reformation of Sparta.

" The second is also remarkable for the nobility of the women who aided it.
Cleomenes, a man of great vigor and capacity, the son of Leonidas mentioned above,
came to the throne. His father had compelled him to marry Agiatis, the widow of
Agis ; but he soon began to love the noble and gentle lady. They talked much to-
gether about Agis and his projects, and Cleomenes at length resolved to carry out the
projected reforms. Again the young prince was helped most effectively by his mother,
Cratesicleia, who supplied him with resources, and even married again for his sake,
for she thereby secured the support of one of the most influential men in Sparta.
But again Destiny was too powerful for the reformer. He did, indeed, succeed in
introducing his reforms into Sparta, and in again giving her the foremost place in
Peloponnesus. But he awoke the jealousy of Aratus, the head of the Achaean League,
the Macedonian stranger was called in, and after a fatal battle, Cleomenes had to flee.
During the course of his struggles, his noble wife Agiatis died, and was bitterly
lamented. His mother, Cratesicleia, was always ready to help him, and stood by
him to the last. At one time he required the alliance of Ptolemy, King of Egypt,
but Ptolemy would not agree to it, unless the Spartan king sent his mother and child
as hostages. Cleomenes did not venture to mention this proposal to his mother, but

MABBIAOE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 753

the mother's keen eye observed that he was keeping some secret from her. At last
she prevailed upon him to disclose it, and on hearing it, she laughed loudly, and said,
' "Will you not send immediately this body where it is likely to be most useful to
Sparta, before it is dissolved by old age ? ' After she had gone to Egypt, she heard
that Cleomenes was afraid to take certain measures, because Ptolemy held his mother
and child as hostages, and she at once wrote to him, ' Do what is proper, and never
mind what becomes of an old woman and a little child.'

"The fate of Cleomenes was as tragic as that of Agis. He had sought shelter in
Sgypt, but found a prison there instead of a home. He and his companions deter-
mined to overpower the sentinels, break through the place of confinement, and rouse
the inhabitants to assert their liberty. They easily broke through their place of con-
finement, but they could not rouse the inhabitants, and so they resolved to die. Each
»ne killed himself except Panteus, the youngest and most beautiful among them. He
had been ordered by the king to wait till all had killed themselves. And so he did.
He went round all the bodies to see that they were dead, and then, kissing Cleomenes
and throwing his arms around him, he also killed himself. The Egyptian king ordered
the execution of all the women connected with the Spartans. The mother was brought
forth and stabbed. Other women also were put to death. But the most touching
of all was the end of the wife of Panteus. She was still very young and exquisitely
beautiful, and she was still in the raptures of first love. When her husband left Sparta
for Egypt, her father had refused to let her go with him, and confined her. But she
found means of escape. She mounted a horse, and rode to Tsenarus, and there em-
barked on a vessel sailing for Egypt. Now she moved about the women, encouraging
and consoling. She led Cratesicleia by the hand to the place of execution. She
decently laid out the bodies of the women who were slain ; and then, adjusting her
own robe so that she might fall becomingly, she offered herself to the executioner
without fear. Thus ended the second effort at Spartan reformation, and henceforth
autonomous Sparta and her women disappear from history. We may well conclude
the story with the closing words of Plutarch, who, thinking of the dramatic contests
which were held in Greece, says, ' Thus Lacedsemon, exhibiting a dramatic contest,
in which the women vied with the men, showed in her last days that Virtue cannot
be insulted by Fortune.' "
48

PART XVI.

MIDWIFERY, AND THE DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS
PECULIAR TO PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH.

CHAPTEE LX.

STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

In addition to the general explanation already given, there are some of the female
organs whose peculiar structure requires to be more fully noticed, on account of its
important influence on some of the processes hereafter to be described.

THE WOMB.

The external appearance of the womb, viewed in front, and in connection with its
appendages, is shown in previous Figures. It is placed in the pelvis, between the
bladder and the rectum, and at the top of the
vagina.

The length of the womb, after puberty,
is about three inches ; its breadth at the
upper part, or fundus, about two inches ; and
at the cervix, or neck, about one inch. The
cavity in the interior is small, owing to the
thickness of the walls, and its form is triangu-
lar. The shape of the womb resembles a
pear, somewhat flattened, from before back-
ward. Previous to puberty its size is much
smaller, and with those who have had chil-
dren it often exceeds the dimensions we have
given.

The neck, or narrow part is much changed
by pregnancy. In virgins it is long and
pointed, and somewhat enlarged in the mid-
dle. In those who have borne children it ^
considerably shorter, more obtuse, and less
regular in its form.

is larger in the middle than at either end, as a a a The solid walls of the womb cut
will be seen in the adjoining Figure. through, b. That part of the cavity, or hol-

m, .. „ :■■! j>v.i,„m„™i, „i„„ low of the womb, which is in the fundus, or

The os tinea, or mouth of the womb, also top c That part of the caTity which & in

undergoes considerable change from the same the lower part, or neck of the womb. d. The
cause. In the young person it is merely like J^^SS^} ftal^VS;
a small slit, scarcely to be felt, but after preg- which are cut off, and down the passages of
nancy it much enlarges, and remains more or 7££o?Z^\£llZ^ "' ^ °"
less permanently open. The anterior lip, or
the one in front, is somewhat larger than the posterior one.

The body of the uterus is formed of a very dense, gray-colored, muscular sub-

75?

,m , Figure 131. — Vertical section

I he cavity m the neck Womb and Vagina> natural size.

758

STRUCTURE OF TEE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

stance, possessing astonishing contractile power. The interior is lined, like the
vagina, with a mucous membrane, and the whole organ is plentifully supplied with
arteries, veins, and nerves.

One of the most remarkable properties of the womb is that of being able to dis-
tend to an extraordinary degree, and then retract again to nearly its original size.
The force which it sometimes exhibits during its contraction is very great, being suf-
ficient to separate, and even break the bones of the mother's pelvis, and paralyze the
hand of the operator when introduced. The muscular fibers on which this contrac-
tile force depends are most obvious during gestation ; they then appear very numer-
ous, and very curiously disposed, some of them ramifying in almost every direction,
as will be seen by the Figures below. It is owing to this that the womb contracts
in every conceivable direction, and thus presses, during labor, on every part of the
child's body.

Figure 134.

FlGTTEE 135.

The Muscular Fibers of the Womb.

Figure 132. — This represents the muscular fibers, a little exaggerated, so that they can he
more distinctly seen ; a a are the orifices of the Fallopian tubes.

Figure 133. — Represents the natural appearance, the fibers not being quite so distinct, though
sufficiently obvious ; a a the orifices of the Fallopian tubes.

In both figures the womb is supposed to be turned inside out, its peculiar structure being more
readily seen interiorly than exteriorly.

Figure 134.— This represents the appearance of the fibers externally, and shows how they ter-
minate in the round ligaments a a.

Figure 135.— The lines a b represent the direction of the force of the fundus fibers ; c a that
of the circular muscles of the body of the uterus ; d r the combined force of the muscles.

The dotted lines represent the force reflected by the liquor amnii ; the dotted curved lines the
direction of the circular fibers of the body of the uterus.

STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS. 759

THE VAGINA.

The vagina is a membranous canal, lined with a mucous membrane, like the uterus.
By its upper part it is attached to the neck of the womb, at about two-tbirds of its
height, so that two-thirds of the neck hang within the vagina. Below, it terminates
in the vulva, or external mouth. The upper part of the vagina is much larger
than the lower part, particularly in those who have borne children. It is capable of
considerable distension, and after retraction, to allow of the child passing down it
from the womb. The external mouth is called the vulva, and is usually partly
closed, in the virgin state, by the membrane called the hymen. The length of the
vagina is from three to five inches, and its diameter from one inch to one and a half,
or even two inches in those who have borne many children.

THE VULVA.

This is the external opening, or mouth of the vagina, through which the child
has to pass at the termination of delivery. The external and internal lips, with the
muscular and membranous tissue surrounding it, are all capable of great distension,
without injury, to allow of the passage of the child.

THE PEKINEUM.

This is the part situate between the vulva and the rectum. It is composed of
a somewhat dense and firm substance, chiefly muscular, and, like all the other parts
mentioned, is capable of great distension. It is important, in many of the manip-
ulations during labor, to be well acquainted with it ; and when the child's head
is passing the perineum requires supporting, to prevent its being lacerated or broken
through, an accident which often happens from want of due attention, and which
leads to the most serious consequences.

THE PELVIS.

The pelvis is that part of the bony structure, or skeleton, of the female, in which
the generative organs are placed, and through which the process of parturition is
effected. An acquaintance with its natural structure, and with the changes which
may be produced in its form and size, by disease and other accidents, is indispensa-
ble to those who wish to practice or understand midwifery.

In early life the pelvis is composed of several bones, many of which, after puberty,
grow together. In the adult female it is customary to speak of but four bones, the
sacrum, the coccygis, and the two innominata, or hip bones (see Figures 136, 137).
In the young female these are divided into several distinct parts.

These bones are all firmly bound together by a cartilaginous substance, which is
placed between where they touch, and is firmly attached to each one. This union
is called a symphysis. The one at front which joins the pubic bones is called the
symphysis pubis ; the two which join the ossa ilii to the sacrum are called the sacro-
iliac symphysis ; and that which joins the coccygis to the sacrum is called the sacro-
coccygeal symphysis. The two pubic bones are separated a little in Figure 136,
simply to show them better. The reader will bear in mind that they are naturally
connected by the cartilaginous substance which forms the symphysis.

760

STRUCTURE OF J. HE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

These articulations, or joinings, oeoome much softened during labor, and give
way a little, but not to any extent sufficient to assist delivery. It is a mistake to
suppose that the bones separate at that time. The only part that gives way is the
sacro-coccygeal symphysis, which does relax, and allows the os coccygis to be pushed
back by the child's head a full inch or more, thus enlarging the inferior strait. (See
c and o, Figure 137.) Sometimes this little bone will be even broken off, when
there is great disproportion between the head and the strait. I have heard it snap
like a stick breaking. There is nothing serious or alarming in this, however, unless
it be a first delivery late in life, though it may cause some pain at the time, and a
little difficulty in sitting for some time after. In young persons the symphysis is

Figure 136.— Bones of the pelvis.

Figure 137.

Figure 136. — The four principal bones asfoundin mature life. — A. A. The ossa ilii, or ossa in.
nominata, commonly called the haunch, or hip bones. B. The os sacrum, or lower part of the
back bone. 0. The extreme termination of the back bone, called the os coccygis.

The divisions into parts, as in early life. — The ilium, A, on each side is in three parts ; the
ilium, properly so called, marked aa; the pubis, marked b b ; and the ischium, marked c c. The
sacrum is in five parts, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

d is the last bone of the spine, which joins the sacrum ; e e are the sockets in which the
upper parts of the thigh bones fit, forming the hip joints ; g g the two rings formed by the bones
of the pubes and ischium, each called the foramen magnum.

Figure 137. — Section of the pelvis, to show the shape and connection of those parts not dis-
tinctly visible in the full view. The section is made down the middle of the back bone, and
through the symphysis pubis in front. The letters correspond with those in Figure 136.

A. The right ilium. B. The sacrum. G. The coccygis. b. The os pubis, c. The os ischinum.
g. The foramen magnum, o. shows the manner in which the coccygis is bent back through
labor.

soft and gives way easily, so that they have little difficulty during delivery from this
cause ; but if a female marry late in life, after it becomes hardened, she may suffer
considerably. In this case the coccygis is usually curved inward considerably, and
being firmly fixed, the head cannot push it back, and on that account cannot pass
witbout great difficulty, and with the risk of rupturing some of the soft parts, or
breaking the coccygis completely off. There is, in fact, great difficulty and some
danger, if the first pregnancy takes place late in life.

The pelvis is usually divided into two parts — the great pelvis, or upper part
inclosed between the wide flanges of tbe ossa ilii and the upper part of the sacrum ;
and the small pelvis, or basin, which is inclosed between the lower part of the sacrum
and coccygis behind, and the ossa ischii and ossa pubis in front. The basin is nearly
cylindrical, larger in the middle, and curved towards the front.

STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

761

The Straits of fhe Pelvis. — The bones of the pelvis, it will be seen, form a kind
of broad ring, or cylinder, particularly in the basin ; and the straits are two pas-
sages, one by which the child passes into the basin from the upper pelvis, and the
other by which it passes out from the basin into the world.

In Figure 137, the line marked f is the antero-posterior diameter of the uppei
strait, through wbich the child first passes, called also the brim, or entrance to the
pelvis. The line marked J is the diameter of the lower strait, through which the
child passes into the world, called also the outlet of the pelvis. In Figure 136 the
line marked f crosses the upper strait, or brim of the pelvis.

The diameters of the pelvis are the distances between the prominent points of
each strait, and are four in number for each, those for the upper strait being repre-
sented below

-Diameters of the Upper Strait.

Figube139. — Tlie Bones of the Pelvis viewed from
below, looking through the inferior strait, to show its
diameters.

A B, which extends from the end of the coccy-
gis to the lower part of the symphysis pubis, is
called the antero-posterior diameter ; it measures
four inches, like that of the upper strait, but is in-
creased a little by the bending back of the coccy-
gis. C D. and E F, are the two oblique diameters,
also corresponding to those in the upper strait ;
they measure four inches, but are increased a little
by the giving way of the soft parts. 0 H, is the
transverse, or bis-ischiatic diameter ; it measures
four inches.

A B, which extends from the most prominent
point of the sacrum, to the top of the symphysis
pubis, is called the antero-posterior diameter, or
that from before to behind. C D, and E F, are
called the two oblique diameters ; they extend from
each sacro-iliac symphysis, to the most prominent
point of the os iliuni, on the opposite side. O H,
is called the transverse, or bis-iliac diameter ; it
crosses the pelvis, nearly from one hip joint to the
other.

The sacro-antero-posterior diameter measures
four inches. The two oblique diameters four inch-
es and a half each. The bis-iliac diameter meas-
ures five inches.

The inferior strait has also four diameters, rep-
resented in Fig. 139.

It will thus be seen that the diameters only average from four to five inches, but
it must be remembered that the soft parts, and even one of the bones, very readily
give way, and thus they are slightly increased.

"When we come to describe the form and size of the foetal child's head, it will be
found that its diameters correspond very nearly with those of the pelvic straits
through which it has to pass, so that ordinarily labor presents no serious difficulty.
If the head be larger than natural, from any cause, or if the pelvis be too small, or
deformed, this mutual adaptation does not exist, and delivery of course becomes
difficult, or dangerous, and sometimes impossible. The only obstacle therefore,
which can seriously impede the expulsion of the foetus, or prevent it altogether, is
this want of conformity, in size and shape, between its head and the bones of the

762 STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

pelvis. The soft parts may retard labor considerably, by being contracted or rigid,
but can generally be made to give way, either by the efforts of nature or by manual
assistance ; and the foetal head can be reduced in size if necessary ; but insufficient
size, or faulty form, in the bones of the pelvis, is irremediable.

The various causes which produce deformity, or imperfect development, in the
pelvis, and unnatural growth of the child's head, will be stated in a subsequent chap-
ter. For the present, we bave only to do with both in the normal state.

The importance of an accurate knowledge of the structure of the pelvis, and of
the changes which may be induced in it, will now be obvious ; neither the theory
nor the practice of midwifery can in fact be understood without such knowledge.
It is also frequently of the first importance to know, previous to marriage, whethei
the pelvis of a young person is so formed that delivery can be safely effected ! Inat-
tention to this has sacrificed the lives of many, and caused others to live for years
suffering and helpless. In another place we shall give some plain rules and direc-
tions by which this important point may be determined.

Tlie Floor of the Pelvis.— -The soft parts at the
bottom of the basin of the pelvis, consisting of the
perineum and various muscles, are called the
floor of the pelvis — the only passage through
which is by the vulva, or mouth of the vagina.
As the head of the child descends to the bottom
of the basin, it presses upon this floor, and grad-
ually distends it, until the vulva is sufficiently
enlarged. This delay is advantageous, for if the
passage was always large enough, or increased in
size without any difficulty, the child would pass
too suddenly, and much mischief might often re-
sult from its sudden expulsion — such as pulling

. ' , down of the womb, flooding, and the falling of

The axis, or direction, of the upper ,. . .. n ., ,

strait is denoted by the line A, that of the child upon the ground,
the lower strait by the line 5, and that Direction of the Passaqe of the Pelvis.— In

of the vulva by the line C. The force , „ , , ,'■' . , f, » ,-, ■,

of expulsion tending to push the child most of the lower animals the passage of the pel-
in each direction, it has to traverse a Yis is straight, and on a line with the body, the
path intermediate with them all, or , . .. , . ., i ,-, i • 1

compounded of them all, not being able tw° straits Demg opposite each other, which
to move in either alone. This aggre- makes delivery much more easy with them. Even

gate direction is denoted by the dotted . ,n -, ,-. * • „ „„„„„ +i,„ „„„

curved line, which shows the direction "i the negroes, and other inferior races, the pas-
in which the child passes, and in which sage is much straighter than in the whites. The
duced8^ mUSt be PaSSed WhGn intr°" more perfect the organization therefore, the more
I is the perineum. The dotted line difficult is parturition ; and the more imperfect
SSf-SlSld fTX^strir or simple the organization, the more easy is par-
turition. The direction of the passage of the
pelvis, in the human female is a curve, so that the child has to move during its
passage in a circle.

It is a great mistake to suppose, as some do, that parturition necessarily imposes
upon a woman suffering and danger ; or that these constitute a curse from which
she cannot escape !

All undue pain, and all danger, from childbirth, result simply from some infringe-
ment of natural law, and need not be incurred. If the female be healthy, and well

STRUCTURE OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS AND PARTS.

763

formed, and no accident or imprudence occur during gestation, she need neither
suffer nor be in peril.

From ignorance, and consequent wrong living, her hody becomes ill-formed and
feeble, and her nervous system deranged, so that when her travail comes she is unfit
to undergo it, and hence her suffering and danger.

Perhaps even before she was born this unfavorable condition was established,
more or less, by the faults of her ancestors, recent or remote, who thus left to her the
penalty of their wrong-doing, to transmit perhaps to her child in its turn.

In the savage state women are spared most of those dangers and sufferings which
usually fall to the lot of their civilized sisters. And even refined and delicate ladies,
under the stimulus of unusual peril, have passed through their ordeal with surpris-

Figuee 141.-

tha membranes.

Figure 145.—

Form of foitus at

45 days.

FlGtTHE 144.

ing ease, and perfect safety. Lady Sale, for instance, in the disastrous retreat of the
British troops, from Afghanistan, was delivered in the midst of all the confusion and
terror incident to such an event, and without help or rest pressed on with the flying
soldiers, on horseback, and got through in safety. Under ordinary circumstances,
at home, even moving from one room to another might have caused her death ; but
in the fearful Khyber Pass the greater fear overcame. the lesser, and parturition did
Hot even hinder her flight.

"When the laws of physical health and development are fully understood, and
a'cted upon, women will not dread becoming mothers, because they will have no reason
to fear either pain or peril. Perfect in form there will be no difficulty when their
children are born, nor any suffering, more than they can easily and gladly endure.
Their children also will be perfect like themselves, instead of being, as they too often
are now, diseased and misformed even while still in the womb.

The only curse is ignorance, and when that is removed pain and sorrow, as con-
nected with the birth of man, will cease forever.

CHAPTEK LXI.

THE BREAST.

The breasts, or mammce, are not needed in the process of generation, nor are they
absolutely necessary even after birth ; but as they are naturally associated, in the

majority of cases, with infantile nutri-
tion, and are besides liable to many
derangements and diseases during preg-
nancy and childbirth, it is advisable
to give some account of them.

"When one of the breasts is dissected
it is found to be composed chiefly of
a singular body called the mammary
gland, which resembles somewhat a
very firm piece of fat, of a yellowish-
drab color. In the substance of thin
gland are an immense number of little
cells, or vessels, in which, by some un-
explainable process, the milk is se-
creted, or made from the blood. From
these little vessels there proceed small
tubes, which gradually unite into larger
ones, and these again into larger ones
still, until at last all the milk is poured
into a few tubes, or canals, which ter-
minate in the nipple. The outer
mouths of these terminal canals are
only slightly contracted together, so
that the suction of the child's mouth,
or even the pressure of the milk when
the breast is full, will force them open
and allow the fluid to flow out.
Sometimes there have been seen two and even three nipples on one breast, and in
a few cases one of the breasts has had no nipple at all. The two glands are not im-
mediately connected, but have a very intimate sympathy with each other. The size
of the breast depends more upon the thickness of the layer of fatty substance, than
upon the development of the gland, so that one female, with a very full bosom, may
have but little milk, while another, whose breast is but little prominent, may have a
superabundance. The graceful swell of the fully developed breast is, however, a
matter of positive utility, as well as of beauty, because it better adapts it to the use

Figure 146.

a. a. The cut edges of the skin. b. b. The flaps
of the skin thrown back. c. c. c. The fat which
covers the breast, d. d. The cells of the mammary
gland, e. e. e. The tubes or canals which convey
the milk from the gland to the nipple. /. The nip-
ple cut down the middle, to show the ends of the
milk tubes terminating in it ; these are usually
about fifteen or eighteen in number x. shows a
bunch of the little cells, with the tubes proceeding
from them, as they appear when injected.

THE BREAST. 765

of the child, and probably also adds to its pleasure, as any one may readily conceive
who will observe the delight with which an infant, even when not nursing, will
often caress it. Sir Astley Cooper says : " The natural obliquity of the mammella, or
nipple, forward and outward, with a slight turn of the nipple upward, is one of
the most beautiful provisions in nature, both for the mother and the child. To the
mother, because the child rests upon her arm and lap in the most convenient position
for sucking ; for if the nipple and breast had projected directly forward, the child
must have been supported before her, in the mother's hands, in a most inconvenient
and fatiguing position, instead of its reclining upon her side and arm. But it is
wisely provided by nature, that when the child reposes upon its mother's arm it has
its mouth directly applied to the nipple, which is turned outward to receive it,
whilst the lower part of the breast forms a cushion upon which the cheek of the in-
fant tranquilly reposes."

With the exception of the dark areola, or circle, and the little tubercles around
the nipple, the breast is of the most delicate structure and color, so that it blushes,
or reddens, like the cheek, from any sudden emotion, and goes pale during faint-
ing.

As a general rule, no milk is secreted in those who have not become pregnant,
nor in those who have passed the turn of life, but occasionally exceptions are observed
to this rule.

Baudelocque tells us of a girl only eight years of age, who suckled her little brother
more than a month ! And Sir Hans Sloane tells us of a lady aged sixty-eight,
who nursed several of her grandchildren, though she had had no child herself for
twenty years ! Dr. Francis, of New York, describes the case of a lady who con-
tinued to secrete milk regularly for fourteen years after having lost her child, so
that she could always nurse an infant ; and Dr. Kennedy relates an instance of an-
other who continued to suckle children, uninterruptedly, for forty-seven years, and
who had milk perfectly sweet and good even when eighty-one years old ! Dr. Clark,
of Alabama, informs us that a married lady, who had never been pregnant, was re-
quested to take charge of an infant during the night, and that to quiet it she had
put her nipple in its mouth. This was done frequently, and, to the great surprise
of all, it induced a flow of milk. A singular circumstance connected with this was,
that the lady soon after became pregnant, though previously barren ! This will not
appear so surprising, however, to those who know the connection between the breasts
and the womb, and who have observed the mysterious bond of sympathy by which
their functions are united. (See the articles on Menstruation, and on Sterility, in
the chapters on Diseases of Woman, for other instances of this kind.)

The structure of the male breast is precisely the same as that of the female, but
it is seldom developed. Instances have been known, however, of the milk being
secreted in men, and of children having been nourished by it ! Humboldt gives us
an instance of this land, and Professor Hull, of Maryland, exhibited a colored man
to his class, in the year 1827, who had a large full bosom, like a female, and who
had often officiated as wet nurse in the family of his mistress. The secretion appears
to have been established by his putting the children that he had to nurse to the nip-
ple, to quiet them. "When the milk was not needed, it was found as difficult to dry
it up as it is in some females, but it was soon made to flow again, by applying a
child to the breast for a few times. This man differed in no other respect from any
other man !

766 THE BREAST.

In the females of some races of the human kind, the mammae attain a surprising
length, and become very flaccid, so that they hang down to the hips, or lower, and
may be thrown over the shoulder for the child to nurse from while carried on the
back. Some suppose this to constitute a real variety of the human race, but others
suppose it to result merely from habit, which is probably correct.

"When the breasts are small sized in young females, their growth may often be
promoted, but the means need not be pointed out here.

CHAPTER LXII.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

It is always desirable, and frequently of the first importance, both to the accouch-
eur and to the individual, to be able to know whether a female is pregnant or not,
or even to be able to judge whether she is probably or possibly so, or not. Some-
times this can be decided positively, but more frequently it is a matter of great un-
certainty. The presumptive and positive signs on which a judgment can be formed
are of various kinds, most of which can be readily observed, and easily made use of
by any person in possession of the information already given in the preceding articles.
They will be set forth in the following chapter, together with such other matter as
appertains to this part of the subject, in such a manner as will make them available
either for professional or for private use.

The signs of pregnancy are of three kinds — presumptive, probable, and certain.

PRESUMPTIVE SIGNS. .

The presumptive signs of pregnancy are only of value in the first three months.
They consist mainly of certain nervous and organic derangements, and of certain
changes in personal appearance. It is scarcely possible to enumerate all these, nor is
it necessary ; we shall therefore only specify those most important, and most gener-
ally met with.

Colic pains, and creeping of the skin, with shuddering and fainting fits, very
frequently follow immediately on conception, and in many females inform them when
that event occurs. Some persons speak of other sensations, of a peculiar nature, by
which they always know, in their own cases, when they conceive ; but these sensar
tions are felt by so few, and are so little capable of being explained or observed, that
they are of no general use. In most cases, within tiie first three months, and some-
times in the first three days, the face changes remarkably. The eyes are sunk and
dull, and surrounded by a black circle, the nose seems pinched up, the skin turns
pale, and red spots, or freckles, frequently appear. Many females also complain of a
husky dry throat, numbness in the hands and feet, and a sudden sinking at the
heart. These signs, however, are very uncertain guides ; very often none of them
are felt at all during pregnancy, and sometimes they are all experienced from other
causes. One of the most constant signs, according to some, and the most to be
relied upon, is an increase in the size of the neck. This I know is often very appa-
rent, and at a very early period. I am acquainted with females who, by simply
keeping the measure of their necks, can always tell when they are pregnant. The
increase is often considerable in a few days. In young persons of a certain tempera-
ment however, the neck is apt to swell merely from marriage, though they do not

767

768 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

conceive ; and some old nurses, we are told, being acquainted with this fact, judge
of the honesty of their unmarried charges by such admeasurements !

This singular development is owing, probably, to a sympathetic connection
between the uterine organs and certain parts of the brain and large nerves in the
neck.

Suppression of the menses is one of the strongest presumptive signs of pregnancy
that can be observed, but does not always accompany it, and frequently arises from
other causes. In the great majority of cases, it is true, the menses cease to flow,
immediately conception occurs ; sometimes they will continue for one or more
periods after, and occasionally during the whole time of gestation, even up to a few
days before delivery. This, however, is a very unusual occurrence, and the stoppage
of the menses is by no means so strong a sign that pregnancy has occurred, as their
continuance is that it has not. Some females are always irregular, so that pregnancy
makes little difference, and in them of course these signs are even less to be depended
upon than usual. There have cases even been known of women who have conceived
without having menstruated, and of others who never menstruated except when
they were pregnant ; and it is not at all unusual to see others who will conceive while
nursing, and never menstruate between the two pregnancies. Therefore we can
only say that the menses usually stop when conception occurs, and that their con-
tinuance is strong evidence that it has not occurred, but still both signs may fail.

It is also proper to remark that several medical men have advanced the opinion
that the discharge which appears during pregnancy is not the menstrual fluid, but
real blood. It has however been accurately examined, and found in no respect
to differ from the usual discharge. In my own opinion there is no doubt but that
some females really do menstruate while pregnant.

As an instance that the presence of the menses is no proof that pregnancy has not
occurred, I give the following case : — Not long since I was requested to see a lady
who was supposed to labor under a polypus in the womb. She had been married six
years, but had no offspring. On seeing her I suggested, from certain peculiarities in
her appearance and manner, that possibly she might be pregnant. The suggestion
was met with a smile, particularly by the medical attendant who was present, and
I was told that there was no sign of such a thing, and moreover it could not be,
for she had never stopped menstruating, nor was there the slightest change in the
breasts, nor any disturbance in the stomach, mind, or feelings. On making the
usual examination however, I felt fully convinced I was right, and told them so, but
my opinion had no other effect than to induce them not to interfere for a time.
They had been talking of an operation immediately. She still continued to men-
struate for three months after, but in six weeks from her last period was safely
delivered, without assistance, of a very fine living child. No part of the body had
undergone any material change, except the abdomen, though many of the usual
changes occurred after delivery. In this case the delay probably saved the lives
of both mother and child, and deeply grateful they all were for the escape. Many
fatal cases are on record of pregnant females who have been killed from mistakes of
this kind, owing to a blind reliance on such uncertain signs.

Disturbance of the Digestive Functions. — It is very seldom, indeed, that preg-
nancy does not produce more or less disturbance in these functions, though it must
be remarked that marriage also does the same sometimes, even without conception.
These disturbances are generally manifested by loss of appetite ; sickness, particu-

SIGH'S OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT. 7(39

larly in the morning ; vomiting, and depraved taste ; the individual frequently
taking a fancy to the most extraordinary articles, and making herself extremely
unhappy if she cannot obtain them. Thus some have eaten flies, spiders, mice, and
other living things, and others again have regaled themselves upon charcoal, chalk,
slate pencils, and even earth or ashes. Such freaks are called longings, and it is
thought highly improper not to indulge them, which is certainly right when they
are for articles not positively injurious ; but I have known this notion carried to
a very hurtful and absurd extent. There is no doubt but these vagaries of the
stomach arise, mainly, from its sympathy with the uterus, but it is highly probable
that they are often exaggerated, and frequently even produced, by a morbid state of
the sensibilities, and by vacuity of mind. The tendency to imitation also, so strong
in most females, often leads to the same result. A young female who is declared to
be, or who fancies herself, pregnant, listens eagerly to all that is said about that
interesting state, by older acquaintances, and when told that they always longed,
immediately begins to long also. I have known young persons considerably
advanced in gestation, who had never longed at all before, do so immediately after
a conversation of this kind. It must be remembered however, that the sympathies
of the digestive organs with the womb are very strong, and that the appetite and
taste are frequently rendered very capricious at this time, so that the female really
likes or dislikes many things that she did not before ; but still I feel convinced that
the absurd ways in which this caprice exhibits itself, are often owing to the cause I
have stated. The wondering ignorance, in which most females are kept, makes
them disposed to be led away by a morbid imagination, and constantly liable to be
imposed upon by silly and erroneous statements, which they of course implicitly
believe. These longings are always the strangest, and most frequently met with,
among the most uninformed and unthinking, though they are occasionally met with
under all circumstances. As a sign of pregnancy, this longing is not much to be
relied upon alone, because marriage alone often produces it, and so do many uterine
derangements.

Usually all these disturbances disappear by the third or fourth month, the appe-
tite becomes regular, and sometimes even voracious, and the digestion improves, so
that the individual may become quite fat, though previously she was very thin.

Some suffer from constipation, and others from diarrhoea, but this is more rare.

Nervous Derangements. — The changes produced in the minds and feelings of preg-
nant females are sometimes of the most extraordinary character. Individuals who
possess ordinarily the most agreeable tempers and the most amiable dispositions, will
become peevish and fretful, and often even violently passionate and malicious. Some
have even been known to have a disposition to commit various crimes, of which they
had the greatest horror in their natural state. Others, on the contrary, who are usu-
ally ill-tempered and unhappy, attain a charming tenderness of manner, and a most
pleasing serenity of mind. Their likings and dislikings also change very much, so
that their most valued friends will become hateful to them, and those whom they
habitually dislike will seem endowed with every lovable quality. Some will become
perfect misanthropes, or weep and fret without intermission, while others will exhibit
the most reckless and boisterous gayety. I have known some much disposed to study
while pregnant, and others who would draw or paint most excellently, though at
other times they were but indifferent artists. In short, it is impossible to denote half
the singular changes of this kind that are thus produced. Suffice it to say, that

770 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

when well marked, they are strong presumptive signs of pregnancy, especially when
coming in connection with other evidences. It must be remembered, however,
that hysteria, and some other uterine diseases, are often accompanied by similar
changes.

Alteration in the Appearance of the Breast. — The direct and sympathetic connec-
tion between the womb and the breast is so great tbat pregnancy usually causes cor-
responding changes in both, though not always. In most cases, however, tbe breasts
swell and become painful. The nipple becomes elevated, and the circle around it
assumes a dark brown color, and is dotted with small tubercles, from which a thin
watery liquor may often be pressed. The nipple will also enlarge, or become erect on
being rubbed, and as gestation advances milk may be forced from it. Most Of these
signs, however, may be wanting in pregnancy, and may arise independent of it.
Chronic inflammation and other diseases of the womb, or deranged menstruation, will
frequently produce them, or marriage alone, particularly in certain temperaments.

The alteration in the color of the areola, or circle around the nipple, is a sign much
relied upon by some, but is frequently a deceptive one, merely from want of close
observation. I have known many females, though frequently mothers, whose breasts
always retained the bright rosy color they had previous to marriage ; and I have
known young unmarried females with breasts quite dark. The peculiar hue that
arises from pregnancy, however, is different from anything I ever saw in non-pregnant
females ; and though not always to be met with, is, in my opinion, an infallible sign
when present. The celebrated John Hunter regarded the sign as an unmistakable
one, and he gave a remarkable instance of it in his lectures. In making a, post mor-
tem examination of the body of a young female, he observed this peculiar color, and
at once proclaimed her pregnant, though the hymen was unbroken. On dissection, he
was found to be correct ; she was four months advanced. If this sign were constant,
pregnancy could nearly always be ascertained, but
frequently it does not appear. The peculiar color
must be seen to be recognized, as it cannot be ac-
curately described ; perhaps the nearest approach
to it is the shell of a fresh ripe chestnut, but it is
much darker in some than in others. The dark

™T_ ..„ ~. ... -r, , , ■ circle is nearly always more elevated than the
Pigurs 147.— View of the Breast about ,.,-,, , , , ,.

the Fourth Month. rest of the breast, as may be seen by taking a pro-

file view.
a a, the breast ;b, the nipple : c, the _r ." „ , . , , , „

areola, or part which becomes brown ; Most frequently the breasts do not swell, nor
it is elevated above the rest of the the areola change color, nor the tubercles ap-
breast, as may be seen ; d d, the little .... , , ° , , , ,. . „ ,t

tubercles. pear, till about the fourth month, and- frequently

much later.

All these changes in the breast are also liable to become more or less permanent,
after the first pregnancy, so that they are of much less service, and less to be depended
upon, in all succeeding ones. They also remain, with most females, during nursing,
and are therefore not available in those who conceive while they are nursing. On
the whole, however, these signs, especially in those not previously pregnant, may be
pretty confidently relied upon, and will seldom deceive an experienced observer.

Tlie secretion of milk is, by most persons, considered a positive sign of pregnancy,
but it is not so, for it sometimes takes place in young girls merely from the estab-
lishment of puberty, and in some females it always occurs at each monthly period,

SIGHS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT. 771

though, they have never been pregnant. Instances have been known of women nurs-
ing other people's children though they had never conceived themselves.

Miscellaneous Signs. — There are a few other presumptive signs, not easily classi-
fied, some of which are of value, while others are so uncertain, or so little available,
as to be almost worthless. All these, however, it is necessary to point out, because
some of them may be made use of in cases where the more ordinary signs are absent.

In the unimpregnated state, the mucous membrane which lines the vagina is of a
bright rose color, but in nearly every case of pregnancy it changes to a bluish, or pur-
plish hue. I do not recollect a single instance, in the course of my own observation,
in which this change has not occurred, and the same statement is made by several
eminent authors. It is true that in some young females the mucous lining is natu-
rally darker than it is in others, but, like the areola round the nipple, this natural
tinge is not like that produced by pregnancy. It is of course impossible to say
whether this blue tinge is always produced, though I am inclined to think it is, and
I should certainly consider it an almost infallible sign when present. Parent Du-
chatelet states that he was present when M. Jacquemin proved this, without a single
failure, in four thousand Jive hundred cases.

Many females are also warned of their condition by pains in various parts of their
bodies, the most frequent of which is one felt at the top of the head. Some always
have palpitation at the heart, and others experience a singular kind of fluttering in
the womb.

Many medical men rely altogether on certain peculiarities in the urine, and, as
this sign is really a valuable one in some cases, I will describe the mode of examina-
tion fully : The urine is put in a clean vessel, and allowed to stand perfectly still.
In a short time, varying from two to six days, a number of little opaque bodies begin
to rise from the bottom, like flocks of cotton, which unite together at the top into a
thin but firm layer, or pellicle, like cream on the top of milk. This layer is fre-
quently so consistent that it can almost be raised out of the vessel by taking hold of
one edge, and may be easily drawn out by passing the finger under it. This sub-
stance is called hyestein. It is of a whitish color, semi-transparent, and looks as if
it were partly crystallized. After a few days, if left undisturbed, the urine becomes
thick and muddy, and the pellicle of kyestein breaks up and falls to the bottom.
According to the experience of many medical men, and so far as I have seen myself,
this peculiar substance is always to be found in the urine of pregnant females, after
the first month, and frequently even earlier. Sometimes a substance similar to it is
observed in the urine of those not pregnant, but there is, in most of these cases, suffi-
cient difference between them to enable any one, who has seen both, to distinguish
one from the other. The only time, except during gestation, when real kyestein
appears to be formed, is while the milk is being secreted and not freely discharged.
Thus it may often be found when the female is weaning, and, some writers assure
us, in some cases during the whole period of nursing. On the whole, this sign is a
very valuable one, and may be much relied upon.

The changes in the pulse, on which some persons rely, are of no value whatever
as a sign of pregnancy, since they are no more frequent, and not at all different, so
far as I have seen, from what ordinarily occur from other causes.

The development of the abdomen, though an invariable accompaniment of preg-
nancy, is by no means a certain sign of it, since it may be produced by other causes ;
and besides, it is sometimes but little to be observed till a late period. The peculiar

772 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

manner of the development, however, is usually somewhat different from that pro-
duced by tumors, and other diseases. Very often the abdomen will be tolerably large
by the second month, and then again become so much smaller that the female will
think she is certainly not pregnant. This is owing chiefly to flatulence, produced
by digestive disturbance during the early periods, but which afterward subsides. In
a short time, however, the uterus not only enlarges more, but rises, and the develop-
ment becomes permanent. This circumstance of there being often two developments
has deceived many, and I have known females declared to be not pregnant, simply
because the development of the abdomen went down, who, in a short time after, ex-
hibited unequivocal evidences of being in that condition. The first development, or
swelling, is merely similar to what often arises from indigestion, and other causes,
and is therefore no sign of pregnancy ; but the second development is accompanied
by other changes, besides being more permanent.

The linea alba, or white line, which maybe seen extending from the navel to the
pubis, in the ordinary state, becomes much darker, the skin of the abdomen wrinkles,
and the umbilicus, or navel, becomes prominent.

Swelling of the eyelids, and puffing of the face, are experienced by some females,
but are not very general, and so frequently result from other causes that they are of
little value as evidences in this case.

This, I believe, comprises all the presumptive signs of pregnancy that are worthy
of notice. Some of them are valuable and may be depended upon, particularly the
presence of kyestein in the urine, which may almost be called a certain sign. Others
of them are of little value alone, but are useful in the way of corroboration. The
more there are of them observed together, in any case, of course the more grounds
there are for the presumption that pregnancy exists, and the reverse.

It must be carefully remembered, however, that these presumptive signs are pre-
cisely those most likely to be produced by other causes, particularly by marriage
only ;. they must therefore be well weighed, and, unless very numerous, or very dis-
tinctly marked, must not be regarded as conclusive. As already remarked, it is only
during the first three months that most of these presumptive signs are taken much
notion of ; after that we have others that can be more depended upon, and which
will be described in the succeeding articles.

PKOBABLE AND CERTAIN SIGN'S.

End of the third month. — The probable signs now to be described are seldom
recognized before this time, and not generally with distinctness till a still later
period. They chiefly consist of certain changes in the form, development, and posi-
tion of different parts of the uterus, to ascertain which requires an internal examina-
tion. These changes are not observable till the end of the third month, previous to
which time we cannot be certain that the womb has really increased beyond its nor-
mal size. And even then, when the increase is obvious, we cannot tell how it has
been produced ; it is not till a much later period, till five or six or even seven months
have elapsed, that pregnancy can be ascertained with anything like certainty.

The changes to be noticed are in the form and size of the neck and body of the
womb, and in its mouth, and also in the weight of the whole organ. No one, of
course, can expect to recognize these changes who is not acquainted with the parts
in the unimpregnated state, both in the virgin and in those who have borne children.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

773

The mode of conducting the requisite examination is by introducing the index
finger of the right hand, covered with oil or mucilage, into the vagina, and then
carrying it upward till it reaches the os tincae. By means of this finger the position
and length of the neck of the womb are ascertained, and also the state of its mouth,
whether it is opened or closed, and to what extent. If it be then placed at the top of
the neck, on the under side, and the other hand upon the fundus of the womb ex-
ternally, and pressing firmly upon it, the organ is inclosed, as it were, between the
two hands, so that its size and form may be pretty accurately ascertained, and also
its degree of firmness, by which a judgment may be formed as to whether it is occu-
pied by any solid body, or fluid, or whether it is empty. In addition to this, a tolerably

Figure 150.

The form and size of the body, neck, and mouth of the womb, at about the third, seventh, and ninth
months.

Figure 148 represents the form and size of the body, neck, and mouth of the womb, at about
the third month.

Figure 149, the same at about the seventh month.

Figure 150, the same at the ninth month.

The references are the same in all. a. The neck of the womb. — b. b. The body of the womb.
— c. The os tincae, or mouth of the womb. — d. d. The cut edges of the vagina.

accurate estimate may be made of its comparative weight, by balancing and raising
it up on the finger. This is called by the French ballotment, and, as will be shown
further on, is a valuable means, at certain stages, of ascertaining. pregnancy.

The female may be examined either standing or lying down, though the recum-
bent position is best, except in certain displacements of the womb, when it is most
likely to be thrown into a position in which the neck can easily be reached by the
female standing. The position of the neck is very different in many of these dis-

774

SHUTS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

placements, and during pregnancy, to what it is in the ordinary state, and a person
not acquainted with these changes might frequently be much puzzled to find it. As
we have already remarked, also, there are certain differences between those who have
had children and those who have not. The foregoing three diagrams represent the
changes just spoken of at different periods.

It will readily be seen by these diagrams that the alterations in the neck and
mouth of the womb are very marked, and of a character easily to be ascertained by
the touch. These three should be compared with the section of the womb in the
unimpregnated state.

Figtjhe 151. — PHmipara,
or the first pregnancy .

The difference between those who
have borne children, and those who have
not, is well represented in Figures 151
and 152, the drawings being one-third
of the natural size, and representing the
appearance at about three months.

Most of the changes produced can
be readily distinguished by the finger,
after seeing this representation, and
making a proper comparison between it
and the natural state.

before, this period, but its lower part is some-

a. a. The neck of the womb.— b. b. b. The body what soft to the feeling. The OS tincaa
of the womb. — c. The os tincse, or mouth of the . 7 ,,, . ,-.

womb.-d d. The cut edges of the vagina.-e. The " m°™ rounded than m the umnipreg-
fcetus.— /. /. The Fallopian tubes, ovaries, and nated state, particularly in the primi-
roun igamen s. para, in whom, in fact, it is nearly

circular, the lips being quite smooth and closed. In the female who has already
borne children it is somewhat open, so that the finger may often be introduced, and
the lips feel rough, owing to scars and laceration in previous deliveries. It is also
larger altogether, and softer, than in the primipara. The whole length of the neck
at this stage is about two inches.

The body of the uterus, when pressed between the two hands, will be found much
larger than ordinary, and more round, and it will feel heavy when pushed up by the
finger. "

In regard to the precise value of these probable signs, it can only be said, when
they are observed, that it is certain that the womb is enlarged, and most probally
from pregnancy. But at the same time it must be remembered that several diseases,
and particularly suppressed and irregular menstruation, or the development of
tumors and polypi, will effect very similar changes, and that it is not always possible
to say whether they arise from these abnormal growths or from pregnancy, though it
can generally be done. But though we cannot, in every case, say when these signs
exist, that the female must be pregnant, we can nearly always say, when they do not
exist, that she cannot be so, particularly if the other usual signs are absent.

End of the fourth month. — By this time the neck has become a little shorter still,
and the mouth more open, but on the whole there is not much change to be felt in-
ternally. The body of the womb, however, has now ascended above the superior
strait of the pelvis, and begins permanently to enlarge the abdomen. It may be dis-
tinctly felt between the two hands, like a firm round ball, somewhat elastic, and

PLATE XXXVn.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

775

resisting when pressed. This is the period when the motions of the foetus are usually
felt first, and these motions, with the ascension of the womb, are sometimes experi-
enced very suddenly, so as to alarm the female, arid produce certain curious sensations,
with much nervous derangement. This is called quickening, and with some persons,
is always so well marked as to indicate not only their condition, but the very period,
with great precision. Many, however, never experience anything at all peculiar at
this time.

It is customary for the medical attendant, as a means of making the child move,
to put his hand first in cold water, and then over the fundus of the uterus ; the sen-
sation of cold thus conveyed usually caus-
ing it to move immediately. Great care
must be taken, however, that other mo-
tions be not mistaken for those of the
child, an error not at all uncommon.
Many a female, and many a medical man
also, has been deceived in this way, partic-
ularly in cases of uterine or ovarian dropsy
and tumor, and even inordinary flatulence
and hysteria. Females who much desire
offspring frequently deceive themselves
in this way, and it is sometimes next to
impossible to convince them of their error.
Some women possess the power of imitat-
ing the movements of the child, with
great exactness ; and instances have been
known where they have successfully im- p -, -

posed, both on their friends and medical m, . „ ,

,,-,,» t ,- • ji- 1 his figure represents the mode of performing

attendants, for a long time m this way. the ballotment to detect pregnancy.
Mr. Dubois mentions instances of females Tne index finger of the right hand is passed
, j ,,. , -,. into the vagina till it touches the body of the

who possessed this extraordinary power, womb> the neck being thrown back, owing to
and who, though not pregnant, used to tne tilting of the fundus forward. The left
present themselves to his class for the J^fthe pEbc^7 UP°U ^ aMOmen' ^

pupils to ascertain the motions Of the 1, Is the foetus ; 2, the placenta, connected

„7,„-7.7 t„ „i 4- ■*-!,.•„ „: ™,™4- - 4- i™ witn tlle foetus by the cord; 3, is the index

child. In short, this sign must not be finger of the rigb/hand, within the vagina; 4,
too much relied upon, nor too confidently is the left hand.

pytippWI fr.r mfmv fWialPo nhwrvP Tin The development of the womb, and the change
expected, tor many temaies ooserve no in its positio]Qj are very well represented in the

foetal motions at all till the sixth or figure, and so are the alterations in some of the
seventh month, and even then very indis- °* f^SJof ZZZZ^m£?^
tinctly. Sometimes, also, after having be seen by comparing this with previous figures
been distinctly felt, these motions will ^ftSf^SSi ^"S^S?™
altogether stop for a long time, and then also equally obvious, and the manner in which
onnoor nt.«™ the mouth of the womb is thrown back against

appear again. the rectum.

At this time, however, ballotment can
begin to be practiced, though it is not quite so certain as at a month later. The
manner of performing this important manipulation has already been partly described,
and by examining Figure 153, and attending to the following remarks, it may be
readily understood and practiced.

When the right hand finger (3, Figure 153) is carried . to the top of the

776 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

vagina, it meets with a round soft tumor, -which is the head of the child felt
through the walls of the womb. As soon as this is distinctly felt, the finger must
be withdrawn a little, and then pushed suddenly against tbe tumor with a jerk ;
this will displace the foetus, and cause it to rise in the liquor amnii toward the
fundus, so that the round tumor will have disappeared. In a few moments it will
sink down and may be again felt, and again displaced in the same manner. This is
called the ballotment, or balancing it on the end of the finger. The sensations
conveyed on touching the foetus, and when it rises after being pushed, are so pecul-
iar that they are not likely to be overlooked, or mistaken for anything else, aftei
being once experienced. The jerk is not required to be at all violent, and had
better be made at first very slight, as it can easily be repeated a little more forcibly
if the tumor does not rise at first. Some practitioners practice the ballotment in
this way, using the one hand only ; but others place the left hand also on the abdo-
men (4, Figure 153) at the same time, and immediately after jerking upioard with
the right hand, they suddenly depress the abdomen, just over the pubes, with the
fingers of the left, so as to send the foetus down again more quickly and more for-
cibly. This is seldom needed, but if the first way does not succeed the two hands
may be tried.

A species of ballotment may even be practiced externally, in the following way :
The fingers of the right hand are placed on the abdomen, just over the fundus of
the womb, like the left hand in Figure 153, and a smart jerk is given downwards
and backwards, several times in quick succession. This also displaces the foetus,
which may be distinctly felt to float away, each time the percussion is made. No
one can mistake this peculiar motion who has once felt it.

Sometimes one of these manoeuvres will succeed when the other fails, so that it is
well to practice them all. They may be performed with the female either standing
or lying down, and will sometimes succeed one way when they will not the other.

It is requisite to remember that in presentations of the breech, or trunk, the
ballotment may not succeed as well as when the head presents ; or it may even fail
altogether, so that when it is unsuccessful we must not immediately conclude there
is no pregnancy. Tumors in the womb, stone in the bladder, and various uterine
displacements, may also create uncertainty, or cause failure, but these accidents are*
rarely met with, and only interfere materially at an early stage ; afterwards ballot-
ment can be practiced notwithstanding them, or auscultation may be resorted to.

In short, this mode of detecting pregnancy is one of the most certain, and
the most generally applicable, that we possess.

End of the fifth month. — At this time the uterus has increased considerably in
size, and has ascended so high in the abdomen that the fundus is level with the
umbilicus, or navel, in a first pregnancy, though somewhat lower in those who have
borne children before. This rising of the womb makes the vagina longer, and
brings the neck of the womb nearer to its center. In the previous stage the neck
was thrown so far back that it was difficult to reach, but now it is much more favor-
ably situated, though much higher. Its substance is softer than before, and the two
lips are nearly on a level, and somewhat opened, particularly in those who have
borne children before. Indeed, in them the point of the finger may be introduced,
as seen in Figure 154.

Ballotment is now much more easily practiced and is more conclusive. A new
Bign is also to be distinguished, by which we are furnished with another valuable

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT

77?

heart begins to beat so strongly, and its

means of detecting pregnancy. The child

circulation is so vigorous, that the sound

of it can be heard externally. The same

means are taken to ascertain this that are

used in sounding the chest of an adult.

If the ear be placed on the abdomen over

the womb, the beating of the foetal heart

may be heard quite plainly ; and if the

stethoscope be used it will be still more

distinct. This practice is called ausculta- Figure 154.

Hon. The signs furnished by it are cer- Neck of the womb in a

first pregnancy, very
Blightly opened.

Neck of the womb in a

female who has borne
children before, show-
ing how it admits of
the introduction of
the finger.
This is at the end of the fifth month, and the

tainly of the greatest value, and frequently
enable us to detect pregnancy with uner-
ring certainty. Indeed, not only can we
tell by them that a child is in the womb,
but often even the very position in which drawings are about one-third of the natural size.
it lies, and whether there be twins, or more. This is done by noting where the
heart is situated, by the sound, and whether the beating is single or double.

The nature of these sounds, and the manner of detecting them, require to be
carefully explained.

If the person wishing to notice this sign is not already familiar with the beating
of the adult heart, he had better become so first. The ear should be placed on the
left side of a grown-up person, on the skin, just beneath the breast, and held very
still. The heart will then be heard to beat very distinctly, there being two sounds,
a long one and a short one, alternating with each other. When this has been lis-
tened to for some time, the ear will be able to catch any similar sound, and the aus-
cultation may then be practiced to detect pregnancy.

The ear must be placed on the abdomen, about midway between the pubes and
the umbilicus, and towards the left side. No weight should be borne on the body,
but the ear must be laid sufficiently close to exclude all external sounds, and no
motion should take place, particularly with the clothes. If the sound be not heard
in the position first assumed, move a little, in different directions, till that point is
attained where it is most distinct. It can scarcely fail to be heard, with ordinary
care. A practiced ear will sometimes distinguish the sound as early as the fourth
month, but generally it cojmot be heard before the end of the fifth, or even till the
sixth month. There are several sounds that may either be mistaken for it, or that
may confuse the ear. The beating of the mother's heart will sometimes be very dis-
tinct, as far as the loAver part of the abdomen, but it is much slower ; the child's
heart throbbing nearly twice as fast. The movements of the foetus, and the rum-
bling of the intestines, will also interfere ; but when once the proper sound has been
caught it may be kept distinct from all these.

The manner in which the child lies in the womb will determine where the heart
shall be opposite, and as its position frequently varies, both in different individuals,
and at different periods, in the same person, the sound must be sought for at several
points, till the right one is found. The most usual position will be seen in several
of our figures, and they will give sufficient indication to enable almost any one to
practice this mode of detection with success. During the early months the child
moves about a good deal, so that the sound may be heard one day in one place, and

778 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

the next in another. About the seventh month, however, it becomes more fixed, so
that the place of the heart can be pretty certainly ascertained, and thus the position
of the whole body is made out, whether the head is downward or upward, and a
tolerable idea can be formed even as to the direction of each part.

Many persons have failed in their attempts to hear the foetal pulsation, but I
cannot but think it must have been either from inattention, or from not being ac-
quainted with the sounds of the heart at all. I never recollect an instance when I
could not do so, at the proper time. M. Ohailly says he does not hesitate to affirm
that in every instance they can be detected ; and M. P. Dubois distinctly heard tbem
in one hundred and eighty-five females, out of one hundred and ninety-five, in the
other ten the child being probably dead. Indeed, the absence of this souud is the
most certain sign of the death of the foetus, as its existence is of its being alive ;
and medical men now tell whether the child is dead or not by these very means.

In conducting the auscultation, the female must recline, and keep as still as possi-
ble, breathing low. The abdomen may be covered with a single thin garment, if
absolutely insisted upon ; but the judgment will be so much the more uncertain,
owing both to the deadening of the sound and to the friction of the material. The
experimenter must also recollect that if the head be held down too long, the blood
will rush to it, and cause a ' humming in the ears, which will confuse him ; it will
therefore be better if the bed be high.

