BRALTAR

/HOWARD IRBY, F.L.S.

BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

THE ATHENJEUM

N° 3595, SEPT. 19, '96
SCIENCE

The Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar.

By Lieut. - Col. L. Howard L. Irby.

Second Edition. (Porter.)
UNDER the above title, rather more than
twenty years ago, Col. Irby produced a
modest little octavo volume which at once
secured a high position in ornithological
literature. It treated of the natural history
of the north - western portion of Morocco,
from Tangier southwards to a little beyond
Larache, and for about twelve miles inland,
beyond which excursions were in those days
difficult, not to say dangerous ; while on the
Spanish side the area embraced was far
wider, comprising the country between
Cadiz, Gibraltar, Malaga, Granada, Cordova,
Seville, and down the Guadalquivir to the
great marshy delta of that river. Birds,
their habits and nidification, with the dates
of arrival and departure in the case of
migrants — the results of several years'
experience — formed the principal feature;
but there was a great deal of valuable
information about mammals, reptiles, and
other subjects in the work, and it became a
handbook for the naturalist traveller in the
South as much as the book of reference for
the student at home. Almost coincidently
with its publication Col. Irby retired from
the 74th Highlanders, but he by no means
forgot the fascinating country with which
his name will always be identified, and he
subsequently devoted considerable portions
of the next twenty years to revisiting his
former haunts as well as exploring new
districts. In doing this he consorted with,
and availed himself of the experience of,
many kindred spirits, such as Major Wil-
loughby Yerner (one of the most daring of

cragsmen), Capt. E. Savile Eeid, late E.E.,
Mr. A. C. Stark, and" others, wnose notes are
now added to his own. The result is that,
instead of the little octavo of 1875, we have
a handsome quarto, with beautiful coloured
jpjates in_Mr_A. Thorburn's best style from
birds living in Lord LilforaTs'^avTaries'near
Oundle, as well as numerous illustrations
of scenery from sketches and photographs.
Much new and valuable information has
been added, and the list of birds is raised
from 335 to 369, while a feature of the pre-
sent volume is the short diagnosis of each
species on the lines adopted by the author
in his useful • Key to British Birds,' which
was noticed in these columns some time
ago. Two maps and, it is almost unneces-
sary to say, an adequate index are to be
found in both editions.

Owing to its position in close proximity
\ to Africa, Spain — or let us say the Iberian
~ Peninsula, to avoid offence to our Portuguese
friends — is probably the most interesting
country in Europe as regards its fauna. In
the south, which immediately concerns us,
there is an ichneumon (Herpestes) almost, if
not absolutely, identical with the Numidian
species ; the lynx is peculiar, and has just
a flavour of the African serval ; the red deer
of the north comes down to the pine- clad
shores of the Mediterranean, while the ibex
from the mountain ledges looks down upon
its blue waters — and there they stop ; there
is no sign of them in North Africa. As for
the bear, there is no trace of it in historic
times to the south of Madrid, while the
chamois (izard) is not found below the
Pyrenees and the Cantabrian range ; but
otherwise the main continental fauna is well
represented. Even among birds, in spite of
their powers of flight, there are some re-
markable features and irregularities in dis-
tribution. There is an indigenous Iberian
short-toed lark, quite different from the
ordinary species of the rest of Europe, though
barely distinguishable from an inhabitant
of North Africa ; there is a larger lark with
a decurved bill belonging to an African,
and almost a Saharan, group ; the Iberian
green woodpecker differs from, that of
all the rest of Europe ; and there is
a fine white-shouldered eagle, the repre-
sentative of the Eastern imperial eagle,
which is barely known this side of
Italy. For the nearest relative of the
beautiful Iberian azure - winged magpie
( Cyanopica cooki} all Europe and the greater
part of Asia must be crossed, until South-
Eastern Siberia and China are reached.
Our familiar pie is found throughout Spain
down to the woods of the Guadalquivir;
but in the mountainous districts of the
Alpuj arras and on the skirts of the Sierra
Nevada the magpies become dark, and
exhibit decided affinities with a North
African species. The Spanish grey shrike
is virtually confined to the Peninsula, where
its range extends to the extreme southern
shores ; yet the bird never crosses the in-
tervening ten or twelve miles to Africa, nor
does its representative there — a species
which only a naturalist can distinguish —

ever invade Spain. An orange - eating
bulbul (Pycnonotus) is found at Tangier,
but never crosses the Straits to the land
which is said to be "famous for oranges
and pretty women." The buff - backed
heron (the representative of the Eastern

"paddy-bird") breeds freely in the south
of Spain, but the rest of Europe hardly
knows it,' even in swamps apparently
the most suitable, and to find it again we
must visit North Africa. The little three-
toed quail is another African species found
breeding locally in the palmetto (Chamserops)
scrub of Andalucia, and also near Grirgenti,
where Sicily is almost in sight of Tunisia ;
nowhere else in Europe. These are only a
few of the points which occur to us, and it
may be imagined that the natural history
of a country which presents these paradoxes
is worth writing about.

In a book which deals with facts set down
in the most straightforward manner it is
not easy to find passages suitable for quota-
tion, for even Major Verner's feats on the
cliffs and his narrow escapes when visiting
the nests of eagles and vultures are not
fully described here. The nests were in
such and such a place, of such materials,
and contained so many eggs on such a
date ; but there is nothing to make your
flesh creep. We notice that the experiences
of all the contributors to this work are to
the effect that the bearded vulture — often
called Liimmergeier — is simply a scavenger,
and never attempts to touch kids, lambs, or
indeed any living mammal. It is much if
the maligned bird occasionally takes a snake
or a lizard, though it certainly does pick up
small tortoises (as it does bones) and drop
them on the rocks to break them : a per-
formance which is said to have caused the
death of /Eschylus, and the tradition of
which once saved the life of a bearded
vulture. Turning to smaller birds, there
is a novel and interesting description
of the nesting habits of the handsome
black wheatear, a lively sooty bird with a
white rump, which is locally known as
pedrero, from its habit of building founda-
tions of small stones, and even a wall or
screen in front of its nest. One of these
barriers — of which an illustration is given —
was 9 in. long, the same in width, 2£ in.
high, and consisted of 282 stones, while
the foundation contained 76 more, the
total weight of the stones being 4£lb.
Then there are some valuable bits of in-
formation respecting the names of birds,
illustrating Arab superstitions, as in the
passage referring to the white owl — which
is too long to quote — and that on the lap-
wing. We always wondered why the latter
bore the trivial name Judia in Spain
(El Thudi in Morocco), but it appears that
" the superstitious Arabs believe that these
birds are Jews changed into the shape of
birds, and also believe that they retain all
their Israelitish characteristics, even wear-
ing the black Hebrew skull-cap." And
with this we close our notice, having, we
trust, said enough to show that a book,
although technical, is not necessarily dry.

BEARDED VULTURE.
Gypaetus barbatus. ad.

Litho. W. Greve, Berlin.

THE

ORNITHOLOGY

OF THE

STBAITS OF GIBRALTAR

BY

LIEUT.-COLONEL L. HOWARD L. IRBY, F.L.S.,

//

LATE SF.VENTY-FOt'RTH HIGHLANDERS.

SECOND EDITION,

REVISED AND ENLARGED.

WITH AN APPENDIX

COKTAIKIKG A LIST OF THE LEPIDOPTEEA OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD.

FLUMINA AMO SYLVASQUE INGLORIUS.

LONDON:

R. H. PORTER,

18 PRINCES STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE.

1895.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

CONTENTS.

Page

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS v

INTRODUCTION

APPENDIX 311

INDEX TO BIRDS

811998

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FULL-PAGE PLATES.

Page

Bearded Vulture. Thorburn Frontispiece

Blue-winged Magpie. Thorburn To face 83

Black or Cinereous * Vulture. Thorburn „ 146

Golden Eagle. Thorburn „ 171

White-shouldered Eagle. Thorburn * „ 173

Descent to Nest of Bonelli's Eagle. Smit, after Verner • • 175

Interior of Cavern with Nest of Bonelli's Eagle. Smit, after Verner .... „ 177

Booted Eagle. Thorburn „ 181

Mediterranean Peregrine. Thorburn „ 191

The First Rise of the Grey-lags, Laguna de la Janda. Smit, after

Verner „ 217

European Bush-Quail. Thorburn „ . 241

Bustard-Driving. Smit, after Verner „ 255

A Deep Place in the Malabrigo Soto. Smit, after W. F. , 279

Whiskered Terns at Home. Smit, after Verner „ 293

ILLTTSTHATIONS PRINTED IN THE TEXT.

NOTE

THE Illustrations printed in the text (excepting the two
diagrams of Bird) are from photographs taken by Major
Willoughby Verner, Rifle Brigade, of places visited by the
Author in 1894.

,.. r > HTTTne enu or voitnne.

Map of Morocco \

* Misspelt " Ciiierous '' on Plate.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FULL-PAGE PLATES.

Page

Bearded Vulture. Thorburn Frontispiece

Blue-winged Magpie. Thorburn To face 83

Black or Cinereous * Vulture. Thorburn „ 145

Golden Eagle. Thorburn „ 171

White-shouldered Eagle. Thorburn ^ „ 173

Descent to Nest of Bonelli's Eagle. Smit, after Verner „ 175

Interior of Cavern with Nest of Bonelli's Eagle. Smit, after Verner .... „ 177

Booted Eagle. Thorburn „ 181

Mediterranean Peregrine. Thorburn „ 191

The First Kise of the Grey-lags, Laguna de la Janda. Smit, after

Verner „ 217

European Bush-Quail. Thorburn „ 241

Bustard-Driving. Smit, after Verner „ 255

A Deep Place in the Malabrigo Soto. Smit, after W. F. „ 279

Whiskered Terns at Home. Smit, after Verner „ 293

ILLUSTEATIONS PBINTED IN THE TEXT.

Diagram of Bird vi

Diagram of Inner side of Wing vii

Terrace on the north side of San Bartolome" 28

El Organo, near Tarifa 30

Peasantry, Tapatanilla 32

Laja del Ciscar 33

Nest of the Black Wheatear 42

Nest and Egg of Griffon 148

Cave with Griffons' Nests 150

Young Griffon in Cavern 150

Nest of Neophron, showing Crag 153

„ „ nearer View 153

Nesting-place of Neophron 155

Nest of Bearded Vulture 157

v » „ 160

„ „ „ near View 160

Nest of White-shouldered Eagle 172

Laja de la Zarga, Nesting-place of Bonelli's Eagle and Griffons 176

Nest of Snake-Eagle in Cork-tree 183

Another Nest of Snake-Eagle in Cork-tree 183

Laja del Ciscar 310

Map of South-western Andalucia 1 at the end of Volume.

Map of Morocco . ,

Misspelt " Cinerous " on Plate.

Lores Ear-fouerts

\ Forehead ',

\ roreneaa » f "*•

\ I ...I./ ."""

v-j-evow/.^/^--..^

\i— *~~~~>/' "x

..Nape

.Upper Back

Lower Bach

Diagram, of a Bird,

TO ILLUSTRATE THE TEKMINOLOGY OF THE PLUMAGE.

ORNITHOLOGY

OF THE

STRAITS OF GIBRALTAR.

INTRODUCTION.

THE list of birds and ornithological notes contained in this
book are compiled from observations made on both sides of
the Straits of Gibraltar — on the African side within a region
extending from Tangier southwards to the lakes of Has el
Doura, beyond Larache, and eastward from Tangier to Tetuan
and Ceuta, not reaching inland more than ten or twelve miles ;
on the European side is included that part of Andalucia which
would be bounded by an imaginary line drawn from Gibraltar
to Malaga, thence to Granada, Cordova, and Seville, along the
delta of the Guadalquivir to Cadiz.

Nearly all the information relating to the birds of the Spanish
side of the Straits is collected from personal observations made
during a more or less prolonged stay at the Rock, between
February 1868 and May 1872, and again from February to
May 1874, but including during this time only one summer
period, viz. July, August, and the first half of September.
For the first three years of my residence at Gibraltar I was
quartered with my regiment, the remaining time being passed

B

2 INTRODUCTION.

there chiefly with a view to ornithological pursuits, from time
to time making excursions, generally of about a fortnight's
duration, to some part or other within the districts above
mentioned, but chiefly confining my attentions jto the country
within a day's journey of Gibraltar.

The observations on the Moorish birds are in a great measure
culled from the MS. of the late M. F. Favier, a French collector
well known to the ornithological world, who, after a residence

** * *

•£•„• of about thirty-one years at Tangier, died there in 1867. I
"; was informed that he had left a MS. written in French,
containing his notes on birds ; but was not permitted by the
owner to do more than glance at it, although he offered it
for sale at what seemed to me a very exorbitant price. Fearing
to lose a book which might prove of considerable utility in
the pursuit of my favourite science, I yielded to his demands
and secured the coveted prize, but found upon perusal, amidst
a mass of bad grammar, bad spelling, and worse writing, which
cost many hours to decipher, that it did not contain so much
information as there was reason to anticipate, a good deal of
the matter having been copied from other authors.

However, there was some grain among all this chaff; and
such facts and details as are considered worth recording are
given below with Favier's name attached, and supplemented
by my own observations in Morocco. These notes are kept
separate from those referring to the Spanish side of the Straits.

This little work is, it may be distinctly understood, not
intended to give any special information to scientific ornitho-
logists, but is published with the view of assisting with trust-
worthy information any amateur collectors who visit South-
western Europe ; and it is hoped especially that it may be
useful to officers who, like the \vriter, may find themselves
quartered at Gibraltar. For it admits of little doubt that the
study of Natural History will always help to pass away with
pleasure many hours that would otherwise be weary and tedious

LITERATUKE. 3

during the time military men may have to " put in " at dear,
scorching old " Gib."

There is ample room, for any one with energy, to work out
a great deal more information on the birds of the Straits ; but
it must be remembered that little can be done in hasty visits
of two or three months, or by comparing skins secured by
assistants, called " collectors," who know nothing of the habits
of the birds they send to those who employ them, and upon whose
veracity even as to locality the employer cannot implicitly depend.

It may be as well to notice such papers &c. as have been
published hitherto relating to the ornithology of the district
of the Straits. Dismissing the Spanish lists as meagre and
full of errors, we commence with the papers written by Lord
Lilford in 'The Ibis' for 1865 (p. 166) and 1866 (pp. 173
& 377). In addition to the interesting facts they contain, these
essays are the first which give any reliable information on the
subject, and lay, as it were, the foundation of all the work that
has since been done with regard to Spanish ornithology.

Since then Mr. Howard Saunders has written, also in ' The
Ibis' (1871, pp. 54, 205, & 384), a " List of the Birds of
Southern Spain," extending as far eastward as Minorca and
as far to the north as the fortieth degree of latitude, thus
comprising a very large area. He has also contributed some
other papers to 'The Ibis' (1869, pp. 170 & 391), which,
altered and considerably enlarged, have appeared in ' The
Field ' under the head of " Ornithological Kambles in Southern
Spain."

On the African side, Mr. G. W. H. Drummond Hay
(Proceedings Zool. Society, 1840, p. 133) gave a list of birds
noticed by him at Tangier, but only fifty-five in number, while
Mr. Tyrwhitt-Drake wrote a list of the birds observed by him
in Tangier and Eastern Morocco (Ibis, 1867, p. 421) ; and a
" List of Birds seen near Tangier " appeared in ' Naumannia,
but only a list, and not a very accurate one.

B2

4 INTRODUCTION.

Lists of birds, generally speaking, have very few dates
appended; the exact localities where a species may be found
are seldom indicated ; the period.- of migration is also not often
stated. "Breeds plentifully," " appears in winter," "a regular
visitant," " abundant in spring," — such are usually the vague
remarks given with each species.

Many of the ornithological papers in periodicals and journals
are written up from one or two passing visits, often very
short ones ; and some of the writers possess a power of vision
truly astonishing. They see a bird in the distance, imagine
it to belong to a certain species, at last believe it to be
such, and end by placing the name in their note-book, to appear
in due time in print.

The only way to avoid such errors is never to include any
bird in a list except when actually obtained and identified.
It often happens, also, that the bird seen and included is one
which it would be quite impossible to distinguish from another
closely allied species without handling them both.

These remarks may, no doubt, appear very invidious ; but
it is want of accuracy in such matters which renders utterly
futile any attempt to make out the distribution of birds.

Local names, often trivial and unimportant, must generally
be accepted cum grano salis ; for, unless long resident and
conversant with the language of the country, the compiler is
apt to fall into the same class of errors as those of the celebrated
Count Smorltork, who would probably have written the English
name of the Curlew according to the story told of a gunner
in the Eastern Counties, who, when asked by a portly old
citizen, " What do you call those birds I " replied, " Bless you,
Curlews we generally calls 'em ; but when we're vexed with
'em, we calls 'em beggars." These vernacular names are most
useful, of course, in the case of the more common species,
and in Andalucia are, in many instances, of Arabic derivation,
relics of the Moorish occupation and of days when under their

VERNACULAR NAMES. 5

rule Spain was flourishing, when all that is 'worth seeing
was built, all that is artificially good being remnants of the
work of the then industrious Moors. Where are the latter now
as a nation 1

As a proof of the inaccuracy of local nomenclature, a single
name is often applied to several species, sometimes not even
belonging to the same genus. Thus Aguila, Aguiluclio,
according to the ideas of the individual, may be any of the
Diurnal Accipitres, from a Lammergeyer to a Lesser Kestrel ;
and they are even occasionally used to designate the Raven ! !

So Bvjo applies to all Owls, Culiblanco to all Wheatears ;
Chorlito, the real name of the Golden Plover, is used for
various Waders ; while Pitillo, Frailecillo, Andarios, Correrios
are indefinite names applicable to any small Waders and some
larger ones. Pito real near Gibraltar is Picas major, our
Great Spotted Woodpecker ; near Seville it is Gecinus Sharpti,
the representative of our English Green Woodpecker ( G. viridis).
Carpintero in Central Spain, according to Lord Lilford, is
Picus major ; near Gibraltar it is the Great Titmouse (Parus
major]. Lavandera, or " washerwoman," according to localities
is either a Wagtail or a Green Sandpiper. Quebrantahuesos,
" bone-breaker," properly applies to the Lammergeyer ; but
where that species is absent it is usurped by the Neophron.

These, among other instances, prove local names to be only
an assistance, and not always to be taken to signify the bird
to which they are affixed.

On the other hand, some names are distinctive, as Alejaruco,
Bee-eater ; Abubilla, Hoopoe ; Abujeta, Godwit ; Alcaravan,
Stone-Curlew, &c.

The Moorish Arabic names are for the most part copied
from Favier's MS. ; but none are quoted unless corroborated
by reference to natives of the localities in which the birds
were shot. It may be further added that, as it is a matter
of considerable difficulty to express Arabic words by English

6 . INTRODUCTION.

letters, in this work a mere approximation to the sound is
attempted to be given.

In the interest of the sportsman and the amateur collector
of specimens, it has been endeavoured to give a few hints as
to the localities where each may best gratify his tastes ; but
it would be foreign to the purpose and inapplicable to the
limits of this work to reproduce any of the varied information
which is to be found in the pages of Ford and other guide-
books. In the country districts of Spain, and especially
throughout Andalucia, nothing ever changes except the
Government. The country is still the Spain of Ford, we might
almost say of Don Quixote, and will probably remain so for
centuries, except as regards the power of the priesthood, which
is gradually waning and will doubtless soon cease to exist.

In a general sense, travelling in Morocco is attended with
more expense and less comfort than in Spain. The total
absence of inns in the former country (except one or two at
Tangier and a few coast-towns) renders it necessary for the
European traveller to carry about not only a tent but a good
deal of extra baggage, cooking-appliances, &c., which would
otherwise be superfluous. The impedimenta are transported
on the backs of mules, which, may be hired at the rate of one
dollar per diem. One or two Moors must also be taken to
pitch tents, load and unload the pack-animals, and so make
themselves generally useful, which they always do. They
were usually paid one and sixpence a day each. The only
provisions which can be procured at the country villages consist
of fowls, eggs, butter, milk, and kuskoo-soo; the latter is a
peculiar preparation of flour, and may be considered the national
dish of Morocco. It is therefore advisable for a party travelling
in the interior to provide themselves with some tins of preserved
meat and vegetables, as well as with whatever wine, spirits,
&c. they might require. The most satisfactory way of making
an expedition through the country, I have found by experience,

- MOROCCO. 7

is to contract with a respectable Moor, who will -usually defray
the entire expenses, including hire of baggage, animals, servants,
cook, and meals, exclusive of wine, at the rate of five dollars
a head per diem.

As far as I have had opportunities of judging, I have reason
to consider travelling in Morocco to be unattended with any
danger near the coast, but not east of Tetuan, in the Riff
country, or in mountainous districts ; and to Englishmen the
natives are certainly better inclined than to any other European
nation. The late Sultan, however, issued an edict to the effect
that he would not hold himself responsible for the life or
property of any Christian who at the time of any outrage should
be unattended by a Moorish soldier ; and a mounted soldier to
act as guard can always be procured on application to the
Consul of the nation to which the applicant belongs. Any
party intending to make an expedition further than ten or
fifteen miles from Tangier should provide themselves with this
necessary functionary, to whom they must pay one dollar a day.
This sum is generally considered to be exorbitant ; and it
certainly is so in a country where the necessaries of life are
far cheaper than in any country in Europe. The real truth,
however, is that the Moorish authorities throw as many diffi-
culties as they possibly can in the way of inquisitive European
travellers, well knowing that, were the interior thoroughly
opened up, the vile system of oppression and misgovernment to
which it is and has been for so long a victim would vanish
before the opinion of the civilized world.

The vicinity of Tangier is as good a ground for the ornitho-
logist as can be wished anywhere ; but it has been a great deal
worked up by Olcese, who succeeded Favier as the naturalist of
Tangier. About twelve miles to the south are the lakes of Sharf
el Akab, well worth visiting for aquatic birds. The country
beyond this to Larache is not good until within the neighbour-
hood of that town, where there is plenty of both marshy and

8 INTRODUCTION.

dry ground, the latter, in places, better wooded than usual.
Near Larache, on the north bank of the river, are the ruins of
the ancient Lixus, at or near the spot where Hercules is supposed
to have conquered Antaeus, the founder of Tangier, which takes
its name from his wife Tinga.

South of Larache are the lakes of Meshree el Haddar (the
talkers' ford) and Has el Doura, the latter running for miles
southwards in the direction of Rabat. These lakes swarm with
every kind of aquatic bird, according to the season ; but in the
breeding-time the mosquitoes are enough to drive any European
away, besides which the nests are so plundered by the Arabs
that it is hardly worth while going there for them. Further
south than this I have not been, and refer my readers for any
information to Mr. Drake's paper in ' The Ibis ' (I. c.).

Eastward of Tangier, taking the road to Tetuan, there is little
or nothing to be done in the way of birds until the latter place
is reached, after a long and tedious day's journey ; indeed all
that part of Morocco which I have visited is very wearisome to
travel over, except near Tetuan and Ceuta, where the mountains
break the sameness of the route, and where alone any true
beauty of scenery is to be found.

Of these hills only those in the immediate vicinity of Tetuan
can be visited, owing to the lawless character of the hill tribes
and their Mahometan prejudices, and, last but not least, owing
also to the exaggerated stories made up to prevent any European
from travelling about. In a stream from one of these mountains,
to the south of Tetuan, a species of trout (Salmo macrostigma] is
found ; they are also probably met with in other places, which
are forbidden ground to the European.

The country about Tetuan is alike interesting to the ornitho-
logist and favourable to the sportsman ; about Martine are
some fine marshes, while beyond Cape Negro, towards Ceuta,
is a large, irregularly shaped, shallow laguna, called Esmir, with
great masses of rush and sedge interspersed with tamarisk

APES' HILL. 9

bushes, separated from the sea by a wide sandbank covered
with brushwood ; this laguna and marshes are by far the best
ground to be seen on either side of the Straits. Proceeding
from Esmir, towards Ceuta, the road lies either on the shore or
along the usual scrub-covered country till, turning to the left by
some Roman ruins, a pass leading up to the Sierra Bullones is
entered, when the scenery becomes very fine, the track ascending
by the side of a bright clear stream, through bushes sometimes
so thick as to completely shut out the sky overhead, at other
times passing through heather, in places twenty feet high. The
path becomes gradually worse, till the climax is reached in the
ascent of a steep hill where the brushwood tears the load oif the
mules, and with the stones and rocks nearly renders progress
impossible. Once, however, at the top, a fair enough road is
found leading to the village of Beut, situated in a sort of plateau
at an elevation of about 1000 feet, separated from Jebel Musa
by a deep valley, a high range of rocks, and another shallow
valley.

About here nothing, ornithologically speaking, is to be seen
(excepting a few Choughs) that is not to be met with elsewhere.
We found an Eagle nesting on the north face of the range south
of Jebel Musa : the nest was in a most difficult position to get
at ; and not being able to reach any place near enough from
which to shoot the Eagle, we left the eggs as worthless, because
unable to identify the bird : however there is little doubt that
it was the Golden Eagle. We saw some apes about the rocks ;
they were rather wild, and lost no time in making their way to
the top.

The view from this sierra (Apes' Hill of the English, Jebel
Musa of the Moors, Sierra Bullones of the Spaniards, Abyla of
the ancients) is magnificent, and baffles description, well repay-
ing all the trouble and difficulties of the ascent.

To the south beyond Tetuan lie, half hidden in blue mist,
the snow-streaked mountains of the Atlas, stretching far away

10 INTRODUCTION.

out of sight, the summit of one vast snowy pile rather to the
south-east appearing to be as high, and looking quite as white,
as the Sierra Nevada, near Granada, which is also distinctly
visible to the north-east; but this African snowy range seems
further off. Below to the east, stretched out as if on a ground-
plan close to your feet, is Ceuta, with its ugly white-washed
Spanish forts and towers, between which and the Tetuan river
looms the gloomy headland of Cape Negro. Westward of this
are range after range of comparatively low dark hills, rolling
away towards Tangier and Cape Spartel, here and there one or
two being topped with a few crags and rocks. Far to the west
is the Atlantic, leading to the deep-blue Straits, looking, as they
separate Europe and Africa, like some mountain-lake.

Tarifa, to the north-west, is clearly visible, as are the crags
of the Sierra de San Bartolome, the sandy cliffs of Cape
Trafalgar, and the long spit of land on which is the light-
house ; while all the grey, bare, barren-looking Spanish sierras
look, with the sun shining on them, as if they lay within a
stone's "throw.

