.<^''-

w

* JUL 1 8 1906 *]

Division BS M 7

.K376'

THE

ORIGIN AND PERMANENT VALUE

OF

THE OLD TESTAMENT

THE ORIGIN AND

PERMANENT VALUE OF

THE OLD TESTAMENT

BY

v./

CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D.

WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY

lit gfiall Jtnohj t\it ^rtitfj anU tlje ®rut!j sijall

NEW YORK

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

1906

Copyright, 1906 By Charlks Scribner's Sons

Published April, 1906

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.

PREFACE

During the past generation the Old Testament has commanded equally with the New the enthusiastic and devoted study of the great body of biblical scholars throughout the world. Tw^o out of every three graduate students in our universities who specialize in the general field of biblical literature choose the Old as the special centre of their work. At the same time the tendency of the rank and file of the Christian church within the past decade has un- doubtedly been to neglect the older Testament. Preachers as a rule select less than a fourth of their texts from it; the prevailing courses of Bible study devote proportionately less time to it; and teachers and scholars in the great majority of cases turn to the Old Testament with much less enthusiasm than they do to the New. Why are these two great currents set- ting in opposite directions, and what are the causes of the present popular neglect of the Old Testament? If the Old Testament should be relegated to a second place in our working

vi Preface

canon of the Bible, let us frankly and carefully define our reasons. If, on the other hand, the prevailing apathy and neglect are due to igno- rance of the real character and value of the Old Testament, let us lose no time in setting our- selves right.

The present volume has been suggested by repeated calls from ministerial bodies, popular assemblies, and groups of college students for addresses on the themes here treated. The aim has been to give in concise, popular form an- swers to some of the many questions thus raised, with the conviction that they are in the mind of every thoughtful man and woman to-day, and especially on the lips of earnest pastors, mis- sionaries, and Sunday-school teachers. There are indications on every side of a deepening and far more intelligent interest in the needs and possibilities of religious education. Its vital importance to the life of the Church and the nation is being understood as never before. Earnest and fruitful efforts are being put forth to improve the methods and courses of instruc- tion. The first essential, however, is a true understanding and appreciation of that Book of Books, which will forever continue to be the chief manual "for teaching, for reproof, for

Preface vii

correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be perfect, completely fitted for every good work." The supreme importance and practical value of the New Testament are recognized by all, but we usually forget when we quote the familiar words of Paul that he had in mind simply the Scriptures of the Old Testament.

In divine Providence mighty forces have been quietly at work during the past century remov- ing false rabbinical traditions and misconceptions that had gathered about these ancient Scriptures,- while from other sources has come new light to illumine their pages. The result is that in the Old Testament the Christian world is discern- ing a new heritage, the beauty and value of which is still only half suspected even by intel- ligent people. This fact is so significant and yet so little recognized that one feels impelled to go out and proclaim it on the housetops. The Old Testament can never be properly presented from the pulpit or in the class-room while the attitude of preacher and teacher is apathetic and the motive a sense of duty rather than an intel- ligent acquaintance with its real character and genuine admiration and enthusiasm for its vital truths. The irresistible fascination which has

viii Preface

drawn many of the most brilliant scholars into the Old Testament field is a proof that it has lost nothing of its power and attractiveness. Al- ready the circle of those who have rediscovered the Old Testament is rapidly broadening. Ob- servation and experience confirm the conviction that all that is lacking to make that devotion universal is a right attitude toward it and an intelligent familiarity with its real origin, con- tents, and teachings. The sooner this is realized the sooner some of the most difficult problems of the Church, of the Sunday-school, and of popular religious education will be solved.

As the repository of a great and varied litera- ture, as a record of many of the most important events in human history, and as a concrete revelation of God's character and will through the life and experiences of a race and the hearts of inspired men, the Old Testament has a vital message marvellously adapted to the intellectual, moral, social, and spiritual needs of to-day and supremely fitted to appeal to the thought and imagination of the present age.

This little volume is intended to be simply a very informal introduction to it. Since of the two Testaments the New is by far the more easily understood and the better known, it is

Preface ix

made the point of departure in the approach to the more complex field represented by the Old. Many unexpected analogies will aid in under- standing the intricate literary history of the older Scriptures. The point of view assumed throughout is that of the busy pastor, mission- ary, Sunday-school teacher, and scholar, who have little time for technical study, but who are not afraid of truth because it is new and who firmly believe that God is ever revealing himself more fully to men and that his truth shall make us free. It is hoped that this general survey will prove for them but an introduction to a far deeper and more profitable study.

To the Reverend J. F. McFarland, D.D., of the Bible Study Union, to the Reverend S. A. Cooke, D.D., of the Methodist Book Concern, to Mr. John H. Scribner of the Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sunday-school Work, to the Reverend M. C. Hazard, D.D., of the Pil- grim Press, and to the Reverend F. K. Sanders, Ph.D., of the Congregational Sunday-school and Publishing Society, who have generously read the manuscript of this book, I am deeply in- debted, not only for their valuable suggestions, but also for their strong expressions of personal interest in the practical ends which it seeks to

X Preface

conserve. I am also under great obligation to tlie Reverend Morgan Miller, of Yale, for his untiring vigilance in revising the proof of a volume written within the all too brief limits of a Christmas vacation.

C. F. K.

Yalb Univkrsitt,

January, 1906.

CONTENTS

Page I. The Eclipse and Rediscovery of the

Old Testament 1

11. The Real Nature and Purpose of the

Old Testament 19

III. The Earliest Chapters in Divine

Revelation 35

IV. The Place of the Old Testament in

Divine Revelation 49

V. The Influences that Produced the

New Testament C3

VI. The Growth of the Old Testament

Prophetic Histories 85

Vll. The History of the Prophetic Ser- mons, Epistles, and Apocalypses . . Ill Vin. The Development of the Earlier Old

Testament Laws 123

IX. Influences that Gave Rise to the

Priestly Laws and Histories . . . 143

X. The Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 161

XI. The Writings OF Israel's Philosophers 177

XII. The History of the Psalter .... 189

XIII. The Formation of the Old Testament

Canon 203

xii Contents

Pagi:

XIV. The Interpretation of the Early Nar- ratives OF the Old Testament . . 223

XV. Practical Methods of Studying the

Old Testament 245

XVI. Religious Education — The Funda-

mental Problem of To-day . . . 259

THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

The opening chapters of the Gospels record jesus' study only three or four meagre facts regarding the ^Testament first thirty years of Jesus' life. The real his- tory of those significant years ran so far beneath the surface of external events that it completely escaped the historian. The history of the men- tal and spiritual fife of the Master is recorded in his mature character and teachings. The fugi- tive hints, however, vividly illustrate the su- preme fact that he ever grew stronger^ becoming filled with wisdom ; and the grace of God was upon him (Luke ii. 40). They reveal a soul not only in closest touch with God and with human life, but also in eager quest for the vital truth re- garding God and man recorded in the Scriptures of his race. It requires no imagination to pic- ture the young Jew of Nazareth eagerly study- ing in the synagogue, at the temple, and alone by himself the sacred writings found in our Old Testament, for this fact is clearly recorded on every page of the Gospels.

4 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The events of Hebrew history, and its heroes — Abraham, David, Elijah — were all familiar to him. The Old Testament was the background of a large portion of the Sermon on the Mount. From Deuteronomy vi. 4, 5, and Leviticus xix. 18 he drew his marvellous epitome of all law and duty. In the wisdom literature, and especially in the book of Proverbs, he found many of those practical truths which he applied to life with new authority and power. From the same store- house of crystallized experience he derived cer- tain of those figures which he expanded into his inimitable parables ; he adopted also, and put to new use, the effective gnomic form of teaching of the wisdom school. As in the mouth of his herald, John the Baptist, the great moral and spiritual truths, first proclaimed by the ancient prophets, live again on the lips of Jesus. At every point in his teachings one recognizes the thought and language of the older Scriptures. At the mo- ments of his greatest temptation and distress, even in the last agony, the words of the ancient law and psalms were on his lips and their con- soling and inspiring messages in his mind.

What is so strikingly true of Jesus is equally true of the apostles and disciples who have given us the New Testament books : the atmosphere in which they lived, the thoughts which they

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 5

thought, and the language in which they spoke, were those of the Old Testament. Not bowing \ slavishly before it, as did their Jewish contem- poraries, but with true reverence, singling out that which was vital and eternal, they made it the basis of their own more personal and perfect message to humanity. But for them, and for the early Church, until at least the middle of the second Christian century, the only scri^)- tures regarded as authoritative were those of the Old Testament. Even then, only gradually, and under the pressure of real needs, were dif- ferent groups of Christian writings added and ascribed an authority equal to that of the older Scriptures.

Throughout the Middle Ages and in the eyes Attitude of of the Protestant reformers the two great divi- church, and sions of the Bible continued to command equal p^rftamsm respect and attention. From the Old Testa- ment and its reflection in the teachings of Paul, Puritanism and the theology of the past three centuries derived most of that which revealed their strength as well as their weakness. From the law, the prophets, and the book of Proverbs they di'ew their stern spirit of justice, their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising con- demnation of everything that seemed to them wrong. Their preachers nobly echoed the thun-

6 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

ders of Sinai and the denunciations of an Elijah, an Amos, and an Hosea. They often failed, however, to recognize the divine love which prompted the stern words of the prophets, and to see that these denunciations and warnings were simply intended to arouse the conscience of the people and to make them worthy of the rich blessings that God was eager to bestow. Misinterpretation of the spirit of the later Old Testament reformers, who dramatically por- trayed Jehovah's hatred for the abominable heathen cults in the form of commands to slaughter the peoples practising them, frequently led the Puritan fathers to treat their foes in a manner neither biblical nor Christian. To this narrow interpretation of the letter rather than the spirit of the Old Testament, and the emphasis placed upon its more primitive and im- perfect teachings can be directly traced the worst faults of that courageous band who lived and died fighting for what they conceived to be truth and right.

It is undoubtedly true that during the past two decades the Old Testament has in fact, if Puritanism ^^^ '^^ theory, been assigned to a secondary place in the life and thought of Christendom. This is not due to the fact that the Christ has been exalted to his rightful position of command-

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 7

ing authority and prestige. All that truly exalts him likewise exalts the record of the work of his forerunners wliich he came to bring to com- plete fulfilment and upon which he placed liis eternal seal of approval. Rather, the present eclipse of the Old Testament appears to be due to three distinct causes. The first is con- nected with the reaction from Puritanism, and especially from its false interpretation of the Bible. Against intolerance and persecution the heart of man naturally rebelled. These rang true neither with life nor the teaching of Jesus. Refuge from the merciless and seemingly flaw- less logic of the earlier theologians was found in the simple, reassuring words of the Gospels. The result was that, with the exception of a very few books like the Psalter, the Old Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militant theol- ogy, has been unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by the present generation.

Within the past decade this tendency has Doubts been greatly accelerated by the work of the ^JiTwork of so-called " Higher Critics." Because it presents %iti^i?^^'' more literary and historical problems, and be- cause it was thought, at first, to be farther away from the New Testament, the citadel of the Christian faith, the Old Testament has been the scene of their greatest activity. With what

8 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

seemed to the onlooker to be a supreme disre- gard for the traditions long accepted as estab- lished by the Church, they have persistently applied to the ancient Scriptures the generally accepted canons and methods of modern his- torical and literary study. In their scientific zeal they have repeatedly overturned what were once regarded as fundamental dogmas. Unfor- tunately the first reports of their work sug- gested that it was only destructive. The very foundations of faith seemed to be shaking. Sinai appeared to be enveloped in a murky fog, instead of the effulgence of the divine glory; Moses seemed to become a vague, unreal figure on the distant horizon of history; David's voice only faintly echoed through the Psalter; and the noblest messages of prophet, sage, and psalmist were anonymous. The mis- Little woudcr that many who heard only from

Mcs^ ^ ^ afar the ominous reports of the digging and delving, and vague rumors, — all the more ter- rifying because vague, — either leaped to the conclusion that the authority of the Old Testa- ment had been undermined or else rallied in a frantic effort to put a stop, by shouting or com- pulsion, to the seemingly sacrilegious work of destruction. When the history of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament is finally writ-

The Eclipse and Bediscovery 9

ten, it will be declared most unfortunate that the results first presented to the rank and file of the Christian Church were, as a rule, largely negative and in many cases relatively unimpor- tant. In their initial enthusiasm for scientific research scholars, alas ! sometimes lost the true perspective and failed to recognize relative val- ues. The date, for example, of Isaiah xl.-lv. is important for the right understanding and in- terpretation of these wonderful chapters, but its value is insignificant compared with the divine messages contained in these chapters and their direct application to life. Moreover, instead of presenting first the testimony and then patiently pointing out the reasonableness and vital signifi- cance of the newer conclusions, scholars some- times, under the influence of their convictions, made the fatal mistake of enunciating those con- clusions simply as dogmas.

History demonstrates that established reli- Resulting gions and churches always hold tenaciously to in the 'Old old doctrines, and therefore regard new conclu- ^^^^"*^" sions with suspicion. This tendency is clearly illustrated in the experience of Jesus ; for with all his divine tact and convincing authority, he was not able to win the leaders of Judaism to the acceptance of his revolutionizing teachings. Yet one cannot escape the conviction that if in

10 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

this age of enlightenment and open-mindedness, the positive results of modern scholarship had been presented first, this latest chapter in God's revelation of himself to man would have been better understood and appreciated by the lead- ers of the Church, and its fruits appropriated by those whose interests are fixed on that which is of practical rather than theoretical import. At least many open-minded people might have been saved from the supreme error of writing, either consciously or unconsciously, lehahod across the pages of their Old Testament. Difficulties The third reason why the Old Testament has suffered temporary eclipse in so many minds is more fundamental; it is because of the diffi- culties in understanding it. The background of the New Testament is the Roman world and a brief century with which we Western readers are well acquainted ; but the background of the Old is the ancient East — the age and land of wonder, mystery, and intuition, far removed from the logical, rushing world in which we live. The Old Testament contains a vast and complex literature, filled with the thoughts and figures and cast in the quaint language of the Semitic past. Between us and that past there lie not merely long centuries, but the wide gulf that is fixed between the East and the West.

in under standing it

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 11

With three such distinct and powerful cur- The new rents — reaction, suspicion, and misunderstand- ^^V7/jonT ing — bearing us from the Old Testament, it "'^"'^ might be predicted that in a decade or two it would lie far behind our range of vision. Other forces however are, in divine providence, rap- idly bringing it back to us again, so that we are able to understand and appreciate it as never before since the beginning of the Christian era. The chasm between us and it is really being bridged rather than broadened. The long cen- turies that lie back of the Old Testament have suddenly been illuminated by great search-lights, so that to-day we are almost as well acquainted with them as with the beginning of the Christian era. From ancient monuments have arisen, as from the dead, an army of contemporary wit- nesses, sometimes confirming, sometimes correct>- ing, but at all times marvellously supplementing the biblical data. Now the events and characters of Old Testament history no longer stand alone in mysterious isolation, but we can study in de- tail their setting and real significance. At every point the biblical narrative and thought are brought into touch with real life and history. The biographies and policies, for example, of Sennacherib and Cyrus, are almost as well known as those of Napoleon and Washington.

12 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The prophets are not merely voices, but men

with a living message for all times, because

they primarily dealt with the conditions and

needs of their own day. The vital relation

and at the same time the infinite superiority

of the religious teachings of the Old Testament

to those of earlier ages and peoples are clearly

revealed.

Modern Interpreted in the light of contemporary lit-

TermeVrw ©raturc and language, most of the obscurities

the Old Qf ^j^Q Q\^ Testament melt away. Modern re-

lestament

search in the fields of Semitic philology and syn- tax and the discovery of older texts and versions have put into the hands of translators new and valuable tools for making clear to all the thoughts in the minds of the original writers of the Old Testament. Studies in comparative religion, geography, and modern Oriental life and cus- toms have illuminated and illustrated at every point the pages of the ancient writings. To utilize all these requires time and devotion, but he who is willing to study may know his Old Testament to-day as well as he does the New. Rejection of Fully commcnsuratc with the great light that ^trtditi'oL lias been shed upon it from without, is that which has come from a careful study of the testimony of the Old Testament itself. Until recent times the Church has been content to

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 13

accept blindly the traditions of the late Jewish rabbis regarding the origin, history, and inter- pretation of their scriptures. Handed down through the Church Fathers and interwoven with creeds and popular beliefs, they have been identified in many minds with the teaching of the Bible itself. Yet, when we analyze their origin and true character, we find that many of them have absolutely no support in the Scriptures, and in many cases are directly contradictory to the plain biblical teachings. Too often they are but the fanciful conjectures of the rabbis. Developed in an uncritical age, and based upon the unreliable methods of inter- pretation current among the Jew^s in the early Christian centuries, they are often sadly mis- leading. A close analogy is found in the tradi- tional identifications of most of the Palestinian sacred sites. To-day the Oriental guide shows the skull of Adam beneath the spot where tra- dition places the cross of Christ. If the travel- ler desires, he will point out the very stones which Jesus declared God could raise up to be children of Abraham. Every question which curiosity or genuine interest has raised is an- swered by the seemingly authoritative voice of tradition. Investigation, however, proves that almost all of these thousand identifications are

14 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

probably incorrect. The discovery is a shock

to the pious imagination; but to the healthy

mind uncertainty is always better than error.

Furthermore, uncertainty often proves the door

which leads to established truth.

Accepiance Even SO the modern historical and critical

monyofti'ie Spirit has led men to turn from the generally

mint'^rard- ^^^^P^^^l but exceedingly doubtful rabbinical

ingits origin traditions regarding, for example, the date and

and history i i - i^ p

authorship of many of the Old Testament books, to the authoritative evidence found in those writings themselves. In this they are but fol- owing the example of the Great Teacher, who repeatedly appealed from the same rabbis and their misleading traditions to the same ancient Scriptures. The saddest fact is that many of his followers, even to-day, hesitate to follow his inspired leadership. Fortunately, as the varied strata and fonnations of the rocks tell the story of the earth's early history, so these early writings furnish the data for reconstruct- ing the illuminating history of their origin, growth, and transmission. Often the testimony of the facts differs as widely from the familiar inherited traditions as the conclusions of mod- ern science from the vague guesses of primitive man regarding the riddles of existence. Neither may represent absolute and final truth, and yet

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 15

no serious-minded man can question wliioh is really the more authoritative. To-day one of the most vital issues before the Christian Church is whether it will follow the guidance of its Founder and accept the testimony of the Bible itself or cling blindly to the traditions of the rabbis and Church Fathers.

The student of history at once recognizes in Historical

„-.,, ,, significance

the modern movement, oi which the watchword of the is, " Back to the testimony of the Bible," the fitment direct sequel to the Protestant Reformation. The early reformers took the chains off the Bible and put it into the hands of men, with full permission to study and search. Vested interests and dogmatism soon began to dictate how it should be studied and interpreted, and thus it was again placed practically under lock and key. It is an interesting fact that a young Zulu chief, a pupil of Bishop Colenso of South Africa, first aroused the Anglo-Saxon world to the careful, fearless, and therefore truly reveren- tial study of its Old Testament. With this new impetus, the task of the Reformers was again taken up, and in the same open, earnest spirit. For two generations it has commanded the consecrated energies of the most thorough scholars of Christendom. Those of England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Austria,

ment

16 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, America, and Canada have worked shoulder to shoulder, dividing the work, carefully collecting and classifying the minutest data, comparing re- sults, and, on the basis of all this work, form- ulating conclusions, some assured and some hypothetical, which best explain the facts. The unveil- Often, to thosc who liavc not followed the ^OM Testa- detailed steps, these conclusions have seemed only destructive. Many of them are assuredly so; but the vital question wliich every honest man should ask is, Do they destroy the Bible, or simply the false traditions that have gathered about it? Fortunately, most of the leaders of the Church and most intelligent laymen have already discerned the only emphatic answer to this question. The Church is undoubtedly pass- ing quietly through a revolution in its con- ception and attitude toward the Bible, more fundamental and far-reaching than that repre- sented by its precursor the Protestant Reforma- tion ; but its real significance is daily becoming more apparent. Not a grain of truth which the Bible contains has been destroyed or permanently obscured. Instead, the debris of time-honored traditions and dogmas have been cleared away, and the true Scriptures at last stand forth again in their pristine splendor.

The Eclipse and Rediscovery 17

Freed from the misconceptions and false tra- The true ditions which have gathered about it, the true jnent Old Testament rises from amidst the dust and din of the much digging and delving. To those who have known only the old it is a fresh reve- lation. Its literary beauty, its naturalness, its dignity, its majestic authority are a surprise to those who have not followed its unveiling. The old vagueness and mystery have in part disappeared, and instead it is found to contain a thousand vital, living messages for to-day. Its human as well as its divine quahties com- mand our interest and attention. Through it all God speaks with a new clearness and au- thority. Thus, that which we thought was dead has risen, and lives again to inspire us to noble thought and deed and service.

n

THE EEAL NATUEE AND PUKPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

II

THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

Turning from the Jewish and mediaeval tra- A large ditions and theories which so easily beset us, ^ilrar^"^^ ^^ we ask, What is the real nature of the Old Testament as it is revealed in this new and clearer light? The first conclusion is that it is a library containing a large and complex literature, recording the varied experiences, political, social, etliical, and religious, of the Israelitish race. The fact that it is a library consisting of many different books is recog- nized by the common designation of the two testaments. As is well known, our English word Bible came originally from the Papyrus or Byblus reed, the pith of which was widely used in antiquity as the material from which books were made. It was natural, therefore, that in the Greek a little book should be desig- nated as a hihlion. About the middle of the second Christian century the Greek Christians (first in the so-called Second Epistle of Clement

22 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The record of God's vital, per- sonal rela- tions to the Israelitish race

xiv. 2) began to call their sacred scriptures, Ta JBiblia, the books. When this title was trans- ferred to the Latin it was, by reason of a natural and yet significant error, treated as a feminine singular, Bihlia^ which reappears in English as Bible. This most appropriate name emphasizes the fact that the books thus de- scribed are a unit and yet a collection of little books, selected from a larger literature and given their present position of preeminent authority.

The term Testament suggests not the form and authority of the books, but their theme. It is the English translation, through the Latin and Greek, of the Hebrew word, herith, usually rendered, covenant. It meaus a bond or basis of agreement. It implies a close and binding contract between two parties, and defines the terms to which each subscribes and the obliga- tions which they thus assume. The Old Cove- nant or Testament, therefore, is primarily the written record of the origin, terms, and history of the solemn agreement which existed between the Israelitish nation and Jehovah. The early narratives preserve the traditions of its origin; the lawgivers endeavored to define its terms and the obligations that rested upon the people ; the prophets interpreted them in the life of the nation, and the sages into the life of the indi-

Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 23

vidual; and the historical books recorded its practical working. The signficant fact is that back of the Old Testament records exists some- thing greater and deeper than pen can fully describe : it is a vital, living connection be- tween Jehovah and his people that makes possible the unique relation which finds ex- pression in the remarkable history of the race and in the experiences and souls of its spiritual leaders. Thus through life, and in the con- crete terms of life, God reveals himself to the life of humanity.

In the light of this truth the Jewish and med- Written in

,1 .1 , 11 history and

laeval dogma that every word, and even every human letter of Scripture, was directly dictated by ^^^"^"^^ "^""^ God himself, seems sadly mechanical and bears the marks of the narrow schools of thought in which it took form. Hebrew was not, and probably will never be, the language of heaven ! Not on skins and papyrus rolls, but in the life of the Israelitish race and on the minds and consciences of enlightened men, God wrote his revelation. History and the character and consciousness of the human race are its imper- ishable records. Fortunately he also aroused certain men of old, not by word and act only, but by the pen as well, to record the revelation that was being perfected in the life of their

24 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

nation and in their own minds and hearts. He did not, however, dictate to them the form of their writings nor vouch for their verbal inerrancy. In time, out of their wi^i tings were gradually collected and combined the most sig- nificant passages and books, and to these was finally attributed the authority that they now rightfully enjoy. Secondary The ultimate basis of that authority, however, its authority is not their presence in the canon of the Old Testament. At the same time their presence there is deeply significant, for it represents the indorsement of many ages and of countless thousands who, from the most varied points of view and amid the most diverse experiences, have tested and found these ancient scriptures worthy of the exalted position that has gradu- ally been assigned to them. It is not the sup- port of the Church, although this also for the same reason is exceedingly significant. It is not the calm assumption of authority that ap- pears at every point throughout the Old Testa- ment, although this is richly suggestive; the sacred writings of other religions make even more pretentious claims. It is not that its com- mands and doctrines come from the mouths of great prophets and priests, hke Moses, Samuel, Isaiah, and Jeremiah. This fact undoubtedly

Nature and. Purpose of the Old Testament 25

had great weight w'ith those who formed the final canon of the Old Testament, and the authority of a strong, noble personality is su- premely impressive ; but divine authority never emanates primarily from a man, however great be his sanctity. Furthermore, to establish the authority derived from a Moses or a Samuel it is necessary in every case to prove that the books attributed to them by late tradition actu- ally came from their pens. Even if this could in every case be done, some of the noblest pas- sages in the Old Testament remain avowedly anonymous ; for the tendency of the great majority of its authors was clearly to send forth their messages without any attempt to associate their own names with them.

The ultimate authority of the Old TQ^\2i' Its ultimate

basis of

ment, therefore, is not dependent upon devoted authority canon-makers, nor the weighty testimony of the Church, nor upon its own claims, nor the repu- tation of the inspired men who have written it, nor the estimate of any age. Its seat of authority is more fundamental. It contains the word of God because it faithfully records and interprets the most important events in the early rehgious history of man, and simply and effectively pre- sents God's revelation of himself and of his will in the minds and hearts of the great pre-

26 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Christian heralds of ethical and spiritual truth. Back of the Old Testament is a vast variety of vital experiences, national and individual, politi- cal and spiritual, social and ethical, pleasurable and painful. Back of all these deeply signifi- cant experiences is God himself, through them making known his character and laws aud pur- pose to man. Its authority Students of the rediscovered Old Testament

ethical and , ••jtti,j»i t i

religious, also Tccogmze, m the light 01 a broader and more not scientific ^^j^gf^i ^^^^^^ ^^g fact, SO oftcu and so fatally

overlooked in the past, that its authority lies not in the field of natural science, nor even of history in the limited sense. Time and patience were destined to increase man's knowledge in these great departments and also to develop his mind in attaining it. The teaching of the Old Testament is authoritative only in the far more important realm of ethics and religion. Paul truly voiced its supreme claim when he said that it v»^as profitable for teaching, for re- pifoof for correction^ for instruction in right- eousness, that the man of God may he 'perfect, completely fitted for every good work (II Tim. iii. 16, 17). The assertion by the Church in the past of claims nowhere made or implied by the Old Testament itself is unfortunately stiU a fertile source of perplexity and dissension to

Mature and Purpose of the Old Testament 27

many faithful souls. Their salvation is to be found in a clear and intelligent appreciation of the real nature and claim of these ancient writings.

One dominant aim determines the form of Its dominant each book and the selection of individual pas- fj^TTs/JzW/- sages and binds together the whole : it is effec- ""^ ^'""^^ tively to set forth spiritual truth and to mould in accordance with God's will the characters and beliefs of men. It was the supreme bond that bound together prophets, priests, sages, and psalmists, although the means by which they accomplished their common purpose differed widely. Many a current tradition, and the crude conceptions of the ancients regarding the natu- ral world, are recorded in the Old Testament; but they are not there merely to perpetuate history nor to increase the total of scientific knowledge, but rather because they concretely illustrate and impress some vital ethical and spiritual truth. Such singleness of religious purpose is paralleled nowhere else except in the work and teachings of Jesus and his apostles.

The ever-present evidence of the divine au- Its present thority back of the spiritual teachings of th.Q proof of its Old Testament as a whole is that they ring true authority to life and meet its needs. By their fruits we know them. It is the demonstration of the

28 Origin and Vahie of the Old Testament

laboratory. We know that they are inspired because they inspire. The principles under- lying the social sermons of Amos are as appli- cable to present conditions as when first uttered. The sooner they are practically applied the sooner our capitalistic civilization can raise its head now bowed in shame. The faith that breathes through the Psalms is the faith that upholds men to-day in the midst of temptation and trial. The standards of justice, tempered by love, which are maintained in the Old Testa- ment laws make good citizens both of earth and heaven. As long as men continue to test the teachings of the Old Testament scriptures in the laboratory of experience and to know them by their fruits, nothing can permanently endan- ger their position in the Christian Church or in the life of humanity. Neglect and indifference, not Higher Criticism, alone permanently threaten the authority of the Old Testament as well as that of the New. Significance Recognizing the real nature and purpose of tionsand'^ thcse ancicut records, the true student neither denies nor is disturbed by the marks of their human authorship. As in the case of the Gos- pels, the variations between the parallel narra- tives are all evidence of their genuineness and of the sincerity of their purpose. They demon-

inconsisten- eies

Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 29

strate that God's revelation is adapted to the needs of life and the comprehension of man, because it was through life and expressed in the terms of life. Their individual peculiari- ties and minor errors often introduce us more intimately to the biblical writers and help us to understand more clearly and sympathetically their visions of truth and of God. Above all, they teach us to look ever through and beyond all these written records to the greater revelation, which they reflect, and to the infinite Source of all knowledge and truth.

The inconsistencies and imperfect teachings The record which are revealed by a critical study of the 7eZlatton^ Old Testament are also but a few of the many indices that it is the record of a gradually unfolding revelation. Late Jewish tradition, which is traceable even in the Old Testament itself, was inclined to assign the origin of every- thing which it held dear to the very beginnings of Hebrew history, and in so doing it has done much to obscure its true genesis. For- tunately, however, the history of God's gradual training of the race was writ too plainly in the earlier Old Testament scriptures to be com- pletely obscured by later traditions. The recog- nition that God's all-wise method of revealing spiritual as well as scientific truth was progres-

30 Origin and Valiu of the Old Testament

sive, adapted to the unfolding consciousness of each succeeding age, at once sweeps away many of the greatest difficulties that have hitherto obscured the true Old Testament. Jesus with his divine intuition appreciated this principle of growth. Unhesitatingly he abrogated certain time-honored Old Testament laws with the words. Ye have heard that it was said . . . hut I $ay to you. His own interpretation of his re- lation to the sacred writings of his race was that he came to bring them to complete fulfilment Rearranged in their approximately chronological order, the Old Testament books become the harmoniotis and many-sided record of ten cen- turies of strenuous human endeavor to know and to do the will of God and of his full and gracious response to that effort. The beatitude of those who hunger and thirst after righteous- ness was as true in the days of Moses as it was when Jesus proclaimed it.