It is always best to use the stethoscope, as it covers only a small space, conveys
the sound more directly, and shuts out external noises more effectually. This instru-
ment is extremely simple, consisting merely of a tube of wood, glass, metal, gum
elastic, or almost any other material. One end should be expanded a little, like a
bell, and the other made small, so as to fit close in the ear — the large end being
placed on the abdomen. It may be about a foot in length, though a little shorter o:f
longer will not make much difference. I once used a child's tin trumpet, having no
regular stethoscope with me, and succeeded with it perfectly. The large end should
be pressed on the abdomen, and the smaller one into the ear, sufficiently close to
;shnt out all other sounds but those coming from the body. This is the same instru-
ment that the lungs are sounded with, when we want to judge of their action and
condition.

This is an invaluable means of detecting pregnancy ; in fact, at the proper time,
and with due care, it may be said to be certain.

End of the sixth month. — This is the period when, according to the law, the child
can live. There are no new signs at this time, but those previously noticed are now
more distinct. The neck of the womb is still softer and shorter, and the finger can
penetrate further in the passage than before. The fundus of the womb is now above
the umbilicus, in primipara, though not so high in those who have borne children ;
and the bladder is above the superior strait.

Ballotment can now be practiced with certainty, the falling and rising of the
foetus being very distinct.

Auscultation also becomes more positive, the sounds being louder and more easily
ascertained.

End of the seventh month. — The fundus of the womb has now risen still higher,
and the bladder is pushed completely above the upper strait, so that the whole length
of the urethra lies behind the pubic bone. It is therefore much pressed upon and
.swollen, and being much longer, and bent out of its usual course, the urine is often

SIGHTS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT. 779

passed with difficulty, and the catheter can scarcely be introduced. The upper part
of the womb now lies over toward the right side of the body, very evidently. This
direction is nearly constant in all fe- /

males, but the reason for it is not X.^- " : / \Xv^BEJg"=— ~- ^PV

known. There have been many the- X^_ -^^f?T- /- \X??l|plF^y<___.

ories to account for the peculiarity, ) _ IL V J £k (

but none of them are either so plausi- I Mkjl^Um\ //jnjj^" \

ble, or so well supported by facts, as / I. fffBJ \ / \^WF\\

to be generally adopted. \3\~

The upper part of the womb being Fra- 155.— First child. Woman who has borne

tilted to the right side, the neck of m, , , t ^. n children.

. , ' ,, , „, n t. i Tne neck of the womb m a first pregnancy, and in

course points to the left, and back- a female who has borne children before, at the end
ward. It is now very short, even in of tlie seventh month.

primipara, but in those who have borne children it is scarcely to be distinguished
at all. The finger may now be introduced, even in primipara, half way up the neck ;
and in others it will reach even into the uterine cavity.

The part below the lower line here, shows that part of the neck which is con-
tained in the vagina. It will easily be seen how much shorter this part is, and how
much more open the passage is, in the female who has borne children, than in a first
pregnancy.

Ballotment and auscultation both now afford unmistakable evidences as to the
condition of the patient.

End of the eighth month. — By referring to the preceding Figures, it will be seen
that the part of the neck of the womb above the vagina, which is placed between the
two dotted cross lines, remains almost unchanged, while the part within the vagina,
or that below the lowest line, becomes less and less, till at this time, in those who
have borne children, it can scarcely be felt at all ; and even in a primipara it is
merely like a small tubercle. About this time, however, the upper part of the neck
begins to shorten also, though that is not so obvious, and therefore not so useful for
our present purpose.

On making an examination, the mouth of the womb itself may now be felt, at the
upper part of the vagina, and far back. It is, however, very difficult to reach, on
account of its position. The finger will now pass, in those who have previously
borne children, into the cavity of the womb itself, but in others it will scarcely reach
so far.

The linea alba becomes darker at this period, and so does the areola around the
nipple. Certain peculiar marks also appear on the abdomen and upper part of the
thighs, almost like the pits from small-pox. They are usually diamond-shaped,
slightly depressed, and dark in color. They appear to be owing to the over-stretch-
mg of some of the parts under the cuticle, which give way in consequence. In
first pregnancies, and in those who enlarge very much, these marks are sometimes
very numerous, and remain for a long time after delivery ; occasionally even they
never disappear. As signs of pregnancy, however, they are but of little value, be-
cause they are often produced by other causes that distend the womb. None of these
presumptive signs are now needed, and therefore they are of little consequence, be-
cause there are others more certain.

The motions of the child itself can now be generally both felt and seen, and an
experienced observer may even predicate from them, with tolerable certainty, the

780 SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND TEE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

position in which it lies. Ballotnient, by one hand on the abdomen, may still be
practiced with success ; but in the vagina it is difficult, because the foetus is both
more fixed and heavier.

Auscultation is now the surest dependence, however, and may be advantageously
resorted to also as a means of determining beforehand the position of the child. This
may be done even a month earlier, but not so certainly as now.

To understand how this important point is determined, it is only necessary to
recollect, as will be very evident, that the pulsation will be heard the loudest imme-
diately over the heart ; and as we know the form and general size of the foetus, and
the manner in which it usually lies, it becomes possible, when the position of its

Figure 156. —This plate represents the fmtus in

the most usual position, the head downwards, and Figukb 157.— This plate represents the foetus in

the back of it presenting to the left side. the next most frequent position, the head down-

The black spot, a, shows the situation of the wards> out the oack of it presenting to the right side.

heart ; usually immediately under that part where The black spot, a, shows the situation of the

the sound is heard the strongest. It is below the heart, as in the previous plate. It is now below

line- the line, as before, but on the opposite side.

heart is discovered, to trace out from that the position of every other part. This
will be evident by referring to Figures 156, 157, and 158. It will then be seen that,
if a line be drawn across the middle of the abdomen, the heart will be above that
line when the breech presents, and below it when the head presents, and on the right
or left side, as the case may be, in each position.

In case of twins there will be two pulsations, and they<so much interfere with each
other that it is difficult to distinguish either. The two children being generally dis-
posed with the head of one to the heels of the other, one heart will be above the line,
and the other below, on opposite sides, as shown in Figure 159.

At this period the signs previously observed become more distinct, but there are
few new ones. The external lips sometimes swell, and the breathing becomes more
difficult, owing to pressure on the diaphragm. The trouble with the urine is also

SIGNS OF PBEGNANGY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

781

apt to increase, and little mucous tubercles, like pimples, occasionally form around
the os tincse, and on the upper part of the vagina.

Figxjbe 158.— This plate shows the position of
the fatus in a presentation of the pelvis, or
breech, which happens, comparatively, out sel-
dom.

The heart, is here above the line, instead
of below.

In this case, as in the others, the heart may
be on either side of the body, according as the
shild faces, but always above the line.

Figuee 159. — This represents the position of twins,
as most usually observed, one having a liead pre-
sentation, and the other a breech.

The heart in one case is above the line, and
in the other below.

The head, however, may be on the right side
instead of the left, and so reverse the position of
the two hearts, but this is very seldom the case.

When there are more than two, the confusion
and uncertainty become still greater.

End of the ninth month. — There is but little difference between this and the pre-
vious period. Tbe mouth of the uterus is more open, and, in those who have had
children, the finger will pass directly into the womb, and feel the child, but in
primipara there is still a small portion of the neck left.

Ballotment is now more obscure than before, as the foetus is very heavy, and
quite low down, and pretty firmly fixed. Auscultation is distinct enough, but not
more so than at the previous period. The swelling of the lips, and of the veins of
the legs, may increase, and so may the difficulty with the urine ; but the breathing
generally becomes easier, owing to the womb having descended a little, and so press-
ing the diaphragm less.

These comprise all the signs and indications of pregnancy that possess any real
value. Some of them, at certain times, and under particular circumstances, may
be called positive ; such as those discovered by ballotment and auscultation, and also
the presence of kyestein in the urine. Most of the others merely make it probable, that
pregnancy exists, or warrant us in presuming as much. They are not to be depended
on implicitly alone, but when many of them are observed together, and no other cause

782

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY, AND THE MEANS OF DETECTING IT.

can be assigned for their production, the presumption becomes so well supported as
almost to be called a moral certainty. A person of experience, who is familiar with
all these signs, and with the others produced by disease which resemble them, will

The neck of the womb, I
at near the end of nine
months in a primipara.

The neck of the womb,
at near the end of nine
months, in a woman who
has previously borne chil-
dren.

seldom find it difficult to decide ; but still there are cases in which pregnancy pro-
ceeds, even to its termination, with but few unusual symptoms, so that both patient
and attendant are completely at fault. This, however, is very rare, and many emi-
nent authors contend that it is always possible to detect pregnancy, after the sixth
month, and I think so myself, unless the child be dead, in which case it will soon be
evident in another way.

PLATE XXXVm.

CHAPTER LXI1I.

FORM AND SIZE OF THE FCETUS AT FULL

Size and Form of the Body.

The average length of the foetus, at full term, is about twelve inches from
the head to the breech, and about eighteen inches from the head to the feet.
Its weight varies from five to eight pounds, perhaps averaging about six, though
some have been born weighing only three pounds, or less, and some even as high
as fifteen. The breadth across the shoulders is about four inches, and the same
across the hips, but both are so easily compressed that during delivery they only
measure about three inches, or three and a half at most.

SIZE AND FORM OF THE HEAD.

The head is the most important part, because it is the largest, and usually
presents first. It is therefore necessary to describe it fully, and with special
reference to its importance in the
early stages of labor, as the part by
which the position is usually deter-
mined.

The bones of the cranium are not
closed together, as they are in the
adult, but are separated to a consider-
able distance, in certain parts, and
connected by a strong membrane.
These membranous spaces are called
sutures and fontanelles, and a knowl-
edge of them is absolutely necessary,

„ , . . ,-, . The head is generally divided into the cranium, or

as a means oi ascertaining the posi- that part whi6h °ontains the brain, and the face,
tion of the head. The Bones of the Cranium,.— These are seven in

T7,„ CW,,,,™* W\y* fl™+ nf +T,0co number, viz., two frontal bones, or those forming

J he Sutures.— Ihe nrst of these the for^head> lt i, Figs. 161 and i<;2.-Two parietal
spaces, which extends from the low- bones, or those forming the sides of the head, 2,
„*+ ™-^- r.t «,« r«^^lQ ,vp l\,a fnya 2, Figs. 161 and 162.— The occipital bone, or that

est part of the middle of the fore- formi|g the back of the head, 3, 3, Figs. 161 and
head to the occipital bone, is called 162.— And two temporal bones, which lie over and
the wmi+nl wtiirp m-nn+Prn T>ns- between the ear and the eye, 4, Fig. 162.
the sagittal suture, or antero pos The Bones of t7ie Face.— These axe nve in nnmDex.

tenor suture. It separates the two viz., two superior maxillary, or upper jaw bones, 5,
frontal, and the two parietal bones. ™8- 162. -Two motor, or cheek bones, 6, R*. 162.-
' ? AjjA one mferi0r maxillary, or lower jaw bone, 7,

The spaces between the two frontal Fig. 162. The sutures and fontanelles can be seen
and the two parietal bones are called ^aere <*« different bones join each other.
the frontal parietal sutures, and those between the two parietal bones and the occi-
pital, are called the lamMoidal sutures.

A

FlGUBES 161-

-The Fatal Head.

"84

FORM AND SIZE OF THE FCETUS AT FULL TERM.

TJie Fontanelles. — When the different sutures meet at a point, the membranous
space is greater than at other parts, and is called a fontanelle. Thus where the two
frontal parietal sutures meet the sagittal suture, there is quite a large diamond-
shaped space between the different bones, filled up with membrane. This is
called the anterior fontanelle, or bregma, — B, Figures 161, 162. Where the sagittal
suture joins the two lambdoidal, there is another space, not so large, and different
in shape, being triangular ; this is called the posterior fontanelle — C, Figures 161,
162. And where each of the temporal bones joins the parietal, there are two other
spaces, called the temporal fontanelles, which are also irregularly diamond shaped,
but not nearly so large as the anterior fontanelle — 1 1, Figure 161.

It is evident that if a person can distinguish these fontanelles, when he touches
them with his finger, he can tell what part of the head is presenting, and hence
their use.

These spaces allow of the bones lapping over each other, during delivery, and
thus the head is made smaller. They do not disappear till some time after birth, and
in very young children the brain may be felt, and seen to work, at the anterior fon-
tanelle. Eventually however, the bones come close together, and are joined by a

Figure 163.

Figures 163-4. Diameters of the Head.

Figure 164.

1. The Oecipito Mental, or from the back of the head to the chin, M, O, Fig. 163, five inches.

2. The Mento Bregmatic, or from the chin to the anterior fontanelle at the top of the head, M.
B, Fig. 163, four inches.

3. The Oecipito Frontal, or from the back of the head to the top of the forehead, O, F, Fig. 163,
four inches.

4. The Trachelo Occipital, or from the throat to the back of the head, T, O, Fig. 163, four
inches.

o. The Sub Oecipito Bregmatic, or from the nape of the neck to the top of the head, S, B, Fig.
16o, three inches and a half.

6. The Trachelo Bregmatic, or from the top of the throat to the top of the head, T, B, Fig
163, about three inches and a half.

7. The Trachelo Frontal, or from the top of the throat to the top of the forehead, T, F, Fig.
163, about three inches.

8. The Sub Oecipito Frontal, or from the nape of the neck to the top of the forehead, S, F,
Fig. 163, about three inches.

9. The Bi Parietal, or across the head from one side to the other at the middle of the parietal
bones, the widest part, B, P, Fig. 164, three inches and a quarter to three and a half.

10. The Bi Temporal, or across the head from one temporal bone to the other, B, T, Fig. 164,
about two inches and a half.

curious kind of dovetailing. The two frontal bones, however, completely coalesce,
and form but one, in the adult.

Sometimes the bones will be very perfectly formed, and the fontanelles nearly
filled up, before birth, and then the head cannot be crushed much smaller, which

FORM AND SIZE OF THE FQSTTJS AT FULL TERM.

78S

causes the labor to become both painful and difficult. This is usually nailed an
ossified, or solid head.

Diameters of the Head. — The diameters of the head are the distances between its
most prominent points. They are necessary to be known before we can judge as to
the possibility of its passing the straits of the pelvis, in the various positions.

Generally there are reckoned ten diameters, and they are represented in the
Figures on the preceding page.

The necessity for knowing these diameters will be obvious. It is only by being
acquainted with them, and with the straits of the pelvis already described, that we
can tell whether the child can pass or not in certain positions, and how we must
change its position, when possible, to give relief.

On comparing the diameters of the head with those of the pelvis, it will be seen
that some of them correspond in size while others do not, so that in one position de-
livery can take place spontaneously, while in another it will be difficult, and in some
nearly impossible, without assistance. Thus, for instance, if the head should pre-
sent by the occipito mental diameter (0, M, Fig. 163), it evidently could not pass
while in that position, because by this diameter it is five inches in width, and the
greatest diameter of the pelvis is only about four inches and a half. Its position
must therefore be changed, and the accotxcheur must know how to change it with ad-
vantage.

ATTITUDE OF THE FCETUS AT PULL TEEM.

The attitude of the foetus is represented in the accompany-
ing figure :

The position in which the foetus most usually lies in the
womb has already been shown. The head is downwards, and
the back part of it turned to the mother's left side. What is
the cause of this almost universal position is not certainly
known. It was formerly thought to depend on the head being
heavier than the other parts, and thus sinking down ; but this
supposition has been shown to be entirely without foundation.
M. P. Dubois has lately advanced the notion that it depends on
an instinctive feeling in the foetus itself, which directs it to take
that position by which it can most easily make its exit. This
opinion appears very reasonable, and is apparently well founded.
It is well known that the foetus is susceptible of various im-
pressions while in the womb, and is impelled by unerring instinct
to take the breast immediately it is born ; nay, it has even been
known to suck the finger of the assistant, in cases of face pres-
entation, even before birth ! We can readily believe, therefore,
that it is directed to place itself in the womb in the best posi-
tion, the same as it is directed to take the finger in its mouth.

In the young of many of the lower animals this is also
strikingly exemplified. The young duck in the shell taps with
its little beak against the part that is to be broken, and rushes
into the water even with a part of the shell still on its back.
The young opossums, who are born imperfect from the womb,
shelter themselves, immediately they come into the world, in
50

Figxtrb 165.— Atti-
tude of tlie Fcetus.

The arms, it will be
seen, are crossed on the
breast, upon which the
chin is also bent ; the
thighs are close to-
gether, and brought
against the abdomen ;
the legs are close bent
on the thighs, and the
feet are turned up
aerainst the front of the
legs, the whole body
being curved forward.

the pouch on their

786 FORM AND SIZE OF THE F(ETU8 AT FULL TERM.

mother's breast, and fasten themselves to the mammae till they are more perfectly
grown.

It must be remarked, however, that the head does not always present first,
though it usually does so. Occasionally we have the breech present, and still rarer
even other parts ; but these are merely exceptional deviations, the causes of which
are unknown. Out of every sixteen children born, fifteen usually come head first.
This, however, will be shown better further on.

CHAPTER LXIV.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE FCETUS AT TEEM.

The Membranes.

The uses and arrangements of the membranes surrounding the foetus have already
been explained, so that little more is needed to be said here, because they are not
much different at the full term from what they are at an earlier period, excepting
perhaps that the amnion is a little more dense and firm. This membrane appears
not only to surround the foetus like a bag, to contain the waters, but is also reflected
close on to its body, like its skin, with which in fact it is thought by some to be
connected. The child is certainly born with this membrane still on its body, and
does not part with it till some days after birth, when it peels off like a thin dead
skin, or powder.

The waters inclosed within the amnion have now increased to their greatest
quantity ; and there is also, in most cases, a second body of fluid between the amnion
and the chorion, which, coming away before the real discharge, is called the false
waters.

The quantity of the true waters, at birth, is about twenty, or from that to thirty
ounces, but is very variable. It is of a greenish color, rather muddy, and heavier
than water. It contains albumen (white of egg), sulphate of soda, and lime. Ninety-
eight per cent, of it, however, is pure water. It appears to be excreted, like per-
spiration, from the surface of the membranes, and most likely is merely the watery
portion of the blood exuded through. The uses of this fluid are various. As already
stated, it probably supplies some nutriment to the foetus, which it also protects, in a
great measure, from pressure and from concussions. It also prevents the limbs from
adhering, and helps to distend the mouth of the womb, in the earlier stages of labor,
besides affording an abundant slippery fluid for the purpose of lubricating the parts,
thus making the passage of the child more easy.

The other two membranes, the chorion and decidua, are not of much importance
in our present explanation ; and practically, in fact, the whole three may be regarded
as one envelope, surrounding the child and the waters in which it floats.

THE PLACENTA.

At the full term, the placenta is about six or seven inches in diameter, and nearly
circular, though often irregular. Its thickness varies from one to two inches, and is
greatest where the cord is inserted. Sometimes it is very large, or very thick, and
may then be difficult to extract, and even cause serious accidents.

As already explained, the placenta is composed of a mass of blood-vessels, by meaus
of which the blood of the foetus is, in some way, brought into contact, or com-

787

788 THE APPENDAGES OF THE F(ETUS AT TERM.

mingled with that of the mother. Its uterine face is irregular, being broken into
lobes, or cotyledons, on which may be seen a vast number of little veins and arteries,
corresponding with others on the inner surface of the womb. Its outer surface is of
a gray red color, and covered with the foetal membranes, under which the large
blood-vessels can be traced. The placenta is usually attached to one side of the
uterus, near the fundus, or at the fundus, but sometimes it grows wholly or in part
over the mouth of the womb ; an occurrence which may cause serious consequences.

When there is more than one child, each usually has a separate placenta, and they
are all intimately connected. In some rare cases, however, one placenta only exists
with twins. Each child has also a separate amnion, and waters ; but there may be
only one chorion and decidua for the whole, or each may have a complete set of
membranes itself. Instances have been known, however, of two children being in-
closed in the same amnion, and surrounded by the same waters, having but one pla-
centa between them.

These possible diversities show the accoucheur how necessary it is for him, in any
case of multiple pregnancy, to be sure that he has abstracted all the after-birth ; and
they also caution him not to proceed to unnecessary manipulations merely because it
is not the same as in other cases.

THE UMBILICAL COED.

This is composed, as already stated, of an artery and two veins, which twist
round the artery, like the strands of a rope. These are all inclosed in a sheath, and
surrounded by a thick kind of mucus, called the Gelatine of Wliarton. Its thick-
ness is about that of the little finger, though it may be much larger, having been
seen as thick as the child's body. Its usual length is about eighteen or twenty
inches, but it has measured as much as five feet. Then again it has been found so
small that the vessels in it could not nourish the child. These exceptional varia-
tions, however, are very rare. The veins may also be enlarged, or full of knots, and
the circulation may be so much impeded thereby as to cause abortion. The various
accidents which may result from anomalies in the cord will, however, engage our
attention in another place.

CHAPTEE LXY.

PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FCETTJS.

The child may present several different parts of its body at the commencement
of delivery, and they may be in different positions relatively to the different parts
of the pelvis. All these require to be known.

Different authors have made different classifications of the presentations and po-
sitions, and have differently named them ; but this is of little consequence, since
they are still the same, no matter how they are named. I shall follow the arrange-
ment of M. Ohailly, because I think it equally perfect, and much more simple and
practical than any other yet proposed.

PRESENTATIONS.

The foetus may present at the mouth of the womb either by the head, the most
usual way ; by the lower extremities, which is the most frequent way after the head ;
or by various parts of the trunk, which is the least frequent way of all.

In each of these three full presentations there may be certain variations, which
require to be noticed. The head, for instance, may present either by the cranium
or by the face j the lower part of the body may present either by the feet, the knees,
or the breech, according as the legs and thighs are flexed or extended, and the trunk
may present either on the right or left side, and inclined toward the lack or toward
the chest, though neither the back nor abdomen ever fully present.

Each of these variations may also have slight variations again. Thus the face
may present full, or by one or the other cheek, and so on. These variations, how-
ever, are of little practical consequence, because we only find them at the very com-
mencement of the labor, and they always change to the full presentation.

Practically speaking, therefore, there are five full presentations, viz., the cranium,
the face, the breech, the feet or knees, and the trunk, either by the right or left side.

The varieties of these, as already remarked, not requiring any special attention
from the accoucheur, providing he is not puzzled or misled by them.

The position means the particular direction in which the presenting part of the
foetus is placed in relation to the pelvic straits. The pelvis itself is supposed to be
divided into two similar halves, the right and the left, and each presenting part has
one particular place, which is referred to as the indicating point. Thus, for in-
stance, in the cranium, the occiput, or behind part of the head, is the indicating point ;
and we therefore say, in cranium presentations, that it is a right or left occipital

789

79U PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FCETUS.

position, according as the back of the head is to the right or left side of the pelvis.
In face presentations, the chin (mentor) is the indicating point, and we therefore say
it is a right or left mento position, according as the chin is toward the right or left
side. In breech presentations, the child's sacrum is the indicating point, and we
tben say it is a right or left sacral position, according as the sacrum is toward the
right or left side of the pelvis. In trunk presentations, which are always crosswise,
the head (cephalo) is the indicating point, and we therefore say it is a right or left
cephalo position, according as the head lies toward the right or left side of the
mother's body.

In cranium presentations, also, the back of the head is not merely on the right or
left side, but may be at two different points on each side. It may be either nearest to
the sacrum (posterior), or nearest to the pubes (anterior), but still against the ilium ;
it is therefore called a right or left anterior, or posterior, occipito iliac position, as
the case may be. Sometimes, also, the occiput lodges immediately on the pubis, in-
stead of going to either side, and that is called an occipito pubic position ; at other
times, on the contrary, it is placed against the sacrum, instead of being oh either
side, and that is called an occipito sacral position.

In presentations of the head, therefore, we may reckon six positions — the right
and left anterior and posterior occipito iliac, and the pubic and sacral.

In presentations of the face the same, they being mento iliac, and so on, instead
of occipito.

In presentations of the lower extremities also the same, excepting that they are
sacro iliac, and so on, instead of occipito.

In presentations of the trunk we have but two positions for each side, the right
and left cephalo iliac ; according as the head is on the right or left side of the
mother's body. The child always lying, in presentations of the trunk, crosswise —
the feet on one side and the head on the other.

Most authors enumerate many more presentations and positions, but they are of
little practical utility. When the head presents, for instance, the delivery takes place
in nearly the same manner, let it be in what position it may. And in presentations
of the face, or of the lower extremities, the particular position is of little consequence,
the delivery being usually effected much the same in them all. Some of the posi-
tions are, it is true, much more favorable than others, but a spontaneous delivery,
generally speaking, occurs in all of them, when the head, face,, or lower extremities
present. Very frequently indeed, the less favorable positions are changed to the
more favorable ones, and the worst seldom do more than impede delivery for a time,
unless there be some malformation, or loss of power. I therefore refer to them more
for convenience in future explanations, and to enable my readers to know what is
meant by them, when they read other books ; not because they are really necessary
to be understood, or of any great practical use.

The celebrated Baudelocque admitted seventy-four positions, and twenty-hvo pre-
sentations ; and the number might be made still greater, if all the variations were
to be enumerated. Such classifications, however, are more ingenious than useful,
and they are but little noticed even by medical men.

I shall merely describe the mechanism of labor in the most frequent positions, in
each presentation, because the others usually change into these ; and even when they
do not, the process of delivery is essentially the same, and also the mode of assist-
ing it.

PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FCETUS. 791

MODE OF ASCERTAINING THE PRESENTATION AND POSITION.

The Presentation. — Although in general it is not possible to ascertain with
certainty what part of the foetus presents to the mouth of the womb, until labor
commences, yet a tolerable judgment can frequently be formed before. In head pre-
sentations, on performing ballotment, the head is felt, like a firm round tumor, occu-
pying all the space which the finger can reach, very differently from any other part.
The peculiar cramps in the female's lower limbs, and frequent inclination to urinate,
mentioned in the signs of labor, are also strong indications of this presentation, being
seldom experienced in any other. When the labor has actually commenced, there
can be but little uncertainty in these cases, for immediately the mouth of the womb
is sufficiently open, the finger can be introduced, and the head felt like a smooth,
round, and elastic bony tumor, not likely to be mistaken for anything else, if ordi-
nary care be taken. After the waters have escaped, it can of course be felt still more
distinctly. If even an inexperienced person bears in mind the shape of the head,
and reflects how it must^ZZ up the passage, and how it must feel, from being com-
posed of separated thin bony plates, lying on a soft yielding substance like the brain,
he can scarcely fail to recognize it. The sensation is very much like that of pressing
a piece of firm cardboard on an inflated bladder, which forms a tolerable represent-
ative of the fcetal head. Sometimes there is a difficulty from a great quantity of
water being intruded between the membranes and the head, which somewhat ob-
scures the touch, but this only necessitates greater care. The water however, may
be in such quantity as to entirely prevent the touch, in which case nothing can be
done till the membranes break ; the presentation can then be ascertained with cer-
tainty, and it will be quite early enough to render assistance, if it should be an un-
favorable one. I have known some inexperienced persons mistake the bag of water
itself for the head, and commit great errors in consequence.

The face can seldom be mistaken, because the nose or mouth may be felt ; and,
by passing the finger up the side of the head, the ears also.

The trunk is in general easy of recognition. Nearly always the right or left
shoulder occupies the passage, or is near to it, so that the finger may be readily
passed under the arm-pit. The shoulder joints, the ribs, or the shoulder blade bone,
all feel very different to the head, and are not likely to be taken for it.

In presentations of the lower extremities there is still less danger of error. If the
feet or knees occupy the passage, they can scarcely be mistaken. The breech is
certainly something like the head in its form, but feels different, and is divided down
the middle by the indentation between the two cheeks, along which the finger can be
passed till it enters between the limbs.

In irregular presentations, as of the arms for instance, or of one leg, or an arm and
eg, it is only necessary to carefully feel them, so as to ascertain their form and the
relation of the.ir parts. Thus the fingers can be distinguished from the toes, and
the feet from the hands, particularly if the ankle can be felt. The accoucheur should
ascertain the particular presentation as early as possible, because he may sometimes
be of service in correcting an unfavorable one, if he is certain of it in time, and
knows what he is about. He should not, however, use any degree of force to ascer-
tain it, in case he cannot do so without, but wait till the conditions are more favora-
ble. Neither should he, with the same object, rupture the membranes too soon, for

792 PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE F(ETUS.

he may thereby cause considerable delay and difficulty, without any good to counter-
balance it.

All the above-named presentations may, and usually do, terminate spontaneously,
except those of the trunk, and even they do occasionally,. though more frequently they
require assistance.

Relative Frequency of the different Presentations. — The most favorable presenta-
tions and positions are also always the most frequent, while the unfavorable ones are
but seldom met with. According to Madame Lachapelle, in fifteen thousand six
hundred and fifty-two labors there are about fourteen thousand seven hundred and
forty-nine presentations of the head and face ; about five hundred and eighty-six of
the breech, knees, and feet ; and only about sixty-eight of the trunk or shoulders.

Positions. — The position is generally of but little consequence, because in all the
favorable presentations spontaneous delivery occurs in every position alike, and in the
unfavorable presentations the same assistance is required in one position as in another.
In some cases an unfavorable position of the head may be changed, however, to a bet-
ter one ; and therefore, so far as the head is concerned, the positions are worth as-
certaining.

The mode of determining the position is by feeling for the sutures and fonta-
nelles, above described ; and this cannot be usually done till after the membranes
are broken, when the head can be distinctly touched. By referring to Fig. 161, the
shape and position of the fontanelles will be seen, and if the head be supposed
placed with the top downward, and the back of it to the mother's left side, they
may be readily found with the finger.

In the left anterior occipito iliac position — or that where the back of the child's
head is against the left side of the mother's pelvis, and nearest the pubes, while its
forehead is against the right side, and nearest the sacrum — the sagittal suture, or
opening along the top, will of course run across from right to left. This opening
may be distinctly felt with the finger, which should be passed along it towards the
right side, and it will then reach the anterior fontanelle ; afterwards it should also
be passed to the left side, and then it will reach the posterior fontanelle. The dif-
ference between these two openings, in shape and size, is shown in previous figures,
and even if a person has never seen or felt the head of a new-born child, they
can scarcely be taken for each other, after noticing these figures.

If the anterior fontanelle should be felt on the left side instead of the right, and
near the pubes, while the posterior fontanelle is to the right, and near the sacrum,
the position must be the right posterior occipito iliac, or just the reverse of the
former.

If the sagittal suture should be found to run across from the pubes to the sacrum,
instead of from one side to the other, it will then indicate either an occipito pubic,
or occipito sacral position, according as the back of the head is behind or before ;
and this can be readily ascertained by finding either of the fontanelles.

In short, if the relative position, forms, and directions of these openings in the
child's head be clearly understood, the position of the head can nearly always
be determined by feeling them, as will be evident by referring to our former
explanation of them.

Sometimes however, the bones overlap a good deal, from the head being pressed,
and then, instead of an opening along the top, a seam will be felt. And sometimes
from long-continued pressure, a quantity of blood, and watery fluid, will be effused

PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FCETUS. 793

ander the scalp, so as to prevent the hone heing distinctly touched. But these
accidents seldom happen, and with ordinary care and perseverance, need not prevent
the position being determined, after a little delay.

The position of other presenting parts is easily ascertained, by feeling for
some known point — as the nose, or the face, the depression between the cheeks,
or the breech, and so on.

Relative Frequency of the different Positions. — The most favorable positions,
like the most favorable presentations, are also the most frequent. According
to Baudelocque, in ten thousand three hundred and twenty-two cases of head
presentation, there were eight thousand five hundred and twenty-two cases where
the back of the child's head was on the mother's left side, and towards the
front (or in the left anterior occipito iliac position) ; one thousand seven hundred
and fifty -four where it was on the right side towards the front (right anterior
occipito iliac) ; twenty -five times to the right side, but towards the sacrum (right
posterior occipito iliac) ; and nineteen times on the left, but towards the sacrum
(left posterior occipito iliac). Being most frequently with the back of the head
towards the front on the left side, next towards the front on the right side, and but
seldom towards the sacrum, or back, on either side. In all these ten thousand
cases we do not find a single instance of the head lying from back to front, in
the occipito pubic, or occipito sacral positions, commonly called transverse ; neither
do we find a single instance in fifteen thousand six hundred and fifty-two cases
recorded by Madame Lachapelle, which will show how rare such unfortunate posi-
tions must be. What this great frequency of one particular position depends upon
we do not know — possibly on that cause, previously alluded to, which determines the
most frequent presentation.

In the next chapter, the mechanism of delivery, or the manner in which the child
scapes out of the body, as it most frequently occurs, will be fully explained.

CHAPTER LXVI.

THE MECHANISM OP DELIVERY, IN" A PRESENTATION OP THE HEAD.

The Left Anterior Occipito Iliac Position.

This is the presentation and position most frequently observed, perhaps fifteen
out of sixteen times. In most obstetrical works it is called the first position.

By observing the following figures, and referring to the previous explanations of

Figure 166.

It will be seen here that the neck is straight-
ened out, and that the two fontanelles are on a
line with each other.

Note. — The front of the bones is represented
in this and the two following figures as if trans-
parent, so that the head may be seen through
them.

Figure 167. — This Figure represents the head
descended still lower in the pelvis.

At this time the anterior fontanelle can
scarcely be reached, but the posterior one is
easily to be reached, being in the open passage,
on the left side. The head is now fairly within
the pelvic cavity, but still lies across from right
to left.

Second Movement, Rotation of the Head. —
When the foetus is tlms brought to the bottom
of the pelvis, its head turns completely round,
the back of it being brought to the front, or
under the pubes of the mother, and its forehead
turned against her sacrum, as represented in
the next Figure.

the diameters of the pelvis and foetal head, it will be seen that through all its changes
of position, while making its exit, the head always presents by one of its shortest
diameters to one of the largest diameters of the pelvis, so that the relation between
them is invariably the best that could be established; and many peculiar turnings
and revolutions occur, apparently for the express purpose of bringing this about.

794

THE MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN A PRESENTATION OF THE HEAD. 795

Before the rupture of the membranes, the head presents its oocipito frontal diame-
ter, which measures four inches, to the right oblique diameter of the pelvis, which
measures four inches and a half ; while its bi-parietal diameter, which measures only
about three inches and a half, is presented to the other oblique diameter, also meas-
uring four and a half. Even here it will be seen that the passage is larger than
the head which has to pass through it, but a more favorable position still can
be obtained by a slight movement of the foetus, which nature accordingly accom-
plishes, and also follows by others, to preserve the advantage, which will next be
described.

Movements of the Foetal Head. — There are three of these peculiar movements,
each of which takes place at a particular period of the labor, and must be described
separately.

First Movement, Flexion, and Descent. — Immediately after the membranes are
broken, the contractions of the uterus force the head into the upper strait, by the oc-
cipito frontal diameter of four inches, as already shown ; but then commences the
first movement, which consists in a bending of the child's chin down upon its breast,
so that the forehead is carried up into the womb ; and the most prominent point
of the back of the head presents to the middle of the passage, by the occipito oreg-
matic diameter, which is only about three
inches instead of four. This, of course,
makes the passage so much easier, and
generally, immediately after this change,
the head descends into the basin of the
pelvis.

It is not absolutely necessary, how-
ever, for tbis movement to occur, for in
a well-formed pelvis, the head can de-
scend without it, though not so easily ;
and sometimes, in fact, it does not take
place, but this is unusual.

It must be recollected that this shift-
ing of the head alters the position of the
fontanelles — the posterior one being
brought more to the center of the strait, Fktobe 168.— This Figure represents the head

, ?, . . . , , „ still further down, and beginning to rotate.

and the anterior one carried up out of J

reach, while previous to the movement Here the head is ^een just beginning to ton
. ' , .1 , n T, . — the right side, and part of the back of it, ]ust

they were both on a level. It an examina- passing under the pubes. As the rotation becomes
tion is not made, therefore, till after this complete, the neck straightens, so that the two
, ., , -..-. ,' , -, . . fontanelles are again found on the same level,

change, it may be difficult to determine Finally, the back of the head fully emerges from
the position, unless this is borne in mind, u^er *he PuMc ,arcll> an<i the chin slides gradu-
_.. x ■ n -,,-,• ally out after it beneath, so that the neck of the

The accompanying figures show this very cuiJM is encircled by the ring of the vulva.

well.

In Figure 169 it will be seen how the os coccygis, or lowest part of the backbone
(c), is straightened out backward, while the head is passing, as explained before ;
and in Figure 170 it has returned again to its natural position.

The reason for this rotation of the head will be obvious on calling to mind the
form of the pelvis and the external opening. Ou examining the figures, it will
be seen that the longest diameter of the vulva, or external opening, the anterior

796 THE MECHANISM OF DELIVEBT IN A PRESENTATION OF THE HEAD.

posterior, is nearly at right angles to the longest diameters of the upper strait, the
oblique. jSTow, the longest diameter of the head is adapted to this oblique diameter
on entering the upper strait, as already explained, and it is necessary for it also to be
adapted to the longest diameter of the external opening, the anterior posterior, when
making its exit ; but as the two are not parallel, the head is compelled to turn, or ro-
tate, in order to pass from one to the other. To accomplish this, however, the neck

has to be twisted considerably.
But when the head is fully deliver-
ed, it is immediately straightened
again, by the back of the head
turning toward the mother's left
side, so that its proper relation
6 with the trunk is re-established.

Figure 170. Third Movement, Rotation of

In Figure 169, the back of the head is nearly under the Shoulders.-When the head is
the pubic bone, while the forehead is just passing the delivered, the shoulders come next,
external opening below which also require to turn round a

In Figure 170, the back of the head is completely ^

extruded, and also the chin, so that the whole head is little, to adjust themselves to the
now born. (p. is the pubic bone, in front.) ]ong diameter of the lower -strait,

and as they turn within the pelvis the head also turns, to correspond, and thus the
back of it is brought opposite the middle of the mother's left thigh. Immediately
this movement is effected, the shoulders rapidly escape through the external open-
ing, the right one being in front, a little to the left of the symphysis pubis, and
the left one behind, a little to the right of the os coccygis. The body then curves
upwards, to accommodate itself to the curved axis of the pelvis, and speedily follows
the shoulders.

These curious movements cause the child to progress in a spiral direction, so
that each part may pass through the pelvis in the most favorable position. Some-
times all these movements are not effected, and yet the delivery may occur,
though not so speedily or safely as when they are. The shoulders do not always
fully rotate, but may nevertheless pass the opening, if the parts be large, and well
relaxed. It is questionable, however, if the head can ever pass the lower strait with-
out rotating, when it enters the pelvis diagonally, the occiput on one side and the
forehead on the other ; as it is necessary for either one or the other of these parts to
pass under the pubes.

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN ALL OTHER POSITIONS OF THE HEAD.

The Right Posterior Occipital Position. — This position, called the second by some
authors, and the fourth by others, is exactly the reverse of the one just described,
the head lying in the same direction, but the back of it being behind, to the right of
the sacrum, and the forehead to the left of the pubes.

Precisely the same movements are gone through in this position as in the other,
excepting that the head has to rotate considerably further. In the former position,
the back of the head is only a little to the left of the pubes, and therefore has not far
to turn to pass under it ; but in this position the back of the head is behind, and there-
fore has to turn very far round to reach the same position. The rotation is therefore
more difficult, not so soon effected, and sometimes likely to be dangerous to the
child.

THE MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN A PRESENTATION OF THE HEAD. 797

In. the other movements there is no difference worthy of notice, but it must be
borne in mind that they all occur the reverse
way to what they do in the first position,
because the occiput is on the right side, instead
of the left.

The Right Anterior Occipital Position. —
This position is precisely the same as the first,
but on the other side. The back of the head
is in front, but to the right of the pubes, in-
stead of the left, while the forehead is behind,
to the left of the sacrum. This will be ap-
parent enough by observing Fig. 171.

The mechanism of delivery is precisely the
same, and all the movements occur in the
same order and manner as in the first position,
but the reverse way, the rotation, for instance,
being from right to left, instead of from left
to right, and so of all the others.

The Left Posterior Occipital Position. —
Delivery is effected the same in this as in the
left anterior, or first position, excepting that

the rotation is more extended, owing to the the 'most frequent, c, the foramen ovale-;
occiput being behind, as explained in the *£.^ ^^^^f^ j£
right posterior occipital position. pubic hones.

Figure 171. — Head in the Right Anterior
Occipito Iliac Position.
This is the second most frequent posi-
tion, the left anterior occipito iliac being

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE HEAD.

In all the other positions, and their varieties, there is nothing that calls for spe-
cial notice, or that is material in practice, the delivery being nearly the same in them
all. No matter what position the head is placed in, the back of it nearly ahvays
comes to the front under the pubes, even though it have to turn half round to do so.
The cause of this is supposed to be the peculiar form of the parts, which gives it a
screw-like motion in its descent, and the shape of the external opening, which, being
longest from before to behind, can only allow the long diameter of the head to pass
through in the same direction.

Sometimes, it is true, the occiput passes behind, instead of coming to the front,
and then the chin comes under the pubes, while the occiput presses on the coccygis.
This is very seldom observed, and when it occurs the labor is more difficult and tedi-
ous, though it may still terminate spontaneously.

The resistance of the soft parts, externally, appears to be the chief cause of the
head turning ; for when they are much relaxed, and the child's head small, it will
sometimes pass without, or in the anterior posterior position. And sometimes, when
the head is large, so that it distends the parts very much, the shoulders will pass
crosswise, there being room enough for them without turning. In some females,
formed large, whose organs are excessively relaxed, and whose children are small, the
delivery takes place without any of the movements being effected, the child passing
straight through in whatever position it may happen to be ; this is rarely seen, how-

798 THE MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN A PRESENTATION OF THE HEAD.

"When there are twins, they do not usually both present by the head, but one by
the feet ; and frequently the parts are so relaxed by the passage of the first that the
second is delivered without rotating at all, though in general it follows precisely the
same movements. It sometimes happens, however, that the second birth does not
take place till some hours, or even days, after the first.

It may be said, in general, that all positions of the head are favorable to both
mother and child, and may terminate spontaneously. It is seldom that anything
more than ordinary assistance is required in any of them, and they could in general
terminate without any at all, though sometimes with difficulty. The worst cases are
those in which the head does not turn round, but remains across, or where the back
of it turns behind, instead of coming to the front. In these cases, there is great dan-
ger of the perineum or external lips being much lacerated, or even of an artificial
passage being torn through the perineum, leading to the most serious after results.
About one child also out of every fifty is lost in these unfavorable positions.

CHAPTER LXVII.

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OP THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

This presentation includes the feet, the knees, the breech, and also the hips,
there being no difference in the delivery for all these parts. It is the same also
whether there be one foot, or knee, or both feet and knees.

There are but two positions worthy of notice in this presentation, and they are de-
termined by the child's sacrum. If the sacrum, or posteriors, are to the right of the
mother's pelvis, it is called the right sacro iliac position j but if they are on the left
side it is called the left sacro iliac position. The direction in which the child's pel-
vis is placed, is analogous to that of the head, the sacrum answering to the occiput.
Thus most frequently the sacrum is on the left side, a little to the left of the pubes
(left anterior), while the abdomen faces the right side near the sacrum. When on
the right side, however, it is most usually nearest the sacrum, with the abdomen fac-
ing the left side near the pubes.

The lower extremities present most frequently next after the head, but still they
are but seldom met with. M. P. Dubois tells us that out of twenty thousand labors
he only met with eighty-five such cases. In these eighty-five cases the breech pre-
sented fifty-four times, and the feet twenty-six, the knees being found but once.

A presentation of the lower extremities may generally be recognized at an early
stage, by the head being felt at the fundus of the uterus, and by the pulsations of the
foetal heart being heard above the umbilicus, as explained in the chapter on Ausculta-
tion. After labor has commenced, the part felt at the mouth of the womb is irregu-
lar, and so different from the head, that it is not likely to be mistaken for it. If the
knees or feet present, they can always be distinguished ; and if the breech presents,
it can easily be recognized by its form, and particularly by the os coccygis, which
can be distinctly felt at the bottom of the depression between the two cheeks. The
side on which it is felt of course determines the position, and the same with the front
of the knees, or the heels. The rectum can also be reached with the finger, when the
breech is touched ; but great care must be taken not to intrude it too far, because
with a female child the vulva might be mistaken for it, and thus the hymen be
broken, and other injury committed. The genitals of a male child are more obvious,
so that the sex of the child may be usually ascertained, along with the position.

For want of proper care, the breech has been mistaken for the head and face, but
this can scarcely happen if the accoucheur is attentive. It is simply necessary to
call to mind what must be felt in each presentation, as the nose and mouth with the
face ; the two cheeks of the posteriors, with the opening between them, and also
the genitals, with the breech ; and it can be certainly ascertained which of these parts
is really at the opening. With the knees or feet there can soarcely be a doubt.

800

DELIVERY LN PRESENTATIONS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

DELIVERY IN" A BBEECH PBESENTATION IN THE LEET ANTERIOE SACKO-ILIAC
POSITION.

FlGUBE 173.

In this position the legs and thighs are turned up against the abdomen, the breech
in full occupying the passage, with the sacrum to the left and in front of the moth-
er's pelvis.

The descent of the breech usually takes place without much difficulty, into the

pelyis, it being small
and easily compressed.
It descends in the same
direction in which it
first presents — that is
diagonally, like the
head — and also rotates,
or turns round, so that
the left buttock comes
in front, just to the
right of the pubes, while
the right one goes be-
hind, to the left of the
sacrum. The left but-
tock reaches the mouth
of the vulva first, in this
position, and then re-
Anterior posterior position mains stationary there
of the head, the occiput being . ., ,, . , .

in front, after the delivery of While the right one

the body. slides along the curve

- The coccvgis. „ , -, -,

'fbone.in front. °f tne sacrum and peri-
neum, and passes out
first at the lower part of the external opening. The left, however, speedily follows,
and when the whole breech is born it rotates again, one hip coming immediately in
front, and the other going immediately behind. Owing to this movement the long
diameter of the breech is adapted to the long diameter of the pelvis, as in the case of
the head. This will be evident from Fig. 172.

The rest of the body then rotates in the same way, and the arms and shoulders
pass through the external opening in the same direction as the hips. The left shoul-
der first moves to the right of the pubes, while the right passes behind ; and then,
just when they are both passing out, one comes immediately in front, and the other
immediately behind, placing themselves in the long diameter of the vulva.

The head passes through the superior strait in the left anterior occipital position,
and is often delivered in that way ; but sometimes it rotates, and the forehead passes
into the curve of the sacrum, while the occiput is placed behind the pubes. When
this occurs the body also rotates, to accompany the head. This state of the parts is
represented in Fig. 173.

At this period the head is past the uterus, and there is therefore little or no
contraction to expel it, so that it often remains a long time undelivered. It will be
seen that the position is very unfavorable, the longest diameter of the head, the
occipito frontal, being the presenting one, which makes it lie immovably across.

Figure 172.

Delivery in a breech presentation,
the buttocks having just passed the
vulva.

c. The coccygis, much straight-
ened.

p. The pubic bone in front.

p. The pubic 1

DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 801

The means of assisting in such a case are plain enough ; the forehead must be brought
down while the body is raised towards the mother's abdomen ; this will throw the
top of the head back, towards the sacrum, and change the presenting diameter.
The forehead and bregma rapidly escape below, and the occiput passes out last.
This is the way in which nature herself also completes the delivery in such cases
when she has the power.

DELIVERY BY THE BREECH IN THE EIGHT POSTERIOR SACRO ILIAC POSITION.

This position is the reverse of the preceding one, the sacrum being behind and to
the right, while the abdomen is to the left in front. The same movements are per-
formed as in the first position, and the whole process is similar, only the reverse
way. The sacrum being behind, however, has to rotate much further to come in
front, precisely the same as with the head when in the posterior position.

The head generally follows the sacrum, and the occiput comes under the pubes,
as already explained ; but sometimes only at the moment when being disengaged.

DELIVERY BY THE BREECH IN THE PULL POSTERIOR, OR SACRO SACRAL POSITION.

In this position there is no rotation at all, the back of the child being turned
full to the back of the mother, and the whole body and head being expelled in that
position. In general there is no particular difficulty from this position, but on the
contrary it is thought by some to be rather favorable than otherwise. The longest
diameters of the foetal pelvis, and shoulders, are adapted to the longest diameter of
the mother's pelvis, at the upper strait, and easily pass it. They will aiso generally
pass the external opening in the same direction unless it be very unyielding, or the
child very large ; and if they pass, the head usually follows, because the parts have
been so much dilated by the passage of the body that they offer but little resistance.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PRESENTATION OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

As a general rule, delivery by the breech, or by any other position of the lower
extremities, is less favorable than by the head. The labor is usually longer, more
painful, and more exhausting ; still however, it is generally spontaneous, and not
necessarily dangerous to the mother. To the child, on the contrary, it is dangerous,
on many accounts.

It appears, from the observations of M. P. Dubois, that in this presentation one
child is lost out of every twelve, while only one out of fifty is lost in head presenta-
tions ! The chief cause for this greater mortality appears to be the compression of
the umbilical cord, which is greater, and lasts much longer, than when the head
presents, as will be evident on examining the circumstances under which delivery is
effected in each case. When the head presents, it passes, and also the shoulders, be-
fore the umbilicus is reached ; the mother's organs are therefore much dilated, and
only the smallest parts of the foetus are left, when the cord is engaged in the pas-
sage ; it cannot therefore be much compressed, nor for any long time, because the
labor is then soon over. When the lower extremities present, this is not the case, the
smallest parts then pass before the umbilicus is reached, so that the cord has to pass
along with the head and shoulders, which are both the largest and the longest in
51

802 DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

being delivered. This compression of the cord stops the circulation of blood be-
tween the foetus and the placenta, as will be evident on referring to the description
formerly given of foetal nutrition; and the stopping of this circulation is as fatal to
it as stopping the breath is to an adult. When the breech presents altogether,
there is not so much danger as with the feet, or knees, because it is large, and in its
passage dilates the parts so much that the rest of the body, and the head, follow
more quickly. There is, of course, no danger till after the hips have passed, because
the cord is not reached before ; but the delivery should be completed as soon after
they are born as possible, for every minute's delay makes the chances for the child^
life so much less.

CHAPTER LXVHI.

MECHANISM OP DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE PACE.

Presentations of the face appear to result from the head being bent backwards,
instead of forwards upon the chest. They are easily recognized, because the face has
so many peculiar parts, as the nose and mouth, for instance, which are altogether
unlike what can be felt in any other presentation. In a very early stage, the forehead
may be taken for the vertex, unless care be used, because it feels round and soft like
it, but the mistake cannot last long.

The positions in this presentation, as formerly explained, are determined by the
chin, and in practice only two are noticed — the right posterior mento iliac, and the
left anterior mento iliac. In the first the chin is on the right side, near the sacrum,
and in the second it is on the left side, near the pubes. These answer, it will
be seen, to the two principal positions of the head itself. It is generally considered
that, though the chin, like the head, may assume other positions, yet it does so in
but very few cases, and these presenting no peculiarities which require special
notice.

DELIVERY IN THE RIGHT POSTERIOR MENTO ILIAC POSITION OF THE FACE.

The head descends with the forehead and chin nearly on a level, and the nose
occupying the middle of the passage. When fairly in the cavity, it rotates, the
chin being brought under the pubes, while the back of the head passes into the curve
of the sacrum. This is nearly always the process ; no matter where the chin may be
when the labor commences, it seldom fails to move under the pubes before it con-
cludes. Occasionally, it may rotate the other way and pass into the hollow of the
sacrum, while the occiput comes in front, but this is very rare.

Figttre 174.

Figure 175.

Fig. 174 — The chin just passed, in presentation of the face.

Fig. 175. — The head full horn, in face presentation, p. The pubic hone ; c. The coccygis.

The chin is bora first, and then follows, below, the forehead, top of the head,
and finally the occiput — the face turning upwards towards the mother's abdomen,
as each part is successively delivered. When the head is fully bora the body rotates

804 MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF TEE FACE.

inside the same as in the head presentation, and the delivery concludes in precisely
the same way.

DELIVERY IN OTHER POSITIONS OE THE EACE.

The delivery is precisely the same in all the other positions of the face, excepting
that in some of them the chin has further to rotate before it can pass under the
pubes. In all cases, however, it may be safely calculated that it will do so, there
having been so few instances known in which it has rotated the other way, into the
hollow of the sacrum, which is fortunate, for there is always more or less difficulty
and danger when it does so.

Sometimes the rotation does not take place at all, but the face descends diago-
nally, as the head occasionally does.

On the whole, presentations of the face are not particularly to be feared, as
regards the mother. Some authors even consider them quite favorable, and reckon
them only as varieties of the head presentation. Madame Lachapelle states, as a prin-
ciple, that face presentations should always be left to nature. And M. Chailly says he
must admit that, in all positions of the face, the labor may terminate spontaneously,
excepting when the chin passes behind, in which case it will be protracted, and most
likely fatal to the child. The labor is generally a little longer, and more painful,
owing to the face not being so perfectly adapted to the passage as the head is ; but
still it must be regarded as favorable to the mother, though assistance is oftener
required than with the head. There is more or less danger to the child, however,
owing to the head being kept under pressure for an unusual time, which produces
congestion. The neck is also forced against the pubic bone, as will be seen by Figs.
174 and 175, and thus the jugular -veins are compressed. If there be any delay,
it is customary to observe the face closely, after the chin is born, and if it appears
from any indications that congestion is taking place, assistance is rendered at once.
The face will sometimes become so tumefied and engorged with blood, from this
prolonged pressure, that it will not appear natural till several days after birth.

Probably about one child is lost in ten or twelve deliveries in these cases ; and if
the chin pass behind, its death is almost certain.

It was formerly the practice to endeavor to turn the face upwards, when at the
superior strait, and so change the presentation to one of the head. This, however, is
now abandoned, because the attempt is seldom successful, and does not materially
improve the condition of things, besides being painful to the mother. The only
extra danger with the face presenting is to the child, and this is not removed by the
operation ; to the mother, the face is nearly as favorable as the cranium. In regard
to the frequency of face presentations, we find that Madame Lachapelle met with but
seventy-two cases in fifteen thousand six hundred and fifty-two deliveries.

CHAPTER LXIX.

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OP THE TBUNK.

It has already been stated that in presentations of the trunk, it is nearly always
the right or left shoulder which occupies the passage. It is stated, by some authors,
that they have felt the back and abdomen, but others think they were mistaken ; and
most certainly such positions are extremely rare, if they actually do ever exist.

There are two presentations of the trunk, determined by the side on which the
foetus lies, and denominated accordingly, right or left lateral presentations.

Each of these presentations has two corresponding positions, determined by the
side on which the child's head lies. If the head be on the mother's right side it is
called the right cephalo iliac position, and if it be on the left side it is denominated
the left cephalo iliac position. The mechanism of spontaneous delivery is the same in
them both, and in all their varieties, and so is the mode of rendering assistance, so
that a description of one will suffice.

Sometimes, when the labor has lasted long without, assistance, one arm will be
forced down first, and even appear externally. This used to be considered a separate
presentation, and described as such, under the name of presentation of the hand and
arm. There is no reason for describing it separately, however, and. no utility in
doing so, as it differs in no essential particular from ordinary presentation of the
shoulders, and must receive the same assistance.