Gibraltar was shut out from our view, owing to the pleasantry
of some Moors, who rolled large stones down the only path
leading to the summit of the highest peak, and so prevented us
from ascending. However the view we did get was such as can
never be forgotten, and it was long before we descended to
continue our hunt for birds.

The tops of these mountains, which are 2600 feet high (the
highest part of JebelMusa is about 2800 feet), were covered
with thousands of violets then in full bloom. The flowers were
light-coloured when growing among the stones and waterworn
rocks exposed to the sun, dark when shaded and growing among
the stunted bushes which were scattered about here and there :
their scent was perfect. Very few other flowers were growing
on the tops ; but most conspicuous among them was the
Gibraltar candytuft ; and the everlasting palmetto was met with

LARGE CAVE. 11

at the very highest places. The base of all "these" crags or cliffs
is approached by a steep talus of small broken rocks, among
which grows a very thick jungle of stunted cork- and olive-trees
about 15 feet high.

On the north side of the range next to Beut and at the
western end of it, at the base of the cliff, is a wide cave, which,
at some distance from the entrance, branches off into two
distinct caves, one going up hill, the other down. My com-
panion ascended the upper one till he heard in the darkness the
growling of some beast, probably a lynx or some wild cat ; so he
returned, and we collected together from outside a lot of dead
sticks and rubbish, which we dragged up in the darkness as near
the animal as we could judge to be well within range : we then
set fire to it, and stood ready for a shot ; but it was no use ; the
brute, whatever it was, only retired further in, growling away
more than ever.

The light of the fire proved the cave to be some hundred
feet high, gradually narrowing to the top from the bottom,
which near the entrance is about 12 feet wide, thus showing
it to have been formed by two gigantic rocks or cliffs flung
against one another at the time these limestone mountains were
thrown up from the bottom of the sea, which in remote ages
doubtless flowed over them. On both sides of the Straits, «. e.
at Gibraltar and Abyla, these fissures or caves are common in
the limestone ; but this particular one fairly rivals the well-
known St. Michael's Cave at Gibraltar, and had, from the marks
of fire, been inhabited at some not very distant period. The
floor in places was quite a foot deep with the guano of Rock-
Doves (Columla lima], numbers of which flew out from the
nooks and crannies of the rock.

As far as we could understand from the Moors, who, living
near Ceuta, spoke a few words of broken Spanish, there was
a story of a Moor having ascended this cave till he came out
somewhere at the top of the mountain ; be this as it may,

12 INTRODUCTION.

there was a fine breezy draught of air blowing downwards,
which sent the smoke of our fire towards us till we, instead
of the beast for whose benefit it was intended, were nearly
suffocated.

Having no means of getting torches to further explore the
cave, with heavy hearts we left the unknown animal to growl
himself to sleep ; the Moors insisted, by the way, that what
we heard was a " djinn," or evil spirit!

The south-east part of the range of the Sierra Bullones is a
different formation, and we could trace signs of lead-ore and
antimony in more than one place. Whether any mines will ever
be worked in Morocco is doubtful : there is plenty of ground ;
but at present it is forbidden to look for minerals by the
enlightened and despotic Moorish government.

The track or road from Ceuta to Tetuan, after quitting the
mountainous district, passes through the interminable scrub
usual to the Mediterranean coast ; and bad as are mountain
tracks in Spain, this one beats them all in roughness ; and,
owing to the weary sameness of going up and down hill after
hill, the journey seems endless.

En route, however, by the shore, nearly opposite Tarifa, lies,
shrouded in large thick bushes, the ruins of Alcazar Leguer, a
large old castellated Portuguese fort, built about the beginning
of the fifteenth century. Some parts of the walls are in fair
condition ; but the interior is very much dilapidated, and the
whole overgrown with wild olive- and fig-trees, brambles and
rubbish, desolation beyond description, its only tenants being
Owls and (say the Moors) evil spirits. A covered way, formed
by two parallel high walls with banquettes on their tops, runs
down to the sea-shore, where it is broken down and blocked up
with sand ; the ruins show signs of unskilful workmanship, and
contrast very unfavourably with those of Roman construction,
besides which, from being principally built of soft sandstone,
they are much weather-worn where exposed to the rain.

MIGRATION. 13

Wherever I have wandered about in the coast-districts of
Morocco the country is singularly destitute of trees of any size,
what few there are being in the santos or graveyards. The
consequence of this is, there is no change in the landscape ;
stunted bushes, rocks, and cultivation constitute the general view.
Nevertheless the climate is splendid and healthy, perhaps better
than that of Andalucia ; and one quits it with the regret that
such a fine country should in these days of civilization be, as it
were, utterly wasted — a land rich beyond most in soil, minerals,
and natural advantages of all sorts, within four days of England,
remaining without any real government, without roads, bridges,
or any means of communication, owing to political necessities
abandoned to barbarians, whose chief object seems to be to keep
the country as much as possible secluded from the prying eyes
of Europeans.

MIGRATION, SHOOTING, &c.

The migration of birds, although a most interesting subject,
is yet very imperfectly understood, and reliable data from
different countries and places are still greatly wanted to elucidate
it. Without doubt caused by the absence or abundance of
food, which in turn is caused by difference of temperature,
the passage of birds in these parts begins with most species
almost to a day in the spring, usually lasting for about three
weeks, though some, as the Hoopoe and the Swallows, are more
irregular in their first appearance ; and with these the migration
lasts throughout a longer period.

Few, indeed hardly any birds, do not migrate or shift their
ground to some extent. I can name very few which do not
appear to move, viz. Griffon Vulture, Imperial Eagle, Eagle-
Owl, Blue Thrush, all the Woodpeckers, Tree-Creeper, Black-
headed Warbler, Dartford Warbler, Crested Lark, Chough,
Haven, Magpie, Red-legged and Barbary Partridges, and the

14 INTRODUCTION.

Andalucian Quail. Generally speaking, it seems to me that
in the vernal migration the males are the first to arrive, as
with the Wheatears, Nightingales, Night-Herons, Bee-eaters ;
but this is a theory which requires more confirmation. Some
species, as the Neophron and most of the Raptores, pass in
pairs.

Most of the land-birds pass by day, usually crossing the
Straits in the morning. The waders are, as a rule, not seen on
passage ; so it may be concluded they pass by night, although
occasionally Peewits, Golden Plover, Terns, and Gulls have been
noticed passing by day.

The autumnal or return migration is less conspicuous than
the vernal: and whether the passage is performed by night,
or whether birds return by some other route, or whether they
pass straight on, not lingering by the way as in spring, is an
open question ; but during the autumn months passed at
Gibraltar I failed to notice the passage as in spring, though
more than once during the month of August myself and others
distinctly heard Bee-eaters passing south at night, and so
conclude other birds may do the same.

We have (vide Andersson's ' Birds of Damara Land,' pp. 18-
21) an account of the swarms of Hawks which appear there at
the time they are absent from Europe and North Africa ; so it
may be reasonably inferred with regard to one species, Milvus
migrans (the Black Kite), that some of the vast numbers which
pass the Straits of Gibraltar retire in autumn through the tropics
to South Africa.

The best site for watching the departure of the vernal
migration is at Tangier, where just outside the town the well-
known plain called the " Mashan," a high piece of ground
that in England would be called a common, seems to be the
starting-point of half the small birds that visit Europe.

Both the vernal and autumnal migrations are generally
executed during an easterly wind, or Levanter : at one time I

SHOOTIXG. 15

thought that this was essential to the passage ; but it appears
not to be the case, as whether it be an east or west wind, if it
be the time for migration, birds will pass, though they linger
longer on the African coast before starting should the wind be
westerly ; and all the very large flights of Raptores (Kites,
Neophrons, Honey-Buzzards, &c.) which I have seen passed
with a Levanter. After observing the passage for five springs
I- am unable to come to any decided opinion, the truth being
that as an east wind is the prevalent one, the idea has been
started that migration always takes place during that wind.
Nevertheless it is an undoubted fact that during the autumnal
or southern migration of the Quail in September, they collect
in vast numbers on the European side, if there be a west wind,
and seem not to be able to pass until it changes to the east ;
this is so much the case that, should the wind keep in that
quarter during the migration, hardly any are to be seen.

On some occasions the passage of the larger birds of prey is
a most wonderful sight ; but of all the remarkable flights of any
single species, that of the Common Crane has been the most
noteworthy that has come under my own observation.

On the Andalucian side the number of birds seen even by
the ordinary traveller appears strikingly large, this being, no
doubt, in a great measure caused by the quantity which are,
for ten months at least out of the year, more or less on migra-
tion ; that is to say, with the exception of June and July, there
is no month in which the passage of birds is not noticeable,
June being the only one in which there may be said to be
absolutely no visible migration, as during the month of July
Cuckoos and some Bee-eaters return to the south.

Though shooting is hardly a subject within the design of
an ornithological brochure like the present, yet it generally
happens that an ornithologist is also a sportsman ; and there-
fore a few lines on the subject may be acceptable.

In the coast-districts of Morocco no large game is found

16 INTBODUCTION.

within reach of the European sportsman, excepting wild pigs,
which are only to be obtained by the battue system of driving
the jungle with beaters and dogs, sitting for hours waiting for the
chance of a shot, a class of amusement dignified by the name of
a " boar-hunt " ; sometimes, where the country is sufficiently
open, the real sport of pig-sticking can be had.

No doubt further in the interior there is other large game ;
but with the exception of shooting an occasional gazelle and a
few pigs, there is no opportunity of using the rifle.

The small-game shooting is very good ; the abundance of
Barbary Partridges in some districts is miraculous ; but when
killed they are of little value in a culinary point of view, being
more dry and tasteless than the Spanish Redleg (Caccabis rufa],
now SQ well known in many parts of England.

The number of Snipe in some seasons is very great, especially
at Meshree el Haddar, where, and also at Ras el Doura, Larache,
Sharf el Akab, Martine near Tetuan, and Esmir near Ceuta, as
good snipe- and wildfowl-shooting as may be wished for can
be obtained. But it is, as ever in Europe with Snipe, always
uncertain sport, as one day swarms are met with, and perhaps on
the next day hardly any are to be found. The absence of roads
and bridges renders the country in wet weather at times impossible
to travel over, the tracks becoming a succession of mudholes,
and the rivers impassable torrents. This, added to the unpleasant
certainty of living under canvas during rainy weather, is a great
drawback to winter shooting.

Another, in my opinion insuperable, objection to shooting in
Morocco is, that if any great quantity of game be bagged, it
has to be thrown away, as, unless within twenty miles or so of
Tangier, it is useless. The Moors, being Mahometans, will
not eat any thing killed by a Christian or infidel ; and killing
for the mere sake of slaughter does not come within the creed
of a true sportsman. In Spain all this is very different, as any
one and every one is only too glad to accept of the surplus game.

GAME-SHOOTING. 17

In many parts of Morocco rabbits abound ; and hares are in
places plentiful. Woodcocks are sometimes tolerably abundant ;
Quails, of course, are in swarms during migration ; and there
are a great number of Little Bustard.

Shooting in Andalucia is far more satisfactory and pleasant
sport than on the African side. In the first place, accommodation
can always be had in a house of some sort, which in warm
weather, however, usually swarms with fleas ; but by taking your
own blankets and a camping-palliasse, which can be refilled at
each resting-place with chopped straw, one can generally, by the
aid of a liberal use of either flea-powder * or albo-carbon
(naphthalin), manage to cheat the vermin of their nocturnal
banquet. It is almost absolutely necessary to take this powder
with one, as sleep in some of the dens where I have passed the
night would have been impossible without using it. Another
most useful item is an india-rubber flexible bath, as it is not
always that a " lebrillo " or large earthenware pan big enough to
wash in can be obtained.

In addition to the shelter to be got in Andalucia there are
roads ; and bad as some may be, they do afford means of
communication ; and there are bridges, though not always
placed in the right situation; for in places you see a bridge
built across a gully without any road on either side of it, and
others where the stream has quitted its old course for a new
one— single instances out of the many thousand strange and
wondrous cosas de Espana.

The large game is more varied and plentiful in Andalucia
than in Morocco. In most of the wooded valleys of the sierras,
near Gibraltar, there were a good many roe-deer (corzo) and a
few wild pigs ; in some of the high sierras near Ronda, Ubrique,
and in the Sierra Nevada the Spanish Ibex is sparingly found*;

* This vegetable powder .is made from a species of Feverfew (Pyrethrum
roseum), and is quite innocuous except to insects ; many other plants of the
Chrysanthemum group are equally offensive to parasitic insects,

C

18 INTRODUCTION.

but it is extremely difficult to get them without organizing a
regular drive or batida — a very expensive affair, requiring a
party of several guns, who must take tents, cooks, &c. up into
the mountains ; and then, if successful, as far as sport is
concerned it is hardly worth while sitting for several hours
behind a stone, nine times out of ten without even seeing an
ibex. It is very difficult to stalk them, as they lie hidden in
the thick stunted fir and other scrub which is scattered in large
patches on the mountain-sides, and are so wary that you cannot
come suddenly on them like roe-deer. However, in an ibex-
shooting expedition, one is amply repaid by the magnificent
scenery and the novelty of the affair ; but as far as shooting goes
it is a failure, and every ibex killed by a Gibraltar party costs
more than I should like to state.

Ibex drop their young about the end of April ; on one

occasion a shooting expedition with which I was present

succeeded in getting two, both of which I sent home to the

Zoological Gardens ; but unfortunately they did not long

survive.

I am informed that " Ibex, as late as 1830, frequented the
sierras above Algeciraz, but a disease which broke out among
the tame goats was communicated to the Ibex, who all perished."

In the Sierra Morena, near Palma, a little to the west of
Cordova, are red deer strictly preserved and well pastured ; the
" heads " of the stags are very fine, which is not the case with
those of the Goto Dofiana, near San Lucar de Barrameda.
All these, however, being wood-frequenting deer, the antlers
do not branch out very widely, most of the heads being rather
narrow. It is in small-game shooting that Andalucia excels,
though it is in no way equal to that of the countries lying
east of the Mediterranean. Foremost, both in numbers and
sport, is Snipe-shooting ; for in some seasons, about November
and December, if the weather has been dry, it is equal to any
that can be obtained ; but all depends upon the weather, which,

SNIPE-SHOOTING. 19

if wet, causes the birds to disperse over the whole country, while
if it be dry they remain in the sotos or marshes, and when
flushed return almost immediately. Some of the best sport I
have had with them was by waiting in favourite ground while
they kept coming in, flying high up overhead, and then swooping
down and pitching within a few yards. Fifty couple have been
bagged in a day by one gun, and that a muzzle-loader, thirty or
twenty-eight couple a gun per day being often obtained. The
proportion of Jack-Snipe is about the same as in England,
and they keep to the most wet and muddy spots. Snipe,
as a rule, in Andalucia are far wilder than in other countries,
which is no doubt caused by the nature of the marshes,
which, often quite dry at the end of summer, are in winter
regular lakes, only at their edges affording any resting-places
for the birds, the cover being usually thin and bare.

There are many acres of ground flooded with water, from
about six inches to a foot in depth, the whole dotted over
with tussocks standing an inch or two above the water, and
about a foot apart from each other. This tussocky ground
is most difficult both to walk over and shoot on, as the tufts
are not broad enough to stand on with both feet, and these
slippery lumps of mud and grass standing above the water
enable the Snipe to see a long distance, and cause them to
rise very wildly ; while they also have a most provoking habit
of flying up just as you are trying to balance yourself on one
of the tussocks. The result, if you fire, is most probably a miss,
and down you slip into the water, lucky if on your legs and
not on your knees or, as happened to me more than once, on
your face. There is, however, one point in favour of all these
sotos : they have a firm bottom, the mud is never deep, and
there are no quaking bogs or dangerous morasses as in Ireland.
A retriever, it is almost needless to add, is perfectly indispensable
for this kind of sport, saving (in addition to many birds that
would otherwise be lost) much time and the bad temper which

c2

20 INTRODUCTION.

results from not being able to find birds that have fallen. Snipe
in Andalucia are very seldom seen together in lots or wisps,
though occasionally in very wet stormy weather small wisps
appear. The best localities which I have visited in Andalucia
are the marshes near the edges of the Marisma, or delta of the
Guadalquivir, below Seville, especially just beyond Coria del
Rio, and near the Goto del Rey and the Goto Dofiana ; one spot
near the Palacio of the former place, las Carnicerias, is excellent.
At Casa Vieja, or, more properly speaking, Casas Viejas, some
forty miles from Gibraltar, is very good ground, particularly in
the first part of the season ; there are also good marshes near
Vejer. Late in the season, near Taivilla and Tapatanilla, on the
road from Tarifa to Vejer, at times Snipe are also to be found
very plentifully, but are very wild, and it is impossible to make
a large bag as there is no cover.

The wildfowl- or duck-shooting in dry seasons is very fair
in the early part of the winter, before the lagoons and rivers
are filled up by the rains, there being then very few wet spots,
and the birds crowd together in the small pools Avhich remain
between the high banks of the river-beds, and can be easily
approached ; but later on, when these streams are brimful or,
rather, overflow their banks, and when the lagunas are sheets
of water without rushes or cover of any sort at the edges, it
is almost impossible to shoot ducks by day except by making
" hides " with sticks and stones, and sending some one round
and trying to have them driven over you. At flight sometimes
very fair sport is to be had for one or two nights ; but after that
the fowl know the place, and either come very late or avoid it
altogether. For flight-shooting a good retriever is absolutely
necessary ; for it is, in the dark, impossible to find the spoil ;
and if left till morning, the Marsh-Harriers are at them by break
of day, leaving nothing but bones and feathers. To my mind
there is very great charm in flight-shooting, and a naturalist
while waiting will see and hear much that is pleasant and perhaps

WILD GEESE. 21

some that is new to him. This sport requires, too, .considerable
skill in judging the distance, and sharpness of vision in being
able to catch a glimpse of the ducks as they pass over. It is a
great help if you can place yourself so that you face the west,
and thus get the birds in the evening light, when they can
be seen coming a very long way off"; but if they come from
the eastward, and you are obliged to face that way, they never
show till close on you ; and the croaking frogs make an almost
deafening noise, so that you cannot, as in England, hear the
sound of the ducks' wings.

Immense numbers of Wild Geese in some years are found in
the winter months about the Laguna de la Janda, and below
Seville, in the marshes of the Guadalquivir. They are of
course very difficult to " get at"; but as they pass the day
on the ground at the edge of the water, and always have
certain favourite spots to which they resort, they are to be
got by digging or making " hides " at the places they most
frequent. In the morning, at sunrise, they collect on the
water, in some places in hundreds, and swim about feeding
for an hour or two on some substance which they pick up
from the bottom of the shallow water ; after this they disperse
and take to the shore, where, if left undisturbed, they pr.cs
the day sleeping and pluming themselves. There is one of
these goose-haunts near the Palacio of the Goto del Rey, a
little to the south-east of it. One morning in January, having
the day previously made a hide among some tufts of rushes,
I went and laid up before sunrise to await the geese, which
arrived by degrees in flight after flight, till there must have
been within a mile of me, at the lowest computation, between
three and four thousand ; I shall never forget the sight, and
I lay concealed watching them for at least two hours. I could
not distinguish amongst them more -than one lot of about a
dozen Bean-Geese ; the remainder were all Grey-lags. Some
hundreds were within about a hundred yards, and it was

22 INTRODUCTION.

very amusing to see them feeding, fighting, and playing with
one another ; but somehow they were evidently suspicious
of the patch of spiky rushes in which I was lying flat in the
slight hole which had been made between two tufts of rushes
and covered over with others dug up by the roots, and arranged
so as to look as if growing. Unable to turn on my side or
move in the least, I was so cramped that it was all I could
do to remain there ; but after a time a large lot of geese began
to set in towards my position, and in a few minutes more I
should have had a good family shot. I had plenty of chances
of firing, but could not have got more than a couple ; besides
which I liked to watch them, so waited on in hopes of a
good lot coming close to me, when, alas ! cries of alarm were
heard from the birds furthest away on my right, and after a
minute or two they began to fly up, and I could see against
the sky a man riding towards them. The geese in front of
me all pricked up their heads and were getting ready to be
off; so I was obliged to jump and send both barrels at them
as my only chance ; and by good luck, or rather thanks to
the large shot, two were killed, but not enough to recompense
one for lying cramped up for so long ; nevertheless I was more
than repaid by the sight of so many wild geese and some other
fowl close to me, and being able to watch their movements.
Any one who would take the trouble to try punt-shooting with a
big gun below Seville on tidal waters might make some wonderful
bags, as the enormous quantities of Geese, Wigeon, and other
ducks can only be approached with the aid of a punt. When
near the edge of water you can always approach Ducks with a
stalking-horse ; and Geese will allow this on their first arrival,
but soon become too wary.

Golden Plover are extremely abundant in vast flocks from
November to March. On their first arrival they are not so
wild as afterwards. They can always be " got at " with a
stalking-horse ; but as good a plan to shoot them as any is

QUAILS AND BUSTARDS. 28

to stand still in some place which they frequent .on a windy
day, when they will often fly within a few yards. Peewits
are numerous, but not worth shooting, as is the case with
Curlews ; but the latter are, as elsewhere, much too wary
to allow themselves to be shot, and during the whole time
I was in Andalucia I never but once had the chance of
killing one.

Woodcocks in some seasons are numerous ; but five or six
couple in a day is a very good bag, very different from Albanian
shooting. Red-legged Partridges (Caccabis rufd) are not worth
the trouble of going after, either for sport or for the table ; in some
places there are a good number, but not near Gibraltar ; they
are the chief object of sport with the Spaniards, who kill them
at all seasons, even shooting them from the nest. Quails are,
during the enfrada or autumnal migration, so extremely abundant
that, if there has been a westerly wind for a few days in
September, when they are on passage, there is really no limit to
the number that may be shot. About Tarifa at that season
every gun-possessing man and boy turns out with all the cur
dogs in the town, and, regardless of each other, they fire in
all directions, so that it is a service of danger to go out near
them. If the wind during their passage remains in the east,
the Quails pass on, and little or no sport is to be had with
them. A west wind appears to detain them and prevent their
passing the Straits, though it does not seem to retard their
migration by land.

The remaining small game to be noticed in Andalucia are
Bustards, hares, and rabbits. The Great Bustard is only to
be got with any certainty by driving. The Little Bustard,
more wary still, is only to be shot in the' end of July and
in August during the extreme heat of the day, though rarely
they can be driven over a gun by getting under the bank
of a river or such like shelter, and sending a man round
to put them up ; but on rising they usually mount up very

24 INTRODUCTION.

high, in this respect differing from the Great Bustard, which
seldom flies high enough to be out of shot if you are directly
underneath. Hares (Lepus mediterraneus) are a much smaller
species than in England, about the size of a good average
English rabbit, not very abundant anywhere and frequenting
open fiat and cultivated districts, never being found among
woods or high ground. Rabbits, of course, are abundant
but very small, rather less in size than the New - Forest
rabbit, which is the most diminutive race in England. A
shooting - license, easily obtainable through the aid of any
British Consul, is requisite in Spain ; and though seldom
asked for, it is better to have one. The form and cost of
one varies according to the Government, and therefore is
seldom alike two years in succession. A close time has
been established, but, needless to say, in the wild districts is
not regarded.

Here follows a partial list of the Mammalia of Andalucia,
with their local names, which may be useful to the sportsman.
Of course there are other species of small Mammals to be found,
especially among the Bats ; with the names of the latter I
have been kindly assisted by Lord Lilford, who has personally
obtained them all in Andalucia. Those marked with an asterisk
I have obtained myself or seen " in the flesh."

Greater Horse-shoe Bat Ehinolophus ferrum-equinum.

* E. euryale.

Lesser Horse-shoe Bat . E. bibastatus.

Dysopes rueppellii.

Barbastelle Barbastellus communis.

*Noctule Vespertilio noctula.

*Mouse-coloured Bat . . V. tnurinus.

*Schreiber's Bat V. schreiberi.

Long- eared Bat V. auritus.

V. schreiberi, V. murinus, and R. euryale are found in caves
near Casas Viejas — the two former species in countless numbers,

MAMMALIA.

25

the dung at the bottom of the caves being from four to five feet
in depth. The Spanish name for all is Murcielayo.

*Hedgehog Erinaceus europseus.

*Shrevv Sorex araneus.

*Mole Talpa europaea.

*Badger Meles taxus.

*Comrnou Marten Cat . . Mustela foina.

*Polecat M. putorius.

*Weasel M. vulgaris.

*0tter Lutra vulgaris.

*Genet Viverra genet ta.

*Ichneumon Herpestes ichneumon.

*Wild Cat Felis catus.

*Spanish or Spotted Lynx F. pardina.

*Wolf Canis lupus.

*Fox C. vulpes, var. melanogaster.

Squirrel Sciurus vulgaris.

*Fat Dormouse Myoxus glis.

M. nitella.

*Dormouse M. avellanarius.

*Brown Eat Mus decumanus.

*Mouse M. musculus.

*Black Eat M. rattus.

*Long-tailed Field-Mouse M. sylvaticus.

*Water-Eat Arvicola amphibius.

*Field-Mouse A. agrestis.

*Hare Lepus mediterraneus.

*Eabbit L. cuniculus.

*Wild Pig Sus scrofa.

*Eed Deer Cervus elaphus.

*Fallow Deer C. daina.

*Eoe Deer C. capreolus.

*Ibex Capra hispanica.

Spanish names.
Erizo.
Musarana.
Topo.
Tejon.
Foina.
Turon.
Coinadreja.
Nutra or Nutria.
Gineta.

Melon, Meloncillo.
Gato raontes.
Gato clavo, Gato cerval.
Lobo.
Zorro.
Ardilla.

Liron campestre.
Eaton careto.
Lirori de los Avellanos.
Eata.
Eaton.
Eata negro.
Eaton de campo.
Eata de agua.
Topino.
Liebre.
Conejo.

Jabali, Jabalina.
Ciervo.

Gamo, Paleto.
Corzo.
Cabra monte's.

In this book I have endeavoured to name with each species
of bird some definite locality where they may be found, which
is rather necessary, as certainly on the Spanish side of the
Straits birds are very locally distributed, perhaps more so than

26 INTRODUCTION.

in most countries I have visited. It is difficult to surmise the
cause of this, .as precisely similar tracts of country within no
very great distance of each other are not always frequented
by the same birds. On the Spanish side, without doubt, the
most common bird as regards numbers is the Goldfinch, and
the most universally distributed the Stonechat. The number
of birds of prey is very great, chiefly feeding on rabbits, rats,
mice, reptiles, and insects ; they are very useful, and as the
ground-breeding birds suffer much in the nesting-season from
snakes and lizards, those birds of prey which feed chiefly on
these enemies of the smaller birds render their lesser brethren
valuable protection. The number of little birds, especially
during the season of migration, is sure to be noticed even by
the most unobservant. Immense quantities of Larks, Finches,
and even some of the Warblers are brought into the markets ;
but as a Spaniard seldom shoots at such small fry, they are
chiefly netted, caught at night with a lantern and bell, or snared
with bird-lime (%#).