Its different Finally, the right and normal attitude toward differ- ^^ ^^^ Testament leads to the wholesome con-

ent valuer clusiou that its different books are of very dif- ferent values. The great critic of Nazareth again set the example. As we have just seen, certain of the Old Testament laws he distinctly abro- gated ; others he quietly ignored ; others, as, for example, the law of love (Deut. vi. 5, and Lev.

l^ature and Purpose of the Old Testament 31

xix. 19) he singled out and gave its rightful place of central authority. A careful study of the Gospels, in the light of the Old Testament, demonstrates that a veiy important element in his work, as the Saviour of men, was in thus separating the di'oss in the older teachings from the gold, and then in giving to the vital ti-uth a clearer, more personal, and yet more universal application. For the intelligent student and teacher of to-day the Old Testament still re- mains a great mine of historical, ethical, and religious truth. Some parts, like Genesis, Deu- teronomy, Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah xl,-lv., and the Psalter, are richly productive. Others, like Numbers, Chronicles, and Esther, are compara- tively barren.

Since the Old Testament is the record of a Applicatxon progressively unfolding revelation, it is obvious ^-^ that all parts do not possess an equal authority. To place the example of the patriarchs or of David, who lived when ethical standards and religious beliefs were only partially developed, on an equality with the exalted ideals of the later prophets, is to misinterpret those ancient Scriptures and to reject the leadership of the Great Teacher. At the same time, studied from the newer point of view, the examples of those early heroes are found to illustrate vital prin-

82 Origin andj Value of the Old Testament

ciples in human life and to inspire and warn the child of to-day as effectively as they did far back in the childhood of the race. The Old III these later days God has taken the Bible

notafetfch ^^^m the thronc of infallibility on which Pro- butaspiri- tcstantism sought to place it. By a gradual book and yet benign process, which we were never-

theless at first inclined bitterly to resent, he has opened our eyes to its true character and pur- pose. Again, he has pronounced his Thou shalt not to the natural and yet selfish human desire to transfer moral and intellectual responsibility from the individual conscience to some external authority. Again, he has told us that only in the sanctuary of the human soul is the Infallible One to be found. Yet in order that we each may find him there, the cumulative religious experience of the countless thousands who have alread}^ found him is of inestimable value. The Old Testament contains not merely the word of God, but, together with its complement the New, is the great guide-book in finding and knowing him. It blazes the way which the pilgrim of to-day, as in the past, must follow from his cradle to the throne of God. At each point it is richly illustrated by the actual religious experiences of real men and women. Their mistakes and their victories are equally instruc-

Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 33

tive. From many vantage -points reached by prophets and priests and psalmists, we are able to catch new and glorious visions of God's char- acter and purpose for mankind. Through its pages — sometimes dimly, sometimes brightly, but growing ever clearer — shines the divine light of God's truth and revelation, culminating in the Christ, the perfected revelation and the supreme demonstration that man, though beset by temptation, baffled by obstacles, deserted by friends, and maligned by foes, can nevertheless, by the invincible sword of love and self-sacrifice, conquer the world and become one with God, as did the peerless Knight of Nazareth.

Ill

THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION

Ill

THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION

Since the days of the Greek philosophers the The nature subject of inspiration and revelation has been a tiol!^^^^^^' fertile theme for discussion and dispute among scholars and theologians. Many different theo- ries have been advanced, and ultimately aban- doned as untenable. In its simplest meaning and use, inspiration describes the personal influence of one individual upon the mind and spirit of another. Thus we often say, " That man inspired me." What we are or do under the influence of that intellectual or spiritual impulse is the effect and evidence of the inspira- tion. Similarly, divine inspiration is the influ- ence of God's spirit or personality upon the mind and spirit of man. It may find expression in an exalted emotional state, in an heightened clarity of mental perception, in noble deeds, in the development of character, indeed in a great variety of ways ; but its seat is always the mind of man and its ultimate cause the Deity himself.

38 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

In the Old The early Old Testament expression most estament commonly used to describe inspiration was that the Spirit of God rushed upon the man^ as it did upon Saul, causing him to burst forth into religious ecstasy or frenzy (I Sam. x. 6, 10), and upon Samson, giving him great bodily strength or prowess in war (Judg. xiv. 6, 19, xv. 14). Skill in interpreting dreams and in ruling was also regarded as evidence that the Spirit of God was in a man like Joseph (Gen. xli. 38) ; but above all the prophetic gift was looked upon as the supreme evidence of the presence of the Spirit of Jehovah (Hos. ix. 7 ; Micah ii. 7, iii. 8). The word spirit as thus used in the Old Testament is exceedingly suggestive. It means primarily the breath that comes from the nostrils. Though invisible to the eye, the breath was in the thought of primitive man the symbol of the active life of the individual. In the full vigor of bodily strength or in violent exercise it came quick and strong ; in times of weakness it was faint; when it disappeared, death ensued; the living personality was gone, and only the clay remained. The same Hebrew word, rilach^ de- scribed the wind — unseen, intangible, and yet one of the most real and irresistible forces in all the universe. Thus it was a supremely appropriate term to describe the activity of

The Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 39

God, as it produced visible effects in the minds and lives of men. In the later Old Testament literature its use was extended, so that to the Spirit of God was ascribed activity in the natu- ral world and in human history.

Of the two terms, revelation is broader than Nature of inspiration. Sometimes it is used collectively, ^^"* to designate the truth revealed, but it more properly describes the means or process whereby it is made apparent to the human mind. It implies that truth is always existent, but only gradually recognized. Inspiration is one of the chief means whereby the human vision is clari- fied so as to perceive it. Natural phenomena, environment, and above all experience, are also mighty agents in making the divine character and truth clear to the mind of man. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews declares, with true insight, that Grod spoke in divers man- ners. All the universe, all history, and all life reveal him and his ultimate truths, for each is effective in opening the mental and spiritual eye of man to see the realm long awaiting him as conqueror.

For countless ages electricity has inscribed its Man's role magic tracery on the storm-cloud and performed process of its all-important functions in organic life, but ^*"^^^^*°" not until men's eyes were opened by experience

40 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

and trained observation to recognize its laws, was it practically applied to the needs of civil- ization. Similarly, unchanging moral and spirit- ual laws have existed through all time, but they have not become operative in human life until the eye of some seer is opened by a great expe- rience, or under the direct influence of the Spirit of God he is led to see and proclaim them. Thus God is in all and reveals himself through all nature and life, but it is only through the mind and on the lips of his highest creature, man, that truth is fully appreciated, formulated, and applied. The revela- In the broadcr sense all revelation is divine,

tion recorded c ., ^ t^ ^ it_-i i i. '±.'

in the Bible l^^' '^^ reveais God and his laws ; and yet it is obvious that there is a real difference between the revelation recorded in a scientific book and that of the Bible. It is a difference both in subject-matter and in the ends to which the truth thus made manifest shall be applied. The one relates to the objective world, the world of things ; the other relates to human beliefs, emo- tions, and acts. Its breadth Morcovcr, it is evident that the spiritual reve- Talness latiou which is in part recorded in the Bible was not limited to the Israelitish race or to the twelve centuries represented by the Old and New Testaments. The biblical writers them-

The Earliest Chapters in Divine Eevelation 41

selves assume this fact. According to the early Judean prophetic narratives, Enoch, who lived ages before Abraham and Moses, was a worship- per of Jehovah (Gen. iv. 26). Cain and Abel are both represented in the familiar story of Gene- sis iv., as bringing their offerings to Jehovah. One of the chief teachings of the earliest stories in the Old Testament is that men from the first knew and worshipped God and were held responsible for their acts according to their moral enlightenment. History, science, and the Bible unite in testifying that the revelation of spiritual truth to mankind was something grad- ual, progressive, and cumulative ; also that it is dependent upon the ability of men to receive it. This capacity of the individual to receive is, after all, the determining factor in the process of divine revelation ; for God's truth and his desire to impart it are always the same. Hence, when- ever conditions favor, or national or private experiences clarify the vision of a race or group of men, a revelation is assured.

In the light of ancient history and the result Antiquity of of recent excavations it is possible, now as never {zZn anrf" before, to study the varied influences and forces ^^^'^^^^ employed by God in the past to open the spir- itual eyes of mankind to see him and his truth. The geological evidence suggests that man, as

42 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

man, has lived on tliis earth fifty, perhaps one hundred tliousand years. Anthropology, going further back than history or primitive tradition, traces the slow and painful stages by which early man learned his first lessons in civiliza- tion and religion. From the beginning, man's instincts as a rehgious being have asserted themselves, crude though their expression was. The oldest mounds of Babylonia and Egypt contain ruins of ancient temples, altars, and abundant evidence of the religious zeal of the peoples who once inhabited these lands. The earliest examples of human literature thus far discovered are largely religious in theme and spirit. Primitwe All thcse testify that early man beheved in

^th'e'^innate a powcr or powcrs outside himself, and that Tnstinct ^^^ chicf passiou was to know and do the will of his god or gods. Jesus himself bore witness in the opening words of the prayer which he taught his disciples, that this is the essence of religion. It was natural and inevitable that primitive man, with his naive view of the uni- verse, should believe not in one but in many forces or spirits, and that he should first enthrone the physical above the ethical and spiritual. It is the instinctive tendency of the child to-day. The later identification of the divine powers

Tlie Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 43

with the sun, that gave light and fertihty to the soil, or with the moon, that guided the caravans by night over the arid deserts, or with the other heavenly bodies, that moved in majes- tic array across the midnight sky, was likewise a natural step in the evolution of primitive behef.

Civilization and religion in antiquity devel- Reasons oped, as a rule, side by side. The two great fonia feJel- rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, command- larfyTivili- ing the trade of the north and the south ; prox- ^^^^^^ imity to the desert with its caravans of traders going back and forth from the Euphrates to the Nile; the rich alluvial soil, which supported a dense population when properly drained and cul- tivated; and the necessity of developing in a higher degree the arts of defence in order to main- tain the much contested territory, — these were a few of the many conditions that made ancient Babylonia one of the two earliest if not the old- est centre of human civilization. The commer- cial habits and the abundance of the plastic clay, which could easily be moulded into tablets for the use of the scribe, also fostered the early de- velopment of the literary art. The durability of the clay tablets and the enveloping and pro- tecting qualities of the ruined mounds of ancient Babylonia have preserved in a marvellous way

44 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

its early literature. The result is that we can now study, on the basis of contemporary docu- ments, this early and yet advanced chapter in that divine revelation, the later culmination of which is recorded in the Bible. Progress It begins as far back of Moses as he is

period of rcmovcd from us in point of time. Its political city states background at first is the little city states of Babylonia, each with its independent organi- zation and its local schools of artists, whose products in many respects surpass anything that comes from the hands of later Semitic craftsmen. Each city had its temple, at wliich the patron god of the local tribe and district was worshipped. In some places it was the moon god Sin, as at Haran and Ur beside the desert ; elsewhere, as at Nippur, Bel, or at Eridu near the Persian Gulf, Ea, the god of the great deep, was revered. In the name of the local deity offerings were brought, hymns were sung, and traditions were treasured, which extolled his might. The life of these little city states centred about the temple and its cult. To make it more glorious the artisans vied with each other, and the kings made campaigns that they might dedicate the spoils to the deity.

In time, perhaps as early as 4000 B. c, certain more energetic and ambitious kings

The Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 45

succeeded in conquering neighboring cities ; The growth they even broadened their boundaries until they empires ruled over great empires extending to the Medi- terranean on the west and the mountains of Elam on the east. In the name of the local god, each went forth to fight, and to him was attributed the glory of the victory. Naturally, when the territory of a city state grew into an empire, the god of that city was proclaimed and acknowledged as supreme throughout all the conquered territory. At the same time the local deities of the conquered cities continued to be worshipped at their ancient sanctuaries, and many a conquering king won the loyalty of his subjects by making a rich offering to the god and at the temple of a vanquished foe.

The logical and inevitable result of politi- Its effect in cal union was the development of a pantheon, thepcmtheon modeUed after the imperial court, with the god J';;£f^''^"^"'' of the victorious city at its head and the leading deities of the other cities in subordinate posi- tions. When, during the latter part of the third millennium before Christ, Babylon's su- premacy was permanently established under the rule of Hammurabi, Marduk, the god of that city, was thus placed at the head of the Babylonian pantheon. The theologians of the day also recast and combined the ancient legends, as, for

46 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

example, those of tlie creation, so as to explain why he, one of the later gods, was acknowl- edged by all as supreme. A relationship was also traced between the leading gods, and their respective functions were clearly defined. Cor- responding to each male deity was a female deity: thus, the consort of Marduk was Ishtar, while that of Bel was Belit. Furthermore, the ancient myths appear to have been coordinated, so that from this time on Babylonian theology presents a certain unity and symmetry, although one is constantly reminded of the very different elements out of which it had been built up. Development Parallel to the evolution of Babylonian Standards religion was that unfolding of ethical ideals and laws which finds its noblest record and expression in the remarkable code of Hammurabi (about 2250 B. c). In its high sense of justice ; in its regard for the rights of property and of individ- uals ; in its attitude toward women, even though it comes from the ancient East; and above all in its protection of widows and orphans, this code marks almost as high a stage in the reve- lation of what is right as the primitive Old Testament laws, with which it has points of striking resemblance.

The evolution of ancient Egyptian civiliza- tion and religion was parallel at almost every

The Earliest Chapters in Divine Bevelation 47

stage with that of Babylonia, only in the dreamy A general land of the Nile the pantheon and the vast hetween7he body of variant myths were never so thoroughly ^a^^^^^f ""^ coordinated. The result is that its religion ^9}JP\ «"^

Babylonia

forever remains a labyrinth. Since all interest centred about the future life, instead of com- mercial pursuits, there is no evidence that the Egyptians ever produced a legal code at all comparable with that of Hammurabi. They did, however, develop a doctrine of sin which anticipates that of the Hebrew prophets. While the Babylonians conceived of sin as simply the failure to bring offerings, or to ob- serve the demands of the ritual, or, in general, to pay proper homage to the gods, the Egyptians held that each individual was answerable, not only to the state, but also to the gods, for his every act and thought.

If they admitted of a comparison, it would Significance be safe to say that the Babylonian religion and felig\luT ^ law in the days of Hammurabi were as far^^''^^*^* removed from the crude belief in spirits and the barbarous cults and practices of primitive man as the teachings of Jesus were from those of the kingly Babylonian lawgiver and his priestly advisers. Humanity's debt is exceedingly great to the thousands of devoted souls who, in an- cient Babylonia and Egypt, according to their

48 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

dim light, groped for God and the right. In part they found what they sought, although they never ceased to look through a glass darkly. Its arrest The sad and significant fact is that from the

days of Hammurabi to those of Nebuchadrezzar, Babylonian religion, law, and ethics almost entirely ceased to develop. No other great kings with prophetic insight appear to have arisen to hold up before the nation the prin- ciples of justice and mercy and true piety. The old superstitions and magic also continued in Babylonia as in Egypt to exercise more and more their baneful influence. Saddest of all the priesthood and ceremonialism, which had already reached a point of development com- mensurate and strikingly analogous to that of later Judaism, became the dominant power in the state, and defined religion not in terms of life and action, but of the ritual, and so con- stricted it that all true growth was impos- sible. Hence the religions of the Babylonians and Egyptians perished, like many others, be- cause they ceased to grow, and therefore degen- erated into a mere worship of the letter rather than the spirit.

IV

THE PLACE OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT IN DIVINE REVELATION

IV

THE PLACE OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT IN DIVINE REVELATION

Modern discovery and research have demon- Advent of strated that the truth revealed through the Babylonians and with less definiteness through the people of the Nile was never entirely lost. Such a sad waste was out of accord with the ob- vious principles of divine economy. As the icy chill of ceremonialism seized decadent Babylo- nia and Egypt, there emerged from the steppes south and east of Palestine a virile, ambitious group of nomads, who not only fell heir to that which was best in the revelation of the past, but also quickly took their place as the real spir- itual leaders of the human race. Possibly their ancestors, like those of Hammurabi, belonged to that wave of nomadic emigration which swept out of overpopulated northern Arabia about 2500 b. c, part of it to settle finally in Babylonia and part in Palestine.

Whatever be the exact date of their advent, Why were the much mooted and more fundamental qnes- chosen^ tion at once presents itself, Why were the^^''^^^*

52 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Hebrews " the chosen people " ? It is safe to assert at once that this was not arbitrary nor without reason. Moreover, the choice was not that of a moment, but gradual. Rather the real question is, By what divine process were the Israelites prepared to be the chosen people that their later prophets and the event of history declare them to be ? Certain definite historical reasons at once suggest themselves; and these in turn throw new light upon the true relation of the Old Testament to divine revelation as a whole. Their prepa- There is undoubtedly a basis for what Ren an

ration to he i r-i • • • j*

the chosen was plcascd to Call, " the Semitic genius lot Remus'/or rehgiou." It is a truly significant fact that the religion three great conquering religions of the world, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, sprang from Semitic soil. To this might be added the religion of Babylonia, which was un- questionably the noblest of early antiquit3^ In general the Semitic mind is keen, alert, recep- tive, and intuitional rather than logical. Rest- less energy and the tendency to acquire have also tended to make them leaders in the widely different fields of commerce and religion. The patriarch Jacob is a remarkable example of these combined qualities and results. By day he got the better of his kinsmen, and by night he

Its Place in Divine Revelation 53

wrestled with God. These combined and highly developed characteristics of mind and nature at least suggest why the Semites have furnished the greatest prophets and prophet nations for the moulding of the faith of the world.

In contrast with contemporary Semitic na- Inheritance tions, and especially the highly civilized Baby- Arabian lonians, the Hebrews were fortunate in their "^"^^^^^^"'^ immediate inheritances through Arabian or Aramean ancestors. The wandering, nomadic life leaves no place for established sanctuaries, with their elaborate ceremonial customs and debasing institutions inherited from more primi- tive ages. Instead, that life imposes limitations that make for simplicity. The mysteries and constant dangers of the wild desert existence also emphasize the constant necessity of divine help. The long marches by night under the silent stars inspire awe and enforce contempla- tion. The close unity of the tribe suggests the worship of one tribal god rather than many. From the desert the ancestors of the Hebrews brought strong bodies, inured to hardship, and a grim austerity that found frequent expression on the lips of their prophets and a response in the minds of the people, when luxury threatened to engulf them. They also inherited from their desert days those democratic ideas and high

54 Origin and Valns of the Old Testament

ideals of individual liberty which enabled Elijah and Isaiah to stand up and champion the rights of the people even though it involved a public denunciation of their kings. Contact with On the other hand, the Israelites undoubt- d^Sim edly became in time the inheritors of the best in rehgion and law that had been attained by the older Semitic races. Their late traditions trace back their ancestry to ancient Babylonia. Already for long centuries, by conquest and by commerce, the dominant civilization of the Euphrates valley had been regnant in the land of Canaan. The Tell-el-Amarna letters, writ- ten from Palestine in the fourteenth century, employ the Babylonian language and system of writing, and reveal a high Semitic civiliza- tion, closely patterned after that of Babylonia. When the Israelites settled in Canaan and be- gan to intermarry and assimilate with the older inhabitants, as the earliest Hebrew records plainly state {ef. Judg. i.), they found there, among the Canaanites, established civil and re- ligious institutions and traditions which were largely a reflection of those of Babylonia. Also, when in the eighth and seventh centuries As- syrian armies conquered Palestine, they brought Babylonian institutions, traditions, and religious ideas. We know that during the reigns of

Its Place in Divine Revelation 55

Ahaz and Manasseh these threatened to dis- place those peculiar to the Hebrews. Again, during the Babylonian exile the influence of the same powerful civilization upon the thought and religion of Israel was also strongly felt. Thus the opportunities, direct and indirect, for receiving from Babylonia much of the rich heritage that it held were many and varied.

Certain parts of the Old Testament itself Heirs of the testify that the wealth of tradition, of institu- civilizations tions, of laws, and religious ideas, gradually committed to the Semitic ancestors of the He- brews and best preserved by the Babylonians, was not lost, but, enriched and purified, has been transmitted to us through its pages. A careful comparison of the biblical and Baby- lonian accounts of the creation and the flood leaves little doubt that there is a close histori- cal connection between these accounts. Inves- tigation reveals in language, spirit, and form many analogies between the laws of Hammu- rabi and those of the Old Testament which sug- gest at least an indirect influence. ]\Iany of the ceremonial institutions of later Judaism are almost identical with those of Babylonia. While it is exceedingly easy to over or under estimate this influence, it is a mistake to deny or ignore its deep significance.

56 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Recipients Thus One of the chief elements in the provi- was best in dential training of the Hebrews as the heralds earlier reve- ^^^ exponents of the most exaltecl religious and ethical truths revealed before the advent of the Prophet of Nazareth was the fact that they were the heirs and interpreters of the best that had been hitherto attained. Babylonia, Egypt, and later, Persia and Greece, each contributed their noblest beliefs and ideals. In the Isra- elites the diverse streams of divine revelation converged. The result is that, instead of many little rivulets, befouled by errors and supersti- tions, through their history there flowed a mighty stream, ever becoming broader and deeper and clearer as it received fresh con- tributions from the new fountains of purest revelation that opened in Hebrew soil. In close Clear evidences of the divine purpose to be

rdatwns^to realized through the obscure peasant people who ^dvilizatZns ^^^^^ among the uplands of central Canaan are found in a study of the characteristics of the Old Testament world. It is indeed the earliest and one of the most significant chapters in divine revelation. Most of its area is a barren wilderness, supporting only a small nomadic population. The three fertile spots are Baby- lonia, Canaan, and Egypt. The first and last are fitted by nature and situation to be the seats

Its Place in Divine Revelation 57

of powerful civilizations, destined to reach out in every direction. Canaan, on the contrary, is shut in, with no good harbors along the Medi- terranean ; and its largest river system leads to the Dead Sea, far below the surface of the ocean, — an effective negation to all commerce. Although thus shut in by itself, Canaan lies on the isthmus of fertile land that connects the great empires of the Nile and the Euphrates. On the east and south it is always subject to the influences and waves of immigration that come from the Arabian desert. It attracted from their nomadic life the ancestors of the Israelites, and during their early period of de- velopment gave them a secluded home. When they were ready to learn the larger lessons in the stream of life, Egypt and the great empires of the Tigris and Euphrates valley contended for them, conquered and ultimately scattered them throughout the then known world. While their conquerors, Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome, the greatest powers of the ancient world, took from them their gold and their freedom, from the same conquerors they appear to have received the infinitely more precious treasures of tradition and thought.

Great as was their heritage from the past, the truth that came through the Hebrews them-

58 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Trained by selvGS constitutes bj far the greatest and most n^Zif' significant part of that revelation which the Old experience Testament records. Their history suggests the ways in which Jehovah opened the spiritual eyes of the people. From the beginning to the present day it has been characterized by a series of crises unparalleled in the life of any other race. Experiences, intense and often superla- tively painful, have come to them in rapid suc- cession, forcing them to think and develop. The little street Arab, alert, resourceful, un- canny in his prematurity, is a modern illustra- tion of what grim necessity and experience can produce. It was in the school supremely adapted to divine ends that Jehovah trained his people to be his spokesmen to the world. Guided by Other peoples, however, had their crises and Tal^teaSierl' J^t had no such mcssagc as did the Israelites. What made the crises in the history of the Israelites richly fruitful in ethical and spiritual truth was the presence within their midst of certain devoted, responsive teachers, and espe- cially the prophets, who guided them in their time of peril, interpreted its significance, and appealed to the awakened conscience of the nation. Like begets like. At the beginning of Israel's history stands the great prophet Moses, and during the long centuries that fol-

Its Place in Divine Revelation 59

lowed the voice of the prophets was rarely hushed.

In seeking the ultimate answer to our ques- Taught by tion, How were the Israelites prepared to be!,"o^Xe<5 the chosen people, we are confronted by a mir- acle that baffles our power to analyze : it is the supreme fact that the Spirit of the Almighty touched the spirit of certain men in ancient Israel so that they became seers and prophets. This is their own testimony, and their deeds and words amply confirm it. The experiences of men to-day also demonstrate its possibility. Indeed it is not surprising, but most natural, that the one supreme Personality in the universe should reveal himself to and through human minds, and that the most enlightened men of the most spiritually enlightened race should be the recipients of the fullest and most perfect revelation. It is the truth that they thus per- ceived, and then proclaimed by word and deed and pen, that completed the preparation of the chosen people, for it was none other than the possession of a unique spiritual message that constituted the essence of their choice. Fur- thermore, as the greatest of the later prophets declares (Is. xl.-lv.), that divine choice did not mean that they were to be the recipients of exceptional favors, but rather that they were

60 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

called to service. By the patient enduring of suffering and by voluntary self-sacrifice they were to perfect the revelation of God's charac- ter and will in the life of humanity. Jesus' rela- The Old Testament, therefore, is the final Old Testa- record of a revelation extending through thou- ^^"' sands of years, finding at last its most exalted ex-

pression in the messages of the Hebrew prophets, and its clearest reflection in the thoughts and experiences of the priests, sages, and psalmists of ancient Israel. In varied literary forms and by many different writers the best fruits of that revelation have been preserved. Ancient tradi- tions, songs, proverbs, laws, historical narratives, prophecies, and psalms, each present their pre- cious truth. The Israelitish race, however, never fully completed the work to which it was called. A master was needed to distinguish between the essential and the non-essential, to simplify and unify the teachings of the Old Testament as a whole, and to apply them personally to indi- vidual life. A man was demanded to realize fully in his own character the highest ideals of this ancient revelation. A divinely gifted prophet was required to perfect man's knowl- edge, and to bring him into natural, harmonious relations with his Eternal Father. The world awaited the advent of a Messiah who would

Its Place in Divine Revelation 61

establish, on the everlasting foundations of justice and truth and love, the universal king- dom of God. These supreme needs were met in fullest measure by the Master, the perfect Man, the Prophet, and the Messiah, whose work the New Testament records.

While there are many superficial points of Points of

T /v> -1 T i> likeness and

ditterence m language, literary form, back- contact be- ground, and point of view between the Old and ^oTesta- the New Testaments, these are insignificant in ^*"'* comparison with the essential points of likeness and contact. Each Testament is but a different chapter in the history of the same divine reve- lation. The one is the foundation on which the other is built. The writers of the New con- stantly assume the historical facts, the institu- tions, and the teachings of the Old. Although in Greek garb, their language and idioms are also those of the Old. On many themes, as, for example, man's duty to society, Jesus said little, for the teachers of his race had fully developed them and there was little to add. Repeatedly by word and act he declared that he came not to destroy the older teachings, but simply to bring them to full perfection. The Old Testa- ment also tells of the long years of preparation and of the earnest expectations of the Israelitish race ; the New records a fulfilment far tran-

62 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

scending the most exalted hopes of Hebrew seers. The same God reveals himself through both Testaments. One progressively unfolding system of religious teachings, one message of love, and one divine purpose bind both together with bonds that no generation or church can break.

V

THE INFLUENCES THAT PRODUCED THE NEW TESTAMENT

V

THE INFLUENCES THAT PRODUCED THE NEW TESTAMENT

The present age is supremely interested in Importance origins. Not until we have traced the genesis ff origins ^ and earliest unfolding of an institution or an idea or a literature do we feel that we really understand and appreciate it. Familiarity with that which is noble breeds not contempt but reverence, and intelligent devotion. Acquaint- ance with the origin and history of a book is essential to its true interpretation. Therefore it is fortunate that modern discovery and re- search have thrown so much light upon the origin of both the Old and the New Testaments.

Equally fortunate is it that we are also learn- The growing ing to appreciate the sublimity and divinity of \hatthe^^ the natural. The universe and organic life are ^^^"^g ^ '* no less wonderful and awe-inspiring because, distinguishing some of the natural laws that govern their evolution, we have abandoned the grotesque theories held by primitive men. Similarly we do not to-day demand, as did our forefathers, a supernatural origin for our sacred 5

6Q Origin and Value of the Old Testament

books before we are ready to revere and obey their commands. With greater insight we now can heartily sing, " God moves in a natural way his wonders to perform." Our ability to trace the historical influences through which he brought into being and shaped the two Testa- ments and gave them their present position in the life of humanity does not in a thoughtful mind obscure, but rather reveals the more clearly, their divine origin and authority. Value of the Through contemporary writings and the re- Itudy of the sults of modcm biblical research it is possibly to To7hV^^ta- study definitely the origin of the various New merits Testament books and to follow the different

stages in their growth into a canon. This fa- miliar chapter in the history of the Bible is richly suggestive, because of the clear light which it sheds upon the more complex and ob- scure genesis and later development of the Old Testament. It will be profitable, therefore, to review it in outline, not only because of its own importance, but also as an introduction to the study of the influences that produced the older Scriptures; for almost every fact that will be noted in connection with the origin and literary history of the New has its close analogy in the growth of the Old Testament.

We find that as they are at present arranged,

Influences that Produced the New Testament 67

the books of the New Testament are divided The three- into three distinct classes. The first group in- {^^ of the' eludes the historical books : the Gospels and ^^^^ ^^^^^"" Acts; the second, the Epistles — the longer, like the letters to the Romans and Corinthians, being placed first and the shorter at the end; wliile the third group contains but one book, known as the Apocalypse or Revelation. The general arrangement is clearly according to sub- ject-matter, not according to date of authorship ; the order of the groups represent different stages in the process of canonization.

Their position as well as the themes which Why the they treat suggest that the Gospels were the not^the ^ first to be written. It is, however, a self-evi- ^"' '"^ dent fact that a book was not written — at least not in antiquity, when the making of books was both laborious and expensive — unless a real need for it was felt. If we go back, and live for a moment in imagination among the band of followers which Jesus left behind at his death, we see clearly that while the early Christian Church was limited to Palestine, and a large company of disciples, who had often themselves seen and heard the Christ, lived to tell by word of mouth the story of his life and teachings, no one desired a written record. It is not surpris- ing, therefore, that the oldest books in the New

68 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Testament are not the Gospels. The exigen- cies of time and space and the burning zeal of the apostles for the churches of their plant- ing apparently produced the earliest Christian writings. Origin of the In his second missionary journey Paul Ip^istTes preached for a time at Thessalonica, winning to faith in the Christ a small mixed company of Jews and proselyte Greeks. His success aroused the bitter opposition of the narrower Jews, who raised a mob and drove him from the city before his work was completed. But the seed which he had planted continued to grow. Naturally he was eager to return to the infant church. Twice he planned to visit it, but was prevented. In his intense desire to help the brave Christians of Thessalonica, he sent Timothy to inquire re- garding their welfare and to encourage them. When about 50 A. d. Timothy reported to Paul at Corinth, the apostle wrote at once to the little church at Thessalonica a letter of commendation, encouragement, and counsel, which we know to- day as First Thessalonians and which is probably one of the oldest writings in our New Testament, Galatians perhaps being the earliest. PauVs later Another letter (II Thess.) soon followed, giv-

epistles

ing more detailed advice. As the field of Paul's activity broadened, he was obliged more and

Infi^iences that Produced the New Testament 69

more to depend upon letters, since he could not in person visit the churches which he had planted. Questions of doctrine as well as of practice which perplexed the different churches were treated in these epistles. To certain of his assistants, like Timothy, he wrote dealing with their personal problems. Frankly, forcibly, and feelingly Paul poured out in these letters the wealth of his personal and soul life. They reveal his faith in the making as well as his mature teachings. Since he was dealing with definite conditions in the communities to which he wrote, his letters are also invaluable contem- porary records of the growth and history of the early Christian church. Thus between 30 and 60 A. D., during the period of his greatest activ- ity, certainly ten, and probably thirteen, of our twenty-seven New Testament books came from the burning heart of the apostle to the Gen- tiles.