What it is that produces presentations of the trunk, and other unfavorable parts,
is not known, though they are generally thought to be owing to excessive motion in
the child, or obliquities of the womb.

Mme. Lachapelle met with sixty-eight cases of trunk presentation in fifteen thou-
sand six hundred and fifty-tivo labors, which is nearly the same as the face. The
right side presents more frequently than the left, and the head is on the left side
oftener than on the right, as it is in ordinary head presentations.

As a general rule, assistance is always rendered in presentations of the trunk, and
is generally considered absolutely necessary. It is undoubtedly true, however, that
nature has effected delivery in such cases unaided, though rarely, and such instances
are considered as extremely fortunate exceptions to the general rule. M. Chailly
says that the accoucheur should never leave such cases to nature alone, but always aid
her ; but other authors trust to her a little more. The most usual mode of render-
ing assistance is to turn the child, and bring down the feet, a manoeuvre which will
be fully described hereafter.

In some cases the child turns itself, from the contraction of the womb, before it
enters the upper strait ; and in other cases, when very small, or long dead, it will
pass folded double. This self-turning, however, cannot take place after the escape
of the waters, so that it seldom occurs when the membranes are broken.

805

S06 MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE TRUNK.

MECHANISM OF DEUVEBY IN PBESENTATIONS OP THE TBUNK BY SPONTANEOUS
EVOLUTION.

This is the most usual mode for the foetus to escape, in each presentation, and in

FiauBE 176.— Position of the Figtjeb 177.— Descent of the Figure 178.— Descent of the

foetus in a presentation of shoulder in a trunk presen- shoulder and trunk at a still

the ri'iht shoulder, and in tation, at a more advanced later period,

the left cephalo iliac posi- period,
tion.

every position. By referring to the above Figures, and the
accompanying descriptions, it will be readily understood.

Previous to the rupture of the membranes, the child's body
lies across, as formerly explained ; but immediately after the rup-
ture the shoulders descend into the pelvis, as seen in Figure 176,
while the head remains above the pubes ; the arm frequently,
but not always, protruding externally.

The shoulder then continues to descend, the body following,
bent up against the face, as seen in Figure 177.

Here the shoulder is protruded from the vulva, the back being
nearly folded, and the knees turned up against the face.

The Whole trunk is now fully delivered, folded almost double,
and the legs and feet are turned up against the face. They
speedily follow, however, and then nothing is left but the head,
and perhaps one or both arms, placed against the sides of it, as
shown in Figure 179.

The arm is generally very easily brought down, or it may re-
main and come with the head. The delivery of the head is effected
the same as in presentations of the pelvis, and is seldom at-
Fltrw!k hH'fuMvdl tended with much difficulty, the parts having been so much dis-
scended, and only tended. The body alwavs rotates, so that the back comes in front,
2f™ U left' ™th and the chin passes into the curve of the sacrum.

This is the way in which the delivery is effected by nature
in such cases, and it will readily be conceived how dangerous it is to both mothei

MECHANISM OF DELIVERY IN PRESENTATIONS OF THE TRUNK. 807

and child, and how seldom it can be accomplished. If the foetus be of full size,
and the mother's pelvis no larger than ordinary, it is almost impossible for this
spontaneous evolution to take place ; and even when it does, it is with the greatest
difficulty, the mother sufferiDg in an extreme degree, and running great risk, not only
of the most serious after-results but even of death. To the child the danger is
equally great, owing to the severe and long-continued compression it receives, and
the unnatural position it assumes. M. Velpeau tells vis that in one hundred and
thirty-seven such cases, one hundred and twenty-five of the children died. The
number of the mothers also, who either died or were made sufferers all their future
lives, was undoubtedly great, though unknown.

It is evident, therefore, that presentations of the trunk are the most unfavorable
known, and labor in them is but rarely spontaneous. Nature can but very seldom
effect the delivery of the foetus herself, and even when she does it is with the greatest
risk, both to it and the mother. The accoucheur should always assist, therefore, if
he can, because even if nature can complete the delivery, it is with much danger.
The means of assisting, by turning, will be described in another chapter.

If the foetus is not at full term, and of course is under the full size, its expulsion
may be left to nature safely, but not otherwise.

CHAPTER LXX.

IHE PHYSIOLOGY OF SPONTANEOUS DELIVERY, OR CHILDBIRTH, AND THE MANNER
OP COMDUCTING A NATURAL LABOR.

Having now completed the description of the Mechanism of Delivery in all the
various presentations and positions, it is necessary to explain the physiological phe-
nomena attending a natural labor, and the duties of the accoucheur when conducting
it, and to show what assistance he can render, and when he should or should not in-
terfere.

OF DELIVERY IN GENERAL.

Different Kinds of Delivery.

When the child is brought into the world by the unaided efforts of nature, and
without any accident to itself or the mother, it is called a natural delivery. When
it occurs by the efforts of nature alone, but not advantageously for both, it is not
called natural, but simply spontaneous delivery. And when assistance is required it
is called an artificial, or difficult delivery. It is also called precocious, or tardy, ac-
cording as it comes before or after the full term.

CAUSES OF LABOR.

What it is that causes labor to commence, and proceed, is not fully known. At
the proper time the uterus prepares to cast out the foetus it has so long retained, in
the same manner that the tree casts off its fruit, and from some efficient cause which
we have not yet discovered.

It is probable that when the foetus attains a certain size, it presses upon the
nerves of the neck of the uterus and irritates them, and they react again upon the
muscular fibres of the womb and cause them to contract, and so expel its contents.
This is much the same action, in fact, as vomiting. When any body very repugnant
to the stomach is swallowed, it irritates the nerves of that organ, and then they
excite its muscular fibres, which by forcible contractions, expel the offender.

It is possible, also, that the foetus itself may instinctively assist in bringing about
its own delivery, as was supposed of old by Hippocrates, and more lately by Harvey
and others. It is certain that labor is both more difficult and more dangerous when
the child is dead, though it may take place as usual after the death of the mother,
providing the child be still alive. Several instances of this kind have been known,
where the living child was expelled from the womb by the natural process, some time
after the mother had ceased to breathe.

The contraction of the muscular fibres of the womb, however, must be regarded as
the immediate or efficient cause of foetal expulsion, let them be brought on how they

OF DELIVERY IN GENERAL. 809

may. The muscles of the abdomen and the diaphragm also assist in the last stage,
but are not essential.

The young of some of the lower animals are observed to perform certain peculiar
motions, during delivery, by which it is much facilitated ; and this is considered a
proof, by some, that voluntary movements of the foetus assist in the process. Cer-
tainly if it be supposed, as we have shown there is good grounds for doing, that the
child assists in placing itself in the best position, it is equally probable that it also
assists in its own expulsion, in other ways.

SIGNS OP DELIVEET.

Premonitory Sigjis. — A few days before delivery the uterus descends much lower,
so that the diaphragm and stomach are less pressed upon, and the breathing and di-
gestion become easier in consequence. The ease which is thus experienced is some-
times so great that the female becomes unusually animated and cheerful, and can-
not think she is so near her travail. This is not always the case, however, for some,
on the contrary, feel very uncomfortable and melancholy. The lips of the vulva are
also apt to swell and become painful, and the lower limbs numbed and cramped,
owing to the child's head pressing on the large nerves. The neck of the bladder is
also very liable to be compressed, so that a constant desire is felt to urinate, and a
similar trouble may also be experienced in the rectum. Most of these inconveniences,
but particularly the numbness and cramps in the limbs, are not likely to be experi-
enced except when the head presents, because no other part is so formed as to be able
to descend sufficiently low ; when they are felt therefore, the female may console her-
self by the reflection that they indicate, with tolerable certainty, that the child is
presenting in the best position it can for a safe and speedy delivery.

Standing and walking usually become more difficult, and swelling of the external
parts, or piles, are apt to occur. With some females also a sudden diarrhoea or
vomiting takes place, and troubles them up to the period when labor commences.

Finally the uterus begins to contract, though insensibly at first ; the abdomen
becomes unusually hard, and flying pains are experienced, particularly with first
children. This continues with more or less of intermission, up to the actual period
of labor, which is usually divided into three periods, each of which must be consid-
ered separately.

CHAPTEE LXXI.

PROGRESS, PHENOMENA, AND DURATION OF NATURAL LABOR.

First Period.

On making an examination, the mouth of the womh will be found to be dilating,
and a discharge of mucus, tinged with blood, issuing from it. The membranes may
also be felt protruding into the vagina, and distended, like a bladder. The female

complains of being drawn power-
fully together in the inside ; she
trembles, and gasps for breath ; her
pulse sinks, and she often becomes
sick and deadly faint ; sbe complains
of great thirst, and breaks out into
profuse perspiration ; frequently she
will weep and apparently suffer from
some terrible apprehension, while
her strength will be completely ex-
hausted. Occasionally, however, sho
will be perfectly passive, and almost
immovable, appearing as if in a
dream.

The pains, however, gradually be-
come more and more acute, and

Figure 180.

Figure 181.

Fig. 180 shows the state of the parts at the beginning closer together; the patient is ex-

?}f0T-A £he mou£h of thf womb *? c°?side1r.aWy; & cited and irritable ; her pulse be-
lated, and the membranes, A, are protruding slightly. . . . . . ; f. . , .

Fig. 181 shows the state of the parts at the end* of comes quicker again, the thirst m-
the first period. The neck of the womb is now so fully creases, and vomiting frequently en-
duated that it forms a continuous passage with the va- ° . x J

gina, while the bag of waters, A, projects far down and Sues. Before each pain she ire-
occupies the whole width of the canal. quently experiences a severe chill,
with chattering of the teeth, and not unfrequently becomes perfectly delirious.

"With each pain the mouth of the womb expands more and more, till at last it
totally disappears, and the cavity of the uterus and the vagina form but one uniform
passage, which is completely occupied with the distended membranes, or bag of
waters, which may be felt like a soft round tumor. This is well represented in the
above figure.

The first period may be much protracted, and is generally very exhausting,
though not attended with any' danger or special difficulty.

Second Period.

At this stage all the previous symptoms become much exaggerated. The con-
tractions are more powerful, and the pains more acute, but with a perfect period oi

810

PROGRESS, PHENOMENA, AND DURATION OF NATURAL LABOR. 811

repose between them, during which the female will feel quite easy, and even some-
times fall asleep, but only to be aroused by the pains coming on again. The muscle?
of the abdomen and the diaphragm are now called into play ; the patient strains, 01
violently bears down, and pants with exertion, while the perspiration streams from
every pore, the pulse quickens, and the expression of the countenance betrays the
wildest anxiety and excitement.

The bag of waters now descends, and enlarges more and more, until at last being
unable any longer to bear the strain to which it is subject, it bursts, and the waters
flow away in a profuse gush. Immediately this takes place the head descends, and
closes up the passage ; the pains cease for a time, and the patient again has a respite^
while the uterus apparently gains fresh power. Very soon the contractions Tecoim
mence, more energetically even than before, the head passes the mouth of the womb
and enters the vagina, which keeps enlarging as it descends, till a reaches the lower
part, or floor of the pelvis. The pains now become more violent than ever, the pa-
tient screams with agony, clutches hold of any object near her, throws herself back,
draws in her breath, and bears down with all the force she can command.

The fearful cries which most females emit at this time appear to assist the de-
livery, by the convulsive efforts at breathing which they necessitate, and the expul-
sive straining also does the same. These natural efforts are much assisted by
providing a firm support for the patient's feet, against which she can push, which
she will do with tremendous force.

The head now presses, at each pain, against the perineum, which begins to pro-
ject outward, as also does the rectum. The vulva begins to dilate, the lips separate
wider and wider, and part of the child's head becomes, visible. Gradually the lips
become thinner and thinner, and at last disappear nearly altogether, so that the
mouth of the vulva is only composed of thin ring, which seems ready to give way
every moment. The head, however, recedes, and the parts again assume something
like their natural condition for a short time, when the same process again takes place,
and the distention proceeds still further, while the head does not retire so far. This
alternate action is repeated perhaps many times, so that the external mouth is opened
gradually, and without the lips or perineum being torn, which they would be if the
head were to pass suddenly, before they were softened and dilated.

After this has been continued for a sufficient period, a strong expulsive pain is
felt, the female screams, the head passes clean through the external opening, and the
lips close round the neck. This, however, is only for an instant, the rest of the body
speedily following the head, in the manner hereafter to be explained. Most usually,
in fact, the whole body follows the head without any stoppage at all, but sometimes
there is a delay of a few seconds.

The third period of delivery comprises the delivery of the placenta, which will
occupy our attention in another place.

Differences in the Process of Labor. — Although, in most cases, labor proceeds
much in the way I have just explained, and is attended with similar phenomena, yet
still we occasionally see marked exceptions. This is particularly the case with regard
to pain. Most females suffer severely at this time, and some even the most tortur-
ing agony, while others again experience scarcely anything to complain of, and some
even feel nothing at all. I am acquainted with a lady at the present time, the mother
of several children, who assures me she never felt any pain at all in her labors, nor
was she in any way exhausted by them. I have known her rise from her bed in the

812 PROGRESS, PHENOMENA, AND DURATION OF NATURAL LABOR.

night, from feeling indications of the approaching event, make all her arrangements,
and send for the nurse, as if it was the most ordinary affair imaginable. On one of
these occasions, before her husband returned with the assistants, she was delivered
while alone, without any difficulty, and they found her sitting up in bed nursing her
child. She had cut it loose, and tied up the cord herself, having heard how to do so
at one of my lectures, and actually brought away the placenta with her own hand-
In two days after she was about as usual. And yet this lady was by no means strong,
nor remarkably healthy ; and what is very singular, she suffered severe pains at most
of her monthly periods ; much more, as sbe assured me, than from all her labors pu
together. M. Chailly also mentions an instance of a young girl of sixteen, with he-
first pregnancy, whose vagina was also partly closed by an internal membrane, whose
delivery nevertheless was almost painless. She woke up, he tells us, about four o'clock
in the morning, with some very slight pains, which scarcely disturbed her, but which
continued till about six, when the child was born suddenly and safely, without any
assistance, and with scarcely any increase of pain to the mother. I have known
many other such cases as these, and plenty of them can be found recorded ; but what
this fortunate exemption from suffering, in such cases, depends upon, is not
known.

The nature, and the seat of the pains, are also very variable. Some only feel a
dull sort of aching, with powerful contraction, or drawing together, while others
call it grinding, cutting, and burning pain. Some feel it in the back, and some at
front, while others feel it most in the groins, and others again experience it in all
these parts at once. The peculiar sharp pain which results from the extreme dila-
tation of the external mouth, when the head passes, is perhaps the most constantly
felt, and the most alike in all.

The manner in which the mouth of the womb opens, and the time required for
its dilatation, differ much in different cases. In females who have previously borne
children, as before explained, the mouth is always considerably opened at the full
term, while in a first pregnancy it is nearly closed, even till some time after the labor
actually commences. Sometimes the dilatation takes place rapidly, and at others
very slowly ; it is especially liable to be delayed if the membranes break too soon,
because then the pressure of the bag of waters is lost, and that is an important agent
in expanding the os uteri. In some cases the neck of the womb is very hard and rigid,
so that a long time is required to make it give way. When any other part than the
head presents also, the opening of the mouth will not take place so soon, because no
other part so completely fills up the passage.

The breaking of the bag of waters will sometimes occur veiy early, almost as soon
as it protrudes, while at other times it will be delayed till the whole vagina is filled
up by it, or even till it appears externally. The quantity of the water discharged at
the time of the rupture is also variable ; if the presenting part of the foetus does not
completely block up the passage, the whole may pass away when the rupture takes
place ; but if it does, as is usually the case when the head presents, only a part flows
then, and the rest comes in gushes, as the head is raised, and when the child is born.
The too early escape of the waters, as already explained, may retard the delivery, by
delaying the expansion of the mouth of the womb ; and in this way unskillful ac-
coucheurs have caused lingering labors, by breaking the membranes too soon.

It is important to recollect also, as I explained before, that a portion of fluid
sometimes exists between the amnion and chorion, which may pass first, and induce

PR0GBE8S, PHENOMENA, AND DURATION OF NATURAL LABOR. 813

the belief that the true waters have escaped, when they have not. This is called the
false waters, or shows, and is not connected with the true waters at all.

The general physiological phenomena of a natural delivery having thus been ex-
plained, we have now to state its duration, and then proceed to its conduct or man-
agement.

DURATION OP NATURAL LABOR.

The duration of natural labor is not by any means constantly the same, nor can
it be predicted with anything like certainty in any case ; but still by keeping careful
records, and by duly observing a vast number of cases, a tolerable approximation can
be made. There are various circumstances that tend to lengthen the duration of
labor, some general, and others belonging to the individual. The mode of life and
early habits of the female, the climate in which she lives, and the manner in which
she has conducted herself during gestation, all have an important influence. As a
general rule, the period becomes longer in proportion to the civilization of the com-
munity in which she lives. The first labor is generally more tedious than the suc-
ceeding ones, owing to the slower dilatation of the parts. It is also thought by some,
that the labor is longer in proportion to the age of the female, particulary with the
first child ; but this opinion is not well founded.

The average duration of labor in our country, is from eight to twelve hours. In
some parts it is longer than this, and in others again it is much shorter. I have
good reason also to think, that it is longer in cities than in the country.

An experienced practioner can sometimes predict with tolerable certainty, when
called to a labor, how long it will be before it is over ; but this is seldom the case,
and most frequently his success is owing more to chance than to judgment. If the
mouth of the womb be well dilated, the contractions powerful, and the patient vig-
orous, with the presentation natural, he is of course justified in predicting a speedy
delivery ; or the reverse, if these favorable conditions do not exist. Many unfore-
seen conditions may exist, however, and many accidents arise, that may falsify an ap-
parently safe conclusion. No judicious practitioner, except in a few rare cases, will
hazard his reputation by fixing any time, and no well informed patient would ask
him to do so, because she would know that it was out of his power.

CHAPTER LXXII.

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOB.

Preliminary Requisites.

In most cases of natural labor there is not much assistance needed. The assistant
Bhould, however, possess a certain tact, or manner, calculated to make a favorable
impression on the patient. This is especially needed when a man officiates. It must
be recollected, that the situation of the female at such times is a very peculiar one,
and that the presence of one of the other sex, however necessary, must be more or less
objectionable to her. He should, therefore, carefully exhibit in his behavior the
most refined delicacy, combined with a warm sympathy and kind consideration ; thus
soothing her scruples and enlisting her gratitude. He must also appear perfectly self-
possessed under all circumstances, and then she. will have full confidence in his skill
and judgment. It may seem scarcely necessary to state these things, but I have
often known men officiate without such qualifications, and also be perfectly unaware
of their deficiencies. Such accoucheurs never officiate well ; they may be skillful
and attentive, but yet unsuccessful, and unappreciated. They are only tolerated,
but not respected, and are never fully confided in.

When requested to see a woman supposed to be in labor, it is always advisable to
be prompt in paying the visit, because delivery sometimes comes on suddenly and
unexpectedly, and both mother and child may be in great danger if bo one is near
to assist.

Some time before the event is expected, it is advisable to provide certain articles,
which will or may be needed at the time, and which should not have to be looked for
at the last moment. A pair of sharp scissors, with a piece of strong thread or cord,
are indispensable, and a female catheter may be needed. A quill with the feather
part on may also be useful, and some pure lard, or sweet oil, is frequently called for.
The professional accoucheur will also find it a good precaution to have his stethoscope
in his pocket, and a lancet, if he ever relies upon bleeding in any contingency. A
small box of belladonna ointment also may often be of great and immediate service.

PRELIMINARY PROCEEDINGS.

The first thing required when visiting the patient, is of course to ascertain posi-
tively whether she be pregnant, and whether labor is really commenced, and if so, how
far it has progressed. This necessitates an examination, the proposal and making of
which require the most delicate tact, particularly if it be with a comparative stranger,
or in a first labor. No allusion to it should be made to the patient herself by the
assistant ; he should converse with her about indifferent matters, or merely upon her
health, and state his wishes to the nurse or female friend, and then retire. This
gives them time to inform her of what is required, and to make the necessary prepa-

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 815

ration. On entering the room again, he should not proceed abruptly, but resume
the conversation, and make some of the necessary arrangements while carrying it on.
He should seat himself by the side of the bed, with his right hand next her, and his
face opposite hers. Then, passing his hand under the bed-clothes, after having lubri-
cated it with lard or oil, he can proceed with the examination as if it were a simple
ordinary proceeding. By exhibiting no hurry, and appearing to think it nothing un-
usual, or in any way strange, the female herself will cease to think it so, and will not
be flurried or shocked.

The hand must be passed under the female's right thigh, her knees being elevated,
She should, of course, lie on her back, and as near to the edge of the bed as conven-
ient. Not the slightest exposure is necessary, nor allowable, under ordinary circum-

The forefinger being introduced, ballotment may be practiced, to ascertain if preg-
nancy really exists ; and if the evidence from this source is not sufficient, auscultation
must be resorted to. After being satisfied on this point, the mouth of the womb
must be carefully examined, and its degree of dilatation noticed. If the female has
pains their character and frequency must also be noticed, and the effects they pro-
duce on the parts. It will generally be possible by these means to discover how far
the labor has progressed, and even to form an opinion how long it is likely to last.
The general form of the parts and their size should also be noticed ; particularly of
the pelvis, so that any deformity or deficiency may be discovered ; and lastly, the
presentation should be ascertained, if possible, so that it may be known in time
whether nature will be sufficient herself, or will require helping. The position need
not be cared for at present, because it is of little consequence when the presentation
is favorable.

The time required to make the examination need not be long, and should always
be as short as possible.

While conversing with the patient, much useful information maybe gained. The
general state of her health, the nature of her pains, and the time they first com-
menced, should all be known ; and if she has had children before, it will be highly
useful to know what kind of a labor she had ; whether it was long or short, easy or
difficult, and particularly if attended with any accident likely to occur again.

It need scarcely be remarked that great caution is needed in these cases, many
eminent men having been deceived as to the patient's condition, as already stated in
our chapter on the signs of pregnancy ; and many times the doctor has been sum-
moned under the supposition that labor had begun, while it was yet far off. The
pains may be false ones, such as frequently occur toward the end of pregnancy, and
may all pass away. These false pains, however, can usually be distinguished, being
continuous and irregular, while the true ones intermit with periods of almost perfect
ease, and are tolerably regular. The false pains are also felt in various parts, while
the true ones are chiefly fixed in the uterus and vagina. Sometimes, however, the
difficulty in distinguishing them is very great, and the accoucheur has often waited for
several hours and even days, the labor meanwhile making no progress ; and eventu-
ally all has passed off, and the patient has risen again from her bed. I know one
case, where a gentleman attended nearly three days, and at the end of which time
the patient rose and walked dotvn stairs. She was not put to bed till six weeks
after. I can scarcely think, however, that these mistakes can happen very frequently,
if the examination be properly conducted.

816 THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

PKEPABATIOHS FOE THE DELIVERY.

If it appears from the examination that labor has really commenced, or is about
to do so, everything should be at once prepared. All useless persons should leave the
room, and also those who would be likely to alarm or grieve the patient by uttering
cries, or exhibiting fear ; but no objection should be made to any one being present
whom she wishes to see, unless they cannot be depended upon. Thus some females
always wish to have their husbands with them, but others do not, though they are
averse to saying so. In these cases the accoucheur, if he be an attentive observer, will
soon see what is really desired by his patient, and will manage matters accordingly.

The dress of the female should be perfectly loose, consisting chiefly of a wrapper
or nightgown, but sufficiently complete and warm to allow of her getting up to walk
in the chamber, if she desires it, as some do. No corsets, garters, or other tight
bandages, however, should be allowed.

The bed should be prepared by placing the mattress on the top, or by removing
all from it, and then placing a thick layer of blankets or quilts, with a folded sheet
over them. This is to provide a firm level surface, in which the body will not sink,
and also to prevent the fluids soaking through. It is an excellent plan, if the mate-
rial can be obtained, to place a thin oil-skin or india-rubber cloth under the folded
sheets, as this keeps all perfectly dry underneath. Some persons also place another
folded sheet, or a cushion, under the pelvis, to keep it elevated, but this is not neces-
sary, unless the bed sinks in very much. It is also advisable to have a foot-board or
other firm body, against which the female can press her feet when bearing down ; and
a long towel, folded lengthways, should be passed under the back, so that it can be
raised up by a person lifting at each end. This will often be found a better mode of
pressing the lack, which nearly all patients call for, than by merely forcing the hand
against it, which is both tiresome and insufficient. Another towel may also be firmly
fixed to the bottom of the bed, so that she can pull by it, at the same time that she
pushes with her feet.

Some persons are confined on a cot, but this is not a very good arrangement,
because it sinks in too much in the middle, and is not sufficiently large and firm. It
is advantageous in one respect, however, as it can be placed by the side of the bed,
into which the patient can be lifted when all is over, and be comparatively dry and
comfortable. This is the most frequent plan in France. If the bed be properly
arranged however, the under sheet can be withdrawn, and clean warm napkins then
passed under the body, which will be equally as good. The covering should consist
of a sheet, with blanket or coverlid, according to temperature, and should, of course,
never be removed, except under peculiar circumstances.

The chamber itself should be as quiet as possible, well ventilated, and not too
warm. Nothing distresses the patient more than a close, hot atmosphere.

The accoucheur need not, of course, be present while these arrangements are
being made ; and when he retires he should suggest to the nurse that the female
may attend to the bowels and bladder during his absence. This precaution may
both facilitate the labor, and prevent much future annoyance. It would even be
advisable to administer an injection if necessary, of thin starch and a little castor
oil, rather than leave the bowels unmoved.

In regard to nourishment, nothing is needed or proper in the shape of solid food,
because all the energies of the system are concentrated in the uterus, and as diges-

THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 817

tion cannot therefore go on, it would only be an evil. If the labor is much pro-
tracted, however, some broth or soup may be taken, or a little milk. As a general
rule, no spirituous liquors or stimulating drinks of any kind should be taken, be-
cause they impart no real strength, and may produce inflammation, or congestion of
the brain. Some females always prefer tea to drink, others lemonade, toast water,
gruel, or barley water, and others again simple cold water, which is perhaps the best
of all. In cases of great exhaustion it is sometimes advisable, and even necessary,
to give a little wine, or brandy and water, but it should always be cautiously admin-
istered.

In some parts it is customary for the female to lie on her side during delivery,
with a pillow between the knees ; some even choose this mode, and others will de-
sire to stand, or place themselves on tbeir knees. The most frequent position bow-
ever, and certainly the most convenient, is on the back, though it may often be
changed with advantage under peculiar circumstances. In the early stages of labor
she can lie, or move about, as she chooses, or even rise if more agreeable.

ATTENDANCE AFTER THE PREPARATIONS ARE MADE, AND DURING THE DELIVERY.

When everything is arranged, the assistant should take his seat on the right hand
of his patient and repeat the examination. If the head presents, he need not con-
cern himself much further at present, but if it be any other part, he should prepare
at once to change it, or assist, as the case may be. At this second examination the
parties present, and the female herself, are usually anxious to know if the child is
coming right, and how long the labor is likely to last. The answer to these inqui-
ries should be guarded and circumspect in regard to the duration, because of its un-
certainty, but if the presentation is right, it is well to say so at once, because this
gives great comfort and encouragement. If it be unfortunately wrong, it is best
not to say so abruptly, but remark that it is rather obscure, or cannot yet be fully
distinguished, and so keep up the spirits of the female while you await the proper
time, or make the necessary arrangements, to interfere ; and then tell her there is a
little difficulty which requires to be righted, but which will not be serious, nor cause
much delay.

If the labor steadily progresses, it is necessary to remain with the female and at-
tend to it ; but if it be delayed, and everything remains natural, she may be left
for a time with advantage. When the second stage is fairly commenced however,
and especially after the membranes are broken, the attention should be unremitting.
The state of the parts should be ascertained frequently, so that the actual progress
may be known, and any necessary assistance rendered. The state of the bladder
especially should be observed, and if it be full, and the female unable to urinate, the
catheter should be passed. Neglect of this precaution may lead to serious accidents.
While making the examinations, the hand should be introduced with great care, so
as not to bruise or lacerate the parts, and it should not remain longer than absolutely
necessary. ■

Many females exhaust themselves unnecessarily, by bearing down and straining
with great force from the very commencement of labor, under the mistaken idea
that it is necessary to do so, or will assist. They should be told not to do so how-
ever, till after the membranes are broken, and not even then unless the neck of the
womb begins to dilate. They should also be told not to make any effort except dur-
ing a pain, as it will not assist at any other time.

818 THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

No attempt should be made, under ordinary circumstances, to rupture the mem.
branes, or dilate the mouth of the womb, even though nature may be slow in doing
so. Patience must be practiced, both by the female and by her assistant, and some-
times it is severely tried.

When the waters have escaped, and the orifice is opened, an examination must
be made, to discover whether the cord has descended, or either of the arms, as is
sometimes the case, and if so, they must be returned if possible.

As the head descends to the bottom of the pelvis it compresses the rectum, and
produces a feeling as if the bowels must be moved, or even causes them to be so.
This is apt to distress the female, and make her wish to rise, which cannot be per-
mitted. If anything of the kind occurs, no notice should be taken of it, or she may
even be assured she is mistaken, while a clean napkin may be interposed. This, as
Dr. Chailly observes, will soothe her delicacy. Such an accident is very apt to
occur towards the end of the labor.

When the head has rotated, and presents at the external opening, or vulva, and
begins to distend it, the greatest care is required. This is a critical period, during which
the accoucheur can render more real assistance than at almost any other. There is
danger at this time, as formerly explained, of the head passing through too quickly,
before the parts are sufficiently relaxed, and so causing them to rupture. This is
particularly the case with the perineum, against which the head presses with great
force. It is necessary therefore to support the perineum, as it is termed, to prevent
this accident. This is done by passing the right arm under the patient's right thigh,
and placing the palm of the hand flat against the perineum, with the thumb encir-
cling one side of the vulva, and the forefinger the other. The hand is then gently,
but firmly, pressed against the part during every pain, so as to prevent the head
passing too quickly, and also to elevate it, and thus relieve the perineum of part of
the strain, and throw the occiput under the pubes.

Some practitioners also pass the left hand over the thigh, at the same time, and
grasp the back of the head with it, thus holding the head as it were between the two
hands, so as to direct it at pleasure.

The manner of doing this is represented in Figure 182.

It is also necessary to request the female at this time to moderate her efforts, and
not bear down too strongly. If, however, she be too excited, and eager to do so,
more care must be used, and the head pressed back still more forcibly, till the parts
are fully relaxed. For want of these precautions there is often serious laceration of
the perineum and vulva, particularly in first labors, and when the parts are unusu-
ally rigid. If proper care be bestowed, however, these accidents ought to occur but
seldom, even in the worst cases, and nothing can be more hurtful to the reputa-
tion of an accoucheur than for them to happen. Sometimes it is necessary to
support the perineum for hours, and to bestow constant attention the whole time.
It is often useful to keep applying a little simple ointment, or lard, in the intervals
of the pains, mixed with extract of belladonna, which will soften and relax the
parts. Dr. Lee also advises the application of a sponge dipped in warm water, and
which would probably do much good in many cases.

It will of course be undei-stood that the pressure only needs to be made during
the pains ; when the head draws back, the ointment or warm sponge may be applied.
The knees of the female should be held up by some one, if she bears down too much,
so as to prevent her from doing so too powerfully.

THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

819

When it is felt that the parts are fully relaxed, and sufficiently distended, the
head is left at liberty, during a strong pain, and it immediately passes the outer ring,
or is born.

It should then be held up, towards the pubes, and the mucus should be cleaned
from the mouth with one of the fingers, so that the child may breathe. A careful
examination should also be made round the neck, to see if the umbilical -cord is
around it. If it be so, but is not tight, it may be left alone, or pulled a little over
one shoulder, or even passed clean over the head, if it can be easily drawn out long

Figure 182.

The manner of supporting the perineum, during the passage of the head.

The right hand is placed underneath, so as to push the head gently hack, when it presses on
the perineum too forcibly, hefore it is dilated ; and also to elevate it towards the pubes.

The left hand is seen above, grasping the top of the head to assist. This may he done or not,
according to necessities of the case, or the custom of the assistant.

enough. When it is very tight, and cannot be eased, it must be cut through, or it
will strangle the child.

In most cases the shoulders follow immediately after the head, the uterus rest-
ing only a few moments ; but if they do not, the head may be slightly drawn upon,
or the forefinger of the right hand may be linked under the arm, and a little force
employed, though very carefully. It is better, however, to wait even two or three
minutes, and only resort to these means when there is evidently a partial suspension
of the natural efforts. Sometimes also the contractions may be brought on again by
merely pressing the hand over the fundus of the uterus, and this should therefore be
tried first in all cases, it being better to let the uterus expel the child than to bring it
away by manual force.

During the passage of the shoulders, the perineum needs as much care as during
the passage of the head, and must be supported in the same way. Indeed, some
authors are of opinion that most cases of laceration are caused by the shoulders.

After the shoulders are expelled, the limbs and body speedily follow. The
child should be received in the hands of the accoucheur, and laid on its side,

820 THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

at a little distance from the vulva, so that it may not be suffocated by the
discharged fluids. He should then take a strong ligature and pass it twice round
the umbilical cord, about two inches from the navel, and also at about four
inches, and then cut the cord through, between the two bands, with a pair
of sharp scissors. The child may then be handed to the nurse.

The tying of the cord is by some deemed unnecessary, and in most cases probably
is so, but as children have been known to bleed to death when it was not done, it
should never be neglected. Some practitioners only tie it once, leaving that part
open which is still attached to the placenta, and they suppose this is advantageous,
inasmuch as it partly empties the placenta of its blood, and so helps to detach it.
There is little or no fear, as some suppose, that this bleeding can be extensive enough
to hurt the female, or second child if there be one, and even if it were likely to be
so it could soon be stopped ; it has the inconvenience, however, of soiling the bed more,
and this is probably one great reason why the second ligature is applied, which cer-
tainly is not necessary.

In my directions I have said that the cord may be tied about two inches from the
abdomen, and this will be sufficient if the child breathes ; but if not it should be left
about four inches long, so as to give room to cut it again, which is occasionally
needed, as will be seen further on. The knot should be drawn very tight, and great
care must be taken never to tie it so near as to pinch the skin of the abdomen, which
passes a little distance up it. A small portion of the intestine will enter the cord
sometimes, and swell it out for an inch or more ; this must be pressed back with the
thumb and finger, and carefully avoided by the ligature. Some practitioners cut
the cord first and tie it after, but I think the other plan is decidedly the safest and
the best.

After this is accomplished, the accoucheur should place his hand again over the
fundus of the uterus, to discover whether it contracts, and also to judge whether
there be another foetus^ If the womb is felt drawn up into a hard round ball in the
middle of the abdomen, all is right, and no apprehension need be felt ; but if it re-
mains unaltered in size, and is soft, flooding is to be feared, and the hand should be
firmly pressed or kneaded over the fundus, to bring on contraction.

If there be another foetus, the womb will remain much the same as before labor,
and the child may also be felt. It is better, however, to make an examination inter-
nally, and then, in most cases, the membranes and presenting part of the second
foetus will be found at the upper strait. If there be any doubt after this, it is even
better to carry the hand a little way into the womb than to remain in ignorance on
such an important point. The delivery of the second foetus usually follows close
upon the first, though sometimes there will be a delay of some hours, or even days.
And in general there is little or no difficulty with the second, owing to the parts
having been already prepared ; but the longer it is delayed the less easy it becomes.

Immediately the birth is fully effected, the female feels, as most of them express
it, in heaven ; there is an almost instantaneous change, from the most agonizing pain
to a state of perfect ease. She ceases her cries, and falls into a quiet and pleasing
languor, strikingly at variance with the state of intense excitement she was in but a
few moments before. This repose, however, does not last long; the placenta yet
remains, and a new effort is required to expel that.

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 821

DELIVERY OF THE AETER-BIRTH, OR PLACENTA AND MEMBRANES.

"Unlike the foetus, the placenta is fast to the walls of the womb, and can only
become separated, from them by the contraction of their substance, which usually com-
mences soon after the birth of the child, and is indicated by new pains, and a slight
discharge of blood. In about a quarter of an hour, or twenty minutes, the accoucheur
should inquire of the patient whether she has felt any of these pains, and he should
also examine whether the placenta has reached the mouth of the womb, or vagina,
so that he may remove it. If the pains have not yet come on, and the placenta is not
in the passage, he should press one hand on the fundus of the womb to promote its
contraction still further, and then gently draw upon the cord with the other, hold-
ing it as high up as possible, either by a piece of linen around it, or by looping it
around the finger. It should be pulled very gently, but steadily, downwards and
backwards. If it be snatched, or drawn too hard, it may break, and cause great
trouble ; or it may putt down the womb, and either invert it or bring on falling of the
womb afterward. The hand placed over the fundus can detect this accident, and if
the uterus be felt to sink down, the cord must not be drawn upon any longer. Pulling
away the placenta too soon, and with rudeness, has often led to deplorable accidents.
In nearly every case it will gradually separate itself, and be delivered in about half an
hour, and should only be assisted by slight drawing on the cord, and by pressing
the fundus.

"When the placenta is completely detached, there is seldom any difficulty in its pass-
ing the neck of the womb, and down the vagina, but it usually requires to be drawn
through the external opening by the hand. In doing. this the membranes may be
twisted round the cord, so as to wind them altogether, and strengthen the cord.

In case the separation does not take place, we must wait, and continue the slight
strain on the cord and the friction over the fundus. It is not reckoned safe, how-
ever, by most authors, to wait more than an hour ; and if there are no signs of its
coming by that time, artificial delivery is resorted to. This is accomplished by carry-
ing the hand carefully up into the womb, and separating the placenta from its walls
with the fingers, and then bringing it down at once.

"When the after-birth has passed the vulva, a careful examination should be made
of it to see that no part is left behind ; and for still greater security it is advisable to
explore the vagina thoroughly, so that any detached portion may be removed. The
membranes are very apt to become broken, and fragments of them left, which, though
ever so small, may cause trouble. The finger should also be passed into the mouth
of the womb, so as to clear it ; for sometimes a large clot of blood, or a piece of the
membranes, will remain and keep it open, and thus cause severe flooding.

It is generally considered, by those who have bestowed attention on the subject,
that assistance should always be rendered, if the after-birth does not come very soon.
There is danger, if it be left too long, of the mouth of the womb contracting and
retaining it, in which case it becomes absolutely necessary to abstract it, but exceedingly
difficult, and even dangerous to do so. Dr. Lee says it should never be left more
than an hour, at most, and that it is best never to delay removing it even so long as
that.

When left purposely, for observation, it is found to be expelled spontaneously,
and soon, only in a few cases ; usually it remains several hours, and most frequently
it requires to' be removed by hand. No doubt it is natural for it to be expelled

S22 THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

unaided, but it must be borne in mind that our females are usually too weak, ana
deficient in energy, to perform any unusual natural function without assistance. The
accoucheur must use great caution, so as neither to intrude hie help when not
required, nor yet to refuse it when really needed ; and, above all, he must not substi-
tute violence for skill.

When the after-birth is brought away, a bandage should be passed round the body
of the female, made of soft linen, twelve or fourteen inches wide. It should be
drawn moderately tight, and fastened securely. If it pass round twice it will be all
the better, and it should be drawn down as near the pubes as possible. I know many
ladies who prefer the india-rubber bandages, recently invented, as they press more
equally and firmly, and are put on with less trouble, being all in one piece and
drawn over the feet and limbs.

Some accoucheurs put on the wrapper immediately the child is born, before the
after-birth passes away ; but I think this is not the best plan. When properly
adjusted, the supporting band gives great comfort to the female, and is very useful.

Some ladies provide curious corsets to N put on, invented for the purpose, which
however, as a celebrated author recently remarked, " are usually stiff and unyield-
ing, like the prejudices of their patrons, and often prove injurious." None of them
are equal to the simple contrivances above mentioned.

ATTENTIONS TO THE FEMALE AFTER THE DELIVEET OF THE AFTER-BIRTH.

When the after-birth is removed, the patient should be left to repose herself for
about a quarter of an hour, during which time most of the blood escapes, and then
she must be made as comfortable as possible. In France, and with many persons
here, it is customary to cleanse the patient with a sponge dipped in warm water,
pass a clean warm sheet under her, and then put on clean linen, after which she is
lifted into the clean bed, previously well warmed, the accoucheur himself carrying
her there. Most frequently, however, the sponging is dispensed with till some time
after, and also the changing of beds — the under sheet merely being withdrawn, and
a warm dry one passed in its place, while the patient's limbs are gently wiped. In
either case the female should be disturbed as little as possible, particularly if there
be danger of flooding, and she should be carefully guarded from cold. When the
soiled and wet clothes are removed as completely as possible, warm napkins should
be placed under the pelvis and between the limbs, to soak up the discharge, and they
should be carefully changed as often as needed, without uncovering the patient. If
she be disposed to sleep, however, and is much exhausted, these attentions need not
be pressed too much till she is recovered a little.

Many persons here have a dread of using the sponge immediately, and of being
carrried to another bed ; but there is no danger from either practice, in ordinary
cases, when carefully performed ; and it is so productive of comfort, that I never
knew one but what was pleased with and benefited by it, and desirous of its being
done in their subsequent labors.

Some females will even rise and take a cold lath, or be wrapped in a wet sheet,'
not only without evil effect but with positive advantage. I would not advise any
one to do this however, particularly if they are the least timid at it, or doubtful of
its propriety. Without the mental stimulus of faith and hope it may be hazardous.
It shows, however, that many of the popular notions as to the requirements and suS'
ceptibilitics of females in this state are entirely unfounded.

THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATUBAL LABOB. 823

The patient may either experience great comfort after being thus attended to, or
she may complain very much. Some will even be attacked with a kind of chill.
Their teeth will chatter, and their hands and feet grow quite cold. This however,
usually passes off, and she falls asleep. The accoucheur ought to remain for an
hour or two, even though she sleeps soundly, and appears quite well, because she
may become suddenly worse, or flooding may set in with such violence as to endan-
ger life in a few minutes, when unchecked.

If the patient desires any nourishment, she may take a little simple soup, or
gruel, but nothing stimulating, unless a little wine be needed from extreme exhaust-,
ion.

ATTENTIONS TO THE CHILD.

Inspection when born. — As soon as the child is born, its mouth and nose should
be cleared from mucus, if that has not been done already ; and if it has not breathed,
means should be resorted to immediately to make it do so. Sometimes the whole
head is covered with a thin membrane, called the caul, or veil, which is most proba-
bly only a portion of the amnion, and which may cause suffocation. I remember a
case of this kind in my own practice, in which the caul was unnoticed at first, and
the child came near dying from it. Nothing could be seen, and as it bent before the
finger, when pressed into the mouth, it was totally unobserved. The nurse how-
ever, called out that the child did not breathe, and a close examination as to the
cause soon revealed why. On passing the finger under the edge of the membrane,
which was round the neck, it came off like a cap, and the child cried imme-
diately.

Washing the Child. — The cleansing of the child may usually be safely committed
to the nurse, or other female attendants, though some of them have very absurd and
injurious practices in this respect. Thus I have known them rub the whole body
over with whiskey, or raw spirits, before washing it, which must cause great cold-
ness from its evaporation, and also great irritation. The only thing required imper-
fect cleanliness, and this should be effected in the quickest and simplest manner.
Some very mild soap, and moderately warm water, is all that is really needed, though
a little sweet oil, or fresh lard, or butter, rubbed on first, appears to facilitate the
operation. The drying should be done as quickly as possible, after all the mucus is
washed off, and with great care ; the napkin being as soft as it can be, and never
rubbed hard, for it requires but little force to remove the skin. Many persons take
great trouble, and are a long time over this infantile wash without succeeding well
with it. They are deceived by the tough mucus slipping under the hand, but still
clinging to the body, where they leave it even after using the napkin ; it then dries
on. and forms a hard skin, very difficult to remove, and very irritating. This can
be avoided with care, and by using the oil first, which appears to soften the mucus.
Some persons use flour, or Indian meal, and others starch, but none of these are so
good as the simple means we have described.

Dressing the Child. — After the washing and drying are completed, the child must
be dressed, and this is a process in which comfort and utility are frequently sacrificed
to mere fashion and prejudice, as it is in adults. The article next the skin should
be of soft fine linen, which may be followed by others of warmer material, according
to the temperature. They should all be perfectly loose in their make, and quite soft
to the feel. As far as possible they should all be fastened with strings rather than

824 THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

pins. These metallic points are troublesome to fix, and often injure the child, in spite
of every precaution. They are also apt to be referred to as the cause of the child
crying, and thus prevent other causes being sought for, which frequently exist.

Some people put a thick flannel cap on the head, over a linen one, but others
leave this part altogether uncovered, which I think is the best plain. At most
there should only be the linen covering ; the head being better rather cool than
otherwise.

The dressing of the cord is the next duty, and this is done by taking several
pieces of soft linen, oiled a little, and cutting a small round hole in the middle
of each, through which the cord is passed. The linen then lies flat on the abdomen
of the child, and the cord on the top of that, the holes being just large enough for it
to pass easily through. Five or six pieces are usually put on, but very frequenly only
one is used, and is found quite sufficient. It should be very fine, and soft. When
this is done another layer is laid over the cord, and then a bandage of soft linen,
about four or five inches wide, is passed two or three times over it, and round the
body. This completes the dressing, and the child may now be wrapped up warmly
and laid down to sleep — remembering, as Dr. Chailly remarks, that if it be laid on a
chair or sofa, it may be accidentally sat upon and killed — an accident which has.
happened more than once.

ACCIDENTS WHICH MAT HAPPEN.

Before these dressings are needed, however, there are frequently other things of
more importance to be attended to. If the labor has been long, or the presentation
unfavorable, the child may be born apoplectic, from the pressure it has received. The
face will be puffed up, and of a blue color ; the body will be swollen, and the limbs
without motion, while the pulsation will scarcely be felt, either over the child's
heart or in the cord. It will feel warm, and the limbs will be quite flexible, but still
there will be no signs of life. In this case it should be exposed naked to the cool air,
and even blown upon ; and if that does not resuscitate it, the cord may be cut through
below the ligature, so as to let out two or three teaspoonfuls of blood. After this it
generally revives, and begins to move, while its face assumes a natural color, and the
swelling goes down. The mouth and throat should also be carefully cleaned with a
quill feather, of all mucus.

A more frequent accident is asphyxia, or want of breathing, in which case the
surface of the body is cold and pale, and no breath whatever is drawn, though the
heart beats quite naturally. Very weak children, or those born before their time, or
those delivered by instruments, are most likely to become asphyxiated. The first thing
to be done is to carry the child to the open window, if it be not. exceedingly cold, and
expose its head and chest to the air, while the rest of the body is wrapped up warm.
This will often make it gasp, but if it does not a little cold water may be dashed on
its face and chest, and the throat may be tickled with a feather. The breech may
also be smartly slapped, and the chest well rubbed with the cold hand. When it
begins to breathe a little, it may be put into a warm bath up to the middle, and a
warm injection may be given to it. In most cases these means will speedily bring it
round, but if they do not, the attendant should place his mouth close over that of the
child and breathe into it, so as to fill the lungs, and then press down the chest to
empty them again, repeating the process several times. This may be called artificial
breathing, and if it succeed once only, there is a probability of its effecting the desired

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 825

object The breath, however, must not be blown in too hard, nor too rapidly, or it
may injure the child's lungs. Sometimes a tube is used, which is passed down into
the throat ; but it is troublesome, and not much better than the mouth, if at all.
These efforts may be repeated twenty or thirty times if necessary, or even more. In
some cases it is requisite to continue using some or all of these means for an hour or
two without intermission, before the child begins to breathe freely. I knew an
instance even, where the nurse continued to do so for five hours, and at last fully
recovered the child, though all present, including the doctor, had given it up. She
said she did not despair while it continued warm, though it was doubtful whether
the heart beat or not. This may show that the attempt should not be abandoned
too soon.

In case of asphyxia, no blood should be lost at all, but on the contrary the cord
should be carefully examined to see if it is tied fast, the bleeding from it frequently
aggravating the evil.

Congenital Weakness. — Some children are born extremely weak, and remain
constantly debilitated and cold. This is very apt to be the case when they are born
before the full term, or when the mother is diseased. They should be carefully
wrapped in cotton, or very soft flannel, and kept warm by bottles of warm water.
Many instances are on record of these weak children becoming afterwards extremely
robust, so that they need not to be regarded with unmixed apprehension, nor ne-
glected from a supposition that they must die.

Tlie Child may ie Deformed. — The accoucheur should also carefully examine
the child, to see if it be deformed in any way, or has met with any accident,
because in some of these cases assistance is required immediately, and may be
rendered at once.

Tlie Child's Capability of Endurance. — The capability of the new-born infant
to endure extremes of cold is almost as great as that of its mother, and sometimes
even it is benefited by them. With many persons it is customary to plunge it in
cold water, immediately when born ; and in Eussia, we are told, it is even rolled in
the snow. In some cases these extremes may be beneficial, but in others I have no
doubt they prove fatal. A medium course is best, in most instances, leaving the
extreme to be resorted to when we wish a sudden stimulus.

When all these matters are carefully attended to, and both mother and child have
remained for an hour or two without any unpleasant symptoms, they may be left to
the care of the ordinary attendants, giving them strict orders to send for proper
assistance immediately, if anything unusual transpires.

SUBSEQUENT ATTENTIONS TO MOTHER AND CHILD.

The Bladder. — One of the most important points to attend to is the urine. A few
hours after the delivery is fully effected, unless the female is reposing, she should be
asked whether she has any desire to urinate ; and, if she has, the convenience should
be at once afforded to do so. There is always more or less danger of retention of
urine, from the pressure that has been exerted on the bladder ; and if it be allowed
co continue too long, its removal becomes exceedingly difficult. If on making the
attempt the urine does not flow, the catheter must be used, and the sooner the better.
The pain arising from retention of the urine has often been supposed to arise from
inflammation of the womb, or bowels — neither patient nor physician knowing its real

826 THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

source, till the passage by the catheter gave relief. There have even been instances
of females dying, merely from an overcharged bladder, while their attendants were
industriously treating them for uterine inflammation. This accident, therefore,
should always be suspected, and a very little attention will prevent any mistake in
regard to it. When allowed to become too full, the swollen bladder may be felt, just
above the pubes, hard and tender, so that the least pressure upon it causes great pain.
If not relieved, it will at last burst.

The Bowels. — If the bowels are not opened naturally, it will be well, the following
day, to administer an injection of thin starch and water, or to prescribe a small dose
of castor oil, or a seidlitz powder. This should also be repeated for two or three
days, till the natural power is restored.

The Food. — But little solid food should be given, and nothing stimulating. Gruel,
milk, toast and water, Indian meal, light puddings, or broth, should be the chief
articles for some time. Eoast apples are also very good, being pleasant and relaxing.
For refreshing drinks, if there be any fever, lemonade or tamarind tea may be taken.

The After-pains. — After the expulsion of the after-birth, most females experience
more or less severe pains, almost like those of labor, arising apparently from the fur-
ther contraction of the uterine walls to expel the coagulated blood. These pains are
seldom or never felt in first labors, but afterwards they are often most acute. I have
known many patients suffer much more from them than they did during labor. They
sometimes last only a few hours, or a day, and sometimes even extend to six or eight
days. Nothing that we know of can prevent them, though many means are known
of mitigating their severity. If there be no tendency to flooding, a large poultice
may be placed over the abdomen, or it may be fomented, or covered with cloths
wrung out in hot water. An injection may also be used, either in the vagina or
rectum, consisting of warm thin starch, with about twenty drops of laudanum ; or
either of the following recipes may be used internally : — Pills of gum camphor, two
about the size of ordinary pills, to be repeated, if necessary, in an hour. Or, syrup
of poppies, two drachms; mucilage of gum arabic, two ounces; and solution of sul-
phate of morphia, ten drops ; to be made into a mixture, one-half of which may be
taken at first, and the remainder in two hours, if the patient is not relieved. This
seldom fails. It is necessary to bear in mind that the pains arising from inflamma-
tion have been mistaken for ordinary after-pains, and serious consequences have
resulted from the error. The after-pains, however, are concentrated, and intermit-
tent, while the sensations from inflammation are more diffused and constant, and are
also usually attended by fever.

The Lochial Discharge. — From the time of delivery until the uterus has returned
to its ordinary condition, there is poured from it a discharge, at first like blood, and
afterwards thin and light colored, called the lochia. The duration of this discharge
varies from one week to a month, and its quantity from one ounce to six or eight ounces
daily. It gradually diminishes, however, and frequently stops for a few days alto-
gether. In women who do not nurse it is both more abundant, and lasts longer, than
in those who do. The bloody color usually disappears after the first or second day,
though sometimes it will show itself again, even when the discharge has nearly
ceased, particularly if the female exert herself too soon.

It appears that this discharge is essential to health, and great attention should
therefore be bestowed on the patient, if it be too small, or cease too soon, or too sud-
denly. In most cases it ceases naturally during the milk fever, and of course its dis-

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 82?

appearance then need not excite alarm. Sometimes also it does not attain its full
quantity till some days after its commencement. If, however, it remains small past
the third day, or does not appear when the milk fever is over, means should he taken
for increasing it. The best means for this purpose are warm poultices and fomenta-
tions over the abdomen, and injections in the rectum of simple warm water. Some
practitioners advise ttoo drachms of powdered camphor to be sprinkled on each poul-
tice, and probably it is an excellent addition. Occasionally the lochia is very offen-
sive, and in that case a simple cleansing injection may be frequently used of thin
starch, or chamomile tea, with three or four drops of carbolic acid.

During the whole period of the lochia in fact, even in ordinary cases, the femala
will be all the more comfortable, and better, for an occasional injection, and frequent
washing. This is very much neglected, though it never ought to be so. The only
care required is not to expose her to cold, which is quite unnecessary.

TJie Milk Fever. — About the second or third day there usually commences a pe-
culiar temporary excitement in the system, called the milk fever, which requires to be
described because it may be confounded with something more serious. It is gener-
ally ushered in by headache, flushed face, and a hot dry skin ; the pulse beats slowly,
and the breasts become hard, while the veins upon them appear very full. In a short
time, however, the pulse becomes quicker, a perspiration breaks out, and the breasts
become still larger and fuller, so that the female can scarcely bring her arms to her
body. These symptoms last about a day, or two days at most, and seldom become
much aggravated.

Occasionally the milk fever is preceded by a slight chill, or by a furred tongue,
or sick stomach, but not very frequently.

The precise causes of this temporary fever are unknown, though probably it is
connected with the full establishment of the secretion of milk, and hence its name.
It is seldom very severe in those who nurse, and frequently does not appear at all.
During its continuance, and for some time after, the female must carefully avoid ex-
posure to cold, and keep herself quiet ; her diet should also be rather restricted, and
light and unstimulating. An occasional seidlitz powder may also be of service, or a
simple injection.