The best localities for an ornithologist living at Gibraltar
to obtain specimens or watch migration is the country west
of an imaginary line drawn due north from Gibraltar as far as
the latitude of Seville. Within this district, part of which is
given in the Map attached to this volume, as much can be done
as is possible in three or four months' time ; and the district is
large enough to require many years to work it out thoroughly.

In the immediate vicinity of Gibraltar (or el Penon, as the
Spaniards call it), the Cork-wood of Almoraima and the level
ground, mud-flats, and old salinas " between the rivers " on
the way to Algeciraz offer to the collector capital ground for
work. In the Cork-wood particularly several birds are found
breeding which do not seem to nest elsewhere. The ground
north-east of Gibraltar is to a great extent covered with scrub
and brushwood ; and little is to be done in the bird line in that
direction.

LOCALITIES FOR COLLECTING. 27

The sierras being too far distant, cannot be worked from
Gibraltar ; it is necessary to go to Algeciraz, Facinas, Pulverilla,
or some cortijo near the hills you wish to work. Very deceptive
in appearance, looking quite low and easy to ascend, it takes
three or four hours to reach their tops, which, bare, rugged,
and wild beyond description, are alone worth visiting for the
view, which, always grand, on a clear day is magnificent, that
from the Penon del Fraile to the west of Algeciraz being one of
the finest. From these mountains run down numerous wooded
valleys (gargantas) clothed with cork and oak trees, many of very
large size, though badly mutilated by being lopped by charcoal-
burners. The rocky streams which flow down these valleys are
fringed with rhododendron, arbutus, holly, hawthorn, laurestinus,
oleander, bay, myrtle, giant heather, cistus, and many sorts of
ferns, conspicuous amongst them being the Osmunda and maiden-
hair, while here and there is an occasional Caladium with its huge
leaves reminding one in shape of elephant's ears : the leaves of
this plant, called Jwjas de llama, are much used by the country
people as a medicine for fevers ; many of the rocks and all the
trunks of the cork-trees are festooned with hare's-foot fern
(calaguala), also used medicinally.

In spring these ravines are, from their natural beauty and
the colour of these various shrubs and flowers, so picturesque
that one cannot help lingering about them merely to admire the
charming scenery, becoming apt to forget the birds for which
one is in search. These places are seldom visited by an
Englishman, only by stray smugglers, goatherds, and charcoal-
burners ; and every pass, hill, valley, in fact every well-marked
situation, has its name, many more familiar to me than the
streets of London.

Those valleys most worth visiting near Gibraltar are the
Garganta del Capitan, to the north-west of Algeciraz, on the
way to Ojen by the mountain-path of la Trocha, which is
within easy distance (five or six miles) of Algeciraz. The valley

28

INTRODUCTION.

of the Guadalmalcil, halfway on the road between Tarifa and
Algeciraz, is also very beautiful ; but the Garganta del Helecho
(Valley of the Ferns), south-west of Pulverilla, is perhaps the
best for shrubs, flowers, and ferns. The " Waterfall " valley,
near Algeciraz (la Garganta del Aguila), is tamer than any ; but
above the cascades or waterfalls it improves on acquaintance.
This ravine, however, is well knowTn to every one who has been
at Gibraltar as the regular rendezvous for picnics, the very
name of which is enough to destroy any merits that the scenery
may possess. Towards Tarifa and beyond, on the road to Vejer,
the country is not so pretty, opening out near Facinas to the vega

TEBEACE ON THE NORTH SIDE OF SAN BAETOLOM^.

of the Laguna de la Janda ; thence cultivated ground, or
campina, stretches away to Medina Sidonia and on to Jerez.
On the right and left of this road, however, are three isolated
rocky ranges — those of la Sierra de San Bartolome and la Sierra
de la Plata being to the left, that of la Sierra de Enmedio to the

EOCKY CLIFFS, ETC. 29

right ; these ranges are the breeding-places of Griffon Vultures
and other rock-breeding birds, and are well worthy of a visit.

I here give the names of a few of the rocky cliffs which should
be visited by those who wish to see such places : — la Laja de la
Zarga and la Silla del Papa, in the Sierra de Plata ; la Laja del
Ciscar *, to the east of and near Taivilla ; Piedra de Paz, near
Paterna ; la Laja de los Pajaros, los Jolluelos, and la Laja de
Peiiarroyo, near Casas Viejas.

There are also magnificent cliffs in the Sierra de las Cabras,
east of Alcala de los Gazules, and hundreds of others which I
saw but could not find time to visit. I did not care to send
"collectors" to bring eggs without the birds to which they
belonged ; or, as is often the case with these worthies, they
would have brought eggs with birds to which they did not belong,
and, with unblushing effrontery, sworn perhaps, as I have known
them do, that a Turkey's egg was taken by them in a high cliff,
and belonged to an " Aguila de las rocas."

It is to be hoped that this book may not be the cause of the
useless or unnecessary destruction of any bird, and especially
that dealers may not profit thereby. All mentioned is intended
for the benefit of true ornithologists, and not for those who are
never satisfied unless killing or having killed as many rare birds
as possible.

It will be seen that there is sport to be had in Andalucia ;
and the shooting has the charm of a varied bag, and the freedom
to wander where you like, as a rule ; added to which it is
necessary to work for your game, which, in my idea, adds much
to the pleasure of sport. The climate, too, is all that can be
wished, especially in spring, when there is something most
exhilarating in the air; but in autumn, until October, it is too
warm to go out with pleasure, and the sun-baked, tawny, dusty,
thirsty-looking country has lost all the beauty of its flowers and
the verdure of spring. To see Andalucia, it should be visited in

* This name is from " ciscar," to besmear, the whole face of the laja being so
whitened by th.3 Vultures' droppings as to be conspicuous some miles off.

30 INTRODUCTION.

March, April, and May, in order to thoroughly appreciate both
the climate and the scenery.

Another hint which I would fain give is to be as civil as
possible, and conform to the customs of the country. The
Andalucian peasant, courteous and polite, is at heart a caballero,
and very different from the inhabitants of the towns ; at the
same time he is proud and independent, and, to humour him,
he must be treated on terms of equality. Above all things
remember that it is no use attempting to hurry in Spain, where
patience is more severely taxed than in any other country, and
where no corre prieaa is the order of the day. Certainly the best
cure for impatience is to pass a few months among Spaniards.

Here ends this Introductory Chapter, with apologies for its
shortcomings in the fact that it is the concoction of one who
detests pen, ink, and paper, and who is more at home with the
gun, rifle, or fishing-rod ; so, in the manner of the country
which to me has so many charms, let me conclude with the
farewell and time-honoured salutation, Vaya Vd. con Dws.

EL OBGATsO, KEAB, TAKIFA.

CHANGES IN THE VICINITY OF THE ROCK. 31

Since the preceding was written, alas ! more than twenty years
ago, the writer has on several occasions in winter and spring
visited his old haunts, the last expedition being made in com-
pany with Major Willoughby Verner, Rifle Brigade, who was
quartered at Gibraltar from 1874 to 1881, and who has since
made frequent visits. To him I owe many records of his
practical observations, as well as to Mr. Meade-Waldo for some
notes made by him during a visit to Tangier in the spring of
1892.

Captain Savile Reid, late Royal Engineers, contributed a
paper to ' The Ibis,' 1885, " Winter Notes from Morocco " ;
while Mr. Abel Chapman wrote in ' The Ibis,' 1884, " Rough
Notes on Spanish Ornithology," and in many of his Chapters
of his ' Wild Spain ' he treats of Andalucian birds.

" Aves de Espana/' by Don Jose Arevalo y Baca, vol. xi.
' Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias ' (Madrid, 1887),
contains some information on Andalucian birds, and all given on
personal observation is no doubt bond fide, but unfortunately he
often quotes one upon whom we cannot rely.

There is now, in 1894, little change in the country near
Gibraltar, except in the dress of the peasantry, who have dis-
carded most of their picturesque provincial costume, even the old
sombrero is rarely seen, and replaced by the felt hat of the
London rough ; while the " fair " sex have left off the grace-
giving mantilla and even in wild out-of-the-way places adopted
caricatures of modern fashions.

There seems, if possible, more poverty, and in the winter of
1893-94 there was mucha hamlre and actual deaths from want ;
and had not the early spring of 1894 been exceptionally wet,
there would have been a serious famine.

Among changes in the immediate vicinity of the Rock, a
serious one for the Garrison is that the right of shooting over all
that part " between the rivers " to as far as and including the
Cork-wood has been hired and monopolized by some Gibraltar

32

INTRODUCTION.

merchants, so the British officer, who used to go where he
wished, has no chance of a day's gunning : he must either cross
the Straits or make an expedition into Spain — an expensive affair,
which takes a day en route and another on return.

It is much to be regretted that the Garrison could not have
arranged to hire this shooting, so as to enable officers to have a
day's sport ; but the chance has passed away, probably not to
return. In addition to this there are many other places marked
acotado (preserved), which used not to be so, and many more

PEASANTRY, TAPATANILLA.

guns are carried in the country, which has caused a great
decrease in the resident birds of prey during the last twenty
years. About Gibraltar the Griffon Vulture is as numerous as
then, but the Bearded Vulture is gone. In the provinces of
Malaga and Granada many Vultures, Bearded and Griffon, are
reported to have been destroyed by poison, laid for wolves &c.
As few genera have been given as possible : the present rage is

MEASUREMENTS.

33

to give as many as any excuse can be found for, and will soon
result in every bird having a separate genus ; and in addition
some writers now give a bird the same generic and specific
name, thus making as much confusion as possible in nomen-
clature.

The unfortunate part of ornithology, as at present practised, is
that it is chiefly confined to the slaughter of birds, whose skins,
when compared and examined by table naturalists, are upon the
slightest variation in plumage made into new species, without
any knowledge of their habits, notes, &c. Much more can be
done by observation than by the gun, and when a bird is
destroyed all chance of noticing its habits is destroyed likewise.
Measurements of length given are only an attempt to show the
proportionate size of a species. Measurements, in the writer's
opinion, are of little use, especially as hardly any two persons
measure a bird in the same manner.

LAJA DEL CISCAB.

34 TUKD1D.E.

Order PASSERES. Family TURDIDJE.

Subfamily TURBINE. Young spotted.

1. Turdus viscivorus, Linnaeus. The Mistle-Thrush.

Spanish. Charla (Chatterer).

" Found near Tangier, always singly and very sparingly in
company with T. musicus, on passage. They arrive in November,
but do not stay near here, returning to recross the Straits in
February. "—Favier.

They occasionally nest near Tangier, as in 1869 I saw eggs
taken near there.

The Mistle-Thrush cannot be said to be common near
Gibraltar, being most so in winter. They are considered to
arrive and depart with the Woodcocks ; but a few pairs nest in
the Cork-wood and other wooded districts.

Axillaries white ; a white patch on end of inner web of two outer tail-
feathers on each side.

Young. Spotted with buff and black on head and back. Length
11 inches.

2. Turdus musicus, Linnaeus. The Song-Thrush.

Spanish. Zorzal.

Favier's note applies to this bird on both sides of the Straits,
and is as follows : — " The Song-Thrush is a winter resident in
great numbers, being the most common of the Thrushes, arriving
in large flocks in October and November, departing in March."

On the Spanish side they chiefly frequent the wild olive-trees,
on the berries of which they feed. The first date of arrival

TURDUS MEEULA. 35

noticed at Gibraltar was the 22nd of October ; and the latest
day on which I observed them was the 1st of April.

Axillaries biiffish yellow ; eye-stripe scarcely developed.

Young. Spotted ; the feathers of upper surface with pale centres. Afte
first moult young resembles adult, but has pale ends to the wing-coverts.
Length 9 inches.

3. Turdus iliacus, Linnaeus. The Redwing.

Spanish. Malvis.

"This Thrush is very rare near Tangier. I have only met
with two, between November and March — one in 1852, the
other in 1864:."— Favier.

Mr. Meade-Waldo observed them on the 17th of February,
1892, near Tangier.

In Andalucia the Redwing is abundant in winter, in company
with the Song-Thrush.

Axillaries chestnut-red ; well-defined whitish streak over eye, reaching to
nape. Length 8| inches.

4. Turdus pilaris, Linnseus. The Fieldfare.

Is not mentioned by Favier, but Mr. Meade-Waldo found
Fieldfares in abundance on the Moorish side of the Straits
in the spring of 1892. On the Spanish side I never met
with any, but they are reported by Arevalo from Granada.

Axillaries white ; rump slate-grey. Length 10 inches.

5. Turdus merula, Linnaeus. The Blackbird.

Moorish. Tchau Tchau (Favier). Spanish. Mirlo.

" Resident near Tangier and very plentiful, nesting three
times a year." — Favier.

I found a nest in Morocco built in a prickly-pear hedge.
The Blackbird nests at Gibraltar, and is resident and very

D2

36 TURDID.E.

common in Andalucia : in the winter months their numbers
are greatly augmented by migrants.

Male. Black ; bill orange-yellow.

Female. Brownish black or reddish brown ; bill brown.
Young. Like female, but more spotted ; the male with blackish bill.
Length 10 inches.

6. Turdus torquatus, Linnaeus. The Ring-Ouzel.

Spanish. Chirlo.

" Is only met with in small nights on passage near Tangier,
crossing to Europe in March and April, and returning in the
autumn to pass the winter further south." — Favier.

I only observed the Ring-Ouzel near Gibraltar on passage
in the spring, the earliest dates in each year being the 8th of
April 1868, 20th of March 1870, 9th of April 1871, 12th of
March 1872, 28th of March 1874; but they are known to breed
in the mountains near Granada, and Mr. Saunders records a
nest near Colmenar.

Male. Uniform brownish black, with wldte crescent on chest.
Female. Lighter ; crescent narrower, washed with brown.
Young. Spotted. Length 11 inches.

7. Monticola cyanus (Linnaeus). The Blue Rock-Thrush.

Moorish. Tchau-tchau zerak. Spanish. Solitario.

Favier states that the Blue Rock-Thrush, which is as common
in suitable localities in Morocco as in Andalucia, is migratory,
passing north from February to May, and passing south from
August to September. I never could detect any migration
on the Spanish side, and consider it one of the very few birds
which are stationary, not even shifting their ground — though,
perhaps, in other countries circumstances may cause them to
migrate.

Abundantly distributed on all rocky ground, even on sea-cliffs,
and often seen on house-tops in those towns which lie in their
districts, they are always to be found at Gibraltar in unvarying

MOxNTICOLA CYAN US. 37

numbers, frequenting daily the same spots, and attracting
considerable notice both from their melodious song and con-
spicuous habits.

I here repeat a note made about their nesting, which has
already appeared in Dresser's account of this species : — " A pair
nested in a hole outside the wall of my stable at Gibraltar
in June 1869. Five eggs were laid, which were hatched about
the 20th. The nest, composed of small dried bits of roots,
was very scanty and ill put together. When the young were
hatched, I broke through the wall from the inside of the stable
to the nest, making the hole large enough to admit a small cage,
in which I placed the nest and young ; and then hung an old
coat over the inside hole, so as to shut out the light from the
inside, cutting a small slit in the coat through which to watch
the old birds feeding their young within six inches distance.
Both birds fed them, at intervals of not more than five minutes.
The food consisted almost entirely of centipedes (Scolopendrce),
with now and then a large spider or bluebottle fly by way of
change. Where they could have found so many centipedes it is
difficult to imagine, as they are insects which lie hid all day
under stones &c. The head was always bitten off, and the
insect so mangled as to be quite dead. Two of the five young
died in the cage, from the old birds not being able to get at
them. Of the other three, only one attained maturity, living
till October, when, to my great regret, he went the way of all
pets. He was very tame, and of most engaging habits and
disposition — in fact, what the Spaniards call ' simpatico.' In
his early days he was fed on bread and bruised snails ; later on
he had more fruit, which possibly killed him.

"The Blue Rock-Thrush very often perches on trees, and at
Gibraltar and Tangier is frequently seen on the house-tops,
though generally observed on bare rocky ground. They are
sometimes found in wooded places, if there are any high rocks ;
for instance, a pair nested at the first waterfall near Algeciraz,

38 TUKDID.E.

which is in the midst of a dense forest. They have a habit
in the courting-season of flying straight out from a rock, and
then suddenly dropping with the wings half shut, like a Wood-
Pigeon in the nesting-time. The Blue Rock-Thrush is very
fond of ivy-berries and all fruit."

It seems that they nest more than once a year, as on the
25th of April Mr. Stark found a nest with young about a week
old, and on the 3rd of May a nest with five eggs hard sat on,
the one in my stable being hatched in the end of June. One
set of eggs obtained by Mr. Stark were of the usual delicate
pale blue colour, but marked with small russet spots at the large
end, somewhat like eggs of the Black Wheatear (Saxicola
leucura).

All the nests built on ledges of rocks and open to view are
larger and better-built than those placed in holes.

Verner tells me (1894) that they still occupy the same
situations on the Rock as they did twenty years ago ; and he
knows no bird whose eggs are more difficult to find, as during
time of laying and incubation they seem to know if they are
watched ; and the nests on the Rock are, as a rule, more difficult
of access than in the sierras. He found on May 22, 1875, five
young able to fly ; May 13, 1877, five young fully fledged ;
March 23, 1878, nest just finished ; April 24, 1879, nest just
completed, first egg on April 13. They never seem to lay more
or less than five eggs : this out of many nests he found.

Male in spring. Uniform slaty blue ; head and neck with silvery gloss :
in autumn and winter with narrow whitish margins to the body-feathers.
Female. Browner than male. Length 8£ to 9 inches.

8. Monticola saxatilis, Linnaeus. The White-backed Rock-
Thrush.

" Is found on passage only near Tangier, crossing to Europe
in April. Is a scarce species, and very rarely obtained during
passage." — Favier.

SAXICOLA (ENANTHE. 39

I saw several near Tangier on the 16th of April, 1872, and one
on the 30th of March, 1874, also numbers passing at Gibraltar
on the 4th of April, 1870 ; and one was seen there returning on
the 26th of September, 1868.

According to Arevalo this bird nests in all the mountain ranges
of the Peninsula.

Tail chestnut, two centre feathers darker than others ; axillaries and lower
parts chestnut.

Male. Head and neck blue ; centre of back nearly white.
Female. Brown, mottled. Length 7^ inches.

9. Saxicola cenanthe, Linnaeus. The Common Wheatear.

Spanish. Culiblanco, Ruiblanca : but these names apply to all
the Wheatears.

" This is the most common of the ' Traquets,' except the
Stonechat and Whinchat, but is only seen near Tangier on
migration in small flights during March and April, returning in
September." — Favier.

Wheatears are abundant in Andalucia, but seen only on
passage. First noticed on the 4th of March in 1870 ; a single
male bird at Tangier on the 26th of March in 1874 ; many seen
near Alcala del Rio on the 4th of April ; again passing in
numbers at Gibraltar on the 12th of April. Wheatears were
plentiful near Casas Viejas at the end of October and the first part
of November, being last seen on the 13th of that month. I have
a note also of observing six or seven in the middle of the Bay of
Biscay on the 9th of October, when they settled on the steamer,
keeping with us till night.

Axillaries white, writh dark centres. Rump white.

Male. Above pale slate-grey ; below white ; ear-coverts black.

Female. Above dull brown ; below buff ; ear-coverts dark brown.

Young. Like the female, but spotted with dark markings on feathers
above and below.

Both sexes in autumn are alike, resembling female in spring, but have
buff margins to all the feathers. Length 6 inches.

40 TURDID.E.

10. Saxicola stapazina, Vieillot. Western Black - throated
Wheatear.

" Passes near Tangier during March and April, returning in
September. Is the most frequent after the Wheatear, with
which bird they travel." — Favier.

Is in Andalucia apparently less common than the Black-eared
Wheatear, perhaps because they frequent higher ground ; at
least I have noticed them more about mountain-tops. First
seen 17th of March, 1877 (Verner), 23rd of March, 1894
(Tapatanilla). They nest about the same time as the Black-eared
Wheatear, which they resemble in habits, nest, and eggs.

Axillaries black ; two-thirds of two centre tail-feathers black with the
basal third white, the others white tipped with black.

Male. Crown, back, rump, breast, and belly white, suffused with buff'
on back and breast. Chin and upper throat black. Length 5| inches.

11. Saxicola albicollis, Vieillot. The Black-eared Wheat-
ear.

According to Favier, this bird is less common than Saxicola
stapazina near Tangier, but is met with in the same way. Near
Gibraltar they appeared to me to be the most frequent, and were
first seen there on the 3rd of April, 1870, when several were
noticed ; and on the 15th of March, 1872, one was observed, and
a single bird at Tangier on the 14th. Seen at Tangier on the
18th March, 1894, by Mr. Irby, 60th Kifles, and by myself on
the 23rd at Sierra Retin. They breed on the " Queen of Spain's
Chair," laying about the first week in May, building a loosely
constructed nest among stones and rocks, very often in the same
situations as the Blue Rock-Thrush. The eggs are light blue,
with a zone of brown spots at the large end.

Throat white.

Male. Marked as last, but has head and back more whitish, but generally
suffused with buff; lores and patch round eye to side of neck black.
Female. Brownish where black in male. Length 6^ inches.

SAXICOLA LEUCURA. 41

12. Saxicola leucura (Gmelin). The Black Wheatear.

Spanish. Sacristan (the Sexton) ; Pedrero (the Stone-mason).

This bird is merely named as occurring near Tangier by
Favier, but is found in Morocco in suitable localities.

On the Spanish side the Black Wheatear is a common and
conspicuous bird at Gibraltar, and to be seen throughout the
year; elsewhere some are migratory, arriving in March, and
only found on bare rocky ground. The nest is sometimes in
clefts of rocks, so deep in as to be inaccessible.

Mr. Stark took a nest on the 25th of April, near Gibraltar,
containing four pale blue eggs hard sat on, marked with a zone
of light reddish-brown spots. The nest was very large, loosely
built with grass and heather-roots, lined inside with finer grass,
two or three feathers of the Neophron, and one bit of palmetto
fibre.

The name of pedrero is applied to this bird from their curious
habit of placing small stones as a foundation to their nest, and
frequently, as when open to view, making a sort of wall or screen
of stones in front of the nest.

Verner remarks that they much resemble the Blue Rock-Thrush
in habits ; and all the many nests found by him had foundations
of small stones — the first two had foundations only, but the third
had a slight wall in front — and until he heard from me that this
bird was known near Malaga as pedrero he was much puzzled to
account for the stones being so placed. In some instances the
foundation appears to be useful in keeping the nest dry.

The most remarkable nest we met with was on the 6th of
April, 1894, in a small hole in the roof of a sandstone cave in
the Sierra Bartolome. This nest, which I myself saw in situ,
was made of grass and fibres lined with finer fibres of the
palmetto, without wool or feathers : the cavity was filled by the
nest and by the foundation and barrier of stones in front ; the
latter was 9 inches long, the same in width, and 2^ inches high.
Yerner removed the stones and found that the wall in front

42

TURDID^E.

""C-^— •*- *•** *^ '

v-<i '

NEST OF THE BLACK WHEATEAB.

PRATINCOLA KUBICOLA. 43

consisted of no less than 282 stones, while the 'foundation was
formed of 76 more, a total of 358, the largest being 2 inches long
by | inch wide and J inch deep, weighing 2 oz., the total weight
of all the stones being 4^ Ibs. A representation of this nest is
given : the cave was about six feet high and nearly circular, with
a diameter of about twelve feet.

Verner found the usual number of eggs to be five, occasionally
only four ; and they appear to be irregular in laying, one nest
having fully fledged young on the 10th of April, other birds not
laying till the end of that month.

Male. General colour black ; rmnp and under tail-coverts white.
Female. Sooty brown where black in male, and tinged with brown on
the white parts. Length 6^ inches.

13. Pratincola rubetra (Linnseus). The WMnchat.

Moorish. Erdan (Earner}. Spanish. Zarzalera.

" Is only a passing migrant near Tangier, crossing to Europe
in April and May, returning to winter further south in September
and October. Is the most common of the Chats, except the
Stonechat." — Favier.

The Whinchat is met with as above, on the Spanish side being
first noticed on the 7th of April ; on the 20th, in 1870, many
hundreds passed at Gibraltar, also on the 12th of the same month
in 1872, and I noticed them as late as the 3rd of May. They
return in September, being never seen in winter, and are not yet
known to breed in the south of Spain.

Male. Chest orange-rufous ; white line over eye from bill to nape ; basal
half of tail white, rest black.

Female. Like male, but paler.

Young. Like old female, but more spotted, with white tips to the
feathers. Length 5 inches.

14. Pratincola rubicola (Linnreus). The Stonechat.
Moorish. Bou-erdan. Spanish. Caganchina, Cagaropa.

" The Stonechat is resident and most abundant about Tangier,

44 TUBDID.E.

being seen in all directions, perched on the tops of plants,
bushes, and hedges. They nest from March to July. Some
arrive from Europe in September and October, leaving in
February and March." — Favier.

This bird is also on the Spanish side one of the most common
and at the same time conspicuous birds. They increase perhaps
in numbers in autumn and spring, but are as common in winter
as in summer. I found a nest with five eggs hard sat on the
10th of March, and have no doubt that they breed more than
once in the season.

Male. Head, chin, and throat black ; breast orange-chestnut ; upper
tail-coverts whitish, spotted with black. Tail blackish brown ; outer weh
of outside feathers edged with buff.

Female. Upper tail-coverts reddish brown ; lower parts rufous.

Young. Spotted. Length 5£ inches.

15. Ruticilla moussieri, Olph- Gal Hard. Moussier's Redstart.

Under the synonym of " Huticilla erythrogastra " — a large
eastern Redstart — Favier, in his notes, has included Moussier's
Redstart ; but his description fully identifies it as a male
M. moussieri. He mentions one killed in 1848. I obtained
an adult male at Tangier on the 14th of March, 1872, and
saw three others killed in that month in 1874 ; since then
they appear to be of irregular occurrence in spring.

I never obtained one on the Spanish side of the Straits, or
saw a Spanish specimen.