Similar needs impelled other apostles and Growth of early Christian teachers to write on the same epistles themes with the same immediate purpose as did Paul. The result is a series of epistles, asso- ciated with the names of James, Peter, John, and Jude. In some, like Third John, the per- sonal element is predominant ; in others, the di- dactic, as, for example, the Epistle of James.

70 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Purpose of A somewhat different type of literature is to\he'^^ ^ represented by the Epistle to the Hebrews. Its Hebrews io^i^i is that of a letter, and it was without doubt originally addressed to a local church or churches by a writer whose name has ever since been a fertile source of conjecture. The only fact defi- nitely established is that Paul did not write it. It is essentially a combination of argument, doc- trine, and exhortation. The aim is apologetic as well as practical. Most of Paul's letters were written as the thoughts, which he wished to communicate to those to whom he wrote, came to his mind ; but in the Epistle to the Hebrews the author evidently follows a carefully elabo- rated plan. The argument is cumulative. The thesis is that Christ, superior to all earlier teachers of his race, is the perfect Mediator of Salvation. Value of the Thus the Epistlcs, originally personal notes

Epistles - i 1 •

^ of encouragement and warning, growing some-

times into more elaborate treatises, were made the means whereby the early Christian teachers imparted their doctrines to constantly widening groups of readers. At best they were regarded simply as inferior substitutes for the personal presence and spoken words of their authors. Like the Old Testament books, their authority lies in the fact that they faithfully reflect, in part

Influences that Produced the Neiu Testament 71

at least, the greater revelation coming through the lives and minds of the early apostles.

As is well known, the twenty-one letters in The larger our New Testament were selected from a far^ larger collection of epistles, some of which were early lost, while others, like the Epistles of Barnabas and Polycarp and Clement, were preserved to share with those later accepted as canonical, the study and veneration of the primitive Church.

The influences which originally produced the Influences Gospels and Acts were very different from those to\hl1ariiest which called forth the Epistles. The natural ^"'P^^' preference of the early Christians for the spoken word explains why we do not possess to-day a single written sentence in the Gospels which we can with absolute assurance assign to the first quarter-century following the death of Jesus. Two influences, however, in time led certain writers to record his early life and teachings. The one was that death was rapidly thinning the ranks of those who could say, I saio and heard ; the other was the spread of Christianity beyond the bounds of Judaism and Palestine, and the resulting need for detailed records felt by those Christians who had never visited Palestine and who had learned from the lips of apostles only the barest facts regarding the life of the Christ.

72 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Testimony The Opening verses of Luke's Gospel are richly Gospel suggestive of the origin and growth of the his- torical books of the New Testament :

Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among us, even as they delivered them unto us, — they who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also, having traced the course of all things accurately from the first, to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus, that thou mightest know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou wast instructed.

This prologue states that many shorter Gos- pels had previously been written, not by eye- witnesses, but by men who had listened to those who had themselves seen. Luke leaves his readers to infer that he also drew a large number of his facts from these earlier sources as well as from the testimony of eye-witnesses. The im- plication of the prologue is that he himself was entirely dependent upon written and oral sources for his data. This is confirmed by the testimony of the Muratorian Fragment :

Luke the physician, after the ascension of Christ, when Paul had taken him, as it were,

Influences that Produced the New Testament 73

as a follower zealous of the right, wrote the gospel book according to Luke in his own name, as is believed. Nevertheless he had not himself seen the Lord in the flesh, and, accordingly, going back as far as he could obtain information, he began his narrative with the birth of John.

His many literal quotations from it and the fact that he makes it the framework of his own, indicate that Mark's Gospel was one of those earlier attempts to which he refers.

The motive which influenced Luke to ^vrite Luke*s is clearly stated. It was to prepare a compre- Zriting hensive, accurate, and orderly account of the facts in regard to the life of Jesus for his Greek friend Theophilus, who had already been par- tially instructed in the same. His Gospel con- firms the implications of the prologue. It is the longest and most carefully arranged of all the Gospels. The distinctively Jewish ideas or institutions which are prominent in Matthew are omitted or else explained; hence there is nothing which would prove unintelligible to a Greek. The book of the Acts of the Apostles, dedicated to the same patron, is virtually a continuation of the third Gospel, tracing, in a more or less fragmentary manner, the history

74 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

and growth of the early Christian Church, and especially the work of Paul. Purpose of Very similar influences called forth the short- Gospel est and undoubtedly the oldest of the four Gos- pels, the book of IMark. The testimony of the contents confirms in general the early statement of Papias and other Christian Fathers that it was written at Rome by John Mark, the disciple and interpreter of the apostle Peter, after the death of his teacher. The absence of many Old Testament quotations, the careful explanation of all Jewish and Palestinian references which would not be intelligible to a foreigner, the presence of certain Latin words, and many other indications, all tend to establish the con- clusion that it was written for the Gentile and Jewish Christians, probably at Rome, and that its purpose was simply historical. The twofold The memoir of Jesus, which we know as the the^Golpel Gospel of Matthcw, is from the hand of a Jewish of Matthew Qi^j-jstian and, as is shown by the amount of material drawn from Mark's Gospel, must be placed at a later date. The great number of quotations from the Old Testament, the interest in tracing the fulfilment of the Messianic pre- dictions, and the distinctively Jewish-Christian point of view and method of interpretation, in- dicate clearly that he wrote not with Gentile but

Influences that Produced the New Testament 75

Jewish Christians in mind. Nevertheless, like that of Mark and Luke, his purpose was pri- marily to present a faithful and, as far as his sources permitted, detailed picture of the life and teachings of Jesus. His arrangement of his material appears, however, to be logical rather than purely chronological. The different sec- tions and the individual incidents and teachings each contribute to the great argument of the book, namely, that Jesus was the true Messiah of the Jews ; that the Jews, since they rejected him, forfeited their birthright; and that his kingdom, fulfilling and inheriting the Old Testa- ment promises, has become a universal kingdom, open to all races and freed from all Jewish bonds.i This suggests that the First Gospel represents a more mature stage in the thought of the early Church than Mark and Luke.

Its title and the fact that the Church Fathers Origin of

IT Matthew's

constantly connect it with Matthew, the pubii- Sayings of can, and later apostle is explained by the state- ment of Papias, quoted by Eusebius :

Matthew accordingly composed the oracles in the Hebrew dialect, and each one interpreted them as he was able (H. E., iii. 39).

1 Cf e.g., X. 5, 6; xv. 24; viii. 11, 12; xii. 38-45; xii. 42, 43; xxii. 7; xxiii. 13, 36, 38; xxiv. 2; xxviii. 19.

76 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

These oracles evidently consisted of a written collection of the sayings of Jesus. Since they were largely if not entirely included in our First Gospel, it was therefore known as The Gos- pel of Matthew. There is no evidence that the original Matthew's Sayings of Jesus contained definite narrative material. The fact that the First Gospel draws so largely from Mark for its historical data would indicate that this was not supplied by its main source. The Say- ings of Jesus was probably the oldest written record of the work of Jesus, for, while oral tradition easily remembers incidents, discon- nected teachings are not so readily preserved by the memory. Their transcendent importance would also furnish a strong incentive to use the pen. It was natural also that, of all the disciples, the ex-customs officer of Capernaum should be the one to undertake this transcend- ently important task. Aim of the The Fourth is clearly the latest of the Gos- Gospel pels, for it does not attempt fully to reproduce the facts presented in the other three, but as- sumes their existence. Its doctrines are also more fully developed, and its aim is not simply the giving of historical facts and teachings, but also, as it clearly states, that those reading it might believe that Jesus was the Christ, the son of

Influences that Produced the New Testament 77

Grod, and that believing they might have life in his name (xx. 31). The motive that produced it was, therefore, apologetic and evangelical rather than merely historical.

A detailed comparison of the differences be- Review of tween the Gospels, as well as of their many ^Oospeh points of likeness which often extend to exact verbal agreement, furnishes the data for recon- structing their history. In general the resulting conclusions are in perfect harmony with the testimony of the Church Fathers. Mark, the shortest and more distinctively narrative Gospel, is clearly the oldest of the four. Possibly it was originally intended to be the supplement of the other early source, Matthew's Sayings of Jesus, now known only through quotations. These two earliest known Christian records of the work of the Master in their original form were the chief sources quoted in the First and Third Gospels. So largely is Mark thus reproduced that, if lost, it would be possible from these to restore the book with the exception of only a few verses. But in addition, Matthew and Luke each have material peculiar to them- selves, suggesting other independent written as well as oral sources. To such shorter written Gospels, and also to the oral testimony of eye- witnesses, Luke refers in his prologue. In the

78 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Fourth Gospel, the doctrinal motive already apparent in Matthew, and prominent in the Church at the beginning of the second Chris- tian century, takes the precedence of the merely historical. A distinct source, the personal ob- servation of the beloved disciple, probably also furnishes the majority of the illustrations which are here so effectively arrayed. Influences More complex were the influences which pro- duLd^the duced the single example of the third type of apocalypses j^g^ Testament literature, — the Apocalypse, or Book of Revelation. The so-called apocalyptic type of literature was a characteristic product of later Judaism. The Book of Daniel is the most familiar example. Although in the age of scribism the voice of the prophets was regarded as silent, and the only authority recognized was that of the past, the popular Messianic hopes of the people continued to find expression anony- mously in the form of apocalypses. In the periods of their greatest distress Jews and Christians found encouragement and inspiration in the pictures of the future. Since the present situation was so hopeless, they looked for a supernatural transformation, which would result in the triumph of the right and the establish- ment of the rule of the Messiah. Underlying all the apocalypses is the eternal truth voiced by

Influences that Produced the New Testament 79

the poet : '' God 's in bis heaven and all 's right with the world."

The immediate historical backgrround of the Origin of the Apocalypse is the bitter struggle between Revelation Christianity and heathenism. Rome has become drunk with the blood of the saints and the blood of the martyrs of Jesus (xvii. 6). The contest centres about the worship of the beast, — that is, Caesar. The book possibly includes older apocalypses which reflect earlier conflicts, but in its present form it apparently comes from the closing years of Domitian's reign. The obvious aim of its Jewish Christian writer was to en- courage his readers by glowing pictures of the coming victory of the Lamb, and thus to steel them for unfaltering resistance to the assaults of heathenism. The purpose which actuated the writer was therefore in certain respects the same as that which led Paul to write his letter to the persecuted church of Thessalonica, although the form in w^hich that purpose was realized was fundamentally different.

Many other apocalypses were written by the The literary early Christians. The one recently discovered the first four and associated with the name of Peter is perhaps ^^^'^"^'** the most important. Thus, the second haK of the first century after the death of Jesus wit- nessed the birth of a Large Christian literature,

so Origin and Value of the Old Testament

consisting of epistles, gospels, and apocalypses.

The work of the next three centmies was tlie

appreciation and the selection of the books

which to-day constitute our New Testament.

The influences which led to this consummation

may be followed almost as clearly as those which

produced the individual books.

Influences Earl}' in the second centuiy the motives

the canoniza- ^'^^^^^ had Originally led certain Chi^istians to

tionofthe ^-^.-^g ^YiQ four Gospcls iuduced the Church to

Uospels ^

regaixi those books as the most authentic, and therefore authoritative, records of the life and teachings of the Master. We have no distinc- tive history of the process. It was gradual, and probably almost unconscious. The fact that three of the Gospels were associated with the names of apostles and the other with Luke, the faithful companion of Paul, undoubtedly tended to establish their authority; but the chief canon- izing influence was the need of such records for private and public reading. The production, early in the second century, of spurious gospels, like the Gospel of Marcion, written to furnish a literary basis for certain heretical doctrines, also the desire of the Church Fathers to have rec- ords to which they could appeal as authoritative hastened the formation of the first New Testa- ment canon. The use of the Gospels in the

Influences that Produced the Kevj Testament 81

serv'ices of the church, which probably began before the close of the first Christian centurj', by degrees gave them an authority equal to that of the Old Testament Scriptures. The earliest canon consisted simply of these four books. They seem to have been universally accepted by the Western Church by the middle of the second century. About 152 a. d. Justin Mart}T, in proving his positions, refers to the Memoirs of the Apostles compiled hy CTLvisfs apostles and those who associated with them^ and during the same decade Ins pupil Tatian made his Diates- saron by combining our present four Gospels.

Meantime the natural desire to supplement 77*6 second the teachings of Jesus by those of the Apostles theXew"^ led the Church to single out certain of the ^"^""'^"'• epistles and associate them -with the Gospels. Already in the first century the apostoKc epistles and traditions were cherished by the individual churches to which they had been first directed. In time, however, the need for a written record of the apostolic teachings and work became widely felt. Hence, by the end of the second century. Acts and the thirteen Pauline epistles. First Peter, First John, and the Apocal}'pse, were by common consent placed side by side with the Gospels, at least by the leaders of the Western Church.

6

82 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The dis- puted books.

Final com- pletion of the New Testament canon

Regarding the authority of the remaining New Testament books, Hebrews, James, First and Second John, and Jude, opinion long re- mained undecided. Concerning them an earnest discussion was carried on for the next two cen- turies. By certain leaders in the Church they were regarded as authoritative, while elsewhere and at different periods, other books, like the Gospel to the Hebrews, the Epistle of Barnabas, Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians, the Shep- herd of Hermas, and the Apocalypse of Peter, were included in the canon and even given the priority over the disputed books later included in our New Testament.

The final decision represents the result of an open and prolonged and yet quiet consideration of the merits of each book and of its claims to apostolic authority. The ablest scholars of the early Christian Church devoted their best ener- gies to the problem. Gradually, thoughtfully, prayerfully, and by testing them in the labora- toiy of experience, the Christian world separated the twenty-seven books which we find to-day in our New Testament from the much larger herit- age of kindred writings which come from the early Christian centuries. Time and later con- sideration have fully approved the selection and confirmed the belief that through the minds of

Influences that Produced the New Testmnent 83

consecrated men God was realizing his purpose for mankind. As is well known, at the Council of Carthage, in 397 A. d., the Western world at last formally accepted them, although the Syrian churches continued for centuries to retain a somewhat different canon.

This brief historical study of the origin of our Conclusions New Testament has demonstrated twelve ^ig- study of the nificant facts: (1) That the original authors of J^-^/^^^^f' the different books never suspected that their ducedihe

^ New Testa-

writings would have the universal value and ment authority which they now rightfully enjoy. (2) That they at first regarded them as merely an unperfect substitute for verbal teaching and personal testimony. (3) That in each case they had definite individuals and conditions in mind. (4) That the needs of the rapidly grow- ing Church and the varied and trying experi- ences through which it passed were all potent factors in influencing the authors of the New Testament to write. (5) That certain books, especially the historical, like Luke and Matthew, are composite, consisting of material taken bodily from older documents, like Matthew's Sayings of Jesus and the original narrative of Mark. (6) That our New Testament books are only a part of a much larger early Christian literature. (7) That they are unquestionably,

84 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

however, the most valuable and representative writings of that larger literature. (8) That they were only gradually selected and ascribed a value and authority equal to that of the Old Testament writings. (9) That there were three distinct stages in the formation of the New Testament canon: the gospels were first recognized as authorative ; then Acts, the Apos- tolic Epistles, and the Apocalypse ; and last of all, the complete canon. (10) That the canon was formed as a result of the need felt by later generations, in coimection with their study and worship, for reliable records of the history and teachings of Christianity. (11) That the prin- ciples of selection depended ultimately upon the intrinsic character of the books themselves and the authority ascribed to their reputed authors. (12) That the process of selection continued for fully three centuries, and that the results represent the thoughtful, enlightened judgment of thousands of devoted Christians. Thus through definite historical forces and the minds and wills of men, the Eternal Father gradually perfected the record of his supreme revelation to humanity.

VI

THE GEOWTH OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES

VI

THE GROWTH OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES

Vert similar influences were at work in pro- Analogies ducing and shaping both the Old and the New f„}ZZlt' Testaments ; only in the history of the older ^^' PJ^^' Scriptures still other forces can be distinguished, two Testa- Moreover, the Old Testament contains a much greater variety of literature. It is also signifi- cant that, while some of the New Testament books began to be canonized less than a century after they were written, there is clear evidence that many of the Old Testament writings were in existence several centuries before they were gathered together into a canon and thus crystal- lized into their final form. The inevitable re- sult is that they bear the marks of much more elaborate editorial revision than those of the New. It is, however, not the aim of the present work to trace this complex process of revision in detail, nor to give the cumulative evidence and the many data and reasons that lead to each conclusion. These can be studied in any modern

88 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Old Testament introduction or in the volumes

of the present writer's Student's Old Testament.

The present In their present form, the books of the Old

IftheolT^ Testament, like those of the New, fall into three

Testament ^lasses. The first includes the historical books.

books

In the Old, corresponding to the four Gospels and Acts of the New, are found the books from Genesis through Esther. Next in order, in the Old, stand the poetical books, from Job through the Song of Songs, with which the New Test- ament has no analogy except the liturgical hymns connected with the nativity, preserved in the opening chapters of Matthew and Luke. The third group in the Old Testament includes the prophecies from Isaiah through Malachi. Close corre- One book in this group, Daniel, and portions betweenThe ^^ Ezckicl and Jocl, are analogous to the New Old Testa- Testament Apocalypse, but otherwise the pro-

ment propne- c j r •> r

cies and the phetic books correspond closely in character ment apoca- and Contents to the epistles of the New. Both emstles^ are direct messages to contemporaries of the prophets and apostles, and both deal with then existing conditions. Both consist of practical warnings, exhortations, advice, and encourage- ment. The form is simply incidental. The prophets of Jehovah preached, and then they or their disciples wrote down the words which they had addressed to their countrymen. When

The Old Testament Projphetic Histories 89

they could not reach with their voices all in whom they were interested, the prophets, hke the apostles, committed their teachings to writ- ing and sent them forth as tracts (cf. Jer. xxxvi.). At other times, when they could not go in per- son, they wrote letters. Thus, for example, the twenty-ninth chapter of the prophecy of Jere- miah opens with the interesting superscription :

Now these are the words of the letter that Jeremiah the prophet sent from Jerusalem unto the residue of the elders of the captiv- ity, and to the priests, and to the prophets, and to all the people, whom Nebuchadrezzar had carried away captive from Jerusalem to Babylon; by the hand of Elasah the son of Shaphan, and Gemariah the son of Hilkiah, whom Zedekiah king of Judah sent unto Babylon to Nebuchadrezzar.

If it were not for this superscription, no one would suspect from the nature of the letter which follows that it was anything other than a regular spoken or written prophecy. Its con- tents and spirit are exactly parallel to those of Paul's epistles. Undoubtedly many prophecies were never delivered orally, but were originally written like Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, and sent out as circular letters. The Baby-

90 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Ionian exile scattered the Jews so widely that the exilic and post-exilic prophets depended almost entirely upon this method of reaching their countrymen and thus became writers of epistles. The oldest Like the Epistles in the New, certain of the poetry prophccics, — as, for example, those of Amos,

Hosea, and Isaiah, — are among the earliest writings of the Old Testament. But in the light of modern biblical study, it has become apparent that prose was not the earliest form of expression among the Hebrews. In this re- spect their literary history is parallel with that of other early peoples ; for first they treasured their thought in heroic song and ballad. While they were nomads, wandering in the desert, and also while they were strugghng for the posses- sion of Canaan, they had little time or motive for cultivating the literary art. The popular songs which were sung beside the camp-fires, at the recurring festivals, and as the Hebrews advanced in battle against their foes, were the earhest records of their past. There is evi- dence that many of the primitive narratives now found in the opening chapters of Genesis were also once current in poetical form. In some cases the poetic structure has been preserved.

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 91

The earliest collections of writings referred ismeVs to in the Old Testament bear the suggestive ^iJofls ^^"^ titles, The Book of the Upright (^. ^., Israel), and, The Book of the Wars of Jehovah. From the quotations which we have from them it is clear that they consisted of collections of songs, recounting the exploits of Israel's heroes and the signal victories of the race.

That stirring psean of victory known as the The Song of

0 TT^i,! 1 rj- Deborah

Song 01 Deborah was perhaps once lound m the Book of the Wars of Jehovah. It is one of the oldest pieces of literature in the Old Testament, and breathes the heroic spirit of the primitive age from which it comes. Through the eyes of the poet one views the different scenes in the mighty conflict.^

That the leaders took the lead in Israel, Exordium

That the people volunteered readily,

Bless Jehovah ! Hear, O kings, Give ear, O rulers.

1 myself will sing to Jehovah,

I will sing praise to Jehovah, the God of Israel.

Jehovah, when thou wen test forth from Seir, Advent of

When thou marchedst from the land of Edom, Jehovah

The earth trembled, the heavens also dripped, Yea, the clouds dropped water.

1 The translation is from '' The Student's Old Testa- ment," Vol. I., pp. 320-323.

92 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The mountains quaked before Jehovah, Yon Sinai before Jehovah, the God of Israel.

In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath,

In the days of Jael, the highways ceased to be used.

And travellers walked by round-about paths.

The rulers ceased in Israel, they ceased,

Until thou didst arise, Deborah,

Until thou didst arise a mother in Israel.

Then the people of Jehovah went down to the gates,

crying, " Arise, arise, Deborah, Arise, arise, strike up the song ! Arise Barak, and take thy captives, thou son of Abi-

noam! " So a remnant went down against the powerful, The people of Jehovah went down against the mighty. From Ephraim they rushed forth into the valley, Thy brother Benjamin among thy peoples, From Machir went down commanders, And from Zebulun those who carry the marshal's staff. And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah ; And Napthali was even so with Barak, Into the valley they rushed forth at his back.

The cowards By the brooks of Reuben great were the resolves ! Why didst thou sit among the sheepfolds, Listening to the pipings for the flocks ? By the brooks of Reuben there were great questionings I Gilead remained beyond the Jordan ; And Dan, why does he stay by the ships as an alien? Asher sits still by the shore of the sea, And remains by its landings.

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 93

Zebulun was a people who exposed their lives to deadly The battle peril, and defeat

And Napthali on the heights of the open field. Canaanites

Bless Jehovah ! Kings came, they fought ; Then fought the kings of Canaan, At Taanach by the waters of Megiddo ; They took no booty of silver. From heaven fought the stars, From their courses fought against Sisera. The river Kishon swept them away, The ancient river, the river Kishon. O my soul, march on with strength ! Then did the horse-hoofs resound With the galloping, galloping of the powerful steeds.

In the Book of the Upright is included that David's touching elegy which David sang after the Saulald death of Saul and Jonathan, and which stands •^^"'*^^"" next to the Song of Deborah as one of the earliest surviving examples of Old Testament literature.^

calamity

Weep, O Judah I The great-

Grieve, O Israel ! TJH^/}^

On thy heights are the slain ! How have the mighty fallen !

Tell it not in Gath,

Declare it not in the streets of Askelon ; Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised exult.

1 " Student's Old Testament," Vol. 11. , pp. 113, 114.

94 Origm and Value of the Old Testament

Ye mountains of Gilboa, may no dew descend, Nor rain upon you, O ye fields of death ! For there was the shield of the mighty cast away, The shield of Saul, not anointed with oil.

Bravery and From the blood of the slain, attractive. pj-om the fat of the mighty, fallen '^^^ ^^'^ °^ Jonathan tm-ned not back,

The sword of Saul returned not empty.

Saul and Jonathan, the beloved and the lovely I In life and in death they were not parted ; They were swifter than eagles. They were stronger than lions.

Saul's ser- Daughters of Israel, weep over Saul,

vices to Who clothed you daintily in fine linen,

Who put golden ornaments on your garments, [and say :] " How have the mighty fallen in the midst of battle ! "

David's love Jonathan, in thy death hast thou wounded me ! for Jona- j ^^^ distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan !

Thou wert surpassingly dear to me.

Thy love to me was far more than the love of woman !

How have the mighty fallen, And the weapons of war perished 1

The blessing The so-called BUssing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 2-27) is a poetical delineation of the strength and weakness of the different tribes of Israel with references to specific events in their his- tory. These historical allusions suggest that it probably comes from the reigns of David and Solomon, when the tribes were for the

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 95

first time all united under a common rule and had passed through certain of the experiences alluded to in the poem.

The Israehtish race was supremely rich in Israel's heri-

, .J 1 . t(^ge of oral

possessmg not only many ancient songs, but traditions also a large body of oral traditions which had long been handed down from father to son or else treasured by the story-tellers and by the priests of the ancient sanctuaries. Many of these traditions were inherited from their Se- mitic ancestors, and, in the light of recently discovered Babylonian literature, can be traced back far beyond the days of Abraham and Moses. Some were originally the possessions of certain nomadic tribes ; others recorded the early experiences of their ancestors or told of the achievements of early heroes. In the proc- ess of continuous retelling, all unnecessary de- tails had been eliminated and the really dramatic and essential elements emphasized, until they at- tained their present simple, graphic form, which fascinates young and old alike.

The superlative value of these varied tradi- Value of tions is apparent. They were the links which taditi^ns bound later generations to their prehistoric past. Incidentally, in the characteristic lan- guage of Semitic tradition, they preserved the memory of many important events in their

96 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

early tribal history. They are also the illu- minating record of the primitive beliefs, cus- toms, and aspirations of their Semitic ancestors. Subject as they inevitably were to the idealizing tendency, they became in time the concrete em- bodiment of the noblest ideals of later genera- tions. Thus they presented before the kindled imagination of each succeeding age, in the char- acter and achievements of their traditional an- cestors, those ideals of courage, perseverance, and piety which contributed much toward making the Israelites the chosen people that they were. Influences In time this growing heritage of traditions tfit writing became too great for even the remarkable of history Oriental memory to retain. Meantime the Hebrews had also acquired that system of writing which they learned from their more civilized neighbors the Canaanites and Phoe- nicians. From the days of Solomon, scribes were to be found in court and temple, and probably among the prophetic guilds ; although the common people, as in the same land to-day, doubtless had little knowledge of the literary art. While the nation was struggling for the soil of Canaan, or enjoying the full tide of victory and achievement that came under the leadership of David, there was no time or in-

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 97

centive to write history. But with the quieter days of Solomon's reign, and the contrasting period of national decline that followed his death, the incentive to take up the pen and record the departed glories became strong. With a large body of definite oral traditions dealing with all the important men and events of the earlier periods, the task of the histo- rian was chiefly that of writing down and co- ordinating what was already at hand.

The oldest Hebrew history that has been pre- The early served in the Old Testament was the work of an pletkhis-^' unknown Judean prophet or group of prophets ^^^^ who lived and labored probably during the latter part of the ninth century before Christ. This history corresponds closely in relative age and aim to Mark's graphic narrative of the chief facts in the life of Jesus. The motive which influenced the earliest historians both of the Old and New Testaments to write was pri- marily the religious significance of the events which they thus recorded. This early Judean prophetic history (technically known as J) be- gins with the account of the creation of man from the dust by the hand of Jehovah, and tells of the first sin and its dire consequences (Gen. ii. 4 to iii. 24) ; then it gives an ancient list of those who stood as the fathers of nomads, of 7

98 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

musicians and workers in metal (Gen. iv. 1, 16b -26). This is followed by the primitive stories of the sons of God and the daughters of men (Gen. vi. 1 - 4), of Noah the first vineyard- keeper (ix. 20 - 27), and of the tower of Babel and the origin of different languages (xi. 1-9). In a series of more or less closely connected narratives the character and experiences of the patriarchs, the life of the Hebrews in Egypt and the wilderness, and the settlement in Canaan are presented. Its basis for the history of the united kingdom was for the most part the wonderfully graphic group of Saul and David stories which occupy the bulk of the books of Samuel. Thus this remarkable early Judean prophetic history begins with the creation of the universe and man and concludes with the creation of the Hebrew empire. Its unity and In its present Old Testament form it has lics^^^^^^^ been closely combined with other histories, just as Mark's narrative is largely reproduced in Matthew and Luke ; but when it is separated from the later narratives its unity and complete- ness are astounding. Almost without a break it presents the chief characters and events of Israel's history in their relations to each other. The same peculiar vocabulary, the use of Jehovah as the designation of the Deity, the

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 99

same vivid, flowing narrative style, the same simple, naive, primitive conception of Jehovah, the same patriotic interest in the history of the race, and the same emphasis upon the vital reli- gious significance of men and facts, characterize every section of this narrative and make com- paratively easy the task of separating it from the other histories with which it has been joined.

A little later, sometime about the middle of the The early eighth century before Christ, a prophet or group prophetic ^ of prophets in Northern Israel devoted them- ^^^^°^y selves to the similar task of writing the history of Israel from the point of view of the northern kingdom. Since this state is called Ephraim by Hosea and other writers of the North, its history may be designated as the early Ephraim- ite prophetic (technically known as E). Nat- urally its author or authors utilized as the basis of their work the oral traditions current in the North. Sometimes these are closely parallel, and sometimes they vary widely in order and representation from the Judean versions. In general the variations are similar, although some- what greater than those between the parallel narratives of Matthew and Luke.

Marked peculiarities in vocabulary and literary its charac- style distinguish this northern history from the Judean. Since Elohim or G-od is consistently

100 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

used to describe the Deity, it has sometimes been called the Mohistic history. Interest in- clines to the sanctuaries and heroes and events prominent in the life of the North. In that land which produced a Samuel, an Elijah, an Elisha, and an Hosea, it was natural that espe- cial emphasis should be placed on the role of the prophet. Throughout these narratives he is portrayed as the dominant figure, moulding the history as God's representative. Abraham and Moses are here conceived of as prophets, and the Ephraimite history of their age is largely devoted to a portrayal of their prophetic activity. Its scope The interests of later editors who combined

these early prophetic histories, as we now find them in the Old Testament, were centred in the Judean, and hence they have introduced cita- tions from the Ephraimite narratives chiefly to supplement the older history. Possibly it never was as complete as that of the South. At present it begins with Abraham and traces the parallel history of the patriarchs and the life of the Hebrews in Eg3^t and the wilderness. Its account of the conquest is somewhat fuller, probably because Joshua was a northern leader. It also preserves many of the stories of the heroes in the book of Judges. With these the

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 101

citations from the early Ephraimite prophetic history seem to disappear, but the opening stories in the book of Samuel, regarding the great prophet whose name was given to the book, apparently come from the pen of later disciples of this same Ephraimite group of prophets.