Making the Bed. — It is not customary to disturb the female, for the purpose of
making her bed, till the milk fever is passed ; or, if that does not appear, till the
tenth or twelfth day ; and then it should be done with care, and so as not to expose
her unnecessarily.

First Sitting up, and Going out. — This must of course be determined more by the
condition of the patient, and the state of the weather, than by any rules. It may
be as well to remark however, no matter how the patient may feel, that the first at-
tempt should always be made with care. Very frequently she thinks herself stronger
and more capable than she really is, and premature or undue exertion may do great
injury. In most cases the female is allowed to rise within the first week, and sit for
a short time in an arm-chair ; after which she begins to walk slowly about the room.
The first going out is fixed, ly fashion, at one month. Many females, however, are
unfit to leave the house till long after that time, and others should by no means be
confined to it so long. Of course these proceedings should depend, as already re-
marked, upon the patient's strength and inclinations, and upon the state of the
weather, and not upon any fashionable observances. Some females are quite able to
rise, and even walk out, in a few days, with benefit to themselves ; and it exhibits

828 THE CONDUCT OB MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR.

as great a want of correct feeling, or common sense, for any one to make disparaging
remarks on them for their early appearance, as it would if they were to hlame the
poor invalid for keeping her bed.

The apartment should be kept constantly well ventilated, particularly if the female
is confined to it, and all soiled linen, or other sources of foul air, should be removed
as quickly as possible. There is reason to believe that inattention to this, and to
properly cleansing the person of the female, frequently produces child-bed fever.

Attentions to the Child. — If the infant's bowels are not opened by the end of the
first day, it should have a little sugar, or molasses and water, given to it, and if this
does not succeed, about half a teaspoonful of syrup of rhubarb may be added. This
is, however, but seldom needed, if it be put to the breast within a few hours, as the
first secretion of the milk possesses sufficient laxative power itself. It should also be
observed whether it has urinated, and if not it should be placed in a warm bath im-
mediately.

Some persons prefer to let the child wait till the milk fever is established, before
they let it nurse, but this is very improper. The early feeding does it no good, and
the purgatives it requires are injurious. As soon as the female is sufficiently reposed,
if there is nothing special to forbid it, the child should go to the breast.

Sometimes the child will remain sleepy and dull, and not seem to require food at
all, for several days, and even die at last of starvation, unless aroused. If this leth-
argy continues, it should be put in a warm bath, and afterward well rubbed, while a
little sugar and water is poured down its throat. These attentions may require to
be repeated for some time.

About the fourth or fifth day, the portion of the cord above the knot usually sepa-
rates and falls off, if it has not already done so. If the navel is inflamed, or suppu-
rates, a little simple ointment may be rubbed on, and it should be regularly and
carefully washed. In some infants it swells out very much, in which case a pad
should be made of soft linen, and laid upon it, over which the ordinary bandage
may be drawn. The complete healing of the part does not occur till about the
twelfth day, and the bandage must be carefully worn till then at least, and is better
continued a little longer, particularly if there is any swelling, or if the child cries
much, or strains.

CONCLUDING REMAKES.

From the explanations given above of an ordinary natural labor, it will be evident
that but little manual assistance is required, either to the mother or the child, and
also what really is called for is of so simple a character as to be easily rendered. It
would undoubtedly be improper, and cruel, to leave females at such times without
aid altogether ; but it is also equally improper and injurious to interfere too much.
Excepting in cases of disease and deformity, or of very unfavorable presentations of
the foetus, nature herself will nearly always effect the delivery ; and much better, in
most cases, when left to herself. Numerous females and infants have been hilled,
and still more have been grievously injured for life, by rude and uncalled-for manip-
ulations ; so that it has been a question with some accoucheurs, of great experience,
whether as many would die, or seriously suffer, from receiving no assistance, as do
now from being improperly handled. Without going so far, it is undoubtedly true
that great mischief is done in this way, which can only be prevented by both accou-
cheur and patient bearing in mind that nature herself is usually competent, and at

THE CONDUCT OR MANAGEMENT OF A NATURAL LABOR. 829

most only requires skillful and gentle assistance. Some practitioners seem to think
that labor is a mere mechanical process, like the removal of a block of stone, and
hence they depend entirely upon force ; overlooking altogether the wonderful vital
powers inherent in the system, which operate with such certainty, and yet so safely,
and which frequently succeed of themselves when brute force is completely foiled.

The nature of the assistance proper to be given, in any particular stage of labor,
will be evident on inspecting the structure of those parts, of both mother and child,
which are brought in connection at the time, and by considering how their mutual
relations require to be changed and modified. If those relations are already such as
are required, and the system retains sufficient force, nothing can be done with any
advantage — we must wait, and let nature operate herself. Even many unfavorable
conditions may be spontaneously corrected, and it should always be a matter of con-
sideration, when the means of assistance are not very obvious, whether it will not be
better to rely upon the natural powers than to interfere. Great evil has resulted
from teaching females that labor cannot terminate safely without a great deal of
assistance, which can only be rendered properly by those who possess a vast amount
of skill and experience. They are thus led to think themselves totally dependent
upon the accoucheur, and many of them actually seem to believe that he is as neces-
sary to deliver the child as a dentist is to extract a bad tooth. If they were better
informed, they would feel more confidence in their own natural powers, and would
not be so unnecessarily alarmed when unforeseen difficulties occur, or when profes-
sional aid cannot be immediately procured.

In most cases there is more danger after the labor is over, from puerperal fever,
various local inflammations, and other causes, than there was during its progress.
Indeed the real danger may be said properly to commence several days after, and the
physician is really needed then more than at the time.

PROTRACTED AND DIFFICULT LABORS.

Ti*e causes which may impede a labor, and increase its difficulties, are numerous,
and they are of several different kinds — some depending upon the mother, and others
upon the child. Some of these may be easily removed, or modified, but others pre-
sent more serious difficulty. It is therefore necessary to enumerate and explain them
separately.

CHAPTER LXXIII.

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES, TO BOTH MOTHER AND CHILD, OF PROLONGE!-

LABOR.

The Consequences of Prolonged Labor.

A labor is usually called protracted or difficult, if the head presents, when it is
not completed in about twenty-four hours from its actual commencement. There
are many labors, however, that last much longer, and yet terminate quite favorably,
and many that are over much sooner, and yet are very difficult. Still, generally
speaking, the danger and difficulty increase as the time progresses, and it is seldom
prolonged beyond twenty-four hours without serious inconvenience.

It appears, from the statistics of the Dublin Lying-in Hospital, that in seventy-
eight thousand deliveries, one out of every ninety-two of the mothers died, and
one out of every eighteen of the children was still-born. Of those mothers who were
in labor with first children, from thirty to forty hours, one in every thirty-four died,
and one child in every five was still-born. Of those who were in labor from forty to
fifty hours, one died in every thirteen. Of those who were in labor from fifty to sixty
hours, one died in every eleven. And of those who were in labor from sixty to
seventy hours, one died in every eight, and nearly one-half of the children. It is
evident therefore that, as a general rule, the danger increases with the length of
time.

CAUSES CONNECTED WITH THE MOTHER WHICH MAT IMPEDE LABOR, OR MAKE IT

DIFFICULT.

Inertia, or Want of Sufficiently Powerful Contraction in the Womb.

This is most likely to occur in delicate females, and in those who are debilitated
by disease. The contractions are very feeble, and, as the nurses say, do not tell ; the
mouth of the womb dilates but slowly, and the head descends with difficulty into the

In many cases, in fact, the labor is so tedious, from this cause, that the female be-
comes completely worn out, and finally sinks, while the child is exposed to the great-
est hazard from the delay.

It is in these cases that the patient's strength needs supporting, and that stimu-
iants may be useful. A little wine, or brandy and water, will often rouse the failing
energies, and bring on a series of strong contractions that will end the labor at once.

The most usual resort however is to the drug called ergot, or secale cornutum,
a fungous growth which is sometimes found on ears of rye. This possesses the pe-
culiar property of exciting the womb to contract, the same as an emetic excites the

TEE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 831

stomach to vomit, and it seldom fails in its effect ; but still there are many objections
to its use. It not unfrequently causes delirium, great restlessness, and anxiety, sick-
ness, headache, and convulsions, or complete prostration, from which the female may
be long in recovering. It is also supposed by some to be not altogether free from
danger to the child. If however no other means were known of making the womb
contract, in such cases, all the probable evils should be risked, because the labor must
be completed at all hazards ; but other means are known, which succeed even more
certainly than ergot, and without any danger. The application of galvanism, if it
be used in a proper way, will almost invariably cause the womb to contract, and
speedily bring the labor to a safe termination, without the slightest risk or incon-
venience to either mother or child. Simple friction over the abdomen will also suc-
ceed in many cases, and gently rubbing the mouth of the womb with the finger in
others. These simple means should therefore always be used in preference to the
ergot, but in case they cannot be resorted to, or fail, the drug must be administered,
and I will therefore explain the manner in which this is done. When gathered, the
ergot is in large irregular lumps, and should be so kept. When wanted for use, a
single drachm should be finely powdered, and divided into three parts ; one of these
parts to be taken first in a glass of sugar and water, and the others at intervals of ten
minutes, unless the effects of the first are very powerful. It is often throAvn from
the stomach however, even in still smaller quantities, and is then given, by some, as
an injection by the rectum, in which mode it seems more powerful, so that a smaller
dose is sufficient.

Great caution should always be observed in using this powerful drug, as it will
sometimes act so energetically as to burst the luomb, or expel the child so suddenly
as to lacerate the perineum and other parts. The contractions produced by it are
different from the natural ones, being almost constant, without any interval, and
gradually increasing in force. They usually come on in about ten or fifteen minutes
after the last dose, and continue about an hour and a half. Some practitioners depend
almost altogether on the ergot, in every protracted case, and even use it to bring on
premature labor, when that is required. Thus M. P. Dubois was once called to a
dwarf, whom he delivered with instruments, the first time, but with great difficulty
and risk. The next time she became pregnant, he determined to bring on premature
labor, and accordingly he administered ergot, when she was about eight months gone.
This brought on natural labor, and she was delivered without difficulty, M. Chailly
says he believes it will bring on uterine contraction at any time, and that he has
never known it to fail. I consider however that there is always more or less risk in
its use, and I should certainly prefer any of the other means, particularly gal-
vanism.

It is of the first importance however to be certain, before using any forcing means
whatever, that there is no physical impediment. If the pelvis should be deformed or
small, if the child's head should be unusually large or dropsical, or if the soft parts
of the mother should be undilated and rigid, the most serious consequences must
ensue from violent uterine contractions. In like manner, if the presentation be un-
favorable, particularly if it be one of the trunk, the danger is equally great. In
every case the passage of the child must be physically possible, before it is attempted
to force it away. A neglect of this rule has frequently led to fatal results. The
ergot has been given and the uterus forced to contract, while the pelvis was too small
for the child to pass through : and the consequence has been rupture of the uterus,

332 THE CA USES AND CONSEQ UENGES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

or complete exhaustion, with death to both mother and infant. In other cases the
delivery has resulted so suddenly, from the violence of the expulsive efforts, that the
vagina and perineum have been lacerated in the most shocking manner.

The ergot is also especially dangerous to very nervous women, or to those who are
disposed to congestion, apoplexy, or inflammation.

Among the special causes which often paralyze the action of the womb, may be
mentioned a full habit of body, great distention of the uterus from accumulations of
fluid, and extreme thickness of the membranes. In some cases, in fact, the mem-
branes will be so strong that the most violent contractions fail to break them, and
the uterus completely exhausts itself to no purpose. It is in such cases as these,
when the mouth of the womb is fully dilated, that the accoucheur should rupture the
membranes artificially. This is usually done with the finger nail by pinching them.
Some practitioners, however, use a pointed instrument or a sharp quill ; but there is
always more or less danger of injuring the child or the mother by such means. The
best time for breaking them is during a strong pain, when they are fully distended.
The mere scratching, or pushing on them will frequently suffice. I have known
cases, however, in which they were so strong that an instrument was actually neces-
sary to open them.

The death of the infant also seems sometimes to check uterine contraction, though
probably not from the mere circumstance of its being dead, but because the womb
suffers from the same morbid cause which produced its death.

Any strong moral impression may also produce the same state of things. Thus.,
in some females the womb will instantly cease its contractions, and the labor be ar-
rested, from fright, or from strong repugnance to somebody or something in the room,
Instances have been known of women being so alarmed on first seeing the accouchenr.,
or so displeased because he was not the one they wished, that the uterine efforts im .
mediately ceased, and could not be again brought on for a long time. The presence
of some person who is a subject of dislike may also have a very prejudicial effect, and
if this is known they should be immediately removed. Dr. Merriman tells us of a
female who was seized with a fit, from which she died, simply from seeing a strange
doctrr enter the room.

"Whatever may be the cause which paralyzes the action of the womb, we should
endeavor, if possible, to discover and remove it. If, however, it be beyond our reach,
the patient's strength must be supported as much as possible, and the simplest means
of exciting the contractions tried first ; if these fail, the more powerful ones must
be tried, always preferring the safest. Finally, if all fail, the hand must be intro-
duced into the womb, the child turned, and brought away by the feet ; or the forceps
must be used if absolutely necessary.

RIGIDITY OF THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB, VAGINA, AND VULVA.

Sometimes the mouth of the womb, or other soft part, will not give way, but re-
mains obstinately rigid, so as to render the continued expulsive efforts of the uterus of
no avail. If this state continues too long, the parts become swollen, hot, and dry, and
extremely painful, so that the slightest touch causes acute suffering. The abdomen
also becomes exquisitely tender, fever sets in, with cold sweats, the head begins
to wander, the features express great anxiety and suffering, and the voice alters so
that it can scarcely be recognized. These symptoms will sometimes be established,

THE CA USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 833

and become rapidly worse in a remarkably short time, so that the patient will appear
to pass suddenly from a condition of comparative ease and safety to one of extreme
peril and suffering. The child also suffers in an equal degree, the continued pressure
upon its head having a most injurious effect. The bones overlap to a great distance,
che scalp is engorged with fluid, and all its blood-vessels are ready to burst ; the
brain is severely compressed ; the circulation in it is suspended, and apoplexy fre-
quently ensues. Even when one of these protracted cases eventually terminates
without immediate mischief, there is much subsequent evil to be feared. The bruised
parts frequently slough away, so tbat fistulas are formed, and the whole remain so
permanently weak that they can never afterwards retain their places.

The most usual resort in these cases of obstinate rigidity is blood-letting. This
frequently induces relaxation immediately, and also checks the tendency to inflam-
mation and fever. ' In many cases, however, if not in all, it may be dispensed with,
and should always be so if possible. Very frequently it produces as much evil as
good, by alarming the patient, and by creating a debility which cannot afterwards be
removed. Simple warm fomentations will often make the rigid parts give way ; and
so will lubricating them with soothing ointment, or, better still, anointing them
with the Mladonna ointment. This frequently acts like a charm, and opens the rigid
os tincse in a few minutes. Injections of thin starch and laudanum are also excellent,
and may be advantageously administered before applying the belladonna. The
galvanic battery may also be employed, it having induced relaxation in many cases,
when all other means failed ; and the practitioner should always have one ready, in
case of need.

If the labor really does progress, though slowly, it is generally best to have patience,
and let it take its course. If, however, the patient is likely to sink before it is com-
pleted, or if it is at a stand-still, and cannot be accelerated, artificial delivery may be
necessary. It is seldom, however, that all of the above-mentioned means fail.

OBLIQUITIES OF THE WOMB.

Sometimes the womb is so much inclined in a particular direction that its mouth
does not present to the middle of the passage. Thus it may lean over so much to the
right side that the mouth may open against the left wall of the pelvis, or it may lean
to the left side, or to the front. In all these cases, the expulsion of the child may
be totally prevented, because it is forced against the walls of the passage instead of
down its axis.

Obliquity is sometimes righted spontaneously, but more frequently it require,' fhe
interference of art. The mode of rendering assistance is to support the womb on the
side to which it falls, particularly during the pains, so that its mouth maybe directed
toward the middle of the passage.

PROLAPSUS UTEKI.

Falling of the womb may retard labor, but is not likely to make it more than
usually difficult, or dangerous. It is requisite, however, to bear in mind that the
head of the child may, by this displacement, be found in the vagina, and even at
the vulva, before it has passed through the mouth of the womb, because the neck
itself is already in the passage. The head may therefore be felt low down, and the

834 THE CA USES AND GONSEQ VENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

accoucheur may think the labor will soon be completed, when in reality it has
scarcely begun. In such cases it merely requires patience and non-interference.

SMALLNESS, AND DEFOKMITY OF THE PELVIS.

These constitute by far the most serious obstacles to delivery, and are most to be
dreaded. In treating upon them, it will be first necessary to explain the chief kinds
of deformities, and the causes from which they arise, after which it can be shown how
they interfere with the progress of labor, and how they can be best remedied.

Deformities of the pelvis may either be congenital, or they may be produced by
certain diseases in after life, and also by bad physical education. The principal
causes however are two diseases, rachitis, or rickets, and malacosteon, called also
mollites ossium, or softening of the bones. Eachitis usually attacks children some-
where between nine months and two years of age, and produces a variety of well
marked symptoms ; such as large head and belly, protrusion of the breast-bone, flat-
tening of the ribs, emaciation of the limbs, and various deformities of the bones.
The patient may recover from the disease, but the deformity of the bones often
remains, and therefore no female should become pregnant, who has had rickets, till
the shape and dimensions of her pelvis are known, or it may cost her life.

Malacosteon, or softening of the bones, may come on at any period of life, and
frequently occurs without any serious constitutional disturbance. It consists in a
gradual absorption from the bones of all their solid matter, so that they become soft,
and may be bent or twisted like horn. Sometimes this state will be reached very
soon, but at other times the disease progresses slowly. The causes of it are un-
known, and it is incurable. I have seen a patient who could bend the bone of
her leg nearly double, as if it were a piece of rope.

In several previous chapters, I have spoken upon various other causes which may
deform the bones in young females, such as wearing corsets, improper attitudes in
sitting, and want of sufficient unconstrained exertion of the body in the open air.

The deformities may be of various kinds, and may either alter the general appear-
ance cmd the walk, or may not be discoverable except on examination. Sometimes
the pelvis is too large, so that the womb and other parts are continually falling down
into its cavity, but this is very rarely seen ; more frequently it is either too small, or
irregular in its form.

In all cases where the irregularity in form, or diminution in size, is such as to
prevent the passage of the child, an operation becomes necessary, either upon the
mother or her infant, and great danger is consequently incurred by both.

It is therefore the duty of every mother, if she has the slightest suspicion that
her daughter is deformed, though it may not be apparent, to have her examined
before she is allowed to marry. Many have lost their lives for want of this precau-
tion. Severe blows or falls in early life may also create a pelvic deformity, and this,
as a possible consequence of such accidents, should always be borne in mind. The
means by which the form and size of the pelvis are ascertained, as before stated, are
simple, and such as need not in any way be feared.

To enumerate all the varieties of deformed pelvis, as described by different
authors, is unnecessary, and would not be useful here. I shall, therefore, only refer
to them generally. Sometimes the pelvis is regular enough in its form, but singu-
i'arly small altogether, not larger perhaps than that of a child eight or nine years of

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

835

age. More frequently, however, one part only is small, while the others are full
sized, or the different parts are not in a proper position in regard to each other.
Thus sometimes the pubic bones will be flattened backward near to the sacrum, so
as to narrow the antero-posterior diameter of the upper strait ; at other times one of
the sides will be flattened towards the other, as if crushed in, and thus diminish all
the diameters ; and at other times one side will sink down lower than the other, and
thus effect similar changes in another way.

By referring to the description of the perfect pelvis, given in the early part of
the work, the nature of these changes will be readily understood, particularly if the
figures given there are compared with those given here.

Figure 183.— Represents the standard form of the Figure 184. — Masculine Pelvis.

Pelvis.

Figure 183 represents the standard form, with which the rest must be compared.

Figure 184 represents a pelvis which resembles that of the male in its form, and is there-
lore called masculine. It is deeper, and less capacious altogether, than the standard one. This
form is occasionally met with in females of a peculiar general conformation and temperament,
approaching that of the other sex. It is nbt a sufficient deviation from the natural form to
create any great difficulty, though it may cause delay.

Figtjbe 185. — Represents the peculiar Figuke 186. — This is called an Ovate Pelvis,

deformity most frequently produced
by Mollites Ossium.

Figure 185 represents the peculiar deformity most frequently produced by mollites ossium.
The different parts are stretched out as it were, and crushed inward toward each other. The size
of each strait is diminished in nearly every diameter, and the whole form is very unfavorable to
delivery. This is sometimes called a cordiform pelvis. Observe the difference betweep it and the
standard one.

Figure 186. This is called an ovate pelvis. It appears as if it had been crushed by a heavy
weight, from above downward, the sacrum being depressed below the plane of the pubes. In
this case the antero-posterior diameter of the upper strait is so much lessened that the two halves
appear nearly separated, and form almost a figure of eight (8).

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

Figtjke 187. — This is another deformity, in Figure 188. — The effect of corroding disease,

which one side is sunk below the other, and
both twisted round the sacrum.

Figure 187. This is another kind of deformity, in which one side is sunk down below the
other, while both are twisted as it were round the sacum.

Figure 188. This is a section of a pelvis to show the effect of a corroding disease of another
kind. The whole of this is such a mass of disease and deformity, as to preclude any particular
description.

Curvature of the spine sometimes affects the pelvis, when low down, and
therefore if any female is affected with it she should not marry before being
examined. Several diseases and lesions of the hip-joint, and of the thigh, may
also do the same, and should therefore be suspected.

In the great majority of cases, deformities of the pelvis remain unknown, till
the period of delivery, and all that can be then done is to combat in the best possible
way the difficulties they create. It is evident that the amount of difficulty depends
entirely on the disproportion between the head of the child and the passage through
which it has to be born. If the head be large and the passage small, the difficulty
will be greatest, but if the head be small it may pass through the pelvis, though
under its average size. The development of the head cannot be ascertained however
before birth, except when it is unusually large from dropsy, and it is therefore always
assumed to be of an average development, and the pelvis is compared accordingly.

The kind of assistance required in these cases depends chiefly on the measure
of the pelvic diameters, though it may be modified somewhat by other considera-
tions.

When the smallest diameter of the pelvis measures from three inches and a half to
three inches, it is customary to leave the expulsion of the foetus to nature, and it is
generally effected, though slowly and with difficulty. If, however, the patient becomes
exhausted, or the head be unusually large, the forceps are generally used after wait-
ing five or six hours. In these cases the head often becomes firmly fixed in the upper
strait, so that great force is needed to dislodge it. The upper part passes through,
owing to the overlapping of the bones, and the scalp then bulges out like a large
tumor, from being engorged with blood and serum, but the lower, being more un-
yielding, remains behind. It is, therefore, impossible for the head to move either
way, as it is formed like a figure 8, and held by the narrow part, as will be seen by
the following figure :

TEE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 837

When the smallest diameter is not more than from three inches to two and a half,
the birth is sometimes effected by nature, but with
extreme difficulty. The accoucheur waits four or five
hours, as in the former case, and then if no progress
is made he applies the forceps, using great care in
doing so. If the extraction is found impossible, with
reasonable force, the head must be opened and made
smaller, even though the child be living, because it
is more proper to sacrifice it than to risk the life of
the mother. In a case like this, however, no one person
would like to decide, unless in a great emergency ;
there should always be a consultation if possible.

A dwarf, named Lepratt, who used to perform at
the theaters was delivered with the forceps by M. Du- Piguhe 183.

bois, though the pelvis only measured three inches. This figure represents the head
She perfectly recovered, but the child was born dead : Jg?t J.SJ %££» Upper
it was of fair average size.

It is contended by some that the delivery may be effected, under peculiarly favor-
able circumstances, when the passage measures only two and a half inches, and at all
events the effort should be made ; but for the sake of the mother such cases should
not be left long, as the chance is so small, and the risk of delay so great. When the
passage is less than two and a half inches, spontaneous or artificial delivery is allowed
to be impossible, and the only alternatives then are to dismember the child or open
the mother. Which of these should be done depends on circumstances. Whenever
the child can be brought away by the natural passages, though it be piecemeal, it
always is so brought, unless the danger to the mother be greater than by the cesarian
operation, in which case that operation is resorted to. By means of an instrument
called the cephalotribe, which crushes the head, the child may be brought away,
unless very large, when the pelvis only measures two indies. When the passage is
less than two inches, the only resort is to the cesarean operation, which sometimes
succeeds, and saves both mother and child, though more frequently the mother
sinks.

The necessity of all these frightful operations is now much less than formerly,
and may ~be done away with altogether. This important fact should be known uni-
versally, and also the means to be resorted to. In the first place, every young female
should be examined, before marriage, by a competent person, if there be the slightest
reason to suspect deformity ; and in case the deformity is found to exist, the conse-
quences if she becomes pregnant, must be laid before her. If, after being told this,
she will marry, or has already done so, the means of avoiding conception should be
placed at her disposal, so that she may not be made, of necessity, a helpless victim.
These means may not be described here, though I have no hesitation in referring to
them. When I know that the life, or life-long health, of a female, depends on her
not becoming pregnant, I consider it my duty to put such means at her disposal, if
she desires it. In many instances, I have known females suffer, several times, the
most frightful tortures, merely to bring into the world the mangled fragments of a
dismembered child, with the greatest risk to their own lives ; and in others, I have
known them in constant dread of becoming pregnant, because they were conscious it
would be their death warrant. In such cases I leave it to humanity, and common

838 THE CA USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

sense, as to whether such information should be withheld. / could not reconcile it
with my notions of duty to withhold it.

In case pregnancy has occurred before the deformity is discovered, and it is then
found that a full grown child cannot be born, premature delivery must be brought
on ; or, in other words, the uterus must be made to expel the child before the full
term, while it is yet small enough to pass through the pelvis. This operation is of
course only allowable when needed to preserve life, or to escape great suffering and
danger. It must always be decided upon by the medical man, and performed by him,
so that a description of it is uncalled for here. In Europe it is quite common, and
nothing has tended so much to do away with those disgusting and horrid operations,
on mother and child, which were formerly absolutely necessary in cases of deformity.
If it is found at the first delivery of a female, or before, that she cannot bear a living
child at full term, artificial delivery is accomplished at seven or eight months, thus
avoiding all the danger to the mother, and frequently preserving the child. In the
case of the dwarf, before referred to, when she became pregnant the second time,
M. Dubois brought on premature delivery, and the child was lorn alive, with but
little difficulty. According to statistics it appears that when artificial premature
delivery has been induced, in one hundred and sixty-one cases only eight mothers
have died, and all but forty-six of the infants were born alive. Of the whole num-
ber of children, seventy-three continued to live ; and of the eight mothers, five died
from other causes, leaving but three whose death resulted from the operation. Now
when the fearful number of deaths from instruments, and other operations necessary
at full term, is recollected, the advantage of this practice will be evident. In the
cesarian operation, for instance, which is often the only remaining resort, but one
female out of six recovers.

The delivery should be postponed as long as possible, so as to give the best chance
for the child living. This must of course be decided upon after the size of the pel-
vis is ascertained. Seven months is the earliest time at which the foetus is viable,
and it is much better left till eight, if the size of the parts will allow of its birth
then. In case they are so small that it cannot be born even at seven months, we
have ^ur choice, as M. Chailly remarks, between the dreadful Cesarian operation at
full term, and producing early miscarriage.

M. Dubois seems to recommend premature delivery in nearly all cases, if the
smallest diameter is under three inches ; because, as he remarks, spontaneous de-
livery at full term is then a very rare exception, and the danger and suffering to
the mother is so great. He also recommends it when there are tumors, and even
when the female is afflicted with any acute disease. Of course it is always necessary,
before operating, to be sure the child is alive.

I knew a lady myself who had given birth, at full term, to seven children, all of
which were torn from her with instruments, dead, owing to the smallness of the
pelvis. When pregnant with the eighth, premature delivery was brought on, at my
suggestion, at about seven months and a half. The foetus was born with compara-
tive ease, and lived. But for this operation, she probably would never have been
blessed with a living child at all. Since then she has avoided conception.

TUMORS IN THE PELVIS.

Tumors of various kinds are met with, both in the bones of the pelvis and at-
tached to the soft parts. They frequently offer the most serious impediments to

THE GA USES AND CONSEQ UENGES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 839

delivery, and baffle the skill of the most experienced obstetricians. In fact they
differ so much in their structure, their size, and their situation, that but few general
directions can be given as to their management. In every case where one exists, preg-
nancy should never occur, if possible to be prevented, before it is removed ; for
though it may cause no inconvenience at other times, yet during delivery it may ne^
cessitate very serious operations, or even cause death. Some of these tumors are
mere vesicles or bags, filled with fluid, and may be punctured and their contents let
out, so as to make them less. Others are more or less solid but movable, and may
orten be supported above the upper strait till after the child is born. When they
are so large as to block up the passage, and are either fixed or cannot be carried up
into the womb, there is often no other choice than to either cut them out or to open
the child's head — the practice being determined by the circumstances of the case^.
In some instances the bladder itself, distended with urine, has impeded delivery, and
been mistaken for a tumor ; and in other instances stones in the bladder have caused
the same error.

A specimen of one of these tumors is represented in Fig. 190, and one of a poly-
pus in Fig. 191.

Figttre 190.— Case of Tumor. Fightoe 191.— Case of Polypus.

Figure 190 represents an ovarian tumor, which has descended hefore the head of the child, and
eompletely blocked up the passage. The delivery, it will be seen, is utterly impossible in such a
case, unless the tumor can either be pushed away, or reduced in size.

Figure 191 represents a case which occured in the practice of Dr. Ramsbotham, and which ter-
minated favorably. The polypus had a very long neck, and was forced out of the external opening
by the child, which was then born with ease. I once saw a case myself, in which the labor was
completely arrested by a large hard tumor about the middle of the vagina ; it could not be moved,
and delivery was evidently impossible while it remained. In consultation it was decided to cut it
out, as there seemed but little circulation of blood in it, and its situation was favorable for the
operation. This was accordingly done with but little trouble, and the child was born without
difficulty in about twenty minutes after. The mother perfectly recovered.

TUMORS EXTERNALLY.

Sometimes tumors exist, externally, on tha lips, or in the vulva, but as they
seldom offer much obstruction, and are easily detected and managed, but little need

840 THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

be said about them. They should always, however, be attended to, if discovered,
before labor comes on, or better still, before pregnancy.

In some instances, the veins around the vulva become much enlarged, and resem-
ble tumors, and sometimes even impede delivery. It is usual then to open them,
and let out the blood, but not till the head is sufficiently low to press upon them
and prevent dangerous bleeding.

OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE VAGINA, AND NARROWNESS OR OBSTINATE RESISTANCE OF
THE VULVA AND PERINEUM.

The vagina may be partly closed by its sides growing together, or it may be united
by bands and membranes stretching across ; and these obstructions may be sufficient
to impede or prevent delivery. Most usually they give way, and are gradually broken
down by the pressure of the child's head ; but if they prove too strong, after waiting
a reasonable time, they must be cut through. Cases have even been known in which
the hymen has been found perfect at delivery, and even offered considerable resist-
ance, so as to necessitate its being cut through before the child could be born. In
such cases this membrane is unusually strong, and conception occurs without its being
broken.

When the perineum or vulva remains rigid and hard, so that the opening cannot
be enlarged sufficiently for the child to pass, it may also be necessary to operate
with the knife. But this should never be done till after every means of relaxation
has been tried, and the head has been kept back as long as prudent. It is, however,
always better to open a passage than to let one be torn, because it may be made in
the most favorable place. When the perineum is allowed to be torn, the most serious
consequences often ensue, and the patient is made a miserable sufferer for life. The
vagina and rectum may be torn into one, or the power of retaining the contents of
the intestine or bladder may be forever lost. When an incision is made, none of
these evils follow ; the wound speedily heals, and in a little time no trace of it can be
seen. It has even been necessary to cut the neck of the womb when it would not open,
to prevent the organ from being ruptured ; and this has been done with perfect
safety. A celebrated practitioner in this city had to perform such an operation very
recently, on a female who had injured herself, and made the mouth of the womb grow
together, by violent attempts to produce abortion. The delivery took place with
comparative ease, and no unpleasant results whatever followed, either to the mother
or the child.

CAUSES CONNECTED WITH THE CHILD, OR CHILDREN, WHICH MAT IMPEDE
DELIVERY, OR MAKE IT DIFFICULT AND DANGEROUS.

Procidentia of the Umbilical Cord.

This means the escape of a portion of the cord before the child itself. It is
most frequent in the irregular presentations, as they do not so fully close up the
mouth of the womb, and it is most likely to occur at the commencement of labor,
though not impossible at a later stage. Very often the cord descends when the mem-
branes break, being carried down by the rush of the waters ; and sometimes it is
already in the sack, or bag, before the rupture takes place. This accident is com-
paratively frequent, being found to occur as often as once in about three hundred
cases.

THE CA USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LjlBOB. 841

Tlie causes which produce procidentia of the cord are most likely these : A large
quantity of liquor amnii, and its sudden discharge ; unnatural presentations ; deform-
ities of the superior strait of the pelvis ; a very long cord ; and rupturing the mem-
branes too early. But it may also happen from other causes with which we are
unacquainted.

There is seldom much difficulty in detecting this accident, because if the mem-
branes are broken, it protrudes into the vagina, and if they remain whole it can be
felt within the sack, and its pulsation will be quite distinct. Sometimes, it is true,
it may be so firmly compressed between the foetus and the walls of the pelvis, that its
pulsation may be very indistinct, or even totally suspended for a time ; but this only
necessitates a little extra care.

Procidentia of the cord may be very serious for the child ; in fact, it is a frequent
cause of its death. The reason of this will be evident when the functions of the cord
are borne in mind. The circulation in it is as necessary for the life of the child before
birth as breathing is after, and when protruded first it can seldom escape being so
pressed upon as to stop its circulation, and hence the danger. To the mother it
makes no difference whatever, unless it be told and alarm her ; or unless violent
efforts are made to correct it. She had therefore better not know if it occurs.

If assistance is not rendered in this accident, the consequences are almost always
fatal to the child, though in some instances the cord has remained hanging from the
vulva several inches, for an hour or more, and still the infant has been saved.

If the fallen cord is detected before the membranes are broken, it may frequently
be put back into the womb without much difficulty. The accoucheur must wait till
the mouth of the womb is fully dilated, and then watch his opportunity, in an inter-
val between two contractions, to push the cord upward, between the foetus and the
uterine walls. If he succeeds in this, as is usually the case, he must then break the
membranes during the next pain, and this will bring the presenting part at once into
the upper strait, and so block up the passage. To effect this manoeuvre, it is requisite
to introduce two or three fingers, and sometimes even the whole hand. It must never
be attempted till the mouth of the womb is fully dilated, otherwise the membranes
may be ruptured too soon, and the delivery be delayed, thus increasing the danger.

After the rupture of the membranes, the replacing of the cord becomes a much
more difficult matter, and frequently cannot be effected at all ; particularly if the
head be descended far down. Every effort, however, must be made, and if unsuc-
cessful the delivery should be hastened as much as possible. In many such cases the
forceps are applied, and the child brought away at once, because every moment's
increases the risk to its life.

Several different kinds of instruments have been invented to return the cord, but
they are seldom at hand when needed, and none of them are so good as the hand
itself.

If the return of the cord cannot be effected, and the progress of the labor will
allow of it, the hand is introduced and the child turned, unless the position of the
head will allow of the advantageous application of the forceps, in which case they
are mostly resorted to. The only general rule is, to terminate the labor as speedily
as possible consistent with the welfare of the mother. In spite of all that can be
done, the pulsation is often found to cease, and when the child is born it is either
quite dead or breathes but a few times.

A very frequent indication that the foetus suffers from compression of the cord,

842

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR,

is a greenish color of the water discharged, owing to the discharge of meconium from
the child's bowels. This is brought about, most probably, by its straining, and its
efforts to relieve itself.

SHORTNESS OF THE CORD.

The cord is sometimes too short, and this may operate very unfavorably in many
ways. It may keep the foetus in the womb, and prevent it from descending to the
bottom of the vagina, — it may cause the placenta
to be torn away too soon, and so lead to serious
flooding, — it may pull down and invert the womb,
— or it may make the labor very tedious, and cause
the death of the child.

Unfortunately there are but few signs of this
accident, even after the rupture of the membranes,
and none at all before that can be depended upon.
If the head has descended properly, and the parts
be fully relaxed, but still the expulsion is delayed
from no obvious cause, it may reasonably be sup-
posed that shortness of the cord exists ; and if so
there is very soon given a proof of it by a discharge
of blood. This is owing either to the breaking of
over the head, or limbs, when wound the cord or to the separation of the placenta, anql

round them, and the strain upon it he . „ , , , , r. ■, • , • i • ,, • , , n

thus removed. If this cannot be done, is frequently the first intimation the assistant ha<

however, and the danger increases, 0f the accident. All that can be done is to con.
relief maybe obtained by cutting the ., , , . ,

cord, particularly if it be absolutely elude the delivery as soon as possible, and m thq

short. But this must not be done till ibest way that circumstances will allow,
everything indicates that the labor T . , . . .

will probably soon terminate ; and the *-& some cases the COl'd IS not too Short aDSO.

end connected with the child must be lutely, but is made so by being twined round th?
care u y , or 1 . body or limbs of the child, whioh are often cut off

by it. M. Tasil saw a case where the cord round the neck had nearly severed the
head ; and Montgomery gives several instances in which the limbs had been ampu-
tated in this way. Two of these are represented above.

Figure 192.

Limbs cut
Occasionally the cord can be slipped

DESCENT OF OTHER PARTS WITH THE HEAD.

One Arm. — The descent of one arm along with the head may cause some delat"
and difficulty, but nature nearly always overcomes the impediment. It is seldom
that the arm can be reduced, and therefore but little can be done at first ; if the
delivery be evidently arrested by it, the accoucheur must at last assist in the most feasi-
ble manner. Sometimes even it is necessary for him to apply the forceps.

The two Arms. — Even this difficulty is often overcome spontaneously, though
much more rarely than the former one. As soon as it is detected, the accoucheur
must endeavor to return one or both of the limbs, if the labor has not proceeded too
far ; and if he cannot succeed, the delivery must be accomplished as soon as possible,
either by turning or with the forceps, unless there be reasonable ground for delay.

The Feet. — Either one or both of the feet may also descend with the head at first,
though they usually recede and allow the head to be born alone. When they are sc
impacted as to prevent the delivery being completed, the accoucheur must interfere.

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LaBOB. 843

In most cases he will find it quite easy to push the feet above the head, and allow that
to descend alone ; but if this is not possible, he must introduce one hand, grasp the
feet with it, and pull them down, while the other pushes the head up. This will
turn the child, and if it be in no immediate danger, and the mother is not suffering,
the rest may be left to nature ; but if the contrary is the case, the delivery must be
finished as speedily as possible. When the head is very low down, it may be neces-
sary to use the forceps, but great care must be observed not to grasp the feet along
with the head when using them.

A Foot and Arm. — The proceeding is the same as with the foot alone. If the
limbs cannot be returned, the head and arm must be pushed up, while the foot is
brought down.

TWINS AND TRIPLETS.

In most cases where there are two or more children, the delivery is easier than
with one, because they are generally small, and the first one so prepares the way that
the rest are born without difficulty. It is also a fact that twins are nearly always
born before full term, and consequently are not quite grown.

The expulsion of the second foetus usually takes place immediately after the
first, though sometimes the womb stops contracting, and it is not bom for half an
hour or more, and it may even remain for hours or days. It is a question whether,
in such a case, the second delivery should be left for nature to finish, or whether the
accoucheur should terminate it sooner artificially. The most general practice is to
wait only about half an hour, and then, if the womb is still inert, use friction, or
other necessary means, to excite it, and accomplish the second delivery as soon ay
possible. If there be more than two, the proceeding is still the same.

Some difficulties may arise however with twins, which it is necessary to be pre-
pared for. Thus the two heads may come together, and mutually impede each
other. In this case the one that moves the easiest must be pushed up till the other
is descended sufficiently low. One head may also descend with one or two feet ; in
which case, if the feet cannot be returned, the head must be pushed up, and they
must be brought down. The force exerted, however, must not be very great at first,
because one may belong to each of the children, and much injury may be done ; a little
gentle traction will soon detect this however, with ordinary care. If two arms, or
one arm and a foot descend, the same care is also required, before pulling upon them,
to ascertain that they are not parts of the two children. Sometimes when the head
of one twin descends along with the feet of the other, they may, if small, descend
together. But if this is impossible, and interference is needed, we must first try to
push up the head ; and if this cannot be done, it must be drawn upon, not the feet ;
because if the feet were drawn down the two children would soon occupy the passage
together, body and head, and would perhaps become firmly wedged. In nearly every
case one of the twins presents by the head and the other by the feet, as formerly
shown.

EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FOETUS, OR THE DISEASED DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN
PARTS.

Foetus too large. — It is very rarely the case that the foetus is so large as not to
pass easily through a well-formed pelvis, though such cases have been known. The
mode of proceeding is of course precisely the same as if the pelvis were too small.

844 THE CA USES AND CONSEQ UENGES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

If no means will succeed in abstracting the foetus whole, it must be made less ; but
nature should be first allowed full time to act with all her force.

Hydrocephalus. — This consists of an accumulation of water in the head of the
child, and is usually termed watery head. The bones of the cranium will sometimes
be widely separated by it, and the head be made so large that it cannot possibly be
born till made less. The causes which produce this disease before birth are un-
known.

In cases of hydrocephalus, the head does not descend into the straits, owing to its
size, and is felt to be full and firm during a pain, but soft and yielding during the
intervals, especially at the fontanelles and sutures, which are also very large. The
bones are usually very wide asunder, or even totally separated as if floating in the
fluid.

In some cases, when the quantity of fluid is but small, the delivery may terminate
spontaneously, the head lengthening, from being so soft, and thus adapting itself to
the size and form of the strait. Most frequently, however, assistance is rendered in
such cases, either by the forceps, which will sometimes succeed, or by puncturing
the head and letting out the fluid. This operation has been performed and the
child saved, though such an occurrence can never be reasonably anticipated. Such
instances, however, show that great care should be taken not to injure the brain, as
that would destroy the small chance there is.

Dropsy may also occur in the chest or abdomen of the child, causing similar dif-
ficulty with dropsy of the head. If the natural or artificial expulsion of the child
cannot be effected without, the part must be carefully punctured, and the fluid
evacuated.

Tumors on the Foetus. — Sometimes various kinds of tumors form on the child's
body, but they are rarely so large as to prevent delivery, though they may delay it.
If they should be too large, however, it will be necessary to remove them, as in the
case of tumors in the pelvis.

OSSIFICATION OF THE HEAD.

Occasionally the bones of the head will be so hard, and so closely united, that
they will not overlap, in which case the labor may be very difficult, unless the head is
small, or the pelvis very large. If after waiting a reasonable time, there be no pros-
pect of the labor terminating naturally, and the female is exhausted, it must be ter-
minated artificially, as if it were a case of deformed pelvis. It is seldom, however,
that the head does not eventually give way.

VARIOUS PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FC3TUS, FROM WHICH THE LABOR
MAT BE DIFFICULT OR PROTRACTED.

Presentations of the Face. — These are usually more difficult and longer than
those of the head. They will nearly always, however, terminate spontaneously, or
with ordinary assistance ; but, if they should not, artificial delivery must be prac-
ticed, either by turning, if the case be not too far advanced, or with the forceps.
Some of the most celebrated authors recommend that all these cases should be treated
like cases of natural labor. Dr. Merriman says that in some very favorable instances
turning may be practiced with safety and advantage ; but Dr. Lee says, "My firm

THE CA USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 845

belief is, that the child, even under such favorable circumstances, would have a far
better chance to be born alive if the labor were left wholly to nature ; or, if the nat-
ural powers were inadequate, to be extracted with the forceps." In such cases there
is often too little patience, and too much interference.

The Forehead inclined against the Pules. — In this position the labor may be long
delayed, and difficult, and most practitioners endeavor to turn the head round, if they
cannot bring down the feet, or else apply the forceps at once. Dr. Lee however re-
marks, and very properly, "From all that I have seen of these cases, I am disposed
to believe that it is best to leave them to the natural efforts, and to avoid all inter-
ference, all attempts to change the position, while the pains continue regular, and
the head advances, however slowly." If the labor does not progress at all, or the
female becomes exhausted, of course artificial delivery is necessary.

Several varieties of head and face presentations may also retard labor considera-
bly, but nature nearly always overcomes the difficulty ; or if she cannot do so, mere
ordinary assistance is required.

PRESENTATIONS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

It has already been remarked, in another place, that breech presentations mostly
terminate spontaneously, and that but few of them require interference, in some of
them even, when the pelvis is large, or the foetus small, the delivery is effected quite
rapidly. Still such presentations occasionally cause delay and difficulty, and necessi-
tate more or less assistance.

As soon as the mouth of the womb is opened sufficiently, unless the labor is rap-
idly progressing without it, one of the fingers may be introduced and hooked over the
groin, and a little gentle force exerted upon it. This will assist very much, and
will often be all-sufficient. If the pelvis is too small, or the foetus too large, and the
delivery is evidently arrested, the breech must be pushed up, if possible, and the feet
be brought down, as in turning. The remarks of Dr. Lee on this presentation are so
plain and practical, and marked with such good sense, that I think a better explana-
tion of what should be done in such cases could hardly be given ; I will therefore
quote his remarks in full :

"Having ascertained that the nates present, whatever the position of the foetus
may be, whether the abdomen look backward or forward, we cannot alter it with
safety, and no change can be required to be made till the nates and lower extremi-
ties are expelled. The os uteri dilates slowly in most cases of nates presentation,
but we cannot employ any means with advantage to accelerate the delivery, and in
most cases, if we do not interfere, but wait patiently, they are gradually pressed
lower and lower into the pelvis, and at last escape from the vagina without any as-
sistance. If the os uteri and vagina are imperfectly dilated, and the nates are drawn
down or pass rapidly through the pelvis, the child is often lost. The membranes
should not be ruptured, and the expulsion of the nates should be left entirely to the
natural efforts, unless the labor is protracted and exhaustion takes place. Except
supporting the perineum, nothing is required in a great proportion of these cases
before the nates and lower extremities have been expelled, when it becomes necessary
to ascertain precisely the relative position of the child to the pelvis, to rectify this if
it is unfavorable, and artificially extract the superior extremities and head, to pre-
vent the fatal compression of the umbilical cord. If we find, after the expulsion of
the nates and lower extremities, that the toes are directed forward, or that the child

846 THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

has its abdomen applied to the anterior part of the uterus, with its back along the
spine of the mother, we should wrap the nates and sides in a soft napkin, and turn
the child very gently round during a pain, observing to which side the feet turn, till
its abdomen is to the spine of the mother, and the toes are directed backward to the
hollow of the sacrum, or to the side of the pelvis. In many cases the nates turn
round in the passage spontaneously, so that it is not required artificially to alter the
position. It is necessary always to recollect that it is possible to turn the body of
the child round without turning the face round into the hollow of the sacrum, and
that the chin may be over the symphysis pubis when the front of the chest and ab-
domen are turned backward. After the lower extremities and body of the child
have been expelled, and placed in the most favorable position for the extraction of
the superior extremities and head, it is necessary to proceed without loss of time to
draw these through the pelvis, that the child may not be destroyed by compression
of the umbilical cord. As pressure upon the cord for a very short time will in some
cases kill the child, it is proper to watch closely the pulsations of its arteries. Draw
the body of the child forward as far as the arm-pits, and place it over the palm of
your right hand and fore-arm, and gently draw the body toward the left thigh of the
mother ; then pass the fore and middle fingers of your left hand along the back part
of the left arm of the child to the elbow-joint, and press down the arm with your
fingers along the thorax of the child, and extract it. Then transfer the body of the
child and left arm to your left hand and fore-arm for support, and with the fore and
middle fingers of your right hand disengage and bring down, in the same way, the
right arm of the child ; then pass the fore and middle fingers of your left hand into
the mouth of the child, or rather over the lower and upper jaw, and at the same
time place the fore and middle fingers of your right hand over the back part of the
neck and occiput, and with the fingers of the two hands thus applied extract the
head, in the line of the axis of the pelvis. The perineum is very rigid in some cases
of nates presentation, where it is the first child, and it will be torn if the head is
extracted hastily, and not drawn forward to the symphysis pubis. When you feel the
pulsations of the cord beginning to cease, you may be tempted to employ greater ex-
tracting force than the neck of the child and perineum can bear, and both may be
destroyed. The only method of obviating this is to press back the edge of the peri-
neum, that the air may gain admission into the mouth of the child, and the respira-
tion go on, when the circulation in the cord has been arrested, until the perineum
is sufficiently dilated to slide back over the face, and allow the head to pass. I have
seen from twenty minutes to half an hour elapse in some cases, after the cord had
ceased to pulsate, before the perineum would allow the head to escape, during which
time the respiration was regularly performed. This is not a new practice ; it has
been alluded to by some of the old accoucheurs, and some others ; and the advan-
tages to be derived from it were fully pointed out some years ago by Dr. Bigelow, in
a paper published in the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, ' on the means
of affording respiration to children in reversed presentations.' The object of Dr.
Bigelow in this paper is to show that in many cases the life of the child may be saved
by forming a communication between the mouth and atmosphere previous to the de-
livery of the head. If the head be low down, the fingers alone can give the neces-
sary assistance ; but if it is high in the pelvis, and is reached with difficulty, the as-
sistance of a tube may be necessary. He recommends a flat tube, which is to be
guarded, and kept within the fingers of the inserted hand.

TEE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR. 847

" Where the pelvis of the mother is small or distorted, and the child large and
unfavorably situated, the efforts of nature may be insufficient to expel the child,
either alive or dead. The nates may become so firmly impacted in the pelvis, that
they cannot advance without artificial assistance. A finger should be passed up to
one of the groins, and when a pain comes on, a considerable extracting force may be
exerted with it, without injuring the child ; or a soft handkerchief may be passed
between the thigh and abdomen, and the nates drawn down ; but this cannot be
done unless they have descended low into the cavity of the pelvis. Where these
means fail, and it is impossible to extract the child alive, the blunt hook or crotchet
must be employed. In cases of nates presentation, where the pelvis is distorted, after
the extraction of the trunk and extremities, it is necessary to perforate the back part
of the head, and complete the delivery with the crotchet. In presentations of the
feet and knees the treatment does not essentially differ from that required in presen-
tations of the nates."

PKESENTATIONS OF THE SHOULDEB.

These are the most dangerous of all the presentations, and most frequently require
assistance ; in fact, the delivery can seldom be terminated naturally when the shoulder

Sometimes the child will pass doubled up, as formerly explained, but this must
not be too confidently expected. Dr. Lee says :

"It is now a general rule, established in all countries where midwifery is under-
stood, that in cases of preternatural labor, where the shoulder and superior extremi-
ties of the child present, the operation of turning ought to be performed. But the
hand must not be forced into the uterus, if the orifice is rigid and undilatable ; it
should be dilated nearly to the size of a half-a-dollar piece or more, or the margin
ought to be very thin, soft, and yielding, if it is expanded to a smaller extent than
this when turning is attempted. If the os uteri will not admit the extremities of the
fingers and thumb in a conical form to be introduced without much force, if it is
thick, hard, and unyielding, some delay is necessary, that the parts may relax, death
being almost always the consequence of thrusting the hand with violence through the
orifice of the uterus in a rigid and undilatable condition, whether the membranes be
ruptured or not. But as soon as it will admit of the safe introduction of the hand,
where you have ascertained that an arm presents, no time should be lost in complet-
ing the delivery, otherwise the membranes may give way, the liquor amnii be evacu-
ated, and a case of little difficulty and danger be suddenly converted into one equally
hazardous to the mother and child. In all cases of labor, where the first stage is far
advanced without the nature of the presentation being positively determined, or a
superior extremity is felt through the membranes, the patient should be kept in the
horizontal position, that they may not be ruptured ; and you should remain in con-
stant attendance upon her, and be prepared to interfere the instant the necessity
arises."

Speaking of the operation of turning in these cases, he remarks as follows :

"In some favorable cases of shoulder and arm presentation, the uterus is widely
dilated before the membranes are ruptured and the liquor amnii discharged ; and no
difficulty is experienced in passing the hand into the uterus, laying hold of the feet,
and' extracting the child by the operation of turning. If the uterus is not contract-
ing strongly and at short intervals, little resistance is offered to the introduction of

848 THE CA USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROLONGED LABOR.

the hand, and the delivery may be speedily accomplished with safety both to the
mother and child. But if the membranes have burst, the liquor amnii escaped, and
the uterus has been contracting firmly upon the child many hours before the opera-
tion of turning is attempted, the child is often destroyed by the pressure, and the
coats of the uterus exposed to great danger from contusion and laceration in passing
up the hand and bringing down the feet . The shoulder and thorax become so
strongly impacted in the pelvis, that great force is required to introduce the hand to
grasp the feet, and much exertion necessary before the position can be changed.

In other cases of shoulder and arm presentation, the membranes burst, and the
liquor amnii escapes at the commencement of labor, and the os uteri is rigid and
undilated, so that the hand cannot be passed into the uterus after the labor has con-
tinued many hours. The difficulty and danger of these cases is greatly increased
when the uterus is contracting with violence, and the pelvis is distorted, or a dispro-
portion exists between the child and pelvis from any other cause. The greater num-
ber of women, if abandoned to the efforts of nature under these circumstances — the
uterus having no power to alter the position of the foetus — would ultimately die
undelivered, from exhaustion or rupture of the uterus and vagina."

Fortunately these cases are very rare, and when assistance is rendered early, the
difficulty is readily overcome. This is a strong reason why all women especially
should know what to do, because a little timely help may save much suffering, or
even life.

CHAPTER LXXIV.

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

This is always a troublesome, and frequently a fatal accident. It should be care-
fully watched for, and attended to as early as possible — a few minutes frequently
determining the recovery or death of the patient.

The chief causes of flooding are, the too early or violent separation of the placenta ;
insertion of the placenta over the mouth or on the neck of the womb ; laceration of
the womb or vagina ; the bursting of a swelled vein ; rupture of one or more of the
blood-vessels of the uterus, and breaking of the cord.

Probably the most frequent of these causes are the premature or violent separation
of the cord, and the bursting of the blood-vessels. The insertion of the placenta
over the mouth of the womb, instead of on the fundus, occurs very seldom, but when
it does, severe flooding is nearly certain to follow, because the placenta has then to
be torn, by the expansion of the parts, at the very commencement of the labor, and
probably continues to pour out blood for a long time before the child is delivered
and it can be expelled. In fact, this occurrence, unless the labor terminates very
speedily, is nearly always fatal to the mother, and frequently to the child also. In
most cases, there is more or less hemorrhage from this cause during gestation, par-
ticularly after the sixth month, when the neck of the uterus begins to enlarge more
than the placenta, and consequently tears away from it. Abortion frequently results
also, if the flooding be not stopped. Madame Boivin tells us that in twenty thousand
three hundred and fifty-seven deliveries, there were but eight cases in which the pla-
centa grew over the mouth of the womb, which is equal to one case in every two thou-
sand five hundred and fifty-four. Dr. Churchill has collected the accounts of one
hundred, and seventy-four cases of this kind, and he finds that out of these forty-
eight terminated fatally ; or nearly one out of every three.