Male. Crown, sides of head, back, and wings black ; white line over eye
from forehead to nape. White patch on wing. Rump, upper tail-coverts,
tail (except the two brown centre feathers), and underparts pale chestnut.

Female. Much as female of Common Redstart, but smaller and russet-
red below. Length 4^ inches.

16. Ruticilla phcenicurus (Linnaeus). The Common Redstart.
Moorish. Houmeira (reddish). Spanish. Culirojo.

" This Redstart is only found on passage near Tangier,
crossing the Straits in March and April, returning in September

RUTICILLA TITYS. 45

and October. It is not so common as Ruticilla titys, and is
seldom seen settled on rocks." — Favier.

The Common Redstart is seen in great numbers near and at
Gibraltar on passage. My earliest dates of arrival noticed were
the 4th of April 1868, 5th of April 1869, 22nd of March 1870,
28th of March 1874 (Tetuan), 23rd of March 1894. In.1872
they passed in great quantities on the 12th,. loth, 14th, and 15th
of April, the last noticed being on the 26th, in the Cork-wood.

They are not known to remain and nest near Gibraltar, but
are reported by Arevalo to do so near Granada.

Rurnp and tail chestnut ; axillaries chestnut, or rufous.

Male in spring. Black line in front of the white forehead ; chin, throat,
and sides of neck black ; back grey ; centre of belly nearly white.

Female. Above dull brown ; underparts paler ; breast shaded with
chestnut and white.

Male in autumn much as adult female.

Young. Spotted. Length 5j inches.

17. Ruticilla titys (Scopoli). The Black Redstart.

Spanish. Culirojo, Tintorero.

" This species is the most common Redstart about Tangier,
remaining throughout the winter among rocks and old buildings.
They arrive during October, and depart in March. The old
birds are solitary ; but the immature birds keep together. They
shake their tails incessantly, and, holding their heads erect, are
difficult to get a shot at " (!). — Favier.

The Black Redstart is seen at Gibraltar, as at Tangier,
arriving in November, and never being seen after March. They
nest, however, a little way north of San Roque.

A specimen I killed at Gibraltar had been eating very small ants.

Tail and rump chestnut-red ; two centre tail-feathers dark ; axillaries
Hack, or greyish black.

Male. Cheeks, throat, and breast black ; primaries and secondaries edged
on outer webs with white ; centre of belly nearly white.

female and young male. Above entirely sooty brown ; underparts nearly
as dark as the upper. Length 5f inches.

46 TURDID.E.

18. Ruticilla cyanecula, Wolf. The White-spotted Blue-
throat.

Spanish. Soldiya, Gargantiazul.

" Found near Tangier only on passage, and then very rarely.
I only obtained them four times — in 1839, 1844, 1866, and
1867. They cross to Europe in February and March, returning
in October." — Favier.

Capt. Savile Reid saw many among reeds and rushes in the
marshes of Meshree el Haddar in the winter of 1884-85 (Ibis,
1885, p. 242).

The greater number of this species must pass further to the
east, as about Gibraltar I only saw one, which I shot on the
1st of March, as it was perched on some rushes in an old
" salina " near Palmones ; another, shot in November 1873 at
the same place, was in the possession of Capt. Reid. They are
fairly common on passage in the provinces of Seville, Granada,
and Malaga, but are not known to breed.

This Bluethroat, in 1760, was called by Brisson the " Gorge
bleue de Gibraltar."

Tail brown, with basal two-thirds of all but two centre feathers chestnut.
Male. White spot in centre of the blue throat.

female and young male. Below huffish white ; a dark band across throat,
with occasionally faint marks of blue and chestnut. Length 6 inches.

19. Ruticilla suecica (Linnaeus). The Red-spotted Blue-

throat.

Recorded by Arevalo from Malaga and Valencia. This form,
which ranges furthest north, resembles the last, except in having
a red instead of a white spot on the throat. The form with
entirely blue throat is known as R. wolfi, and has been obtained
at Malaga.

20. Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus). The Robin.

Moorish. Humar sidri. Spanish. Petirojo.

" Is resident near Tangier, and very common in all the

DAULIAS LUSCINIA. 47

gardens around the town. Numbers also migrate, arriving
during October and November, departing in February and
March." — Favier.

Common throughout Andalucia in winter. The Robin only
comes to Gibraltar from about the middle of October to the
middle of March, but then in considerable numbers. They are
resident in the Cork-wood, nesting abundantly in April, where,
one day in May, my attention was attracted by the chattering
and scolding of two Robins, evidently in a great state of alarm
and excitement ; close by them was a palmetto bush, to and
from which they were flying, hovering over it, but not settling.
At first I thought a cat, or perhaps an ichneumon, was lying up ;
but tin peeping quietly into it, saw a snake, some three feet long,
in the act of swallowing a half-fledged Robin at the edge of
its nest. I drew back a pace, and fired a small charge of
dust-shot into the reptile's head, cutting it nearly in half. The
snake, however, had disposed of all the young birds ; so, though
too late to save them, the parents were rescued, as no doubt they
would have shared the fate of their progeny but for my inter-
ference ; the snake I hung up in the nearest bush, "pour
encourager les autres," the old Robins all the time watching my
proceedings ; and it is to be hoped they were able to under-
stand that their loss was partially avenged. The quantity of
young birds — Robins, Nightingales, and similar ground-nesting
Warblers — which are destroyed by snakes and lizards must
be very great ; but many of these birds in Andalucia build
their nests in bushes at some distance from the ground, no
doubt to avoid the reptiles.

Chin, throat, and breast orange- chest nut.

Young in first plumage mottled, each feather orange-buff tipped with
black. Length 5| inches.

21. Daulias luscinia (Linnaeus). The Nig-hting-ale.
Moorish. Mula el hasan (Owner of Beauty, Favier), Umm el
hasan (Mother of Beauty), Spanish. Ruisenor.

48 TURDJD.E.

" This bird is very common around Tangier, arriving during
March and April, passing on across the Straits to return in
August and September. Great quantities remain to breed
about the thick bushy places, chiefly constructing their nest
with the fibres of the palmetto, the same material used by the
Arabs in making their tents." — Favier.

The Nightingale is equally abundant on the Spanish side.
The number heard singing in the Cork-wood and elsewhere is
perfectly surprising, every clump of bramble-brakes having its
pair, though in some seasons they are more numerous than in
others ; but there are always a great many. They are to be
heard on the Rock for about ten days or a fortnight after their
arrival, but nearly always pass on, though they have been known
to nest, as in 1871. My earliest dates of their arrival are the
8th of April 1868, 2nd of April 1869, 7th of April 1870, 1st of
April 1871, 21st of March 1872, Tangier; 30th of March 1874,
Tetuan; noticed by Mr. Meade-Waldo on 22nd of March 1892,
Tangier; 31st of March, 1894, Sierra Retin. Verner's dates of
arrival are 5th of April, 1876 ; 3rd of April, 1877 ; 1st of April,
1879. The majority arrive about the 12th of April.

They begin to lay about the 1st of May, and usually build on
the ground ; but sometimes the nest is placed in ivy or rubbish
some two or three feet high. In swampy jungles it is built at
the bottom of a bush, and has the lower half constructed of dead
leaves, the upper part being made of dry sedges, like that of
Savi's Warbler (Locustella luscmioides) ; only it is much neater,
and lined with fine grass, hair, and occasionally feathers. As
a rule there are young Nightingales in the Cork-wood by the
24th of May. Verner found young as late as the 3rd of
July, 1879.

General colour russet-brown above ; upper tail-coverts and tail chestnut-
brown ; underparts huffish white.

First primary longer than primary-coverts.

Young in first plumage spotted like a Robin. Length 6| inches.

ACCENTOR COLLAR1S. 49

Subfamily ACCENTOEIN.E.

22. Accentor modularis (Linnseus). The Hedge-Sparrow.

M. Favier did not include this bird in his list of Moorish
birds, merely mentioning it as occurring near Gibraltar, having
met with some during his " triste sejour " in that place, in
November. I have seen specimens from the African side of the
Straits. On the Spanish side they are found in winter, but not
commonly, and I have shot them in the Cork-wood in January ;
whilst Arevalo records them as breeding near Malaga and
Granada.

Above reddish brown, streaked with blackish brown ; chin, throat, and
breast bluish grey ; belly whitish.

Young. Streaked above and below ; no grey or white. Length 5|
inches.

23. Accentor collaris (Scopoli). The Alpine Accentor.

Spanish. Serrano (Mountaineer).

I have only seen this bird at the back of the Rock at Gibraltar
in winter, and shot one on the 1st of February, seeing others on
the 26th of the same month in 1870. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun.,
who was passing through Gibraltar, was the first to notice it at
the signal-station. Arevalo records them breeding in the sierras
of the Provinces of Malaga and Granada ; and they are no doubt
found on all the high rocky ground, though I did not meet with
any on the Sierra del Nino or elsewhere.

Chin and throat dull white, with black spot on each feather ; wing-
coverts tipped with white ; tail dark brown, with pale buff tips. Length
7 inches.

E

50 TURDIDJ2.

Subfamily SYLVIIN^E.

24. Sylvia cinerea, Bechstein. The Common WMtethroat.

" Arrives about Tangier and crosses to Europe in April and
May, returning to winter further south in September and
October. Is nearly as abundant as the Blackcap, and seen on
passage in small flights. On their return they have the top of
the head the same colour as the back, like the females in
spring." — Favier.

Mr. Meade-Waldo observed this bird's first arrival near Tangier
on the 22nd of March, 1894.

I never saw the Common Whitethroat near Gibraltar in
winter. Their first arrival was noticed in 1870 on the 7th of
April, in 1871 on the 7th of April, in 1872 on the llth of April,
many passing on the 19th and 20th, and in 1874 on the 8th of
A.pril, in 1894 on the 30th of March. They nest abundantly in
the Cork-wood, and also in quantities in marshy places, building
their nests in thick leafy plants, often in those of the willow-
herb (Epilobium) ; the average time for their laying is, the 7th of
May. When looking for Savi's Warbler, we sometimes found
a dozen nests in the day.

Sack reddish broion • legs pale brown ; chin and thro.it much whiter
than the rest of the underparts ; quills and wing-coverts edged with pale
rufous ; iris reddish broion. Length 5^ inches.

25. Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus) . The Lesser Whitethroat.

This bird is, as far as toy observations go, rare. A specimen
was obtained in my garden at Gibraltar in April, and another
on the 19th of April, 1872. It does not appear to have been
noticed by M. Favier near Tangier.

Head and back bluish grey, back suffused with brown ; legs lead-colour ;
iris yellowish white. Length 5£ inches.

SYLVIA ATRICAP1LLA. 51

26. Sylvia conspicillata, Marmora. The Spectacled Warbler.

Favier merely says of the Spectacled Warbler, that about
Tangier they are not common, and only seen on passage north
in March. He gives no date of their autumnal migration, but
states that they pass the winter somewhere further south.

The earliest date on which they were obtained near Gibraltar
was on the 10th of March. Is a conspicuous, scrub-haunting
bird, frequenting dry and more open ground than the White-
throat, often being seen among cactus bushes. A sure place for
finding them is on the Carteian hills. They remain during the
breeding-season, but I did not myself find the nest.

Chin and upper throat white, axillaries rosy rufous.
Male. Brown-grey; eyelid red ; secondaries and wing-coverts broadly
edged with chestnut ; below pale rosy rufous ; centre of belly white.
Female. Duller in plumage. Length 8^ inches.
Irides very light brown ; inside of mouth pale yellow.

27. Sylvia hortensis, Bechstein. The Garden- Warbler.
"Found near Tangier, on passage to Europe, in April and

May, returning in October, when it is nearly as plentiful as the
Common Whitethroat." — Favier.

The Garden- Warbler mostly arrives during the middle of
April, and was first observed on the 10th. The latest I saw was
on the 7th of October. They nest around Tangier and in the
Cork-wood, laying about the 10th of May, and are brought into
the market at Gibraltar as " becafigos ; " for later in the season,
like most of the family, they are great devourers of figs.

General colour above and tail olive-brown ; underparts greyish white.
Head same colour as back ; axillaries and under wing-coverts buf ; chin
and throat not whiter than rest of underparts. Length 5-£ inches.

28. Sylvia atricapilla (Linnaeus). The Blackcap.
Moorish. Shorrir el Kebir.

" Is nearly as common as S. melanocephala about Tangier,

E2

52 TUKD1D.E.

being seen on all sides during migration, passing north in
January and February, returning in October. Many remain to
nest." — Favier.

The Blackcap is to be seen during every month in the year,
but is, of course, most common in February and October. They
sometimes nest on the Rock, always plentifully in the Cork-wood.
The young have been seen fully able to fly on the 24th of May.
Verner found a nest with three eggs on the 15th of March, 1877,
in the Convent Garden, and a nest with four hard-set eggs on the
16th of March, 1880, in the Mount Garden. They chiefly fed
in my garden for some time on the seed of the so-called " pepper-
tree " (Schinus molle), in company with Black-headed Warblers,
and, to my surprise, with the Black Redstart ; at least the latter
were seen pecking at the seeds.

The species may be distinguished at a glance from the other
black-headed Warblers met with near Gibraltar by the absence
of white on the tail.

General colour above ashy brown ; chin and throat bluish grey ; tail without
any white.

Male. Head black. Length 5| inches.
Female. Head rufous. Length 6£ inches.

29. Sylvia orphea, Temmiuck. The Western Orphean
Warbler.

Andalucian. Canaria.

"This Warbler passes by Tangier in April and May to return
in September, travelling in company with the Whitethroats.
Is not common, and in some years scarcely met with." — Favier.

The Orphean Warbler did not appear to be common near
Gibraltar, and I could not get any till the 17th of May, 1871,
when I found a nest on a branch of a pine-tree in the " Second
Pine-wood," and shot both the old birds, which were very fearless,
especially the female, who contained an egg ready for exclusion.
The nest had only three eggs in it, and was badly built, being
composed of grass and lichens. Verner found this Warbler on

SYLVIA SUBALPINA. 53

8th of May, 1875, breeding in the cork-woods along the base of
the Retin Hills ; the nests were on the tops of branches of small
cork-trees, about ten feet from the ground.

It would seem that this Warbler must chiefly pass further to
the east. They nest around Seville and are common about
Madrid ; but I did not ascertain that they bred near Tangier.

Male. General colour above ashy grey ; chin, throat, and underparts
white ; outer pair of tail-feathers with outer web white, inner web brown ;
next pair white only at tips ; head black ; legs bluish ; irides yellow.

Female. Like male, but the head only slightly darker than back.
Length 6 1 inches.

30. Sylvia subalpina, Bonelli. The Subalpine or Chestnut-
breasted Warbler.

Favier merely states that " this species occurs near Tangier on
passage in March and April, and again in October."

They are not often noticed near Gibraltar ; but I shot one on
the 20th March, 1870, and at Tangier on the 26th of March and
27th of April, 1874. Mr. L. P. Irby obtained one at Tangier on
the 18th March, 1894. On the 27th of March, 1871, I saw
eight or ten among the flowers and trees on the Alameda de
Apodaca at Cadiz ; they were exceedingly tame, and I watched
them for a long time hopping about in and out among the
flowers like a common Wren. One or two were very bright-
coloured males. We also saw this Warbler on the 25th of April,
1869, in the Goto del Key. Lord Lilford informs me he found a
nest early in May, built in a gum-cistus bush in the Goto del
Donana, the eggs being very hard sat-on.

I never had the good fortune to discover a nest ; but they
build much in the same manner and situations as S. melano-
cephala, the eggs being also very similar to those of that bird.

Owing to the chestnut colour of the throat and breast of
the male, this species is very apt to be confounded, when flying
and hopping about, with the Dartford Warbler, but the length of

54 TTJRDIDJ3.

the tail, shorter than the wing, easily distinguishes them from
that bird.

Male. Above slaty grey ; chin, throat, and breast chestnut; narrow white
line from base of bill to shoulder.

Female. Above dull brown; buffy white where chestnut in the male.
Eyelids red in both sexes. Length 5 inches.

31. Sylvia melanocephala (Gmelin). The Black - headed
Warbler.

Moorish. Shorrir (Favier}. Spanish. Palmera.

" This Warbler is resident and very abundant near Tangier ;
some migrate, crossing the Straits during February and March,
returning in September. They are to be seen everywhere,
nesting in small thorny bushes. The nest is not well built, and
is made of strips of plants and blades of grass, without roots ;
rarely there is a little wool. It is lined with the down of some
cotton-like plant, fine fibres of roots, and a few horse-hairs."
They lay from April to July." — Favier.

The Black-headed Warbler, equally common around Gibraltar,
is found in all scrub, gardens, and in the midst of woods, scolding
with a chattering noise much like that of our common Wren.
They might well be named the Gibraltar Warbler, being almost
the only species which is a regular resident on the Rock. In
habits they much resemble the Blackcap, but are more restless
and obtrusive, and consequently more conspicuous ; the contrast
between the jet-black head of the adult male and the white
throat also renders them more liable to be noticed. There were
in different years several nests in my garden, which were carefully
preserved ; but what with cats and inquisitive human beings,
they seldom succeeded in rearing their young. The earliest egg
laid was on the 12th of March ; this was built in a small rose-
bush, and was spoiled by a gale of wind, which blew all the eggs
out of it, being the only one I ever saw in what could be called
an open bush. All the others were placed in thick bushes,
generally box, about two to four feet from the ground, and

SYLVIA UNDATA. 55

were formed of grass with a few bits of cotton-thread, lined with
hair ; but they also nest at' some height on boughs of trees. The
eggs vary in number from three to five. The male assists in
incubation.

This bird is, like the Blackcap and Garden-Warbler, very fond
of figs and grapes and all kinds of fruit. The feathers at the
base of the bill and the throat are often much coloured with the
pollen of cactus, aloe, and other flowers, also with the seed of the
" pepper- trees."

Tail longer than wing : claws and throat pure white ; eyelids brick-red.
Male. General colour above slaty grey ; nape and head black ; below
greyish white.

Female. Above brownish ; head nearly black. Length 4^ inches.

32. Sylvia undata (BodJaert). The Dartford or Furze
Warbler.

Spanish. Colorin, Caganchina.

" Is resident but not abundant near Tangier. Some migrate
to Europe in March, to return in August. It is solitary
in habits. They make a clumsy nest of grass and roots,
lined with very fine coils of palmetto-fibre, laying in April."
— Famer.

The Dartford Warbler is resident and not uncommon in all
the scrub-covered hills on the coast near Gibraltar, particularly
about San Roque, but is most abundant on the sides of the
sierras, nesting in the heather about the 8th of April, on which
date Mr. Stark found a nest near Algeciraz with three eggs.
There is no doubt they nest at Gibraltar, as they occasionally
remain there through the summer.

Upper parts blackish brown ; throat, breast, and sides cliestnut-brown ;
feathers of chin and throat tipped with white ; tail long and graduated,
half the length of the bird ; eyelids arid iris red in adults, yellow in young.
Length 5 inches.

56 TURDID^E.

33. Aedon g-alactodes (Temminck). The Western Rufous
Warbler.

Moorish. Houmeira. Spanish. Alzacola, Eubita, Vinadera.

"Abundant in the vicinity of Tangier, arriving in April and
May, returning during September, many remaining to breed.
Their habits are the same as those of the Nightingale. The
nest, large and well built, is placed at some height from the
ground, in thick foliage. The eggs, from five to six in number,
only differ from Sparrow's eggs in the spots being more reddish.
The males assist in incubation." — Favier.

On the Spanish side, this " Cocktail " Warbler, as they may
well be called from their well-known habit of continually jerking
their tails up, is very plentiful, frequenting sandy lanes hedged
with aloes and prickly pears, such as those close to the First
Yenta, near Gibraltar. As Favier remarks, they resemble
the Nightingale very much in some of their habits, and are
at first sight very likely to be mistaken for that bird ;
only the Nightingale comes some three weeks or a month
earlier.

The Rufous Warblers mostly arrive near Gibraltar between the
1st and 5th of May. The earliest I noticed in 1869 was on the
28th of April, in 1870 on the 29th, in 1871 on the 22ud, and in
1 872 on the 28th of that month, the migration lasting for weeks.
They nest about the last fortnight in May.

In places where there are many vineyards (which they
frequent) they are known as Vinadera. Alzacola is the local
name about Gibraltar ; and " Cocktail " is very nearly a
translation of it. " Eufous Sedge- Warbler," as this bird has
been called, is most inappropriate, as they are never seen near
either water or sedges.

Upper parts pale chestnut-brown. Tail long and graduated ; the two
centre feathers rich reddish buff ; the others reddish buff, except the ends,
which are black, tipped with white. Length 7 inches.

ACROCEPHALUS STREPERUS. 57

34. Acrocephalus turdoides (Meyer). The Great Reed-

Warbler.

Spanish. Carrizalero ; from " carrizo," reed-grass (Arundo
pJiragmites).

This large species, though occurring in Morocco, is not
included in Favier's list.

They are exceedingly plentiful in Andalucia, arriving in April,
and chiefly frequenting tall reed-beds : they are very noisy, and, like
other aquatic Warblers, conceal themselves at the slightest alarm.
However, by ensconcing one's self and remaining quiet among
the rushes, they are easily obtained, as they soon come out and
sit singing and chattering on the top of some tall reed. They
nest late in May, and build a nest interwoven with and suspended
between reeds, resembling that of the Reed- Warbler (Acro-
cephalus streperus), only of course much larger. I have seen
them building during the first fortnight in May, picking and
carrying away the down of the " bulrush " (Typha latifolia) to
use in constructing their nests.

Inside of mouth orange-yellow. Upper parts and tail olive-brown,
below pale buff ; centre of belly whitish ; tail graduated and long ; legs
pale brown. Length 8 inches.

35. Acrocephalus streperus (Vieillot). The Reed- Warbler.

Not mentioned by Favier as occurring in Morocco ; nor doe
Mr. Drake appear to have observed any in that country.

On the Spanish side they appear in spring. The exact date of
arrival I could not ascertain ; but it is somewhere about the end
of March. I never met with the Reed- Warbler during the winter
months ; but in the marshes at Casas Viejas, about the first
week in May, we found them breeding in abundance. They
keep among the sallow-bushes, but build their beautiful nests
suspended on the dead stems of the Epilobium Jiirsutum or
willow-herb, which grows in luxuriant tufts in the swampy

58 TUKDID^E.

jungle. These nests are constructed externally of strips of the
rind or peel of the dead Jfyilobium-stems interwoven with sallow-
cotton, the interior being composed of fine grass lined with the
same material. The usual number of eggs was four, of a pale
greenish colour, marked all over with ashy spots. One nest we
found contained a Cuckoo's egg.

Upper parts olive-brown ; below pale buff ; both distinctly diffused with
rufous, most so on rump and upper tail-coverts ; legs and feet slaty brown.
Length 5^ inches.

[Acroceplialus palustris (Bechstein). The Marsh-Warbler is said to
occur near Granada, but I have never seen a specimen : it nests in drier
places than the Keed-Warbler, though near water ; the song and eggs also
differ from those of that bird, which it resembles, except having the upper
parts olive-greenish without any rufous tinge ; legs and feet pale brown.]

36. Acrocephalus phragmitis (Bechstein). The Sedge-
Warbler.

Favier says this is a very rare species near Tangier, that he
seldom saw more than one or two on passage, in March or in
September.

On the Spanish side I only noticed one in April 1894; but
this common English migratory bird is reported from Malaga
and Granada.

Upper parts brown, each feather having a dark centre ; crown blackish
brown, streaked with lighter brown ; broad buffish-white eye-stripe.

Young. More yellow ; a few dusky streaks on chest. Length 4|-5
inches.

37. Acrocephalus aquations (J. F. Gmelin). The Aquatic
Warbler.

This species, mentioned by Mr. Drake as having been met
with in Morocco, is found in Andalucia, breeding near Malaga ;
but I only saw it once near Gibraltar. Verner found a nest, in

LOCUSTELLA LUSCINIOIDES. 59

May 1875, near Casas Viejas, built on the ground amidst the

Much as last, but is yellower in tint of plumnge and has two hroad dark
bands along the crown, with conspicuous pale line down the centre of
crown.

38. Locustella naevia (Boddaert). The Grasshopper "Warbler.

Is recorded from Morocco and also from Malaga in winter ;
but I did not observe any near Gibraltar.

Above olive-brown, obscurely spotted on back, " like a Lark." Ttdl
brown, indistinctly marked with transverse bars of darker brown.
Young. Feathers on throat with dark centres. Length 5^ inches.

39. Locustella luscinioides (Savi). Savi's Warbler.

Recorded by Mr. Drake as met with in Morocco.

In Andalucia, I only found them in one situation where once,
when snipe-shooting in winter, having noticed some old nests in
the sedges which apparently belonged to this species, I made
up my mind to try the next spring for them. However, for two
years I was unable to do so ; but in 1874 I went to this place
in May with two friends, Mr. Stark being one, and we succeeded
in finding thirteen nests.

The first nest was found by Mr. Denison, on the 4th of May,
and contained four fresh eggs ; the others as follows : — on the
6th, one nest with four fresh eggs ; on the 7th, three nests — one
empty (deserted), two with four eggs each, one lot fresh, the
other hard sat-on ; on the 8th, one nest procured with three
eggs slightly sat-on, and one nest with five fresh eggs ; on the
9th, two nests with four eggs each, all hard sat-on, and one nest
with three young fully fledged ; on the llth, one nest with five
fresh eggs ; and on the 13th, one nest with two fresh eggs.

By this it will be seen that the time of their breeding is rather
variable. I do not like to give the name of the exact locality

CO TURDID.E.

where these birds nest, as Savi's Warbler might suffer in
consequence.