The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ Later edito-

. 1 /. . 1 . . . , , . rial supple-

were periods oi intense prophetic activity both in meriting and the North and the South. It was natural, there- l/lhi^wo'' fore, that these early prophetic histories should ^**^<^*«* be supplemented by the disciples of the original historians. Traditions that possessed a perma- nent historical or religious value, as, for exam- ple, the familiar story of Cain and Abel (Gen. iv. 2-16), and the earlier of the two accounts of the flood, were thus added. Also when in 722 B. c. the northern kingdom fell and its literary heritage passed to Judah, it was most natural that a prophetic editor, recognizing the valuable elements in each, and the difficulties presented by the existence of the two variant versions of the same events, should combine the two, and furthermore that, in the days of few manuscripts, the older originals should be lost and only the combined history survive. To-day we find this in turn incorporated in the still later composite history extending from Genesis through Samuel.

102 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Method of combining

Practical value of the rediscovery of the orig- inal his- tories

The later editor's method of uniting his sources is exceedingly interesting, and is an- alogous in many ways to the methods followed in the citations in Matthew and Luke from their common sources, the original Mark and Matthew's Sayings of Jesus, Where the two versions were closely parallel, as in the account of Jacob's deception of his father Isaac, or the story of the spies, the two are completely amal- gamated; short passages, verses, and parts of verses are taken in turn from each. In other cases the editor introduced the different versions — as, for example, the two accounts of the flight of Hagar — into different settings. From sub- sequent allusions to two versions, of which onl}^ one survives in the Old Testament, it is to be inferred that sometimes he simply preserved the fuller, usually the Judean. As a rule, however, there is clear evidence that he made every effort to retain all that he found in his original sources, even though the resulting composite narrative contained many inconsistencies.

To the careful student, seeking to recover the original narratives in their primal unity, these inconsistencies are guides as valuable as the fossils and stratification of the earth are to the geologist intent upon tracing the earth's past history. Guided by these variations and the

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 103

distinctive peculiarities in vocabulary, literary style, point of view, religious conceptions, and purpose of each of the groups of narratives, Old Testament scholars have rediscovered these two original histories; and with their recovery the great majority of seeming inconsistencies and many perplexing problems fade into insignifi- cance. Supplementing each other, as do the earliest Gospels, these two independent histories present with new definiteness and authority the essential facts in Israel's early political, social and religious life. Like eye-witnesses, they testify to the still more significant fact that from the first God was revealing his character and will through a unique race.

A third survey of the period beginning with The brief the sojourn in Egypt and concluding with the phltfc^' conquest of the east-Jordan land is found in ^^^^^^H the introduction to the book of Deuteronomy. It is the prologue to the laws that follow, ap- propriately and effectively placed in the mouth of the pioneer prophet Moses. A comparison quickly demonstrates that it is in reality a brief summary of the older histories, and especially of the early Ephraimite prophetic. Like the Gospel of Matthew, its aim is not merely to present historical facts, but to illustrate and establish a thesis. The thesis is that Jehovah

104 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

has personally led his people, and that when they have been faithful to him they have pros- pered, but when they have disobeyed calamity has overtaken them. The message is distinctly prophetic ; and to distinguish this third history, which was probably written near the close of the seventh century before Christ, from the earlier, it may be designated as the late prophetic or Deuteronomic history (technically represented by D). Comparison Thcsc three prophetic histories correspond tuhtheNew strikingly to the three synoptic Gospels: Mark, Testament \^x}^q and Matthcw. The essential differences

histories '

in their literary history are that they come, not from a single limited group of writers and a brief quarter century, but represent the work of many hands and at least two hundred and fifty years of literary activity. Two, at least, of these histories, are no longer extant in their original form, but only as they have been quoted verbatim by later historians and closely amalgamated. Similiarly, as is well known, Tatian, the pupil of Justin Martyr, in the middle of the second Christian century, did for the four Gospels precisely what an Old Testa- ment editor did for the two early prophetic histories, — he combined them into one com- posite, continuous narrative. By joining pas-

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 105

sages and verses and parts of verses taken from the different Gospels, by omitting verbal duplicates, by rearranging in some cases and by occasionally adding a word or phrase to join dissimilar parts, Tatian produced a marvellous mosaic gospel, known as the Diatessaron. All of the Fourth Gospel is thus preserved, and most of the first three. So successfully was the work done that the volume Avas widely used through- out the Eastern Church. If, as once seemed possible, it had completely supplanted the origi- nal four Gospels, the literary history of these would have been a repetition of that of the earliest Old Testament records.

It is very important to note that the motive The dom- which led the prophetic historians to commit to ^ofjj^ writing the earlier traditions of their race was ^°J^^f^^^ not primarily historical. Like the author of the Fourth Gospel, they selected their material chiefly with a view to enforcing certain im- portant religious truths. If an ancient Semitic tradition illustrated their point, they divested it of its heathen clothing and, irrespective of its origin, pressed it into service. For example, it seems clear that the elements which enter into the story of the Garden of Eden and man's fall were current, with variations, among the ancient Babylonians centuries before the He-

106 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

brews inherited them from their Semitic ances- tors. The early prophet who wrote the second and third chapters of Genesis appreciated their value as illustrations, and made them the me- dium for imparting some of the most impor- tant spiritual truths ever conveyed to mankind. Like the preachers or moral teachers of to-day, the first question the prophets asked about a popular story was not, Is it absolutely historical or scientifically exact? but, Does it illustrate the vital point to be impressed ? Undoubtedly Israel's heritage of oral traditions was far greater than is suggested by the narratives of the Old Testament ; but only those which in- dividually and collectively enforced some im- portant religious truth were utilized. Just as Jesus drew his illustrations from nature and human life about him, so these earlier spiritual teachers, with equal tact, took their illustra- tions from the familiar atmosphere of song and story and national tradition in which their readers lived. A secondary purpose, which they obviously had in view, was also to re- move from certain of the popular tales the immoral implications which still clung to them from their heathen past, and to reconsecrate them to a diviner end.

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 107

Questions of relative date and historical ac- The perma- curacy concern the historian, but they should "j-^"; ^^/^^g not obscure the greater value of these narra- ^/^^^^^

° narratives

tives. To the majority of us, who turn to the Old Testament simply as the record of divine revelation and as a guide to life, the essential thing is to put ourselves into touch with these ancient prophets, who taught by illustration as well as by direct address, and ask, What was the ethical or spiritual truth that illumined their souls and finds concrete expression and illustration through these primitive stories? To discuss the literal historicity of the story of the Garden of Eden is as absurd as to seek to discover who was the sower ivho went forth to sow or the Samaritan who went down to Jericho, Even if no member of the despised Samaritan race ever followed in the footsteps of an hypo- critical Levite along the rocky road to Jericho and succored a needy human being, the vital truth abides. Not until we cease to focus our gaze on the comparatively unimportant, can we discern the great spiritual messages of these early narratives.

The sequel to the great prophetic histories The sequel which underlie the Old Testament books, from prophltic ^ Genesis through Samuel, is in the books of ^'*^^^**^

108 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Kings. These carry the record of Israel's life down to the Babylonian exile. The opening chapters of First Kings contain the conclusion of the Judean prophetic David stories. Fortu- nately the rest of the biblical history to the exile was largely compiled from much earlier sources. As in most of the historical writings, the later editors, also, quoted verbatim from these earlier records and histories, so that in many cases we have the testimony of almost contemporary wit- nesses. The titles of certain of these earlier books are given : The Book of the Acts of Solo- mon, The Chronicles of the Kings of Israel, and The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah. Earlier A careful study of the books of Kings sug-

sources , ,, . ,

quoted by gcsts many other ancient sources. r or the ^of Kings reign of Solomon, state annals, temple records, and popular Solomon traditions appear to have been utiHzed. The graphic account of the divi- sion of the Hebrew empire was probably drawn from an early Jeroboam history. In the latter part of First Kings appear citations from an early Ahab history and a group of Ephraimite Elijah stories. The political data throughout First and Second Kings were probably drawn from the annals of the northern and southern kingdoms. Furthermore, in II Kings ii.-viii.

The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 109

appear long quotations from two cycles of Elisha stories, centring, respectively, about the ancient northern sanctuary of Gilgal, near Shiloh, and about Samaria. The rest of the book includes citations from sources which may be desig- nated as a prophetic Jehu history, temple rec- ords, a Hezekiah history, and a group of Isaiah stories.

These valuable quotations the late prophetic Influences editor of Kings has arranged in chronological duced this order and fitted into a framework which g^^^^ vhluc'^^ the length of each reign and the date of acces- '^^^^^^H sion of the different kings, according to the chronology of the other Hebrew kingdom. To this data he adds a personal judgment upon the policy of each ruler, thereby revealing his pro- phetic spirit. History is to him, as to every true prophet, a supreme illustration of fundamental spiritual principles. Clearly the influence that led him to compile and edit his great work was his recognition of the fact that the record of Israel's national experience as a whole was of deep religious import. The same motive un- doubtedly guided him in the selection of material from his great variety of sources. Only that which was essential was presented. Thus he, or a later editor of his book, traced Israel's remark-

110 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

able history down to the middle of the Baby- lonian exile (560 B. c), and completed that wonderful chain of prophetic narratives which record and interpret the first great chapter of divine revelation through the chosen race.

vn

THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC

SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND

APOCALYPSES

VII

THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC

SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND

APOCALYPSES

To understand and rightly interpret the pro- Real char- phetic writings of the Old Testament it is nee- ^f^^l ^"^^^^ essary to cast aside a false impression as to the P^^P^^^^ character of the prophets which is widely preva- lent. They were not foretellers, but forth- tellers. Instead of being vague dreamers, in imagination living far in the distant future, they were most emphatically men of their own times, enlightened and devoted patriots, social and ethical reformers, and spiritual teachers. Their characteristic note of conviction and authority was due to the fact that, on the one hand, they knew personally and distinctly the evils and needs of their nation, and that, on the other hand, their minds and hearts, ever open to receive the truth, were in vital touch with the Infinite. Thus, just as Aaron became Moses' prophet to the people, publicly proclaiming what the great leader imparted to him in private (Ex. vii. 1, 2), so the Hebrev/ prophets became Jehovah's her- 8

114 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Influences that led the prophets to write down

their inons

aids and ambassadors, announcing by word and life and act the divine will.

While the historians were perfecting their histories certain prophets also were beginning to commit their sermons to writing. The oldest recorded address in the Old Testament is prob- ably that of Amos at Bethel. His banishment from the northern kingdom under strict injunc- tion not to prophesy there (Am. vii. 10-17) may well explain why he resorted to writing to give currency to his prophetic message, though like Paul in later days, he undoubtedly regarded writing as an inferior substitute for the spoken word. Jeremiah appears to have preached twenty years before he dictated a line to his scribe Baruch, and then it was because he could not personally speak in the temple (xxxvi. 1-5). Sometimes complete sermons of the prophets are preserved, but more often we seem to have only extracts and epitomes. In some of the prophetic books, like that of Jeremiah, there are also popu- lar reports of a prophetic address, and narrative sections, telling of the prophet's experience. Evidences of editing are very apparent in the prlphecies^^ earlier prophecies. Sudden interruptions, and verses or clauses, in which appear ideas and literary style very different from that of the immediate context, indicate that many of the

The editing

Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, Apocalypses 115

prophecies have been supplemented by later notes, some explanatory and some hortatory. Other longer passages are intended to adjust the earlier teaching to later conditions and beliefs and so to adapt them to universal human needs that they are not limited to the hour and occasion of their first delivery. Some of these passages come from the hands of disciples of the prophets and often contain valuable additional data; others are from later prophetic editors and scribes. A detailed comparison, for example, of the Hebrew and Greek versions of Jeremiah quickly discloses wide variations of words, verses, and even long passages, added in one or the other text by later hands. All these additions testify to the deep interest felt by later generations in the earlier writings, even before they were assigned a final place in the canon. It is one of the important tasks of biblical scholars to distinguish the original from the additions and thus determine what were the teachings of each prophet and what are the contributions of later generations.

Many of the later additions possess a value The hack- and authority entirely independent of that pos-f^^/a/^^jY-Zy. sessed by the prophet Avith whose writings they have been joined by their original authors or later editors. Thus the sublime chapters ap- pended to the original sermons of Isaiah contain

116 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

some of the noblest teachings in the Old Testa- ment. The different themes and literary style ; the frequent references to the Babylonians, not as distant allies, as in the days of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but as the hated oppressors of the Jews; the evidence that the prophet's readers are not exiles far from Judah ; the many allusions to the conquests of Cyrus, — all these leave little doubt that chapters xl.-lv. were written in the latter part of the Babylonian or the first of the Persian period. Interpreted in the light of this back- ground, their thought and teachings become clear and luminous. Similarly, the varied evidence within the chapters themselves seems to indicate that Isaiah Ivi.-lxvi. contain sermons directed to the struggling Jewish community in Palestine during the days following the rebuilding of the temple in 520 B. c. The order The prophctic sermons, epistles, and apoca- fX prophetic lypses fall naturally into five great groups. The books prophets of the Assyrian period were Amos and

Hosea, who between 750 and 734 b. c. preached to Northern Israel ; also Isaiah and Micah, whose work lies between 740 and 680 b. c. Nahum's little prophecy, although much later, echoes the death-knell of the great Assyrian kingdom which for two or three centuries dominated south- western Asia. The prophets of Judah's decline

Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, Apocalypses 117

were Zephaniah (about 628 B. c), Jeremiah (628-690), and Habakkuk (609-605). To the same period belong Ezekiel's earlier sermons, deUvered between 592 and 586, just before the final destruction of Jerusalem. The prophets of the Babylonian exile were Obadiah, whose origi- nal oracle belongs to its opening years; Eze- kiel (xxv.-xlviii.), who continued to preach until 572 B.C., and the great prophet whose death- less messages ring through Isaiah xl.-lv. The prophets of the Persian period were Haggai and Zechariah, whose inspiring sermons kept alive the flagging zeal of those who rebuilt the second temple ; the authors of Isaiah Ivi.- Ixvi. ; the author of the little book of Malachi ; and Joel. To this list we may perhaps add the prophet who has given us that noble pro- test, found in the much misunderstood book of Jonah, against the narrow and intolerant attitude of later Judaism toward foreigners.

With the exception of Ezekiel, Haggai, Zech- Growth of ariah, and Joel, all the prophecies which come ^^^dapoca- from the centuries followinof the fall of Jeru- '-^^^'^ ^^^^^^' salem in 586 B. c. are anonymous. The worship of the authority of the past had begun, and there is evidence that the belief was gaining currency that the days of the prophets were past. Hence the natural tendency to resort to anonymous au-

118 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

thorship or else to append a later message to an earlier prophecy. Chapters ix.-xiv. of the book of Zechariah illustrate this custom, — chapters which apparently come from the last Old Testa- ment period, the Greek or Maccabean. The habit of presenting prophetic truth in the highly figurative, symbolic form of the apocalypse also became prominent in later Judaism. This has already been noted in the study of the growth of the New Testament, and is illustrated by the book of Revelation. It was especially adapted to periods of religious persecution, for it enabled the prophet to convey his message of encourage- ment and consolation in language impressive and clear to his people, yet unintelligible to their foreign masters. The histor- To the mind of one who has carefully studied Pound% ^^^ book of Daniel in the light of the great the book of crisis that came to the Jews as a result of the

Daniel

relentless persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, between the years 169 and 165 B. c, there re- mains little doubt that it is in this period the wonderful apocalypse finds its true setting and interpretation. The familiar examples of the heroic fidelity of Daniel and his friends to the demands of their religion and ritual were su- premely well adapted to arouse a similar resist- ance toward the demands of a tyrant who was

Prophetic Sermons, Epistles , Apocalypses 119

attempting to stamp out the Jewish religion and transform the chosen people into a race of apostates. The visions found in the book trace rapidly, in succession, the history of the Baby- lonian, Median, Persian, and, last of all, the Greek kingdoms. The culmination is a minute description of the character and reign of the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes (xi. 21-45). He is clearly the little horn of chapter viii. But suddenly, in the midst of the account of the persecutions, the descriptions become vague and general. Nor is there any reference to the suc- cess of the Maccabean uprising; instead, the prediction is made that Jehovah himself will soon come to establish his Messiah's kingdom.

The inference is, therefore, that the prophecy Date of

. , » ^ ^ . the hook

was written a short time before the rededication of the temple in 165 B. c. This conclusion is confirmed by many other indications. For ex- ample the language, in part Aramaic, is that of the Greek period. The mistakes regarding the final overthrow of the Babylonian empire, which was by Cyrus, not Darius, and brought about not by strategy, but as a result of the voluntary submission of the Babylonians, are identical with the errors current in Greek tra- dition of the same late period. Here, as in the early narratives of Genesis, a true prophet has

120 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

utilized earlier stories as effective illustrations. He has also given in the common apocalyptic form an interpretation of the preceding four centuries of human history, and showed how through it all God's purpose was being realized. The book concludes with the firm assurance that those who now prove faithful are to be richly rewarded and to have a part in his coming Messianic kingdom. The common Thus, from the minds of the prophets come atingthe the earliest writings of the Old Testament. ^he^autho^s^ They consist of exhortations, warnings, messages of the New q£ encouragement, or else stories intended to illustrate a religious principle or to present, in concrete form, a prophetic ideal. The funda- mental motive which produced them all was identical with that which led the disciples and apostles to write the Gospels and Epistles of the New. In the case of the historico-prophetic writings, like Samuel and Kings, the desire to inspire and mould the minds and wills of their readers was combined with the desire to pre- serve in permanent form a record of the events which, in their national history, revealed most clearly Jehovah's character and purpose. In this respect they correspond perfectly to the Gospels and Acts of the New Testament. It is easy to see, therefore, that kindred aims and

Prophetic Sermons, Epistles^ Apocalypses 121

ideals actuated these unknown prophetic writers and their later successors, Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Their literary products differ only be- cause their subject-matter is different. The one group records Jehovah's revelation of himself through the hfe of the Messianic nation, the other through the life of the perfect Messiah.

It is interesting to note, in conclusion, that The New from the point of view of the Old, all the J"%T^"V literature of the New may be designated as pro- ^^e prophetic

'JO IT writings

phetic. The three distinct groups of writings found in the New, namely, the Gospels and Acts, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse, correspond exactly to the three types of prophetic litera- ture found in the Old : the historic o-prophetical writings, direct written prophecies, and apoca- lypses. If the final canon of the Old Testa- ment had been completed before the days of Josiah, there is every reason to believe that it also would have contained little beside pro- phetic writings. In divine providence it was not closed until seven centuries later, so that, as it has come to us, it is a comprehensive library, representing every stage and every side of Israel's development. It is, however, in perfect keeping with the spirit of the Master that the New Testament should contain sig- nificant facts and broad principles rather than

122 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

detailed laws or even the songs of worship. He whose ideals, teachings, and methods were in closest harmony with those of the Hebrew prophets, naturally begat, through his immedi- ate followers, a group of distinctively prophetic writings.

VIII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS

VIII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS

If the canon of the New Testament had First the remained open as long as did that of the Old, and then the there is little doubt that it also would have con- ^^^^ tained many laws, legal precedents, and eccle- siastical histories. From the writings of the Church Fathers and the records of the Catholic Church it is possible to conjecture what these in general would have been. The early history of Christianity illustrates the universal fact that the broad principles are first enunciated by a great prophetic leader or leaders, and that in suc- ceeding centuries these new principles are gradu- ally embodied in detailed laws and ceremonials. Also the principles must be accepted, partially at least, by the majority of the people before the enactments based upon them can be en- forced. This important fact, stated in Old Testament terms, is that the prophet must and always does precede the lawgiver.

126 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Meaning of ToraTi^ the common Hebrew word for law,

the Hebrew r tt i i •

word for comes from a Hebrew word meamng to point out or direct. It is probably also connected with the older root signifying, to cast the sacred lot. The torah^ therefore, was originally the decision, rendered in connection with specific questions of dispute, and referred to Jehovah by means of the sacred lot. Thus the early priests were also judges because they were the custodians of the divine oracle. Origin of Here we are able to trace, in its earliest He-

heliefin the brcw form, the universal belief in the divine djine^origin ^^^:^^ of the law. In the primitive laws of Exodus xxi.-xxiii., in connection with a case of disputed responsibility for injury to prop- erty, the command is given : the cause of both parties shall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall pay double to his neighbor (xxii. 8, 9). In ancient times all cases of dispute were thus laid before God and decided by the lot or by God's representatives, usually the priests. When, in time, customs and oral laws grew up on the basis of these decisions, a similar divine origin and authority were naturally attributed to them. Individually and collectively they were designated by the same suggestive term, torah. When they were ultimately commit- ted to writing, the legal literature bore this

Development of Old Testament Laws 127

title. In the Hebrew text it still remains as the designation of the first group of Old Testa- ment books which contain the bulk of Israel's laws.

A belief in the divine origin of law was its ultimate held by most ancient peoples. In connection "*'*"*^"'^ with the tablet which records the laws of Ham- murabi, we have a picture of Shamash the sun- god giving the laws to the king. In the epilogue to these laws he states that by the command of Shamash, the judge supreme of heaven and earth, he has set them up that judgment may shine in the land. The statements in the Old Testa- ment that Jehovah talked face to face with Moses or wrote the ten words with his finger on tablets of stone reflect the primitive belief which pictured God as a man with hands and voice and physical body ; still they are the early concrete statement of a vital, eternal truth. Not on perishable stone, but in the minds of the ancient judges, and in the developing ethical consciousness of the Israelitish race, he inscribed the principles of which the laws are the practical expression. If he had not revealed them, there would have been no progress in the knowledge of justice and mercy. The thesis of the Old Testament, and of Hammurabi also, is funda- mentally true. The vivid forms in which both

128 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

expressed that thesis were admirably fitted to impress it upon the mind of early man. Method in The early Israelitish theory of the origin of Hebrew law law provided fully for expansion and develop- ^^^^ ment to meet the new and changed conditions

of later periods. Whenever a new question pre- sented itself, it could be referred to Jehovah's representatives, the priests and prophets ; and their tor ah ^ or response, would forthwith become the basis for the new law. Malachi ii. 6, 7 clearly defines this significant element in the growth of Israel's legal codes : the tor ah of truth was in the mouth of the priest . . . and the people should seek the torah at his mouth. Similarly Haggai commands the people to ask a torah from the priests in regard to a certain question of cere- monial cleanliness (ii. 11). Until a very late period in Israelitish history, the belief was uni- versal that Jehovah was ever giving new deci- sions and laws through his priests and prophets, and therefore that the law itself was constantly being expanded and developed. This belief is in perfect accord with all historical analogies and with the testimony of the Old Testament his- tories and laws themselves. Not until the days of the latest editors did the tendency to project the Old Testament laws back to the beginning of Israel's history gain the ascendency and leave

Development of Old Testament Laws 129

its impression upon the Pentateuch. Even then there was no thought of attributing the lit- erary authorship of all of these laws to Moses. This was the work of stiU later Jewish tra- dition.

The earliest Old Testament narratives indicate Moses' rela- clearly the real liistorical basis of the familiar israelitish later tradition, and vindicate and help us in the effort to define the title, Law of Moses. The early Ephraimite narratives describe Moses as a prophet rather than as a mere lawgiver. In Exodus xviii. they give us a vivid picture of his activity as judge. To him the people came in crowds, with their cases, to inquire of God (15). In 16, to his father-in-law Jethro, he states : whenever they have a matter of dis- pute they come to me^ that I may decide which of the two is right, and make known the statutes of God and his decisions (to roth}. Jethro then advises him to appoint reliable men, gifted with a high sense of justice, to decide minor cases, while he reserves for himself the difficult ques- tions involving new principles. The origin and theory of Israel's early laws are vividly pre- sented in Jethro's words to Moses in verses 19, 20 : You he the people's advocate with God, and bring the cases to God, and you make known to them the statutes and the decisions, and show

9

130 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

them the way wherein they must walk, and the work that they must do. Historical It appears from these and other passages that tradition of Moses' traditional title as the father of Israelitish auZTrlhi legislation is well established. As a prophet, he proclaimed certain fundamental principles that became the basis of all later codes. As a judge, he rendered decisions that soon grew into cus- tomary laws. As a leader and organizer, he laid the foundations of the later political and institu- tional growth of the nation. Furthermore, it is probable that he taught the people certain sim- ple commands which became the nucleus of all later legislation. Naturally and properly, as oral laws subsequently grew up and were finally committed to writing, they were attributed to him. Later, when these laws were collected and codified, they were still designated as Mosaic, even though the authors of these codes added many contemporary enactments to the earlier laws. Thus the traditions, as well as the theory, of Israelitish law fortunately raised no barrier against its normal growth. It was not until the late Jewish period, when the tradition became rigid and unnatural, that the rabbis, in order to estabUsh the authority of contemporary laws, were forced to resort to the grotesque legal fictions which appear in the Talmud.

Development of Old Testament Laws 131

The earliest Hebrew laws, like the traditions, Evidences were apparently long transmitted in oral form. ^^^^ lanT^' The simple life of the desert and early Canaan ^^^^ °''"' required no written records. Custom and mem- ory preserved all the laws that were needed. Also, as we have seen, before the Hebrews came into contact with the Canaanites and Phoenicians, they do not seem to have developed the literary art. Instead, they cast their important com- mands and laws into the form of pentads and decalogues. The practical aim seems to have been to aid the memory by associating a brief law with each finger of the two hands. The system was both simple and effective. It also points clearly to a period of oral rather than written transmission.

The nucleus of all Israelitish law appears to The earliest have been a simple decalogue, which gave the laws^^ terms of the original covenant between Jehovah and his people, and definitely stated the obliga- tions they must discharge if they would retain his favor. The oldest version of this decalogue is now embedded in the early Judean narrative of Exodus xxxiv. There is considerable evidence, however, that it once stood immediately after the Judean account of Jehovah's revelation of him- self at Sinai, and was transposed to its present position in order to give place for the later and

132 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

nobler prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx. 1-17. Its antiquity and importance are also evidenced by the fact that it has received many later in- troductory, explanatory, and hortatory notes. Exodus xxxiv. 28 preserves the memory that it originally consisted of simply ten words. The slightly variant version of these original ten words is also found in Exodus xx. 23, xxiii. 12, 15, 16, 18, 29, 30. Furthermore, it probably once occupied a central position in the corre- sponding Northern Israelitish account of the covenant at Sinai.

With the aid of these two different versions, that of the North and that of the South, it is possible to restore approximately the common original :

I. Thou shalt worship no other God. II. Thou shalt make no molten gods.

III. Thou shalt observe the feast of un-

leaven bread.

IV. Every first-born is mine.

V. Six days shalt thou toil, but on the

seventh thou shalt rest. VI. Thou shalt observe the feast of weeks and ingathering at the end of the year. VII. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven.

Development of Old Testament Laws 133

VIII. The fat of my feast shall not be left

until morning. IX. The best of the first-fruits of thy land

shalt thou bring to the house of

Jehovah. X. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its

mother's milk. These laws bear on their face the evidence Its date of their primitive date and origin. They define religion not in the terms of life, as does the familiar prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx., but, like the old Babylonian religion, in the terms of the ritual. Loyalty to Jehovah, as the God of the nation, and fidelity to the demands of the cult is their watchword. Their antiquity and the central position they occupy in Old Testa- ment legislation are shown further by the fact that all of them are again quoted in other codes, and most of them four or five times in the Old Testament. Three of them apply to agri- cultural life ; but agriculture is not entirely un- known to the nomadic life of the wilderness. Possibly in their present form certain of these commands have been adapted to conditions in Canaan, but the majority reflect the earliest stages in Hebrew history. In all probability the decalogue in its original form came from Moses, as the earliest traditions assert, although

XXll

134 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

comparative Semitic religion demonstrates that many of the institutions here reflected long antedated the days of the great leader. r^eJudg- Although in part contemporary, the next Exodus xxi., stage in the development of Israelitish law is represented by the civil, social, and humane decalogues in Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19. The best preserved group is found in xxi. 1 to xxii. 20, and bears the title Judgments^ which recalls Hammurabi's title to his code. The Judg- ments of Righteousness. Like this great Baby- lonian code, the Hebrew Judgments deal with civil and social cases, and are usually introduced by the formula, If so and so^ followed by the penalty or decision to be rendered. They are evidently intended primarily for the guidance of judges. The parallels with the code of Hammurabi are many, both in theme, form, and penalty, although there is no conclusive evidence that the Hebrew borrowed directly from the older Babylonian. Undoubtedly many of the striking points of resemblance are due simply to common Semitic ideas and institu- tions and to the recurrence of similar questions. But on the whole, the Hebrew laws place a higher estimate on life and less on property. They reflect also a simpler type of civilization than the Babylonian.

Development of Old Testament Laws 135

When three or four obviously later additions Their ar- have been removed, the Judgments are found to ^anTcon- consist of five decalogues, each divided into two '^"'* pentads which deal with different phases of the same general subject. They are as follows : First Decalogue : The Rights of Slaves.

First Pentad : Males, Ex. xxi. 2, 3a, 3b, 4, 5-6. Second Pentad : Females, xxi. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Second Decalogue : Assaults.

First Pentad : Capital Offences, xxi. 12, 13, 14,

15, 16. Second Pentad: Minor Offences, xxi. 18-19, 20, 21, 26, 27. Third Decalogue: Laws regarding Domestic Ani-

tnals. First Pentad : Injuries by Animals, xxi. 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. Second Pentad : Injuries to Animals, xxi. 33-34, 35, 36; xxii. 1, 4. Fourth Decalogue : Responsibility for Property. First Pentad : In General, xxii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Second Pentad: In Cattle, xxii. 10-11, 13, 14, 15a, 15b. Fifth Decalogue : Social Purity.

First Pentad : Adultery, Deut. xxii. 13-19, 20-

21, 22, 23-24, 25-27. Second Pentad : Fornication and Apostasy, Ex. xxii. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20.

Many of these laws anticipate the settled Their date agricultural conditions of Palestine. Society,

136 Origi7i and Value of the Old Testament

however, is very simple. The decalogue and pentad form also points clearly to an early period, when the laws were transmitted orally. Many of the laws probably came from the days of the wilderness wandering, and therefore go back to the age of Moses, in some cases much earlier, as is shown by close analogies with the code of Hammurabi. Although in their present written form these oral Judgments bear the marks of the Northern Israehtish prophetic writ- ers who have preserved them, the majority, if not all, may with confidence be assigned to the days of David and Solomon.

The remaining verses of Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19, contain groups of humane and cere- monial laws. In the process of transmission they have been somewhat disarranged, but, with the aid of the fuller duplicate versions in Deu- teronomy, four complete decalogues can be restored and part of a fifth. The following analysis will suggest their general character and contents:

HUMANE AND CEREMONIAL LAWS

First Decalogue : Kindness.

First Pentad: Towards Men, Ex. xxii. 21a, 22-

23, 25a, 25b, 26-27. Second Pentad : Towards Animals, Ex. xxiii. 4

Development of Old Testament Laws 137

[Deut. xxii. 1], Deut. xxii. 2, 3; Ex. xxiii. 5

[Deut. xxii. 4], Deut. xxii. 6-7. Second Decalogue : Justice.