The rupture of the blood-vessels may occur when they are too much engorged
with blood, or when their coats are weakened and corroded by disease. Shortness of
the cord may also produce a rupture of the vessels, by the strain it causes on them
and on the membranes.

In many cases the flooding comes on suddenly, without any warning whatever,
though most usually it is preceded by a sensation of weight, heat, and fluttering in
the pelvis, pains in the thighs and back, flushed face, headache, and dizziness. The
pulse also becomes irregular, the hands and feet grow cold, and the ears often ring or
buzz. The only certain sign that the hemorrhage has really commenced is the ap-
pearance of the blood itself, and this often occurs, as previously remarked, without
any premonitory sign whatever.

The danger from hemorrhage during labor is greatest when it commences the
earliest, because it has then the longest to last. From any of the causes mentioned,
it is evident that it must continue till delivery is accomplished, and therefore if it
54 849

850 UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

appears at the commencement of the labor, it may cause the death of both mother
and child, before the labor can be terminated. The danger is greatest, however, to
the child, unless the flow be very profuse indeed, and then it is equally so to botb.
After delivery, the danger is of course only to the mother ; and the rapidity with
which it may compromise ber life is in some cases fearful. Dr. Lee thus speaks of
such cases :

" But one of the most dangerous varieties of uterine hemorrhage is that which
follows the expulsion of the placenta, or its removal from the uterus by art. Some-
times the blood escapes in great quantities from the uterus: immediately after the
removal of the placenta, and the pulse ceases at the wrist, and consciousness is
entirely lost in a few seconds. There is no symptom before labor has commenced,
or during its progress, to warn you of what is about to take place. The child has
been safely delivered, the placenta has come away in a short time, and while you are
perhaps congratulating yourself on the happy termination of the labor, the blood
begins to trickle over the bed upon the floor, or the patient suddenly complains of
great faintness. In such cases there may be either a Want of uterine contraction, or
the contractions may not be permanent, but be i ollowed, by relaxation and the effu-
sion of a large quantity of blood, which may either appear externally, or remain to
become coagulated, and distend the uterus. For several hours after delivery, in some
cases, this alternate relaxation and contraction goes on, to the great hazard of the
patient, and if her condition be not clearly ascertained, and the proper remedies be
employed, death may unexpectedly take place."

In regard to the treatment, he gives such excellent and practical rules, that I
cannot do better than quote them :

"By far the most important remedies in these cases of uterine hemorrhage are
constant and powerful pressure over the fundus uteri, the application of cold around
the pelvis, and the free administration of wine, brandy and other stimulants — ergot
is indicated, but it most frequently produces no effect. The pressure and cold are
always within our reach, however sudden the attack may be. The hypogastrium
should be strongly compressed with the binder, and a pad of folded napkins placed
under it, and in addition the hand should be firmly applied over the fundus uteri.
I do not know who it was that first employed compression of the fundus uteri in cases
of flooding after the birth of the child ; but it has been often recommended, and
there are few practitioners in this country who are not fully aware of the importance
of the binder and pad in exciting permanent and regular uterine contractions. Dr.
M'Keevor states that, in 1815, it was recommended by Dr. Labatt in his lectures,
and for a number of years before this Dr. Labatt was accustomed to recommend a
thick firm pad, or compress over the pubes, previous to the application of the ordinary
binder, where, in former labors, uterine hemorrhage had taken place. Dr. M'Keevor
states that of 6,665 women delivered during the years 1819 and 1820, only twenty-
five were attacked with hemorrhage after the birth of the child. Of these, fifteen
occurred before the expulsion of the placenta, ten afterwards, and in all the results
were favorable. He saw only two fatal cases during the time he was in the Dublin
Lying-in Hospital, and he attributes this small mortality partly to the process of
parturition being left entirely to the unassisted gradual efforts of the uterus ; partly
to the patient having been kept cool and quiet, free from all sources of disturbance
and irritation ; but, above all, to the careful application of the binder immediately
after delivery, by which means the expulsion of the placenta, and permanent con-

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR. 851

tractions of the uterus, are most effectually secured, and whenever any tendency to
hemorrhage did occur hefore the removal of the placenta, the first point invariably
attended to was to tighten the binder, and in the event of this not succeeding, a thick
firm compress, made by folding a couple of large coarse napkins into a square form,
was placed over the region of the uterus, and the binder again adjusted. In the
great majority of instances, these, with the admission of cool air, checked the dis-
charge ; if not sufficient, additional pressure was made with the hands.

"At the same time that you efficiently compress the fundus uteri with the binder
and pad, cold should be vigorously applied to excite the contractions of the uterus.
The best mode of doing this is to plunge a large napkin in a pitcher of cold water,
and dash it suddenly against the external parts, the nates and thighs ; and this
should be repeated till the uterus contracts, and the violence of the hemorrhage is
controlled. I am satisfied that this is the most efficacious method of applying cold
to excite uterine contractions ; it is far less formidable than pouring water from a
height over the naked abdomen, but it is not less efficacious, and it possesses these
decided advantages over the other method, that while the application is made to the
external parts, nates, and thighs, the pressure of the binder and pad is not with-
drawn from the hypogastrium, the position of the patient is not changed from the
side to the back, the bed is not inundated with water, and the application can be
repeated as often, and continued as long, as the urgency of the symptoms may
require. The abdomen may be exposed once, and cold water poured over it from a
height, and the uterus made to contract, and the flow of blood be arrested for a
time ; but relaxation of the uterus may follow after a short interval, and the hem-
orrhage be renewed again with equal violence as at first ; but we cannot with pro-
priety expose the abdomen a second time, and empty over it from a height the con-
tents of a great decanter or kettle. Besides, by adopting this practice, we sacrifice
the whole of the effects derived from pressure on the fundus uteri. The application
of a napkin soaked in vinegar and water to the parts is often sufficient, along with
the binder, to restrain the hemorrhage where it is not very profuse.

" I have very seldom introduced a plug of any kind into the vagina in these cases,
but when there has been a draining of blood from the uterus, after the practice now
described has been employed, a large soft sponge passed into the vagina, and pressed
up against the os uteri, has appeared in some cases to promote the coagulation of the
blood. The sponge, however, cannot be employed with safety after the expulsion
of the child and placenta, unless the uterus be firmly compressed above the brim of
the pelvis to prevent its becoming distended with blood. More frequently I have
had recourse with good effect, to the introduction of several pieces of smooth ice into
the upper part of the vagina, and allowing them to remain there, in contact with
the os uteri, and be dissolved ; or pieces of ice have been inclosed in a bladder and
laid over the pubes.

" Other means besides those now described have been recommended in cases of
flooding after the expulsion of the placenta. It has been proposed to inject cold
water into the cavity of the uterus by means of the stomach pump, and favorable
reports have been given of the practice. The effect, I think, would be similar to
directing forcibly a stream of cold water against a stump, soon after amputation ;
the coagula in the cavity of the uterus and in the orifices of the vessels would be all
washed away : nevertheless, it might perhaps be advantageous in some desperate
cases. Port wine and water, as cold as possible, Dr. Collins says, injected into the

852 UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

rectum, has been of service. Some of the earlier writers on midwifery, and many
in the present century, have strongly recommended the introduction of the hand
within the uterus for the purpose of removing the coagula accumulated within the
cavity, and to excite the uterus to contract. But it is not necessary to pass the hand
into the uterus.for the removal of coagula, because if the binder has been properly
applied, and strong pressure made over the fundus uteri, clots cannot accumulate
within the uterus, and if they have been permitted to collect in consequence of
neglect, then expulsion will immediately follow the use of proper compression of the
hypogastrium, without the introduction of the hand. Nor do I consider it neces^
sary, to excite uterine contractions, that the hand should ever be introduced into
the cavity of the uterus after the removal of the placenta. I am fully convinced,
from repeated observation, that this practice, which is so common as to be almost
universal in this country at the present time, is often not only ineffectual for the
purpose, in the worst cases of flooding, but that it is often followed by the most per-
nicious effects ; the coagula which nature has formed have been displaced by the
hand, and the uterus has not been excited by the stimulus of it to secure a perma-
nent contraction. In the greater number of fatal cases of uterine hemorrhage after
the expulsion of the placenta, which have come under my observation, the hand
had been introduced into the cavity, and the closed fist had been pressed for a longer or
shorter time round and round against the lining membrane, to make the uterus con-
tract. I do not recollect a single fatal case, where the unfortunate result could be
fairly attributed to the want of the introduction of the hand into the cavity of the
uterus, and the friction of the knuckles against the lining membrane. I have re-
peatedly passed the hand into the uterus to produce contraction, but it has refused
to obey the stimulus of the hand ; it has remained like a soft flaccid bag, more like
a piece of intestine than uterus, and the blood has continued to pour down the arm,
until the hand has been withdrawn, and more efficient remedies employed. Leroux
was well aware that the stimulus of the hand would not in all cases excite the uterus
to contract, for he observes, ' where the os uteri is contracted, the means indicated
by Levret are very efficacious, and remove the hemorrhage as if by a charm. But it
is not so in complete inertia of the uterus ; often it is widely dilated, and offers no
resistance to the introduction of the hand. The introduction even of the whole hand
excites little sensation, and the woman will promptly perish from hemorrhage if
other means more active and certain are not employed to prevent it.' The tampon
or plug is the remedy Leroux recommends in cases of flooding after delivery, and he
affirms that it will often succeed in stopping the flow of blood when all other means
fail. Dr. Dewees observes, that he has not found it necessary to introduce the
hand, for the purpose of stopping a hemorrhage after the expulsion of the placenta,
during the lust five-and-thirty years, as he regarded the practice as always frightful,
and oftentimes unnecessary and pernicious. But it is difficult to subvert an estab-
lished mode of practice, however unsound, and probably some of you, without much
reflection, because you have heard this recommended, will pass up the hand into the
cavity of the uterus after the expulsion of the placenta, on the very first occasion
that you have an opportunity of doing so, remove all the coagula, and rub the inner
surface with the fist till you are tired, without effect. I have seen cases repeatedly
where this has been diligently performed by those who had neglected to apply the
pad and binder, and all the other means now described. If you pass the hand at all
within the parts, which I strongly suspect you will do, let me entreat you to carry

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR. 853

it no farther than the os uteri, which you may, with much less risk and with greater
effect, press and rub with the fingers and irritate than the inner surface of the body
and fundus of the uterus.

"Mauriceau recommends that women who are subject to flooding after delivery
should be bled twice or thrice from the arm during pregnancy, and once, or oftener,
after labor has commenced. There are cases of uterine hemorrhage after the delivery
of the child and expulsion of the placenta unconnected altogether with any plethora,
or an excited state of the heart and arteries, and where bleeding and low diet do not
prevent the accident. Rupturing the membranes at the very commencement of labor
is by far the best remedy, the only thing indeed upon which any dependence can be
placed.

" After attacks of uterine hemorrhage, the patient should not be raised from the
horizontal position for several hours, and the strength should be supported by wine,
beef-tea, and light nourishment. Brandy in gruel sometimes agrees when wine is
rejected. A good large dose of the liquor opii sedativus often produces the most de-
cided benefit after the hemorrhage has ceased ; there are few cases before this in
which opium does good, though it is constantly given in all the varieties of flooding,
even when the great object is to excite uterine action. Where recovery is to take
place after uterine hemorrhage, says Dr. M. Hall, the pallor of the countenance, the
disposition to syncope, the coldness of the extremities, the feeble state of the pulse,
and uninterrupted respiration, pass gradually away. Where the case is to terminate
fatally, the symptoms gradually assume a more alarming aspect, the countenance
becomes pale and sunk, the respiration stertorous, and the pulse cannot be felt at the
wrist. There is great restlessness, and before death one or more fits of convulsions
sometimes occur. Where recovery takes place, in some women it is astonishing how
little permanent inconvenieuce is felt from the great loss of blood which they have
sustained. In the course of ten days or a fortnight the effects have entirely disap-
peared ; and this is the most common result. In some women, a violent determina-
tion of blood takes place to the brain, marked by heat, strong pulsations of the
carotid and temporal arteries, intolerance of light, and all the symptoms of inflam-
mation of the brain or its membranes. A strong febrile attack is also sometimes ex-
perienced, without an increased determination of blood to any particular organ.
These affections of the brain and nervous system are aggravated by depletion. The
patient should be kept in a cool, dark room, and mild cathartics, anodynes, and an-
tispasmodics, occasionally given. Where there is much headache and throbbing, a
few leeches should be applied to the temples, and a cold lotion to the scalp."

These remarks of Dr. Lee, as to bleeding frequently making the after symptoms
worse, should be carefully borne in mind. There is no doubt but that too copious,
or too frequent bleeding, during pregnancy or labor, disposes the female to many
serious dangers afterwards. I have known some suffer constant headache, dizziness,
and loss of memory, for weeks after from it ; and others have even been made light-
headed.

To the above remedies I would only append one other, which has, on many occa-
sions succeeded, when all others have failed, namely galvanism. This has, at the
last moment, when the female was sinking, brought on uterine contractions, stopped
the flooding, and saved her life. The application is very simple ; one pole being
placed on the back, immediately between the hips, and the other over the uterus.
Or one of the poles may be coated with wax, all but the end, and introduced into

854 UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

the vagina, so that the unwaxed part may touch the mouth of the womb, while the
other is placed over the fundus, or on the back, as found most efficient. The power
should be sufficiently strong to produce contraction, and the application must be
continued till the contraction remains after the pole is withdrawn. No medical
man should give any female up who is flooding, no matter how severely, till he has
tried galvanism. In various well-known medical works will be found many cases,
with such plain directions that any one could follow them and apply it.

The presentation of the placenta, or its growth over the mouth of the womb, is
the most serious cause of flooding, and generally makes any attempt to check it of
no avail, except delivery. The discharge however nearly always occurs before the
full period, and either causes miscarriage or necessitates premature delivery. Dr.
Lee remarks :

"In the greater number of cases of placental presentation the discharge of blood
takes place spontaneously in the seventh and eight months of pregnancy, and can
be referred neither to bodily exertion, external violence, nor to any unusual determi-
nation to the uterine organs, or congestion of their vessels. The hemorrhage gener-
ally comes on suddenly, when the woman is in a state of rest, and the blood contin-
ues to flow until faintness or even syncope takes place. It often ceases entirely, and
the patient resumes her usual occupations, and has no dread of another attack. But
after an interval of several days, and sometimes not before two or three weeks, the
flooding is renewed, and perhaps with increased violence, or a constant profuse dis
charge takes place, and a decided effect is produced upon the constitution, the pulse
becomes rapid and feeble, and the countenance pale. Similar attacks return at
longer or shorter intervals, and if delivery be not accomplished by art, sooner or
later death takes place. The first attack of flooding seldom proves fatal, but it some-
times does so ; for in a case which occurred in the British Lying-in Hospital, the
life of the patient was at once extinguished by a single gush of blood from the uterus.
I examined the body after death. The center of the placenta was over the center
of the os uteri.

"When flooding takes place to an alarming extent in the seventh or eight months
of gestation, you ought first to ascertain, by a careful internal examination, whether
or not the placenta be situated at the os uteri. It is impossible, from the manner in
which the discharge of blood takes place, to be certain of the fact ; for there are
some cases of hemorrhage from detachment of the placenta from the upper part of
the uterus, where the flooding occurs spontaneously, and to as great an extent as in
cases where the placenta presents. In some cases I have been induced, from the symp-
toms, to believe that the placenta was at the os uteri when it was not. As the treatment
and the successful or fatal result of the case will, in a great measure, depend on the
correctness of the diagnosis, the examination should be conducted with so much care
and circumspection as to leave no room for doubt on the subject. An ordinary
examination, with the fore and middle fingers, is generally sufficient to enable us to
ascertain the true state of the case ; but where the os uteri is very high up, and
directed backwards, it becomes requisite to introduce the whole hand within the
vagina. The finger should then be passed gently through the os uteri, and, if the
placenta adheres to the cervix, it will be distinguished from coagulated blood, the
only substance with which it can be confounded, by its firmer, fibrous, vascular struc-
ture, and, above all, by its adhering at one part to the uterus, and being separated
at another. If you will take the trouble to pass the finger carefully and repeatedly

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR. 855

over the uterine surface of a recently expelled placenta, you will never, in actual
practice, mistake a placenta at the os uteri for a clot of blood, however firm. In all
cases it is requisite to proceed at once to determine by an examination, so carefully
conducted as to render a mistake impossible, whether or not the placenta presents —
even though the hemorrhage should be slightly renewed by the displacement of the
coagula ; you cannot be too early acquainted with the precise condition of the patient.
You ought, at the same time, to ascertain whether the placenta adheres partially or
completely to the cervix uteri, and whether the os uteri is in a condition to admit of
the operation of turning being performed.

"The operation of turning, which is required in all cases of complete placental
presentation, is not necessary in the greater number of cases in which the edge of the
placenta passing into the membranes can be distinctly felt through the os uteri. Some-
times there is profuse and dangerous hemorrhage where the placenta does not adhere
all round to the neck of the uterus, but only partially. If the os uteri is not much
dilated or dilatable, the best practice in these cases is to rupture the membranes, to
excite the uterus to contract vigorously, by the binder, ergot, and all other means, and
to leave the case to nature : by adopting this treatment the operation of turning may be
avoided with advantage in the greater number of cases of partial placental presenta-
tion. But, if the hemorrhage is profuse, has returned at different intervals, and a
great quantity has been lost, and the constitution is really affected, it is the safest
practice at once, if the orifice of the uterus is in a condition to allow the hand to pass
without difficulty, to deliver by turning the child.

" Where the placental presentation is complete, the operation of turning should
be performed, in all cases, as soon as the orifice of the uterus is so much dilated or
dilatable as to allow the hand to be introduced without the employment of much
force. It is seldom safe to attempt to deliver by turning before the os uteri is so far
dilated that you can easily introduce the points of the four fingers and thumb within
it : however soft and relaxed it may be, until dilatation has commenced, and pro-
ceeded so far, I am convinced there are very few cases in which the operation of
turning will be required, or completed without the risk of inflicting some injury on
the os uteri. This is a point of the greatest practical importance, but I do not
know in what manner to communicate to you, in words, a more clear and definite
idea of the grounds upon which you ought to proceed.

" In every case, before attempting to turn, make a most careful examination of
the os uteri, and endeavor, from the degree of dilatation, and the thinness and softness
of the orifice, to form a correct judgment upon this point, before interfering, for the
hemorrhage will be renewed if the attempt is unsuccessful, and the patient will be
placed in a worse condition than she was before. When you have resolved to turn,
let the patient lie on the left side, with the pelvis close to the edge of the bed, and
introduce the right hand into the vagina as before described, and then pass the fin-
gers and hand gently and slowly in a conical form through the os uteri, giving it
time to dilate, and onward into the cavity between the detached portion of the
placenta and the uterus ; then force the fingers through the membranes, grasp both
feet, and bring them down into the vagina, and slowly extract the child as in the
case of nates presentation, and do not afterwards be in a hurry to remove the pla-
centa, unless it is wholly detached and lying in the upper part of the vagina. This
operation is easily and speedily performed when the os uteri is widely dilated and
dilatable. It is, however, a great exaggeration of the facility with which turning

856 UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

may be accomplished in these cases, to represent it as a very simple process — like
putting the hand into the coat pocket and pulling out your handkerchief. At the
best it is a dangerous operation, and you can never tell with certainty whether or
not the patient will recover after its performance, however easily it may have been
effected.

" But there is not unfrequently most profuse and alarming flooding from com-
plete placental presentation, where the os uteri is so thick, rigid, and undilatable,
that it is impossible to introduce the hand into the uterus without producing certain
mischief. In thirteen out of thirty-six recorded cases the os uteri was rigid and un-
dilatable. The tampon or plug has no power to restrain the hemorrhage in suck
cases, nor do I know of any other means — neither cold, quietness, nor opium — which
effectually have, and it is sometimes absolutely necessary under such circumstances
to deliver by turning, before the hand can possibly be introduced into the uterus
without producing fatal contusion or laceration of the part. I have found in several
of these cases, however, that the delivery may be safely accomplished by merely pass-
ing the hand into the vagina, and afterwards the fore and middle fingers between the
uterus and detached portion of the placenta, grasping with them the feet, which are
generally situated near the os uteri, and drawing down the inferior extremities into
the vagina, and delivering. I know that the inferior extremities may often be
brought down in this way where it is impossible to pass the whole hand through the
os uteri."

The same state of things may however result from other causes, and a very dif-
ferent mode of proceeding may then be needed, as the doctor very clearly shows.

" Flooding may take place in the latter months of pregnancy, and during labor,
where the placenta does not adhere to the neck of the uterus, but to the body or the
fundus, and is detached by some external or internal cause. The separation of the
placenta from the upper part of the uterus may be produced by violence, as blows,
falls, pressure over the hypogastrium, and shocks of various kinds ; but it arises much
more frequently from internal causes, of which morbid states of the placenta, and
twisting of the umbilical cord once or oftener round the neck of the child, are the
most common and obvious. This variety of hemorrhage, though usually termed
accidental, can rarely, however, be referred to accident. Sometimes the flooding
occurs to a great extent without any assignable cause ; a large portion or the whole of
the placenta, when in a healthy condition, being suddenly detached from the uterus,
when the patient has been exposed to no external accident, or injury of any kind,
and when no symptoms of increased determination of blood to the uterus have pre-
ceded the attack. "When this happens a large quantity of blood is poured out be-
tween the placenta and uterus, a small portion of which only at the time usually
escapes from the vagina, to indicate what is going on within the uterus. There may
be a great internal hemorrhage, accompanied with the ordinary constitutional effects
resulting from loss of blood — as faintness, sickness, or vomiting, coldness of the
extremities, rapid feeble pulse, hurried breathing; when there is little or no dis-
charge from the vagina to excite alarm, or to point out the source of danger, when it
is extreme. It is from the general symptoms of exhaustion, and by the disagree-
able sense of uneasiness, weight, or distention of the uterus, experienced, and not
from the quantity of blood which appears externally in these cases, that we are led to
discover the true sta.tp of the patient — to suspect that internal hemorrhage is going
on. But much more frequently only a small portion of the placenta is at first de-

UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR. 857

tached, and the greater part of the blood which is extravasated between it and the
uterus separates the membranes, and descends by its weight to the orifice, and escapes
through the vagina. In all cases, however, of uterine hemorrhage in the latter
months, the danger cannot be so accurately estimated by tbe quantity of blood which
appears externally, as by the general symptoms. The portion of placenta which is
detached never reunites to the uterus, but when expelled it is usually seen covered
with a dark coagulum adhering to the uterine surface.

" When the blood escapes in small quantity, and there are no labor pains present,
and no disposition in the os uteri to dilate, and the constitutional powers are not im-
paired, an attempt should be made to prevent a return of the discharge and the occur-
rence of labor pains. For this purpose, if the pulse is full and frequent, some blood
may be taken from the arm, and the patient should be kept in the horizontal position,
surrounded by cool air, cold applications made over the hypogastrium, and acetate of
lead and opium, mineral acids, and other remedies that diminish the force of the cir-
culation and promote the coagulation of the blood, should be taken internally. The
plug is here totally inadmissable ; it can only convert an external into an internal
hemorrhage. But where the flooding occurs at first profusely, and is renewed even
in a moderate degree, in spite of our efforts to check it, the continuance of pregnancy
to the full period cannot be expected ; it will be of no avail to bleed and administer
internal remedies, except for the purpose of checking the discharge, and thus avert-
ing the immediate danger until the uterus is emptied of its contents.

"The operation of turning, which is required in all cases of complete placental
presentation, is rarely necessary in uterine hemorrhage where the membranes are felt
at the orifice. In a great proportion of these cases, where, on making an examina-
tion, you can feel the smooth membranes extending across the neck of the uterus,
the flooding will be arrested, and the labor safely completed, if the membranes are
ruptured, the liquor amnii discharged and contractions of the uterus excited by gen-
tle dilatation of the orifice, and other appropriate means. The only cases in which
this treatment fails are those in which it has not been had recourse to sufficiently
early, or where the whole or a large portion of the placenta has been suddenly sep-
arated from the uterus, and a great internal hemorrhage has taken place. The uterus
will not contract effectually in these cases after the membranes have been ruptured ;
the pains, instead of becoming stronger, become more and more feeble, return at
longer intervals, and during these the blood flows more profusely, and death would
take place before delivery, if the child were not extracted by the forceps, crotchet,
or by the operation of turning. In all cases, then, of uterine hemorrhage in the
latter months of pregnancy, and in the first stage of labor, where the placenta does
not present, and the quantity of blood discharged is so great as to render delivery
necessary, where it appears improbable that the pregnancy can go on longer with
safety, or to the end of the ninth month, rupture the membranes with the nail of
the forefinger of the right hand, evacuate the liquor amnii by holding up the head
of the child, dilate very gently the os uteri with the fore and middle fingers ex-
panded, and occasionally make pressure with the fingers around the whole orifice ;
apply the binder, give ergot and stimulants, and the uterus will, in all probability,
contract upon its contents, and expel them without further trouble. If the hemor-
rhage should, however, continue after the employment of these means, delivery must
be accomplished by the forceps, craniotomy, or by turning, according to the pecu-
liarities of the case. In women who are liable to attacks of flooding after the expul-

858 UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING, DURING LABOR.

sion of the child or placenta, rupture the membranes at the commencement of labor,
even before the os uteri is much dilated, if the presentation is natural, and you will
often succeed in entirely preventing hemorrhage."

The recommendation to bleed may be with good reason objected to, at least in
the great majority of such cases ; and I cannot but think that a timely and persever-
ing use of the ordinary remedies, namely, keeping quiet, using acid drinks, and cold
fomentations to the abdomen, would do away with any necessity for it at all. I
question very much if ever bleeding really prevented abortion from flooding, and I
cannot but think that it has often brought it on sooner. Nevertheless, if all other
means fail to arrest the discharge, and there are no decided objections to the con-
trary, it might be cautiously tried ; though the policy of taking more blood from a
person who is already losing too much, is not very evident.

I have often known the most severe flooding stopped, merely by the female lying
on her back, drinking plentifully of lemonade, and applying cold wet cloths over the
abdomen. A small dose of laudanum occasionally is also useful ; and complete rest
and tranquility of mind is as indispensable as rest of the body. Many females flood
and miscarry merely from worrying and fretting themselves, and from passion, or
strong excitement, particularly of a certain kind. This in short must be carefully
avoided, and the patient must live strictly as if a widow.

This accident is likely to occur in subsequent pregnancies, at nearly the same
time, and should therefore be guarded against by a careful avoidance of all excite-
ment, or violent bodily exertion, during the whole time. Keeping the bowels gently
open, and practicing a regular diet, are also requisite. A good supporting bandage
is often of frequent service.

CHAPTER LXXV.

ECLAMPSIA, OB CONVULSIONS.

Convulsions are to be looked upon as very serious indications of derangement,
during either pregnancy or labor, and are frequently followed by fatal results to both
mother and child. They may be of several different kinds, epileptic, hysteric, or
cataleptic, though the epileptic form is most common. They often occur during
pregnancy, but not usually before the seventh month, though occasionally met with
much earlier. According to observations it appears tbat there is not above one case
of convulsions in six hundred deliveries.

The principal cause of this disease appears to be the strong sympathy between
the womb and other organs, owing to which they are continually disturbed by the
changes it undergoes. Certain temperaments also dispose to it, particularly the
lymphatic, and also dropsy, rickets, and other diseases. Strong moral impressions
may also have a predisposing effect, such as sudden frights, joy or anger, and also
acute pain, or the dread of it.

In most cases, and particiilaiiy during pregnancy, the convulsions are preceded,
and indicated, by severe headache, and spasm at the stomach with dimness of sight,
bright sparks before the eyes, buzzing in the ears, and partial difficulty in speaking.
Occasionally, however, the fit comes on quite suddenly, without any warning what-
ever.

There are few exhibitions of suffering more frightful than one of these attacks,
and none that call for more prompt and decided action. In general females are per-
fectly helpless when one is attacked in this way, and instead of being able and dis-
posed to render proper assistance, they either run away alarmed, or fall into hysterics
themselves. It is, however, of the utmost consequence that the sufferer should be
attended to instantly, and therefore every female should know what to do in such an
emergency, at least till better aid can arrive.

At the first commencement of convulsions the features become gradually fixed,
the eyes are expanded and distorted, the breath is drawn with difficulty, and all con
sciousness appears to cease. The body then begins to twitch, the mouth opens,
usually on one side, the tongue protrudes, the head turns on one side, and the blood
rushes to it and the face in great quantities. In a short time the jawa close again
with great force, and the tongue is bitten if proper care has not been taken to prevent
it. At last the eyes begin to twinkle, the mouth moves as if the patient were mut-
tering, and the nostrils expand ; the arms are thrust straight down by the sides of the
body, with the hands firmly closed ; the legs are stiffened straight out, and the body
is bent back like a bow. In short, every muscle is affected with spasms, which are
sometimes fearfully violent, and may endure for a considerable time. When they
subside, the fit gradually terminates and passes off. During the whole time the
breathing is difficult, the mouth froths very much, and the heart palpitates quickly,

860 ECLAMPSIA, OB CONVULSIONS.

but irregularly. When the spasm is over, the patient falls into a perfect stupor,
during which she remains unconscious, but with all the limbs soft and movable,
except the fingers, which appear to grasp. The jaws generally remain closed, and so
do the eyes, but they may be easily opened, and will sometimes remain open ; the
breathing becomes powerful and loud, and the pulse beats with rapidity. At last
slight motions are observed, and consciousness gradually returns, but the memory is
generally gone for some time. This state of stupor usually lasts from ten minutes to
half an hour, but has been known to continue for many hours, or even a whole day.
The spasm seldom continues more than from one to ten minutes, though it has lasted
for an hour or more.

These convulsions might be mistaken for ordinary hysteria by those not acquainted
with the difference. In hysteria, however, the female moves about and struggles
more ; she also cries out, and retains both sensibility and consciousness, so perfectly
even sometimes that she requests those around to hold her, which is never the case in
convulsions.

During the stupor it might be supposed by any one not aware of the previous fit,
that the patient was suffering from apoplexy, or intoxication, the appearance being
so similar to that exhibited in those states. This shows the necessity for careful
inquiries as to what has previously occurred.

During pregnancy, convulsions generally cause abortion, either by bringing on
uterine contractions, or by causing the death of the child. Some few patients have
suffered from them, however, and yet gone their full time, but this must never be
expected. A gradual extinction of the vital spark, during the stupor, is the ordi-
nary termination, though sudden death is not unfrequent, during the fit. Gradual
recovery is occasionally witnessed, but seldom without partial loss of memory, or
some other affliction. Madame Lachapelle says that one-half of the females attacked
with convulsions die, and of their children many more.

There is no doubt but that the tendency to this fearful affliction may be very
much lessened in many females, by proper attention to diet and regimen. Those who
are of a full habit, and disposed to headache, and rush of blood to the head, should
live low, and carefully avoid everything of a heating or stimulating character, and
also every kind of excitement or agitation. The bowels should be kept free, and the
skin well rubbed and kept warm, and the head cool.

Treatment. — While the patient is in the fit, care must be taken that she does not
fall off the bed, or bite her tongue, to prevent which the jaws must be kept apart, by
putting something between, as a piece of soft wood, or the handle of a spoon covered
with cloth, or even a knotted napkin. The face should be sprinkled with cold water,
and the whole body well chafed, particularly the hands and feet, which should also
be made warm as soon as possible. As soon as the spasm is over, it is customary to
bleed, either at the arm, or by leeches to the temples and behind the ears. Mustard
poultices should also be applied to the feet, and inside the thighs, and an enema
should be given of warm water and a tablespoonful of salt. Ice, or cold water, should
be applied to the head constantly, and, if possible, the body should be immersed in a
hot bath, which will, in many instances, bring the patient round immediately with-
out any other treatment. The bladder should be also looked to, as well as the bowels,
and if necessary the catheter should be used. As soon as she can swallow, a few
drops of laudanum may be given, or a little ether, but not a full dose by any means.

The propriety of bleeding, even in these cases, is denied by many, and I am

ECLAMPSIA, OB CONVULSIONS. 861

almost inclined to think myself that a prompt and persevering use of the other reme-
dies mentioned would be fully as successful without it. At all events, the fearful
Jiortality in spite of it proves that it has not much power, and may well raise a
doubt of its utility.

Convulsions, however, are so fearful and violent, that few practitioners can resist
the temptation to bleed, because it seems so well calculated to give prompt relief, and
besides it has popular prejudice in its favor. Some authors, however, assert that it
makes the danger greater of paralysis and loss of memory afterwards.

When convulsions occur during pregnancy they seldom cease entirely till the
uterus is emptied of its contents. It is therefore necessary to bring on labor, and
terminate it as soon as possible, after the parts are in a proper condition. When they
occur during labor, it must also be finished in the shortest time possible to afford
the best chance of saving the child, and also because no treatment will prevent the
attack while the patient remains undelivered. All means of bringing on dilatation
of the mouth of the womb, mentioned in previous articles, may be resorted to,
excepting ergot, which should never be used in these cases.

M. Chailly tells us that in thirteen cases of convulsions, nine were first preg-
nancies, and seven of the females were dropsical. Only one was attacked during
pregnancy, ten while in labor, and two after. Only two died, and ten of the chil-
dren.

It is worthy of remark that where pregnant females have had convulsions, appa
rently from living too high, the children have also had them after delivery.

CHAPTEE LXXVI.

BUPTURE OF THE WOMB OR VAGINA.

Kupture of the womb arises from various causes, but most usually from power-
ful contractions when the pelvis is small, or the foetus large, or when it presents
unfavorably. Tt not unfrequently results also from force being used, particularly
with instruments. In fact there is no doubt but that numerous females die from
this accident, brought on by the violence, haste, and want of skill of their attendants.
Few injuries are more serious, or more beyond the reach of any remedy than this,
though it is sometimes suffered with impunity.

The symptoms of rupture of the womb are strongly marked, and fearfully evident.
When it occurs, which is most usually during a powerful contraction, the female
shrieks, and instantly complains of an agonizing pain over the seat of the rupture ;
her face grows deadly pale, her pulse falls, and she faints. In general death is almost
instantaneous, though sometimes life may be preserved for an hour or two, but very
seldom. There have been cases of recovery, but they are very few, and regarded
almost as miracles.

In most cases, directly the rupture happens the foetus escapes through the rent
into the abdomen, and most of the fluid with it ; but sometimes it still remains in
the womb, and then if the liquor amnii is discharged there may little or nothing pass
through the opening, and the danger will be much lessened in consequence. In all
cases the only proceeding which offers any chance of recovery is, to deliver as soo?i as
possible, because when the foetus is expelled the uterus begins to contract, so as to
close the wound, and when that is effected, if but little fluid has passed into the cavity
of the abdomen, all may yet go well. It may frequently happen, when the hand is
passed into the womb, to turn and deliver, that nothing can be found, the foetus hav-
ing passed through the opening into the abdominal cavity, in which case the hand
must be passed through the opening also, and the foetus be brought back if possible.
If however the rent is too much closed, or the child cannot be reached, the Cesarean
operation is the only resort.

M. P. Dubois tells us of a case of this kind which occurred in his own practice.
The female had only been in labor about an hour when she uttered a piercing cry, and
sank as if suddenly mortally wounded. The head of the child, which was previously
at the mouth of the womb, could not be felt, and on introducing his hand M. Dubois
found its feet were passed through the opening into the mother's abdomen ; he
brought them back, however, and effected delivery by turning with comparative ease.
Strange to say this woman was discharged cured, in fifteen days after, though the
uterus was so torn that the intestines had forced themselves through the opening into
its cavity, and M. Dubois put them back with his hand, which also passed clear into
the peritoneal cavity. In all cases, after the delivery is effected, the womb should be

RUPTURE OF THE WOMB OR VAGINA. 863

again explored, so that if any parts have come through they may he returned hefore
the opening closes, which it may do very soon.

Oases are even mentioned where the child passed clear out of the womb into the
abdominal cavity, and remained there till it absorbed, or escaped through a fistulous
opening many years after ; while tbe womb healed up, and otherwise the patient per-
fectly recovered. Recovery however, in any way, is a rare occurrence.

Some females seem more disposed to this accident than others ; possibly from a
peculiar tenderness in the substance of the womb. All are however liable to it, and
this liability should beget a proper caution in all manipulations, and forbid uncalled-
for violence in any way.

Eupture of the vagina is much less serious than rupture of the womb, unless it
occurs at the upper part, when it may give rise to similar symptoms and results. At
the lower part the danger is much less, though still sufficient to excite apprehension.

The treatment is the same as in the former case. Delivery must be effected as
soon as possible, and the patient kept still and cool to avoid inflammation.

It is generally thought that the greater part of these accidents result from impro-
per treatment, and particularly from using instruments improperly, or unneces-
sarily.

CHAPTEK LXXVII.

OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS.

The use of instruments in effecting delivery is a last resort to save life, and ought
to be intrusted only to persons of skill ; it may therefore be thought unnecessary to
treat of them in the present work, and indeed I should not have done so but for the
purpose of satisfying the natural curiosity of females themselves. The greater part
of the dread they now experience where instruments are needed arises from ignor-
ance of their nature and mode of action. At the present time nearly all the instru-
ments used, in competent hands, are comparatively safe and harmless, and if females
generally understood how they operated, much less fear would be excited by their
use. Years ago, when cuttiDg and tearing instruments were employed, in nearly
every case of difficulty, the lamentable results which followed fully justified the fears
experienced ; but at the present day such things are seldom seen, except in medical
museums, the same purpose being much better effected by simpler and more harm-
less apparatus. I wish therefore simply to give a brief explanation of the structure,
and mode of action, of the instruments now chiefly employed, and to show the extent
of their application and the results which have followed from it.

THE FORCEPS.

The forceps are intended to take hold of the foetus, and assist us to draw it into
the world when the natural forces are inadequate, and no hold can be obtained by
the hands. They were first invented about the year 1650, by an English surgeon
named Chamberlin, who made a secret of his inven-
tion and realized a large fortune from it. Since
that time they have been modified in various ways,
by different practitioners, but still remain essen-
tially the same as when first used.

The most usual form, and probably the best, is
that represented in Figure 194. It consists of two
blades articulated by a button or screw joint, so
that they can be easily separated and again adjusted.
Each blade is cut out in the middle, and curved,
as seen in Fig. 195.

The only part to which the forceps are intended
to be applied is the head, to the dimensions and
form of which they are specially adapted. Some
1 ' practitioners have used them on the breech, but

Figup.e 194. Figube 195. the practiCe is not generally sanctioned, because

they seldom retain their hold on this part, and are nearly sure to seriously injure the

OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS. 865

child when so applied. When properly constructed forceps are rightly applied to the
head there is but little danger, either to the mother or the child ; but in the hands of
an unskillful or careless person the consequences of their use may be deplorable to both.

It is scarcely necessary to remark that the forceps are neither cutting nor crush-
ing instruments, but are simply intended to lay hold, like the hand itself, and enable
us to draw down the head, or change its position. Most usually they are made long
and curved, as shown in the above figure, but sometimes they are made much shorter
and straight. They may be used upon the head when it is either at the upper or the
lower strait, or while it is in the passage ; but on no account should they be applied
till the parts are fully dilated, and everything indicates that the child can pass.
Thus they should never be used when the head is too large, or the pelvis too small,
nor when there are tumors in the way. In short no attempt should be made with
them to force the foetus through a passage which will not admit it by reasonable
efforts. M. Dubois says they should never be used when the pelvic diameter is less
than three inches, because with such dimensions the child is nearly certain to be
crushed to death, and the mother can scarcely escape serious bruises and lacerations.
In like manner, if they are thrust into the womb before the mouth of it is naturally
dilated they are sure to tear and injure it.

It is not necessary here to give directions for using the forceps in every variety of
presentation and position, but simply to show the mode of applying them as they
are most frequently required. The two blades are adjusted separately, one to each
side of the head, and then locked together, so that the head is firmly inclosed
between them, but not crushed. Dr. Denman gives perhaps the best and simplest
directions on this point, and I therefore quote from his work :

" The first part of the operation consists in passing the forefinger of the right
hand behind the ossa pubis and the head of the child to the ear ; then taking the
part of the forceps to be first introduced by the handle in the left hand, the point
of the blade is to be slowly conducted between the head of the child and the finger
till the instrument touches the ear : there can be no difficulty or hazard in carrying
the instrument thus far, because it will be guided, and in some measure shielded,
by the finger. But the further introduction must be made with a slow semi-rota-
tory motion, keeping the point of the blade not rigidly, yet closely, to the head of
the child, by raising the handle toward the pubes. In this manner the blade must
be carried gently along the head till the lock reaches the external parts near the
anterior angle of the pudendum. The point of the blade, while introducing, some-
times hitches upon the ear of the child, and it then requires a little elevation. But
when it has passed the ear, and is beyond the guidance of the finger, should there
be any check to the introduction either of this or the other blade, it should be with-
drawn a little, to give us an opportunity of discovering the cause of the obstacle,
which we must never strive to overcome by violence, though we must proceed with
firmness. When the first blade is properly introduced, it must be held steadily in
its place by pressing the handle toward the pubes, and it will be a guide in the
introduction and application of the second blade. Let the second blade be intro-
duced in this manner. Keep the blade first introduced in its place with the two
lesser fingers of the left hand, and carry the fore-finger of the same hand between
the perineum and head of the child as high as you can reach. Then take the sec-
ond blade of the forceps by the handle in the right hand, and, conveying the point
between the finger placed within the perineum and the head of the child, conduct
55

866 OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS.

the instrument, with the precautions before mentioned, so far that the lock shall
touch the interior part of the perineum, or even press it a little backwards. In
order to fix the two blades thus introduced, that which was placed toward the
pubes must be slowly withdrawn, and carried so far backwards that it can be locked
with the second blade retained in its first position ; and care must be taken that
nothing be entangled in the lock, by passing the finger round it. When the forceps
are locked, it will be convenient to tie the handles together with sufficient firmness
to prevent them from sliding or changing their position when they are not held in
the hand, but not in such a manner as to increase the compression upon the head of
the child. Should the blades of the forceps be introduced so as not to be opposite
each other, they could not be locked ; or if, when applied, the handles should come
close together, or be at a great distance from each other, they would probably slip,
or there would be a failure of some kind in the operation, as the bulk of the head
would not be included or they would be fixed on some improper part of the head ;
though allowance is to be made for the difference in the size of the heads of children.
But if a case be proper for the forceps, if they be well applied, and we were to act
slowly with them, there would not be much risk of failure or disappointment. The
difficulty of applying the forceps is most frequently occasioned by attempting to
apply them too soon, or by passing them in a wrong direction, or by entangling the
soft parts of the mother between the instrument and the head of the child, against
all which accidents we are to be on our guard.

" When the forceps are first locked, they are placed backwards, with the lock
close to, or just within, the internal surface of the perineum ; and they can have no
support backwards, except the little which is afforded by the soft parts. The first
action with them should therefore be made by bringing the handles, grasped firmly
in one or both hands, to prevent the instrument from playing upon the head of the
child, slowly toward the pubes till they come to a full rest. Having waited a short
interval with them in that situation, the handles must be carried back in the same
slow but steady manner to the perineum, exerting, as they are carried in the differ-
ent situations, a certain degree of extracting force ; and after waiting another inter-
val, they are again to be carried toward the pubes, according to the direction of the
handles. Throughout the operation, especially the first part, the action of that
blade of the forceps originally applied toward the pubes must be stronger and more
extensive than the action with the other blade, this having no fulcrum to support it,
and chiefly answering the purpose of regulating the action of the other blade. If
there were any labor pains when the operation was begun, or should they come on
in the course of it, the forceps should only be acted with during the continuance of
the pains ; the intention being, not only to supply the want or insufficiency of the
pains, but to follow them, and imitate also the manner in which they return. By
a few repetitions of this alternate action and rest before described, we shall soou be
sensible of the descent of the head ; and it will be proper to examine very frequently,
to know the progress made, that we may not use more force than needful, nor go on
with more haste than may be expedient or safe. In every case we ought to proceed
slowly and circumspectly, not forgetting that a small degree of force, continued for
a long time, will in general be equivalent to a greater force hastily exerted, and with
infinitely less detriment to the mother or child. But after some time, should we
not perceive the head to descend, the force hitherto used must be gradually increased,
till it be sufficient to overcome the obstacles to the delivery of the patient. It was

OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS.

867

before observed, as tbe head of the child descended, that the face would be accord-
ingly turned toward the hollow of the sacrum, without any aim or assistance on our
part. Of course the position of the handles of the forceps, and the direction in
which we ought to act with them, should alter ; for they becoming first more diago-
nal or oblique with respect to the pelvis, and then more and more lateral, every
change in their position will require a differently directed action, because the han-
dles should ever be antagonists to each other. In proportion also to the descent of
the head the handles of the forceps should approach nearer to the pubes ; so that,
in the beginning of the operation, though we acted in the direction of the cavity of
the pelvis, toward the conclusion we should act in that of the vagina. When we
feel that we have the command of the head, by its being cleared of the pelvis, and
the external parts begin to be distended, we ought to act yet more slowly, especially
in the case of a first child, or there would be great danger of a laceration of the soft
parts ; and this can only be prevented by acting very deliberately in the direction of
the vagina — by giving the parts time to distend — by duly supporting the perineum,
which is the part chiefly in danger, with the palm of the hand — by soothing and
moderating the hurry and efforts of the patient — and, in some cases, by absolutely
resisting for a certain time the passage of the head through the external parts."

It is merely necessary to remark, in conclusion, that the forceps should never
be used till it is manifestly impossible for the child to be born without them ; and
it should be remembered that nature alone fre-
quently effects delivery under the most unfa-
vorable circumstances, by giving her time. We
should wait therefore as long as the safety of
the mother will allow, but never delay a mo-
ment when that safety is compromised.

The accidents which have followed from the
use of the forceps are numerous and terrible,
and I could give a most horrifying account of
them if it were necessary. It must be recol-
lected, however, that these accidents have
chiefly followed from want of skill in manag-
ing the instrument, or from its being used un-
der improper circumstances. It is true that
there is always more or less of pain and injury
to be dreaded from the forceps, even in the
most favorable cases, and with the most com- FI€roRE 196.—
petent operators, but this is no argument
against their employment altogether. In every

case where they are really called for, the female the head is well shown in the above plate,
would, most probably, die undelivered, or have J^^^^^^i
to be cut open, so that it is simply a choice of point at its presenting part. This com-
evils, of which the forceps are the least. £?^S£ It ^2^° S

The cases in which the forceps are abso- child may be convulsed a little from, it,
lutely necessary, however, are very rare, l^lSl reC°VerS' "^ ^^ n0thing
much more so in fact than many people sup-
pose. Patience, and the persevering use of ordinary assistance, would probably suc-
ceed alone in half the cases where they are now employed.

head being drawn
through a narrow pelvis by the forceps.

The manner in which the forceps draw

868 OPERATIONS WITH INSTRUMENTS.

In Murphy's lectures on difficult labors, he gives us some valuable statistics on
this subject. He tells us that in seventy-five thousand nine hundred and eleven labors,
the forceps were used only one hundred and thirty-eight times, or once in every five
hundred and fifty labors. In these one hundred and thirty-eight cases thirty-five of
the children died, and ten of the mothers. Dr. Murphy, however, thinks that the
general results, to both mother and child would be equally favorable if the forceps
were not used at all, and he gives the tables of Dr. Collins to support his opinions.
From these tables it really appears that, when all the difficult labors were left entirely
to nature, the number of deaths was just about the same as when the forceps were used,
in fact rather less, while the accidents, and subsequent evils, were not nearly so
great. Dr. Murphy therefore thinks that the forceps should never be used, except
in a few cases where everything is quite favorable to the passage of the foetus ; and
the uterus cannot be made, in a reasonable time, to contract and expel it ; and also
when immediate delivery is needed to save the mother's life, as in flooding. In cases
of mere ordinary difficulty or delay, he decries their use entirely ; and he evidently
thinks that when the labor is fit to be terminated by the forceps, nature can and will
terminate it herself if left alone. There is no doubt but that they are now used a
great deal too much, either from a desire to operate, or from want of patience ; and I
have no hesitation in expressing my opinion that more have been hilled than saved
by them.

OTHEK INSTRUMENTS.

Eespecting other instruments, such as the crotchet, the vectis, and the cephalotribe,
or crushing forceps, it is not necessary to say anything here, as their use, when im-
peratively needed, must necessarily be confined to the surgeon ; and fortunately may
now be dispensed with altogether. The recently introduced practice of bringing on
premature labor, in all cases of deformity or smallness of the pelvis, entirely obvi-
ates the necessity for any of these dreadful resorts, if the difficulty be known in time,
which it is sure to be when a sufficient degree of knowledge is disseminated.

The Ccesarian operation, or cutting open the womb externally ; and cephalotomy,
or the opening of the child's head, may also be dismissed with the same observations.
They can always be avoided, if the real condition of the patient is known in time ;
and if from neglect, nothing else can be done, they must always be performed by a
skillful surgeon.

CHAPTER LXXVIII.

OPERATIONS WITH THE HAND.

Turning.

This is one of the most useful operations that the accoucheur can perform, in
many cases, and has the advantage of being altogether accomplished by the hand.
Its object is to change the presentation, when unfavorable, and to facilitate delivery.
Most usually the hand is introduced into the uterus, and the feet are brought down.
This is called pelvic version ; but sometimes the head is brought to the mouth of the
womb, particularly in shoulder presentations, and this is called cephalic version.

Cephalic Version. — This can seldom be performed, and not often attempted with
safety. In some cases, however, when it is ascertained that the shoulder presents,
and before the membranes are broken, an effort may be made to remove it and bring
the head in its place. To do this the position of the head must be ascertained exter-
nally, and one hand placed upon it ; then with the two forefingers of the other raise
up the shoulder from within, as in ballotment, and endeavor to push the head into
its place. If the child be very movable this may sometimes be done, and will be
highly advantageous ; but most frequently the substitution cannot be accomplished,
and the attempt ruptures the membranes, after which it is still more difficult, and
often becomes dangerous. Even if the head be brought down there is always danger
of its becoming displaced, and the shoulder again presented, owing to the tendency
which any presentation has to be reproduced. To prevent this the hand should be
firmly pressed on the foetus, externally, as soon as the head is brought down, to fix
it ; and the membranes should be ruptured so that it may begin to descend, after
which there is no danger of a change.

Cephalic version can be so seldom performed, however, and is so difficult, and
sometimes dangerous, that it is seldom or never attempted ; more particularly as pel-
vic version can always be substituted, and is more easy and safe. It is true that pres-
entations of the head are the most favorable, providing they occur before the rup-
ture of the membranes ; but after that event they may not be so favorable as those of
the lower extremities, and certainly are not so easy or safe to induce.

Pelvic Version. — Turning to bring down the feet is performed for various rea-
sons, and under many different circumstances. As a general principle we may say
that it is done either to change the presentation, when unfavorable, or to terminate
the labor when it is lingering, or when it is desirable to have it over as quickly as
possible. The feet may be drawn through the mouth of the womb when it is but
little opened, and when they have once passed, the limbs and body soon follow, and
the head seldom remains long behind. The foetus may in fact be compared to a
wedge, of which the feet are the point, and if they enter the passage the other parts
are gradually driven after by the uterine contractions.

870 OPERATIONS WITH THE HAND.

The chief contingencies which call for the operation of turning are, a protracted
labor, a presentation of the placenta, causing hemorrhage, and a wrong presenta-
tion, particularly one of the shoulder.

The operation of turning is very clearly explained by Dr. Lee, and I know from
experience that his directions can be safely relied upon. It very frequently happens,
however, that there will be some peculiar circumstances in a case, which will neces-
sitate more or less change in the manner of proceeding, so that the practitioner must
after all be guided, to a great extent, by the requirements and conditions then exist-
ing. Dr. Lee's directions, therefore, must merely be considered as general ones, to
be modified as occasion may require :

" When the operation of turning is required before the membranes are ruptured,
and when the orifice of the uterus is widely dilated, and there are long intervals
between the pains, it is accompanied with little difficulty and danger. Having
explained to the patient and her relatives the nature of the case, let her lie on the
left side near the edge of the bed, with the knees drawn up to the abdomen. Sit
down by the side of the bed, and quietly take off your coat ; lay bare your right
arm by turning up the shirt above the elbow, and cover the back of the hand and
the whole forearm with cold cream, lard, or a solution of soap. Introduce one fin-
ger after another into the vagina, and slowly and effectually dilate its orifice. Tho
hand, in a conical form, and in a state of half supination, must then be pressed
steadily forward with a semi-rotatory motion against the perineum and sides of the
passage, till it clears the orifice of the vagina. This should always be done very
slowly and gently, as it is accompanied with great pain. Let the hand remain some
time in the orifice of the vagina, that it may be fully dilated, and offer no resistance
in the subsequent steps of the operation of turning. When the hand has dilated the
vagina sufficiently, in the absence of pain gently insinuate the points of the fingers
and thumb into the os uteri in a conical form, and if it is not sufficiently open to
allow the hand to pass, you must proceed next to use artificial dilatation here also,
very gently and slowly, always stopping as soon as a pain comes on, but not with-
drawing the fingers altogether at the time from the os uteri. Having succeeded in
dilating the part without rupturing the membranes, slide the hand up between the
membranes and the anterior part of the uterus into the cavity, and grasp the feet
when the membranes give way. Most frequently the membranes burst as the hand
is entering the uterus before it reaches the feet, and the liquor amnii rushes out and
is lost, if it is not prevented by pressing the hand forward firmly into the orifice.
Never be contented with one foot when it is possible to grasp both ; and this can
always be done when the liquor amnii has not escaped, and the uterus is not closely
contracted round the body of the child. Seize both feet and legs, and when there is
no pain, draw them down into the vagina ; and as the nates descend through the os
uteri, the shoulder and arm will gradually recede or be retracted, and will offer no
obstacle to the remaining part of the operation, which should be completed as if the
nates and inferior extremities had originally presented, and which has already been
very fully described. In actual practice, except in twin cases, the membranes have
been ruptured and the liquor amnii is gone, in a great proportion of cases — in
about ten to one — long before we are called upon to deliver by turning, and the
operation is then a much more serious affair. Sometimes, when the os uteri is half
dilated, there is an interval of freedom from pain for several hours after the rupture
of the membranes, and partial escape of the liquor amnii. Here it is advisable to

OPERATIONS WITH THE HAND. 871

turn without delay ; and the hand can be passed up into the uterus and the feet
brought down with little more difficulty than if the membranes had not been rup-
tured."

The operation of turning is, however, beset with many difficulties, and unless
the conditions for it are very favorable, and the operator skillful, it may cause
greater mischief than it is intended to remedy. The probability is, as in the case
of other operations, that it would seldom or never be needed if proper means were
used in time, and perseveringly ; and it is yet a question whether the prospect, for
both mother and child, would not be more favorable if the delivery was always left to
nature, in those cases where version is now attempted. Dr. Collins says, "As to
turning, the risk to the mother is, in the majority of cases, so great as to forbid its
employment, nor do I think the practitioner justified by the circumstances in so
greatly hazarding his patient's life."