The precise time of their arrival I could not ascertain ; but it
is about the 1st of April ; and they are all gone by September.
The nests, sometimes very near to one another, were most
difficult to find, and, without exception, built in places where
the mud and water varied in depth from two or three inches to
perhaps two feet. All but one were in sedges, so well concealed
as only to be found by accident. We spent sometimes the whole
day in these marshes, looking in vain, with a gun in one hand
and a sickle in the other, the latter used to open the sedges with,
as it cut one's fingers severely to try and move them with the
hand. What with the hot sun and the stink of the mud, we
used to despair utterly after hours of fruitless search, but
generally found a nest in the evening. The whole marsh was
trodden down by us as if a herd of cattle had been wandering
about ; but perhaps the next day, going over the same ground,
we would find a nest in a bunch of sedges which had been passed
by within a yard. The nests were all alike, loosely and clumsily
built, solely constructed of dead sedge, often placed so close to
the water that the base was wet ; they were always in the open
marsh, none, that we saw, under bushes or in tall rushes or reeds,
and the single nest that was not in sedges was in a tuft of the
spiky rush so common in wet ground. In this case (the first
one, found by Mr. Denison) the bird flew off — the only instance
in which it did so, as they creep off generally like a mouse. On
one occasion I cut away all the sedge round the nest, except
just the patch in which it was built, as I wanted to shoot the
bird from the nest to make certain of the identity of the eggs ;
but even then, after watching the old bird go in to the nest she
would not fly off, but ran across the open space which had been
cut away till she gained the shelter of the uncut sedges. Much
more frequently seen than Cetti's Warbler, the great difficulty
is in finding them when shot. If killed on the wing, it is almost

CETT1A CETTII. 61

hopeless to look for them ; and those that I did obtain I had to
thank my dog for finding, though he spoilt one or two. They are
most easily to be got in the morning and evening, when the male
perches on a sallow bush or tall reed and sings his grasshopper-
like song, or rather whir.

We only found them in one particular locality: in other
marshes, very similar in appearance, we failed to hear or see
them ; and they probably require a very large extent of sedge
(Cladium mariscus).

The eggs are of a whitish ground-colour, marked all over with
minute spots of brown, thicker at the larger end, often forming
a well-marked zone. Sometimes the ground-colour is buff; but
there were only two or three of this hue.

Savi's Warbler has been obtained near Seville by Ruiz, and
Arevalo records them on passage near Malaga.

Above uniform russet-brown ; chin whitish ; underparts light brown.
Tail slightly cuneiform, indistinctly barred with dark brown.

Legs and feet pale brown, the claws darker ; irides olive-brown ; lower
mandible dirty white, with dusky tip ; upper one blackish ; inside of mouth
of adult pale salmon-colour, that of young bright yellow. Length 6
inches.

40. Lusciniola melanopog-on (Temminck). The Moustached

Swamp-Warbler.

Has been obtained near Malaga ; is common and breeds near
Valencia. Inhabits rushy and reedy swamps.

Marked on back much as Sedge-Warbler : crown nearly black, broad
white eyebrow, and blackish stripe through eye. First primary half the
length of the second. Length 5j inches.

41. Cettia cettii (Marmora). Cetti's Bush- Warbler.

Favier states that " this Warbler is rare near Tangier, and
seen on passage in February and March, to return in October."
This, however, is quite different from my own observations.
They certainly are not rare in spring near Tangier, where, as

62 TURDID.E.

on the Spanish side, wherever there are thick bushes (generally
bramble-brakes close to water) Cetti's Warbler is to be heard.
Perhaps many migrate ; but at Casas Viejas they are quite as
common during the winter months as at any other season, and,
somewhat like our own Robin, may be heard singing at all times.
Very difficult to see in the breeding-season, in the winter months
they do not skulk so much. They are excessively restless, being
ever on the move ; and often in the winter, when hidden up in
the sotos near Casas Yiejas, have I watched them quite close to
me ; but the slightest movement on my part sent them off to
the thickest depths of the jungle. In the breeding-season it is
almost impossible to catch a glimpse of one.

The only chance of shooting them is at the nest, which is
always placed some distance from the ground, generally at a
height of about two or three feet, and is either situated in a
thick bush or (when in a bushy swamp) constructed, somewhat
like the nest of the Reed- Warbler, on the stalks of reeds and
Epilolium. These nests, extremely difficult to find, are built of
bits of small sedges, intermingled with willow-cotton, and chiefly
lined outside with strips of the stems of the Epilolnum, inside
with fine grass, a few hairs, and bits of cotton at the top. Those
nests built in bushes are chiefly constructed with grass and
cotton, and are entirely lined with hair. All the nests are deep
and cup-shaped, largest at the base, measuring about 4J inches
in height, the inside depth being 2J-, the internal diameter
2f inches. The beautiful pink eggs, which lose much of their
beauty when blown, are laid about the end of April, and are
usually five in number ; but I have known only three.

The birds are rather irregular as to the time of nesting, as I
have seen nests nearly on the point of hatching and others with
fresh eggs on the same day (13th of May).

Tail much graduated and of ten feathers, with indistinct bands of dark
brown.

Sexes alike, males slightly larger.

Head and upper parts rusty brown. Chin, throat, and centre of belly
white. Inside of mouth yellowish. Length 5£ inches.

PHYLLOSCOBUS- RUFUS. 63

42. Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechstein). The Wood- Warbler.
This species is not mentioned by Favier as occurring near

Tangier, where, however, they are found, though not commonly.
On the Spanish side of the Straits it is the scarcest of the four
species of Phylloscopus, and was first seen on the 22nd of April.
I killed one in my garden at Gibraltar, and some remain during
the nesting-season in the Cork-wood, where Verner found a nest
on the 25th of June ; but we did not observe them in winter, and
were unable to notice the date of their departure south.

Nest domed, but not lined with feathers, like those of
P. rufus and P. trochilus, and is always placed on the ground.

The bird is easily distinguished by the streak of bright yellow
over the eye and the white colour of the underparts, and is the
largest species of the genus found near Gibraltar.

Distinct light streak from base of bill over eye to crown ; white belly,
contrasting with yellow breast and throat. Length 5j inches.

43. Phylloscopus bonellii (Vieillot): Bonelli's Willow-

Warbler.

" Found during migration near Tangier, in company with
P. rufus and P. trochilus,~but is not so numerous. They return
in September." — Favier.

This species, about the size of the Chiffchaff, is found in
plenty near Gibraltar, nesting in the fern in the Cork-wood ; the
earliest I noticed arriving was on the 1st of April. Verner, on
2nd May, 1877, found a nest in a genista-bush about three feet
from the ground.

They are not found in winter.

Head and back olive-brown, with green tinge; rump yellow; breast and
belly white ; chin and throat tinged with yellow ; eye-streak greyish white
Length 4| inches.

44. Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). The Chiffchaff,

Spanish. Mosquilla.

According to Favier this bird is nearly as common as the

TURDID.E.

Willow- Warbler, crossing to Europe in February, March, and
April, returning in October and November.

The ChiffchaiF is to be seen throughout the year in the Cork-
wood, but is most common from November to March. I found a
nest on the 21st April in a bush about six inches from the ground.

The four Spanish species of Phylloscopus all build domed
nests, usually on the ground, but occasionally in bushes or fern at
an elevation of sometimes two feet or more above the ground;
this is particularly the case with Bonelli's Willow- Warbler.

The Chiffchaff is difficult to tell from the common Willow-
Warbler, but is always smaller and the legs are darker, being
almost black, the eyebrow is not so well defined, and it is a more
dull-coloured bird than P. trocliilus. The note is also very
different and distinct. The young of all the species are more
highly coloured than the adult birds ; but the genus is a very
troublesome and perplexing one to the student, and only to be
elucidated by observing the different species in a wild state, and
listening to their notes. The skins shrink and the colours fade
so much that a table-naturalist is much the most puzzled by them.

Above olive-green, below yellowish white. Smaller than next, and duller
in plumage. Legs nearly black. Length 4| inches.

45. Phylloscopus trochilus (Linnaeus). The Willow-Warbler.

Moorish. Simriz. Spanish. Mosquilla.

" The most common of Willow- Wrens near Tangier ; crosses
the Straits in April, returning in November." — Favier.

There is no doubt, although I did not find a nest, that this
species breeds near Tangier. In the vicinity of Gibraltar they
are to be found throughout the year in the Cork-wood, where
they breed, and I have seen the young able to fly on the 8th
of May. Although universally distributed in winter, they are
most common when on passage in March and October.

Much as last, but larger and brighter. Legs light Irown. Length 5
inches.

HYPOLAIS OPACA. 65

46. Hypolais polyg-lotta (Vieillot). The Short- wing-ed Yel-
low Tree-Warbler.

Spanish. Almendrita de verano.

" Arrives and crosses to Europe in April, returning in August
and September, many remaining to nest around Tangier." —
Fav ier.

This Yellow Warbler is exceedingly plentiful near Gibraltar,
being one of the latest of the spring arrivals ; the first observed
was on the 25th of April, and the earliest date on which eggs
were found was on the 14th of May. The birds frequent trees
and bushes, especially willows and sallows ; and the nest, neatly
built and cup-shaped, in a great measure composed of sallow-
cotton and thistle-down, is placed in bushes, and usually contains
four pinkish-tinged eggs, marked with blackish spots.

This bird was figured by Yarrell as the Melodious Willow-
Warbler (H. icterina), a slightly larger species.

First primary small, but longer than the primary coverts ; in H. icterina
it is scarcely as long, but the wing is longer.

Above olive-green ; below lemon-yellow ; lores yellow ; secondaries
broadly margined with buffish white. The inside of the mouth bright
orange-yellow. Length 4£ inches.

47. Hypolais opaca (Lichtenstein) . The Western Pallid
Warbler.

" This Warbler is nearly the same in size as H. polyglotta,
but somewhat larger, and identical with that bird in habits,
times of arrival and departure, and also in manner of nesting.
They build on trees, bushes, and small plants, laying in May or
the beginning of June." — Favier.

This Pallid Warbler is the latest of all the spring migrants
that arrive in Anclalucia, being a little later than H. polyglotta.
They are much more plentiful eastward of Gibraltar than in the
immediate vicinity, where they are rare. Another species,

F

66 TURDIDJS.

H. olivetomm, is stated to have been met with at Tangier and
Fez, but did not come under my observation, and, being found in
S.E. Europe and Asia Minor, is not likely to occur.

Above olive-brown ; tail darker brown ; throat and centre of belly
white ; the rest below buffy white. Length 5£ inches.

Subfamily REGULIN^.

48. Regulus- cristatus, K. L. Koch. The Gold-crested "Wren.

I have never met with this bird in Andalucia, where they
have been recorded as common, and Lord Lilford informs me
that he never obtained an Andalucian specimen. Possibly they
may occur irregularly, like the Siskin — that is to say, not in all
winters consecutively. Arevalo says they have been found near
Malaga and Granada.

Male. General colour above olive-green, a black streak on each side
of the orange-coloured crown.

female. Less bright than male. Length 3^ inches.

49. Regulus ignicapillus (0. L. Brehm). The Fire-crested
Wren.

This species is resident and common in the Cork-wood and in
the wooded valleys at the back of Algeciraz, coming as near to
Gibraltar as the Malaga Gardens, close to San Roque. They
nest rather early, the young being able to fly on the 15th of May.

Male. Much as last, but whitish streak over the eye, and a third black
streak through eye to the olive-green nape ; crown flame-coloured.
Female. Less bright than male. Length 4 inches.

TIMELIID^E. 67

Family TIMELIID^]. Subfamily BRACHYPODIIN^.

50. Pycnonotus barbatus (Desfontaines). The White-vented
Bulbul.

Moorish. Bou lag-lag.

" Is very abundant and resident around Tangier. When the
oranges are ripe, they are always to be heard and seen chattering
and fighting in the gardens. They nest in May, June, and July,
laying from three to four eggs, which are very thin-shelled and
tender, of a greyish-white colour, marbled or spotted with reddish
spots of two or three shades of brown and purple. The nest is
built in the branches of fruit-trees (orange-, apricot-, pear-, &c.),
and is shaped like those of the Woodchat Shrike, coarsely
interlaced outside with ends of small roots and with creeping
plants. They feed on all kinds of fruit and different flowers,
are very fond of oranges, and prefer them to anything else.

" This species is subject to variations, as I have seen two
which had the head, breast, and neck brown, with white spots,
while the wings, back, and tail were brownish red, the rest being
dirty white." — Favier.

In accordance with Favier's statement, this Dusky Bulbul was
found in great plenty about the gardens just outside Tangier.
They were shy ; but one day in March I stalked up to and
watched for some time a lot of seven or eight in the Belgian
Consul's garden. They were squabbling and playing with one
another on a Persian lilac or common bead- tree, the seeds of
which they were pecking at; and they reminded me much of
some of the Indian Babblers (Crateropus), particularly in their
flight and garrulous chattering. Besides this noise they have a
melodious whistle, which I took down at the time and tried to
note thus — Pwit, Pivit, Quiterd, Qiiiterd, rather in the tone of a
Blackbird. This song, if it may be so called, and their chatter
are so remarkable as to attract attention at once.

F2

68 TIMELIID^E.

I took a good deal of pains to ascertain the correct local
Arabic name, which is " Bon lag-lag " ; and as no one could tell
me the meaning of the latter part, I conclude it is suggestive of
their cry, or rather clacking : one of the Arabic names of the
White Stork is " Bou lak-lak," from the noise made by the
clacking their bills.

Among the Jews, who speak Spanish, they go by the name of
" Naranjero " (litt. " The orange-man "), from their orange-eating
propensities. They make a small hole in the side of an orange
and completely clean it out, leaving nothing but a .shell of
orange-peel, which remains hanging on the tree. I have more,
than once pulled these husks down, thinking them to be sound
fruit. Owing to the mischief they thus do, they are not
favourites, and consequently are more timid near Tangier than
about Larache, where we shot some of them.

We were informed that they do not breed till the end of May,
and so had no opportunity of studying their nesting-habits. In
the end of April, near Larache, they were evidently not then
nesting ; and, as at Tangier, all those which we saw were near
gardens and villages.

Mr. Meade- Waldo found them in February 1892, out in the
open, feeding on the flower of the Asphodel.

This Bulbul certainly does not occur in the western part of
Andalucia ; I have tried everywhere for it. If found anywhere,
the coast near Tarifa would be the most likely ground ; but in
the orange-groves there, the Spaniards, when asked if there was a
bird like the " mirlo " which ate oranges, simply looked on me as
more "loco" than the generality of "los Ingleses," who, in their
opinion, are all mad, and disclaimed any knowledge of a " naran-
jero " in the shape of a bird of such size. The Great Titmouse,
however, they say eats oranges, but not unless the skin is broken.

Sexes alike. General colour dull brown, except the white belly and
under tail-coverts, the latter sometimes faintly tinged with yellow. Length
8 inches, tail 4 inches.

CISTICOLA CURSITANS. 69

Subfamily CISTICOL^E.

51. Cisticola cursitans (Frankland). The Fantail or Grass-
Warbler.

Moorish. Bou-fesaha (Father of eloquence). Spanish. Cierra-
puiio, Tin-Tin, Biutrecillo, Trepatorres, Buitron.

" Is the most common of the aquatic Warblers around Tangier,
and seen migrating in lots of from ten to twelve during March
and April, returning in October, November, and December.
Many remain to breed, nesting twice in the season." — Favier.

This diminutive Grass- Warbler is resident near Gibraltar, and
exceedingly plentiful in the winter, frequenting marshy ground
wherever there is any herbage, such as grass, sedges, or short
rushes. In the spring they go to the corn-fields as well, never,
however, being found away from water. I do not recollect ever
seeing them perch on a bush or tree, but always on some plant.
Their note and jerky flight somewhat remind one of the Meadow-
Pipit ; during the nesting-season in particular they will fly
darting about high overhead for several minutes, continually
uttering their squeaky single note (whence the name of Tin-Tin),
all the time evidently trying to decoy the intruder from their
nest. They undoubtedly breed twice a year — according to the
Spaniards, three times. I have found the young well able to fly,
and a nest with eggs ready to hatch, on the same day, the 19th
of April ; an unfinished nest on the 8th of May, and a nest with
eggs very hard sat-on on the 10th of that month.

The nest much resembles the caterpillars' webs which are
common on pine-trees in some parts of Andalucia ; any one would
take them for the web of an insect ; but they are very troublesome
to find, and made of the cotton of plants and thistle-down,
with small bits of grass beautifully sewn and interwoven with
the corn or grass in which the nest is built ; the entrance is at

rU PANURID^E.

the top, the bottom being the broadest part, the whole length
about five inches. The usual number of eggs is five, generally
of a pale blue ; but, as is well known, they vary strangely in
colour.

Sexes alike. Tail much graduated. Inside of mouth black ; irides very
pale brown. Crown and back streaked with black and buff. Below buffisli
white ; flanks rufous. Length 4^ inches, tail If inches.

CRATEROPODES.

52. Argya fulva (Desfontaines) . The North - African
Babbler.

This Babbler is mentioned by Mr. Drake as occurring in the
southern part of Morocco, but does not appear ever to have come
under Favier's notice in the northern part.

Sexes alike. Bill stout and strongly curved.

General colour rufous fawn. Chin and throat white. Length 10
inches, tail 5 inches.

PANURID^l.

53. Panurus biarmicus (Linnaeus). The Bearded Reedling-.

This reed-frequenting bird is found at the Albufera near
Valencia, but I have no certain evidence of its occurrence nearer
to Gibraltar.

Tail fawn-coloured, about three inches long, graduated, and slightly
curving downwards.

Male. Bill yellow ; head grey ; black moustachial stripe. General
colour above tawny buff.

Female. Paler ; no moustachial stripe ; head fawn-colour.

Young. Like female, but head and back slightly striped with black.
Length 6 inches.

PARID.E. 71

PARID.E.

54. Acredula irbii, Sharpe and Dresser. The Spanish Long-

tailed Tit.

Spanish. Mito.

This little bird, a climatic race of our British A. caudata (or, as
separatists have it, rosea), is only to be found around Gibraltar in
the Cork-wood of Almoraima, chiefly keeping to the sotos and to
the district round the Mill, the Long Stables, and the second
venta. Similar in its habits to the British form, the nest and
eggs are also exactly the same as those of that bird. I found the
young able to fly by the middle of April, and on the 12th of that
month found a nest with seven young fully fledged ; this would
make the date of laying about the 20th of February. The nests,
without exception, were all built in the thorny creeper, a species
of Smilax, called Zarzaparilla by the Spaniards, which forms
regular net- or lattice-work walls from the ground to the lower
branches of the trees, and are usually placed about 15-16 feet
from the ground and very difficult to get at, the only way being
either to cut or shoot away the creepers above them — often no
easy matter. The only eggs obtained were addled ones, left in
nests from which the young had flown.

The adults differ from the British and North-European races in having
the entire back bluish grey.

Crown black, with whitish stripe along the centre. Length 5^ inches,
tail 3| inches.

55. Parus major, Linnseus. The Great Tit.

Spanish. Quive-vive, Carpintero, Carbonero, Cerrajero, Guer-
rero.

Favier considers this species to be extremely scarce near
Tangier, but specimens have been obtained there in winter, and
Mr. Meade-Waldo saw plenty on the 27th of February, 1892.

72 PAEID^E.

On the Spanish side of the Straits they are extremely plentiful,
and to be heard wherever there are any trees, nesting in April
in holes of the cork-trees. There is a great increase of their
numbers in winter, when they visit the Alameda and gardens at
Gibraltar, being the only observed Calpeian representative of the
Tits.

Male. Crown bluish black ; cheeks white ; black stripe along the middle
of the greenish-yellow breast and belly.

Female. Similar, but black stripe below not so extended. Length 6
inches.

56. Parus cseruleus, Linnseus. The Blue Tit.

Spanish. Herrerillo (Little smith).

The Blue Tit is very common in Andalucia, being resident and
particularly abundant in the Cork-wood of Almoraima, generally
nesting (about the middle of April) in the decayed hollow
branches of the cork-trees.

In April 1894, at Retin, I saw a pair of these birds going in
and out of a dome-shaped nest, constructed externally of small
sticks, which they had either built or enlarged, at the end of a
horizontal bough of a cork-tree. It looked like a miniature
Magpie's nest, and I could, when it was first found, see the light
through : unable to reach it without a ladder, I left for Gibraltar,
and Verner, who remained behind for a few days, reported
that ultimately they began to dismantle the nest and carry the
materials to some more usual situation.

Spanish specimens are very bright in colour — one or two so much so
that, until I had seen a specimen of Parus tenerffce, I imagined them to
be that species.

Crown and wing-coverts azure-blue. Length 4^ inches.

57. Parus teneriflfee, Less. The Ultramarine Tit.

Moorish. Bou rezizi (Father of the little turban).

" Is resident near Tangier, but less frequent in December and

PAKUS CRISTATUS. 73

January than during other months. They nest in holes of trees,
in April, laying from four to five eggs, white, with very small red
spots, similar to those of Parus cceruleus, which they replace in
Morocco, and appear to be a variety of that bird constant to this
climate." — Favier.

I have never been able to detect the Ultramarine Tit on the
Spanish, nor seen the Blue Tit on the Moorish side of the Straits,
where the present species is plentiful, their habits &c. being
identical.

The African bird is easily recognized by the greyish-blue back and the
deep blackish blue on the crown of the head, as well as on those parts which
are cobalt-blue in the European species.

58. Parus ater, Linnaeus. Trie European Coal-Tit.

I never met with this species, which, however, is recorded
from Granada, Cordova, and Malaga by Arevalo.

The Algerian Coal-Tit (Parus ledouci] in all probability is to
be met with in Morocco. This bird has those parts of the head
and nape of the neck lemon-yellow which are white in P. ater,
the under surface being also lemon-yellow.

Head black ; nape and cheeks white ; wing-coverts tipped with white,
forming two bars on the wing ; back bluish gre.y in winter. Length 4£
inches.

59. Parus palustris, Linnaeus. The Marsh-Tit.

I did not observe this bird near Gibraltar, but Mr. Saunders,
Mr. Stark, and Arevalo all report it from near Granada.

Back greyish brown ; crown, chin, throat, and nape glossy black.
Length 4^ inches.

60. Parus cristatus, Linnaeus. The Crested Tit.

Spanish. Capuchino.

The Crested Tit is resident and common in the Cork-wood of
Almoraima, in all the neighbouring pine-woods, and in the
valleys and on the hill-sides at the back of Algeciraz up to near

74 SITTID^E.

Tarifa, wherever the cork-tree grows ; but singularly is not found
in the Sierra Retin, or in the Sierra Bartolome. They nest about
the 10th of May, in the hollow ends of boughs of the cork- and
pine-trees, the eggs being about five in number, much spotted,
and resembling strongly those of the Creepei(Certhiafamilians).
There is reason to think the species occurs in Morocco, but
this is only mentioned with the view of directing the attention of
future collectors there, in order that they may look out for them.

General colour greyish brown ; throat black ; crown dull black, all the
feathers tipped and edged with white, and the hinder feathers long and
pointed, forming a conspicuous crest. Length 4£ inches.

61. -iEglthalus pendulirms (Linnseus). The Penduline Tit.

Spanish. Pajaro moscon.

Specimens of this bird have been procured near Malaga ;
further east they are more common, building their retort-shaped
nest at the extremity of boughs, generally of poplars.

Bill short, straight, and much pointed.

Crown and nape greyish white ; forehead and sides of head black.
Above chestnut-brown ; throat white ; rest of underparts creamy.
Length 4^ inches.

SITTIDJE.

62. Sitta csesia, Wolf. The Common Nuthatch.

This bird, our British Nuthatch, was not mentioned by Favier,
but Capt. S. Reid mentions five or six having been obtained by
Olcese near Tangier about 1883.

On the Spanish side, Mr. Saunders records them to be common
near Granada, as also does Arevalo, stating them to be resident.
We did not meet with any near Gibraltar.

Bill longer than head. Above slaty grey ; throat whitish ; rest of
underparts cinnamon-buff, lightest next the throat ; legs dull brown.
Length 5| inches.

TROGLODYTID.E. 75

CERTHIIDJE.

63. Certhia familiaris, Linnaeus. The Tree-Creeper.

Spanish. Barba-jelena, Trepa-troncas, Aranero.

The Tree-Creeper is resident and common in the Cork-wood
and in the valleys near Algeciraz, nesting in April.

A single specimen was shot near Tangier about the 20th of
April, the only one I heard of on the African side.

Bill slender, curved downwards, and pointed. Above brown, spotted
with paler brown ; below white. Tail graduated or cuneiform, reddish
brown, with stiff points. Length 5 inches.

64. Tichodroma muraria, Linnaeus. The Rock-Creeper.

I have never met with this bird, which is recorded from near
Antiquera, Gaitan, and the Sierra Nevada, and is stated to have
been seen at Gibraltar many years ago.

General colour slate-grey ; all the primaries, except the first three,
crimson on the basal half of the outer web ; throat black in summer, white
in winter ; bill as in last, but longer in proportion. Length 6 inches.

TROGLODYTID.E.

65. Troglodytes parvulus, K. L. Koch. The Wren.

Spanish. Cucito, Katilla.

" Resident near Tangier, and numerous, nesting from March
to June. Some are migratory, arriving in November, and leaving
again in February." — Favier.

The above remarks equally apply to the Wren on the Spanish
side, where they are most abundant, nesting very early ; and I
have seen young fully able to fly on the 26th of April, and they
are resident on " the Rock."

It is very curious that this little bird should be a resident in

76 ORIOLID^E.

the scorching sun of Morocco and Andalucia as well as in the
bitter cold of the hills in Inverness-shire, where they are one of
the very few birds which remain to brave the winter.

Above reddish brown ; breast whitish brown ; tail closely barred with
black, and much more rufous than back. Hind toe as long or longer than
middle toe. Length 4 inches.

CINCLID.E.

66. Cinclus albicollis (Vieillot). The Grey-backed Dipper
or "Water-Ouzel.

Spanish. Tordo de agua, Pechiblanco.

Occurs in the streams of the Sierras, and is resident. I have
seen them near the waterfall beyond Algeciraz, where Mr. Stark
found a nest about the 17th of May ; but they are not abundant
anywhere.

Resembles the English Chestnut- breasted Dipper, C. aquaticus, except
that the back is paler and the head lighter, and it can only be considered a
climatic race of that species. Length 7 inches.

ORIOLIDJE.

67. Oriolus galbula, Linnaeus. The Golden Oriole.

Moorish. Tair es sfar (Yellow bird). Spanish. Oropendola.

According to Favier the Golden Oriole " crosses the Straits in
great numbers during April and May, returning in July, August,
and September." These dates much agree with my own obser-
vations on the Spanish side, I having first seen them in 1869 on
the 21st of April, in 1870 on the 18th, in 1871 on the 4th (one
only), and in 1872 on the llth : many passed on the 16th in that
year. The spring migration lasts up to the 14th or 15th of May.
Some few pairs remain to breed in the vicinity of Gibraltar ; but
the majority pass further north and resort to fruit-producing
districts, where they get the credit of doing much damage to

STURNID^E. 77

cherries, mulberries, &c., but at the same time they eat cater-
pillars and other insects.

Almost entirely a fruit-eating bird ; those who have kept them
alive informed me that they could not preserve them through the
winter — nor, indeed, longer than fruit was to be obtained.