First Pentad: Among Equals, Ex. xxiii. la,

lb, 2a, 2b, 3. Second Pentad : On the Part of those in Author- ity, xxiii, 6, 7a, 7b, 7c, 8. Third Decalogue : Duties to God. Eirst Pentad : Worship, Ex. xx. 23a, 23b, 24, 25,

2Q. Second Pentad : Loyalty, Ex. xxii. 28, 29a, 29b,

30, 31. Fourth Decalogue : Sacred Seasons.

First Pentad: Command to Observe them, xxiii.

10-11, 12, 15a, 16a, 16b. Second Pentad : Method of Observing them,

xxiii, 17, 18a, 18b, 19a, 19b.

Here the primitive ceremonial decalogue has Period rep- been expanded into the third and fourth group 117 primitive given above. Like the Judgments, these deca- *^°'^" logues bear testimony to their northern origin, and probably they also have had much the same history, although their relation to the primitive decalogue and the fact that they are prefixed and added to the solid group of Judgments, would seem to indicate that they were some- what later. These two collections, together with their older prototype, the ancient deca- logue, represent the growth of Israel's laws

138 Origin and Value of the Old Testameiit

during the four centuries beginning with Moses and extending to about 800 B. c. To distin- guish them from later collections they may be designated as the Primitive Codes. The need The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ

which brought to the Hebrews great crises and revolutionary changes in both their political and religious life, witnessed the epoch-making work of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah. This re- markable group of prophets proclaimed so many new principles that a fundamental revision and expansion of Israel's primitive codes became necessary in order to adapt the latter to the new needs of the age. The reactionary reign of Manasseh had also brought out plainly the contrast between the older heathen cults, still cherished by the people, and the exalted ideals of the true prophets. If the prophetic teach- ings were to become operative in the life of the nation, it was also seen that they must be expressed in concrete legal enactments, which could be universally understood and definitely enforced. Application Accordingly, a group of prophets, disciples of principles ^0 the oldcr masters, and inspired by the spirit of fhe ^'eoo/e^ reform, devoted themselves to this all-important task. The results of their work are represented by the prophetic law-book of Deuteronomy.

Development of Old Testament Laws 139

Through its pages glow the new ethical teachings of the prophets of the Assyrian period. The ele- ments of Hosea's doctrine, love to God and love to men and kindness to the needy and oppressed, in their new setting and application, make it one of the evangels of the Old Testament. Its lofty standards of justice and social responsi- bility reflect the impassioned addresses of Amos and Hosea. Since the new laws, as a w^hole, represented the practical application of the mes- sages of the prophets to life, they were justly and appropriately placed in the mouth of Moses, the real and traditional head of the nation and of the prophetic order.

A comparison of this prophetic law-book with Relation to the older primitive laws shows that the latter /^j^^ were made the basis of the new codes, since most of them, in revised form, are also found in Deu- teronomy. The prophetic lawmakers, however, in the same spirit that actuated Jesus in his attitude toward the ancient law, freely modified, supplemented, and in some cases substituted for the primitive enactments, laws that more per- fectly embodied the later revelation.

The nature of the reforms instituted by Jo- Promulga- siah, according to II Kings xxii., clearly prove ^ate of the that the laws which inspired them were those ^^'2^^^^' ^ of Deuteronomy, and that this was the law-book

140 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

discovered in the temple by Hilkiah the priest and publicly read and promulgated by the king in 621 B. c. Originally it was probably prepared by the prophetic reformers as a basis for their work ; but it incorporates not only most of the primitive codes, but also many other ancient laws and groups of laws, some doubtless coming from the earliest periods of Israel's history. It also appears to have been further supplemented after the reformation of Josiah. In general it represents the second great stage in Old Testa- ment law, as it rapidly developed between 800 and 600 B.C. under the inspiring preaching of the remarkable prophets of the Assyrian period. Their his- Thcsc laws represent, in many ways, the permanent high-watcr mark of Old Testament legislation. Every effort is made to eliminate that which experience had proved to be imperfect in the older laws and customs. The cliief aim is to protect the rights of the wronged and depend- ent. The appeal throughout is not to the fear of punishment — in a large number of laws no penalty is suggested — but to the individual conscience. Not merely formal worship is de- manded, but a love to God so personal that it dominates the individual heart and soul and finds expression through energies completely devoted to his service. These laws required strict justice,

Development of Old Testament Laws 141

but more than that, mercy and practical charity toward the weak and needy and afflicted. Even the toiling ox and the helpless mother-bird and her young are not beyond the kin of these wonderful laws. Under their benign influence the divine principles of the prophets began to mould directly the character and life of the Israelitish race. The man who lives in accord with their spirit and injunctions to-day finds himself on the straight and narrow way, hal- lowed by the feet of the Master.

IX

INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HISTORIES

IX

INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HIS- TORIES

The Babylonian exile gave a great oppor- influences tunity and incentive to the further develop- Iha^pro-^ ^ ment of written law. While the temple stood, ^"^f^

^ written cere-

the ceremonial rites and customs received con- monial laws stant illustration, and were transmitted directly from father to son in the priestly families. Hence, there was little need of writing them down. But when most of the priests were carried captive to Babylonia, as in 597 B. c, and ten years later the temple was laid in ruins and all sacrifice and ceremonial wor- ship suddenly ceased, written records at once became indispensable, if the customs and rules of Israel's ritual were to be preserved. The in- tegrity and future of the scattered Israelitish race also largely depended upon keeping alive their distinctive traditions. Torn from their altars, the exiled priests not only had a 10

INFL

IE tunit} ment tliece

down. eanie amit min stiipE liectt

IX

INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HIS- TORIES

The Babylonian exile gave a great oppor- influences tunity and incentive to the further develop- JJ^'^^ ^^^ ^ ment of written law. While the temple stood, ^""rf,^

^ ' written cere-

the ceremonial rites and customs received con- monial laws stant illustration, and were transmitted directly from father to son in the priestly families. Hence, there was little need of writing them down. But when most of the priests were carried captive to Babylonia, as in 597 B. c, and ten years later the temple was laid in ruins and all sacrifice and ceremonial wor- ship suddenly ceased, written records at once became indispensable, if the customs and rules of Israel's ritual were to be preserved. The in- tegrity and future of the scattered Israelitish race also largely depended upon keeping alive their distinctive traditions. Torn from their altars, the exiled priests not only had a 10

146 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

strong incentive, but likewise the leisure, to write. The ritualistic zeal of their Babylonian masters doubtless further inspired them. The result was, that during the Babylonian exile and the following century most of the cere- monial laws in the Old Testament appear to have been first committed to writing. EzeJcieVs Evcn Ezckicl, the prophet of the early exile,

yielded to the influence of his early priestly training and the needs of the situation. In 572 he issued the unique code found in chapters xl.-xlviii. of his prophecy. It provides for the rebuilding of the temple, and defines the duties of its different officials and the form of ritual that is to be observed. The whole is intended primarily to emphasize, through the arrange- ment of the sanctuary and the forms of the cere- monial, the transcendent holiness of Jehovah. Ezekiel also proclaims, through this elaborate program for the restored community, the cer- tainty that the exiles would be allowed to return and rebuild the temple. He evidently reproduces many of the proportions and regula- tions of the first temple, but, with the same freedom that characterizes the authors of the Deuteronomic codes, he unhesitatingly sets aside earlier usages where something better has been revealed.

The Priestly Laws and Histories 147

Ezekiel's code was never fully adopted by the Genesis and later Jews, for much of it was symbolic rather ^thTlloliness than practical ; but it powerfully influenced sub- ^^^^ sequent lawmakers, and was indicative of the dominant tendency of the day. Even before he issued his code, some like-minded priest had col- lected and arranged an important group of laws, which appear to have been familiar to Ezekiel himself. They are found in Leviticus xvii.- xxvi., and have felicitously been designated as the Holiness Code^ because they constantly empha- size the holiness of Jehovah and the necessity of the people's being holy in thought and act. In chapters xvii.-xix. most of the original laws are still arranged in the decalogue and pentad form. This strong evidence that they had been transmitted by word of mouth from a much earlier period is supported by their contents. They resemble and supplement the primitive laws of Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19. Many of them probably came from the early periods of Israeli tish history. Most of the laws, like those of the prophetic codes in Deuteronomy, are ethical and humane rather than ceremo- nial. The code, as a whole, is a remarkable combination of prophetic and priestly teach- ing. It marks the transition from the age of the prophets, represented by Deuteronomy, to that of

148 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

the priests and ritual, represented by the priestly codes proper. Like every important early col- lection of laws, it also has been much supple- mented by later editors; the original Holiness Code, however, may be given a date soon after the first captivity in 597 B. c. The priestly The influences represented by Ezekiel and

codes

the Holiness Code have given us the remaining laws of the Old Testament. These are found in Leviticus i.-xvi., xxviii., and, excepting Exodus xx.-xxiii., xxxiv., in the legal sec- tions of Exodus and Numbers. They deal almost entirely with such ceremonial subjects, as the forms and rules of sacrifice, the obser- vation of the annual religious festivals, and the rights and duties of priests. Many of them incorporated laws and customs as old or older than the days of Moses. An early and impor- tant group, technically known as the Priestly teaching (Lev. i.-iii., v.-vii., xi.-xv. ; Num. v., vi., XV., xix. 14-22), is repeatedly designated as the tor ah of the hurnt-offering (Lev. vi. 9), or the torah of the meal-offering (vi. 14), or the torah of the unclean and clean beast or bird (xi. 46, 47). It is evidently based upon the toroth, or deci- sions, rendered by the priests concerning the various ceremonial questions thus treated. The recurring phrase, according to the ordinance^

The Priestly Laws and Histories 149

probably refers to the fixed usage observed in connection with the first temple.

The atmosphere and point of view of these Their date priestly laws as a whole are the exilic and post- exilic periods. The ritual has become much more elaborate, the position of the priests much more prominent, and their income far greater than before the exile. The distinction between priest and Levite, which was not recognized before the exile, is clearly defined. The annual feasts have increased, and their old joyous char- acter has largely disappeared under the dark shadow of the exile. Sin-offerings, guilt-offer- ings, trespass-offerings, and the day of atone- ment (practically unknown before the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B. c.) reflect the spirit of the later Judaism which sought to win Jehovah's favor by its many sacrifices. Within these priestly codes there is also evidence of devel- opment. The older collections, such as the priestly teachings, were probably made early in the Babylonian exile. Others represent the gradual expansion and supplementing of these older groups, the process apparently continuing until the days of Nehemiah and Ezra. The whole, therefore, is the fruit of the remarkable priestly literary activity between 600 and 400 B. c, and possibly extending even later.

150 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Adoption of The Jewish community which Nehemiah \mo^aboui^ found in Palestine was still living under the 400 b. c. Deuteronomic law, and apparently knew noth- ing of the very different demands of the priestly codes. His reform measures recorded in Nehe- miah V. and xiii., as well as his effective work in repairing the walls, prepared the way for the sweeping innovations which followed the public acceptance of the new law-book, brought accord- ing to tradition by Ezra. Five out of the eight regulations specified by the oath then taken by the leaders of the nation (Neh. x. 30-39) are found only in the priestly codes ; one of them, indeed, is not presented elsewhere in the Old Testament. Henceforth the life of the Jewish race is moulded by these later codes. It is, therefore, safe to conclude that they consti- tuted the essence of the new law-book solemnly adopted by the Jewish community as its guide somewhere about 400 B. c. Aim and Inasmuch as the interest of the priests centred

HcJofthe^' i^ ceremonial institutions and the history of the priestly jg^^y rather than about individuals and politics,

narratives ^

it was natural that they also should write their own history of the race. Their general purpose was to give an introduction and setting to their laws. As might be anticipated, this priestly history incorporates the traditions of the late

The Priestly Lavjs and Histories 151

priestly school, and therefore those current long centuries after the events recorded transpired. As in the case of the prophetic narratives, the aim is not primarily historical, but doctrinal. The peculiar vocabulary, language, and theo- logical conceptions are those which distinguish the post-exilic priestly editors of the latest Old Testament laws.

Their history begins with the majestic ac- Their sketch.

c ,' • /-N ••-!,••< /-^-,ofthe earlier

count 01 creation m Genesis i. 1 to ii. 4a. God history does not form man from the dust, as in the primitive prophetic account, but by a simple word of command; and by progressive acts of creation he realizes his perfect plan, which cul- minates in the creation of mankind. The liter- ary style is that of a legalist: formal, precise, repetitious, and generic. The ultimate aim of the narrative is to trace the origin of the in- stitution of the Sabbath back to the creation. The genealogical history of Genesis v. connects this account of creation with the priestly version of the flood story which leads up to the covenant with Noah. The priestly genealogical histories of Genesis x. and xi. 10-27 trace the ancestry oE the Hebrews through Abraham. Regarding this patriarch these later historians present only a brief sketch; in Genesis xvii., however, they expand their narrative to give in detail the

152 Origin and Value of tlie Old Testament

origin of the rite of circumcision, which they associate with him. Jacob is to them chiefly of interest as the father of the ten tribes.

From Egypt The history of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt is briefly outlined as the prelude to the traditional institution of the feast of the pass- over. Sinai, however, is the great goal of the priestly narratives, for about it they group all their laws. It is their concrete method of pro- claiming the antiquity and divine origin of Israel- itish legislation. The period of the wilderness wandering is also made the background of many important legal precedents. The priestly his- tory concludes with an account of the conquest of Canaan and the allotment of the territory to the different tribes.

The lack of In thesc late priestly narratives the historical

historical ... .. -iiiii i

perspective perspective IS sometimes considerably shortened and sometimes lengthened. Moreover, their representation often differs widely from that of the parallel but much earlier prophetic histories. The original traditions have also assumed larger proportions, and the supernatural element is much more prominent. This is evidently the result of long transmission, in an age that had largely lost the historic sense, and among the priestly exiles, who were far removed from the real life of Palestine.

The Priestly Lccws and Histories 153

The wide variations between the older pro- Variations phetic and late priestly accounts of the same older and events might be illustrated by scores of ex- ^^^IJ^^"^' amples. The following parallel account of the exodus will suffice :

Early Judean Frophetic Account

Ex. xiv. 19b. Then the pillar of cloud changed its position from before them and stood behind them. (20b) And the cloud lighted up the night; yet throughout the en- tire night the one army did not come near the other. (21b) And Je- hovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night, and made the bed of the sea dry. (24b) And it came to pass in the watch before the dawn that Jehovah looked forth through the pillar of fire and of cloud upon the host of the Egyp- tians, (25) and he bound

Late Priestly Account of the Exodus

(21a, c) Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the waters were divided, (22) so that the Israel- ites went into the midst of the sea on the dry ground; and the waters were a wall to them on their right hand and on their left. (23b) And the Egyp- tians went in after them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his horsemen. (26) Then Jehovah said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and

154 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Inferior his- torical value of the priestly narratives

their chariot wheels, so that they proceeded with difficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before Is- rael ; for Jehovah fight- eth for them against the Egyptians. (27b) But the sea returned to its ordinary level toward morning, while the Egyptians were flying before it. And Jehovah shook off the Egyp- tians into the midst of the sea, (28b) so that not one of them re- mained. (30) Thus Je- hovah saved Israel that day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore.

No one can doubt for a moment that the older, simpler, and more natural version is, from the historical point of view, the more accurate. The normal man to-day has outgrown the crav- ing for the grotesquely supernatural. The om-

1 " Student's Old Testament," Vol. I., 175, 176.

their horsemen. (27a) So Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, (28a) and the waters returned and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, even all the host of Pharaoh that went in after them into the sea. (29) But the Israelites walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, the waters being a wall to them on their right hand, and on their left.^

The Priestly Laws and Histories 155

nipotent, omniscient, loving Creator, who reveals himself through the growing flower, commands our admiration as fully as a God who speaks through the unusual and extraordinary. Every- thing is possible with God, and the man is blind indeed who would deny the Infinite Being, who is all and in all, the ability to pass beyond the bounds of that which we, with our extremely limited vision, have designated as natural. The real question is. How did God see fit to accom- plish his ends? Our judicial and historical sense unhesitatingly inclines to the older and simpler narratives as containing the true answer. In distinguishing these different strands of nar- rative, it must be acknowledged that modern biblical scholarship has performed a service in- valuable alike to the student of literature, of history, and of revelation.

In passing, it is instructive to note that, almost Recognition without exception, IngersolFs once famous ex- ^/ects and amples of the mistakes of Moses were drawn ""^"^ ^^^"^ from the priestly narratives. It is safe to pre- dict that had that learned jurist been introduced, when a boy, to the Old Testament, as revealed in modern light, he would have enjoyed a very different popular fame. In the divine economy, however, even the sledge-hammer of ridicule may play an important role in shattering false

156 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

claims and the untenable theories which obscure the real truth. It is wholesome to apply the principle of relative values to the Bible, since one cannot fully appreciate the best without recognizing that which is inferior. These priestly narratives come from a school which, in its reverence for the form and the letter, had begun to lose sight of the vital and spiritual. Its still later product is that ritualistic Judaism which stands in such unfavorable contrast to the perfected spiritual revelation which came through Jesus. At the same time, the recogni- tion of the defects of the late priestly school should not deter us from appreciating the rich religious teaching of a narrative like the first chapter of Genesis, nor from accepting its great message, namely, that through all natural phe- nomena and history God is revealing and per- fecting his gracious purpose. The eccle- The loug ecclcsiastical history found in I and history of II Chroniclcs and the original sequel of these and^Ezra- hooks, Ezra and Nehemiah, were written from Nehemiah ^^iQ same general point of view as the late priestly narratives, but in a much later period. The same peculiar literary style and conceptions, which recur throughout these four books, show clearly that they are from one author and age. Since they trace the history to the beginning of

The Priestly Laws and Histories 157

the Greek period and speak of the kings and events of the Persian period as if they belonged to the distant past, it is evident that the anony- mous author, who is usually designated as the Chronicler, lived after the conquests of Alex- ander. The internal evidence all points to the middle of the third century before Christ as the date of their composition.

From the author's evident interest in t\iQ Its general ritual of the temple, and especially its song ser- ^^^^ ^ vice, it would appear that he belonged to one of the guilds of temple singers that became prominent in the post-exilic period. His his- tory centres about the sanctuary and its ser- vices. Since Judah, not Israel, is the land of the temple. Northern Israel is almost completely ignored. Like the late priestly historians, his chief aim is to trace the origin of the cere- monial institutions back to the beginnings of Hebrew histor}^ Thus he represents the song service and the guilds of singers as having been established in the days of David. Living as he did under the glamour of the great Per- sian and Greek empires, he, in common with his contemporaries, idealized the past glories of his race. As we compare his versions of early events with the older parallel accounts of Samuel and Kings, we find that iron has become gold.

158 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Sources of I and II Chronicles

The older sources <j noted in Ezra- Nehemlah

and hundreds have become thousands, and de- feats are transformed into victories. No men- tion is made of the crimes of such kings as David and Solomon, since they are venerated profoundly as the founders of the temple.

The basis of I and II Chronicles is the pro- phetic history of Samuel and Kings ; from these the author quotes verbatim chapter after chap- ter, according as their contents are adapted to his purpose. This groundwork he supplements by introducing the priestly traditions current in his own day. Possibly he quotes also from cer- tain somewhat earlier written collections of tra- ditions, for to those, following the example of the author of Kings, he frequently refers his readers for further information. In some cases these later traditions may have preserved au- thentic, supplemental data; but when the rep- resentation of Chronicles differs, as it frequently does, from that of Samuel and Kings, the older and more sober prophetic history is undoubtedly to be followed.

In Ezra and Nehemiah the author has pre- served some exceedingly valuable historical material, for he has quoted, fortunately, long sections from two or three older sources. One is the document in Ezra iv. 7 to vi. 14, the original Aramaic of which is retained.

Tlie Priestly Laws and Histories 159

This appears to have been a temple record, dat- ing from the middle or latter part of the Persian period, and tells of the interruption of the temple building in the days of Darius and the finding of the original decree of Cyrus sanc- tioning the restoration of the shrine of Jerusa- lem. Still more important is the wonderful memoir of Nehemiah quoted in Nehemiah i., ii., iv. to vii. 5, xii. 31, 32, 37-40, andxiii. 4-31. Here we are able to study the events of an ex- ceedingly important period through the eyes of the man who, by his able and self-sacrific- ing efforts, did more than any one else to de- velop and shape later Judaism. Less important, yet suggestive, citations are taken from the priestly traditions regarding the work of Ezra. The final editor has apparently rearranged this material in order to give to the work of Ezra the scribe such precedence over that of Nehemiah the layman, as, from his later Levitical point of view, he deemed proper. Restoring what seems to have been the original order (i, e., Ezra vii. viii., Neh. vii. 70 to viii. 18; Ezra ix., X. ; Neh. ix., x.) and studying it as the se- quel of Nehemiah 's essential pioneer work, the obscurities of this period begin to disap- pear and its significant facts to stand out in clear relief.

IGO Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Value of the Thus we find that, quoting largely as he does, 7he^Zustlu from much older sources, the author of this great school ecclesiastical history of Judah and the temple

has given us, in Ezra and Nehemiah, some exceedingly important historical data. His writ- ings also clearly reveal the ideas and institu- tions of his own day ; but otherwise it is not as history that his work is of permanent value. Rather it is because, in common with all the great teachers who speak to us through the Old Testament, he believed firmly in the moral order of the universe, and that back of all events and all history is an infinitely powerful yet just and merciful God who is constantly revealing himself to mankind. While these later priestly writers were not in such close touch with fact and life as were the prophets, and while they were subject to the defects of all extreme ritu- alists and theologians, they were faithful her- alds of truth to their own and later generations. Behind their symbolism and traditions lie cer- tain great universal principles which amply reward an earnest quest.

THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS

THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS

In the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Jer. Role of the xviii. 18; Ezek. vii. 26) three distinct classes /^^^Qg/'^ of religious teachers were recognized by the -^^ people : the prophets, the priests, and the wise men or sages. From their lips and pens have come practically all the writings of the Old Testament. Of these three classes the wise men or sages are far less prominent or well known. They wrote no history of Israel, they preached no public sermons, nor do they appear to have been connected with any sanctuaries. Quietly, as private teachers, they appealed to the nation through the consciences and wills of individuals. Proverbs viii. 1-5 reveals their methods :

Doth not wisdom cry,

And understanding put forth her voice?

On the top of high places by the way,

Where the paths meet, she standeth ;

Beside the gates, at the entry of the city,

At the coming in at the doors, she crieth aloud :

ti07iS

164 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Unto you, O men, I call ;

And my voice is to the sons of men.

O ye simple, understand prudence ;

And ye fools, be of an understanding heart.

At the open spaces beside the city gates, where legal cases were tried, at the intersec- tions of the streets, wherever men congregated, the sages of ancient Israel could be found, ready and eager to instruct or advise the inexperi- enced and foolish. Their func- The wise man or sage is a characteristic Oriental figure. First Kings iv. 30 speaks of the far-famed wisdom of the nomadic tribes of northern Arabia and of the wisdom of Egypt. The sage appears to have been the product of the early nomadic Semitic life, in which books were unknown and the practical wisdom gained by experience was treasured in the minds of certain men who were called the wise or sages. In our more complex western life such func- tions have been distributed among the members of the legal, medical, and clerical professions, but even now, in smaller towns, may be found an Uncle Toby who is the counterpart of the ancient Hebrew sage. To men of this type young and old resort with their private prob- lems, and rarely return without receiving real help and light. In the East, sages are still to

Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 165

be found, usually gray-bearded elders, honored and influential in the tribe or town.

Of the three classes of Israel's teachers the Source of sages stood in closest touch with the people, edge and ' They were naturally the father-confessors of *'"'^''''^''''" the community. Observation was their guide, enlightened common sense their interpreter, and experience their teacher. The great book of human life, which is one of the most impor- tant chapters of divine revelation, was thrown open wide before them. The truths that they read there, as their eyes were divinely opened to see it, are recorded in the wisdom books of the Old Testament, — Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes.

It is significant that neither Israel nor the The objects nation is mentioned in all the wisdom litera- attention ture, and that man is spoken of thirty-three times in the book of Proverbs alone. Man was the object of their study and teaching; the nation, only as it was made up of individuals. In this respect the sages stand in contrast with the prophets, whose message usually is to the nation. They also have little to say about the ritual or the forms of religion. To them the fear and knowledge of God is the beginning of wisdom, and its end a normal relation to God, to one's fellowmen, and to life. Their message

166 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

is directed equally to all mankind. The sub- jects that command their attention are of uni- versal interest: the nature and tendencies of man, and his relations and duties to God, to society, to the family, and to himself. Every- thing that concerns man, whether it be the till- ing of the soil, the choice of a wife, the conduct of a lawsuit, or the proper deportment in the presence of a ruler, commands their earnest consideration. Their aims The Hebrew sages, however, were not mere Talfur^^'' students of human nature or philosophers. practical Knowledge to them was not an end in itself, but only a means. Their contribution to Israel's life was counsel (Jer. xviii. 18). Their aim was, by the aid of their tried maxims, to so advise the inexperienced, the foolish, in- deed, all who needed advice, that they might live the fullest and best lives and successfully attain all worthy ends. While their teaching was distinctively ethical and religious, it was also very practical and utilitarian. As pastors and advisers of the people, they drew their principles and ideals from Israel's prophets, and applied them to the practical, every-day problems of life. It is obvious that without their patient, devoted instruction the prepara- tion of the chosen people for their mission

Hehrew Sages and their Froverhs 167

would have been imperfect, and that without a record of their teachings the Old Testament would have been incomplete.

The proverb was the most characteristic Their teach- literary form in which the sages treasured and 7frlld7n imparted their teachings. Poetical in structure, P^^^^^^^ terse, often figurative or epigrammatic, the proverb was well calculated to arouse individ- ual thought and make a deep impression on the mind. Transmitted from mouth to mouth for many generations, like the popular tradi- tion or law, it lost by attrition all its un- necessary elements, so that, * like an arrow, ' it shot straight to the mark. Based on common human experience, it found a ready response in the heart of man. In this way crystallized experience was transmitted, gathering effective- ness and volume in each succeeding generation. Job viii. 8-10 speaks of this accumulated wis- dom handed down from the former age, that which the fathers have searched out. They shall teach man and inform him^ and utter words out of their heart. Job xv. 18 also refers to that which tvise men have told from their fathers and have not hid it, A proverb thus orally trans- mitted not only gains in beauty of form but also in authority, for it is constantly being tested in the laboratory of real life and re-

168 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

ceives the silent attestation of thousands of men and of many different generations. Expansion When the sages desired to treat a many-sided prlvlrh subject, as, for example, intemperance, they still used proverbs, but combined them into brief gnomic essays (e. g.^ xxiii. 29-35, xxvi. 1-17). Sometimes, to fix the attention of their hearers, they combined two proverbs, so as to produce a paradox, as in Proverbs xxvi. 4, 5 :

Answer not a fool according to his folly, Lest thou also be like unto him. Answer a fool according to his folly, Lest he be wise in his own conceit.

Later they developed the simple gnomic essay

into a philosophical drama, of which Job

is the classic example, or into a homily, like

Ecclesiastes.

me of Side by side with the proverb, the sages

riddles^ appear from the earliest times to have used the

fable also; this is illustrated by the fable of

Jotham in Judges ix. 6-21. Of the riddle a

famous examples is that of Samson in Judges

xiv. 14, 18, which combines rhythm of sound

with rhythm of thought and well illustrates the

form of the earliest popular Hebrew poetry:

Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet,

and its answer:

Hebreiu Sages and their Proverhs 169

If with my heifer you did not plow, You had not solved my riddle now.

Proverbs xxx. 15-31 contains a collection of numerical riddles, combined with their answers.

Proverbs are found in the oldest Hebrew lit- Tmres of erature. The Midianite kings, awaiting dQ?ii\i^tyX-ork7f at the hand of Gideon, cite a popular proverb, ^"J'J'^^ '" '^* For as the man, so is his strength, David in Ifehrew

history

his conversation with Saul says, As runs the proverb, " Out of the wicked cometh forth wicked- ness " (I Sam. xxiv. 13). Frequent references are also found to wise men and women, and examples are given of their prudence and in- sight Thus Joab, David's iron-hearted com- mander, brings a wise woman from Tekoa, the later home of the prophet Amos, to aid him in securing the recall of the banished Absalom. By her feigned story she succeeds in working upon the sympathy of the king to such a degree that he commits himself finally to a principle which she at once asks him to apply to the case of his own son (II Sam. xiv. 1-2-4).

The stories told in I Kings iii. 16-28, to illus- Basis of trate the wisdom of Solomon, suggest the his- reput^ation torical basis of the reputation which he enjoyed -^^'" ^^^^^^ in the thought of succeeding generations. Such stories also indicate, as do the other early ex- amples of the work of the wise, the conception

170 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

of wisdom held in that more primitive age. Such wisdom does not necessarily include ethical righteousness or even practical exe- cutive ability, for the true Solomon of history was lacking in both; but rather a certain shrewdness, versatility, and keenness of insight which enable its possessor to discern what is not clearly apparent. First Kings iv. 29-34 contains the later popular tradition of Solomon's wisdom :

(29) And God gave Solomon wisdom and insight in plentiful measure, and breadth of mind, even as the sand that is on the seashore, C^^) so that Solomon's wisdom surpassed the wis- dom of all the eastern Arabians and all the wisdom of Egypt. (31) For he was wiser than all men: than Ethan the Ezrahite, and He- man, Calcol, Darda, the sons of Mahol, and his fame was in all the surrounding nations. (32) And he uttered three thousand proverbs, and his songs were five thousand. (33) And he spoke of different varieties of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall ; he spoke also of beasts, of birds, of creeping things, and of fishes. (34) And there came some from among all peoples to hear the wisdom of Solo-

Hebrew Sages arid their Proverbs 171

mon, deputed by all kings of the earth, who had heard of his wisdom.

A popular proverb, like a primitive oral law, Reason why

11 I r 1 .all ancient

usually grows out oi common human experi- ^roterfts ence, and is gradually formulated and moulded j^^erf toXtm into its final literary form by successive gen- erations. No one man can claim it as his own, and even if he could, the ancient Semitic East, which cared so little about authors' titles, would have quickly forgotten his name. That Solo- mon did utter certain brilliant aphorisms, em- bellished by illustrations drawn from animal and plant life, cannot be doubted; and that some of them have been preserved in the book of Proverbs is probable. These facts and the popular tradition that tended to exalt his wisdom clearly explain why all Hebrew prov- erbs were attributed to him (Prov. i. 1), in the days of the final editing of the book of Proverbs.