CHAPTEE LXXIX.

THE DISEASES OE WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY, AND IN CHILDBED.

Women are liable during pregnancy, and after childbirth, to most of the diseases
which afflict them at other times, and also to many derangements peculiar to those
periods. As a general rule either of those conditions somewhat modifies the disease,
and also necessitates certain differences in its treatment. The former part of this
work having treated on all those affections common to every other period, I shall,
in this, confine myself chiefly to those peculiar to the two conditions referred to ;
giving their causes, symptoms, and treatment, with practical hints for their preven-
tion.

THE DISEASES OF PREGNANCY.

The diseases which are found during pregnancy are of two kinds : the first kind
called Sympathetic, or nervous, consist of various derangements of different parts of
the system, produced chiefly by nervous sympathy with the womb. The second
kind, called Idiopathic, are real primary derangements of the generative organs
themselves, or of those intimately connected with them. Each of these kinds will
be treated of separately.

SYMPATHETIC DISEASES OCCURRING DURING PREGNANCY.

Sickness and Vomiting.

Nausea, or sickness, with or without vomiting, is one of the most frequent and
troublesome accompaniments of pregnancy. It is so general, in fact, as to be looked
upon as one of the earliest and most reliable signs of that state. It is undoubtedly
caused, in the earlier stages, simply by the intimate sympathy which exists between
the stomach and womb, and which causes one of those organs to be temporarily de-
ranged whenever the other is in any unusual condition. In the latter months, it is
also produced by the enlarged womb pressing on the lower part of the stomach, as it
rises in the abdomen. In many diseases of the womb, particularly in enlargements
and tumors, the stomach will become deranged in precisely the same manner as dur-
ing pregnancy, and the patient is frequently deceived thereby as to her real condition.

In most cases the sickness does not begin till about the second month, and it sel-
dom lasts beyond the third or fourth. There are some, however, with whom it com-
mences almost immediately after fecundation, and others with whom it lasts till the
very commencement of labor. I have even known persons who always experienced
the nausea at the very moment of conception, and who were thus aware when that event
took place. With some persons the trouble occurs only during certain parts of the
day, most usually in the morning, while with others it comes on irregularly, or even

872

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 873

endures constantly. In most cases it is not very severe, and causes but little distress ;
occasionally, however, it is very serious, and may even lead to fatal results, in spite
of all that can be done. Abortion is frequently brought on by it ; and so are faint-
ings, and spitting of blood. Many women, however, will vomit with violence, dur-
ing almost the whole period, without either accident or evil effect. The treatment
must vary according to the cause of the derangement, its violence, and the effect it
produces. In regard to diet but little can be said that will be found generally appli-
cable. Mild and light food is generally recommended, but is not always the best,
for some females can only keep on their stomachs the most indigestible articles.
Perhaps nothing more can be said, with propriety, than that the patient should take
whatever she can retain, particularly if she has become weak from want of nourish-
ment, which is often the case. Some females can only keep down a little broth, or
tea, or sweetened water, while others find solid food the best, or fruits. I have
known many able to take gum-arabic, either solid or dissolved in water, and retain
it, when nothing else could be borne. This is nourishing, and may often keep up
the strength till the sickness abates.

There are many remedies that will sometimes relieve, though frequently they are
of no use whatever. A little wine or brandy, or orange flower water ; — a few drops
of laudanum, or ether, or essence of peppermint, may be tried. One or two ipecac,
or cayenne, or camphor lozenges, will sometimes be efficacious, and so will a little
port wine and Peruvian bark, or a seidlitz powder, or even common soda water. A
teaspoonful of powdered charcoal succeeds occasionally, or some very strong bitters,
or a cordial, such as a wine-glassful of curacoa. A plaster of opium may also be
placed over the stomach, or one of meal wet with laudanum. A mustard poultice
over the stomach will frequently relieve when everything else fails ; sometimes it is
.more effective, however, when placed on the spine, opposite the stomach. As a gen-
eral rule the bowels should be kept free, either with injections or with mild purga-
tives, as castor oil, or manna. Regular bathing will often act as a complete preven-
tive or cure, and the vomiting may be frequently stopped by simply dashing cold
water over the stomach. Some practitioners recommend emetics, and bleeding if the
patient be of a full plethoric habit. Leeches and cups have also been used over the
stomach, and sometimes with good effect. Ether and chloroform have also been
inhaled, and have operated favorably in a few instances. Plentiful draughts of cold
water or swallowing bits of ice will likewise afford relief to some.

In several instances the vomiting has been so violent, and the patient has suffered
so much, and become so exhausted from want of nourishment, that it has been abso-
lutely necessary, after all other means have failed, to cause miscarriage, as the only
means of saving the patient's life.

Whenever the trouble can be borne, patience is the grand specific. The sufferer
must recollect that it will surely cease with delivery, and most probably before.

PTYALISM, OB EXCESSIVE SALIVATION.

Some pregnant females will secrete an immense amount of saliva for weeks and
months in succession, as if they had been salivated. I have never known a case in
which this discharge caused any evil, even when very great, though it is often trou-
blesome. It would probably not be judicious to stop it, even if we could do so, as
long as it does no harm, though it may be advisable at times to moderate it. The

874 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

only treatment proper to effect this is, to keep the bowels free and the body well
bathed, and to gargle the mouth with mint or balm teas, or canella water, or a little
syrup of poppies.

This discharge, like the vomiting, arises from the sympathetic action of the
uterus, and it generally ceases about the fourth month, though with some it will last
the whole time.

ODONTALGIA, OR TOOTHACHE.

This is also a very general trouble during pregnancy, and sometimes a very severe
one. Like several otber sympathetic affections, it is very irregular as to its first appear-
ance and duration, some suffering from it most of the time, almost without intermis-
sion, while others only have it at intervals, and but slightly.

It sometimes depends upon unsound teeth, but is frequently experienced without
any such cause, and is then a true neuralgia. When it arises from a bad tooth, the
pain is usually confined more or less to the neighborhood of the tooth ; but when it is
neuralgic it extends over the greater part or the whole of the jaw and face, and darts
about from one part to another. In true toothache there is also usually more or less
inflammation and swelling, while in the most agonizing neuralgia nothing. of the
kind may be seen.

The treatment must be regulated by circumstances. If the pain appears to be
kept up by an unsound tooth, it should by all means be extracted, unless the 'patient
be so exceedingly nervous and irritable that abortion is to be feared, in which case
the pain must be alleviated as well as it can be, though there is almost as much dan -
ger in leaving the tooth in such cases as in extracting it. A few leeches to the gums
will sometimes relieve, or a mustard poultice to the cheek, or a blister behind the eax.
The stomach or bowels being out of order may also keep up the irritation, and regu •.
lating them may materially assist in giving relief. Some persons are relieved bf
lotions of camphor, or laudanum, and others by washes of cayenne tea, or alum watei .
In the neuralgic form, when no particular tooth can be found in fault, the treatment
must be more general than local. The carbonate of iron pills, which can be pur-
chased at the druggists ready made, have frequently an excellent effect ; from two to
four may be taken at a dose, twice a day, the bowels being kept open, if necessary, by
a little tincture of rhubarb. If the pain comes at regular intervals, or intermits, it
may frequently be stopped by quinine. Ttvo of the ordinary quinine pills may be
taken every Jive hours, for two or three days. If the head feels oppressed by their
use, the dose must be lessened to one. M. Guillemead recommends the following to
be tried if other means fail, and I have known it to be of decided benefit. Take the
whites of two eggs, and two ounces of common black pepper, in powdei', and beat them
well together. Spread this on some tow or cotton, and lay it on the cheek. It may
be kept on till it causes considerable irritation, and sometimes may be used on both
sides.

Some females have been relieved by bathing the face in cold water, or keeping ice
in the mouth, and others by hot fomentations. It has also been recommended to fill
the mouth with cold water, and bathe the cheek with hot at the same time.

Occasionally an abscess, or gum-boil will form, and when there seems a tendency
to that it may be promoted, by keeping a roasted fig in between the cheek and gum,
over the part where the abscess points ; when full, it should be lanced, as the dis-
charge usually gives relief.

TEE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 875

This pain is however very obstinate sometimes, and defies all treatment, but is
seldom of such long duration when so severe.

DERANGEMENTS OF THE APPETITE.

The powerful sympathetic action of the womb on the stomach produces n">t only
nausea and vomiting, but various derangements of the appetite and taste also. All
of these require notice, and some need attention.

Anorexia. — This means a complete distaste, or even disgust, for food, sometimes of
particular articles only, and sometimes for those of every kind. It seldom lasts be-
yond the fourth month, but occasionally during the whole period. It is remarkable
how some females will be affected in this way, and how little they will eat, for several
months together. This however is scarcely ever of any consequence, for the system
does not seem to suffer in the slightest degree ; on the contrary, the mother will
remain quite stout, and the child be born fully developed, though the quantity of
food taken has apparently been scarcely sufficient to sustain life.

In many cases there is even a decided benefit from this state of things, particu-
larly in those who are of a too full habit.

As long as the loss of appetite is merely of a sympathetic or nervous character, it
is not necessary, nor advisable, to resort to any special treatment. But when it arises
from indigestion, or a foul stomach, it should be attended to. A mild emetic of
ipecac or warm mustard and water, may be given, or a dose of epsom salts. This
state will be recognized by a furred tongue, unpleasant breath, and uneasiness at the
2>it of the stomach ; while in the purely nervous anorexia nothing of the kind is
observed. Sometimes it may arise merely from debility of the stomach, and in that
case a few of the carbonate of iron pills will be of use. In general the patient is
benefited rather than injured by this voluntary fasting.

Boulimia. — This state is the reverse of the former, meaning a ravenous appetite.
Some females exhibit it in a most extraordinary degree, and will eat to excess of any-
thing that comes in their way. Many injure themselves in this manner, by causing
indigestion, flatulence, heartburn, vomiting, and even inflammation of the stomach.
It is of no use reasoning with them, for the appetite is so strong that they will eat let
them suffer ever so much.

All that can be done in such cases is, to drink freely of various nourishing liquids,
such as soup, broth, rice, milk, or chocolate ; and by eating jelly, arrow-root, and
eggs. These contain much nourishment in a small space, and satisfy the hunger
without overloading the stomach. The appetite may also be deadened considerably
by eating figs, dates, sugar, or chocolate ; and by drinking soda water.

Capricious Appetite. — Sometimes a female is found to have an inordinate desire
for some one particular article of diet, which she will eat to excess, but will not
touch anything else ; this is called malacia. Others will have a craving for some
article not proper for food ; this is called pica. They will devour chalk, cinders,
earth, wood, flies, spiders, charcoal, and various other things, sometimes of the most
disgusting kind, though ordinarily they may be quite fastidious m their diet. This
unnatural desire is also frequently seen in hysteria and chlorosis, and in several
uterine diseases.

It does not appear that a moderate indulgence of these unusual tastes is at all u>*
Wious, unless the article wished for be of a decidedly hurtful character. On thfe

876 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

contrary, it is reasonably conjectured, by many physiologists, that they arise from a
real want in the system of the very substances longed for. For instance, there may
not be in the mother's blood sufficient lime to form the bones of the child, and this
deficiency is intimated by her desire for chalk or plaster ; nature having no other
mode of making her wants known, or of causing them to be supplied. As a general
rule, so long as the indulgence is not obviously improper, it should be allowed to a
reasonable extent, both to gratify the patient and in answer to what are probably the
demands of nature.

It is seldom that interference is needed in these cases, except when there is danger
of the patient doing herself harm ; we may then try to alter the condition of the
stomach, and so change the taste. A gentle emetic will sometimes do this, or a
■saline purgative. If these fail use a few of the carbonate of iron pills, or some good
strong bitters, or teas, drunk freely, such as chamomile, boneset, or century.

This disease is more frequently called toater brash and sometimes heartburn. It
is characterized by the raising of a hot acrid fluid into the throat, causing a sensa-
tion of burning, from the stomach upward, even to the mouth. It is a very frequent
attendant upon many forms of dyspepsia, and is generally experienced more or less by
most pregnant females ; being caused either from improper diet or from mere sympa-
thetic derangement. If it arises only from errors of diet, a reform in that particular
is all that is needed; but if it is merely sympathetic, nothing can be done beyond palli-
ating it, to give temporary relief. For this purpose, the patient must take a spoonful
of lime water, in half a tumbler of milk, two or three times a day, or some carbonate of
soda, or magnesia, with a few drops of laudanum if there be any pain. In those
cases which resist such remedies a little of the compound iron mixture may be of
service, such as can be obtained at the druggists. A nourishing diet should also be
observed, and plenty of exercise should be taken in the open air.

DYSPHAGIA.

Difficulty of swallowing, which is meant by this term, is a more troublesome and
alarming affection, frequently attendant on pregnancy. There is, however, nothing
dangerous in it, except that it frightens the patient. Some will gasp and be unable
to swallow, or even speak, for a considerable time, and will think they have some-
thing in the throat. It is, however, entirely a nervous symptom, arising from uterine
irritation, and seldom lasts beyond the third or fourth month. A little cordial, wine,
or brandy, will frequently relieve it, or some spirits of camphor rubbed on the neck.
M. Colombat de l'lsere recommends the following ointment to be rubbed on the neck :
Extract of belladonna, forty-seven grains ; extract of stramonium, fifteen grains ;
white wax, one ounce ; oil of lemons, twelve drops. These must be warmed and well
rubbed together. A dash of cold water on the throat and chest will often succeed
better than anything else.

GASTRALGIA.

This is commonly termed cramp at the stomach, or nervous colic. It consists of
a severe kind of cramp, with dragging and cutting sensations in the stomach, as if
it were being tied in knots and cut to pieces. Sometimes the attack will only last

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 877

for a few minutes, and then totally pass away ; at other times it will remain for half
an hour or more, and cause the most intense suffering. The patient will be drawn
together, or doubled up, with her hands placed on her stomach, and will groan and
exhibit in her features the greatest agony ; sometimes even she will faint away
with it.

This affection may, like the other, be merely nervous, and then it is attended by
nothing but the pain. It may also arise from real inflammation of the stomach,
and then it is attended by fever, excessive soreness and tenderness of the stomach
when touched, and by a hot, dry mouth. In the nervous spasm the pain is fre-
quently relieved by pressure, but when inflammation exists the pressure increases it.

Some females always have these attacks whenever the stomach is empty, and they
pass away immediately anything is taken to eat or drink. "With others they are
often brought on by overloading the stomach, or by eating some improper articles.

To relieve the spasm, one of the best things is a teaspoonful of compound spirits
of lavender, taken without water. This nearly al ways gives relief in ten minutes at
most ; but if necessary a second spoonful may be taken in a quarter of an hour. A
little brandy, or peppermint, or curacoa cordial will also succeed in many instances,
or simply drinking freely of any hot tea, or swallowing half a teaspoonful of common
pepper. A mustard plaster put on hot over the stomach will scarcely ever fail, even
without anything being taken internally. M. Colombat gives the following recipe
as one which he has found efficacious, and it is certainly a pleasant one : Orange
and linden flower waters, each two ounces ; syrup of ether and of valerian, each one
ounce ; syrup of poppy heads, half an ounce. Of this mixture a teaspoonful may be
given every quarter of an hour till the pain abates.

To prevent the return of the attack, the patient must carefully avoid everything
that disagrees with the stomach, or creates wind, she must keep the bowels free, and
accustom herself to regular bathing or rubbing the body. If the stomach appear
weak, which is often the case, some boneset tea, or port wine and bark, or a few of
the carbonate of iron pills may be advantageous. If there be acid on the stomach,
use the means recommended for heartburn.

CONSTIPATION.

This is a very common trouble with pregnant females, and one that may lead to
many others. Very frequently it arises merely from the pressure of the expanded
uterus upon the large intestine, but it may also arise from a simple want of power,
the uterine action having apparently weakened the force of all the neighboring organs,
It is advisable to correct it as soon as possible, let it arise how it may, as it is verj
apt to cause various derangements of the stomach and intestines, and even inflam-
mation of the womb itself. As a general rule, not more than three days should
elapse without the bowels being moved, though some will remain a week or more
without any apparent inconvenience ; but there is always danger in such delay.

Many females do themselves much harm by taking what they call opening medi-
cines, the action of which is often more injurious than the constipation itself. All
drastic purgatives, such as aloes, gamboge, colocynth, and jalap, should be carefully
avoided, as they not only make the costiveness worse after their action is over, but
they also frequently produce inflammation, and even abortion, by the violent straining
they cause. The best medicines, when they are really needed, are manna, seidlitz

878 TEE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

powders, or castor oil. Enemas are better, however, as a general rnle, such as those
of thin starch, or molasses and water, to which may be added a little castor oil.
The grand aim should be, in all such cases, to stimulate the bowels to an increased
action without medicines, by a properly-regulated diet ! Salads may be eaten when
they do not cause derangement of the stomach, and ripe or stewed fruits, particularly
figs, dates, and prunes. Soups are also good, except they contain rice, or vermicelli,
or maccaroni. Bran bread should be eaten regularly, and not white. The only
meats should be veal or poultry. As a drink lemonade is excellent, with a little
cream of tartar, or tamarind tea, or barley-water sweetened with honey. With some
patients, a cup of coffee or a glass of beer will always relieve the bowels, especially if
a glass of water is also drunk after it. I have known persons neglect the bowels so
long that they have become completely impacted by the hard faeces, and could be
relieved only by instruments. It is very important to attend to this affection in
time, and to persevere with the means of permanent relief regularly.

DYSENTERY AND DIARRHOEA.

It is frequently the case that pregnant females, instead of being constipated are
afflicted with severe diarrhoea. This may arise from inflammation, and is then
attended by fever, and extreme tenderness and soreness of the bowels. Most usually,
however, it is entirely nervous, and arises from the sympathetic irritation of the
womb. There is then no tenderness or soreness, no fever, no derangements of the
appetite, nor in fact any other symptom of any consequence. If it remains long
unchecked blood will be discharged, from the extreme irritation of the intestines, and
it is then called dysentery. This is nearly always accompanied by fever and general
irritation. Sometimes there will be a constant and painful desire felt to move the
bowels, but with little power to do so, and at the same time a burning heat and un-
pleasant sensation at the fundus. This is called tenesmus, and the straining from it
has frequently produced abortion.

If the diarrhoea is not excessive, and the female does not lose her appetite, or
strength, it is better let alone, particularly if she be of a full habit, and disposed to
fever. If thought desirable to check it a little, this may usually be done by a change
in the diet. Eice milk, sago, tapioca, and arrow-root may be taken, white bread
may be used, and not much fluid drunk. If such means are insufficient, an injection
may be thrown up the rectum in the morning, of thin starch, with a teaspoonful of
laudanum. The abdomen may also be well fomented, and a dose of tincture of
rhubarb taken occasionally. If the tenesmus is very troublesome, an injection of
tepid water may be used, and the female should sit occasionally over the steam of hot
water ; in extremely painful cases, a few leeches may be used round the fundament,
and a hot flax-seed poultice placed over the abdomen. A warm bath is also an excel-
lent remedy with many. When the diarrhoea still continues, notwithstanding the
above remedies, resort should be had to tonics and opiates. The patient should take
port wine and Peruvian bark, or some gentian wine, and use injections of starch and
laudanum regularly. Chamomile tea may also be freely drunk, and an opium pill
may be taken at night. Above all, the patient must endeavor to avoid all mental
agitation. When dysentery sets in, every effort should be made to subdue it as early
as possible. Half a pint of rice milk, with ten or fifteen drops of laudanum, may be
taken two or three times a day, and an injection may also be used, night and morn-

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 879

ing, of flax-seed, with fifteen or twenty drops of laudanum. M. Colombat recom-
mends the following recipe as seldom failing to cure : Take the whites of six eggs and
beat them up in a quart of water ; then use one-third as a drink, and the rest as an
injection. A meat spoonful should be drunk every ten minutes, and an injection
used every two hours, but not more than one small syringeful at a time. A teaspoon-
ful of syrup of poppies, with some loaf-sugar, may also be added to every spoonful
that is drunk. Eggs, jellies, and rich soups, with meat and wine, if there be no
inflammation, may be taken regularly, in addition to the articles already mentioned.

DTSPNCEA, OR DIFFICULTY OF BREATHING.

There are but few pregnant females who do not complain more or less of difficulty
of breathing, and this difficulty may arise from different causes. In the earlier
months it is caused by sympathetic irritation only, the same as difficulty of swallow-
ing. In the latter months it is caused by the enlarged womb filling up the abdomen
so much that the lungs in the chest are pressed upon, and have not sufficient room to
play freely. It may also be caused by a plethoric or too full habit, the lungs then
being in reality congested.

The temporary difficulty of breathing, which is felt in the early months from
nervous sympathy, needs scarcely any kind of treatment, as it passes off naturally in
a short time. In severe attacks, the same remedies may be used as for difficulty of
swallowing, before referred to.

That which arises in the latter months, from pressure of the womb, can frequently
be relieved only by the patient remaining as long as possible in certain favorable
positions. I have known many who could never sleep except when propped nearly
upright by means of pillows and cushions, as, immediately they assumed the recum-
bent position, the upward pressure became so great they were nearly suffocated. Ln
such cases, the patient should be careful never to eat or drink to excess, nor take any-
thing likely to produce wind, because the least increase in the size of the abdomen
adds to the difficulty. The bowels should also be kept free, and nothing tight or
heavy in the way of clothing should be worn.

This difficulty is most frequently seen in those who have contracted chests, and
in those who have been accustomed to wear corsets and tight dresses. A deformed
pelvis may also give rise to it by forcing the womb above its usual position. Many
females both create and increase this difficulty by binding themselves tighter than
usual during pregnancy, under the mistaken idea that it enables them to support
their burden so much easier.

When the dyspnoea arises from a full habit the patient must live low, keep the
body regularly bathed and rubbed, and the bowels freely open by an occasional
seidlitz powder, or dose of Epsom salts. If the difficulty becomes at any time sud-
denly great and alarming, the feet should be placed immediately in hot water, while
the patient is upright ; a mustard plaster should also be put upon the chest, and an
opening injection of starch and castor oil administered as soon as possible. The
usual practice in such cases is to bleed from the arm, to the extent of eight or ten
ounces, and in case no other means give relief, this may be tried.

Like the previous affection cough is most usually produced during pregnancy by
sympathetic irritation. It may arise, however, from a partial congestion, or inflam-

880 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

mation of the lungs or bronchial tubes, produced by a too great determination oi
blood to them. In the merely nervous cough, there is no expectoration, nor any
soreness or pain in the chest, and it will frequently disappear for several days to-
gether. No particular attention need be bestowed upon this cough, unless it be-
come so violent as to threaten abortion. In that case a pill, containing half a grain of
opium, may be taken, or from ten to fifteen drops of laudanum, whenever the attack
is severe. Barley water, or gum-arabic water, may also be freely drunk, with a large
spoonful of syrup of poppies added to each pint. A small dose of hive syrup, or
paregoric, will also be found sometimes better than anything else. An enema of
starch and laudanum, as formerly described, will also relieve, in some cases, better
than anything taken by the mouth. The body should be kept warm, particularly
the feet, and a mustard poultice may be placed over the chest, if the straining at any
time becomes too great. Some patients experience relief from an assafoetida pill, or
a little musk, and others from a small dram of cordial, or wine.

If there be expectoration, with fever, and tenderness in the chest, or sharp pains
when a long breath is drawn, there is reason to fear inflammation of the lungs, or
bronchitis. In this case all the above means, except the wine and stimulants, may
also be used, only more freely, and the mustard poultice must be kept on till it makes
a blister. The patient must live low, her feet must be frequently bathed in hot
water, and her bowels regularly opened either with saline purgatives or enemas. All
that is requisite is to keep the inflammation from extending till after delivery, when
it usually subsides without any further trouble. As soon as the womb is emptied, its
pressure upon the abdominal aorta ceases, and the blood can then flow freely to the
lower extremities, and thus the lungs become relieved and the inflammation goes
down.

PALPITATION OF THE HBAET.

This is also a frequent accompaniment of pregnancy, and one that is likely to
cause alarm sometimes, from its violence. Unless dependent upon organic disease
of the heart, however, it is in general only a nervous affection, and passes away with
delivery. We may always reasonably suppose it to be nervous when it occurs only
during pregnancy, and particularly if it is irregular in its frequency and violence. I
have known females who were always attacked with it about the same period, and
who could therefore always tell when it was coming on, and sometimes even how
long it would last. It will sometimes come on during sleep, and so forcibly as to
waken the patient instantly. At other times while awake, it will commence so sud-
denly that she will sink down as if struck a powerful blow.

The only directions that can be given for alleviating palpitation are, to keep quiet
as possible, use the bath regularly, avoid constipatiou, and live rather low, particu-
larly if the patient be of a full habit. Exercise should also be taken regularly in the
open air, but not of a violent kind. She should also sleep with the head on a high
pillow, and never eat late suppers, nor take any food that disagrees with the stomach.

All kinds of stimulants, such as wine, coffee, and spices, should be abstained
from, and all powerful emotions carefully guarded against. During an attack a few
drops of laudanum or an opium pill may be taken, and the feet placed in hot water.
An assafoetida pill is sometimes good, or a little ether. Bleeding is generally prac-
ticed in extreme cases, but there is often considerable danger in it.

A too full habit may be the exciting cause of the palpitation, as may be seen by

TEE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 881

the patient being always liable on tbe slightest exertion to flushed face, dimness of
sight, ringing in the ears, swelling of the limbs, and puffiness of the gums, some-
times to such an extent that the mouth will taste of blood. Such persons should
carefully observe a moderate, unstimulating and simple diet, and never allow the
bowels to remain constipated more than a single day. They should also rub and
wash the skin well, and study calmness and quiet.

SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING.

In this condition, which is just the reverse of the former, the heart suspends its
action altogether ; the breathing ceases, all power of motion and feeling is lost, the
face turns ghastly pale, the eyes close, and tbe individual seems as if actually dead.
It seldom lasts, however, more than five minutes, when the pulse gradually begins to
beat, the color returns, and the individual slowly recovers. Some females are liable
to such attacks once a month, others once a week, others every few days, and some
at irregular periods. They are generally preceded by a dull pain at the pit of the
stomach, fullness in the head, yawning, and loss of sight, or ringing in the ears.

The causes that predispose to this fainting are not very well understood, though
there is no doubt but it is mainly dependent upon uterine disturbances. In some
females it is brought on by the sudden motions of the foetus, or by their remaining
too long in one posture. In others it is produced by straining from constipation, or
by sudden fright or anger. In very nervous persons it not unfrequently arises from
unpleasant sights, smells, and sounds. In fact it is caused in them much the same
as a common hysterical fit, such as is described in the article on hysteria. A full
habit, and over feeding, or drinking stimulating liquors may also bring it on, and
so on the contrary may a state of weakness and exhaustion.

This accident is more alarming than dangerous, except to the child, which may
lose its life if the fainting lasts too long.

To recover a person from one of these fainting fits, she should be laid upon her
back on a level place, and every part of her dress should be carefully loosed. Som3
strong odor should then be applied to the nostrils, such as hartshorn, vinegar, burnt
feathers, or smelling salts. The body should be well rubbed over the heart and
lungs, either with the hand or with a soft, dry napkin. Cold water may also be
dashed on the face, and the hands may be well chafed. If the fit still endures, a
mustard plaster may be placed on each arm, or the whole body may be placed in a
warm bath, if convenient. Care should also be taken to admit the fresh air freely,
As soon as she begins to show signs of consciousness, a little wine or brandy may be
placed in the mouth, and the body may be elevated a little.

To guard against such attacks, the same precautions as to diet and mode cf life
must be observed as were directed in the article on palpitation of the heart ; and, as
this accident is most frequent in those of a hysterical habit, they should carefully
follow the advice given in the article on Hysteria.

HEADACHE AND DIZZINESS IN THE HEAD.

Each of these distressing affections, both of which are very common during preg«
nancy, may arise either from nervous excitement or from a full habit and determina-
tion of blood to the head. Nervous headache is generally met with in the eailie?

882 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

months of pregnancy, and is characterized by being frequently periodical, and often
confined to particular spots. It also commences suddenly, from some excitement or
depression of mind, and leaves little or no distress when it is gone. The headache,
which arises from a too full habit, commences with flushing of the face, heaviness in
the eyes, dull pain in the forehead, and a sense of uneasiness, with disposition to
sleep or doze. It seldom comes on much till the latter months of gestation. Head-
ache may arise also accidentally from derangement of the stomach, but this cause is
easily ascertained by the furred tongue, loss of appetite, and bitter taste in the
mouth ; it is also felt most acutely in the back of the head, down by the neck, and
passes away immediately the stomach is corrected by an emetic, or by fasting.

Nervous headache during pregnancy often defies all our attempts to alleviate it,
though we sometimes succeed in doing so. The best general remedies are warm
baths, and, if the bowels are constipated, enemas of starch and castor oil daily. To
these may be added occasional small doses of laudanum, or an opium pill, or two
grains of campbor. Smelling odors, such as camphor, cologne, or hartshorn, will
relieve some, but will make others worse ; so that its utility can only be determined
by experience. When a severe attack comes on, the patient should put her feet in
warm water, or use a warm bath, take a few drops of laudanum, or a little musk, or
valerian, and then try to go to sleep. To guard against the attack, she must never
overload the stomach, nor take anything indigestible ; and never think too much,
nor allow herself to become excited or depressed.

When the trouble is caused by a too full habit, she must observe the directions
given in the articles on palpitation of the heart, and syncope. The diet must be
mild and not too nutritious, the bowels must be regularly moved every day, chiefly
by epsom salts and seidlitz powders, and regular gentle exercise must be taken in the
open air.

In the latter months it is especially important to attend to a severe headache im-
mediately, particularly when the pain is seated at the top of the head, because it is
very likely, if unchecked, to terminate in convulsions. The means above recom-
mended must be carefully and perseveringly applied ; the feet must be kept warm,
the bowels freely opened, and the head kept cool by wet cloths, or cold lotions, or
ice. It is the general practice in all such cases, if the pain does not abate soon, and
the pulse be full and quick, to bleed freely at the arm, and the most eminent physi-
cians of the allopathic school assure us, that the life of the patient frequently de-
pends upon its being done promptly. I have no doubt, however, but that relief can
be generally obtained by the simple means described, if they are used early and per-
severingly.

INSOMNIA, OR SLEEPLESSNESS. ' '

There are few affections that cause more real distress during pregnancy than this.
Many females will be utterly unable to sleep for many days and nights together, and
others can only obtain a few minutes broken and unrefreshing sleep at distant inter-
vals. There is danger, when this state becomes highly aggravated, that it may lead
to delirium, or that the want of rest may wear away the strength to such a degree,
that the patient will sink from mere exhaustion. There are some females, however,
who will remain without sleep, or at most take but very little, for a long time, with-
eut suffering any inconvenience.

This affection is essentially a nervous one, and the only means likely to relieve it

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 883

are those that have a tendency to soothe and calm the nerves. If the patient be sur-
rounded by any irritating circumstances they should be at once removed, or she her-
self removed from them. Particular attention must be paid to the diet, so that no
derangement of the stomach or bowels be kept up, and a regular system of out-door
exercise must be practiced. A warm bath just before going to bed, with a good rub-
bing of the skin, will frequently act like magic in procuring rest. As a general rule
narcotic drugs should not be used, but in extreme cases they may be resorted to spar-
ingly. A single opium pill, or a few drops of laudanum may be taken after the bath.
If the patient be thin and delicate, she should eat meat, eggs, and milk, and take a
little wine, if it causes no unpleasant symptoms. Indeed a glass of wine will fre-
quently act better than laudanum, and so will ale with some, and coffee with others.
If the patient be of a full habit these things will be improper, and may injure. She
should then be kept quiet, and fed sparingly. Music has a powerful effect in many
of these cases : — a slow, solemn air, played while the patient is reclining after her
bath, seldom fails in inducing sleep.

TEMPORARY AFFECTIONS OE THE SIGHT, HEARING, AND SMELL.

These disorders are quite common during pregnancy, particularly in the latter
months. Some females will be utterly unable to distinguish any odors, even the
most powerful ; others completely lose their taste, and others again become deaf or
blind. When they are caused only by the sympathetic action of the womb, such
deprivations are seldom of long duration, though they may recur at frequent inter-
vals. In some cases they remain a considerable time, and great fear is felt that they
may become permanent, but there is little danger of such a result. I knew a lady
who suddenly lost her sight when about two months gone, and who remained totally
blind till about three hours after her delivery, when her sight returned in a moment
as perfect as before. The same thing has frequently been observed of the other
senses. In some cases the vision will not be lost but perverted, and the patient will
then see everything double, or larger or smaller than natural, or always of a wrong
color. In like manner some will hear imaginary conversations, or will fancy every-
body is shouting, or perhaps only whispering, though they are all the time speaking
in their natural voices.

These perversions, when thus produced, need occasion no alarm, and seldom re-
quire attention, unless accompanied by other urgent symptoms. They may arise,
however, from a fullness of blood in the head, in which case they are accompanied
by a flushed face and drowsiness, and are preceded by bright sparks flashing before
the eyes, or by ringing in the ears.

The treatment of all these affections should be the same as that recommended
for most of the previous derangements, particularly for headache, syncope, and pal-
pitation of the heart. If there be nervous excitement merely, it must be calmed ire
the same way as recommended in the articles referred to, and also in the last one on
sleeplessness. If the female be of a full habit, and there is evidently a pressure of
blood on the brain, and nerves of the special senses, the same means should be
adopted to reduce the system, and draw the blood to the extremities, that have
already been described.

In such cases these sudden deprivations of sight and hearing sometimes indicate
the commencement of convulsions, or apoplexy, particularly if they occur during

884 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

iabor, when every means should be resorted to instantly to relieve the pressure on
the brain. If no simpler means succeed in a reasonable time, it is the general cus-
tom to bleed freely from the arm, and there is no question but this frequently re-
moves the difficulty at once, whatever objections may be made to the practice. It is
also proper to say that many eminent practitioners, who are not advocates of the
lancet in general, strenuously urge that it should be used immediately if the sight
or hearing suddenly disappear in this way, at any time. And I certainly have myself
known these accidents sometimes followed by a fit of apoplexy, or convulsions, and
even death. Such was the case with a friend of one of my patients. She found one
day, quite suddenly, that she could only see half of anything she looked at, and at
times it even disappeared altogether. Nothing was done for her, and in about five
hours after the first attack she fell speechless, and died before they could lift her upon
the bed. It will therefore be a necessary precaution, in all pregnant females of a
full habit, to attend rigidly to the advice that has been given, because simple means,
used in time, and regularly, may prevent the necessity of stronger ones altogether.
In purely nervous cases of this kind, no apprehension whatever need be felt, and no
such practice as bleeding is required.

DISOEDEEED JUDGMENT, INCLINATIONS, AND PEOPENSITIES.

The sympathetic irritation of the uterus, in some females, produces extraordinary
phenomena of this kind, from simple desire to the most furious craving, and from
mere caprice to actual insanity. There is no doubt but that many of these unusual
desires, or longings as they are called, are either produced or much aggravated by
the imagination of the patient, and frequently would never be experienced at all, il!
the idea was not suggested by other people having had the same. Custom and imi-
tation are very powerful in such cases, particularly when the nervous sensibility is
much exalted. Still the most singular aberrations of this kind will often arise with-
out any such adventitious aid, and the fact should be borne in mind, so that these
temporary vagaries may be regarded with proper charity and forbearance.

Some females will entirely change in their dispositions at these times, the most
amiable and mild becoming positively ill-natured and malicious ; the gentle will turn
headstrong ; the haughty and proud will become humble, and the gay will become
melancholy, or the sad will madly seek every kind of gayety. Such things, however,
should never be remembered, nor be brought up against them afterwards, for truly at
such times they knoio not what they do !

Women have been known while in this state to become thievish, or to have an
irresistible propensity to burn or kill. Some have even been known to exhibit great
talent for music or poetry, though ordinarily without any capacity for such things.
Some will suddenly exhibit a most extraordinary intellect, while others will become
quite silly. A medical writer tells us an instance of one female who always had an
excellent sound judgment while pregnant, but no memory, while in her ordinary state
she had a poor judgment, but a most extraordinary good memory. The celebrated
Baudelocque gives an account of another who could scarcely eat anything but what
she stole while going to market, and another writer mentions a lady who longed till
she was almost delirious to bite a piece out of a baker's shoulder, who worked oppo-
site her window. There is even an account of one who longed to eat some of her
husband, whom she dearly loved, and who actually killed him to satisfy her appetite,

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 885

and then salted pieces of the body to keep for future use. A writer named Vives
also tells us of a female whose husband paid a large sum of money for her to be
allowed to bite a young man's neck, it being evident that she would be nearly certain
to miscarry unless so gratified. In the year 1816, at Mons, in France, an unfortu-
nate woman in this condition was seized with an irresistible impulse to destroy her
children, and actually drowned three of them, and herself afterwards. She had
previously sent a poisoned cake also to one at school, but fortunately it was not eaten.
Generally speaking, all these things pass away with delivery, if not before, unless
it be actual insanity, which sometimes remains. All that can be done is to attend
strictly to the general health, keep the skin, bowels, and stomach in good action, and
remove all depressing or irritating circumstances. If there be a propensity to any-
thing decidedly injurious or dangerous, the patient must be strictly watched, but
without its being perceived or known by her, for fear of exciting suspicion in those
who would be disposed to be cunningly secret or revengeful. Proper diet, regular
bathing, and out-door exercise often correct many of these things.

HAEMOPTYSIS, H^MATEMESIS AND EPISTAXIS.

These three terms mean spitting of blood, vomiting of blood, and bleeding from
,fhe nose, all of which frequently occur during pregnancy.

Spitting of blood is most usually observed in nervous women, and in those of a
full habit. It' is caused partly by sympathetic irritation, and partly by the womb
pressing upwards against the diaphragm and lessening the size of the chest, which
deranges the circulation in the lungs, and causes rupture of their blood-vessels.
The premonitory symptoms are pains round the waist, cold extremities, creeping of
the skin, and a sensation of anxiety or depression round the heart. The attack
begins by difficulty of breathing, heat in the chest, and dry cough, followed by spit-
ting up more or less bloody frothy mucus ; all which symptoms are much increased
by violent exercise, or a hot atmosphere. In ordinary cases, a mere spitting of blood
need occasion no great alarm, unless attended by symptoms of inflammation, or
unless the patient has had cough, and other indications of pulmonary derangement
before conception.

In hsematemesis the blood is vomited from the stomach, and is in black "lots,
frequently mixed with the food, or bile, while that which comes from the lungs in
spitting, on the contrary, is bright red, and quite fresh. In vomiting of blood also,
there is seldom any cough or exertion of any kind.

The treatment of spitting of blood must be nearly the same as for many other
derangements already described. When there is a full habit, the patient must live
low, keep the bowels free, and the skin in good order, and avoid all agitation of
mind or over-exertion of body. An opium pill occasionally will be useful, or a few
Irops of laudanum. The cough must be combated in the way recommended in my
previous article on cough. Lemonade or tamarind tea, with some syrup of poppies
added, may be freely drunk, or some of the black-currant root tea. The treatment
of haematemesis is precisely the same. Occasionally, however, the blood will pass
into the intestines and occasion colic, and then it must be removed by administering
an enema of starch and castor oil, or a little manna may be taken.

Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose, is much more frequent than either of the
preceding, but is seldom of much consequence. In many cases, in fact, it is highly

886 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

beneficial, as it relieves the head from pressure, and thus obviates many inconven-
iences. If it continues too long, or becomes excessive, it may generally be arrested
by putting cold wet cloths between the eyes, and on the cheeks, while the head is
kept elevated. The feet and hands should be kept warm, and the air breathed should
be as cold as possible. In extreme cases, the nostrils may be plugged with bits of
sponge, or cotton, or some powdered alum may be snuffed up them. The best plan
is to raise the hands above the head, and put something very cold, as a lump of ice
for instance, or a piece of cold iron, between the shoulders ; this seldom fails.

Pressing the upper lip firmly down upon the gum just below the nose with the
finger, if continued, will stop bleeding at the nose in most cases.

VARICOSE VEIN'S.

Very often in pregnant women the veins in different parts, but particularly of the
thighs and legs, will swell out in knots, either singly or in bunches, sometimes like
strings of beads, or like the links of a chain. These are called varices, and occa-
sionally they attain a large size, and extend to various other portions of the body,
as the external lips, vagina, and mouth of the womb. Some women, in fact, have
them over nearly the whole body. They are caused by the pressure of the womb on
the large abdominal veins preventing the return of the blood, and disturbing the
balance of circulation between the veins and arteries. In the majority of cases,
unless very large, they cause but little inconvenience, and may be. let alone, but
sometimes they cause pain, or become so full that there is danger of their bursting,
and then it is necessary to interfere.

The first thing to be done is to relieve the abdominal ' veins from the pressure of
the womb, and this may be done by the patient keeping more or less the horizontal
position, and carefully avoiding all violent exertion. The swelling is always worse
during the latter part of the day, particularly if the woman has been much on her
feet, she should therefore apply a cloth roller round the limbs before she rises in the
morning. If this be carefully put on, just tight enough not to interfere with the
moti on of the limbs nor totally obstruct the circulation, it will prevent the varices to a
great extent, if not altogether. Brisk friction with the hand will disperse the swell-
ing in many persons, or warm fomentation, but sometimes cold bathing answers bet-
ter. It is advisable always to disperse them as soon as possible, for if they remain
too long that part of the vein becomes permanently weakened by being overstretched,
and will be always liable to swell again from any slight cause. It is particularly
advisable in these cases to avoid constipation, and also to keep the skin in good
action by bathing and frictions.

If at any time one of these varices should burst, it need occasion no alarm, unless
it be seated on a large vein, and the bleeding becomes profuse. To stop it, bind on
firmly over the rent any firm cold body, as a flat stone, or a large silver coin, pass-
ing the bandage several times round. In slight cases a simple cold compress will be
sufficient, or a little powdered alum, or some vinegar and water — in short, any of
the usual remedies for stopping bleeding from wounds. The female must be quite
still till it is stopped, and must be careful when she begins to move about again,
because it is liable to break out afresh. Those of a very full habit must live low,
and avoid all stimulants, so as not to increase the quantity of blood in the body
more than is necessary. It is advisable to remove the varices, as much as possible,

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY. 887

before labor comes on, particularly if they are situated on the lips, or in the vagina,
because they may burst during delivery and cause considerable inconvenience, or
even danger. It is rare that these swellings continue after delivery, but if they
should do so, the same treatment must be persisted in as before.

"HEMORRHOIDS, OR PILES.

These are troublesome annoyances at any time, but particularly during pregnancy,
and unfortunately they are very common at that time. They are, no doubt, chiefly
caused in the same way as varicose veins, that is by the enlarged womb preventing
the proper flow of blood in the small veins, and so causing them to swell, and form
tumors. They may in fact be called varices, as truly so as those on the limbs. In
many persons, however, they are frequently brought on merely by constipation,
which will undoubtedly either cause them, or make them much worse when otherwise
produced. In general they become worse as the pregnancy advances, because the
womb becomes larger and the bowels are more apt to be confined.

As long as they only cause inconvenience, without any particular distress or
urgent symptom, they may be let alone, or be slightly treated in the way of pallia-
tion, till after delivery, when they will disappear. Occasionally however, they grow
to a large size, so as to hinder the passage of the bowels, and prevent the patient from
sitting down or walking. They may then cause inflammation, and bring on falling
of the intestine, or abortion, by the straining which they necessitate when the bowels
are moved. And even if these extreme results do not follow, there may be serious
derangements of the general health, indicated by difficulty of breathing, sleepless-
ness, headache, and fever. In short, there are few of the derangements incident to
pregnancy so annoying as this, and unfortunately, from its nature, the sufferer dislikes
to speak of it and seek the necessary assistance. Many prefer undergoing the most
excruciating agony for months, rather than complain, which shows the necessity for
females knowing how to treat themselves, when possible.

The bleeding which sometimes takes place from piles is more often beneficial than
otherwise, unless it becomes excessive, from rupture of a large vessel, in which case,
if the wound is external, it may be treated the same as the ruptured varicose vein ; if
it be internal, the remedies must be injected with a syringe, or a large roll of lint or
cotton may be soaked in alum water and passed up the rectum. Frequently bathing
the thighs and perineum with cold water will be sufficient.

To relieve the pain and swelling, the female should sit over the steam of hot
water, and use the warm bath. If the piles are external, they should he bathed with
hot milk and laudanum, or rubbed with any soothing ointment, particularly the
cucumber ointment, mentioned in a former article, or with stramonium ointment.
If they are internal, the milk and laudanum should be injected if possible, or some
thin starch and laudanum, and a stiff roll of cloth may be smeared with the
ointment and introduced. In general, ointments or other greasy matters are not so
good as the milk or starch. In conjunction with this, the bowels must be kept free,
either with enemas or castor oil, or by using a seidlitz powder in the morning. This
is indispensable, for if constipation exists, no applications can render much service.
The patient must also avoid fatigue, and not remain too long upon her feet, nor sit
long, particularly on a hard seat, and if she be of a full habit she must live low, to
avoid making too much blood. It is also important, at all times, to avoid using dras-

688 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

tie purgatives, such as aloes, colocynth, or gamboge, as they always make piles
much worse, or even cause them.

(EDEMA, OB WATEET SWELLINGS.

This affection also appears, like the preceding, to arise from obstructed circula-
tion, but instead of the blood accumulating, it is merely the serum, or watery portion
of it. The swellings are generally whitish, aud spread about, and a small pit
remains in them when pressed with the finger. They are found on various parts of
the lower limbs, and on the groin or abdomen, and also upon the external lips, in
which place they are often exceedingly troublesome. As a general rale, these swell-
ings are of small account, and as they disappear with delivery, but little attention
need be bestowed upon them. Sometimes, however, they become very extensive, and
so engorged that they inflame and are extremely painful. They have even been
known to mortify, and cause considerable sloughing, particularly when chafed and
afterwards wet with the urine. In these extreme cases there may be serious disturb-
ance of the general health, from the constant irritation, and from the patient being
unable to walk about. I have often known the limbs and vulva covered with patches
of erysipelas from this cause. Sometimes the swellings even become so large that
they interfere with the process of delivery.

The treatment of this affection consists in rest, particularly lying do^ a, saline pur-
gatives, regular and frequent washing the parts with cold milk and laudanum, or
with a solution of borax, half an ounce to a pint of water, to be used cold and with
a teaspoonful of laudanum added to it. Simple cold water is frequently quite suffi-
cient. In general all kinds of ointments are injurious, but if other means fail to give
relief, the cucumber ointment may be tried. The wash should always be used after
urinating, and the parts must not be rubbed, but lightly dried with a piece of soft
linen. Fullers' earth is often an excellent application when there is chafing.

If the patient be of full habit, she must carefully diet herself, and bathe regularly.
If she be thin and weak, a generous diet will be advisable, with meat and even a
little wine.

HYDROBRHCEA, OR PROFUSE DISCHARGE OF WATER.

This consists in a discharge of water, more or less profuse, from the vagina, at
various periods during pregnancy. Some females will only discharge a small quan-
tity, at intervals, others will have a constant dropping, and others again will pour
out an immense quantity, sometimes several pints, or even quarts, in the course of a
few days. In general this water is quite limpid and colorless, but sometimes it con-
tains much mucus, and at other times it is tinged with blood. It does not appear
that this discharge leads to any evil result, even when excessive, and I only refer to
it to relieve anxiety. The origin of this water is not yet ascertained, but it is gener-
ally thought to be secreted between the membranes and the womb, and to be quite
distinct from the liquor amnii.

PUSTULES, AND MUCOUS DISCHARGES.

Occasionally the external lips will be covered with pustules during pregnancy, and
frequent discharges of mucus will occur from the vagina. They are both however

THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANGY 889

caused by the unusual action of the uterine system, and merely require frequent
bathing of the parts with milk and laudanum, and regular action of the bowels. The
most important thing to remark in connection with them is that they have often been
mistaken, even by medical men, for the effects of syphilitic disease, and much dis-
tress has resulted from such mistakes.

DERANGEMENTS OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

Several derangements of the urinary organs are liable to occur during pregnancy,
partly from sympathetic irritation, and partly from mere pressure. Some of these
may be partially relieved, others have to be borne as patiently as they can be till de-
livery removes them.

The swollen womb often presses on the neck of the bladder, and hinders the pas-
sage of the urine, or even obstructs it sometimes altogether, and thus causes strain-
ing, burning heat, and great distension of the bladder. In some instances this passes
off as the pregnancy advances, owing to the womb rising higher in the abdomen, but
in other cases it remains more or less, during the whole term. It is particularly im-
portant, in such cases, that the female should not let the difficulty remain too long
unremedied, for if the bladder be very full, it may become utterly impossible to
empty it by natural effort. Sometimes the difficulty is much lessened by lying on
the back a short time before attempting to urinate, or by raising up the abdomen
with the hand at the time. Many females can urinate with tolerable comfort while
lying on the back or abdomen, and others are much relieved by constantly wearing a
bandage. Constipation always makes this difficulty worse, and sometimes even
causes it, by keeping the rectum full, and thus increasing the pressure. In all such
cases, it will be readily seen that forcing medicines are not only useless, but liable to
cause injury. The change of position, rest, and supporting the abdomen are the
raeans to be relied upon. If these fail, and the urine accumulates, the catheter
must be used. A warm bath, or fomentation with warm water and laudanum, will
assist, and sometimes relieve alone. To ease the burning and distress, the patient
must drink freely of gum water, or barley tea, with a little syrup of poppies.

There is one manoeuvre which, if practiced aright, will nearly always allow the
female to urinate with ease, and fortunately she can practice it herself. It consists
in introducing two of the fingers into the vagina, and raising up the womb, as if
practicing the lallotment. This removes the pressure from the bladder, and the
urine then escapes by natural effort. A few trials will soon enable any one to do
this, particularly if they notice well the form and position of the parts, as shown in
the plates of this work. A lady who heard me mention this in one of my lectures,
afterwards stated that the knowledge of it enabled her to dispense altogether with the
catheter, which she was previously necessitated to use during most of her pregnancy.

When there is merely a nervous irritation causing the difficulty, the warm bath,
or fomentation with warm water and laudanum will be sufficient, or a little bella-
donna ointment may be rubbed over the meatus urinarius, while some starch or lau-
danum, is injected carefully into the vagina.

These arise from the womb pressing on the nerves of the sacrum, and are there-
fore not under, the control of medicine. All that can be done is to change the posi-

890 THE DISEASES OF WOMEN DURING PREGNANCY.

tion of the body as much as possible, from lying down to standing up, and by turn-
ing from one side to another. Brisk rubbing with the hand will also assist in giving
relief. The cramps, however, usually disappear after delivery, and must, therefore,
be borne as patiently as possible till that takes place.

PRURITUS, OR ITCHING OP THE EXTERNAL PARTS.

This troublesome affection has already been fully treated upon in a former article,;
which may be referred to.

OHAPTEE LXXX.

IDIOPATHIC OK PBIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PBEGNAJJOTo

Flooding or Hemorrhage.

Flooding is one of the most dangerous accidents that occur during pregnancy,
its consequences being often of the most serious character. The causes that lead to
flooding are very numerous, some of them predisposing to it, and others immedi-
ately exciting it. Among these may be mentioned a too full habit, violent exertion,
falls, coughing, vomiting, straining from costiveness or violent purgatives, forcing
medicines, criminal attempts at abortion, overwalking, blows on the abdomen, too
much dancing or running up stairs, strong mental emotions, fright, or anger, and
certain excesses. The immediate cause is the separation of the membrane in which
the foetus is inclosed from the walls of the womb. Flooding may, however, result
from the placenta growing over the mouth of the womb, and being torn as that
opens — usually about the sixth or seventh month. (See the article Flooding during
Labor. )

In most cases, flooding is preceded by dull pain in the loins and groins, and a sen-
sation of weight and dragging. Similar sensations, however, are often produced by
other causes, which makes it difficult to predicate, with any degree of certainty,
whether the patient is about to flood or not. The very first appearance of blood
from the vagina must therefore be watched for carefully, as that removes all doubt,
and warns us to be prompt with the proper remedies. Sometimes a female will
flood internally, the blood being retained by the passage being closed or plugged up
by clots, or by its passing behind the membranes, or under the center of the placenta.
These internal or concealed hemorrhages are very dangerous, as the patient may
lose much blood before her condition is suspected. It is therefore necessary to bear
this in mind, and carefully use every means to ascertain whether such an accident
has occurred or not. In general the indications are pretty plain, the patient suf-
fering from deep-seated and distressing pains in the back and groins, with great
weakness in the limbs, faintness, weak pulse, dimness of sight, ringing in the ears,
coldness of the hands and feet, swelling of the abdomen, and finally fainting, par-
ticularly if the retained blood suddenly escapes, which it usually does.

In the early months there is more danger to the child from flooding than there is
to the mother, because it is nearly certain to lead to abortion. In the latter months,
on the contrary, the mother runs the greatest risk, as the child may then live if it be
expelled, while the mother may sink and die from excessive loss of blood. There are
many females of a very full habit, who suffer but little from hemorrhage, unless it
be excessive ; indeed some seem to be benefited by it, and are thus relieved from
headache and convulsions. It should, however, be carefully watched, and its effects
duly noted.

891

892 IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY.

The treatment of flooding must depend materially upon its severity, and the
time when it occurs. In the early months, when the discharge is slight, and when
it causes little distress, simple means will answer. The patient must lie on her back,
on a hair mattress, with the pelvis raised, by means of a pillow, higher than the rest
of the body. The air must be kept fresh and cool around her ; she must keep her-
self quiet in body and mind, live rather low, and drink freely of cooling drinks, such
as soda water, lemonade, tamarind tea, or ice water.

If the flooding does not stop with these simple means, external applications must
be made of cold, wet cloths, or even ice, over the abdomen, and inside the thighs.
Finally, if further treatment is still needed, cold astringent injections may be care-
fully thrown into the vagina. Cold water is perhaps as good as anything for this
purpose, and I have frequently known a most severe flooding checked immediately by
injecting cold water into the vagina and rectum, and applying cold wet cloths over
the abdomen, and inside the thighs. Some astringent drink may also assist, such as
a little syrup of comfrey, or extract of rhatany, and particularly a tea made of the
root of the black currant, as recommended before. If the patient be nervous and
irritable, or suffer much from pain, an opium pill may be taken, or from ten to
twenty drops of laudanum.

The general practice in these cases is to bleed freely and give opium ! And as this
practice certainly does succeed in many extreme cases, I should certainly recommend,
if the simpler means fail, to resort to it at once. I dislike bleeding very much in any
case, and here it seems particularly inappropriate ; I should therefore say try almost
anything and everything first, but never obstinately refuse to resort to it if nothing
else succeeds.