When the Japanese loquats (Eriolotrya japonica) were ripe in
my garden at Gibraltar in May 1870, Golden Orioles remained
about as long as the loquats lasted, but would not admit of much
observation, as they were very shy and difficult to watch. They
are more often heard than seen ; and I have spent hours in
trying to get a shot as they skulked in the thickest foliage of tall
trees, continually piping their flute-like note.

Some are always to be heard during May near the Mill and the
" Second Veuta " in the Cork-wood ; and a pair usually frequented
the lower part of the First Pine-wood. I found one nest in the
middle of May, built at the very extremity of a bough at the top
of a high oak tree, which was impossible to obtain without
cutting the branch off. Verner remarks also that the Golden
Oriole has a habit of, when disturbed, flying into the thickest
green-foliaged tree, not settling on cork-trees, in which the
foliage is scanty.

Male. Head and general colour golden yellow. Black spot between
crimson eye and dull red bill ; wings black, with yellow tips to secondaries.
Tail : outer feathers with more than terminal half yellow.

Female. Greenish yellow above ; outer tail-feathers tipped with yellow.
1 have never seen a female Golden Oriole in same plumage as male.

Young. Greenish yellow above ; below whitish tinged with yellow ;
breast slightly streaked with brown ; the black parts of adult male replaced
by greenish brown. Length 9 inches.

STURNID53.

68. Sturnus vulg-aris, Linnaeus. The Common Starling.

Moorish. Zarzor. Spanish. Estornino.

" This bird arrives about Tangier in large flights from October

78 STURNID^E.

to January, departing in March. During the autumnal migration
the flights are often mixed up with S. unicolor. In October,
1842, a Moor brought to Tangier about three hundred and fifty
Starlings, which he affirmed he had caught at one time in a net ;
about half of these birds were S. unicolor." — Favier.

In Andalucia, the Common Starling may be said, roughly
speaking, to come and go with the Golden Plover. The earliest
date noticed of their arrival was the 15th of October, the latest
date on which any were seen being the 1st of March. I have a
note of seeing many thousands passing southwards in successive
flights on the 28th of October. During the winter months they
are seen in swarms about low ground ; and the Spaniards shoot
immense numbers at their roosting-places in the reed-beds near
Vejer and Casas Viejas. Consequently, during their stay,
Starlings form a very cheap and, it may be fairly said, nasty dish
in all the ventorillas in the vicinity.

Male. Black, with purple and green gloss, small buff tips to feathers
above. Head, throat, and breast with green gloss.

Female. Similar to male, but less brightly marked.

In ivinter, all the feathers of upper parts tipped with buff, those below
tipped with whitish.

Young in first plumage. Uniform greyish brown ; throat dull white ;
lower parts clouded with white. Length 8^ inches.

69. Sturnus unicolor, Temminck. The Spotless Starling".

Moorish. Zarzor kahal (Black Starling). Spanish. Tordo.

" This Starling is very abundant around Tangier, passing north
in March and returning during the month of September, many,
however, remaining to breed." — Favier.

The Sardinian Starling, as the species has been termed,
Spotless Starling being a more appropriate and distinctive name,
is almost entirely migratory in Andalucia ; but I have seen them
there in December. Not so abundant as the Common Starling,
they resemble that bird in their habits and note, nesting about

PASTOE KOSEUS. 79

the end of April in roofs of houses in towns, and they make use
of the old Moorish towers, besides building in holes of trees ;
the eggs exactly resemble those of 8. vulgar is. They are more
common some sixty miles north of Gibraltar than in the imme
diate vicinity. 'Three or four pairs used to frequent the Venta
at Casas Viejas, and during November and December nearly
every morning assembled on the roof, whistling and pluming
themselves before going forth for the day. The amo, or landlord,
well known as " old Bernardo," begged me not to molest them —
a request I most scrupulously complied with ; but on my return
there in 1874, they were absent, probably killed by some of the
shooting visitors from Gibraltar. Whether the death of the old
man caused them to lack protection I cannot say. This old
fellow, who had served as a sergeant in the Spanish army, and
was present at the defence of Tarifa in 1811, was a fine specimen
of the Spaniard, and used to tell wonderful stories of his
soldiering days. I regret that since his decease the Venta has
changed for the worse, both in prices and accommodation.

Head and back uniform. No spots in breeding-plumage, but in winter
all the body-feathers are tipped with arrow-shaped spots of greyish white.
Length 8^ inches.

70. Pastor roseus (Linnaeus) . The Rose-coloured Starling.

The Rose-coloured Pastor, as it used to be termed, is an
occasional wanderer from the East to Andalucia, and has been
obtained near Seville and Malaga.

Male. Head black, with crest of pointed and elongated feathers ; back,
scapulars, rump, breast, sides, and belly rosy pink; wings, tail, and thiglis
black ; bill rose-coloured, black at base.

Female. Crest smaller and less bright.

Young. Crest absent ; colour greyish brown, where rosy in adults.
Length 8^ inches.

80 CORVID^E.

GORVID^l.

71. Pyrrhocorax graculus (Linnaeus). The Red-billed

Chough.

Moorish. Narrar. Spanish. Graja.

This species is stated by Favier to be found in large nights
near Tetuan — a statement we can fully corroborate. We also
saw a great many about the cliffs of Abyla, or Apes' Hill, opposite
to Gibraltar.

In the rocky sierras of Andalucia the Red-billed Chough is
plentiful, particularly about Ubrique. They are, of course,
resident ; but I am unable to state the time of nidification.

Jet-black, with steel gloss ; the curved bill, eyelids, legs, and feet red.
Length 14-17 inches.

72. Pyrrhocorax alpinus, Vieillot. The Yellow - billed

Chough.

Although there is no record of the occurrence of this Chough
on the African side, at Apes' Hill, in 1877, a bird flew so close
to us that we thought we could distinguish the yellow bill.

On the Spanish side they occur near Granada, and at the
Taj os del Gaitan, Malaga.

Plumage and size as last, but bill yellow and slightly shorter.

[Nucifrag'a oaryooatactes (Linnaeus). The Nutcracker.

I never met with this pine-forest bird on either side of the
Straits, though there was one in a collection at Cordova ; but
from what locality was not stated ; so, until further evidence be
obtained, the species cannot with certainty be included as an
Andalucian bird. It has been recorded from Estremadura by
Captain Cook Widdrington, and possibly may be found in some of
the high ranges, where Pinus cembra grows.]

GAKRULUS GLAN DARIUS. 81

Head dark brown ; general colour clove-brown, most of the feathers of
breast, sides, and underparts spotted with a triangular white mark. Rump
and upper tail-coverts uniform brown. Tail blackish, tipped with white.
Length 14 inches.

73. Garrulus glandarius (Linnseus). The "West-European
Jay.

Spanish. Arrendajo.

This British Jay is not record3d by Favier from Morocco ; nor
did I obtain any species of Jay on the African side ; but Captain
Savile Reid, in February 1883, brought home a specimen, one of
three obtained by Olcese near Tangier. The Editors of the
' Ibis,' 1885, p. 246, examined this bird, and considered it a cross
between G. glandarius and G. cervicalis. We may reasonably
assume that they sometimes cross the Straits, as they occasionally
appear at Gibraltar in winter. Four frequented the Alameda
and other gardens in the south from about the 10th of November,
1870, to the 4th of April, 1871 ; and I saw another in March,
1872 ; this last bird did not linger about for more than a few
days.

This Jay is very plentiful near Gibraltar in the Cork-wood, and
in the wooded valleys and hill-sides up to a considerable elevation.
At the same time it is rather local ; and though many are
resident, they are more abundant in the winter months.

They nest in some numbers in the Cork-wood, laying their
eggs early in May ; and, at that season particularly, they are
easily decoyed within shot by secreting one's self in thick cover
and imitating either their call or the squeal of a wounded rabbit.

Throat white ; crown with black streaks ; feathers of forehead and crown
edged with white ; back vinaceous ; outer web of wing-coverts barred with
blue and Hack, inner web black ; tail often barred slightly at the basal end
in the same manner as the outer web of wing-coverts (this is not the result
of age, birds in first plumage occasionally being so marked) ; iris pale blue.
Length 14 inches.

82 COKVID^E.

74. Garrulus cervicalis, Bonaparte. Algerian Black-headed

Jay.

Mr. Meade-Waldo found this bird on the Moorish side of the
Straits, and brought home several ; he describes it as chiefly a
mountain bird, with a voice different to that of G. glandarius.

Crown with thick black crest ; nape and fore part of back vinous rufous ;
space round eye white. Length 14 inches.

75. Pica rustica (Scopoli). The Common Magpie.
Spanish. Urraca, Marica.

Our British Magpie is extremely local in Andalucia ; but
where met with is very abundant ; they do not, however, occur
to the south of Seville, except on the banks of the Guadalquivir
to below Coria, as far as there are any trees and bushes. Great
numbers frequent the Goto del Hey, where they breed in the
beginning of May, accommodating the Great Spotted Cuckoo
with their nests. The Spanish bird undoubtedly runs into the
African form P. mauritanica.

Long graduated iridescent green tail ; rump greyish white. Length
16-18 inches, tail 10-11.

76. Pica mauritanica, Malh. The North- African Magpie.

Arabic. Akaka.

This species, which, however, I failed to meet with in Morocco,
is the Magpie of the country, and perhaps is very local, for
Mr. Drake describes it as abundant in parts he visited.

Is distinguished from P. rustica by the bare space behind the eye and
by the black rump, both species being otherwise identical in size and
markings.

o'

77. Cyanopica cooki, Bonaparte. The Spanish Azure-winged
Magpie.

Spanish. Mohino rabilargo, Mohino.

This species is peculiar to the Peninsula, but does not occur
in the vicinity of Gibraltar. The nearest locality to that place

>7 cfl
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CORVUS MONEDULA. 83

where they are to be found is about Coria del Rio, below Seville ;
thence, as far as the Goto del Rey, they occur in tolerable
numbers, but are much more common towards Cordova, and are
reported to be very numerous in some parts of Estremadura,
being, however, a very local bird.

The nests which I have seen were built on boughs at no great
height from the ground, rather clumsily constructed with small
sticks, grass, moss, and wool — containing five eggs ; but as many
as seven are frequently found. They are well figured in ' The
Ibis' (1866, p. 382, pi. x. figs. 3-8), from specimens obtained by
Lord Lilford in 1864. and vary a great deal in colour and
markings, the commonest form being of a stony-buff colon?*
marked with purplish and brown spots. I kept four of these
birds, reared from the nest, for some time alive, feeding them on
grapes, figs, bread, beetles, and grasshoppers. Always placing
the insects under their feet, they picked them to pieces much as
a Hawk or an Owl tear their prey. They became very tame and
amusing ; but during my temporary absence, unluckily, all died.

I never heard of this bird on the Moorish side of the Straits.

The sexes are alike in plumage.

78. Corvus monedula, Linnaeus. The Jackdaw.

Spanish. Graja.

Mr. Drake mentions having met with the Jackdaw near Tetuan,
where I did not see any, nor find them anywhere on the African
side. Favier also omits the bird from his list.

On the Spanish side of the Straits they are extremely local,
the only locality in which I have seen any being the Goto del
Rey, near Seville, where, in 1870, they were common, nesting
about the end of April in holes of trees, one or two pairs
building in the roof of the Palacio. Jackdaws are also said to
be abundant near Granada.

Black ; ear-coverts, nape, and sides of neck grey ; belly leaden black.
Youny. Little or no grey on nape. Length 14 inches.

G2

84 CORV1D.E.

79. Corvus corax, Linnaeus. The Raven.

Spanish. Cuervo.

The Raven is found sparingly but very generally distributed on
the Spanish side of the Straits, but does not seem to be found on
the Moorish side. They are resident, and usually commence to
lay about the middle of March, thus, very curiously, breeding
later in Andalucia than in England or further north. Verner
found, on the 24th of May, 1878, a nest with young just hatched,
a few days earlier one with fledged birds, whilst in 1886, at Crete,
he took fresh eggs of Ravens on 26th of March, when other
nests had eggs or were ready for eggs.

One pair nest at Gibraltar, and, as customary with Ravens, are
the terror of all birds that approach their domain. Another pair
nest at Casas Viejas, in the old quarry called La Cima, just
outside the village.

In no case that I have seen have their nests been in anything
like proximity to one another, the reverse being the case with
Corvus tingitanus.

General colour glossy steel-black ; throat-feathers pointed ; tail slightly
cuneate. Length 24 inches.

80. Corvus tingitanus, Irby. The Tangier Raven.

Moorish. Grab.

This species or race appears to me to be quite distinct from
C. corax, and was noticed and described in 'The Ibis,' 1874
(p. 264).

Smaller than the Common Raven, C. corax, its note is different,
while its very gregarious habits are opposed to those of our
common Raven ; and it is the Raven of the Canary Islands.

Many specimens are very much marked with rusty brown on
the wings and tail, others very slightly so. In all that I have seen
there is a tinge of brown on the wings — not that this coloration
is of any consequence in determining it as a distinct species.
They also breed later than C. corax does on the Spanish side.

COBVUS TINGITANUS. 85

This Raven is exceedingly abundant around Tangier and along
the coast as far as some distance south of Larache. We did not
observe any in the high parts about Apes' Hill. Outside Tangier,
flocks of them may be seen feeding on the refuse which is carried
from the town and thrown on the sea-shore. They are exceedingly
tame to the natives, being viewed with superstitious awe by the
Moors, but are wide awake to the European, especially if he
carries a gun, and if once fired at are not likely to give a second
chance. The only way to be sure of getting them is at their
nest, which, constructed of sticks, neatly lined with grass and
small roots, is built in clefts of rocks, on trees and in low bushes ;
one nest which I saw was fixed in the crook or angle formed by
a dead flowering stalk of the aloe (Agave americana), which had
fallen across another stalk in full flower.

The eggs are usually laid about the 20th of April, and vary in
number from five to seven, and, like those of others of the Crow
tribe, differ much in the markings. Favier in his MS. says of
this Raven, under the head of C. corax, " This species is another
of those birds for which the Mahometans evince a superstitious
feeling, the liver, tongue, brain, and heart of the Raven being
considered antidotes against the effects of the evil one ; the same
virtues are attributed to the feathers and heart of the Hoopoe.
The Raven is the only species of Crow found in the neighbourhood
of Tangier, and is very abundant."

It seems that this African Raven crosses the Straits, as Verner
reports having, near Gibraltar, taken a nest, apparently of this
bird, but was unable to trap or shoot an old bird. He also reports
having seen " small Ravens," and " forty small Ravens were seen
together near Tarifa," " fifty Ravens were seen together " on the
29th of April, 1880, near the 1st River; while another officer
noticed forty-two together near Palmones on 23rd of April.

Resembles the Common Raven, but has the throat-hackles not so long,
and is much smaller in size. Length 18*5 inches, wing 14*5, tail 8, tarsus
2*5, bill from gape 2'5.

86 CORVID.E.

81. Corvus corone, Linnaeus. The Carrion-Crow.

Spanish. Gragilla.

Not mentioned by Favier, but is included by Mr. Drake in his
list of the birds of Morocco ; I never met with any on the African
side. On the Spanish side the Black Crow is scarce, and I only
remember one nest, which was taken near Utrera during the
month of March ; another pair nested near Motril in 1893 (Mena).

Black, with metallic gloss ; nostrils covered with bristly feathers ; base
of body-feathers whitish. Length 18-19 inches.

82. Corvus cornix, Linnaeus. The Hooded or Grey Crow.

Not recorded from the Moorish side of the Straits. Saunders
mentions the Hooded Crow as having been met with in
Andalucia ; there was one in a museum at Seville, but upon
inquiry it proved to be from France. I never observed any, and
the Grey Crow must be a very rare straggler, as Arevalo does not
mention it as Andalucian.

Head, throat, wings, thighs, and tail-feathers black ; the rest of plumage
dull grey. Length 18-19 inches.

83. Corvus frugilegus, Linnaeus. The Rook.

On the Moorish side of the Straits I can find no record of the
occurrence of the Rook. I never met with any near Gibraltar,
or, indeed, further south than the Goto del Rey, in the neigh-
bourhood of Seville, where there were several large flocks in
January ; and they appear to be there regular winter visitants.

Black, with blue gloss.

Adults. With bare scurfy skin on forehead, lores, and throat.

Young in first plumage have these parts feathered, and resemble young
Carrion-Crows, but the bases to the body-feathers are grey and the bill is
slender. Length 18-20 inches.

LANIID.E. 87

L A N 1 1 D $1 . Young barred below.

84. Lanius meridionalis, Temminck. The Spanish Grey

Shrike.

Spanish. Alcaudon real.

This Shrike is scarce in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, the
few specimens I have seen there having occurred in autumn only.
Further north, though rather local, they become common in many
places, being abundant and resident in the scrubby jungle near
Seville. They nest, about the 15th of April, in bushes and low
trees, building a large nest, the internal diameter measuring some
five inches. When placed on a bough, the lower half is some-
times made of mud, the upper half being constructed with rough
grass lined with fine grass, the whole covered outside with
lichens and bits of Cudweed (GnaphaUum luteo-album] — the same
plant so much used by the Woodchat and many other birds.
The eggs are from four to five in number. At one time I was
under the erroneous impression that these birds were migratory,
from having seen one or two near Gibraltar in autumn; but,
never having seen or heard of them on the African side, must
have been mistaken ; besides, they were more numerous about
the Goto del Key in winter than in May. However, this tends
to show that they shift their ground in Spain, though not
migrating out of the country.

Sexes alike. Above bluish grey ; below with rosy tinge, except the grey
flanks ; narrow white stripe from forehead over eye. Length 9 inches.

85. Lanius algeriensis, Lesson. The Algerian Grey Shrike.

Moorish. Bou-serund (Favier).

Favier's remarks, which under the synonym "meridionalis"
refer to this species, do not add anything to the following notes.
This Shrike, which would be more fitly named the North-west-

88 LANIIDJ3.

African Shrike, as it is not peculiar to Algeria, is not common in
the immediate vicinity of Tangier ; but a little further south,
near Larache, and towards the Fondak on the road to Tetuan
they are very abundant. Their habits, nests, and eggs are
identical with those of L. meridionalis, their Spanish repre-
sentative, and they are only met with in scrubby jungle. On the
18th of April we found one nest in a thick lentiscus bush, with
five eggs, which were hard sat-on, and another on the 20th, with
only three fresh eggs.

This species is distinguishable from the Spanish Grey Shrike by the
grey colour of the underparts.

Plumage black, white, and grey.

Above dark bluish grey ; below grey ; no white streak over eye. Length
9^ inches.

86. Lanius minor, J. F. Grmelin. The Lesser Grey Shrike.

This small migratory Shrike is said to have been obtained at
Lanjaron (Arevalo], but Lord Lilford informs me (1894) that he
never met with it in Andalucia and that his record of the bird
there was an error. It is reported to occur in the east of Spain.

First primary very short, less than one third of second ; tail even.
Male. Above grey ; forehead and feathers from bill, round eye to ear-
coverts, black ; breast and flanks with a roseate blush. Wing-bar white.
female. Less black on fore part of head.
Young. Has only black round and behind eye. Length 8-9 inches.

87. Lanius collurio, Linnseus. The Red-backed Shrike or

" Butcher-bird."

Mr. Meade- Waldo observed this Shrike near Tangier on the
10th of April, 1892, and it has been obtained there, though
very rarely in Andalucia ; so we may reasonably assume that
their line of migration is not across the Straits of Gibraltar ; and
it would be interesting to know the reason of this, as in 187G
Lord Lilford and myself found them common in the Province of
Santander.

LANIUS POMERANUS. 89

Male. Scapulars dull brick-red, uniform with the back ; crown, hind
neck, and rump grey ; chin white ; breast with roseate tinge.

Female. Above brownish grey ; tail brownish red. Underparts white ;
sides of neck, breast, and flanks barred with brown.

Young. Above reddish brown ; below pale brown ; above and below
barred with blackish brown. Length 7^-8 inches.

88. Lanius pomeranus, Sparrman. The "Woodchat Shrike.

Moorish. Aisha el kra (Favier) *. Spanish. Alcaudon.

As common in Morocco as in Andalucia, the Woodchat arrives
in March and April, leaving in August and September. The
first arrival noticed at Gibraltar in 1868 was on the 3rd of April,
in 1869 on the 3rd of April, in 1870 on the 29th of March, in
1894 on the 28th of March ; the passage ceases about the 20th
of April. The latest seen was on the 14th of October, 1871 ; in
1869 I observed them returning south on the 26th of August.

The Woodcliat is one of the most abundant and conspicuous
birds in spring on both sides of the Straits. Very tame and
confiding, unlike their big cousins L. meridionalis and L. alye-
riensis ; their pied appearance and the bright chestnut-coloured
head of the adult males cause them to be noticed even by the
most unobservant. They are to be seen in every direction in
woods and on plains, perched on tops of trees, bushes, aloes, and
tall plants, making their larders on the spikes of the aloes, and
impaling on the thorns, beetles, bees, and all kinds of insects,
and are extremely mischievous among bees.

The nest, which usually contains eggs by the 10th of May,
is a small edition of that of L. meridionalis, but more covered
outside with the greyish-white flowers and stalks of Cudweed
(Gnaphalium luteo-album), and usually placed low down in trees.

* " Kra " is a kind of ringworm, and no doubt given as a name to the Woodchat
owing to the supposed resemblance the chestnut head of the males has to the
head of a Moor afflicted with this disorder, which is common in Tangier, and
causes a rusty mangy baldness. "Aisha " is a female name : why applied to pied
birds ?

90 LANIID^E.

The eggs, four or five in number, sometimes six, are subject to
great variation, many resembling those of our English Butcher-
bird, L. collurio.

Male. Forehead black ; centre of crown and nape chestnut ; scapulars
white, forming a large white patch on each side ; rump and underparts
white ; white alar bar, or speculum, formed by the white outer web of base
of primaries.

Female. Like the male, but markings ill-defined and not so bright.

Young. Much like young of last, but lighter. Scapulars and rump paler ;
plumage vermiculated with dark brown. Length 7^ inches.

89. Telephonus erythropterus (Shaw). The Hooded Shrike
or Tchagra.

Moorish. Abermat (Favier).

" This Shrike is nearly as common as Lanius algeriensis near
Tangier, and is resident, nesting in bushes twice a year — in May
or June, and again in November. Their note, which is a kind
of whistle, harmonious and well sustained, and very like that of
a Blackbird, is usually beard from the middle of some thick bush
(where they have a habit of hiding themselves), as well as in the
thickest part of trees. They lay about three eggs, of the same
shape as those of other Shrikes, but white marked with lines and
small spots of ash-brown and russet, mostly at the thick end.
The sexes are alike in plumage, and undergo no change."-
Favier.

According to my limited experience, the Tchagra is rather
scarce near Tangier, but more plentiful about a day's journey
south. On the 25th of April we took a nest in a small tree close
to the ground, containing three slightly incubated eggs, which
is, we were informed, the usual complement. , The nest was not
so compact as that of the Woodchat, containing less grass and
dried flowers, being chiefly built of fibrous roots. Mr. Meade-
Waldo writes that " when beating for pigs, and these birds are
hustled, they dart into a thick bush and sit perfectly still, so that
you can look at them from a yard's distance or less ; when

MUSCICAPIDJS. 91

undisturbed in the early morning, they have a most beautiful
wild rich song." It is an easy bird to recognize when once seen
on the wing, the chestnut of the wing-coverts and the long tail
being very conspicuous.

Favier states that they cross the Straits ; all I can say is, I never
saw a Spanish specimen : if they do occur in Spain, they are as
yet unobserved by any competent ornithologist.

Crown black ; broad white eye-stripe, with black stripe below.

Wing-coverts chestnut ; below dark ash-grey. Tail much graduated,
all the feathers, except the two light brown centre ones, black, tipped with
white. Length 9 inches, tail 4 inches.

MUSCICAPID^B. Nostrils more or less covered by

bristly hairs.

90. Muscicapa grisola (Linnaeus). The Spotted Flycatcher.

Spanish. Papamoscas, Pifiata.

" This Flycatcher is very common near Tangier, where they
arrive in April and May in pairs and small nights, some remaining
to nest, the others passing across the Straits to return in
September, when they disappear. Near Rabat they are called
Sorsh by the Arabs." — Favier.

The Spotted Flycatcher is exceedingly numerous near Gibraltar,
chiefly nesting in the pine- woods, and was first seen on the llth
of May, 1870, on the 3rd of the same month in 1871, and on the
8th in 1874. The first egg obtained was on the 24th of the same
month. Verner found a nest with fully-fledged young on 3rd
of July, 1879. I regret not to have any note of their departure ;
but it is previous to the middle of September, and Verner informs
me that they leave about the end of August.

Ashy brown above ; forehead lighter than head, which is mottled with
streaks of darker brown ; breast white, with brown streaks ; axillaries
fawn-coloured.

Young. Spotted. Length 5£ inches.

92 MUSCICAPID^E.

91. Muscicapa atricapilla, Linnaeus. The Pied Flycatcher.

Spanish. Cerrojillo.

"Very abundant near Tangier on passage, crossing to Europe
in pairs and small nights during April and May, returning in
September and October." — Favier.

In Andalucia the Pied Flycatcher only appears during
migration ; and I was never able to detect them remaining to
nest. The earliest date of arrival noticed was the 8th of April ;
from then till the 1st of May they pass in great numbers,
returning late in September. The latest date on which they
were observed was the 17th of October, 1870, when I found one
in an owl's disused cage, where there was a lot of carrion which
attracted flies ; and, again, in 1871 I noticed them on the 16th
of October.

Male in spring. Above black, except white forehead and white wing-bar ;
axillaries and underparts white ; quills brownish black. Tail black, three
outer feathers on each side having two-thirds of the outer web from the
base white.

Female, male in winter, and young. Above brownish grey ; underparts
dirty white. Tail as in male, but duller. Length 5 inches.

92. Muscicapa collaris, Bechstein. The Collared Fly -
catcher.

This Flycatcher is recorded by Mr. Saunders as having been
once seen by him at Seville. Is said to be common in Portugal,
therefore it is somewhat singular that the bird should not be
more frequently noticed in Andalucia.

The adult male differs only from M. atricapilla in having a white collar
on the back of the neck.

HIRUNDIN1D.E. 93

HIRUNDINID^.

93. Hirundo rustica, Liunseus. The Common Swallow.

Moorish. Khotaifa. Spanish. Golondrina.