That our present book of Proverbs is the work Evidence of many unknown sages, and consists of a col- e^hs comes lection of smaller groups coming from different -^'^^J^^^^""^ periods, is demonstrated by the superscriptions «^'*''^ers which recur throughout the book, such as. These are the proverbs of Solomon (x. 1), These also are the sayings of the wise (xxiv. 23), These are the proverbs of Solomon which the men of

172 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Hezekiah king of Judah copied out (xxv. 5), The words of King Lemuel (xxxi. 1). The same proverbs also recur in different groups, in- dicating that originally they were independent collections, gleaned from the same field. When the first collection was made, the title Proverb of Solomon evidently meant a popular maxim handed down from antiquity and therefore natu- rally attributed to the most famous wise man in Israel's early history. It is an instructive fact that later proverbs, the immediate super- scriptions to which plainly state that they come from many different sages, are still called Prov- erbs of Solomon; it betrays an exact parallel to the similar tendency, apparent in the legal and prophetic literature, to attribute late an- onymous writings to earlier authors. This is also further illustrated by such late Jewish books as The Wisdom of Solomon or the Psalms of Solomon. Testimony The individual proverbs confirm the general viduarprov- conclusion that they come from many different authors. Those which commend fidelity to one wife and kingly consideration for the rights of subjects, qualities in which Solomon was sadly lacking, do not fit in his mouth. Many are written from the point of view of a subject, and describe what a man should do in

erbs

Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 173

the presence of a ruler. Furthermore, the ethi- cal standards upheld are those of prophets who lived and taught long after the days of the Grand Monarch who fascinated his own and succeeding generations by his brilliant wit rather than by his sterling virtues.

The book of Proverbs is far more than an Real nature epitome of his versatile sayings : it represents at ^-^ ''^^^^ * least ten centuries of experience divinely guided, but won often through mistakes and bitter disappointments. It contains the many index hands, set up before the eyes of men to point them from error to truth, from folly to right, and from failure to success. Like most of the Old Testament books, it embodies the contri- butions of many different teachers writing from many different ages and points of view. Their common aim is well expressed by the sage who appended to Proverbs the preface :

To acquire wisdom and training,

To understand rational discourse,

To receive training in wise conduct,

In uprightness, justice, and rectitude.

To impart discretion to the inexperienced,

To the young knowledge and insight ;

That the wise man may hear and add to his learning,

And the man of intelligence gain education.

To understand a proverb and a parable.

The words of sages and their aphorisms.

174 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The first edition of Proverbs

Dates of the other collections

The structure and contents of the book sug- gest its literary history. Like the New Testa- ment, it appears to have passed through different stages, and to have been supplemented repeatedly by the addition of new collections. The origi- nal nucleus is probably found in x. 1 to xxii.^ 16; this is introduced by the simple super-, scription, The Proverbs of Solomon, The form of the proverb is simple ; the atmosphere is joy- ous, prosperity prevails, virtue is rewarded; a king who loves justice and righteousness is on the throne (xiv. 35, xvi. 10, 12, 13, xx. 8, xxii. 11) ; the rich and poor stand in the same rela- tion to each other as in the days of the pre -exilic prophets ; and the teaching of their prophets — righteousness is more acceptable than sacrifice — is frequently reiterated (xv. 8, xvi. 6, xxi. 3, 27). While this long collection doubtless con- tains many proverbs antedating even the begin- nings of IsraeFs history and possibly some added later, the indications are that they represent the original edition of the book which the Jews car- ried with them into the Babylonian exile. This early collection was perhaps made under the in- spiring influence of the reign of Josiah.

Undoubtedly the remaining collections also contain many very ancient proverbs, but as a whole their literary form and thought is more

Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 175

complex. The descriptions of the kings sug- gest the Persian and Greek tyrants who ruled over the Jews during the long centuries after the exile (cf. xxv. 1-7, xxviii. 2, 12, 15, 28, xxix. 2, 4, 16, xix. 14). The age of the prophets has apparently been succeeded by that of the priest and the law (xxix. 18). Already the Jews have tasted the bitterness of exile (xxvii. 8). There are also certain points of close contact with proverbs of Ben Sira, writ- ten about 190 B. c. The sages as a class are very prominent, as in the later centuries be- fore Christ. These and many other indications lead to the conclusion that the different col- lections were probably made after the exile, and that the noble introduction, i.-ix., and the two chapters in the appendix were not added until some time in the Greek period, — not long before 200 B. c. The date, however, when these proverbs arose and were committed to writing is comparatively unimportant, save as a knowledge of their background aids in their interpretation, and as they, in turn, reveal the life and thought of the persecuted, tempted Jews, whose religious life centred in the second temple.

Probably in the Greek period also a poet-sage Teaching of collected and wove together certain love and of Songs

176 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

wedding songs of his race. The result was called the Song of Songs, that is, the Peerless Song. According to one interpretation, it pre- sents, in a series of scenes, the heart struggle of a simple country maiden with the prompt- ings of a true, pure love for a shepherd lover and the bewildering attractions of a royal marriage; and true love in the end triumphs. Whatever be the interpretation, it is clear that this exquisite little book, so filled with pictures of nature and simple country life, was intended to emphasize the duty and beauty of fidelity to nature and the promptings of the human heart. This thought is expressed in the power- ful passage which seems to voice the central teaching of the poem:

Love is strong as death ;

Jealousy is as cruel as Sheol ;

Its flashes are flashes of fire,

A very flame of Jehovah.

Many waters cannot quench love,

Neither can floods drown it :

If a man would give all the substance of his

house for love, He would utterly be contemned.

XI

THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS

XI

THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS

An intense interest in man led certain of Discussions

T 1 , . . 1 1 • of the prob-

Israel s sages in time to devote their atten- lem of evil tion to more general philosophical problems, such as the moral order of the universe. In the earlier proverbs, prophetic histories, and laws, the doctrine that sin was always pun- ished by suffering or misfortune, and con- versely that calamity and misfortune were sure evidence of the guilt of the one affected, had been reiterated until it had become a dogma. In nine out of ten cases this doctrine was true, but in time experience proved that the tenth case might be an exception. While most of the teachers of the race denied or ignored this exception, certain wise men, faithful and un- flinching in their analysis of human life, faced the fact that the innocent as well as the guilty sometimes suffer. Their quest for the answer to the eternal question. Why? is recorded in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes.

Ji Kl

•Uk« ftl

a<uu.

Tkf WrUings of IsraeTs Biiiosopkcrs 181 Btorv of Job was committed u> wnung by some Ongmal

Y 1 ttacking amd

priest during the Babylonian exilfc. oince Jon appiicauon and his friends live out on the borders of the ^^* ''^^ Arabian desert to the east or ^ " ^'

Faiestuic, ii seems clear that tiie u^ — an t^. th( Hebrews ongmally from some foreign source ; but in the prose form in which we find i: in Job, it has been thoroughly nai \

i( : Joh thful servant of Jehova.. ..... viie

XHv. i^ „ ior tije moment thi poeucal

fiecuon:i (iii. 1 to xlii. 6), we find that the prose Btor}' has a direct, piBCtical message for the broken-hearted e beneath an

overpowennp caia: . . ^ js wstiDrr hi>

servant peopit, as he tests Job in the sU» provH whether or not they ftar Ged for momjr. (.. 9). If they bear the test witii plaint, as d- ■ ^- ■ *'***!r forme- \j^^-^^^-^n& wil b( n ni doubAt measure

(xlii. 7-17).

This prose ston- has apparently been utilized ^^^p^ and pi veil ^ ver difierent interpretauon by a ^^oetico* ser- iate: pooirfiag 111 wnose ears rang Jeremiahs**^" words of anguiaL, found in chaptier xx. 14-18 of his prophecy <t/. Job iiLX ^ad ^ wliose -y — came also the cry of the piou in

Mftlacbi ii 17; lAmri^ ime whj doea ci. jjod %n tiu turh^ of JekavaJi, and he deiighuth m

180 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The primi- The basis of the book of Job is undoubtedly ofjlT^ a primitive story. Traces of a tradition some- what similiar have recently been discovered in the Babylonian- Assyrian literature. The Baby- lonian treatment of the moral problem that it presents is even more strikingly similar. Eze- kiel also refers to a well-known popular Hebrew version of the story of Job (xiv. 14) : though these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, were in it (the guilty land), they would deliver simply their own lives by their righteousness, saith the Lord Jehovah {cf, also xiv. 20). Evidently in Eze- kiel's day these names represented three ancient worthies, each conspicuous for his superlative piety. The Hebrew word here used also indi- cates that the righteousness attributed to them was conformity to the demands of the ritual. This agrees closely with the representation of the prose version of the story found in Job i. ii. and xlii. 7-17; here the supreme illustration of Job's piety is that he repeatedly sacrifices burnt-offerings, whenever there is the least pos- sibility that his sons have sinned (i. 4, 5). Also in describing his perfection (i. 1), the same unusual term is employed as in the priestly narrative of Genesis vi. 9, where Noah's righteousness is portrayed.

It seems probable, therefore, that the ancient

The Writings of Israel's Philosophers 181

story of Job was committed to writing by some Original priest during the Babylonian exile. Since Job applicatton and his friends live out on the borders of the ^f^^^' ^'°'^ Arabian desert to the east or southeast of Palestine, it seems clear that the tradition came to the Hebrews originally from some foreign source ; but in the prose form in which we find it in Job, it has been thoroughly naturalized, for Job is a faithful servant of Jehovah and the law. Ignoring for the moment the poetical sections (iii. 1 to xlii. 6), we find that the prose story has a direct, practical message for the broken-hearted exiles, crushed beneath an overpowering calamity. Jehovah is testing his servant people, as he tests Job in the story, to prove whether or not they fear God for nought (i. 9). If they bear the test without com- plaint, as did Job, all their former possessions will be restored to them in double measure (xlii. 7-17).

This prose story has apparently been utilized The prob- and given a very different interpretation by a poetical sec- later poet-sage in whose ears rang Jeremiah's ^^^^^ of Job words of anguish, found in chapter xx. 14-18 of his prophecy (cf. Job iii.), and to whose ears came also the cry of the pious voiced in Malachi ii. 17 : Every one who does evil is good in the sight of Jehovah, and he delighteth in

182 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

them. Where is the God of justice ? The old solutions of the problem of evil were being openly discarded. They who feared Jehovah were saying (iii. 13, 14), It is vain to serve God; and what profit is it to have kept his charge or to have walked in funeral garb before Jehovah of hosts ? Even now we must congratulate the arrogant; yea^ they who work wickedness are entrenched; yea^ they tempt God and escape ! With a bold- ness and thoroughness that must have seemed to his contemporaries dangerous and heretical, the great poet-sage presents the problem in all its intensity. The role of He adopts the popular story, utilizing it as

Job and his i . ^ j '^ i x ±

friends in his prologue and epilogue ; but as we pass to ^hrproblem chapter iii., the simple, pure Hebrew yields to sublime poetry, shot through with the words and idioms and ideas of a much later age. The designation of God is no longer Jehovah, but M or Moah or Shaddai. The character of Job sud- denly changes ; instead of being the patient, sub- missive servant of the law, he boldly, almost defiantly, charges God with injustice. The role of the friends also changes, and they figure as champions of the Deity. In their successive speeches they present in detail the current dog- mas and the popular explanations of suffering. In his replies Job points out their inapplicability

The Writings of Israel's Philosophers 183

to the supreme problem of which he is the em- bodiment. The action and progress in this great drama is within the mind of Job himself. By degrees he rises to a clear perception of the fact that he is innocent of any crime com- mensurate with the overwhelming series of calamities which have overtaken him; and he thus throws off the shackles of the ancient dogma. From the seemingly cruel and unjust God who has brought this undeserved calamity upon him, he then appeals to the Infinite Being who is back of all phenomena.

The reply to this appeal, and the author's The message contribution to the eternal problem of evil, are found in xxxviii. 1 to xlii. 6. It is not a solu- tion, but through the wonders of the natural world, it is a fuller revelation to the mind of Job, of the omnipotence, the omniscience, the wisdom, and the goodness of God. Even though he cannot discern the reason of his own suffer- ing, he learns to know and to trust the wis- dom and love of the Divine Ruler.

I had heard of this by the hearing of the ear ; But now mine eye seeth thee (xlii. 5).

Faith triumphs over doubt, and the problem, though unsolved, sinks into comparative insig- nificance.

184 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Teaching of Apparently another poet-sage has added, passage^ o^t of the depths of his own experience, his xixyiY contribution to the problem of suffering in the

speeches of Elihu (chapters xxxii-xxxvii.). It is that suffering rightly borne becomes a blessing because it is one of God's ways of training his servants. This indeed is an expansion of the explanation urged by Eliphaz in v. 17, Behold^ happy is the man whom Crod correcteth. While these speeches of Elihu are written in a differ- ent literary style and have, in fact, no vital connection with the original poem of Job, they nevertheless contain a great and intensely prac- tical truth; they have rightly found a place in this marvellous book. Similarly the sublime description of wisdom in chapter xxviii. makes good its title ; it can, however, be studied best by itself apart from Job's impassioned protesta- tions of his innocence (chapter xxix.).

Thus the book of Job, like so many other Old Testament writings, has its own literary history. Somewhere and sometime, back in an early Semitic period, there doubtless lived a man, conspicuous for his virtue and prosperity. Upon him fell a misfortune so great and ap- parently undeserved that it made a deep impres- sion, not only upon his contemporaries, but also upon the minds of later generations. Thus

Probable history of the book of Job

The Writings of IsraeVs Philosophers 185

there grew up a common Semitic story of Job which was in time thoroughly naturalized in Israel. Probably a Jewish priest in the exile first committed it to writing in order to assure his fellow-sufferers that could they but be patient and submissive Jehovah would soon restore them to their former prosperity. The painful experiences that came to the Jews, especially to the pious, during the middle and latter part of the Persian period (sometime be- tween 450 and 340 b. c), convinced a poet-sage that the old interpretations of the meaning of. suffering did not suffice. Accordingly into the heart of the familiar story of Job he injected his powerful, impassioned message. Later writ- ers, inspired by his inspiring genius, added their contributions to the solution of the perennial problem. Hence by 200 B. c, at least, the book of Job was probably current in its present form.

The same ever-recurring, insistent questions Age and regarding the moral value and meaning of o/Ecde- life led another later wise man to embody the *"^*'" results of his observation and experience in what we now know as the book of Ecclesiastes. Although i. 16 and ii. 7, 9 clearly imply that many kings had already reigned in Jerusalem, the author seems to put his observations in the

186 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

mouth of Solomon, the acknowledged patron of wisdom teaching. The evidence, however, that the book is one of the latest in the Old Testament is overwhelmingly conclusive. The language is that of an age when Hebrew had long ceased to be spoken. The life mirrored throughout is that of the luxurious, corrupt Greek period. If not directly, at least indi- rectly, it reflects the doctrines of the Stoics and the Epicureans. It was a crooked, sordid, weary world upon which its author looked. It is not strange that a vein of materialism and pessimism runs through his observations and maxims. All is vanity is the dominant note, and yet light al- ternates with shadow. He loses faith in human nature; yet he does not give up his faith in God, though that faith is darkened by the deso- lateness of the outlook. While the book has practical religious teachings, perhaps its chief mission, after all, is vividly to portray the dark- ness just before the dawn of the belief in a future life and before the glorious rising of the Sun of Righteousness. Significance Its teachings naturally called forth many pro- ^{dditiom tcsts, explanations, and supplements, and these have found the permanent place in the book that they rightfully deserve. Its fragmentary struc- ture and abrupt transitions also made later

The Writings of IsraeVs Philosophers 187

insertions exceedingly easy. These are the simplest and the most natural explanation of the sharp contradictions that abound in the book (^cf, e.g., ii. 22 and iii. 22, or iv. 2 and ix. 4, or iii. 16 and iii. 17, or viii. 14 and ix. 2, or iii. 1-9 and iii. 11). The preacher, whose painful experiences and prevailingly pessimistic teachings are the original basis of the book, ap- pears to have been consistent throughout. He ends in xii. 8 with the same refrain, Vanity of vanities ; all is vanity! In a divine library like the Old Testament, reflecting every side of human thought and experience, such a book is not inappropriate. Its contradictions pro- voke thought; they beget also a true appre- ciation of the positive notes thus brought into dramatic contrast with the ground tones of pes- simism which resound through all literature and history.

XI

THE HISTORY 0" THE PSALTER

XII THE HISTORY OF THE PSALTER

xn

THE HISTORY OF THE PSALTER

CORKESPONDING tO the book of Proverbs, Nature of

itself a select library containing Israel's best gnomic literature, is the Psalter, the compen- dium of the nation's lyrical songs and hymns and prayers. It is the record of the soul ex- periences of the race. Its language is that of the heart, and its thoughts of common interest to worshipful humanity. It reflects almost every phase of religious feeling: penitence, doubt, re- morse, confession, fear, faith, hope, adoration, and praise. Even the unlovely emotion of hatred is frankly expressed in certain of the imprecatory psalms. The Psalms appeal to mankind in every age and land because, being so divine and yet so human, they rest on the foundations of universal experience. Whenever a heart is breaking vrith sorrow or pulsating with thanksgiving and adoration, its strongest emotions find adequate expression in the simple and yet sublime language of the Psalter.

192 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Influence of In the familiar doings of Mary and Zacharias, uponlt^ * * found in the opening chapters of Luke, we may trace the beginnings of the hymn literature of the early Christian Church, a literature which later became one of the Church's most valued possessions. If the canon of the New Testament had been closed in 1000 instead of 400 A. d., its books would doubtless have included a hym- nal which would have corresponded closely to the Psalter of the Old. Just as the Psalms rep- resent the application of the great doctrines of the Hebrew prophets in the spiritual life of the community, so this new hymnal would repre- sent the personal application of the teachings of Jesus and the apostles to the religious life of the Church and the individual. The Psalter is also what it is because its background is a period of stress and severe trial. In the hot furnace of affliction and persecution the psalmists learned to appreciate the truths which they so confi- dently and effectively proclaim. Then the spiritual teachings of the earlier prophets, which were contemptuously rejected by their contem- poraries, were at last appropriated by the com- munity. The Psalter as a whole appears, there- fore, to be one of the latest and most precious fruits of the divine revelation recorded in the Old Testament.

Tlie History of the Psalter 193

In its present form, the Psalter is divided into Evidence of five books or collections. At the end of each lections of collection there is a concluding doxology (xli., P^^^^^ Ixxii., Ixxxix., cvi). The last psalm (cl.) serves as a concluding doxology, not only to the fifth collection, but also to the Psalter as a whole. Certain psalms are also reproduced in two dif- ferent collections with only slight variations. For example, xiv. is practically identical with liii., except that in the first Jehovah is always used as the designation of the Deity, and in liii. Mohim or God; again Psalm xl. 13-17 is repro- duced in Ixx. ; Ivii. 7-11 and Ix. 5-12 are to- gether practically equivalent to cviii. These and kindred facts indicate that the Psalter, like the book of Proverbs, is made up of collections originally distinct. The division into exactly five groups appears to be comparatively late, and to be in imitation of the fivefold division of the Pentateuch.

The genesis of the book of Proverbs is ex- The oldest ceedingly helpful in tracing the closely analo- gous growth of the Psalter. The prevailing form of the superscriptions and the predominant use of the name Jehovah or Elohim also aid in this difficult task. Psalms i. and ii. are introductory to the entire book. Psalms iii- xli. all bear the Davidic superscription and 13

194 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

use the designation Jehovah two hundred and seventy-two times, but Elohim only fifteen. The form and contents of these psalms, as well as their position, suggest that they are the oldest collection in the book. In the Greek version all the psalms of the collection found in li-lxxii., excepting Psalm Ixvi., which is anonymous, and Ixxii., which is attributed to Solomon, have also the Davidic superscription. Although cer- tain subsequent psalms are ascribed to David, as, for example, Ixxxvi., ci., and ciii., the close of the collection is the significant epilogue (Ixxii. 20), the prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended. Meaning Before the approximate date of these col-

J^"'^^,y'^j"/ ''-^lections can be determined the significance of scriptions ^\^q Davidic title needs interpretation. In the Hebrew version this title is borne by seventy- three psalms. Two are ascribed to Solomon (Ixxii. and cxxvii.), one to Moses (xc), and twenty-four to the members of the post-exilic guilds of temple singers. The superscriptions of the Greek and Syrian versions contain many variations from those in the Hebrew. This is probably due to the fact that superscriptions are usually added by later scribes in whose minds the question of authorship first became promi- nent. In earlier Hebrew the phrase commonly

The History of the Psalter 195

translated Psalm of David would more naturally mean a psalm for David or dedicated or attrib- uted to David. The latter appears to have been its original significance. Like the title, Prov- erbs of Solomon^ it was used to distinguish an ancient poem, which, being a psalm, was naturally ascribed to David, and to him later Judaism, in common with the New Testament writers, attributed all psalm literature. A de- tailed study of the superscriptions soon demon- strates that the majority of them represent only the conjectures of scribes who were guided by current traditions or suggestions embodied in the psalms themselves. In this manner, to Solomon, the builder of the temple, is ascribed Psalm cxxvii., because it refers to the building of the house in its opening verse. The Greek version even attributes to David Psalm xcvi., which, it states, was written when the temple was being built after the captivity.

Since the superscriptions to the Psalter were David's n- only very late additions, the question still ^^- psaulr ^ '^ mains. What was the basis of the late Jewish tradition that makes David the father of the psalm literature, as was Solomon of the wisdom, Moses of the legal, and Enoch of the apocalyp- tical? The other Old Testament books give no direct answer. They tell us, however, that the

196 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

warrior king was skilled in playing the lyre, and we are aware that to this, in antiquity, an improvised accompaniment was usually sung. We also have the account of David's touching elegies over the death of Saul and Jonathan and of Abner (II Sam. i., iii. 33, 34). Moreover, the early historical books vividly portray the faults of David, the limitations which he shared in common with his contemporaries, and his deeply religious spirit; but they leave the question of his relation to the Psalter to be settled by the testimony of the individual psalms. Here the evidence is not conclusive. It is clear that many of the psalms attributed by tradition to him were written in the clearer light of later prophetic teaching and amid very different circumstances from those which sur- rounded Israel's early king. Still it would be dogmatic to assert that nothing from his lips is to be found in the Psalter; and to point out i with assurance those passages and psalms which must be Davidic is quite as unwarrantable. Evidence of The Psaltcr is clearly the repository of that

VTe-exilic X w

elements in which was bcst in the earlier spiritual life and thought of the race. While there are no direct references to songs in connection with the pre- exilic Jewish temple, Amos (v. 23) found them in use at the sanctuary at Bethel; and from

The History of the Psalter 197

Psalm cxxxvii. 3, 4 it would appear that the exiles in Babylonia were acquainted with certain songs of Zion or songs of Jehovah. Treasured in the hearts of the people, and attributed, perhaps even by the time of the exile, as a whole to David, they constituted the basis of the earliest collections of psalms, which, as we have noted, practically without exception bear the Davidic superscription. The date of each individual psalm, however, must be determined independ- ently on the basis of its own testimony, although the historical allusions are few and the data in many cases are far from decisive.

Just when the earliest collections, found in Approxi- iii.-xli. and li.-lxxii., were made is a compar- J^^ ^^^^^^^^^-^ atively unimportant yet difficult question to de- <^<'l^^^i^<^^^ cide. Probably the rebuilding of the temple in 516 B. c. was one of the great incen- tives. The example of the Babylonians, who possessed a large and rich psalm literature, may also have exerted an indirect influ- ence. At least it is certain that the guilds of temple singers and the song service became increasingly prominent in the religious life of the Jewish community which grew up about the restored temple. The presence of alpha- betical psalms, as, for example, ix., x., xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., in the earliest collection sug-

198 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

gests also the leisure of the exile. The historical background of many of these psalms is clearly the exile and the long period of distress that followed. They voice the experiences of the poor, struggling band of the pious, who, living in the midst of oppressors, found in Jehovah alone their refuge and their joy. Some of these psalms also reflect the prophetic teachings of Jeremiah (e. g.^ xvi., xxxix) and of Isaiah xl.- Ixvi. In general their attitude toward sacrifice is that of the prophets :

For thou desirest not sacrifice ; Else would I give it. Thou delightest not in burnt offering. The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ; A broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt not despise.

Religion is defined in the terms of life and acts. Ceremonialism has not yet cast its chilling in- fluence over the heart of the nation. Therefore the earliest collections may, with considerable assurance, be assigned to a date not later than the days of Nehemiah (about 400 B. c). Later Psalms xlii.-l. and Ixxiii.-lxxxiii. constitute

a collection of Levitical hymns. If we may fol- low the indications of their superscriptions, they consist of two originally distinct groups, the one, xlii.-xlix., associated with and possibly at first

collections

The History of the Psalter 199

collected and preserved by the post-exilic guild of temple singers, known as the sons of Korah, and the other, 1., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii., similarly at- tributed to Asaph, the guild of temple singers, mentioned first in the writings of the Greek period. In these two groups the priests and Levites and the liturgy are prominent. Psalms Ixxxiv.-lxxxix. constitute a short Levitical sup- plement. The remainder of the Psalter is also made up of originally smaller collections, as, for example, the Psalms of Ascent or the Pil- grim Psalms (cxx.-cxxxiv.), and the Hallelujah Psalms (cxi.-cxiii. and cxlvi.-cl.). Some of the latter come perhaps from the Jews of the dis- persion. Each collection appears to represent a fresh gleaning of the same or slightly differ- ent fields, incorporating ancient with contem- porary psalms, and, as has been noted, not infrequently including some already found in earlier collections.

Certain of the psalms, such as Ixxiv., Ixxix., Completion Ixxxiii., seem clearly to reflect the horrors oi'^p^J^^^ the Maccabean struggle (169-165 B. c). Later Jewish literature bears testimony that in the last two centuries before Christ psalm writing increased rather than decreased {cf. e. g.^ Psalms of Solomon). Certainly the experiences through which the Jews passed during the middle of the

200 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

second century were of a nature to evoke psalms similar to those in the Psalter. The prob- abilities, therefore, are that the Psalter, in its final form, is, like the book of Daniel, one of the latest writings in the Old Testament. It was possibly during the prosperous reign of Simon, when the temple service was enriched and established on a new basis, that its canon was finally closed. The hook of The fact that they all gather about a definite tions event in Israel's history, and probably antedate

the majority of the psalms in the Psalter, ex- plains why the little collection of lyrical poems, known as the book of Lamentations, never found a place beside the kindred psalms (e.g.^ Pss. xlii., xliii) in the larger book. Their theme is the Babylonian exile and the horrors and distress that it brought to the scattered members of the Jewish race. Their aim is prophetic, that is, to point out and confess the guilt of the nation and its dire consequences. They reflect the teachings of both Jeremiah and Ezekiel. While it is not strange that later tradition attributed the collection to the first of these prophets, its contents do not support the conjecture. Four out of the five poems are alphabetical, and dis- tinctly different points of view are represented. Chapters ii. and iv. probably come from the

The History of the Psalter 201

middle of the Babylonian exile, and to the remainder must be assigned a still later period.

The Psalter, with its natural appendix, the The national book of Lamentations, was the song and prayer l^duai e'v book of the Jewish community. A majority J'.^^/^g" '^'^ of the psalms, and especially those in the latter part of the book, were doubtless originally in- tended for liturgical use. Many, particularly where the first person singular is used, are to be interpreted collectively, for here, as often in the book of Lamentations, the psalmist is speaking in behalf of the community. Others have been adapted to liturgical ends. But in the final an- alysis it is the experience and emotions of the individual soul that find expression throughout all the psalms. Since these experiences and emotions were shared in common by all right- minded members of the community, it was natural that they should in time be employed in the liturgy.

Again, as we review the history of the Psalter, E pluHhus we are impressed with the many sides of Israel's life and human experience that it represents. Not one, but perhaps fifty or a hundred, inspired souls, laymen, prophets, priests, sages, kings, and warriors, have each clothed the divine truth that came to them or to their generation in exquisite language and imagery, and given it

202 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

thus to their race and humanity. Successive editors have collected and combined the noblest of these psalms, and the Psalter is the result. The exact date of each psalmist and editor is comparatively unimportant, for though differ- ing widely in origin and theme, they are all bound together by a common purpose and a common belief in the reality and the immediate presence of God. All nature and history and life are to them but the manifestation of his justice and mercy and love. In direct com- munion with the God whom they personally knew, they found the consolation and peace and joy that passeth all understanding, even though the heathen raged and their foes plun- dered and taunted them. To that same haven of rest they still pilot the world's storm-tossed mariners.

XIII

THE FORMATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON

XIII

THE FORMATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON

Could we have studied the scriptures of Israel's lit- the Israelitish race about 400 b. c, we should the h'eqin- have classified them under four great divisions : yol^J/ceZ (1) The prophetic writings, represented by the '"'i-y hf^''^ combined early Judean, Ephraimite, and late prophetic or Deuteronomic narratives, and their continuation in Samuel and Kings, together with the earlier and exilic prophecies; (2) the legal, represented by the majority of the Old Testament laws, combined with the late priestly history; (3) the wisdom, represented by the older small collections of proverbs ; (4) the devotional or liturgical, represented by Lamen- tations and the earlier collections of psalms.

Even before all the Old Testament books The combin- were written, the work of canonization began ; ^pfopLtic before the first large canon was adopted, the ^f^foms^*'^^ prophetic and priestly narratives, and with them the earlier and later laws, were combined. This amalgamation was the work of a late priestly

206 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

editor. The Pentateuch and its immediate se- quel, Joshua, is the result. The method A study of these books makes clear the edi- of combining ^^^^^ method. Naturally he gave the late priestly versions the precedence. He placed, therefore, its version of the creation first, — a position that it well deserves. Probably as a result of this arrangement the older and more primitive pro- phetic version of Genesis ii. 4a-25 was somewhat abridged, for it begins with the picture of a level plain, watered by a daily mist, and is immedi- ately followed by the account of the creation of man. Genesis iii. and iv. are taken entirely from the prophetic, and practically all of v. from the priestly, group of narratives. Confronted by two variant versions of the flood, he joined them together into a closely knit narrative ; but all the elements of both versions are so faithfully preserved that when they are again separated, behold! the two originally complete and self- consistent versions reappear. The story of Noah, the first vineyard-keeper, in ix. 20-27, is taken entirely from the prophetic history, but in x. two distinct lists of the nations are joined to- gether. All the story of the tower of Babel in xi. 1-9 is from the prophetic, while the gene- alogical list in the remainder of the chapter is from the priestly history. The patriarchal and

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 207

subsequent narratives are likewise combined with the same remarkable skill.

Thus the first six Old Testament books were Later given their final form. The method in general analogies was the same as that followed by the authors of the First and Third Gospels in their use of Mat- thew's Sayings of Jesus and the original Mark narrative, or by the authors of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles in their citations from the older sources. In his close fusion of three or four parallel narratives the editor's work resembled most closely that of Tatian, who thus combined the four Gospels in his Diatessaron. So far as we are able to observe, the final editor of the Hexateuch preserved, Hke Tatian, most of the material in his older sources, except where a parallel version verbally duplicated another. The prophetic and priestly narratives also fol- lowed lines so distinctly different that cases of duplication were comparatively few.