In some cases a plug or tampon is used to fill up the vagina. It may be made of
a roll of cloth, cotton, or a piece of sponge. This practice, however, is useless in
the latter months of pregnancy, and very often fails even at other times. When it
succeeds it causes the blood to coagulate, and thus closes up the mouths of the
vessels. Quite as often, however, it only keeps it in, and makes it accumulate in the
womb till it all rushes away at once ; still it may be tried.

If the hemorrhages should occur so frequently, or be so excessive, in spite of all
treatment, as to endanger the safety of the patient, there is no other resource left to
save her life but to produce abortion, because the presence of the fcetus and its append-
ages is evidently then the irritating cause which keeps up the discharge, and it
cannot be expected to stop till the womb is emptied.

ABORTION, OR MISCARRIAGE.

When the fcetus is prematurely expelled before it can survive, it is called an abor-
tion, but if its expulsion takes place so late that it can live, it is called miscarriage.
Both these are serious accidents. In abortion the child is lost, as a matter of course,
but in miscarriage it may live, after the seventh month. The danger to the mother
is considerable from both, though greatest probably from abortion. It is probable
that many "^ery early miscarriages take place unperceived, the female suffering but
little from che accident, and the embryo being too small to be seen, unless carefully
looked for.

The most frequent periods for such accidents are found to be six months, five
months, and three months ; and what is very singular, a much greater number

IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY. 893

of male children are aborted than females, the proportion being about sixteen to
eleven.

These accidents are so intimately connected with flooding, that many wi iters
always treat of them together, considering the flooding merely as the most frequent
cause and symptom of miscarriage or abortion. In speaking therefore of the imme-
diate causes of premature expulsion of the foetus, we place hemorrhage first, and the
causes before enumerated, which produce that, as being its most frequent remote ones-

A full habit, with tendency to local congestion, seems to predispose a female very
much to miscarriage. Every one so constituted should carefully avoid luxurious
living and an inactive life. Violent bodily exertion, falls, or blows, or strong mental
excitement are most usually the immediate causes, though with some it will come on
spontaneously without any such exciting agencies. Some females will miscarry many
times in succession, and always so near the same period, that they can tell to a day
or two when it will happen. It seems to become a habit of the womb, with them, to
contract at that particular time, and the only way to break through the habit
is for them to avoid becoming pregnant for some considerable time, say two or
three years after ; they may then go the full time, but will seldom do so if they
conceive immediately after having miscarried. In some persons miscarriage is caused
by a too eager gratification of certain desires, but in others it may arise from the oppo-
site cause.

There is a disease of the womb also by no means unfrequent, though but little
understood, which undoubtedly causes much miscarriage, and that is rheumatism of
the womb I This mostly exists before the pregnancy, however, and should be then
attended to.

Miscarriage also arises in many females from a rigid state of the muscular fibers
of the womb, which not relaxing sufficiently to allow that organ to expand, become
irritated by the pressure they experience, and begin to contract. This contraction
of the womb of course soon leads to the expulsion of its contents, the same as in real
labor. Women with their first children are more liable to miscarriage than others
on this account, the womb not having become habituated, as it were, to the necessary
relaxation.

And this is the reason also why some females, after suffering from this accident
many times in succession, at last escape it. In general, they miscarry early the first
time, from the womb not relaxing sufficiently, but go a little longer the next time,
and longer still the next, and so on, till they reach the full period. The fibers of
the womb have gradually become accustomed to relax, and have borne the irritation
longer and longer each pregnancy, till at last they have forborne to contract till the
proper time. I knew one female who miscarried twenty-one times in succession,
getting gradually nearer to the full period each time, till at last she reached nine
months, and was rewarded with a living child.

Sometimes the accident may be produced by a uterine tumor, by a great quantity
of water in the womb, or even by there being more than one child, because in either
of these cases there is required more room than ordinary ; and of course from the
greater expansion required, the liability is increased. Various womb diseases may
also be mentioned as causes, such as adhesions of its body, or ligaments, to the walls
of the abdomen, and also a diseased state of the placenta. The pressure of corsets and
tight dresses also not unfrequently leads to the same result. Some general diseases
undoubtedly often cause miscarriage, such as measles, jaundice, scarlet fever, con-

894 IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY.

sumption, and probably many others, particularly those in which the quality of the
blood is much altered, or the nervous power much exalted or depressed. Convulsions
have already been mentioned as being frequent causes of miscarriage, and all strong
mental or moral impressions. Indeed, these last causes operate more than is sus-
pected, and make it necessary for a pregnant female to be kept as calm in her mind
as it is possible for her to be. I have even known one to miscarry from a fright in a
dream.

It is also a fact, though not generally known, that there are certain diseases of
the father that may produce miscarriage, and unfortunately they are of that kind
that often remain for a long time in the system without much external manifestation,
so that many persons think they are perfectly free from them even while they are
working great mischief.

The death of the child also is sure to produce miscarriage, and this may result
from various causes, such as external injuries and violence, or from remaining too
long in the warm bath, and thereby causing congestion of blood in the womb. Small-
pox and syphilis in the mother may also cause the death of the child, though not
always, many having been born at full term with these diseases upon them.

In general the foetus is expelled very soon after it dies, but occasionally it is re-
tained for a considerable time, and may not pass away till it is completely decayed.
It has even been known to become almost fluid, and several months elapse before it
was entirely expelled. Most women know when it dies, by its seeming to fall down
to the bottom of the abdomen, like a dull weight, and also by its feeling very cold.
Very often, however, there is no indication of its death whatever. M. Chailly men-
tions a case where the embryo died, probably when about fifteen days old, but the
placenta continued to grow, and the lady was delivered, when about six months and
a half gone, of the dead embryo, only about a quarter of an inch in length, though
the after-birth was nearly large enough for one of the usual size. In this case it had
died but not decayed, and remained in the womb six months and a half. In cases
of twins also, one will sometimes die at an early period, but remain till the other is
born at full term.

Tb? groioth of the placenta over the mouth of the womb, and shortness of the
cord, have already been referred to as causes both of flooding and miscarriage ; and
to these may be added monstrous or deformed foetuses, which rarely reach the full
term.

It is probable that there are many constitutional and individual peculiarities pre-
disposing to miscarriage, with which we are not much acquainted, and which may
account for the constant occurrence of that accident' in many females, notwithstand-
ing all we can do. A scrofulous taint is with good reason supposed to be one of
these, and it is probable that the disease of the placenta, and its consequent separa-
tion from the womb, before referred to, is mostly caused by a taint of this kind. In
many instances where a female has miscarried from no apparent cause, if the pla-
centa be carefully examined it will be found dotted here and there with diseased
spots, sometimes like scrofulous sores ! It is advisable always to ascertain this, and
to carefully examine the foetus and its appendages. In all cases the advice I gave, to
keep from being pregnant for some tim.e, will be found most likely to succeed in
averting the accident, both because it gives the womb time to regain its strength and
break through its habit, and also because it gives us time to operate upon the con-
stitutional taint, if there be reason to suppose it exists.

IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY. 895

It is a curious fact, but one often observed, tbat even living in certain localities
predisposes to miscarriage. There is a certain district in France where the females
are so liable to it, that all who can do so leave the place when they become pregnant,
and thus escape the greater risk. Miscarriage also becomes epidemic at certain times,
and prevails like contagious diseases ; several instances of which are recorded in history.

Bleeding is also supposed to be a cause of abortion, and probably it may lead to
it in certain states of the system, but by no means so certainly as many suppose.
Instances have been known of pregnant females being bled from ten to twenty times,
without any evil result, even though carried so far as to make them faint. Mauri-
ceau tells us of one who was bled ninety times, and yet was delivered of a healthy
living child at full term. In like manner many other ordinary causes of abortion
will often fail entirely of their usual effects. Thus Mauriceau informs us that a
female seven months gone fell upon the hard pavement from a third story window
and broke her arm, but yet did not miscarry. Madame Lachapelle also tells us of a
young pregnant woman who threw herself down stairs purposely, from fear that she
should have to submit to the Cesarean operation, she having a deformed pelvis. The
fall caused her death soon after, but did not make her miscarry. Certain powerful
medicines are also taken by some, a very small quantity of which, in most cases, pro-
duces abortion immediately, but without effecting what they desire, though it some-
times poisons themselves.

Indeed the power which the womb sometimes exhibits to retain its contents, in
spite of the most violent disturbing agencies, is truly astonishing. Cases have been
known even where the womb itself has been severely wounded, and yet miscarriage
did not take place ; as in the case of a poor country-woman whom I heard of, who
accidentally fell upon a sharp wooden stake, and ran it far into the body, injuring
the womb in a terrible manner, but strange to say, though far advanced in preg-
nancy, she recovered and went safely through her full time. I have often known
women begin to flood and suffer from dreadful pain, with other common symptoms
of abortion, as early as the second month, and yet they went safely the full time,
though these signs continued the whole time. In some cases the waters have even
been partially discharged, and yet abortion did not result. M. Velpeau tells us of
an instance where the bag of waters broke, in a female six months gone, and one arm
of the child even came down into the vagina, and yet the arm returned, the discharge
ceased, and she went her full term.

The progress of a miscarriage varies according to the time at which it occurs, and
the causes from which it arises. When it results from any violence, or accident, it
usually takes place in a short time, and is preceded by abundant flooding, which
comes on immediately. The discharge of blood, however, is less the nearer we
approach the full term, so that a female six months gone is not in nearly so much
danger from flooding as one only two or three months gone. The reason is this : in
the early months nearly the whole of the foetal membranes are attached to the womb,
so that, in case of their being separated, it bleeds from nearly all its internal surface,
but in the latter months the only point of attachment is the placenta. In the latter
months also the womb contracts vigorously, and so closes its vessels, but in the early
months its contractions are comparatively feeble. In those cases also, where the
child has been dead a considerable time before its expulsion, there is seldom much
flooding, the connection between it and the mother having been more or less destroyed
by decay of the parts. The same result mostly follows a miscarriage from internal

896 IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY.

disease, particularly of the placenta. Indeed, in some of these cases, the blood-vessels
connecting the foetus with the mother have been so completely destroyed, that no
blood whatever could escape from them.

In regard to the probable consequences of premature delivery, it has already been
remarked that it is more dangerous in the early months than the latter. It may also
be added that it is much more dangerous, at any time, when caused by violence of,
any kind, or by forcing medicines, than when it occurs naturally. The danger is
much increased if it occurs during fever, or any eruptive disease, or if the patient be
suffering from diarrhoea or convulsions. As a general rule we may say, in all cases,
that miscarriage or abortion is always more dangerous to mother and child that
natural labor, both in its present and in its future consequences. During an attack
of jaundice an abortion may terminate fatally in a few hours ; and very frequently
the trouble with the after-treatment is very great and long-continued.

The treatment in an accident of this kind must vary according as we are required
to prevent it, or to remedy the evils that follow when it has occurred.

If an abortion be threatened from any cause, the same general practice must be
adopted as recommended for flooding, the indications being the same. I believe
myself that in most cases, except from accidental violence or internal disease, misv
carriage may be averted. I knew a lady who had miscarried many times, always at
the same period, who avoided it at last by simply preventing constipation from the
first commencement of pregnancy, and by using an enema every evening of warm
starch and water, pretty thick, with about thirty drops of laudanum. This was ad-
ministered by means of a common injection pipe, just before going to bed, and con-
tinued till after she had quickened, and repeated occasionally after that, if she fell.
any premonitory symptoms of uterine disturbance. If the patient be of a full habit,
she should also, from the very beginning, live low, keep the bowels free, and the skin
in good action, and take gentle regular exercise in the open air.

When all the means used are found of no avail, and it becomes evident that the;
foetus must be expelled, every endeavor should be used to assist nature in its removal
as early and as safely as possible. For this purpose, the same treatment, as far as
practicable, must be pursued as in a real labor. If the hand can be conveniently in-
troduced, without undue force, it may be so, to remove clots, or to take hold of any
part of the foetus which may present, and assist in its extraction. In the early months,
considerable help may be given sometimes by introducing the finger into the mouth
of the womb, with a little extract of belladonna, to promote its relaxation, but no
force must be exerted in doing so. If any part of the after-birth can be laid hold of,
it should be withdrawn, but.no extraordinary effort must be used to reach it. Fre-
quently it happens that a portion. of the after-birth remains in spite of all attempts
to take it away, and there is & possibility that it may produce inflammation of the
womb, but no very serious apprehensions need be felt of such a result, providing the
patient is properly attended to in other respects. The retained portion gradually
decays, and passes away, merely occasioning inconvenience, and being very offensive.
The danger from leaving it, except at a very late period, is generally thought to be
^ss than that from using any forcible means to remove it.

The best means for correcting the offensive discharge, are cleansing and antiseptic
injections. Warm soap-suds made with tar soap are very good, or a decoction of Peru-
vian bark in water, or six drops of carbolic acid to the half pint of water. Strong
coffee is also excellent, or a weak solution of chloride of lime or borax. The bowels

IDIOPATHIC OR PRIMARY DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY. 897

must be kept free, and the skin carefully cleansed and well rubbed. On all occasions
when the hand can be introduced with moderate and safe efforts, it should be so, and
the after-birth removed.

In conclusion it should be remarked, that the tendency to miscarry, like many
female diseases, is undoubtedly owing, in great part, to the general debility and
weakness which characterizes so many women at the present day, and which is brought
on chiefly by neglect of their physical education when girls, and by their artificial
mode of life afterwards.
57

CHAPTER LXXXL

DISEASES OP CHILDBED.

Puerperal Fever, or Childbed Fever.

This is undoubtedly the most serious of all those maladies that so often follow
labor. It appears from medical records that puerperal fever has been known from
very remote times, and that it has frequently become epidemic, or has spread from
one to another, like the cholera. In hospitals this has often been observed, and also
in cities, sometimes almost every female delivered in the place having been attacked
while it prevailed. There is also no doubt but that it is contagious, or capable of
being transmitted from one person to another, like small-pox. Numerous instances
have been known where nurses and physicians have conveyed it to all whom they at-
tended, during a long period after having been with a single case. One physician,
after attending a case of puerperal fever, lost nine patients successively from the
same disease, before he suspected the cause ; and an old nurse assured me, that when
she was a young woman, she was the unfortunate means of conveying it to two fe-
males whom she visited, by merely having been in the room a short time with one
who was suffering from it. It is therefore highly important that all persons who
may happen to be with a female so affected should not attend another case of child-
birth for some time, and particularly that they should not wear any portion of the
same clothing they then had on, and that they should bathe the whole body several
times. If a case occurs in a hospital or other public institution, the female must be
carefully isolated from all the others, and none of her attendants must be permitted
on any account to visit other puerperal patients, till after a sufficient time has
elapsed, and every precaution has been taken.

The causes that produce this terrible disorder are not very well understood ; some
of them probably predispose to it before delivery, or even before pregnancy, while
others are connected with labor and its consequences. Among the former may be
mentioned improper diet, an inactive life, anxiety of mind, bad air, a damp situation,
a full habit, or great weakness, the frequent use of stimulants, and certain excesses !
The principal causes operating immediately are difficult labors, violent treatment, the
use of instruments, tearing away the placenta too soon, retention of the lochia, cold,
rising from the bed too soon, depression or excitement of the mind, over-exertion in
talking to and seeing company, and neglect of cleanliness. The most frequent cause
probably is cold or damp, which checks the lochia and the perspiration, and leads
directly to inflammation. It is on this account that the complaint is nearly always
worse in winter than in summer, and prevails most in low damp situations, and in
badly ventilated apartments, or in those insufficiently warmed. In most warm
countries, and in those of an equable temperature, where the females remain much
in the open air, and use regular exercise, puerperal fever is but little known.

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 899

The nature of this complaint appears to be a severe and sudden inflammation,
commencing either in the womb or some of the neighboring parts, which, if not ar-
rested, rapidly extends to all the organs of the pelvis and abdomen, and hastens to a
fatal termination with fearful speed. The precise seat, and place of commencement
of the inflammation, vary in different cases, but this makes little difference either in
the symptoms, consequences, or treatment of the disease, and it is of but little use to
give a separate name to all these various forms. Uterine phlebitis, metro-peritonitis,
puerperal metritis, and puerperal peritonitis, are all essentially the same complaint,
and identical with what is called puerperal or childbed fever.

The disease generally appears from the second to the fifth day after delivery, but
may be delayed as late as the fifteenth or twentieth day, or commence as early as
two or three hours after ; and has even been known to show itself before labor came
on.

It usually begins with headache, general debility, uneasy feelings, creeping of the
flesh, and chills : then follow tremblings, numbness of the limbs, cold feet and hands,
with a burning heat in the body. The abdomen gradually gets tender, so that it
cannot bear the slightest pressure, sharp pains are felt in various parts of it, and the
patient continually complains of twisting and burning within. She prefers to lie on
her back, with the head raised and the knees drawn up, so as to relax the ab-
dominal muscles. Very soon she complains of great thirst, and cries out repeatedly
from the sharpness of the pain ; the headache increases, and the breathing becomes
laborious. Hiccough generally occurs at an early stage, and is usually accompanied
or followed by vomiting and diarrhcea, but sometimes by obstinate constipation.
The abdomen continues to swell, and becomes still more tender ; the face is pale, bathed
with cold perspiration, and indicates in every line the anxiety and suffering under
which the patient labors. The features seem to be drawn inwards, and together,
ox pinched up, and indeed the whole body seems to shrink. In general, the lochial
discharge either stops altogether or lessens very much, the breasts remain empty, or
nearly so, and the pulse is weak and irregular. In some few cases, however, the
lochia continues to flow, or even increases, and the breasts remain full up to the time
of death. The urine is high colored and thick, and causes smarting and burning as
it passes away. The tongue furs and becomes pointed, and pale colored. The eyes
often seem much engorged, and the white parts become yellow, as indeed the skin
does over the whole body, owing to derangement of the liver, and alteration in the
character of the blood. In most cases the mind retains its faculties nearly till disso-
lution, but there is frequently a vague sense of uneasiness and fear, with great de-
pression of spirits and weeping. Some even feel assured, from the beginning, that
they will never recover, and occasionally become delirious.

The duration of this disorder varies considerably, though in most cases it carries
off the sufferer in a short time, frequently even in two or three days. It may how-
ever, last five, ten, or twelve days, and has been known to do so fourteen.

The manner in which it terminates is also different in different cases. The fluid
resulting from the inflammation may either be absorbed, or suppuration may ensue
and the matter be discharged, either from one of the natural passages or from an
artificial opening ; or it may not be discharged at all. Sometimes gangrene or mor-
tification ensues, and sometimes the inflammation partly subsides and becomes chronic.
When it terminates by resolution, which is the most favorable mode, the patient
begins to improve about the fourth or fifth day ; the pains become less acute, the

900 DISEASES OF CHILDBED.

swelling and tenderness become less, and the milk, lochia, and other secretions that
were suppressed, begin to reappear. The patient is also able to lie either on the back
or sides, and soon feels conscious herself that she is improving. But even when a
turn for the better has decidedly taken place, too much confidence should not be pre-
maturely felt, nor should there be any relaxation of attention, for the slightest causes
may bring back all the symptoms with more than their former severity. When sup-
puration ensues, which is most commonly the case, a mass of fluid forms in the womb
or abdomen, and is plainly indicated, either by its moving about or by a portion
escaping from the body. In this case also the pain and tenderness decrease, and the
abdomen seems less hard, but the pulse becomes weaker, a sense of weight is felt about
the womb, the extremities become cold, chills come on, and gradually the powers of
the system seem to fail till complete exhaustion ensues. When gangrene or mor-
tification takes place, the termination is nearly the same, but more rapid, and all the
above symptoms are more marked. When it passes into the chronic form, there is
but little permanent abatement in the severity of the symptoms for some time ; they
partially lessen at intervals, but return again, sometimes with renewed rigor, and it
remains long a matter of doubt whether the disease has really passed the critical
period or not. Eecovery takes place occasionally in this form of the disease, but
more frequently the patient becomes daily weaker and more emaciated, diarrhoea and
slow fever set in, the vital powers steadily sink, and at last death ensues. This fatal
termination may however be delayed for an indefinite period, and may ultimately
result from consumption or dropsy, both of which frequently follow chronic puer-
peral fever.

In regard to the probable termination of this disease, but little hope can be enter-
tained that it will be favorable, nor are there many indications that can be relied
tipon with certainty as to what course it is likely to take. In general, it is favorable
when the swelling subsides and the pains abate in severity, and particularly if tbe
milk and lochia begin to be secreted again. The indications are also good in propor-
tion as the symptoms are mild, and when there is no great sympathetic disturbance
of other parts of the system. It is regarded as unfavorable when the pain and ten-
derness extend over a large portion of the abdomen, and when the attack commences
very suddenly. The danger is also considered greater in proportion as the disease
begins nearer to delivery ; and when its first symptoms exhibit themselves before labor,
it is always considered mortal. It is likewise more dangerous with twins than with
a single birth, and with first children than afterwards. It is seldom possible however
to come to any probable conclusion till between the fifth and tenth days, and even
then it is in general a matter of great uncertainty.

The best treatment of this fearful disease is one of the greatest problems in med'
ical science. So many different plans have been adopted, and with such various suc-
cess, that the history of past cases affords but little reliable data to guide us in future
ones. In general, the most powerful antiphlogistic measures, or those thought most
likely to reduce the inflammation at once, are immediately resorted to, such as bleed-
ing, purgatives, and cold bathing. Bleeding is in particular the great agent depended
upon, either from the arm, or by cups and leeches to the abdomen and vulva. Dr.
Gordon, of Aberdeen, in Scotland, who, once met with a regular epidemic of puer
peral fever in that city, assures us that nothing else succeeded in arresting the disorder
but copious and frequent bleeding, at the very commencement. He carried it so fa*
as to take twenty-four ounces at once, and he says that when he did so the patient

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 901

was nearly sure to recover, but that at first, when he only abstracted about twelve
ounces, she was as nearly sure to die. In about fifty cases to which he was called in
time, he only lost Jive, and taking the average of all he attended, the recoveries were
about two-thirds of the whole number, which is above the usual proportion.

It appears however, from the experience of the most eminent practitioners, that
the bleeding must commence early ; that the first abstraction should not be omitted
beyond twenty-four hours after the first symptoms of the disease, and should be as
much earlier as possible. "With very few exceptions, they also think Gordon's stand-
ard of twenty-four ounces not too much. Indeed it is generally admitted that if the
blood be not drawn at first, and in large portions, it had better not be drawn at all.
There may be, of course, many peculiar circumstances that will make bleeding im-
proper, which nothing but experience and observation will teach a practitioner, but the
number of such cases is thought to be small. The use of leeches meets with but few
advocates, and certainly they seem to have had but partial success, compared with the
lancet. Dr. Collins, of Dublin, depended chiefly upon leeches and calomel, but he
tells us that in eighty -eight cases, fifty-six died when so treated, while in fifteen that
were freely bled from the arm only eight died. In short, it appears that the bleeding
must be carried far enough, at the very beginning of the disease, to cut it short at
once, or it will be of no avail, it being of little or no use merely to check it ! In con-
junction with the bleeding, it is also usual to give enemas of starch and castor oil,
or something similar, and to bathe the extremities in hot water.

I know that this practice of bleeding meets with strong opposition from many
physicians, and that it is objected to by patients generally. I myself am as much
opposed to it as any one reasonably can be, and I am well aware of the numerous evils
which follow it, but still it cannot be denied that Dr. Gordon's plan has cured a
greater number of cases of puerperal fever than any other yet tried. It is true that
many of those thus cured may have afterwards died of dropsy, convulsions, typhus,
and other diseases produced by the bleeding, but then the risk they ran of dying from
these was less than that from the puerperal fever, and in a choice of evils we ought to
choose the least. It should also be remembered that some eminent practitioners
assert, if this plan be adopted promptly and fully, it will always cure, or at least with
very few exceptions.

Several other modes of treatment have also been adopted to dispense with bleeding,
some of which have been much more successful than others, though none so much
so as we could desire. Thus some practitioners resort immediately to hot fomenta-
tions and sweating medicines, or a hot bath if convenient, together with brisk purga-
tives and injections. Some depend upon calomel in large doses, with leeches to the
groins and vulva. Others again use cold fomentations, and cold injections both to
the rectum and to the vagina. Others again use blisters over the abdomen, in con-
junction with purgative enemas and moderate bleeding ; but this mode seems to do
but little good. Another plan is to give about six grains of ipecac, and to repeat the
dose several times, at intervals of an hour or less, in conjunction with purgatives and
warm fomentations. Turpentine has also been used internally and by enema, but
seems to have accomplished little good. Perhaps the most frequent plan, after bleed-
ing, is to rub one or two drachms of mercurial ointment well on the skin, over the
abdomen, every two or three hours, sometimes for several days regularly, eight or
ten grains of calomel being also given daily at the same time. This brings on sali-
vation, and in many cases the symptoms begin to abate in severity as soon as that

902 DISEASES OF CHILDBED.

commences. I am not aware, however, that this treatment is any more successful
than bleeding, nor do I think the consequences afterwards, in a case of recovery, are
any less to be dreaded. It is difficult in fact to say what plan can be best recom-
mended, even in the majority of cases, and certainly no one yet tried is applicable to
all, on account of the peculiarities and varying circumstances of each. If the practi-
tioner or patient is not decidedly opposed to the bleeding plan, that has undoubtedly
the best recommendation, from former success. Next to that, perhaps, comes the
mercurial treatment, which usually meets with as much opposition as the bleeding,
but which certainly has been frequently found efficacious. The other plans have met
with but little favor, though possibly they might sometimes succeed when the rest
fail.

If I were asked what I should advise for those who would not submit to the use
either of the lancet or mercury, I should say, commence with a strong dose of Epsom
salts, or jalap, and repeat it in about five hours after its full operation. Also apply
warm fomentations to the abdomen, or put upon it a flannel bag full of hops soaked
in vinegar, as hot as it can be borne, and put mustard poultices on the feet, and
inside of the thighs. The hands must also be kept as warm as possible, and the
head cool. The diet should be very spare, and contain nothing heating or stimulat-
ing, and cooling drinks, such as ice-water, or cold lemonade, should be drunk freely.
The purgative should be repeated at least every day, for two or three days, or more if
the symptoms are not modified, and the mustard poultices may be regularly used to
various parts of the limbs, for the same length of time. In conjunction with these
means the breasts should also be kept warm, to promote the flow of the milk, and
injections of starch and castor oil should be thrown up the rectum daily. The
object being, as far as possible, to keep the surface of the body warm, and to cool the
internal fever, at the same time that all the natural secretions are excited as much
as possible, to remove any morbid matter that may be formed. It should also be
mentioned that the urine sometimes stops, or at least becomes very scanty and thick,
in which case a little sweet nitre may be given, or if necessary the catheter must be
used. Some bitter tea, as boneset or chamomile, should also be taken occasion-
ally, and a James's fever powder with it once or twice a day, to promote perspira-
tion ; or if there be severe pains, a dose of Dover's powders may be used instead.

If the disease passes the acute stage and becomes chronic, the same means must
be pursued, and with strict regularity, or there will be danger of its again becoming
acute. In all cases send for the most experienced practitioner as early as possible,
and whatever his plan may be, if his past success proves it to be tolerably successful,
submit to it, whether it be bleeding, salivation, or anything else. If there be no
one at hand on whom dependence can be placed, follow the plan I have laid down
as nearly as circumstances will allow, but practice it fully without delay, and till a
change takes place. Those persons who make light of this disease, and pretend to
say that this or that simple treatment is all-sufficient, either deceive themselves or
wish to impose upon others. There are few affections more serious, as will be evi-
dent when it is borne in mind that, on an average, two females die out of every three
attached by it. To avoid all liability to it as far as possible, attend well to the gen-
eral health during pregnancy, have everything comfortable, clean, and wholesome,
during labor, and be careful to avoid cold, damp, and all kinds of mental and bodily
excitement afterwards. The assistant also, whoever it may be, must be as careful
and as gentle as possible, so as to avoid all violence or undue force, and not to hurry

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 903

nature. A want of attention to such simple details has, undoubtedly, brought on
many attacks of this fearful disease that otherwise would never have been experi-
enced.

AFFECTIONS OF THE BKEAST OCCURRING AFTER PREGNANCY.

The functions of the breast are liable, from many causes, to become deranged,
and such derangements may lead to serious results, both to the mother and the child.
It is a common opinion that females who nurse are not so liable to suffer in this way
as those who do not, but experience proves this opinion to be untrue ; nevertheless,
as it is the duty of mothers to nourish their own offspring, it should be a subject
of careful study to relieve them of this liability as far as possible, or to assist them
when necessary.

Galactorrhea. — This means an overflow, or excessive secretion of the milk, which
sometimes takes place, particularly in those who do not nurse. At the commence-
ment of the milk fever, galactorrhcea needs but little attention, but if it continue to
the second or third day, proper remedies should be applied to correct it. These
consist in complete rest, both of body and mind, cooling drinks, and spare diet. If
these do not correct it soon, a flax-seed poultice should be placed on each breast, and
the patient should be made to perspire, either by warm teas and clothing, or by
means of steaming. The bowels should also be freely opened with castor oil, or a
seidlitz powder, and it will often benefit very much to give warm water freely to
drink, with ten grains of nitrate of potash (saltpetre) to the pint.

In those that nurse, it is very seldom the case that the secretion of milk is too
profuse, unless the child has been kept too long from the breast. As a general rule
it should be put to nurse in a few hours after birth, even if there be no milk, because
its suction will materially help to bring on the flow. It frequently happens, when
the child is kept away till the milk comes, that the breasts have swelled so that the
nipple is buried and cannot be laid hold of well by the mouth, in consequence of
which the child does not get nourishment enough, and the breasts not being well
emptied become engorged, and their functions deranged. All this may be avoided
by putting the child early to nurse. Sometimes, however, notwithstanding every pre-
caution, the flow of milk is excessively great, and constitutes a real disease, which
may cause great weakness and debility. In such cases it will generally be found
that the diet is too stimulating or too rich, or that the bowels have been too inact-
ive, and the first step toward an improvement must consist in correcting these faults.
The skin should also be kept active by frequent bathing and good friction, and the
quantity of nourishment taken should not be greater than the mere healthy support
of the body requires. In particular no stimulating liquors should be used.

Agalaxy. — This complaint is the reverse of the former, as it consists in a defi-
cient secretion of milk. The causes of this deficiency are various ; sometimes it
arises from a constitutional inertness of the breasts, sometimes from insufficient
nourishment, and sometimes from profuse discharges in other parts. All excesses
also tend to decrease the quantity of the milk, particularly those of a certain hind j
and it is seldom so abundant or lasting either in extreme youth or advanced age.
The appearance of the menses in like manner generally causes the flow to become
less, and it ceases naturally in some much earlier than in others. Sometimes there
is a deformity in the child's mouth, which prevents its sucking properly, and the
milk may stop for want of being completely drawn. The breasts also may be dis-

904 DISEASES OF CHILDBED.

eased, or the nipple not sufficiently prominent, and the same difficulty be thus pro-
duced in another way.

In treating agalaxy, therefore, the first thing is to ascertain if there be any
deformity or disease in either mother or child, which prevents proper nursing. If
there be nothing of the kind, it must next be ascertained whether the mother has
any excessive secretion elsewhere, such as diarrhoea, great flow of urine, or heavy
sweats ; if she have, tbese must be corrected. It must next be seen if she takes suf-
ficient nourishment, and of a proper kind for her stomach and bowels. Sometimes
a little spiced wine is excellent, or some porter, with white meats, and arrowroot
milk. If she be of a full habit, however, and makes much blood, the contrary
course must be pursued, and the diet be made low and unstimulating, while the
bowels are kept free and the skin in good action.

In many cases wben the nipple is small, it may be much enlarged by titilla-
tion, just before the child is put to it, after which the suction will increase it still
more.

If the female be advanced in life, or very weak, or if she becomes pregnant, it
may be better to procure a nurse than to attempt to stimulate the flow at all. The
appearance of the menses need not occasion a suspension of nursing, unless it evi-
dently deranges the secretion of the milk, or affects the health of the mother ; in
either of which cases the child should be weaned at once.

Engorgement of the Breasts. — The breasts are liable to become swollen, or en-
gorged, from colds, blows, hard nursing from the child, over-feeding, and from sore-
ness or excoriations preventing them being fully emptied. This state may occur at any
time, but is most frequent a few days after delivery. In general there is no danger from
it, unless it be very bad or continues too long ; when the breast may inflame and dis-
charge, or become permanently hard. To prevent such accidents, the breasts should
always be sufficiently emptied, either by the child or by artificial means, and every
precaution sh ould be used against cold or violence. Constipation must also be guarded
against, and the diet and drink must be carefully observed, so that it be not too feed-
ing, or too stimulating. Warm fomentations or poultices may also be used when
the breasts are painful, and a Dover's powder may be given at night, after bathing
the feet in warm water, to promote perspiration.

Inflammation of the Breasts. — This is only a more advanced stage of the previous
malady, produced by the same causes, and by want of timely attention. Like simple
swelling, it may arise at any time during nursing, but is more frequent a few days
after delivery. As soon as the inflammation commences, the breasts become red,
swollen, and excessively tender, particularly at one point, which soon begins to pro-
ject like a nipple, if the disease is not stopped, and at last bursts and discharges the
contained pus. Sometimes the inflammation is comparatively superficial, and ex-
tends only over a small portion of the surface, but at other times it goes deep and
spreads wide. In proportion to its extent is the severity of the symptoms, which are
those of inflammation in general, such as headache, thirst, fever, general uneasiness,
and cutting pains in the part affected.

As soon as the abscess is formed, and can be plainly discovered, it is usual to open
it immediately, because the longer it remains, the more extensive it becomes, and the
larger is the portion of the breast diseased. It is necessary however to be certain,
before malcing an opening, that it is really an abscess on which we are going to oper-
ate, for sometimes a healthy part of the breast feels very much like one, and a mis-

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 905

take may easily happen ; in fact such a mistake has often been made, and by men of
experience too. In the early stage of the inflammation every effort should be used
to prevent an abscess from forming, by the use of purgatives, sweating medicines, low
diet, cooling drinks, and warm fomentations over the whole chest. Some females
practice cold fomentations over the breasts, and with good success, in the commence-
ment of the inflammation ; but it may increase the difficulty with others, and, so far as
I have seen, is no more generally useful than the other method. The warm bath all
over the body is also very serviceable in a number of cases.

It usually happens however, in spite of every precaution, that matter will form,
and its discharge become necessary. As soon as this is evident, it should be pro-
moted as much as possible, by hot fomentations and poultices, till the head of the
abscess is sufficiently distinct for it to be safely opened. While the swelling is going
on, the pain is often very severe, and it should be eased as much as possible, by using
laudanum in the fomentations, or by putting on an opium plaster. After an abscess
has opened and discharged, it should be kept open for some time, by little pledgets
of lint, to prevent its closing up too soon, otherwise a portion of the matter may be
shut in by the wound healing over it, and another abscess will form. Warm poul-
tices and lotions should also be used afterwards, to promote the discharge as much as
possible, but they should not be used after it has evidently begun to cease naturally.
In short, every means pointed out should be used energetically in the first stage, to
vrevent the gathering, but if it takes place in spite of them, then it should be has-
tened and discharged as early as possible, to prevent its extending. After this, when
it has evidently all escaped, the wound may be suffered to heal, and the patient must
be enjoined to be very careful in future, for the same accident will be very liable to
reappear.

Sometimes these abscesses become very extensive, and remain for a long time. I
have known ten or twelve on one breast, and I have known them to continue open for
many months. When this is the case it is much to be deplored, as it is very likely
indeed to destroy the breast, and may even lead to more serious results. Attention
therefore cannot be bestowed upon them too early or too unremittingly, particularly
if the female be scrofulous, or of a very full habit. Sometimes the inflammation at-
tacks both breasts, and at other times only one, in which case every effort should be
exerted to prevent its extending to the other. In many persons the same side is al-
ways affected, and becomes a scape-goat as it were for the other.

When the means used succeed in scattering the swelling, its dispersion is usually
followed by some critical discharge, such as diarrhoea, or a great flow of urine, or
even by profuse perspiration, which shows how nature operates in removing the dis-
eased matter and cautions us not rashly to check such discharges.

It is a very serious matter for the swelling to indurate or harden, as it sometimes
will, without either scattering or dispersing, as it is then constantly liable to become
worse again, besides destroying the structure of the gland. Every means should
therefore be used to prevent this, by promoting its dispersion or discharge, in the
way already pointed out. It is also very good in these cases to bathe frequently with
alum water, or decoction of white oak bark, or even to rub on some of the ointment
of hydriodate of potassa, diluted with an equal weight of fresh lard. A piece as
large as a hickory nut may be well rubbed on twice a day, for three or four days, but
it should be stopped immediately the swelling begins to subside, and not used again
unless it still remains, or again increases. In many cases pretty frequent friction

906 DISEASES OF CHILDBED.

with the hand anointed with a little oil will be all-sufficient, especially if a hot
fomentation be used afterwards.

Excoriations, or Cracks in the Breasts. — The annoyance from this cause is
sometimes very great, the pain which is experienced when the child begins to nurse
being so acute tbat it is impossible for the mother to allow it to remain. Frequently
I have known it compel weaning much earlier than was desirable, and sometimes it
has even been so bad tbat the dress could scarcely be borne against the breasts. The
precise cause of this liability to crack is not known, nor do we know of any certain
means to prevent it. In many cases, however, I have known it prevented, to a great
extent, by having the nipple gently sucked, very frequently, for six weeks or two
months before childbirth. This hardens it, and if a wash of borax water be also
used after each time, it will be gradually prepared for its proper use. Our means of
curing this troublesome affection are very limited, and frequently everything fails
that is tried. The mucilage of quince seeds, prepared by bruising and boiling them
in a small quantity of water, rubbed over the sores with a soft feather, immediately
after nursing, often does much good. The mucilage from the tender tops of young
sassafras sometimes succeeds better than that from the quince, and a bruised leaf
from the large horse-shoe geranium, laid on like a poultice, is frequently better than
either. A good lotion may also be made with a quarter of an ounce of borax, and a
teaspoonful of laudanum, to half a pint of warm water, to be used frequently during
the day. Some females use a wash made of saleratus, with considerable benefit, and
others find relief from one made of nut-galls, or white oak bark. Most of these
means, however, are well known, and many others also, which, like them, sometimes
succeed and often fail. The artificial nipple, or shield, should be tried if none of
these means succeed, and frequently it will enable the mother to allow the child to
nurse, though it may not altogether prevent the pain.

It not unfrequently happens that the child's mouth may be diseased, particularly
with aphtha}, or thrush, and this may possibly keep up the excoriations. In like
manner, the state of the breasts may also influence the child's mouth, and therefore
the condition of each should be well ascertained when anything is the matter with
either.

BRONCHOCELE, OR SWELLING IN THE THROAT.

This is often observed in childbed, and sometimes even comes on during labor. It
is usually attributed to cold, and no doubt it often does arise from cold, but more
frequently it is owing to sympathetic derangement, and from violent attempts to
swallow during and after the pains. Many females, in fact, cry out at those times
that something has IroTcen in the throat, and they fear they are going to suffocate.
As a general rule, the swelling gradually subsides in a short time, without any special
treatment, but sometimes it increases and inflames, and an abscess forms, which may
become very troublesome, and even dangerous. To prevent this, it should be fre-
quently treated with warm fomentations and poultices, till the inflammation sub-
sides, and then with the same washes recommended for indurated or hardened breast,
in the preceding section of this chapter. If the swelling becomes hard, and remains
indolent, the ointment of hydriodate of potassa may also be prepared and used, as
there recommended.

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 907

PHLEGMASIA, ALBA DOLENS, OK MILK-LEG.

This is a painful tumefaction, or swelling of one or both of the limbs, which
comes on from the fifth to the fifteenth day after delivery. It generally commences
with slight pain, or stiffness, or cramp, becoming more painful as it proceeds ; but
sometimes shooting, cutting pains of great violence are felt suddenly, at the very
commencement. The swelling also occasionally comes on gradually, but at other
times rapidly. In most cases, the patient complains of a sudden pain in the groin
and thigh, which is preceded by a chill followed by fever, and then the limb begins
to enlarge. Most frequently the lower part swells first, and then it extends upward,
sometimes even to the hip. The skin on the swollen part looks white, shining and
tight, as if ready to break ; it is also extremely painful, so that pressure upon it can
scarcely be borne. It looks, in fact, like a thin bag of skin filled with milk, and
hence the name milk-leg, from an idea that it was really filled with milk, which had
by some means reached there from the breast. This idea is erroneous, in the sense it
is usually taken ; the milk does not flow into the leg, as many imagine, nor is any-
thing like it to be found there, except a peculiar thin white matter when it breaks.
Still, however, a sudden stoppage of the milk may cause such a swelling, like a
sudden stoppage of any other secretion, but in no other way. It is probably most
frequently produced by sudden cold, which checks that profuse perspiration into
which females generally fall immediately after delivery, and so drives the perspirable
matter within, and causes inflammation and suppuration. A difficult or prolonged
labor may also lead to it, by preventing for a long time the proper circulation of the
blood through the large veins of the pelvis, and so engorging those below ; or the
veins may become paralyzed, as it were, by the pressure they have sustained, and so
become for a time unable to transmit the blood. In fact, both the veins and lym-
phatics become engorged, as if tied above the limb, and exhibit knots and bundles,
like bunches of grapes.

Sometimes the fever will occur some ^ — s first, and the female cannot tell what
it is owing to, till the swelling comes on •, ^nd even this may take place so gradually,
and with so little pain, that the limb may be very large before it is observed. I have
known females complain of a slight fever only, on going to sleep at night, and wake
up in the morning with a confirmed case of milk-leg, and I have known others start
with a sudden pain in the groin, or hip, and be affected in the same way in less than
two hours.

The disease usually lasts from a month to seven or eight weeks, and terminates
either by a gradual resolution or scattering of the fluids, or by suppuration and dis-
charge. When suppuration ensues, there will sometimes form one or more very large
abscesses, which it may be difficult to heal, and which may lead to serious results,
either from their extent, or from the constitutional irritation they produce.

The treatment at first consists in warm fomentations, such as those of poppy-
heads, or hops, with cooling drinks, purgatives, low unstimulating diet, and occa-
sional doses of James's fever powders, to promote perspiration. This is intended to
disperse the swelling, and, in general, it does so. If, however, the abscess forms and
breaks, in spite of all the means used, it must be treated the same as abscess in the
breast, previously described. In ordinary practice, it is the general custom to bleed
at the commencement of the disease, or to apply leeches to the groin. This some-
times does good, but frequently is of no service at all, even if it does not make matters

908 DISEASES OF CHILDBED.

worse. I would, however, make the same remarks on bleeding here, that I did in
regard to its use in puerperal fever, to which milk-leg has a resemblance, in some
respects.

Another practice is to use tight bandages, the same as for varicose veins, but I
think the plan is not, in general, a successful one, though it may be occasionally.
Plunging the limb in cold water, or keeping it wrapped in cold wet cloths, has suc-
ceeded much more frequently, and is, with some, a favorite remedy. Stramonium
leaves boiled in vinegar, and laid on hot, will also effect a cure sometimes ; and so
will bathing with hot lye, or alcohol. A large poultice of hops, soaked in hot vine-
gar, has also been found useful.

TROUBLE WITH THE URINE.

The bladder, from its position, is very apt to be inconveniently pressed during
the passage of the child, and to be temporarily affected for a short time after, in
consequence. Sometimes the neck of the bladder will be paralyzed, and the urine
cannot be discharged. In this case, fomentations of warm milk and laudanum must
be used, or a warm hip bath, if there be no danger of flooding, and the bowels must
be freely opened. If this does not relieve, the catheter must be used, and always be-
fore the bladder is too full. To avoid its becoming so, the attendant should inquire
of the female, during the first day, if she has urinated, or feels any inclination that
way, so that he may know in time if the difficulty exists. In general, this paralysis
passes off in the course of a day, but may endure longer sometimes ; in which case
the patient herself should speak of it. Cases have been known where the bladder
has become so full as to burst through inattention to this matter. The contrary
difficulty is occasionally observed, and the urine cannot be retained, but flows away
as fast as it is secreted. It is very seldom, however, that this state remains more
than a single day, and more frequently only a few hours. A dash of cold water on
the pubes, and against the meatus urinarius, has often corrected it at once, and so
has a single purgative dose. If it remain after the first two days without amend-
ment, it is customary to put a small blister on the abdomen, which usually relieves
in a short time.

CHAPTER LXXXII.

USE OF CHLOROFORM IN MIDWIFERY.

An Inquiry into the Utility and Propriety of Preventing the Pain and Suffering
which usually attend Childbirth, with an Account of the Means to be employed
for that Purpose.

In a former part of this work I remarked that a great portion, and perhaps nearly
the whole of the suffering and danger to which parturient females are exposed, arises
undoubtedly from their had physical education and mode of life ; and that, in a
more rational state of existence, it was probable that both would be so slight as to
excite no apprehension. This improved state of things is much to be desired, and
should, of course, be striven for by all friends of humanity. But, in the mean time,
it is proper to consider whether there are any means by which those now living can
be relieved in their hours of distress. The agony which many females endure at
this time is so great that there are few circumstances under which relief is more
needed, or would be more acceptable ; and I, for one, cannot subscribe to the doe-
trine that such relief would be improper, unless it prove to be injurious. There are
some persons, I know, who say that this suffering has been ordained for woman, and
that it ought to be endured. This notion, I think, needs no refutation, it being just
as unreasonable as to say that the sick should be allowed to suffer and die without
assistance, because their condition has been ordained.

Some years ago, a celebrated physiologist, who supposed that the chief cause of
pain and difficulty in labor was the size and hardness of the child's bones, advanced
the theory that if these bones were less developed, and softer, the pain and difficulty
trould be materially lessened, if not entirely removed. He proposed, therefore, since
the hardness of the bones is caused by the deposition of lime in them, which is de-
rived, of course, from the blood of the mother, that she should avoid taking anything
to eat or drink, during pregnancy, that contained lime. This, he supposed, would
keep the bones of the child soft till after birth, and so allow them to give way and
crush together during delivery, and thus prevent the suffering and difficulty usually
experienced. It was also thought that the bones of the mother would be partially
softened at the same time, and give way a little, so as to facilitate the process still
more.

I am not aware, however, that this theory has ever succeeded in practice, either
in the human species or in the lower animals, though frequently tried. Nature wiL
work on her own plan, and will develop the bones of the foetus, while in the womb,
to a certain extent, providing she has the means to do so ; and if these are withheld
she is very likely to suspend its development altogether, rather than send it forth
imperfect. I have known cases where everything was withheld, for the whole period,
that contained a particle of lime, and yet the child's bones were as hard at birth as

909

910 UBE OF CHLOROFORM IN MIDWIFERY.

in any other case ; the material being, probably, taken from the bones of the mother,
which might be thus weakened, and made liable to displacement, without any good
result whatever. It is also a question whether such a course, supposing it to succeed,
might not be dangerous in another way, by causing an imperfection in the child,
which its future growth could not overcome. I have known some cases where this
practice appeared to have caused abortion, from imperfect development, and several
others in which there was too much reason to fear that the child was injured, though
safely born. As this is, therefore, at best, a very uncertain and ineffective process,
and is also, probably, dangerous to the mother or child, or both, it does not appear
to me worthy of further attention, and I merely allude to it in order to make the
present sketch of such means complete.

The other means are such as do not interfere, in any way, with the natural pro-
cesses, but merely prevent sensation or feeling at the time of delivery. Mesmerism
has been recommended, and, in some few instances, tried, for this purpose, but its
success has either been so small, or its action so uncertain, that no dependence can
be placed upon it, notwithstanding many persons assert its power. Opium and other
powerful drugs have also been given, but so much of them is required, at that time,
to produce a sufficient effect, that their use becomes dangerous. Other substances,
in the form of vapor or gas, have also been used, the effects of which only last for a
short time, and are not, generally speaking, at all dangerous. Among them may be
mentioned nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, carbonic acid, sulphuric ether, and chloric
ether, all of which were first employed in severe surgical operations.

The success of these agents, especially ether and chloroform, in preventing pain,
is undoubted ; nor do they appear to have any other effect, nor to prevent any neces-
sary effort or process of nature, except in a few cases which will be mentioned fur-
ther on. Many hundred operations of the most severe kind, such as cutting off
limbs, removing tumors, stones, and so forth, are daily performed while the patients
are under the influence of these agents, and without causing them the slightest
pain; in fact, many remain, during the whole process, in a pleasant dream, and
cannot be persuaded, when they wake, that the dreaded operation is over. The same
thing is also observed daily in hundreds of cases of midwifery, both in natural labor
and when instruments have been used. In numerous instances the female has been
put to sleep, and safely delivered, without knowing or feeling anything whatever,
during the whole time ; the first intimation that she had become a mother being
the cheering cry of her new-born babe. In some instances, the state of insensibility
has been continued for a long time, and during its continuance the most hazardous
operations have been safely performed.

So far as can be safely judged it appears that there is no danger whatever, from
the employment of these means, except when improperly administered, and in certain
peculiar conditions of the system ; which causes of danger will, of course, be removed
by competent experience and knowledge. It is highly encouraging, however, that
though ether and chloroform have each been used so extensively and indiscriminate-
ly, both by those who understood their nature and those who did not, yet the cases
in which they are proved to have done injury are very rare ; and in all those that I
have heard of, some obvious impropriety had been committed in their use. It should
be borne in mind, however, that even if the danger from them was considerable, we
might still be justified in their use. It is well known that, in numerous cases, the
fear of suffering, beforehand, and its severity while being endured, produce the most

USE OF CHLOROFORM IN MID WIFER T. 911

serious, and even fatal results. Many a patient who might have passed safely through
the ordinary effects of a painful operation, has sunk from the mere effects of fear
and suffering. Instances have even been known in which a fear of this kind has
caused death, and frequently it has given a shock from which the patient never fully
recovered. There is also, in many cases, great danger from the violent efforts and
struggles of a person in pain, and many necessary operations are even prevented alto-
gether by them ; this is often observed in difficult labors. When insensibility is
produced, however, all these causes of difficulty and danger are removed ; the patient's
fears are quieted, suffering is entirely prevented, and there is no struggling to pre-
vent the necessary assistance.

In regard to the two agents now chiefly used, ether and chloroform, there is no
difference in their mode of action, but the chloroform appears to be more speedy,
certain, and efficacious, and is, therefore, the most valuable, but proportionably more
dangerous when improperly administered. There are numerous instruments or
inhalers, for administering these vapors, most of which are both costly and compli-
cated, and all of which may be easily dispensed with. A very good plan is to take a
large sponge and dip it in hot water, then squeeze out the water and pour on the
ether or chloroform, and hold it over the mouth and nose. In two or three minutes
consciousness and feeling will both be gone, and the patient will sink into a calm
sleep which will last sometimes ten or fifteen minutes, and may be kept up as long
as desired, by putting the sponge to the mouth for a few minutes whenever there are
signs of waking. When it is left off, the patient gradually comes round as if waking
from ordinary sleep, and frequently speaks of having been in a dream, sometimes of
a very pleasant character, but never knows what has taken place. No ill effects
follow, but sometimes there is a little drowsiness or stiffness of the limbs, which soon
passes off. A pocket handkerchief soaked in the fluid, and held over the mouth and
nose will answer equally well ; but whatever is used, it must not le pressed close,
because a portion of air ought to enter with the vapor to prevent suffocation ; and it
should also be removed immediately the effect is produced. When it is borne in
mind how much these requisites have been neglected, and how impure the ether or
chloroform has often been, it is wonderful that more accidents have not occurred ;
and the fact that so few have happened under such a state of things, and with our
limited experience, goes far to prove that there is little or no danger at all in com-
petent hands, with pure materials. The accounts circulated in the papers of "death
from ether," and "fatal effects of chloroform," have mostly been gross exaggera-
tions, and frequently false altogether. In most of the cases where death has followed
from the use of these agents, it has been proved to arise from other causes, and would
have happened if they had not been used. In one or two cases, however, of surgical
operations, the ether itself appears to have caused death by producing suffocation, or
congestion of the lungs ; but, even in these, it has been shown that it was used in an
improper manner. Thus a young woman in Newcastle, in England, inhaled ether to
have a diseased toe-nail cut off, and died. It appears, however, that there was an
evident disposition in her to congestion or rushes of blood, and therefore she was not
a fit subject, and besides, the ether was poured on a thick table-cloth, which, of course,
prevented the entrance of air along with the vapor, and thus suffocated. I believe
there is not a single case on record of injury resulting when due precautions have
been used, and I have not heard of one at all in midwifery practice.

ADDENDUM.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF EVOLUTION; AND THE
PEDIGKEE OF MAN.

PLATE XLI.

ffiratoplasm

The Evolution of Life and Pedigree of Man.

CHAPTER LXXXIIL

EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGBEE OP MAN.

To still farther elucidate ihe process of Evolution, and the Descent of Man, thj
following plates from HaeckeFs " Evolution of Man " are appended to this edition of
" The Origin of Life."

Professor Haeckel gives us a Pedigree Tree, showing the steps by which man haa
been evolved, along with other beings, from the lowest known living forms, the mo-
nera. This tree I have extended downwards, so as to start at the beginning. (See
Plate XLI. Frontispiece.)

Commencing at the root of the tree we have the primary elements, which begin
to arrange themselves together in groups of two or more, forming compound bodies
differing from each other according to their composition.

On the left side we have those elements combining which form mineral matters,
oxides, salts, and stones. The highest form of organization these compounds attain
to is that of crystals. This is their extreme development, their highest type, and
nothing further is to be expected from them. We have in them the perfection of
geometrical form. They nearly all have straight sides, and regular angles; are
homogeneous, and very little liable to change.

Passing to the right side we have certain of the elements, mainly carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen, forming into compounds commonly termed organic ;
such as ammonia, water, and carbonic oxide. These form into what are called col-
loid substances, such as gum, albumen, or white of egg, and jelly, which have no
regular forms like mineral crystals, nor are they permanent, but constantly liable to
change from slight causes.

One form of colloid matter is protoplasm, or the matter of life. It is a some-
what variable compound of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and resembles
the substance familiarly called jelly. From this substance, as explained in the
earlier chapters of "The Origin of Life," all organic beings are evolved.

Referring to the Tree we find the motiera the first and simplest of all living
things, mere masses of jelly-like protoplasm, showing life only by simple motion as
they are acted upon by surrounding influences.

Next, following the trunk of the tree, come the AmcebcB, a little higher, show-
ing faint indications of will or choice in their movements ; and these branch off into
the Infusoria on one side, and into the egg-animals on the other. Ascending the
trunk the development goes on till we come to the Oastreads, or animals with true
stomachs ; these branch off into Sponges, Star Fishes, Mollusca, Zoophytes (or plant
animals), and various other forms till we reach Insects on one side, and Ascidians on
the other. Some of the branches are subdivided into still smaller ones, but all can
be traced back to the primitive form in the trunk from which they have all been de-
rived. This primitive form — say one of the worms — may die out completely, while

915

91 6 EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGREE OF MAN.

the whole or part of the branches derived from it may remain. Or, on the contrary,
all the branches may disappear, and the primitive worm still remain. It is not,
therefore, a transformation of the primitive form as a whole into any of the branches
that takes place, but some individual member of the primitive family, placed undei
modifying circumstances, begins to change, and the change goes on till the branch
or variety results. The new characters which the branch acquires are communicated
to its offspring by heredity, and are thus perpetuated. There is, however, always
the primitive form underneath, and very frequently it is returned to, even in the
remotest branches.