" Great flights of Swallows pass in January and February to
Europe, returning in September and October to join those which
remain near Tangier to nest, all leaving to go further south for
the winter. The Moors believe that it oifends God to kill these
birds, in the same way as they believe it pleases or soothes the
Evil One to kill the Raven, The stories on which this supersti-
tion is founded are too long to relate ; but I was informed by
one person that the Swallows and White Storks were inspired by
Allah to protect the harvest and the country from noxious insects
and reptiles, and that the birds themselves (knowing the benefits
they confer on man) ask in return protection for their offspring
by building their nests on the walls of towns and houses, and
that therefore any one who kills them must be a Kaffir, i. e. not
a true believer of the Prophet, especially as the birds would only
be killed for mischief, being useless when dead." — Favier.

I wish this belief could be instilled into the minds of English
people, who kill and destroy every rare bird they see, through
ignorance, love of destruction, and to gratify the cupidity of
private collectors.

About Gibraltar the Swallow generally arrives about the 13th
of February, although a straggler is occasionally seen in December
and January. I have observed them crossing the Straits in
considerable numbers up to the 15th of April; the latest passing
were noticed on the 24th of that month. Their migration, like
the nest of the Hirundinida?, is spread over a considerable period ;
I have observed the nest finished on the 23rd of February, and
young birds able to fly on the 24th of May. One of each pair,
when they first arrive, is tinged with a rufous-buff colour on the
underparts ; and as these are slightly larger in size, I think they
are the male birds ; but did not, even for the sake of proving

94 HIRUNDIN1DJS.

this, kill one. I remember, on a very cold day (the 13th of
March, 1874), Mr. Stark particularly drawing my attention to
this difference in the pairs of birds, which, driven by the cold
into the stables and outhouses of the venta at Pulverilla, were
sitting side by side, touching one another, allowing us almost to
touch them. The contrast in their colour was then most conspi-
cuous ; but they appear gradually to lose this rufous tinge as the
season advances, and by the end of April it is not apparent.

In the month of March, during the time of the northern
migration of Swallows, a small butterfly, Thestor ballus (one of
the Lycsenidse, between the Hair-Streaks and the Coppers), is out
in great abundance on the plains. When walking across the
grass, the Swallows, which keep flying very close to leeward of you,
instantly catch any unfortunate ballus that flies up ; but they seem
unable to take them on the ground, perhaps from the protective
colouring of their green under-wings they cannot see them when
at rest ; but any way the Swallow is an annoyance to the butterfly
collector.

Head, back, and rump steel-blue. Throat and forehead chestnut-red,
with complete blue-black band across the lower part of the throat ; under-
parts buff to creamy white. Tail strongly forked ; two outer feathers
greatly prolonged. Length 8^ inches.

94. Hirundo rufula, Temminck. Red-rumped Swallow.

Arevalo mentions this Eastern Swallow as having nested near
Malaga, and it is also recorded from Valencia.

Above glossy purple-blue, with whitish streaks on back. Below white,
tinged with buff and streaked with dark brown.

O

Nape and stripe over eye (forming a broad collar) and rump brick-red.
Lower part of tail-coverts white. Length 7^ inches.

95. Chelidon urbica (Linnaeus). The House-Martin.

Spanish. Vencejo.

" As common as the Swallow near Tangier, this species is seen
in flights on passage, crossing to Europe in February, returning

COTILE EIPAR1A. 95

in September and October, frequently travelling in company with
Hirundo rustica, and, as in their case, remaining to breed in
some numbers. They often make their nests touching one
another, as many as sixty being joined together ; the entrance-
hole is sometimes at the side, sometimes in the centre, according
to the position of the nest. They are named ' Khotaifa ' by the
Arabs, indiscriminately with the Swallow." — Favier.

The above notes equally apply to the House-Martin in Anda-
lucia. The earliest date of arrival noticed at Gibraltar was the
5th of February. Verner gives notes of great numbers passing
on 15th of April, 1875, and many passing on the 17th of February,
1879.

Both this bird and the Swallow frequently nest in caves and
on overhung rocks.

Bump white ; under surface pure white ; tail much forked ; toes
feathered. Length 4f inches.

96. Cotile riparia (Linnseus). The Sand-Martin.

" Migratory, and the least abundant of the Swallows about
Tangier, arriving to cross the Straits in March and April, returning
in October to disappear for the winter." — Favier.

We found the Sand-Martin at Has el Doura, in Morocco, in
small numbers, and have no doubt that they were nesting in the
vicinity. They breed in the neighbourhood of Seville, but near
Gibraltar are only met with on passage. The first seen by me
was on the 24th of March 1870, 22nd of March 1871, 24th of
February 1872, 28th of February 1874; they were seen passing
as late as the 24th of April. On the loth of May I saw, in the
evening, over some marshes near Vejer, a flight of Sand-Martins
numbering many hundreds — I might say, thousands. I noticed
them on the 14th of October on their southward journey.

Above mouse-coloured ; underparts white, except greyish band between
chest and throat. Minute tuft of feathers just above hind toe.

Young. Feathers above edged with huffish white. Length 4f inches.

96 HIRUNDINID.E.

97. Cotile rupestris (Scopoli). The Crag-Martin.

Spanish. Vencejillo.

" Nearly as common as the House-Martin about Tangier.
Sometimes they pass in large flights, crossing the Straits in
February and March, returning in October and November." —
Favier.

The Crag-Martin, though universally distributed during the
breeding-season in the rocky sierras, is to a great extent migra-
tory. Those which do not quit the country appear during the
daytime in low ground near the coast about the middle of
October, great numbers being then seen at Gibraltar. In March
they return to their breeding-haunts, some nesting in inaccessible
places at the " back of the Rock."

They commence about the 10th of March to build their nests,
which resemble those of the Swallow, H. rustica, but being placed
on the roofs of caverns are very difficult to reach ; and I did not
succeed in examining the inside of one. The birds were sitting
by the 30th of April. One locality for nests near Gibraltar, and
the most accessible that I have seen, was a cave in a patch of
rocks at the entrance of La Trocha, on the road from Algeciraz
to Ojen, where it passes by the side of the ravine called la
Garganta del Capitan.

At the back of the Rock, at Gibraltar, is a cave almost under
the Osprey's eyry, which can only be entered by landing from a
boat in fair weather. This cave is very large and open, with
sand at the bottom sloping upwards for a considerable distance at
a sharp angle, and at the end, judging from the tracks of divers
Genets or Striped Cats (Viuerra), seems to be the regular dining-
room of these animals ; for whenever we visited the place it was
covered with the tail-feathers and pinions of numbers of Rock-
Martins mingled with those of a good many Swifts, Rock-Doves,
and a few Lesser Kestrels.

Above mouse-coloured ; underparts huffish brown. Oval white spots on
all but the centre and outer tail-feathers. Length 5 inches.

FRINGILLID^E. 97

FRINGILLIDJE.

98. Coccothraustes vulgaris, Pallas. The Hawfinch.

Spanish. Cascanueces (Nutcracker), Pinonero, Pico gordo.

Favier states the Hawfinch to be " very rare near Tangier,
having only met with two — one in 1836, the other in 1849."
Olcese obtained one since then (Reid, ' Ibis,' 1885), whilst
Mr. Meade- Waldo saw several near Tangier in the spring
of 1892.

On the Spanish side of the Straits this bird is very common,
and most plentiful in winter. Some nest in the Cork-wood
in May ; and during the season of migration they often
frequent pine-woods, and are then rather shy and difficult to
approach. About Cordova they are most abundant, and are
there and at Seville exposed alive for sale at about one real
apiece. I kept a pair, purchased at Seville, for some time ;
but never could tame them. The hen bird at last killed her
mate, having previously at regular intervals plucked him while
living.

I gave this amiable and domestic female to a bird-fancier at
Gibraltar, much to his delight, but ultimately to his sorrow, as
she vented her temper upon some other pet birds with which
she was caged, and, in consequence, justly suffered capital
punishment.

Bill very large. Fifth and next four primaries shaped like a bill-hook.

Adult male. General colour above chestnut-brown ; crown reddish
brown, lightest on forehead ; hind neck grey ; black patch on chin ; larger
wing-coverts tipped with white ; sides of body and flanks vinaceous brown ;
bill bluish ; iris greyish white.

Female. Head ashy brown ; secondaries edged with bluish grey ; flanks
as in male.

In winter. Bill fleshy white.

Young. Spotted, no grey at back of neck or black patch on chin ; lower
breast and flanks spotted and barred with brown ; iris brown. Length
7 inches.

II

98 FRINGILLID^E.

99. Ligurinus chloris (Linnaeus). The Greenfinch.

Spanish. Verdon.

"Found near Tangier as a common resident; others migrate
in immense flights, which pass north in February and March,
returning in October and November." — Famer.

This species, another of our common British birds, is extremely
abundant on both sides of the Straits. Many are resident,
nesting during the month of May ; and hundreds are caught
in August and September and brought into the markets, where
they are exposed for sale in large bunches. The Greenfinch
is also a very common cage-bird, for sometimes as many as
twenty may be seen, each in a separate cage, hanging outside
the wall of a house. What their merits as a cage-bird are it is
difficult to understand, as their song, if it can be dignified with
the name, is to me positively unpleasant.

Greenfinches from Morocco and the south of Spain are rather
smaller and more brightly coloured than English birds.

Adult male. General colour above olive -yellow, shaded with ashy grey ;
crown more ashy than back ; axillaries bright yellow ; primaries edged
•with bright yellow reaching to the shaft ; tail black at ends, yellow at the
base ; outer tail-feathers yellow at the base of both webs.

In winter. Browner.

Female. Browner than male; primaries only margined with yellow;
outer tail-feathers edged with yellow on outer web only.

Young male. Like female, but has primaries and tail as in adult male.
Length (j inches.

100. Carduelis elegans, Stephens. The Goldfinch.

Moorish. Mouknin. Spanish. Gilguero. Andalucian. Sil-
guero.

"Exceedingly plentiful near Tangier, and resident; but
numbers migrate, arriving from about the month of August,
to depart again for the north in the month of March." — Famer.

The Goldfinch is, without doubt, the most common and

CARDUELIS ELEOANS. 99

abundant bird in the west of Andalucia. Always plentiful in
every direction, they appear in countless flocks when the seed
of the various thistles becomes ripe ; and Spain is the country
par excellence both of thistles and donkeys. The former, in
some of the vegas and plains, grow in almost impenetrable
thickets, in places covering acres of ground ; for when the land
is left fallow for a season, all weeds are allowed to run riot,
and they do so with a vengeance. Some of the thistles (and
there are many different kinds) are very handsome — a large,
yellow, carline species being perhaps the most attractive to the
eye. The stalks, heads, and leaves of a species of Cynara, very
like the garden artichoke, are a staple vegetable (cardo] with the
Spaniards. The dried stalks of another thistle are much used
as tinder in the rural districts, and known as yesca de cardo,
which takes light well from the sparks made by a flint and
steel, most of the peasants using no other method of lighting
their papelitos.

To return to the Goldfinches, at the time of their thistle-
harvest they are caught in vast quantities in clap-nets ; and it
is not unusual to see a man with bunches of several hundreds,
which are sold at a ridiculously low price. Though perhaps
rather dry, they are not to be despised as morsels ; but one
feels as if committing a sin when devouring such a charming
and useful little bird.

The Goldfinch in Andalucia breeds about the beginning of
May, and occasionally nests at Gibraltar in the Alameda and
various gardens at the South.

Bill nearly conical and sharp-pointed.

Adult. General colour above ruddy brown. Forehead, upper throat,
and cheeks crimson ; hinder crown and sides of neck black ; outer web
of basal half of primaries, except the first, and the larger wing-coverts,
brilliant yellow.

Young. Mottled, no red or black on head, that part being greyish brown.
Length 5 inches.

H2

100 FEING1LLID.E.

101. Carduelis spinus (Linnaeus). The Siskin.

Spanish. Lugano.

On the African side of the Straits, Mr. Meade-Waldo found
the Siskin, in the early spring of 1892, abundant near Tangier.
Neither Favier nor Mr. Drake mention the bird.

In Andalucia they are very irregular in appearance, in some
winters not being noticed at all. The Spaniards say they only
come every seventh year. This idea is prevalent about Seville,
as well as near Gibraltar ; but, it is needless to say, is a popular
error.

In the winter of 1870-71 they were plentiful wherever there
were any alder trees ; and I saw some as late as the 4th of
April. In the two previous winters, and during the one
following, none were obtained by the birdcatchers, who are
always looking out for them, as they are much desired and
fetch a good price as cage-birds. In 1874, I saw four on a
white poplar tree in the Alameda of Gibraltar, on the 24th of
March ; they were so tame as to allow of my approach within
a yard of them, and remained for a long time close to me.

Adult male. Above yellowish green ; cheeks, throat, and breast bright
yellow ; flanks streaked with black ; crown and small patch on chin
black ; tail blackish, all but the two centre feathers yellow at the base.

Female. No black on head or chin ; throat uniform dull white.
Length 4| inches.

102. Chrysomitris citrinella (Linnseus). The Citril Finch.

Reported by Mr. Saunders to be found on the coast, and
Arevalo says they are of irregular occurrence in autumn near
Granada and Malaga. I never met with any near Gibraltar,
and Lord Lilford informs me that he never handled a Spanish
specimen; while Major Verner, who knew the bird well, tried
in vain to obtain or even see one during six years at Gibraltar,
none even being brought into the market.

Male. Back dull olive-green, each feather striped with dark brown.

PASSER DOMESTICUS. 101

Crown, cheeks, rump, and underparts greenish yellow. Nape, hind neck,
sides of neck, and flanks ashy grey.

Female. Duller in plumage. Length 5 inches.

103. Serinus hortulans, K. L. Koch. The Serin Finch.
Spanish. Chamaris.

" This bird is very abundant near Tangier, both as a resident
and on migration, when they are seen passing north in immense
flights during February, returning in October and November."
— Favier.

The Serin Finch is found on the Spanish side in accordance
with the above note. During the breeding-season they greatly
frequent the Cork-wood, and their hissing unpleasant song is
to be heard all around. They seem to keep very much to the
banks of rivers, nesting in May on trees and bushes, like the
Goldfinch, resembling that bird both in their nest and eggs.

Bill conical, short, stout, and blunt.

Adult male. General colour above pale brown, each feather edged
with yellow, and streaked with black on the centre ; crown like the
back ; forehead, nape, eye-stripe, throat, and breast yellow ; flanks streaked
with black.

Female. Like male, but duller ; throat, breast, and flanks streaked with
dark brown. Length 4^ inches.

104. Passer domesticus (Linnseus). The House-Sparrow.

Moorish. Bertal. Spanish. Gorrion.

Common on both sides of the Straits, being the Sparrow of
the district.

Adult male. Crown, nape, and rump ashy grey, with a chestnut streak
on each side of head ; throat black ; ear-coverts white j general colour
above chestnut, streaked with black on back.

Female. Lacks black throat of male ; above dingy brown, streaked with
black ; pale eye-stripe ; rump ashy brown.

Young. Like female, but can always be known by the yellowish skin at
angle of gape. Length 6 inches.

102 FRINGILL1D.E.

105. Passer montanus (Linnaeus). The Tree-Sparrow.
Spanish. Gorrion serrano.

This Sparrow occurs sometimes in Andalucia, as I have seen
specimens obtained in the country ; but I did not observe any
near Gibraltar.

Sexes alike. Smaller than last. Always nests in holes of trees, thatch,
and buildings.

Adult. Crown and nape uniform vinaceous chestnut ; throat black ;
ear-coverts ashy white, with black patch on lower part ; rump ashy brown.

Young. Duller, but show indistinctly markings of adults. Length
5^ inches.

106. Passer hispaniolensis, Temminck. The Spanish Sparrow.

This is another of the chestnut-headed Sparrows, and is local
in distribution on both sides of the Straits. In some places
they are very abundant ; and, as is well known, often build under
the nests of the larger birds of prey. I found a nest built
underneath one of Buteo desertorum.

Male. Crown and nape chestnut ; cheeks whitish ; back black, each
feather streaked with white ; flanks streaked with black ; throat and chest
black.

Females resemble those of the Common Sparrow. Length 5^ inches.

107. Petronia stulta (Gmelin). The Rock-Sparrow.

Spanish. Gorrion montes.

Neither Favier nor Mr. Drake mentions having seen this
Sparrow in Morocco, where, however, it is found, as on the
Spanish side, commonly in the sierras and rocky ground, nesting
in May in holes of rocks.

The adult male has a yellow spot on the throat ; in the female this mark
is much fainter, and absent in the young. Length 6 inches.

108. Fringilla ccelebs, Linnams. The European Chaffinch.

Spanish. Pinzon.

This Chaffinch crosses in winter to the African side of the

FRINGILLA. SPODIOGENTS. 103

Straits, as Capt. S. Reid in 1884-85 found many in the Tzelatza
Valley ; whilst Mr. Meade- Waldo informs me that in the spring
of 1892 he saw immense numbers, far more than of the next
species. Throughout Andalucia where there are trees this
bird is as common as in England, being most abundant in winter,
when the residents are outnumbered by the migrants. They
appear on the Rock as early as the 12th of August, but I did
not detect them remaining to nest, although quantities breed
in the Cork-wood and all the wooded valleys of the neighbour-
hood, usually laying about the end of April ; but in 1894 I
found a nest touching the ground on the Sierra Retin, which
contained young about a week old, on the 25th of March.

Adult male. Forehead black ; head slate-grey ; back rufous ; ear-
coverts and underparts vinous red ; rump olive-green. Two white bars on
wing.

Male in winter. Duller, the slate-grey feathers having brown tips, and
the white on wings is tinged with yellow.

Female. Head and back ashy brown ; below pale brown ; rump yellowish
green. — In winter is browner, and the white on the wings has yellow tinge.
Length 6 inche.«.

109. Fringllla spodiog-enys, Bonaparte. The North- African
Chaffinch.

Moorish. Birdon, Bird61.

This Chaffinch is common and resident in Morocco. The
nest and eggs resemble those of our Common Chaffinch, but the
harsher note is very distinct.

Mr. Meade-Waldo found them fairly common in evergreen
scrub, and says that they frequented more wooded ground
than the last species, in the spring of 1892. There is no record
of their occurrence on the Spanish side of the Straits.

The adult male is to be distinguished from F. coelebs by the back being
yellowish green, and by the throat and breast being light yellowish buff.
Length G inches.

The females are similar to those of the Common Chaffinch.

104 FRINGILLID^E.

110. Fringilla montifringilla, Linnams. The Brambling.

Spanish. Montanes, Millero.

This species "has been once obtained near Tangier, in 1845,
when I killed a female from among a lot of Linnets ; the male
escaped." — Favier.

The Brambling, on the Spanish side of the Straits, is of very
irregular though not unfrequent appearance near Gibraltar in
winter; during that of 1870-71 they, as well as Siskins, were
abundant. Near Seville they are more regular in appearance,
and are sufficiently well known about Cordova to bear the local
name of " Millero."

Rump white, intermixed with black ; axillaries and smaller inner wing-
coverts pale yellow.

Male in summer. Head and upper back blue-black ; throat and chest
orange ; flanks spotted with black ; bill bluish.

Male in winter. Black parts edged with buff ; throat duller, shaded with
sandy buff ; bill yellow.

Female. Head and upper back dark brown ; rest of plumage much as
male in winter, but less bright. Length 6|- inches.

111. Montifringilla nivalis (Linnaeus). The Snow-Finch.

This Alpine Finch is found in the Sierra Nevada. Mr. Stark,
in letter, says : " This bird is very common in Sierra Nevada, at
from 3000 to 6000 feet, in small flocks."

Head and nape ashy grey. Back brown, centre of feathers darker ;
wing-coverts and axillaries white. Below creamy white. Black patch on
throat in summer. Bill black in summer, yellow in winter. Two centre
tail-feathers blackish, the rest white, all but the outer tipped with black.
Length 7 inches.

112. Linota cannabina (Linnaeus). The Common Linnet.

Moorish. Sharif (Favier}. Spanish. Camacho, Jamas.
" Abundant around Tangier, many being resident and nesting
from March to June. They are mostly migratory and cross to

LINOTA FLAVIROSTRIS. 105

Europe in March and April, returning in large flocks during
September and October." — Fader.

The Common Linnet is very plentiful on the Spanish side,
especially during the winter months. Great numbers remain to
breed, nesting in April, mostly in scrub on the sides of the hills.
Upon one occasion a pair built on an olive-bush in my garden at
Gibraltar.

The adult males are, as a rule, far more brightly coloured than
English specimens.

Adult male. General colour above reddish brown ; forehead and breast
rich crimson ; rump paler than back ; wing-coverts uniform chestnut-brown,
like the back, without white edging ; throat whitish. In winter the red
colour is obscured by pale edgings to breast-feathers, which wear off.

Female. Has no red on head or breast ; sides of face dark ashy, like the
head ; bill dusky.

Young. Like female, but spotted. Length 5^-6 inches.

113. Linota rufescens (Vieillot). The Lesser Redpole.

This bird is not mentioned by Favier, but is included by
Mr. Drake in his list of the birds of Morocco.

On the Spanish side of the Straits it can only be considered a
very rare and irregular winter visitant like the Twite.

Adult male. Above light brown, streaked with blackish brown ; fore crown
carmine ; chin black ; throat and breast pink ; rump dusky brown, tinged
with crimson and streaked with brown ; wing-coverts tipped with rufous
buff, forming a double wing-bar.

Female. Like male, but only red on the head. In winter the pink colour
is much hidden by pale edges to the feathers.

Young dull coloured, without any red or pink. Length 4£ inches.

114. Linota flavirostris (Linngeus). The Twite or Mountain-

Linnet.

I have no record of the occurrence of this Linnet on the
Moorish side. In Andalucia it is a rare winter straggler.

No red on forehead or breast ; bill yellow in adults, dusky in young.
Adult male. Above ruddy brown, feathers streaked with black down the

106 FKJNG1LLID.E.

centre, those on the back with pale margins ; rump purplish red ; throat
and fore neck clear reddish broicn, the latter streaked with dark brown ;
axillaries reddish brown, with black centres.

Female. Like male, but lighter and without the rosy rump, which is
uniform with the back. Length 5-5£ inches.

115. Pyrrhula erythrina, Pallas. Scarlet Grosbeak.

Three immature specimens of this Eastern Finch have been
obtained in October, near Malaga.

The females and young males of this species are at first sight very likely
to be mistaken for immature Greenfinches (C. cMoris}, but are to be
distinguished by the form of the bill and the two distinct yellowish-white
bars on the wing. In this plumage it is doubtless the Fringilla incerta of
Eisso.

Wings shorter than tail.

Adult male. General colour rosy or crimson ; head crimson ; rump
brighter than back.

Female. General colour above olive-brown ; feathers with dusky centres ;
rump same colour as back ; middle and greater wing-coverts tipped with
yellowish white, forming a double wing-bar ; throat dull white, streaked
with brown. Length 5^ inches.

116. Erythrospiza githaginea (Lichtenstein). The Desert

Rosy Bullfinch.

This species is mentioned by Mr. Drake as being seen in the
south of Morocco, and has occurred accidentally near Malaga.
Several were caught in 1877.

Adult. General colour rosy. Female duller than male. Young sandy
brown. Length 5 inches.

117. Loxia curvirostra, Linnaeus. The Common Crossbill.

Spanish. Pico cruzado, Pico tuerto.

Favier only mentions having obtained this conifer-frequenting
bird once near Tangier, " a specimen being picked up in a dying
state in 1855."

Although never having myself met with the Crossbill on either
side of the Straits, I have seen undoubted Andalucian specimens.

EMBER1ZA MILIARIA. 107

Points of bill crossing each other.

Adult male. General colour red, brightest on rump ; but sometimes
breeds in yellow plumage of female, very faintly streaked with red in a few
places.

Female. Olive-yellow where red in male, brightest on rump.

Young. Like female, but streaked above and below with dark brown.
Length (3 inches.

The so-called Parrot Crossbill (L. pityopsittacus) is a Northern form of
the Common Crossbill, with the bill very much stouter, and is usually a
larger bird.

118. Emberiza miliaria, Linnaeus. The Corn-Bunting.

Moorish. Dorrais (Favier}. Spanish. Triguero ; Ave tonta.

This well-known bird is exceedingly numerous on both sides of
the Straits, and, being to a great extent migratory, is perhaps
least plentiful in winter. From their fearless stupidity and
conspicuous habit of perching on the top of some small bush or
plant, vast quantities are killed by the Spaniards and exposed for
sale in the markets, being excellent food, while during the winter
months a great many are caught roosting on the ground by the
aid of the lantern.

The Common Bunting commences to lay about the first week
in May, often placing the nest at the edge of marshes ; and I
have taken it in the midst of a swamp, placed on a dry tussock,
within a yard of a nest of Savi's Warbler. Verner remarks that
eggs of this Bunting " appear to undergo extraordinary variations
in S. Spain. I have found many about the vega of La Janda,
totally unlike any I have ever seen in England, but of the
authenticity of which I had no doubt."

There is a country fable to the effect that the Hoopoe on first
arrival in Spain had no place to go to, and bought or hired some
land from the Bunting ; but when the time for payment arrived,
"Poo, poo," said the Hoopoe, and flew away repeating his cry.
Ever since then the Bunting is continually and monotonously
complaining of the Hoopoe, and in vain asking for his money.

108 FEINGILLID^E.

Sexes alike. General colour greyish brown, streaked with dark brown ;
light eyebrow ; tail brown, with edges and tips of buffy white ; no other
colours in plumage. Length 7 inches.

119. Emberiza citrinella, Linnseus. The Yellow Hammer.
Our well-known "Yellow Hammer," so common in the north of

Spain, is only found in Andalucia as a winter straggler. I have
seen specimens from Granada and Malaga, but never observed
any near Gibraltar.

Male in summer. Head lemon-yellow ; back rufous, streaked with dark
brown ; rump chestnut ; under surface yellow.

In winter. Head marked with brown, and generally less bright.

Female. Head less yellow, crown streaked with black ; throat and breast
striped with blackish. Length 6£-7 inches.

120. Emberiza cirlus, Linnseus. The Girl Bunting.

Spanish. Linacero.

According to Favier's notes, this Bunting is equally common
around Tangier as near Gibraltar, migrating northwards in March
returning in October and November, remaining during the winter
months ; many also stay to breed during April.

The Girl Bunting is very frequent all along the road from
Algeciraz to Tarifa, and from its tameness, and the bright colour
of the males, with their conspicuous black throats, is sure to
attract attention. They appear to be more a tree-frequenting
bird than the Yellow Hammer (Emberiza citrinella), and are
especially fond of the glades and open patches of cultivation in
the Cork-wood.