To the latest editor of the early narratives we Deep signifi- owe the preservation of some of the oldest and y^ork of the most valuable sections of the Old Testament. ^"'"^ *^*'^" In that age and land of perishable writing materials, the prevailing method of compilation was one of the effective means whereby the important portions of primitive records w^ere handed down in practically their original form.

208 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

It is well that we are beginning to understand its significance in the realization of the divine purpose. Important beyond words, although often overlooked, were the services of the faith- ful editors who without the slightest desire for personal glory or reward, other than the per- petuation of truth, carefully selected, condensed, and combined material gleaned from earlier and fuller sources. To them is due the marvellous preservation of our Old Testament. To the hon- ored role of the prophets and apostles, therefore, let us add the anonymous redactors. Date of the The final editors were the immediate pre- t^hecaiwniza- cursors of thosc who formed the successive ^Law^^^^ canons of the Old Testament. Indeed, between the work of the former and the latter there is no clear line of demarcation. A period shortly after 400 b. c. is the date usually accepted for the work of the final editor of the Penta- teuch; the canonization of the law, which in- cluded these five books, is dated between 400 and 300 B. c. The real canonization of Israel's laws had, however, begun much earlier. The primitive decalogue, represented by Exodus xxxiv., and probably from the first associated with Moses, appears, in the earliest periods of Israel's history, to have enjoyed a canonical authority. The primitive accounts, in Exo-

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 209

dus xix., of the establishment of the covenant by Jehovah with his people mark the real beginning of the process of canonization, — a process, that is, of attributing to certain laws a unique and commanding authority.

Likewise the successive civil, humane, and Popular ceremonial decalogues appear from the days ^and^p^omul- of the united kingdom to have occupied a simi- larUer%del lar position. Primarily this was probably due to the fact that each was based upon a divine torah or decision, received from Jehovah through the priestly oracle. The public reading and promulgation of the Deuteronomic laws in the days of Josiah, with the attestation of the prophets and the solemn adoption by the people, was an act of canonization far more formal than the final acceptance of the New Testament writings by the Council of Carthage.

The next great stage in the canonization of Adoption of the law is recorded in Nehemiah x. Then the priestly law representatives of the Jewish community entered into a solemn obligation and took oath to walk in God's law, which was given hy Moses the servant of God, and to observe to do all the commands of Jehovah our Lord and his ordinances and his statutes (v. 29.) This action appears to be the historical basis of the fanciful and incredible Jewish traditions concerning the work of the 14

210 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Acceptance of the completed Torah

Date of the final canoni- zation of the Law

Great Synagogue and the authority of Ezra. The new law thus adopted was evidently the one gradually developed and finally formulated by the Jewish priests in Babylonia. It was accepted, as was the earlier Deuteronomic code, because it met the needs and appealed to the moral and religious sense of those by whom it was adopted.

To set completely aside the Deuteronomic law- book and the primitive decalogue of Exodus xx.- xxiii., already in force among the Jews of Pales- tine, was impossible and unnecessary. Hence, as we have noted, it was the task of some editor of the next generation to combine these and the earlier prophetic histories with the late priestly law and its accompanying history. Naturally this whole collection was still called the Torah or Law and was at once accepted as canonical by the Jews. This step was also most natural because their interests all centred about the ritual, and for two centuries the dominant tendency had been to exalt the sanctity of the written law.

It is possible to fix approximately the date of this first edition of the Old Testament writings, since the Samaritans adopted and still retain simply the Pentateuch and an abbreviated edi- tion of Joshua as their scriptures. Although

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 211

Josephus, following a late Jewish tradition, dates the Samaritan schism at about 330 b. c, the contemporary evidence of Nehemiah xiii. 28 suggests that it was not long after 400. It is therefore safe to conclude that by 350 b c. the first five books of our Old Testament had not only been singled out of the larger literature of the race, but were regarded as possessing a unique sanctity and authority.

As the name Laiv suggests, the chief reason Principles for this was the fact that these five books em- lation^^^^' bodied laws long since accepted as binding. The second reason was probably because they were by current tradition ascribed to Moses. The third, and not the least, was, doubtless, because they met the need felt by the community for a unified and authoritative system of laws and for an authentic record of the earlier history of their race, especially that concerning the origin of their beloved institutions.

The priority of the canon of the law is also Evidence proved by the fact that, although it contains Ji^asfirst^ some of the later Old Testament writings, it <^«"^"'«^ stands first, not only in position but in the esteem of the Jewish race. Furthermore, it became in time the designation of all the Old Testament canonical writings. The term Law is thus used in the New Testament (e.g., John x.

212 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

34, xii. 34; I Cor. xiv. 21), in the Talmud, and by the rabbis, indicating that the later groups of historical, prophetic, and poetical books were simply regarded as supplements. Canoniza- The history of the canonization of the next prophetic g^^^P? kuowu as the Prophets, is very obscurely writings recorded, and this largely because it reached its culmination in the Greek period, concerning which we have only the most meagre informa- tion. Here analogy with the history of the New Testament is helpful. The same influences which led the early Christians to add the Epis- tles and Acts undoubtedly operated upon the minds of the Jews. The Law represented only a limited period in their national and rehgious history. But the addition of the early prophetic and legal histories to the detailed laws prepared the way for the expansion of the canon. This included first, the four historical books, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, with the exception of Ruth. These were designated as the Former Prophets. Thus even the later Jews recog- nized their true character and authorship. The second division of the Prophets included Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve, which contained the minor prophets.

The order of the book and the probabili- ties of the situation suggest that the Former

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 213

Prophets^ since they were the immediate sequel Evidence of the prophetic histories of the Pentateuch, torico-jwo-^' and recorded the deeds of such heroes as David, M^^'c *oo^»

' werejirst

Solomon, and Isaiah, were added first. That added to

the Law

they also bear the marks of late priestly revision, is direct evidence of the esteem in which they were held by the late priestly school that com- pleted the canon of the Law. They therefore may have been added as early as 300 b. c. They were certainly known to the author of Chronicles, as his many quotations from them show, although it is difficult to see how he would have felt as free as he does to substitute the testimony of later tradition, if they were regarded as equally sacred with the Law.

The reference to the prediction of Jeremiah, Reverence in the opening verse of Ezra, suggests the r^^- phetic word erence with which the author of Chronicles regarded the words of this prophet. The post- exilic Jews never ceased to revere the prophetic word. The popular belief, current in the Greek period, that the prophets had ceased to speak only deepened their reverence for the teachings of Moses' successors (Deut. xviii. 15-19). The devotion of the later scribes is evinced by the scores of glosses which they have added to the older prophecies. It is manifest, there- fore, how strong was the tendency, even in

214 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

priestly circles, to add the Prophets to the Law. Date of com- The proccss was probably gradual and perhaps the prophetic not Complete until the Jews had learned fully to appreciate the value of their ancient Scrip- tures, after martyrs had died for the sacred writings during the Maccabean struggle. Aside from supplements made to older books, as, for example, Zechariah ix.-xiv., the canon of the prophets was probably closed not later than 200 B. c. From direct evidence it is clear that the book of Daniel (written about 165 B. c.) did not find a place in this canon. It is also sig- nificant that in the prologue to the Greek ver- sion of Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus (132 b. c.) the translator refers repeatedly — as though they were then regarded as of equal authority — to the Law and the Prophets and the rest of the hooks, or to the other books of the fathers. But most significant of all, Ben Sira, who wrote about 190 B. c, includes in his list of Israel's heroes (xliv.-l.) not only those mentioned in the Torah, but also David, Solomon, Hezekiah, and the chief characters in the Former Prophets. Furthermore, Isaiah and Jeremiah and Ezekiel are introduced in their proper settings, and the panegyric closes with a reference to the twelve prophets collectively, indicating that Ben Sira

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 215

was also acquainted with the Latter Prophets

as a group.

The reference to the rest of the books in the The begin-

prologue to Ben Sira indicates that even before Tost staqe^m

130 B. c. certain other writings had been joined JfoV^rX^*^'

to the canon of the Law. Ben Sira himself, ^^^ Testa- ment to judge from his description of David (<?/*.

xlvii. 8, 9, and I Chron. 25), Zerubbabel, Joshua,

and Nehemiah, was acquainted with the books

of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Chapter

xlvii. 8 apparently contains an allusion to a

hymn-book attributed to David. Evidently he

was also familiar with the book of Proverbs,

including its introductory chapters. Thus we

have a glimpse of the beginning of that third

stage in the canonization of the Old Testament

which, as in the case of the New, continued for

fully three centuries.

The Psalter doubtless passed through differ- Canoniza-

ent stages of canonization, as did the Old ^PsJter and

Testament itself. The earliest collection was, ^,<^^^^^<^-

' txons

in the beginning, probably made for liturgical purposes, and its adoption in the service of the temple was practically equivalent to canoniza- tion. When successive collections were added, they too were thus canonized. The result was that the Psalter, when complete, enjoyed a posi- tion somewhat similar to that of the Law and the

216 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Prophets, although the authority of each rested upon a different basis. That the Psalter was early canonized is further demonstrated by a quotation in I Maccabees vii. 17 (about 125 B. c.) from Psalm Ixxix. 2, 3, introduced by the words, as it is written in the Scriptures. This conclusion is also supported by the sig- nificant reference in the New Testament to the Law^ the Prophets^ and the Psalms (Lk. xxiv. 44). Jesus' use of the Psalter indicates that in his day its canonicity was already thor- oughly established. Lamentations, by a late tradition attributed to Jeremiah, was probably also canonized contemporaneously with the Psalms.

The other The cauouization of the book of Proverbs, like

that of the Psalter, was undoubtedly by succes- sive stages. The Jews of the Greek and Mac- cabean period were especially appreciative of this type of literature, and it was doubtless accorded its position of authority primarily because it rang true to human experience. That it was attrib- uted to Solomon also told in its favor. Ben Sira's indirect testimony suggests that it and the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, which were in close accord with the point of view of later Judaism, were already in his day associated with the Law and the Prophets. The book of

hooks of the fathers

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 217

Ruth was probably at this time added to the other historical books.

The absence of any reference in Ben Sira Canonixa- to Daniel is significant. The first allusion to it look\f comes from the last half of the second century ^^"'^^ before Christ. First Maccabees i. 54 appears to quote the prediction of Daniel ix. 27, and in I Maccabees ii. 59, 60, Daniel and his three friends are held up as noble examples of virtue. Thus it would seem that within a half century after the book of Daniel was written its authority was recognized. In New Testament times its canonicity is fully established (e. ^., cf. I Cor. vi. 2, and Dan. vii. 22).

Concerning the canonicity of two books, Date of the Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs or Canticles, al^^HelTew the opinions of the rabbis continued to differ ^g^^^^^g^^" until the close of the first Christian century. From the Mishna we learn that the school of Shammai accepted Ecclesiastes, while that of Hillel rejected it. Finally, in a conference in Jamnia, about 100 A. D., the two schools finally agreed to accept both books as canonical. From Second Esdras and Josephus, however, we learn that the present Hebrew and Protestant canon of the Old Testament had already for some time been practically adopted by common consent.

218 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Contents of the last group of writings

Differences between the Palestinian and Alexan- drian canons

The last collection, which includes eleven books known as the Hagiographa or Sacred Writings^ constitutes the third general division of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is a heterogeneous group of histories, prophecies, stories, and wis- dom books. Some, like the Psalter, were, as we have seen, probably canonized as early as the Prophets; although the final canon of the Old Testament was not closed until 100 A. D. Even later the canonicity of Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, and Esther was sometimes ques- tioned ; most of them were regarded as authori- tative as early as 100 B. c. Here, as in the case of the New Testament, the real decision was not the work of any school or council ; but gradu- ally, on the basis of their intrinsic merit, the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible were singled out of a much larger literature and recognized, at least by the Jews of Palestine, as the authoritative record of God's revelation through their race.

Jewish tradition, represented by Second Esdras xiv. and the Talmudic treatise Baba Bathra xv. a, states that all the canonical books were in ex- istence in the time of Ezra. While the tradition is refuted by the historical facts, it appears to have influenced the Jews of Palestine in shaping their canon ; since no books purporting to come

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 219

from a later date or author are found in it. The broader-minded Jews of the dispersion, and es- peciall}^ Alexandria and the early Christian Church, refused to be bound by tlie narrow prin- ciple that divine revelation ceased tvith Ezra. Accordingly we find them adopting a larger canon, that included many other later writings known in time as the apocryphal or liidden books.

These consisted of three genuine works, — I Additional and II Maccabees and Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus ; GrelkVnd two didactic stories, — Tobit and Judith ; four <^^'"'«'*«'»

' canon

books wrongly ascribed to earlier authors, — the Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremy, and Second Esdras (Gk. IV Esdras) ; and four additions to the Hebrew canonical books, — First Esdras, an expansion of the book of Ezra, the Prayer of Manasses, and additions to Esther and Daniel.

As is well known, these books were retained History of by the Christian Church, as they still are by the ryphJi^booU Roman CathoUc and Greek churches, until the !^ ^^%F^'"'f'

' tian Lnurcfi

Protestant reformers relegated them, as a whole, to a secondary place. Ultimately the Bible societies, during the first part of the last cen- tury, ceased to print them in the ordinary editions of the Bible. The result is that the present generation has almost forgotten their

220 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

existence. The last decade or two, however, has witnessed a significant revival of interest among the scholars of Christendom, and the wholesome tendency to restore certain of the Apocrypha to the working Old Testament canon is very marked. This is only a correction of the error of the Protestant reformers in esti- mating the Apocryphal books, not by the in- trinsic merit of each individual writing but of the group as a whole. Great value Some of the Apocrypha and kindred books, Jewish like the apocalypse of Enoch, were quoted and writings recognized by New Testament scholars as having authority equal to that of the other Old Testa- ment Scriptures. The rejection of I and II Maccabees and Ben Sira from the Palestinian canon because they were written after the days of Ezra and not associated with the names of any early Old Testament worthies, was due to a narrow conception of divine revelation, directly contrary to that of Christianity which recognized the latest as the noblest. These later Jewish writings also bridge the two centuries which otherwise yawn between the two Testaments — two centuries of superlative importance both historically and religiously, witnessing as they do the final development of the life and thought of Judaism and the rise

Formation of the Old Testament Canon 221

of those conditions and beliefs which loom so large in the New Testament.

While they will always be of great value in The larger

working

the study of later Jewish history, literature, and canon of religion, the majority of the apocryphal books Testament undoubtedly belong in the secondary group to which the Palestinian Jews and the Protestant reformers assigned them. Three or four, how- ever, tested by the ultimate principles of canon- icity, are equal, if not superior, to certain books like Chronicles, Esther, and Ecclesiastes. First Maccabees records one of the most important crises in Israelish history. As a faithful his- torical writing, it is hardly equalled in ancient literature. Its spirit is also genuinely religious. The later but parallel history of II Macca- bees is not the equal of the first, although its religious purpose is more pronounced. Its his- torical character, style, aim, and point of view are strikingly similar to those of the book of Chronicles. The proverbs of Ben Sira, while not all of the same value, yet abound in noble and practical teachings, very similar to those in the book of Proverbs. Not only does the Wisdom of Solomon contain many exalted and spiritual passages, but it is also of unique im- portance because it represents that wonderful fusion of the best elements in Hebrew and

222 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Hellenic thought which formed the background of Christianity. Probably the Church will ulti- mately restore to its larger working Old Testa- ment canon the beautiful Prayer of Manasses, already largely adopted in the prayer-book of the Anglican Church. Conclusion Our rapid historical study has revealed the unity and the variety of teaching reflected in the Old Testament, and has suggested its real place in the revelation of the past and its true place in the life of to-day. This older testament is the record of God's gradual revelation of him- self through the history of the Israelitish race and the experiences and minds of countless men and women whose spiritual eyes were open and whose ears were attentive to divine truth. The same benign Father who has always spoken to his children has influenced them also to recognize the writings that most faithfully and fully record the spiritual truth thus revealed. Had the task been entrusted to our own or later generations, it is not probable that the result would have differed in any important essential. For a few brief centuries false theories and traditions may partially obscui'e the truth, but these, like the mists of morning, are sure in time to melt away and reveal the eternal veri- ties in their sublime beauty and grandeur.

XIV

THE INTERPRETATION OF THE

EARLY NARRATIVES OF THE

OLD TESTAMENT

XIV

THE INTERPRETATION OF THE

EARLY NARRATIVES OF THE

OLD TESTAMENT

Op all the different groups of writings in the Importance Old Testament, undoubtedly the early narra- fach^sZru^^ tives found in the first seven books present the "^ " ""*' most perplexing problems. This is primarily due to the fact that they have been subject to a long process of editorial revision by which stories, some very old and others very late and written from a very different point of view, have been closely joined together. While there is a distinct aim and unity in the whole, in approaching them it is simplest to study each story as a unit in itself. Not only is this prac- tical, but it is justified by the fact that almost every story was once current in independent form. Often, as in the case of the accounts of creation and the flood, it is possible to recover the older versions and even to trace their origin and earlier history.

15

view

226 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Classijica- The first essential, however, is to determine sary to the point of view and purpose of the biblical thep^intof writer, who has taken the given story from the lips of his contemporaries and incorporated it in the cycle of stories in which it is now found. Here the language, literary style, theme, and conceptions of God and religion are the chief guides. If, as in the first chapter of Genesis, the Deity is always designated as Grod or Elohim ; if the literary style is formal, repetitious, and generic ; if the theme is the origin of an insti- tution like the Sabbath ; and if the Deity is con- ceived of as a spirit, accompKshing his purpose by progressive stages through the agency of natural forces, — it is not difficult to recognize at once the work of a late priestly writer. If, on the contrary, as in Genesis ii. 4b to iii. 24, Jehovah is the name of the Deity ; if the style is vivid, picturesque, and flowing ; if the interest centres in certain individuals instead of spe- cies ; if the themes vitally concern the spiritual life of man ; if the Deity is conceived of after human analogies, as intimately associating with men, and as revealing himself directly to them by word and visible presence, — the work of an early prophetic writer is evidently before us.

The identification of the point of view of the author at once puts us into appreciative sym-

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 227

pathy with him. It also enables us intelligently Value of

to interpret his words and figures. Knowing, author's

for example, that the first chapter of Genesis ^'^'"^ ^-^ ^'^'^

was written by a priest who lived long after

his race had ceased to think of God as having

a body like a man, we cannot make the common

mistake of interpreting verse 26 as implying

physical likeness. Rather, as his conception of

God as a spirit demands and the latter part of

the verse proves, his sublime teacliing is that

man, the end and culmination of the entire

work of creation, is like his Creator, a spiritual

being, endowed with a mind and a will, and

as God's viceregent, is divinely commanded to

rule over all created things.

Where two distinct versions of the same Practical

, . 1 1 1 1 • T value of the

narrative have been amalgamated m the process critical of editorial revision, the analysis of the original ^"" •^*** sources is indispensable to a true understanding and interpretation of the thought of the prophet and priest who have each utilized the ancient story, — as, for example, that of the flood, — to illustrate the inevitable consequences of sin and God's personal interest in mankind. Here the culminating purpose of the prophet, however, is to proclaim Jehovah's gracious promise that he will never thus again destroy man or living things ; that (viii. 21, 22) :

228 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

While the earth remains, Seedtime and harvest, Cold and heat, Summer and winter, Day and night Shall not cease.

The priest, on the other hand, is interested in the renewal of the covenant which insures man's dominion over the natural world, and in the sanctity of blood, and in the primitive, divine origin of the command, Thou shalt not kill (ix. 1-6). The neces- Fortunately the work of analysis has been formtelligent SO thoroughly Carried out during the last cen- JJoT^'^'"* tury that there is practical agreement among the Christian scholars of the world on the essential questions. These results are now also available in popular form, so that, without wasting time on technicalities, the pastor and teacher of to-day can utilize them as the basis for more important study and teaching. The origin, the literary form, and the scientific and historical accuracy of each narrative all suggest definite and interesting lines of study, but, as has been noted (p. 106), these are of second- ary value compared with the religious truths that each story is intended to illustrate.

Since these stories were preserved because they conserve this higher purpose, it is always

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 229

safe to ask, What are their distinctive contri' Principles of

butions to the grand total of ethical and spir- \lrprltation

itual teaching found in the Old Testament?

At the same time it is exceedingly important

always to be sure to read the teachings out of,

and not into, a given narrative. By unnatural

and fanciful interpretation of these simple stories

the friends of the Bible in the past have often

wronged it more than have its avowed foes.

Each story, like the parables of Jesus, had its

one or two central teachings, usually conveyed

to the mind by implication rather than by direct

statement. The characters who figure in them

by their words and deeds proclaim the practical

truths and embody the ideals in the minds of

the ancient prophets and priests.

The heterogeneous group of stories found in Theme of Genesis i.-xi. constitute the general introduc- and tion to the succeeding narratives which gather about the names of the traditional ancestors of the Hebrews. Each of these originally in- dependent stories illustrates its own peculiar religious teachings. None has taken a deeper hold on the imagination and made a deeper im- pression on the thought and literature of the world than that which is found in the second and third chapters of Genesis. Its theme — the origin and nature and consequences of sin

ana in.

230 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

— is of vital, personal interest to every man of every age. The prob- The problem that confronted the early Judean smtmlit'in prophet was to present in form intelligible to uiuThhto ^^® minds of his primitive readers a subject that early man j^^s taxed to the utmost the resources of the world's greatest philosophers and theologians. The task was comparable to that which fell to the Master when he sought to make clear to his untutored disciples the real nature of the mighty tempest of temptation that raged in his soul at the beginning, and, indeed, later in his ministry. The method adopted was strikingly similar in each case. If the language of modern philos- ophy and psychology had been at the command of these great religious teachers, it would have but obscured the great truths. These truths must be made objective ; they must be expressed in the familiar language of the people. Even the inner struggle of conflicting motives must be presented in words so simple that a child could understand. Pictorial The secoud and third chapters of Genesis

ilawTfrom rccord the effective way in which a great ^tradUion, ^^^^^ prophet dealt with his difficult problem. From the lips of the people he took fragments of ancient Semitic traditions. Almost all of the elements which enter into the story of man's fall

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 231

have been traced to far earlier sources ; but the narrative in its present unity and suggestiveness never has and never will be found outside the Bible. How far the prophet adapted to his higher purpose the current Hebrew version can not be absolutely determined. The fact alone remains that it is one of the truest bits of his- tory in the Old Testament, and this not because it is a leaf from the diary of Adam and Eve, but because it concretely and faithfully portrays universal human experience.

In the simple language of popular tradition Creation of it proclaims, among other truths, that Jehovah, ^Uments net Israel's God, created man, breathing into ^'^^^dlZlliZent from his own nostrils the vital principle of life and making him the commanding figure in the universe ; then that the Creator graciously provided all that was needful and best for his true physical and spiritual development. Incidentally the prophet calls attention to that innate and divine basis of the marriage bond which Jesus re-emphasizes (Matt. xix. 4-6). Physical death, according to the story in its present form, was not a necessary part of Jehovah's plan; the implication is that man would not die while he remained in the garden and ate of the life-giving tree. Temptation is not in itself evil, but necessary, if man is to

232 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

develop positive virtue, for beside the tree of life grows the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, with its attractive, alluring fruit guarded by the divine prohibition. The struggle The elements of the temptation are all pre- woman's sented in chapter ii., but the serpent, the crafti- ^^"^^ est of animals, in his conversation with the

woman is required to make clear and objective the real nature of the conflict within her mind. The role of the serpent is the opposite of that of Balaam's ass, which figures in a story which comes from the same early Judean prophetic school. In the conversation between the woman and the serpent the true character of all temp- tation is revealed: it is the necessity of choos- ing between two courses of conduct neither of which is altogether bad. Curiosity, which is the guide to all knowledge, the beauty of the apple, which appeals to the sesthetic sense, and physical appetite, not in itself bad, — all these powerfully attracted the Oriental woman of the ancient story. On the other side she felt the compelling power of love and gratitude and the definite divine command. The essence The prophet saw clearly that all the elements

of all f, . • -I •

temptation 01 temptation are withm man — a truth some- times obscured in later Jewish thought. Milton has also led us astray in identifying the crafty

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 233

serpent with the Satan of later Judaism. The prophet graphically presents another great fact of human experience, namely, that what is one man's temptation is not another's, that the temptation to be real must appeal to the one tested. The crafty serpent is not represented as speaking to the man ; he would probably have turned away in loathing. His wife, she who had already sinned, the one whom Jehovah had given him as a helpmeet, herself appeals to the sense of chivalry within him. Hence the conflict rages in his soul between love and obligation to Jehovah and his natural affection and ap- parent duty to his wife. Thus in all tempta- tion the diviner impulses struggle with those which are not in themselves necessarily wrong but only baser by contrast. Duty is the call of the diviner, sin is the yielding to the baser, motives.

The Hebrew word for sin, which means the The real

P ^ ■, ■, r , . T nature of

missing of the mark set up before each indi- sin vidual, is the only altogether satisfactory defi- nition of sin ever devised, for it absolutely fits the facts of human experience. Deflection from the moral standard set up by each man's con- science, even though his resulting act seem in itself noble, is for him a sin. Although the influences which led the man and woman of

of sin

234 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

the story to disobey were exceedingly strong, the higher standard had been set up, and in falling short of it they sinned. Thus sin is not God's but man's creation, and results from the deliberate choice of what the sinner knows to be wrong. The effects In the Same simple yet powerful way the prophet depicts the inevitable consequences of sin. At every point the picture is true to uni- versal experience. The most appalling effect of a wrong act is that it destroys peace and purity of mind. It also makes cowards of brave men, and the presence and tender affection of the one wronged suddenly become intolerable. Sin also begets sin. To the cowering fugitives Jehovah comes, as he always does, with a mes- sage intended to evoke a frank confession which would tear down the hideous barrier that their sin had reared between himself and them ; but, like most foolish, blind Adams and Eves, they hug their crime to their breasts and raise the barrier heaven high by trying to excuse their guilt. Thus they pronounce their own doom. For God himself only one course of action re- mains : it is to send them forth from his pres- ence and from the life-giving tree, out into the school of hardship and bitter pain, that there they may learn the lessons which are necessary

Literpretation of its Early Narratives 235

before they can again become citizens of the true Garden of Eden.

Two simple yet exceedingly significant touches The sequel lighten the gloom of this universal tragedy of o/mln's/all human life. The one is that for the guilty, un- repentant pair, Jehovah himself made tunics of skins to protect them from the inclemency of their new life, — evidence that his love and care still went with them. The other is the impli- cation that the true garden of Eden was still to be found on earth, and was closed simply to the guilty and unrepentant. The Bible is the record of how men learned the all-important lessons in the painful school of experience. Israel's teachers, each in his characteristic way, led their race on toward the common goal. The Gospels tell of how a man, tempted in all points as toe are in a distant day and land found his way again into the abiding presence of God. He was one with the Father, not because he did not meet temptation in all its power, but because, unlike the actors in the primitive story, and all other participants in the drama of life, he yielded only to the guidance of divine im- pulses. Not content with achieving the goal himself, he gave his energies and his life to showing others how they also might overcome the baser impulses within them and find their

236 Origi7i and Value of the Old Testament

way to God's presence and become one with him. Thus, because of what he did and said and was, he forever vindicated his title of Saviour of Mankind. Thereli- No other early Old Testament narrative is

TnVof other Perhaps so full of rich spiritual suggestion as early stories the one just considered, and yet each has its valuable contribution. Even such a story as that of the killing of Abel by Cain forcibly teaches the great prophetic truth that it is not the form of the offering, but the character and deeds back of the sacrifice, that determine Je- hovah's favor or disfavor (iv. 7). Graphically it sets forth the spirit that prompts the great- est of crimes. In contrast to Cain, defiant yet pursued by haunting fear of vengeance, it also presents the divine tenderness and mercy in granting him a tribal mark to protect him from the hand of man. The similar story of Noah, the first vineyard-keeper, preaches the first temperance sermon in all literature, and also suggests the inevitable consequences of moral depravity so forcibly illustrated in the history of the ancient Canaanites. Even the prosaic table of the nations in Genesis x. emphasizes the conception of the unity of the human family which was destined in time to become the basis of Israel's belated missionary activity.

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 237

When we pass to the twelfth chapter of Ideals pre- Genesis the independent stories coalesce into ^^arly pro- cycles, and each cycle, as well as each naTiei.- P^f-I^P*^^' tive, has its own religious purpose. In defi- ^i'raham nite outlines each successive group of teachers painted the character of Abraham, the tradi- tional father of the Israelitish race, and held it up before their own and succeeding genera- tions as a perpetual example and inspiration. In the early Judean prophetic narratives he is pictured as the friend of Jehovah. His own material interests are entirely secondary, as illustrated in his dealing with Lot. Without hesitation he leaves home and kindred behind, for his dominating purpose in life is simply to know and do the will of Jehovah. To this end he rears altars throughout the land of Canaan. His chief joy is in communion with God and in the promises to be realized in his descend- ants. Through warring, hostile Canaan he passes unscathed, for his eyes are fixed on things heavenly.

It matters little whether or not, far back in Its signifi- the primitive days of Israel's history, a Bedouin sheik anticipated in actual character and life all that was gradually revealed to the prophets of a much later age. The supremely significant fact is that the noble ideal of Israel's earliest

238 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

teachers was thus vividly and concretely em- bodied in the portrait of him whom the Hebrews regarded with pride and adoration as the founder of their race. In Hosea and Jeremiah, and less imperfectly in the nation as a whole, the ideal in time became an historical reality. Later por- The early Ephraimite school of writers pic- Abraham ture Abraham as a prophet (Gen. xx. 7), and therefore as an exemplification of their highest ideal. In the remarkable fourteenth chapter of Genesis he is a courageous, chivalrous knight, attacking with a handful of followers the allied armies of the most powerful kings of his day. Returning victorious, he restores the spoil to the plundered and gives a princely gift to the priest of the local sanctuary. In the later priestly narratives the picture suddenly changes, and Abraham figures as the faithful servant of the law, with whom originates the rite of cir- cumcision, the seal of a new covenant (xvii.). Later Jewish and Moslem traditions each have their characteristic portrait. One, which pic- tures him as in heaven the protector of the faithful, is reflected in the New Testament (Luke xvi. 23-30). Thus each succeeding age and group of teachers made him the embodi- ment and supreme illustration of its noblest ideals, and it is this ideal element that gives

Interjpretation of its Early Narratives 239

the Old Testament stories their permanently practical value.