These beings, so far, are all Invertebrates, or without backbones ; but the highest
of them, the Chorda Animals, show faint traces of a nervous chord in the position
where the backbone should be.

In the next group above we reach the Vertebrate animals, or those with back-
bones. The lowest of these, however, are skulless, and the backbone itself in some
(as the Amphioxus) is little more than a firm jelly. A little higher up, however,
we come to Fishes, and finally to Amphibious Animals. From these branch
out a variety of new forms, such as Reptiles, from which come Birds. The fishes
themselves branch off into a great many varieties, differing both in form and habits.

The highest group brings us to the Mammals, or those which suckle their young,
to which group belongs man.

Following the main trunk, we have first the Primitive Mammals, or those show-
ing the first imperfect rudiments of mammalian structure. To these succeed the
Pouched Animals, then the Semi-Apes, the True Apes, Ape Men, and finally Man
himself.

At various stages, however, in this group as in all the others, branches diverge
from the primitive stem, and assume a variety of forms, all, however, being mam-
mals. Thus we have on one side Beasts of Prey, Rodents, Bats, and Beaked Ani-
mals, and on the other Hoofed Animals, Whales, and Sloths.

The Apes also have branched off into Orangs, Gibbons, Chimpanzees, and Goril-
las ; and finally man himself has diverged into several varieties, more or less differ-
ent, and with distinctive characters more or less permanent.

It is erroneous, therefore, to suppose that man passed through all the forms rep-
resented by the branches of the tree. He has not sprung from a gorilla or chim-
panzee, but these have branched off from that primitive ape man, from which all
alike have sprung. In his embryonic development man shows this, for he passes
through all the types below him, as shown on the trunk of the tree, till in his very
beginning he is a mere mass of protoplasm.

Man never was an ape, nor have evolutionists ever said he was, in the sense that
some people suppose. But unquestionably some individual of the primitive Ape-
Man family was so far modified by his surroundings, as to become a true man, and
from him the race has descended.

He must be traced downwards, therefore, through the different types, as shown
in the trunk of the tree. In the same way every branch can be traced back to its
original type in the main trunk, and thence downwards to the primitive elements.

Whether still farther development may take place, and a still higher being than
man be evolved, we know not, but it is quite possible that the tree may finally have
to be carried still higher.

The correspondence in structure of man and the animals nearest to him now

EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGREE OF MAN.

917

Figure 197.— Correspondence of Structure in Man and Apes.
known is well shown in Figure 197. both in external form and bony structure.

918 EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGREE OF MAN.

It will be observed that the differences are caused not by one animal haying parts
different from another, but simply in the same parts having different proportions.
Each part has in each been modified, in a different way, from a common ancestor.

The embryonic development of different animals, as shown in Plates XLI., XLII.,
and XLIII., will make it clear how they all start from one common primary form,
though they diverge so much in their after development.

In reference to the point illustrated by these plates Huxley remarks : " Is man a
peculiar organism ? Does he originate in a wholly different way from a dog, bird,
frog, or fish, and does he thereby justify those who assert that he has no place in
nature, and no real relationship with the lower world of animal life ? . . . Or
does he develop from a similar embryo, and undergo the same slow and gradual pro-
gressive modifications ? The answer is not for an instant doubtful, and has not
been doubtful for the last thirty years. The mode of man's origin, and the earlier
stages of his development, are undoubtedly identical with the animals standing di-
rectly below him in the scale. Without the slightest doubt he stands in this re-
spect nearer the ape than the ape does to the dog."

The truth of this is evident from Plates XLI., XLII., which depict embryonic
development from man to the fish.

The upper row of figures in each plate shows the embryo of each animal named
below at the same early period, and it will be seen that they are absolutely identical,
as Huxley says. The embryo of man is exactly like that of either of the others,
so that at this stage there is no difference between them. In other words, all these
different animals are derived, by evolution, from the same primitive organism, which
has been itself evolved from a simple cell, or egg, and that from a small mass of
protoplasm.

Even at a more advanced stage, as shown in the middle row, the different beings
vary but little from each other, so that the hog could readily be taken for a man.

Even at birth the deviations are only modifications. They all have the same
parts, as shown in the bottom row, and are readily recognized as being fundament-
ally the same. If a perfect series were to be shown, beginning with the one nearest
to man, and following with the nearest to that, and so on downward this would be
so evident that no one could dispute it. The chain of descent would be perfect if
we could show all the links.

In Plate XLII., the development of the Fish is shown byF. I., F. II., F. III.; the
Salamander by S. L, S. II., S. III.; the Turtle by T. I., T. II., T. III.; and the
Chicken by C. L, C. II. , C. III., all at the same periods. It will be seen that at
stage I. they are all identical. They begin to vary at stage II., and diverge still
more at stage III., or at birth.

Plate XLIII. shows corresponding stages, I., II., III., of a Man (M.), of a Bab-
bit (R.), of a Calf (C), and of a Hog (H.). It will be seen that at stage I. they
cannot be told one from another. At stage II. there is but little difference. And
at stage III. even, the relation can be distinctly traced.

Taking the development of the face alone, the same fact is shown. Thus in
Plate XLIV. we have the development of the face in Man, M. I., M. II.; the Bat,
B. I., B. II. ; the Cat, C. I., C. II. ; and the Sheep, S. I., S.II ., as seen in the embryo
of each. It takes very close inspection to make out any essential difference between
man and the sheep, the cat and the bat, or between any two of them at this stage,
notwithstanding the great dissimilarity between them in after life.

PLATE XLH

^%S&?Wl&FX%?^

Ifimbryonic Development of a Chicken, a Turtle, a Salamander, and a Fish.

PLATE XLin.

Embryonic Development of a Man, a Babbit, a Calf, and a Pig.

PLATE XLIV.

Embryonic Development of the Face, in a Man, a Cat, and a Bat.

EVOLUTION AND THE PEDIGBEE OF MAN.

919

Sometimes particular features are more perfect among the apes than among the
lower varieties of human beings, as in the case of the nosed apes, Figs. 198, 199,

Figure 198.— Tlie Nosed Ape

Figtjke 199. — Julian Pastrana.

Here we have the Nose Ape from Borneo contrasted with the celebrated Julian
Pastrana, the ape man. In this case not only is the ape the better of the two in
regard to the nose, but even in the whole facial development.

African Woman.

Fig. 200 shows the peculiar development of some of the African women referred
to at page 732.

INDEX.

Abobtiok, 351.

extent, and dreadful effects of it, 436.

may result from the father, 193.

or miscarriage, 892.
Acarus Crossii, 87.

Acid, nitric, a result of plant growth, 89.
Adaptation, when perfect, prevents exhaustion

from connection, 437.
Adornment, personal, different modes of, 731.

personal, uses of, 730.
Adultery, none in ancient Sparta, 750.
African Chiefs, their opinion of white women,

732.
After-birth, delivery of, 821.
After-pains, 826.

Age — Men of an hundred years being parents,
457.

none fixed when a man ceases to be capa-
ble ; curious case of the Banbury
Peerage, 457.

when both sexes begin to be capable, and
when they cease to be so, 456.
Air, difficulty of getting pure, and how to puri-
fy it, 81.

of London and of the Alps, difference in
them, 81.
Alba Dolens, 907.
Allantois, its uses, 305.
Amative feeling, often absent in females, 442.

indulgence, philosophy of, 440.
Amenorrhcea, or stoppage of menstruation, 660.
Amoebas, their structure, and how formed, 69.
Anaphrodisiacs, what they are, 423.
Ancon sheep, 470.

Animalcules, production of. Experiments of
Pouchet and Bastian, 34.

seminal, history of, 179.

number of needed to impregnate, 177.

their forms and movements, 181.
Animals, classification of, 113.

how improved by proper attention to the
laws of Heredity, 463.

which appear only at long intervals and
in strange places, 84
Ant, female, with egg bag, 147.
Anteflexion of the womb,' 627.
Anteversion of the womb, 622.
Annuloida, 115.
Annulosa, 115.
Aphis, green, virgin generation of, at all stages,

Aphrodisiacs, what they are, and how they act,

423.
Appetite, derangements of during pregnancy,

875.
Area, germinal, 303.
Arm, presenting with the head, 842.

right, why preferred to the left, 327.
Aromatics and spices, their sexual influence, 422.
Artificial Impregnation, curious case from an old

Arab book, 452.
when needed and how effected, 452.
Atoms, always in motion, 83.
Attraction, the same as choice and selection, 55.
Audubon, on bird loves, 717.
Auscultation, to discover pregnancy, and the

position of the child, 780.
Australian mode of wooing, 730.
Axis and straits of the pelvis, 762.

B.

Bacteria, formed in dead bodies, 88.
how produced, 31.

Ballotment, practice of, to ascertain pregnancy,
775.

Balz, or curious dance of the Black Cock in the
pairing season, 717.

Banbury Peerage, curious case of aged parentage,
457.

Barrenness, may result from a fault on either
side, 458.

Bastards, how considered and treated, at dif-
ferent periods, and among different
people, 737.

Bastian, on Tyndall's experiments, 82.

Bathybius, or deep-sea protoplasm, 26.

Batz, commune of, a case of close intermarriage,
477. .

Bearded Lady, case of, 469.

Beauty, type of, among the ancient Greeks, 747.

Bemis, Dr., statistics of marriage, 477.

Bend sinister, meaning of, 737.

Berkeley, Lord, marrying at eight years old, 456.

Bernhauer, Agnes, affecting case of her mar-
riage, 72.7.

Betrothment, 728.

Birds, copulation of, 215.
love making, 716.

male, combats for possession of the
females, 717.

Black Cock, curious dance of when pairing, 717.

Bladder, rupture of, 630.

921

922

INDEX.

Bleeding at the nose, 885.

Blisters, how they affect the sexual organs, 449.

Blood, a protoplasmic fluid, 97.

changes which occur in it, 97.

shower of, explained, 78.

spitting and vomiting of, 885.

the mother's, how it may affect the child,
315.
Blood cells, their power of selecting materials,

97.
Blue disease, in newborn infants, what it is,

327.
Boarding schools, danger of, 705.
Brain, evolution of, 104.

human, develops through all the stages
of the lower types of animals, 315.

influence of upon the sexual organs, 447.

parts of it not yet developed — what may
they become ? 462.
Brains of criminals, nearly always abnormal, 337.
Breast, abscess of, 904.

affections of after delivery, 903.

alterations of during pregnancy, 770.

engorgement of, 904.

inflammation of, 904.

male, sometimes forms milk, 765.

of the human female, structure of, 764.
Breathing, difliculty of, 879.
Breech presentation, delivery in, 800.
Breed, improvement of, 478.

of human beings can be improved, 478.
Breeding, cross, 476.

necessity for attending to it systematical-
ly, 465.
Brittleworts, what they are, 76.
Bronchocele, 906.

Brown-Sequard, experiments in production of
epilepsy, bv hereditary transmission,
465.
Buds, or gemmae, generation by, 125.
Burdach, on germs, 82.

C.

Caesarian operation, 868.
Camphor, its sexual effect, 421.
Cannabis Indica, its effects upon the sexual or-
gans, 422.
Cantharides, or Spanish flies, its influence on

the sexual organs, 420.
Carbon, and carbonic acid ; how formed, and

fixed, 45.
Carbuncle of the genitals, 634.
Carunculae Myrtiformae, 221.
Castration, effects of, 155.
Catchfly, or Campion, 50.
Caterpillar fungus, 85.
Caucasian compared with Bushman, 104
Cauterization, use of in Spermatorrhoea, 569.
Cauterizing, its dangers, 569.
Cell, embryo, 301.

membrane of, 65.

membrane of, how formed, 66.
Cellar plant, 84.

Cells, aggregation of into compound organisms,
93.

division of — can it go on indefinitely ? 95

families of, 94.

how formed, and what they are, 63.

propagation of, 94.

simple, animal and vegetable, 64.

Cells, size of, 65.

the modes in which they mingle their con-
tents at the time of impregnation, 281.
Cerebellum, its apparent connection with the

sexual organs, 449.
Change of lif e, 693.

nature of, 359.

when it occurs, 458.
Change of one animal into another, 119.
Changes in animals by development, 119.
Child, at every stage, from the germ to birth,
318.

at full term, form and size of, 783.

attentions to after birth, 823.

extra large, impeding labor, 843.

formation of, 297.

how influenced by the mother, 315.

how it is nourished in the womb, 328.

one formed within another, 330.

period when it can live, 353.

size of, at every stage, 319.

the way it is formed, from the germ, 301

weight of, at every stage, 319.
Child and mother, how they are connected in

the womb, 323.
Child bearing, in old age, how accounted for,

458.
Child-bed fever, 898.
Child killing, by the mother, after delivery, often

the result of a morbid impulse, 461.
Children born without heads, 339.
Children by one man may be affected by another,
392.

double, 338.

fine, how insured by the Joloffs, 732.

five at a birth, 349.

illegitimate, 737.

of either sex, at will, 371.

six at a birth, 348.

their descent traced through the mother,
instead of the father, 733.

with extra limbs, and double heads, 340.

365 reported at one birth, 350.
Chloroform in midwifery, 909.
Chlorosis, or green sickness, 673.
Chorda dorsalis, 305.
Clitoris, amputation of, 223.

and penis the same, 311.

containing a bone, 241.

double, in some animals, 241.

unnatural growth of, 604.
Close intermarriage not injurious, 477.
Clots or membranes in monthly flow, 667.
Clubs, matrimonial, 726.
Coal, or Carboniferous Period, 45.
Ccelenterata, 115.
Coffee, its sexual effect, 421.
Cohesion of the external lips, 603.
Colloid matter, what it is, 76.
Combe, Dr. , on the influence of mental and bod-
ily conditions of the mother upon her
child, 315.
Conception, can it occur after violence? 459.

can it occur during sleep, or in a state of
unconsciousness? 459.

extra-uterine, 329.

probable causes of, 334.

two foetuses at one time, 333.

false, 334.

outside the womb, 329.

INDEX.

923

Conception possible without any male inter-
course, by imagination only, 396.
prevention of, 425.
when possible and when not, 191.
Conceptions resembling plants, animals, and

other objects, 335.
Concubines, 728.
Congester ; instrument to cause growth in penis,

252.
Connection, after conception, can it influence the
offspring? 389.
sexual, after conception, and its conse-
quences, 389.
with one man, may influence a woman's
children by another man, 392.
Constancy in birds, 719.
Constipation, 877.
Continence, sexual, complete, often a great evil,

445.
Convulsions, at the time of delivery, 859.
Cook, Captain, account of marriage customs in

the Sandwich Islands, 736.
Copulation, cause of the natural impulse to, 203.
curious varieties in the manner of, 205.
in plants, 274.
or sexual union, 203.
Corals, formation and structure of, 93.
Cord, shortness of, 842.

spermatic, falling of, 516.
tying after delivery, 820.
umbilical, 307, 788.
procidentia of, impeding labor, 840.
Corpora Wolffiana, 307.
Corpus cavernosum of the penis, 245.
luteum, formation of, 148.
luteum, number of, 149.
spongiosum of the penis, 245.
Corsets, causing abortion, 417.
Cough, 879.
Courtship and pairing, interesting facts about,

712.
Cousins, marriage of, is it necessarily hurtful ?

477.
Cowper's glands, varieties of, 258.
Cramp of the stomach, 876.
Cramps, 889.
Creation, Vestiges of the natural history of

(quotation from), 86.
Crime and disease, the duty of society and indi-
viduals in regard to its prevention,
473.
Cross-breeding, 476.
Crosse, experiments on production of living

acarus by electricity, 86.
Crustaceans, curious organs of, to assist in pair-
ing, 712.
Currents, electric — the same in plants and ani-
mals, 53.
Customs of marriage among various peoples, 735.
Juttle-fishes, curious mode of impregnation of,

712.
.ystocele, or hernia of the bladder, 630.

Darwin, Charles, on the Descent of Man, 107.

on different modes of personal adornment,

731.
law of natural selection, 463.
Deaf-mutes, not a result of the marriage of near
relations, 477.

Death, apparent, in hysteria, 680.

only a change from one form to another,
66.
Debility and disease, the result of deranged cell

growth, 98.
Deformed pelvis, 835.
Deformities in the foetus, 335.
Deformity and disease, how transmitted from
parents to offspring, experiments of
Brown-Sequard, 465.
how caused by dress, 417.
Delivery, accidents which may happen after to
the child, 824.
artificial, at eight months, in case of de-
formed pelvis, 838.
attendance during, 817.
attentions after, 822.
how to conduct, 808.
in a presentation of the breech, 800.
in presentations of the face, 803.
in presentations of the trunk, 805.
mechanism of in a presentation of the

head, 794.
of a dwarf, 837.
of the fcetal head, 795.
of the shoulders, 796.
preparations for, 816.
signs of, 809.

spontaneous, in a natural labor, 808.

state of mind after in females, 460.

Descent, why sometimes traced through tha

mother, instead of the father, 733.
Development of the new being from the germ,
302.
plan of in animals, 118.
Devotional excitement, amative effect of, 443.
Dialysis, 65.

Diarrhoea and dysentery, 878.
Diatoms, what they are, 76.
Diet, influence of upon the sexual powers, 431.
Differentiated, meaning of, and instances of, 113,
Dionea muscipula, 50.
Dipsomania, probably arises from diseased brain,

467.
Disease and crime, duty of society and individ-
uals in regard to its prevention, 473.
and deformity, how transmitted from pa-
rents to offspring, experiments bj
Brown-Sequard, 465.
Diseased and deformed people should not propa

gate, 478.
Diseases and malformations of the male system,
489.
of women during pregnancy and child,
bed, 872.
Displacement, or wrong position of the female

organs, 609.
Divorce, 729.

a civil aot only, 736.
Dizziness and headache, 881.
Dorsal lamina?, 304.
Dot, germinal, 154

Double children, remarkable cases, 338.
inheritance, law of, 475.
people that lived, 344.
Doubt, the advantage of it, 102.
Dress, how it may affect female health, 416.
Dropped testicle, 517.
Dropsy of the fallopian tubes, 657.
of the ovaries, 657.
of the womb, 650.

924

INDEX.

Drosera, 49.

Drugs, influence of upon the sexual powers,
420.

Drunkenness, may probably be transmitted by
heredity, 467.
probably arises from diseased brain, 4(57.

Duration of sexual power, 435.

Dust, atmospheric, largely composed of infu-
soria and various germs, 85.
organic, found in the bodies and bones of
animals, 85.

Dysentery and diarrhoea, 878.

Dysmenorrhcea, or painful menstruation, 666.

Dyspnoea, or difficulty of breathing, 879.

Earth, eatable, what it is, 74.

eaters, 74.
Echidna, or porcupine ant-eater; generative

organs of, 262.
Eclampsia, or convulsions at delivery, 859.
Egg, expulsion of, 148.

monthly formation of in the human fe-
male, 145.

shark's, 153.

structure of, 154.
Eggs and seeds, only cells, 144.

different kinds, 152.

or germs, are only specialized cells, 95.

or ova, in all animals, including man, 142.
Electric battery, the world probably at one time

surcharged with electric force, 88.
Electro silicon, what it is, 74.
Elephantiasis — remarkable case, 514.
Embryo and ovum, in the earliest stages of de-
velopment, 300.

at every stage, from the germ to birth,
318.

first appearance of, 299.

its nutrition in the earliest stages, 301.
Engagement of marriage, 729.
Enterocele, or rupture of the intestines into the

vagina, 632.
Entozoa, their origin and varieties, 43.
Epididymitis, 498.

swelled testicle, treatment, 500.
Epilepsy, transmitted by hereditary descent,

experiments of Brown-Sequard, 465.
Epispadias, 521.
Epistaxis, 885.
Epizootic influenza, 79.
Erectile tissue, 245.
Ergot of rye, its uses, 421.
Erotomania and satyriasis, 591.

case of, 592.
Ether, its sexual effect, 422.
Eunuchs, peculiarities of, 444.
Evolution, extends through all nature, physical
and mental, 106.

spontaneous, delivery by, 806.

what it is, 101.
Excesses, sexual, effects of, 577.
Excessive sensibility of the sexual organs 531.
Excitement, devotional, amative effect of, 443.

sexual use of, 444.
Experience, inherited, 105.
Expiation of marriage, 734.
Extra-uterine conception, 329.

Face, presentations of, 803.
Fainting, 881.

Falling of the spermatic cord, 516.
of the womb, 609.
treatment of at every stage, 619.
Fallopiau tubes, 229.
dropsy of, 657.
inflammation of, 655.
Family peculiarities may be transmitted — cases

469.
Family traits, commonly transmitted, 468.
Father-in-law, in France, bound to support his

son-in-law, 739.
Father may disease the mother, through the

child, 301.
Female, human, external generative organs oi,
221.
when she begins and ceases to be capable,

457.
organs, displacement, or wrong position

of, 609.
internal, 229.
malformation or imperfect development

of, 603.
system, diseases and derangements of,- 603.
Fever, childbed, 898.

splenic, caused by Bacillius subtilis, 89.
Fighting, curious modes of, when pairing, by

birds, 718.
Fiji, marriage customs of, 735.
Firing, to cause growth of sexual organs, 255.
Fishes, males, fighting for the females, 715.
i Fissiparous generation, 125.
Flagellation, use of in causing growth of sexual

organs, 255.
Flies, Spanish, their uses, 420.
Flogging, effects of, upon the sexual organs, 450.
Flooding, 671.

during labor, 849.
during labor, how to treat, 851.
during pregnancy, 891.
( Flow, monthly, stoppage of, 660.
; Fluor albus, or whites, 643.
J Foetal circulation, peculiarities, 325.
growth in virgins, 151.
head, diameters of, 784.
heart, how to hear it beat in the mother's

body, 778.
nutrition, 323.
Foetus, at full term, form and size of, 783.
attitude at full term, 785.
found in the body of a woman aged 78,

333.
in a man's scrotum, 343.
its appendages at full term, 787.
position of, at the full period, 781.
presentations, and positions of, 789.
Fontanelles of the foetal head, 783.
Food and drink, influence of, upon sexuA

power, 431.
Food, effects of different kinds on sexual organs,

431.
Foraminifera, what they are, 76.
Force, indestructible, probably one, 17.
Forceps, drawing the head through a narrow
pelvis, 867.
the use of in delivery, 864.
France, marriage law of. 738.

INDEX.

925

Free-martin, a peculiar kind of hermaphrodite,

John Hunter's account of, 385.
Fungus of the testicle, 497.

G.

Galvanism, use of, in causing growth of sexual

organs, 255.
Gambling, passion for may be transmitted, 473.
Gastralgia, or cramp of the stomach, 876.
Gastric juice, the same in plants and animals,

53.
ftastrospasm, 687.
Gelatine of Wharton, 788.
Gemmiparous generation, 125.
Generation, alternation of, 283.
dioecious, 141.

fissiparous and gemmiparous, 125.
organs of, in fishes, frogs, and reptiles

generally, 212.
in oviparous animals, 211.
in the different types of animals in both

sexes, 209.
in the human female, 220.
primal, or the first origin of life, 27.
spontaneous, its history, 28.
synopsis of all the different modes of, 263.
theories of the spermatists and the ovists
—of syngenesis, epigenesis, and evo-
lution, 264.
virgin, 283.
Generative organs at various stages of develop-
ment in a male and female child, to
show their identity, 313.
how they develop in the child while in the

womb, 311.
of plants, 271.

the same in male and female, 309.
Germs and seeds, many of them withstand boil-
ing, 82.
atmospheric, experiments with, 29.
fungus, 36.
universal organic, 63.
of disease, 38.

probably only organic particles, 81.
their nature and origin, 30.
Gestation, duration of, and laws of different

countries in regard to, 357.
Girlhood, period of, 698.
Girls castrated in ancient times, 155.

New Zealand, when converted still desir-
ing tattooing, 732.
quite young, becoming mothers, 457.
Greece, Ancient, position and influence of women

in (Contemporary Review), 740.
Green sickness, or chlorosis, 673.
Gregarinas, the lowest forms of living beings, 67.
Grouse, love dance of, 718.

Guinea-pigs, Brown-Sequard's experiments with
in hereditary transmission of epilep-
sy, 465. v

H.

Hematocele, or blood-swelling of the scrotum

and spermatic cord, 513.
Hemoptysis, 885.
Haemorrhoids, 887.
Hair snakes, so called, 34

Hanging, curious sexual effects of, 448.
Head, diameters of, 784.

foetal, at birth, its bones, sutures, and

fontanelles, 783.
injuries to, how they may affect sexual

power, 447.
ossification of, 844.

remarks on the different positions of, 797.
Headache and dizziness, 881.
Health necessary to beauty among the ancient

Greeks, 747.
Hearing, affections of, 883.
Heart, formation of, 305.

how to hear it beat in the mother's body

778.
palpitation of, 880.
Helen and the Trojan War, 745.
Hemorrhage during pregnancy, 891.

uterine, during labor, 849.
Hereditary descent and improvement of t'ae

race, 462.
Heredity, influence of, 119.

laws of, apply to both body and mind,
471.
Hermaphrodism, 132.
Hermaphrodites, different kinds, 132.
Hunter on, 383.

so-called, in human beings, 380.
Hernia humoralis, or inflammation of the tes-
ticle, 498.
Hernia in the scrotum, 510.
Hints useful for all ages, 695.
Hooker, Dr. J., description of the caterpillar

fungus, 85.
Horse, mucus from the nostrils when diseased,

79.
Horses, habits of, when pairing, 720.
Hottentot female, curious development of the
nymphse, 222.
ideal of beauty, 733.
women, singular peculiarities of, 732.
Howe, Dr. S. G., on self-abuse, 580.
Hufeland, art of prolonging life, and sexual

power, 437.
Human beings, of all types, are probably all
from one simple organism by the
process of evolution, 106.
body, its composition, 15.
Hunter, John, on hermaphrodites, 382.

on the free-martin, 383.
Huxley on molecular forces, 83.
Hybrid, a remarkable one between a horse and

a deer, 485.
Hybrids, curious cases of, 482.
die out, 482.

hybridization, and cross-breeding, 481.
one-sided, 481.
two-sided, 481.

what animals will cross to form hybrids,
482.
Hydatids of the womb, 651.
Hydra, reproduction of, 126.
Hydrocele, or dropsy of the testicle 489
tapping for, 492.
treatment of, 491.
Hydrocephalus, 844

Hydrometra, or dropsy of the womb, 650.
Hydrophobia, probably only sexual madness,

597.
Hydrorrhcea, 888.
Hymen, description of, 239.

926

INDEX.

Hymen, the, 221.

the, not a proof of virginity, 227.
Hypospadias, 519.

Hysteralgia, or neuralgia of the womb, 687.
Hysteria, its causes, symptoms and treatment,

678.
Hysterical mental disorders, 684
Hysterocele, or hernia of the womb, 630.

Illegitimate children, standing of, social and

legal, 737.
Imagination alone causing a woman to conceive,
curious case brought before the Par-
liament of Grenoble, 396.
causing a black child to be born of a

white mother, 401.
influence of, upon generation, 392-7.
in the mother, affecting the child in vari-
ous ways, 401.
Immobility of the womb, 628.
Impotence caused by too much mental work, and

by drugs, 412.
Impotence from spermatorrhoea, 555.

or loss of sexual power, 406.
Impregnation, artificial, a common practice by
horticulturists, 455.
artificial, a successful case of, 453.
artificial, in the case of a wounded sol-
dier, 453.
artificial, wben called for, and how ef-
fected, 452.
can it occur during unconsciousness, or

sleep ? cases in which it has, 459.
in frogs and plants, 199.
manner of, 194
may occur after violence, 460.
the same in plants and animals, 274.
what it is, with Pouchet's Ten Laws, 184.
when possible and when impossible, 197.
Improvement of animals, by attending to the
laws of heredity, men equally capable
of being so improved, 463.
in breeding, 476.

of the race, by proper breeding, 475.
Incontinence of urine, 527.
Indian hemp, its effects on the sexual organs,

422.
Indians, American, customs of, in regard to pair-
ing, 735.
Inflammation of the fallopian tubes, 655.
of the ovaries, 655.
of the vagina, 636.
of the vulva and external lips, 634
of the womb, 636.
Infusions, organic, and what they develop, 36.
Infusoria, ciliated, 32.

from the bottom of the ocean, 75.
how produced, 31.
Inherited tricks, 470.

Inorganic, or dead matter and its properties, 18.
Insanity, connected with masturbation, 584.
hereditary, 471.

the proportion of, caused by masturbation,
587.
Insects, curious organs of, to assist in pairing,
713.
how they court, 714.
Insomnia, 882.
Instruments, operations with in delivery, 864.

Intercourse of the sexes perfectly unrestrained,

in the Sandwich Islands, 736.
Intermarriage and pairing, 473.

close, not hurtful, commune of Batz, 478.
Inversion of the lining of the vagina, 632.

of the womb, 627.
Itching of the external parts, or prurigo, 635.

Jelly-fish, generation of, 293.

Jews, intermarriage among, 478.

Joannis Wieri Omnia, a very curious book, 159.

Joloffs, their practice in breeding fine children,

732.
Judgment, disordered, 884.
Jukes family, 473.

Kadesh, meaning of, 734 .
Kangaroo, generative organs of, 26L
King Charles and the fish, 101.
Knowledge, how we gain it, 101.
Kyestine, a sign of pregnancy, 771.

Labor, causes of, 808.

how it may be protracted by various un-
usual presentations and positions, 844
how to conduct, 808.
natural duration of, 813.
progress, phenomena and duration of,

when natural, 810.
natural, at each period, 810.
delivery in, 808.
how to conduct, 814.
prolonged, caused by small or deformed

pelvis, 834
causes of, 830.
consequences of, 830.
Lady Baker, how an African king proposed to

improve her, 731.
Lady d'Auvermont, becoming pregnant in the
absence of her husband, by imagina-
tion alone, 396.
Lady Sale, delivered during the retreat from

Afghanistan, 763.
Lapland, curious practice with young male rein-
deer, 505.
Leucophrys, gaping, 69.
Leucorrhcea, or fluor albus, 643.
Lewes, Q. H. , on the origin of life, 82.
Life, a form of motion, 19, 83.

animal and vegetable, identical, 55.
animal life dependent upon vegetable

life, 45.
change of, 693.

change of, when it occurs, and why, 458.
everywhere, 71.
its basis, 24.

its first beginnings, protista, 40.
its phenomena in all forms of matter,

organic and inorganic, 58.
resemblance of all its phenomena in the
animal and vegetable worlds, by P.
Darwin, 56.
resulting from the action of electric cur-
rents, 86.

INDEX.

927

life, the aggregate of all the molecular forces
comprising the organism, 97.

what it is, 23.
Light, its effect on infusions, 37.
Likings, strange, in girls, 675.
Lips, external, inflammation of, 634
Liver, when formed, 307.

Living, or organic bodies ; their properties, 18.
Lochia! discharge, 826.
Longings, in the mother, affecting the child,

401.
Loss of semen, excessive, 533.
Love and courtship take place in all animals,
even the lowest, 715.

bowers, planted by birds, 716.

dance of birds, 717.

making, by reptiles, 716.
Lunatic Asylum, Massachusetts, reports of,
bearing on masturbation, 585.
statistics of, bearing upon the use of to-
bacco, 572.

M.

Malays, marriage customs of, 735.

Male, permanent influence of, upon the female

Male system, its diseases and malformations,

489.
MamstnaB, or breasts, 220, 764
Man, ouilt up of simple cells, 70.

development of, through all the lower

animal forms, 118.
resembles a woman turned inside out, 321.
sexual organs of, 243.
Mania, sexual, 595.
Manna, what it was, 72.
Marcus, on painless extinction, 473.
Marks, mothers', on children, how produced,

403.
Marriage, a civil contract only, 736.

a matter of chance, instead of fitness ;

consequences, 464.
and position of women, at all ages, and

among all peoples, 722.
at what age allowed to take place, 456.
changes in modern times, 729.
communal, 722.
confusion in regard to it in Great Britain,

738.
customs, among various peoples, 735.
excellent law of, in England, 738.
expiation of, 734.
hand-fast, 727.

how considered at different periods, 736.
in ancient Sparta, intended to produce

strong and healthy children, 750.
in one country not always good in an-
other, 739.
in the Hebrides, of the king, curious cus-
tom, 726.
latitude allowed in it in ancient Sparta,

750.
miscellaneous topics connected with, 387.
morganitic, 726.
morganitic, affecting case of Agnes Bern-

hauer, 727.
necessary to the existence of society, 737.
cf near relations, 464.
ordained by nature, 444

Marriage, precautions to observe at the time of,
439.
preserves sexual power, 436.
proper age for, 438.
Scotch law of, 738.
single, considered indecent, 724.
single, how it first began, 722.
the chief object of, among the ancient

Spartans, 750.
the law of in various countries, 738.
various forms of, 720.
when true, causes no loss of power to
either in association, 436.
Married women, property of; former injustice
of the laws regarding it, 738.
their rights now better respected, 739.
Marsupials, generative organs of, 258.
Martin, free, John Hunter's description of, 384
Masturbation and insanity, 587.

and other sexual abuses, 576.
causes of, 588.
Dr. S. Q. Howe upon, 580.
Matrimonial clubs, among the ancient Britons,

726.
Matrix, or womb, 220.
Matter, dead and living all the same, 44.
dead, or inert, does not exist, 83.
indestructible ; probably one, 16.
its secondary compounds, 44.
organic and inorganic compared, and
shown to be the same, essentially, 47.
organic and inorganic, in what respect
they differ, 47.
Meal, mountain, what it is, 74.
Measles in pork, 290.
Meat-eating plants, 52.

Medicines, how they affect the sexual powers,
420.
how they cause or cure spermatorrhoea,
570.
Medusa, generation of, 293.
Membranes, fcetal, 787.
Memory, good, may be transmitted or spoiled,

471.
Menses, suppressed, treatment of, 664.
Menstruation and puberty, 689.
cause of, 359.

first appearance of, and cessation of, 363.
in other animals, analogous to that of the

human being, 368.
old superstitions about it, 365.
painful, 666.
profuse, 670.

stoppage or non-appearance of, 660.
Mesmerism, effect of upon the sexual system,

443.
Metritis, chronic, 636.

or inflammation of the womb, 636.
Microscope, how to use in examining the semen

directions by Lallemand, 557.
Midwifery, and the diseases and accidents pecu.
liar to pregnancy and childbirth, 755.
Milk, fungus found in it, 78.
how formed, 764.

sometimes formed in the male breast, 765.
sometimes formed very early, and very

late, 765.
fever, 827.
leg, 907.
Mind, effect of its over use, and abstraction, upon
sexual power, 434

INDEX.

Mind, probable even in the lowest forms of life,
69.
state of in females at the time of delivery,
460.

Miscarriage, 892.

Misplacement of organs, 343.

Mistress, the law about, in France, 739.

Mollusca, 115.

Monads changing to amoeba, 35.
how formed, 35.

the starting points of all animals, man
included, 96.

Moners, their origin, 41.

Monotremata, generative organs of, 261.

Monsters, 329.

Monstrosities of conception, remarkable in-
stances, and probable causes, 335.

Monstrous growths, 329.

Mons veneris, 220.

Monthly flow, stoppage of, 660.

Morganitic marriage, 726.

Mother and child, attentions to after birth, 825.
how they are connected in the womb, 323.

Mothers, young girls becoming so, 457.

Motion, the result of cell change, 98.

Movement, Brownian, 31.

Mulattoes, curious facts about, 482.

Mules, semen of, 177.

Mumps, how they may cause sterility and impo-
tence, 415.

Musk, its effect, 424

Mutilations considered as adornments, 731.

Mycodermi aceti, or vinegar plant, 89.

Myriana, reproduction of, 128.

N.

Natural selection, Darwin's Law of, 463.
Nature, includes all in herself, 103.
Navel string, formation of, 323.
Near relations, effect of their marriage, 478.

marriage of, 464.
Neck of the womb, in a first child and in a sub-
sequent one, 777.
Neuralgia of the testicles, 508.

of the womb, 687.
New being at every stage, from the germ to its
birth, 318.

development of, 297, 302.
New Zealand girls, ideas of ugliness, when con-
verted, 732.
Nitrate of potash, its effect, 421.
Nitrogen, needed by animals, 64.
Nucleus, and nucleolus, 63.
Nummulites, 75.
Nutrition, foetal, 323.
Nymphae, formation of, 311.

odorata, 424.

the, 221.

union of, 604.

unnatural growth of, 604.
Nymphomania, 595.

Obliquity of the womb, 627.

Odors and scents, how they affect the sexual

organs, 423.
Odor, sexual, its influence, 424.
<Edema, 888.

Old and young, effect upon both of close con-
tact, 437.
Opium, effects of upon the nervous and sexual

systems, 574
Opossum, American, generative organs of, 259.
Orchitis, or swelled testicle, 498.
Organic beings, first forms of, 63.

particles, or germs, everywhere, 81.
Organisms, the lowest, their universality and

enormous numbers, 71.
Organs, female, diseases of, 603.

generative, of snails, spiders, bees, and

crustaceans, 213.
of swimming birds and their singular

modifications, 215.
male, diseases of, 489.
misplaced, 343.
sexual, in plants, 271.
when first visible in child, 309.
Orgasm, what it is, 442.
Ornithorynchus, generative organs of, 262.
Osmose, process of, 65.
Ostrich, peculiarities of its generative organs,

215.
Ovaries, dropsy of, 657.

female, the same originally as the male

testicles, 309.
inflammation of, 655.
of a young girl, removed by her father,

effects of it, 155.
the, 229.
Ovary and ovum, 143.
Ovipositor, uses of, 156.

Ovum, first changes in, after impregnation, 29U
Oxygen, the destroyer, 64.

P.

Painless extinction, Marcus on, 473.
Pairing and courtship, interesting facts about,
712.

and intermarriage, 473.
Palpitation of the heart, 880.
Panspermism, what it is, 83.
Paralysis of the penis, 523.
Paramecia, mode of origin, 32.
Paraphymosis, 522.

Parasites found upon fish and crustaceans, 294
Parr, old, a father when over 100 years old, 457.

old, doing penance for bastardy when over
100 years old, 436.
Parthenogenesis, or virgin generation, 283.
Pastile, Turkish, 424.
Patagonians, marriage customs of, 735.
Peculiarities, family, either good or bad, may

be transmitted hereditarily, 469.
Pellicle, primary, how produced, 31.

secondary, how produced, 31.
Pelvis, bones of, 760.

deformed, no woman with one should
ever become pregnant, 837.

deformed, or small, prolonging labor, 834.

diameters of, 761.

narrow, with the head of the child fixed
fast, 837.

smallest size of, that admits of delivery,
836.

structure of, 759.
Penis, absence and malformation of, 247.

and clitoris, the same, 311.

929

Penis, compressing it to prevent the flow of se-
men, effects of it, 528.
how to cause growth in it, when too small,

249.
internal structure of, 250.
paralysis of, 523.
peculiar forms of in all types of animals,

256.
small size of, 248.
structure of, 244.
tied down by cord, 248.
with bone in it, 247.

varieties in its form, in different animals,
220.
Perineum, position of, 759.

supporting during delivery, 819.
Pessary, use of, and various kinds of, 615.
Phlegmasia, 907.
Phosphorus, its effects upon the sexual organs,

421.
Phrenology and amativeness, 449.
Phymosis, 522.
Physiological processes common to all animals,

113.
Piles, 887.

Pistils of plants act like the female organs of
animals, 274.
formation of, 323.
Placenta, the, 787.

Plants, carnivorous, or flesh-eating plants, 48.
cross fertilization of, by C. Darwin, 476.
during inflorescence, emitting light, heat,

and electricity, 279.
reproductive organs of, and their corre-
spondence with those of animals, 269.
which appear only at long intervals, and
in strange places, 84.
Pollen, curious forms of, 276.

of plants, analogous to the semen of ani-
mals, 276.
Polyandria, or one woman with many husbands,

725.
Polygamy, curious form of, in feudal times, 734.
its origin, 722.
one cause of, 735.
reason for its decline, 724.
Polypus in the pelvis, impeding labor, 839.

of the womb, 648.
Polyzoa, 117.

Pork, measly, what from, 73.
Position, left anterior occipito - iliac, 794,
797.
of the child in the womb, how to dis-
cover by the beating of its heart,
780.
right anterior occipito-iliac, 796.
Positions and presentations of the foetus, how
to ascertain them, 791.
relative frequency of the different kinds,
793.
Power, sexual, deficiency or loss of, 406.
how lost and restored, 598.
how to preserve, 437.
Precocious puberty, 457.

Pregnancy and position of the child, discovered
by the beating of its heart, 780.
duration of, 353.
examination to ascertain, 773.
how long may it last? 354.
presumptive signs of, 767.
probable and certain signs of, 772.

Preguancy, signs of, and means of detecting it,
767.
the end of, 782.
Premature labor, 351.

Presentations and positions of the foetus, 789.
of the lower extremities, 799.
general remarks, 801.
relative frequency of the different kinds,
792.
Prevention of conception, 425.

by compressing the urethra, evil effects

of, 429.
why difficult, 427.
Priapism, or involuntary erection of the penis,

523.
Primitive trace, 304.
Procreation, when capacity for it begins, and

when it ceases, 456.
Profuse menstruation, 670.
Prolapsus uteri, or falling of the womb, 609.
Promiscuous intercourse, 736.
Propagation, general neglect of the laws of
heredity in regard to it, 468.
should be controlled by society, 479.
should be scientifically regulated, 473.
Propensities, disordered, 884.
Proper time for sexual indulgence, 433.
Prostate gland, diseases of, 529.

inflammation and abscess of, 530.
various forms of in different animals, 258.
i Prostatic vesicle, in man, the same as the womb

in woman, 309.
I Prostitution, public, once a religious and social

duty, 734.
j Proteus, or amoeba, 69.
| Protomyxae, their origin, 41.
j Protoplasm, its origin, and elements, 25.
its varieties, 26.
the matter of life, 24.
I Protozoa, 115.

the degree of heat and cold they can with-
stand, 78.
the lowest forms of living beings, 65.
Prurigo, or itching of the external parts, 635.

or itching of the scrotum, 513.
Puberty and menstruation, 689.

precocious, 457.
Pubic bone, 220.
Puerperal fever, 898.
Pustules, 888.
Pyramids of Egypt, built up from fossil infu

soria, 75.
Pyrosis, or water brash, 876.

Eacodium cellare, or cellar plant, 84
Badiolaria, what they are, 78.
Eafinesque, M. C. F. , cases of hybrids, 483.
Eelations, near, marriage of, 464.

marriage of, not a cause of barrenness, 477.

results of their marrying, 474.
Eelationship, near, not necessarily a bar to mar-
riage, 477.
Eelaxation of the scrotum, 517.
Eeport of the Massachusetts S. Lunatic Asylum

on masturbation, 585.
Eeproduction, fissiparous, 127.

non-sexual, 125.

sexual, 132.

what it is, 123.

INDEX.

Reproduction, when the sexes are divided, 141.
Reptiles, making love, 716.
Retroflexion of the womb, 627.
Retroversion of the womb, 622.
Rheumatism of the womb, 642.
Right arm, why preferred to the left, 327.
Robertii cordiceps, and Sphaeria, 85.
Rupture, some causes of, 419.
Rush, Dr., on tobacco, 572.

S.

Sacrum, curious superstitions connected with it,

352.
Salivation, during pregnancy, 873.
Saltpetre, its sexual effect, 421.
Sandwich Islands, former customs of marriage,

736.
Sap, or vegetable protoplasm, 59.
Sarcocele, or fleshy swelling of the testicle, 495.
Satyriasis and erotomania, 591.
Scotch laws of marriage, 737.
Scrotocele, or rupture of the intestines into the

scrotum, 510.
Scrotum, relaxation of, 517. )

Seals, changes in form in the pairing season, 721.

curious habits of, in pairing, 720.
Selection, natural, as a means of improving
breeds, 478.
Darwin's Law of, 463.
Self-abuse, 705.

and insanity, 587.
cases of, 709.
confession of, 706.

or masturbation, Dr. S. G. Howe upon,
580.
Semen, composition and uses of, 170.

how to examine with the microscope, 559.
its quality impaired by spermatorrhea,

559.
microscopical examination of, 559.
quantity of, needed to impregnate, experi-
ments upon, 177.
when imperfect, may he a cause of bar-
renness, 458.
Seminal animalcules, curious theories about,
179.
destroyed by spermatorrhoea, 559.
how to find with the microscope, 562.
in different animals, 183.
origin, form, and size, 171.
the basis of the new being, 179.
when discovered, 179.
fluid and nervous substance similar, 535.
losses, involuntary, 533.
vesicles, varieties of, 258.
Sensation, common to both plants and animals,
48.
probable even in stones, 58.
Senses, all of them only modifications of touch,

70.
Sensitive plants, 54.
Separation of married people, for a time, often

beneficial, 439.
Sertularia, generation of, 291.
Sex, causes of the difference of, 370.

double, or hermaphrodites, so called,

379.
either male or female, can be produced

as desired, 374.
how to produce at will, 371.

Sex, rules to insure either one or the other, at

will, 377.
Sexual excesses, various authors on the effects
of, 577.
indulgence, proper time for, 433.
the philosophy of, 440.
organs, excessive sensibility of, 531.
external, of human female, 221.
how they develop in the child while in

the womb, 311.
how to make grow, when too small, 254.
in a male and female child, at different

stages, to show their identity, 313.
in the child, when first visible, 309.
male and female identical with each other,

309.
of man, 243.

power, deficiency and total loss of, 406.
duration of, 435.

its preservation and restoration, 598.
may last tiU extreme old age, 436.
preserved by marriage, 436.
Shampooing the genitals, to make them grow,

253.
Sharks, and other fishes, with claspers to hold

the female, 714.
Sheep, the Ancon, 470.
Shortness of the cord, 842.
Siamese ladies, peculiarities of, 732.
Sickness and vomiting, during pregnancy, 872.
Sight, affections of, 883.
Siredon lichenoides, changing into a Salaman

der, 119.
Sleeping of the young with the old, effects of it,

Smoking, effect of upon spermatorrhoea, 571.
Snails copulating, 136.

sexual organs of, 135.

water, generative organs of, 213.
Snow, red, 72.
Society is developed by evolution like the in

dividual, 707.
Solitary vices, 705.
Somnambulism, 679.
Spanish flies, their effects, 420.
Spartans, perfection of their men and women,
749.

their customs in regard to propagation,
734.
Spaying, effects of, 155, 444.
Species, change of, 109.
Speck, protoplasmic, first formation of, 65.
Spermatocele, or swelling of the testicle from

overf ullness of semen, 509.
Spermatorrhoea affecting the semen, 558.

causes of, 536.

effects of, 539.

effects of medicines in causing or curing
it, 570.

or excessive loss of semen, 533.

remarkable cases of, 541, 543, 544, 550.

symptoms of, 553.

treatment of, 565.

why it is so hurtful, 534.
Spermatozoa, history of, 179.

how to find with the microscope, 562.
Spices, their sexual effects, 422.
Spider, male, small size of, and perils of, in con
nection, 713.

INDEX.

931

Spider, tLe female, chooses her partner, 713.
Spirits, can they cause conception in a female ?

397
Spitting of blood, 885.
Sponges, formation and structure of, 94
Spontaneous evolution, delivery by, 806.
Stag, effects of castration upon, 720.
Stallions, anecdote of, in the Falkland Islands,

720.
Stamens, in plants, act like the male organs of

animals, 274.
Sterility, causes of, 407.

curious modes of curing, 407.

its causes, and cure, 451.

may be caused by imperfect semen, 408.

not always the fault of the woman, 458.

operations for, 451.

witchcraft, and charms used to remove it,
411.
Sticklebacks, how they care for their young,

715.
Stone in the womb, 651.
Straits of the pelvis, 762.
Stricture, congenital, 528.

from disease of the prostate gland, 529.
Sutures of the foetal head, 783.
Swallowing, difficult, 876.
Swedenborgian views on marriage, 436.
Swelling, watery, 888.

Sympathy and intellect shown by birds, 719.
Symphysis pubis, 759.
Syncope, 881.

Syphilis, in the father, may affect the child,
and through it the mother, 301.

T.

Tape-worm, at all its different stages, 291.

generation of, 288.

of the cat, and lark, 292.
Tartars, marriage customs of, 735.
Tastes, depraved, in chlorosis, 675.
Tea, its sexual effect, 421.
Testicle, cancer of, 496.

consumption of, 505.

fungus of, 497.

ossification of, 502.

removal of, 496.

scrofulous, 496.
Testicles, double, deficient, and wasted, 166.

foreign bodies in the scrotum with, 506.

in various animals, 169.

irritable, 506.

nervous affections of, 506.

peculiar way in which they are formed,
and carried in different animals, 257.

small, and wasted, 502.

structure of, in man, 166.

the size of may be increased, 503.

wasting, the cause of it, 504.

when formed, 309.
Thought a form of motion, resulting from cell

change, 98.
Throat, swelling of, 906.
Tobacco, authorities quoted upon its effects, 572.

effect of, in causing spermatorrhoea, 571.
Toilette, hints about, 703.
Toothache, during pregnancy, 874.
Torulae, the yeast fungus, 39.
Trace, primitive, 304.
Trance, in hysteria, 680.

Tressoria, the, 221.

Trichina spiralis, its mode of life, and reproduo

tion, 73.
Tricks, inherited, 470.
Triplets and quadruplets, 346.
Tripoli powder, what it is, 74.
Trunk, delivery in presentations of, 805.
Tumor in the pelvis, impeding labor, 839.

of the womb, 649.
Tumors, sarcomatous, of the testicle, 495.
Turning the child, during labor, in case of flood
ing, 855.

in labor, manner of performing it, 869.
Twins, and more, relative number of, 347.

and superfcetation, 345.

and triplets, in labor, 843.

can breed, 346.

connected together, the Siamese Twins
and others, 341.

how they present in delivery, 798.

one black and one white, 346.

position of, 781.

probable cause of, 345.

when male and female, the female often
imperfect, 382.
Tyndall, Professor, experiments on

generation, 79.
Types of animals, 115.

of living beings, 113. '

U.

Umbilical cord, 788.

formation of, 323.

protruding, 840.
Urachus, 307.
Urethra, diseases of, 526.

formation of, in male and female, 311.

malformation of, 527.
Urinary organs, derangement of, 889.
Urine, incontinence of, 527.

trouble with after delivery, 908.
Useful hints for all ages, 695.
Utricularia, or bladderwort, 50.

Vagina, and its connections, 238

closure of, 605.

falling of, 633.

inflammation of, 636.

inversion of the lining of it, 632.

narrowness of, 606.

obstructions in, impeding labor, 840.

or womb, absent, 607.

structure of, 759.

the, 229.
Vaginitis, or inflammation of the vagina, 636.
Vallisneria spiralis, curious mode of its impreg

nation, 277.
Varicocele, or swelling of the veins of the scro

turn and spermatic cord, 511.
Varicose veins, 886.
Vasa deferentia, diseases of, 518.
Vertebrata, 117.
Vesicle, blastodermic, 303.

germinal, 154, 301.
Vesicles, how formed, and what they are, 63=

seminal, diseases of, 519.
Vibriones, how produced, 31.
Vices, solitary, 705.

932

INDEX.

Violation, proofs of, 228.

Virgin generation, 283.

Virginity, artificial, how produced, 228.

singular means for insuring it in Asia and
Africa, 228.
Virtue, as considered under the communal sys-
tem, 734
Vitellus, or yelk of the egg, 154.
Vorticelli, reproduction of, 129.
Vulva and external lips, inflammation of, 634.

structure of, 759.

W.

Waist, female, how deformed hy corsets, 417.
Water hrash, 876.

red, 72.
Watery head, 844.
Weekes', W. H., experiments on the production

of life by electric action, 86.
Whistelo ; curious case of alleged parentage, af-
fected by the mother's imagination ,404.
Whites, or leucorrhoea, 643.
Widows remarrying, may have children like

their first husbands 392.
Wife, when rich, bound to support her husband

in Scotland, 739.
Wives, different ways in which they are ob-
tained, 730.
Wolffian bodies, 307.
Womb or vagina, absence of, 607.

alteration in the neck of, from pregnancy,

774.
and its ligaments, 229.
closing of mouth of, 607.
cut open, 235.
dropsy of, 650.

or vagina, engorgement or enlargement
of, 640.
falling of, 609.
growing fast to various parts of the body,

hydatids in, 651.

immovable, 628.

inflammation of, 636.

inverted, or turned inside out, 627.

muscles of, 758.

neuralgia of, 687.

polypus of, 648.

rheumatism of, 642.

rupture of, 630.

rupture of, during delivery, 862.

scirrhous, or cancerous engorgement of

641.
stone, or calculus of, 651.
structure of, 757.
, physical training of in Ancient Greece,

their position and influence in Ancient
Greece (Contemporary Review), 740.
Worms, how they copulate, 136.

Tolk, or vitellus of the egg, 305.

Young and old, effects upon both of their close

contact, 437.
sleeping with the old, effects of it on the

young, 692.

Z.

Zoospermes, description of, and their move-
ments, 181.
history of, 179.

INDEX TO ADDENDUM.

Amoebae, 915.

Ape Man, the progenitor of man, 916.

Ape Men, 916.

Branches of the Tree of Evolution, 915.

Chimpanzees, 916.

Chorda Animals, the lowest type of the verte-
brates, 916.
• Development, embryonic, the same in man and
other animals, 918.

Elements, the. How they combine to form col-
loids and protoplasm, or. crystals,
915.

Embryonic development of man, fish, bird, rep-
tile, rabbit, calf, and hog, compared,
918.

Embryos of different vertebrates compared with
each other, and with man, 918.

Face, embryonic development of the, in man,
sheep, and bat, 918.

Gastreads, or stomach animals, 915.

Gorillas, 916.

Haeckel, Professor, bis pedigree of man, 915.

Heredity, how it perpetuates variety, 917.

Mammalia, 016.

Man, correspondence in structure of man and
other animals, 916.
finally evolved, 916.

how he must be traced downwards, 916.
is he a peculiar organism (Huxley), 918.
nearer the ape than the ape is to the dog,

918.
never was an ape, 916.
not sprung from the Gorilla, 916.
pedigree of, Haeckel, 915.
will he be yet further developed, 916.
Man's origin, mode of, the same as that of other

vertebrates, 918.
Monera. How they are formed from proto-
plasm, 915.
Nose Ape, compared with Julian Pastrana, 919.
Pedigree of man, Haeckel, 915.
Structure of man and other animals the same,

916.
Transformation, how it occurs, 917.
Varieties, diverging, 916.
Vertebrates, 916.
Woman, African, peculiar form of, 919.

I

Accession no. 322
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