Having noted the teachings that each indi- Practical vidual story and the cycle as a whole conveyed the Abraham to the minds of their first readers, it only re- *'<'^*** mains for the teacher of to-day to translate them into modern terms. Some of the most important implications of the Abraham stories thus interpreted are, for example : (1) God calls each man to a high mission. (2) He will guide and care for those who are responsive. (3) To those who seek to know him intimately, and to do his will, he will reveal himself in fullest measure, and for such he has in store his rich- est blessings. (4) He that findeth his life (Lot) shall lose it, and he that loseth his life (Abraham) shall find it.

The Jacob and Esau stories contain marvel- Significance lously exact and realistic portraits of the two actero/""^' races (the Israelites and the Edomites) that they ^*"" respectively represent. Of the two brothers, Esau is in many ways the more attractive. He suggests the open air and the fields, where ' he loved to hunt. He is easy-going, ingenuous, and impulsive. His faults are those of not being or doing. As long as he had enough to eat and was comfortable, he was contented. He is the type of the world's drifters. Since Aram was

faults

240 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

far distant he disregards the wishes of his par- ents and marries one of the daughters of the land. No ambition stirred him and no devotion to Jehovah or to the ideals of his race gave con- tent and direction to his life. Thus he remained a laggard, and the half-nomadic, robber people that he represented became but a stagnant pool, compared with the onrushing stream of Israel's life. Jacob's Jacob's faults are also presented by the early

prophets with an astonishing fidelity. Rarely does a race early in its history have a portrait of its weaknesses as well as its strength held up thus prominently before its eyes. Jacob is the antithesis of Esau. While his brother was hunting care-free in the fields, he was at home plotting how he could further his own interests. When the opportunity offers, he manifests a cold, calculating shrewdness. To make good the title to the birthright thus acquired he does not hesitate to resort to fraud and lying. Then he flees, pursued by his own guilty conscience, and, tricked by Laban, he serves as a slave four- teen years to win the wife whom he loves. At last, again a fugitive from the consequences of his own questionable dealing, he returns with quaking heart to face the brother that he had wronged.

Interpretation of its Early Narratives 241

The character is far from a perfect one, and The elements yet the ancient stories suggest its elements of % ^jlrael's strength. By nature he was selfish and crafty; ^^^'^^^^^^ and yet he has what Esau fatally lacks : energy, persistency, and a commanding ambition. From the first his ambition looks beyond himself to the future of his descendants. Measured by our modern standards, his religious professions seem only hypocrisy; but as we analyze his character we find that a faith in Jehovah, narrow and selfish though it be, was ever his guiding star. Out of the tortuous windings of his earlier years it ultimately led him to a calm old age. Imperfect though his character was, like that of the race which he represented, the significant fact is that God ever cared for him and was able to utilize him as an agent in divine revelation.

Even more obvious and universal are the The noble practical lessons illustrated by the Joseph the^ Joseph stories. In the early prophetic narratives, *^^'"'^* Abraham is the perfect servant of God, Jacob the type of the Israelitish race, but Joseph is the ideal man of affairs. Graphically the suc- cessive stories picture the man in his making and reveal his true character. He is simple, affectionate, and yet strongly ambitious. His day-dreams make him odious, as in the case 16

242 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

of many a boy to-day, to his unimaginative brothers. A seemingly hard fate rudely snatches him from the enervating influences of his child- hood home and places him in the severe school of experience, where he is tested and trained. It also opens vride the door of opportunity. Fidelity to every interest and an unselfish re- sponse to every opportunity for service soon bring him into the presence of the Pharaoh. His judicious counsels, diplomacy, and organiz- ing ability win for him the highest honors Egypt can confer. With modesty and fidelity he endures this supreme test — success. Toward his brothers, who had bitterly wronged him, he is nobly magnanimous, and to his kinsmen, who belong to the shepherd class especially despised as boors by the cultured Egyptians, he is loyal and considerate. Above all, not by professions, but by deeds, he reveals the true source of his strength, — a natural faith in the God of his race and an unfailing loyalty to him. Conclusion In the Same way Moses, the exodus, and the great men and events of Israel's dramatic his- tory, all have a religious importance and signifi- cance far surpassing the merely historical. At the same time the methods of modern literary and historical investigation reveal rather than conceal the deeper spiritual truths that they

Inierpretatiori of its Early Narratives 243

illustrate. The more light that can be turned upon them the more clearly will their essential teachings stand forth. Like the Old Testament as a whole, they grew up out of real life and truly reflect and interpret it, and therefore have a living, vital message to life to-day. Any in- terpretation that does not ring true to life may well be questioned. Finally, the authority of these ancient narratives depends not upon the historical or scientific accuracy of the individual story that is used as an illustration, but upon the fact that through the experiences and hearts of those who employed them God was seeking to make men free by the knowledge of the truth.

XV

PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDY- ING THE OLD TESTAMENT

XV

PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDYING THE OLD TESTAMENT

The Old Testament may be studied as litera- The various ture, as history, as the record of an important ^approach stage in the evolution of religion, as the revela- tion of God to the race, or as a practical aid to the individual in living the true life. Each angle of approach calls for different methods and yields its correspondingly rich results. Studied in accordance with the canons of modern literary investigation, a literature is disclosed of surpassing variety, beauty, and fascination. After the principles of historical criticism have been vigorously applied, the Old Testament is found to contain some of the most important and authentic historical data that have come down to us from antiquity. To the gen- eral student of religion there is no group of writings that equals in value those included in these ancient Scriptures. As a simple, clear revelation of the character and will of the Divine Ruler, present and regnant in all life, the Old Testament is surpassed by only one

248 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

other volume, and that is its complement, the

New.

The supreme It is, however, as the guide to right thinking,

^Testament ^-ud being, and acting, that the man of God may

study 5g perfect^ completely equipped for every good

work, that the Old Testament is and always

will be studied by the majority of people. In

so doing they will be realizing its primary and

supreme purpose. Like true religion, it is not

an end in itself, but simply an effective force,

drawing and binding individual men to God and

to the right. Any method of study that fails to

attain this definite and practical end does not

achieve the chief aim of the Old Testament

writings.

Necessity of This practical and personal end, however,

studying the . _ , ^ • • •! i

Old' Testa- cannot be attained at a leap. It is impossible ZTanic ^" ^^ achieve the best results by taking a truth or whole ^ passage here and there and applying it at once

to the individual. Both the Old Testament and the individual are something organic. Each book has a unity and a history that must be understood, if a given passage is to be fairly interpreted or its truths intelligently applied. Individual books are also related to others and to their historical background. Also, as has already been shown, to appreciate fully the vital message of a given writer it is necessary,

Practical Methods of Studying 249

not to know his name, but his place in history, his point of view, his method of expression, and his purpose. The Old Testament and Israel- itish history as a whole are the best and most essential interpreters of individual books and passages. The most serious handicap to the ordinary Bible teacher and scholar is the lack of this broader, systematic, constructive knowl- edge. Much earnest, devoted study, especially in the Old Testament fields, is deficient in inspiration and results, because it is simply groping in an unknown land. It is all impor- tant, therefore, to ascend some height and spy out the land as a whole, to note the relation of different books and events to each other, and to view broadly the great stream of divine reve- lation which flows out of the prehistoric past on through the Old and New Testaments to the present.

In order effectively to apply the truths of the Remarkable

_ , _ _, ,.-.., , adaptation

Old Testament to life, it is also necessary to of the Old regard the point of view of the individual to be ^^^,";,'"^ ^"^ taught. This fundamental principle of all ed- 5^''^^""^. ucation was fully appreciated and applied by moral

1 mi 1 i. • culture

Israel's great spiritual teachers. The result is that the Old Testament contains truths marvel- lously adapted to every age and type of mind. The importance of the religious culture of the

250 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

child is emphasized by the comparatively large proportion of writings especially fitted to hold the attention and arouse the imagination and shape the ideals even of the youngest. Nearly half of the Old Testament consists simply of nar- ratives. Those inimitable stories, which come from the childhood of the race, have a perennial fascination for the child of to-day. They find him on his own mental and moral plane, as they did the primitive child, and by natural stages lead him on and up to the higher stand- ards and broader faith of Israel's later prophets and sages, and thus prepare him to understand and appreciate the perfected life and teachings of Jesus. The pro- In the modern use of the Old Testament, the

^he^cMldren^s faithful application of this fundamental prin- Bible ciple also leads to a most practical conclusion ;

the stories peculiarly adapted to children are not the mature, legalistic narratives of the late priestly writers, but the early prophetic stories, which begin in the second chapter of Genesis. If children are taught only these, they will not be disconcerted by widely variant versions of the same events. Above all, they will be de- livered from the inconsistencies and erroneous impressions which are often the cause of stum- bling to the child. The later process of unlearn-

Practical Methods of Studying 251

ing, which is always dangerous, will be avoided. If the problems presented by the priestly narra- tives be reserved until they can be studied from the broader and truer point of view, they will be readily solved, and the great positive teach- ings of these later didactic stories will be fully appreciated.

The subject-matter, therefore, supremely suit- The prophets able for the earliest moral and spritual culture story-tellers of the child, is clearly the simple and yet pro- found prophetic stories of the Old Testament. It is very questionable whether the many ex- cellent paraphrases now current are a gain or a hindrance. The ancient prophets and the gen- erations who have retold them were inimitable story-tellers. To attempt to improve upon their work is futile. A simple, clear translation is all that is required.^ The interpretation and application of their practical teachings can best be left to the intuition of the child and the direction of the intelligent parent and teacher.

It is also astonishing how readily even a little Their effec- child appreciates the essential lessons, as, for ^of^p^efenting example, those regarding the nature and con- ''■"'^* sequences of sin, presented by the story of the Garden of Eden. Under the charm of the at-

^ A Children's Bible is now being prepared according to the plan suggested above.

252 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

tractive personalities that figure in them, and the stirring achievements, so dramatically pre- sented that they command breathless attention, the early prophetic narrations unconsciously and, therefore, all the more effectively, instil into the mind of the child the most essential truths regarding God and life and duty. At the same time, as they study in order the deeds of the heroes and makers of Israel's history, they are becoming familiar with the real back- ground of the earlier revelation recorded in the Old Testament. The present Therefore scattered throughout Genesis, Ex- ^thesT stones o^^s, Numbcrs, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, and the older sections of Ezra, Nehe- miah, and I Maccabees, are to be found in rich profusion the material for the earliest years of Bible study. These should naturally be sup- plemented by the stories of the prophets, found in such books as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Haggai. Their sequel and culmination are the corre- sponding stories in the Gospels and Acts. Study of the In Connection with the earliest study of the sonaltea^ch- achievements of Israel's heroes and spiritual ^ofd ^^esta- ^^aders, many of their greatest teachings would ment ^c appropriated and applied, but when the years

of early adolescence are reached, the prophets in their sermons, the priests in their laws, the

Practical Methods of Studying 253

sages in their proverbs, and the psalmists in their psalms, each have certain personal mes- sages, superbly adapted to the critical, for- mative years, when childhood begins to unfold into maturity. To make this material available, judicious selection and interpretation are re- quired. The organism of each book and of the child must both be carefully regarded to make the adjustment perfect. Naturally this most vital line of study would be the introduction to a corresponding study of the direct, personal teachings of Jesus and the apostles.

This intensely practical work could profitably Study of the be preceded or followed by a study of the origin ^qrowth^of the and growth of the different books and groups ^^f^^^^' of Old Testament writings and the gradual stages whereby these Scriptures attained their present form and authority. The guides in this investigation should not be the Jewish rabbis or even the traditions of the Church Fathers. We have been misled too long by the pious guesses of the mediaeval saints; but rather the testimony of the Bible itself and the evidence of contemporary writings should be the guides. The spirit should also be frank and constructive. The results cannot fail to be practically helpful in a great variety of ways. Thus on the basis of facts, in the light of his-

254 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

tory, and by the use of those methods of re- search which alone command respect and acceptance in other kindred lines of inves- tigation, the questions which come to every thoughtful boy and girl will be fairly and truly answered. In this way those experi- ences which are inevitable in this critical age will deepen and broaden rather than destroy the foundations of individual faith. Thehistori- With this general introduction, many stu- TpproLh^ '^'^ ^^^^ and classes will find it profitable to ap- proach the Old and New Testaments from the distinctively historical point of view. Begin- ning with the unfolding of the civilization and religion of ancient Babylonia, they will study in conjunction the history, the strong personali- ties, the literature, and the thought of each suc- cessive period. The advantages of this method of study are many. Each book will be read and its messages interpreted in the light of the conditions and forces that constitute its true background. The different characters will live again, and the significance of their work and words will be fully appreciated as they are viewed in the clear perspective of history. Its practical Abovc all, such a synthetic study of the un- re7iUtT folding of the supreme truths of revelation lays a foundation for the individual faith as broad as

Practiced Methods of Studying 255

human experience. This is to attain one of the chief aims of all study, which is to put the in- dividual into practical possession of all that is vital and best in the experiences and achieve- ments of the past, that, thus equipped, he may go forth to fight the battle of life, valiantly and successfully.

This last course of study would call for Its natural several years, and, more than that, for enthu- ^^^"^ siasm, devotion, and real work. It would also take the student in time through the New Testament period, with its literature and com- manding personalities and events, and perhaps beyond to the great epochs of Church history. Many would not stop until they had studied the latest chapter in Church history, the noble mis- sionary activity and achievement of the past and present century.

When the Bible had thus been studied, the Advanced scholars in our schools would not be ready to ltu7y^ graduate, but rather to enter upon that still deeper and more fundamental study which would mean an ultimate conquest of the broad field that it represents. Then it might be safe and profitable to adopt the topical method and study some one of the vital themes that are treated from many different points of view in the various parts of the Bible.

256 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Study of It will, however, probably be found easier

menthfstory ^^^ more natural next to take up in succeed- ing years the detailed study of the nine or ten great groups of writings which are found in the Bible. The natural and easiest method of approach to those of the Old Testament would be through a careful, constructive study of the history of the Israelitish race, perhaps begin- ning with the definite historical period of Saul and Samuel and concluding with the advent of Rome. Far better than any modern history of Israel is that marvellous history written by its own historians, which begins with the book of Samuel and ends with I Maccabees. Ana- lyzed and arranged in their chronological order, these narratives tell the story with rare fascina- tion and suggestiveness.^ Study of the On the basis of this detailed study of the his- ^and earlier torical background, the work and teachings of narratives ^\^q prophets could ucxt be traced in their true and chronological order. No Old Testament field is more neglected and none is more in- tensely interesting, when once the student un- derstands the problems and aims of each great prophet. None has a more practical message

1 Volume II of the "Student's Old Testament" con- tains the narratives from Samuel through I Maccabes, thus arranged.

Practical Methods of Studying 257

for to-day, provided its supreme truths are interpreted into modern terms and conditions. After becoming intimately acquainted with the Hebrew prophets, it would be possible to go back and study with a new understanding and appreciation the early narratives which gather about the begiiniings of Hebrew history. Then the intricate problems of the first eight books of the Bible would vanish in the light of a fuller knowledge. Above all, that which is essential and permanent would stand out in clear relief.

From the earliest fruits of prophetic activity study of the it would then be profitable to turn to the later, jitlfatw^e represented by Lamentations and the Psalter. Here the best results require a classification of the different psalms according to their themes, so that their teachings can be studied systemati- cally and as a whole. In this field of study the student comes very close to the heart of the Old Testament and the heart of the God who speaks through it.

Less spiritual and yet intensely interesting study of and practical is the great department of the Old ^ll^^^^l"^ Testament known as the wisdom literature. He that walheth with the wise shall he ivise (Prov. xiii. 20) is as true to-day as when first uttered. This literature is a great mine of truth, almost entirely neglected by the Christian world. Sys-

17

258 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

tematic classification is the first requisite for the profitable study of the Proverbs and the later Wisdom of Ben Sira. From these the student may pass on to the fuller treatment of the omni- present human problem, so sublimely presented in the book of Job, and to the many fundamental questions raised by Ecclesiastes and the Wisdom of Solomon. Study of the Last of all a year might well be spent in the ment laws' study of the uufoldiug and concrete application ^^n/"*'*'" and illustration of Israel's ethical and religious principles in the legal codes and institutions of the Old Testament. Many of these have found a higher expression, some are but symbolic, but others still have permanent authority and value. Studied as a whole and on the basis of a logical classification, this little understood field would also cease to be a jungle, and instead would }deld its own practical spiritual fruits.

XVI

EELIGIOUS EDUCATION — THE

FUNDAMENTAL PEOBLEM

OF TO-DAY

XVI

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION — THE

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM

OF TO-DAY

This very brief and fragmentary outline of The practi- methods and possibilities of Old Testament Itonl/lhTse study is not an impossible dream. In q,o\. possibilities leges and in a few Bible schools it is already being tried with the gratifying results that might be anticipated. To put it at once into force in most of our Sunday-schools would be absolutely impracticable. It is presented simply as a suggestion of a definite and practical goal toward which to work. With careful adjust- ment, these courses, adapted to different ages, could be arranged so that at least the inter- mediate grades in the Sunday-school would be studying in the same field at the same time. This plan provides for no graduation from the school of the Bible. It assumes that the Chris- tian world is at last awakening to the real sig- nificance of religious education and to a recogni- tion of the fact that the ultimate solution of our

262 Origin arid Value of the Old Testament

gravest national and social problems is to be found only in the inculcation of the true ethical ideals in the mind of the individual. It also assumes the fundamental principle that no worthy ends can be attained without real work, enthusiastic devotion, systematic methods, and above all a definite and worthy goal. It rests on the belief that the sense of gradual conquest and the attainment of practical results will alone inspire permanent devotion and evoke faithful work, and in the end prepare the individual scholar for the intelligent and loyal service of God. The over- Frank confessions are good for a cause as well

^pomibiity' as for the soul. We must admit that most of %1^-lchools ^^^' Sunday-schools, with their vast resources in opportunity, in financial support, and in the de- votion of the teachers and officers, do not per- manently hold their scholars, and in the great majority of cases do not give them a thorough or systematic knowledge, even of the most vital teachings of the Bible. The ignorance of its literature and history on the part of even the more intelligent students who enter college, is almost past belief, as many of us can testify from personal observation. The limitations in time and equipment of the Sunday-schools are undoubtedly great in comparison with those of

Religious Education 263

the secular schools; and yet the responsibility now thrown upon the Bible schools is even greater than upon the latter. Parents have ceased to instruct their children in spelling and the multiplication-table because they have found that the teachers can do this better. Without justification, but by analogy and be- cause they are themselves often unacquainted with the Bible, or uncertain regarding its in- terpretation, they are more and more leaving the religious education of their sons and daughters to the Church and the Sunday-school.

It is safe to say, and this without reservation. The tran- that the most fundamental problem in England importance and America to-day is the problem of religious g-^^caS"* education, because this lies at the roots of all else — political, social, and theological. When the Christian world awakens to its profound significance, and when its ideals and methods are raised, even to a level with those of the public scho Is, the other grave problems will be near their solution. If the individual is thoroughly taught during the impressionable years of childhood and youth, the fundamental principles of ethics and religion, society and the state will have no difiBculty in meeting their problems ; but if not, these will perforce continue to remain unsolved.

264 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

Important that the Old Testament be taught i)i the public schools

The task of the Church in the present century

It is a time for all earnest men of every de- nomination or creed to unite in meeting this need. In the Old Testament, Jew and Chris- tian, Catholic and Protestant, stand on com- mon ground. The modern inductive historical methods of study have prepared the way for union; for they aim to support no denomina- tional interpretation, but simply to attain the truth. The last reasons, therefore, why the lit- erature, history, geography, and ethical teach- ings of the Old Testament should not be taught in our public schools are rapidly disappearing, and the hundreds of reasons why any system of secular education is incomplete without it are coming to the front. With this fundamental basis of knowledge and instruction, the work of the Sunday-schools could also at once be placed on a far more effective plane. It is a consummation for which every intelligent citizen should earnestly work.

The achievement of the last century was to complete the work of the Protestant Reforma- tion and rediscover the Bible. The task of the present century is to instil its essential teach- ings, thus revealed, into the mind of the indi- vidual, so that they will become controlling factors in human life. Here lies the great re- sponsibility and opportunity of the Christian

Religious Education 265

Church. If it is to renew its hold on modern men, it will be through the mind as well as the heart, and its most efficient method will be — as it always has in reality been — religious education. Horace Bushnell proclaimed the watchword of the Church triumphant : " Chris- tian culture."

His, however, was no new discovery. The The eram- Hebrew prophets, priests, and sages were not pri- ^prophets and marily preachers, but teachers. The prophetic *^^^"^ messages which fell on deaf ears, instilled into the minds of a few humble disciples, in time won acceptance from the nation. Jesus him- self was not so much the preacher as the Great Teacher. His earliest public preaching was but the net cast to catch the few faithful disciples. When these had been secured, he turned his back upon a popular preaching min- istry, and devoted the best part of his brief public work to instructing a little group of disciples. History completely vindicates the wisdom of his method. Only by following closely on his footsteps can the Church hope to realize its true mission, especially in this age, when the heart and will must be reached through the mind. In this respect, it must also be con- fessed that the Catholic are far in advance of the Protestant churches and Sunday-schools,

266 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

where the preaching still overshadows the teaching. The call for To inspire and direct thorough religious in- ministry^ struction, Carefully trained leaders are needed. The demand to-day is for a teaching as well as a preaching ministry, with an apostolic sense of a mission and a message. Men with natural gifts and the most thorough preparation are wanted to raise the standards and to organize and transform, as they alone can, by personal contact, the teaching corps of our Sunday- schools into effective forces. Such men and women certainly can be found. It is a con- viction, based on a wide experience, that many of the ablest students in our colleges and uni- versities, who for many valid reasons do not feel the call to a preaching mission, would gladly and enthusiastically devote themselves to the work of religious instruction, could they be sure of a field, when their preparation was complete. Our universities and seminaries al- ready have the facilities and could readily as- sume this important responsibility. As soon as our large city churches and the federated churches in our smaller towns, demand a teach- ing pastor as the permanent director of their Sunday-schools, and of the religious educational work under their charge, they will enter upon a

Religious Education 267

new career of permanent conquest. The needs are undoubtedly great, the volunteers are at hand, thorough preparation can be assured ; but the call must come from the Church, united and awake to its supreme opportunity and re- sponsibility.

It must also be confessed that our religious The anti- educational systems — if such they may be ^methods of called — are still in the experimental stage. s"(o5r" ' They are far inferior in every respect, except in the self-sacrificing devotion of the teachers and officers, to those of the secular schools. What is most vital to our national and indi- vidual life is most neglected. Instead of the latest and best pedagogical methods, the most antiquated largely prevail. Saddest of all, the Bible which is being taught in the majorit}^ of our schools is the Bible of later Judaism and the Middle Ages, not the Book of Books which stands forth in the light of God's latest revela- tion, as a message of beauty and life to the present age. It is not strange that there is a growing distrust of the Sunday-school among many intelligent people, and an appalling apathy or distaste for Bible study in the mind of the rising generation.

If we shut our eyes to these facts, they will remain ; but if we frankly face them, a decade

268 Origin and Value of the Old Testament

The crying of intelligent and devoted work will effect a 'prot{d """ g^eat transformation. The first step is obvi- courses of q^^\j along the line of improved courses and methods of study. Many different courses are at present in the field. All have their merits, and to those who have developed them highest praise and credit is due. Some have been pre- pared to meet immediate and practical needs, but ignore the larger unities and the historical background, and in general neglect the results of modern educational and biblical knowledge. Some have been worked out in the study and have a strong academic flavor, but do not meet the needs of the average scholar or teacher. Others are models of pedagogical perfection, but lack content. Progressive Sunday-schools are trying one system after another, and mean- time the note of discontent is rapidly rising. The crisis is too serious to admit of personal rivalries or prejudices. How to meet The moral of the situation is simple : that which will fully meet the needs of the present must be a combination of all that is good in existing courses, and embody what is best in the scholarship and methods of to-day. Like the most effective systems in the past, it must be wrought out in the laboratory of practical ex- perience. It must be planned from the point

Religious Education 269

of view of actual needs and conditions. It must also have a worthy and definite goal and a high ideal. It should emphasize the impor- tance of fundamental religious instruction, as well as preaching. All that is practical and per- manent in modern educational methods should be utilized. It should preserve the existing superb Sunday-school organization, and, as far as possible, the unity of the splendid system now under the direction of the International Committee. Finally, it should incorporate the positive and illuminating results of modern con- structive biblical research. The task cannot be accomplished in a moment, nor by one man nor a small group of men. It is certainly im- portant enough to command the best experi- ence, the ripest scholarship, and the most unselfish devotion.

When this task has been thoroughly per- The advent formed, and the ablest of our educated men ^{^h^^hiJ'^ and women have been enlisted in our Bible ',°r^ ^^^^^

kingdom of

schools, the cause of religious education will God command the respect of the world, not merely because of the fundamental need which it aims to meet, but also because it is effectually meeting it. The Christian Church will also find itself in sympathy and touch with that which is best and most significant in modern life and thought.

270 Ongin and Value of the Old Testanitnt

Religious teachers and scientific investigators will work shoulder to shoulder in a common study and interpretation of God's many-sided revelation. Pastors will feel the solid founda- tions of historical truth beneath their feet. Leaving behind the din and distractions of the transitional period, the disciples of the Great Teacher will go forth with fresh zeal to make the eternal truths of the Bible reg- nant in the lives of men, and the kingdom of God a reality in human history.

THE STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT

Logically and chronologically arranged and translated by Professor CHARLES FOSTER KENT, of Yale University. 6 volumes, 8vo. Each $2.75 net. (Postage 15 cents.)

This series will contain the complete Old Testament logically and chronologically arranged, together with a clear, vivid, and dignified translation, which will represent not merely the words, but also the ideas, the spirit, and the beauty of the original. The work embodies the positive conclusions of many hundreds of earnest, critical scholars. It is an introduction, a commentary, and a his- toiy all in one.

VOLUMES NOW READY Narratives of the Beginnings of Hebrew History

Introduction. The Beginnings of Human History. Tradi- tional Ancestors of the Hebrews. Deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt. Life of the Hebrews in the Wilderness and East of the Jordan. Conquest and Settlement of Canaan.

Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives

Introduction. The Establishment and Rule of the United Monarchy. History of Northern Israel. History of Judah. Reestablishment of the Jewish Community in Palestine. The Maccabean Struggle. Life of the Jews of the Dispersion.

VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses Laws and Traditional Precedents Songs, Psalms, and Prayers Proverbs and Didactic Poems

specimen pages and full descriptive circular 0/ this set •will be sent on application

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

153-157 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK

THE

HISTORICAL SERIES

FOR

BIBLE STUDENTS

Edited by CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D., Woolsey Professor of Biblical Literature in Yale Uni- versity, and FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, Ph.D., D.D., sometime Professor of Biblical Plistory and Archaeology in Yale University. lo volumes, i2mo. Each $1.25 net.

This series presents clearly, attractively, and in form in- telligible to all, the important results of research and discovery which extend and illuminate the field of biblical and cognate his- tory. It represents the fruitage of the earnest, indefatigable labors of the biblical scholars of the past quarter century. The treatment is concise, yet neglects no important fact; scholarly, but popular and non-technical. It emphasizes what is vital, and at the same time provides abundant and detailed references to the ablest discussions of technical questions. References to biblical and monumental literature are also given at each point that the reader may be able to verify every statement and arrive at independent conclusions. The spirit is non-dogmatic and progressive, yet thoroughly con- structive; fearless of new truth, yet reverent. In general, the series aims to make use of all that is fresh and strong in the achievements of scholarship, and to reenforce and restate for the present day the permanent and personal message of the Bible.

VOLUMES NOW READY

History of the Hebrew People: The United Kingdom. By Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D., Woolsey Professor of Biblical Literature in Yale University.

History of the Hebrew People: The Divided Kingdom. By Pro- fessor Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.

VOLUMES NOW READY- Continued

History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods. By Professor Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.

History of the Jewish People during the Maccabean and Roman Periods. By James Stevenson Riggs, D.D., Professor of Biblical Criticism in Auburn Theological Seminary.

History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. By George S. Good- speed, Ph.D., late Professor of Ancient History and Compara- tive Religion in the University of Chicago.

The Life of Jesus of Nazareth. By Rush Rhees, D.D., President of the University of Rochester; late Professor of New Tes- tament Interpretation in the Newton Theological Institution.

History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age. By George T. PuRVES, Ph.D., D.D., Pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York; late Professor of New Testament Liter- ature and Exegesis in Princeton Theological Seminary.

VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

History of the Egyptians. By James Henry Breasted, Ph.D.. Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History in the Univer- sity of Chicago.

Outlines of Biblical History and Literature from the Earliest Times to the Captivity. By Frank Knight Sanders, Ph.D.. D.D.

Outlines of Biblical History and Literature from the Exile to 200 A. D. By Frank Knight Sanders, Ph.D., D.D.

Specimen pages and full descriptive circular of this set will be sent free ott application

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

153-157 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK

THE MESSAGES OF THE BIBLE

Edited by FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, Ph.D., sometime Professor of Biblical History and Archaeology in Yale University, and CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D.,Woolsey Processor of Biblical Literature in Yale University. 12 volumes, i2mo. Each $1.25 net.

A series of hand books in which the essential meaning of the various Books of the Bible is presented to the English reader in plain language, in their chronological and historical setting, and with such other notes as may- be necessary to elucidate obscure names and phrases, or to illustrate some idiom or metaphor of the original. The purpose of the series is to enable any reader of the Bible to understand its meaning as a reverent scholar of to-day does, and in particular to receive the exact impression which the words as originally heard or read must have made upon those for whom they were delivered. It is, in short, a well-conceived, thoroughly equipped, and carefully organized attempt to state the essence of the religious experience and Divine revelation which form the contents of the Bible.

VOLUMES NOW READY

Messages of the Earlier Prophets. By Professors Sanders and Kent, of

Yale University. Messages of the Later Prophets. By Professors Sanders and Kent. Messages of Israel's Lawgivers. By Professor Charles F. Kent, Ph.D. Messages of the Prophetical and Priestly Historians. By Professor John E.

McFadyen, M.A., of Knox College, Toronto. The Messages of the Psalmists. By Professor John E. McFadyen, M.A., of

Knox College, Toronto. The Messages of the Apocalyptic Writers. By Professor Frank C. Porter,

Ph.D., D.D., of Yale University. The Messages of Jesus According to the S3moptists. By Professor Thomas

C. Hall, of Union Theological Seminary. The Messages of Paul. By Professor George B. Stevens, D.D., Ph.D., of

Yale University. The Messages of the Apostles. By Professor George B. Stevens, D.D.,

Ph.D., of Yale University.

VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

The Messages of the Sages. By Professor Frank K. Sanders, Ph.D.

The Messages of the Poets. By Professor Nathaniel Schmidt, Ph.D., of

Cornell University. The Messages of Jesus According to John. By Professor James S. Riggs,

D.D., of Auburn Theological Seminary.

Specimen pages and full descripth'e circular of this set will be sent free on application

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

153-157 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK

Date Due
9ye^ 'ij
%2l V,
f

/

v^

\-^^%^l