Least wing-coverts olive-green ; rump olive-brown.

Male. Chin, throat, and line from bill through eye to nape black ; eye-
brow yellow ; yellow crescent under the black throat ; upper chest dull
olive, bordered below by chestnut ; belly dull yellow.

Female. Much like female of Yellow Hammer, but wanting the yellow
colouring.

In icinter, colours of male less bright, the black parts obscured by light
margins. Length 6 inches.

EMBEEIZA SCIKEiVlCLUS. 109

121. Emberiza hortulana, Linna3us. The Ortolan.

Moorish. Merskezan (Favier). Spanish. Hortolano.

''The Ortolan is, next to the Common Bunting, the most
abundant of the genus near Tangier. Some remain to breed ;
while the rest pass on during April, returning in September.
Migrating in large flocks, they prefer wet ground, and are not
observed in the winter months." — Favier.

Curiously enough, I never succeeded in obtaining the Ortolan
nearer to Gibraltar than the vicinity of Casas Viejas, where I found
them in May. In the vicinity of Seville they are plentifully met
with, but do not occur during the winter.

Male. General colour above pale reddish brown ; head greenish olive ;
cheeks, throat, and axillaries pale yellow ; neck and chest greenish olive ;
rest below cinnamon ; bill reddish brown.

Female. Paler than male : lower throat streaked with brown. Length

7 O

6 inches.

122. Emberiza schoeniclus, Linnaeus. The Reed-Bunting.

Included by Favier in his list as " rare near Tangier ; met with
in December." Capt. Savile Reid found them common in winter
at Meshree el Haddar. They are most abundant near Gibraltar
from December to February, and were seen on passage as late as
the 7th of April, They do not remain to nest in the sotos at
Casas Viejas ; but near Seville, where they are often sold in cages
under the name of " Hortolano," I have seen them in May, and
have no doubt that they there remain throughout the breeding-
season.

Male in spring. Head and throat black ; cheeks white ; eye-stripe white ;
white collar from bill round nape ; rump bluish grey ; lesser wing-coverts
chestnut.

In autumn the black is hidden by rufous edgings, and the white by sandy-
brown edgings.

Female. Head and ear-coverts reddish brown, streaked with black ;
breast and flanks white, streaked with blackish. Outside web of second
tail-feather white. Length 6 inches.

110 FR1NGILL1D.E.

123. Emberiza pusilla, Pallas. The Little Bunting.

Nine specimens of this north-eastern Bunting were obtained
near Malaga on the 28th of December, 1874.

Male in spring. Centre of crown vinous chestnut, with black band on
each side ; eye-stripe, lores, sides of face, and throat vinous chestnut.
Female. Like male, but not so richly coloured on throat.
Young. Throat white, no chestnut on breast or flanks. Length 4f inches.

124. Emberiza cia, Linnaeus. The Rock-Bunting.

Spanish. Escribano.

Although not mentioned by Favier as found in Morocco, I have
seen specimens obtained there, and met with a pair in April near
Jebel Musa.

On the Spanish side of the Straits is a common and, like most
of the Buntings, a stupidly tame bird, as far as my experience
goes, living about stony, rocky, and hilly ground. Till 1874 I
never noticed them perching on trees ; but in the spring of that
year saw three different birds, when disturbed, settle on trees and
bushes. At Gibraltar they are met with in winter, but disappear
in the spring. I have shot them at the back of the Rock when
looking for Alpine Accentors, in company with which birds have
seen them feeding on the refuse-heap at the signal-station. In
April they frequent the slopes and tops of the sierras, nesting
during that month.

Male. Centre of crown bluish grey, sides of crown blackish. White
eyebrow : black stripe through eye ; ear-coverts bluish grey ; black
moustachial stripe from bill to round ear-coverts. Middle and greater
wing-coverts tipped with white, forming distinct wing-bars.

Female. Paler. Length 6 inches.

125. Emberiza saharae, Tristram. The House-Bunting.

This bird is found in the city of Morocco and other Moorish
towns.

Back nearly uniform rufous ; breast and axillaries sandy rufous ; head
grey, \vith blackish streaks ; throat and fore neck light grey ; ashy-grey
streak through eye and upper edge of cheek. Length 5 inches.

MOTACILLID.fi. Ill

126. Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnaeus) . The Snow-Bunting.

The Snow-Bunting has only been recorded once from the
Moorish side of the Straits ; and this occurrence was mentioned by
Mr. Drake. This specimen, lately in the possession of Olcesc
(Favier's successor at Tangier), was a female, and in fine plumage.

In Andalucia is a very rare straggler in winter ; a male, which
I have seen, was shot near Malaga on the 1 8th of November,
1872.

Tail : six centre feathers black, fringed externally and round tip with
white ; three outer pairs white, with black at end of outer web ; claw of
hind toe elongated, but not longer than hind toe.

Male in summer. Head, neck, and under surface whits ; above black ;
wing-coverts white ; bill black.

Female. Dark brown and white ; secondaries white.

Male and female in winter. Crown reddish brown ; feathers on upper
parts broadly edged with reddish brown ; bill yellowish, with dark tip.
Length 6^-7 inches.

MOTACILLIDJE.
127. Motacilla alba, Linnaeus. The White Wagtail.

Moorish. Emzizi. Spanish. Pispita.

"This is the most abundant of the Wagtails, and passes the
winter near Tangier, arriving during September and October,
leaving in March. They are to be seen in large flocks following
the plough, twittering incessantly." — Fader.

The above notes apply equally to the White Wagtail in Anda-
lucia ; but it was never seen by me after the 24th of March ;
though Mr. Stark found a nest at Alora, near Malaga, and they
are recorded by Arevalo as breeding near Granada. They roost
together in great numbers on the short rushes and grass in the
marshes at Casas Viejas, where I have often seen them on the
backs of horses and cattle, picking off vermin and catching flies,
doing the work of Starlings and Buff-backed Herons.

112 MOTACILLID^E.

Male. Crown, nape, throat; and breast black ; back from nape ash-grey ;
front and sides of head white.

Female. Like the male.

In winter. Resembles the next (M. lugubris), but has lighter back.

Young. Undistinguishable from the young of the next. Length 7-7^
inches.

128. Motacilla lugubris, Temminck. The Pied Wagtail.

" This is the most rare of the Wagtails near Tangier ; they are
found at the same times and places as M. alba" — Favier.

I obtained a specimen in summer dress at Tangier ; it is scarce
enough in Andalucia in that plumage, but probably in winter
dress escapes unnoticed.

Male in spring. Crown, nape, back, chin, and throat black, the latter
uniting with the black on the back and nape ; forehead and sides of the
head white.

Female. Like male, but has the back slaty grey, with blackish feathers
here and there.

Both sexes in winter have the back ash-grey ; chin and throat white ;
back of the head and nape black, with a black crescent on front of neck.

Young. In first plumage have entire head ash-grey ; face washed with
yellow ; the black crescent on front neck gradually developing from a
small spot to a full crescent. Length 1-1\ inches.

129. Motacilla melanope, Pallas. The Grey Wagtail.

This Wagtail is stated by Favier to be a common winter visitor
near Tangier, appearing in September and October, departing in
February and March.

In Andalucia they are most abundant on passage and during
the winter months, but many pairs nest along the mountain-
streams of the sierras — three or four pair particularly on the
rivulet which runs down the Garganta del Aguila, the valley in
which is situated the " waterfall " of Algeciraz ; and they build
usually in holes of the brickwork of the water-mills, sometimes
close to the wheel. A pair also regularly nest at the mill in the
Cork-wood ; and Mr. Stark, when with me on the 9th of April,
found a nest built in a hole of a large rock overhanging the

MOTACILLA FLAVA. 113

Guadalmalcil, a mountain-torrent between Tarifa and Algeciraz.
This nest was placed out of reach of either man or beast ; the hen
bird was visible from the opposite side, and apparently sitting
close. On the 19th of April, the nest at the mill in the Cork-
wood contained one egg, while another nest found on the 24th of
May had four fresh eggs in it, which tends to show that they
breed more than once in the season. The nest is constructed of
grass and small roots lined with hair.

Some only of the males had the black throat on the 8th of
March ; but all had assumed it by the 1st of April. The females
do not always exhibit this mark, some not having it at all, and in
none is it so well defined as in the males.

It is the longest of the Wagtails found in these parts, with the tail-
feathers much longer in proportion to the body than in other species.

Under tail-coverts brighter yellow than belly.

Male in summer. Above bluish grey ; white eye-stripe ; rump and upper
tail-coverts greenish yellow ; underparts yellow ; throat black.

Female. Resembles the male, but has the throat white, or white with very
rarely a few black feathers.

Young. Above tinged with brown ; throat and eyebrow buff.

In winter. Both sexes are alike, having a white throat. Length 7-7^
inches, tail about 3^.

130. Motacilla flava, Linnseus. The Blue-headed Yellow
Wagtail.

Spanish. Nevadilla.

This species is found on both sides of the Straits in great
abundance; the earliest seen was on the 20th and 24th of
February (in different years), many appearing on the 25th. From
that time till the 20th of April they continued to pass ; and on
that day I saw great numbers at Gibraltar, resting on the " flats "
at Europa after their flight across the sea. They leave in August
and September. Exactly resembling our English Yellow Wagtail
(M. rail) in habits, they keep to marshes, nesting in grass and
herbage at the edge of water, sometimes among the sedges, and
lay in the end of April.

I

114 MOTACILLID^E.

Male. Above yellowish green ; underparts, except white chin, bright
yellow ; broad white stripe over eye from bill to nape ; head, nape, and ear-
coverts Hue-grey.

Female. Head brownish and duller in colour. Length 6-6^ inches.

131. Motacilla borealis, Sundevall. The Grey-headed Yellow

Wagtail.

Occurs on passage ; passing later than the preceding, of which
it and the next can only be considered races.

Like the last, but head slaty grey and has no eye-stripe, and only the
chin is white.

The race Motacilla cinereocapiUa, Savi, has throat white and partly
defined white eye-stripe. I shot specimens in spring, and they were
nesting near Casas Viejas in May.

132. Motacilla rail (Bonaparte). Yellow Wagtail.

This, the English race of Yellow Wagtail, occurs on passage in
spring, but not commonly, and has been obtained at Tangier and
Malaga. We saw many about 12th April, 1894, at Tapatanilla.

Male. Head canary-yellow ; upper parts olive-green ; nape yellowish
green ; all underparts, eye-stripe, and axillaries bright yellow.

Female. Eye-stripe buff ; plumage much less brilliant.

Young. Eye-stripe and underparts huffish white, with no yellow except
a tinge on lower belly. Length 6^ inches.

133. Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus). The Tree-Pipit.

According to Favier this Pipit is common near Tangier during
migration, crossing the Straits in March and April, returning in
October and November. On the Spanish side they are found on
passage only : the 9th of April is the earliest date on which I
noticed them, but I saw many about the 20th.

Above clear brown, distinctly streaked with dusky ; spots on breast
small ; flanks streaked with black, like the breast ; middle and greater
wing-coverts tipped with white, forming a double wing-bar ; light part of
outer tail-feather white or smoky white ; axillaries sandy buff. Hind claw
curved, shorter than hind toe. Length 6i inches.

/ O ^

ANTHUS OBSCURUS. 115

134. Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus). The Meadow-Pipit.

The Meadow-Pipit is equally common in Morocco and
Andalucia from October to the end of March.

Head and upper parts olive-brown, mottled with black centres ; rump
uniform ; throat, chest, and flanks streaked with black ; light pattern of
tail-feathers white ; axillaries edged with olive-yellow. Hind claw nearly
straight, longer than hind toe. Length 5^ inches.

135. Anthus cervinus (Pallas). The Red- throated Pipit.

I obtained two Pipits in 1870 on the 10th of March, which
I took home to England ; and they were identified as belonging
to this species by Mr. Sharpe and Captain Shelley. In 1874, on
the 8th of March, I shot among a lot of A. pratensis another
bird, which appeared to be A. cervinus; but as the rufous throat
is not developed, though it showed signs of that mark of the
breeding-plumage, to determine with certainty to which species
it really did belong is impossible ; so I mention and include the
species in my list with a view to some future collector paying
attention to the subject. For my own part I have little doubt
that A. cervinus does occur on passage in Andalucia and Morocco.

Male in spring. Much resembles last, but has eye-stripe, cheeks, throat,
and breast deep vinous red.

Female. Onlv the throat vinous.

if

In winter the difference between the two species is hardly distinguishable ;
but it is said that in this species the rump is spotted like the back, and the
under tail-coverts have dark centres. Length 5^ inches.

136. Anthus obscurus (Latham). The Rock-Pipit.

Favier states that this species occurs in winter near Tangier,
and may be always seen on the sea-shore. I think (not having
seen any of his specimens) that these remarks apply to A. spipo-
letta, which he does not mention in his MS. ; but Mr. Dresser,
in his ' Birds of Europe,' examined a specimen obtained by
Olcese at Tangier, and I brought home a Pipit shot on the

i2

116 MOTACILLID^E.

mud at Palmones, near Algeciraz, in March 1870, which was
identified by Mr. Sharpe as A. obscurus.

Axillaries and light pattern on outer tail-feathers smoky brown. Hind
claw much curved, and equal in length to hind toe.

Males in spring have a rosy tinge on breast, chiefly southern birds.
Length 6^ inches.

137. Anthus spipoletta (Linnseus). The Water-Pipit.
Found on mud-flats near Algeciraz and near Malaga in winter.

White eye-stripe ; below pale rosy ; chest uniform, without streaks.
Light pattern of outer tail-feathers white. Hind claw long and straightened.

Young. Undistinguishable in plumage from those of A. obscurus. Length
6£ inches.

138. Anthus campestris (LinnaBus). The Tawny Pipit.

Moorish. Solist (Favier).

" Found near Tangier on passage in April, returning in
August, but is not very common. They migrate in pairs and
keep close together, so that it is very easy to shoot both at one
shot." — Favier.

The earliest date on which I saw one was at Tangier on the
31st of March. On the Spanish side they appear to frequent
high ground, as on the 1st of May we saw many on the open
spaces about Ojen, and thence all along to the Venta de
Subalbarro. We never met with them on low ground, and
there is no doubt they breed high up on the sierras.

General colour of upper surface dull greyish brown, darker on centre
of feathers ; broad buffy-white eyebrow ; throat whitish ; underparts
uniform pale buff ; wing-coverts edged with pale buff, varying much in
depth of colour ; light pattern of outer tail-feathers white. Hind claw
stout and slightly curved, about equal in length to hind toe. Length 6^-7
inches.

139. Anthus richardi, Vieillot. Richard's Pipit.

I shot one specimen of this large eastern Pipit on the 1st of
March on the shore, evidently just arrived, and obtained others

ALAUDID^E. 117

on the 20th of April, 1870, not noticing any again; but Verner
reports that he shot one on the 9th June, 1877, at the stream
between the Pine-woods, and Arevalo records them on passage
near Malaga.

Above dark brown, with sandy-buff edges to feathers ; throat and breast
streaked ; axillaries sandy rufous ; light pattern of outer tail-feathers white.
Hind claw long and nearly straight. Leg about 1^- inches long. Length
7 1 inches.

ALAUDIDJE.

140. Certhilauda bifasciata (Lichtenstein). Desert Curved-

billed Lark.

This Desert-Lark is recorded from Malaga by Arevalo.

Hind toe very short. Bill long and curved. General colour above and
centre tail-feathers isabelline. Below creamy white ; thin collar of blackish
spots on breast ; eyebrows white. Length 8 inches.

141. Certhilauda duponti (Vieillot). Small Curved-billed or

Dupont's Lark.

Specimens of this Algerian Lark were obtained near Malaga
by Francisco de los Bios, and others since his death.

Those found in Portugal have been described as a distinct
species, C. lusitanica, Bocage.

Bill long, slightly curved, and slender. First primary very short.
General colour sandy brown, with " lark-like " back, dark spots on back
with a vinous sheen. Length 6^ inches.

142. Alauda arvensis, Linnseus. The Skylark.

Spanish. Zurriaga, Terrera.

" Found near Tangier during winter, arriving in October and
November, departing in March. They are found in immense
flocks during their stay." — Favier.

The same is to be said of the Skylark in Andalucia, where in
some localities quantities are caught at night with a bell and a
lantern, and I have known a boy bring in six or seven dozen birds

118 ALAUDID.E.

at a time. Calandras, Buntings, Larks, in fact any birds that
sleep on the ground can be thus taken.

Breast spotted. Outer tail-feathers white, except inner edge of inner
web ; next pair white only on outer web. Hind claw long and straight.
Bastard primary very small. Length 7^ inches.

143. Alauda arborea, Linnaeus.. The Woodlark.

Spanish. Alondra de monte (Lark of the scrub).

According to Favier, this species " occurs near Tangier on
passage during March." Some were obtained by Capt. Savile
Reid near Larache in the winter of 1884-85.

On the Andalucian side the Woodlark is sparingly and locally
distributed during the winter months up to as late as the 21st of
April, frequenting scrub where not very thick, a favourite locality
near Gibraltar being the chaparales * in the Cork-wood. Well
known to the Spanish birdcatchers, and highly valued as a cage-
bird ; they assured me that the Woodlark never remains to nest
near Gibraltar, but they are known to breed near Malaga.

Light streak over eye ; primary-coverts tipped with white, showing
small white spot on closed wing. First primary long, third primary longest.
Tail short ; outer feather greyish white at end, and outer web bordered
with white, next three tipped with triangular white spots ; hind claw
curved. Length 6 inches.

144. Alauda cristata, Linnams. The Crested Lark.

Moorish. Kubaa (hooded one — as hood of jellabia, or crest of
a helmet). Spanish. Carretera.

The Crested Lark is one of the most abundant birds both in
Morocco and Andalucia, though never seen in any great numbers
together. They are distributed in pairs on every road-track and
open plain, often at intervals of only some twenty yards.
Excessively tame and fearless , they have acquired the name of
Carretera, from their habit of frequenting roads, to which they

* " Chaparal," lit. a plantation of ilex. The " chaparales " here mentioned are
simply ground covered with brushwood or scrub.

ALAUDA CRIST ATA. 119

resort as much on account of the horse- and mule-dung, at which
they are to be seen pecking, as for the purpose of dusting them-
selves ; and they are often to be noticed on the sea-shore, running
about like a Sanderling within a yard of the water. They have
no song worthy of the name, and are altogether rather vulgar
and uninteresting birds. This species is one of those which I
could not detect migrating in the slightest degree.

The Crested Lark usually commences to lay about the 20th of
April, placing the nest in some tuft of grass or under shelter of a
small stone or clod of earth — constructing it, like those of other
Larks, with bits of grass, bents, &c., lined with hair.

One nest which we found was placed between the tracks of a
much frequented road near Tangier, in such a position that every
passing animal must have touched the small clump of grass under
cover of which the nest was built. Now, was this site chosen
because snakes, lizards, and other vermin would be less likely to
come on the beaten track I I cannot help thinking that birds in
many instances have instinct enough to breed close to houses
and roads with a view to obtain protection from some of their
enemies through the presence of man, who is perhaps their worst
foe.

The Crested Lark is subject to great difference in the tints of
the plumage. The difference of colour varies according to the
soil and climate, and has been very puzzling to cabinet or table
naturalists, as the enormous list of synonyms will testify.
Mr. Dresser, in his article on this bird, gives no less than thirty-
seven different names, which have for the greater part been
manufactured on account of the variations of plumage and size
noticed in this species.

Mr. Sharpe (Catalogue of Birds, British Museum, vol. xiii. p. 633) has
Galerita (Alauda) thecklce as a distinct species, giving S. Spain and N.E.
Africa as the habitat. Exactly similar in habits and note, it appears to be
only a small local race of A. cristata.

Galerita macrorhyncha, Tristram, mentioned by Mr. Drake as occurring
near Morocco, is only another local race of the Crested Lark.

120 ALAUDIDJE.

General ground-colour varies much from greyish brown to huffish brown.
Conspicuous occipital crest ; axillaries buff ; outer web of outer tail-feathers
Intff. Length 6f inches.

145. Alauda brachydactyla, Leisler. The Short-toed Lark.

Spanish. Terrera.

" This bird is found on passage near Tangier, crossing in
very large flights during March and April, returning in August
and September. Many remain to breed, frequenting the same
localities as the Calandra Lark." — Favier.

On the Andalucian side of the Straits the spring arrival
commences about the middle of March ; and the passage con-
tinues for a month later, at which time nests with eggs may be
found near Gibraltar. Excessively abundant, as above stated, in
the same situations as the Calandra ; they prefer fallow ground,
nesting under shelter of some clod or in any slight depression of
the ground. I never could find the nest, except by putting the
old bird off. A very good way of finding the nests of all the
Larks and ground-breeding birds is, with the assistance of a man
to hold it at the other end, to drag a rope about a hundred yards
long across the ground, being careful that it drags on the ground ;
directly a bird flies up, drop the rope, go to the spot, and in all
probability a nest will be found.

Below huffish white ; no spots on underparts ; but sometimes a streak or
two and brownish patch on each side of upper breast. Outer tail-feathers
huffish white, except the brown basal half of inner web ; the next feather
has outer web with buffish-white edging. Front claws very short and
curved ; hind claw straight and rather elongated. Length 5^ inches.

146. Alauda baetica, Dresser. The Andalucian Short-toed

Lark.

Spanish. Cujailla.

This small Lark was discovered by Lord Lilford in the corn-
land on the banks of the Guadalquivir below Seville, where they
are known to occur from February to the summer. Major

OTOCORYS BILOPHA. 121

Verner found them about the vega of La Janda, and obtained
several nests there ; the eggs were much like those of the Crested
Lark. They also occur in the vicinity of Malaga throughout the
year.

Marked much as A. Irachydactyla, but the secondaries very much shorter
than the primaries. More ashy in colour ; throat, breast, and flanks very
broadly marked with black. Length 5^ inches.

147. Alauda calandra (Linnaeus). The Calandra Lark.

Spanish. Alondra, Calandria.

The Calandra is extremely abundant and resident on both sides
of the Straits, gathering together in flocks during the winter.

Frequenting all the vegas or plains in Andalucia, they are,
from their numbers, size, note, and peculiar varying flight, very
conspicuous, and in some localities positively swarm. At times
their flight is very like that of some of the smaller Waders ; and
often when flying in the breeding-season they utter notes which
very much resemble the cry of the Green Sandpiper, only of
course not so loud. In spring they soar to a great height,
singing on the wing, but not hovering like the Skylark. At
this season, when the garbanzos (Cicer arietinuni) are sprouting,
they are very troublesome, picking the shoots off, so that the
farmers have to scare these and other Larks away.

They consort much with the Short-toed Lark, and nest some-
times close together on cultivated as well as pasture land, laying
about the second week in April.

The Calandra is a very common cage-bird at Gibraltar, and
they are as much prized for their song as for their lively habits.

Bill short and stout, arched above. Large triangular black patch on
each side of throat extending to the neck forming an interrupted collar.
Outer tail-feather almost entirely white. Length 8 inches.

148. Otocorys bilopha (Temminck). The Horned Desert-Lark.
This species is mentioned by Mr. Drake as having been

122 CY PSEUDS.

obtained at Morocco ; and has been found as a straggler near
Malaga.

Hind claw long and nearly straight. Back pale fawn-colour, the adult
male having a black gorget and two long black ear-tufts. Length
b' inches.

Order PICARI-S1. Family CYPSELIDJE.

Tail of ten feathers.

149. Cypselus apus, Linnaeus. Common Swift.

Moorish. Tair abila (Favier}. Spanish. Avion.

"This Swift arrives at Tangier, en route for Europe, during
March and April ; vast numbers remain to nest here, and return
south in September and October." — Favier.

Mr. Meade-Waldo saw a Swift near Tangier as early as the
22nd of February, 1892.

The above notes equally apply to the Common Swift in
Andalucia, the earliest date of arrival noted being the 4th of
March, the main body passing during the last fortnight in that
month, some as late as the 24th of April. The majority leave by
the end of August, some staying on into the middle of September,
the last being seen on the 16th of October. The number in
some towns, particularly Algeciraz, is perfectly marvellous, and
the noise they make morning and evening quite annoying.

Verner writes : — " In order to compare nests of this Swift with
those of the next species, I visited great numbers of nests of the
Common Swift on the Rock. In the Casemate Barracks a large
number nest yearly in the verandahs, and there, as elsewhere, I
found all the nests, if there were any, to be only a heap of
castings and insects' wings, and now and then the remnants of a
Sparrow's nest. In most cases the eggs were laid on the bare
mortar and there was no attempt to weld the castings &c.
together with mucilage. I caught and released a number of old

CYPSELUS MURINUS. 123

birds, all of the blackest hue. Every nest contained two eggs,
except one, which held three.

General colour blackish brown, except small whitish chin-patch ; four
toes all directed forwards. Length 7^ inches.

150. Cypselus murinus, A. and E. Brehm. Mouse-coloured
Swift.

" This Swift is found near Tangier on passage, crossing to
Europe in April and May. Some remain to breed ; but it is the
least common of the family, being seen alone or in pairs in
company with C. apus. I found a pair in July 1861, nesting in
company with some House-Martins (Chelidon urbica} ; the nest
was simply an old nest of that Martin, which the Swifts had
appropriated, and contained two eggs of the usual Cypselus
shape." — Favier.

They are abundant at Gibraltar, and are said to arrive at
Tangier somewhat earlier than the Common Swift, though there
appears to be no difference in the time of their arrival. Easily
noticed on the wing by their light colour, they mix both with the
Common and White-bellied Swifts.

In May 1874, when near Vejer with two ornithologizing
friends, we found this species to be more abundant than C. apus,
while, curiously enough, at Algeciraz (where, as mentioned, there
are countless swarms of Common Swifts) we never could detect
one single C. murinus. They are common around Malaga ; and
Mena, in 1882, noticed their first arrival on the 14th of March.
He also told me that this Swift does not, like C. apus, enter the
nest direct, but settles or hangs outside before entering.

Verner writes : — " In spite of this Swift having been considered
only to be a subspecies, I am convinced that in many cases the
Mouse-coloured Swifts nest in separate colonies apart from the
common species, and, as far as my experience goes, they differ
considerably in their nidification.

" A small colony used to breed in the weep-holes in the sea-

124 CYPSELID.E.

wall of the New Mole Parade. Many black Swifts nested in close
vicinity, but from continued observation it appeared that the
Light-coloured Swifts nested in adjacent holes and kept apart
from their dark congeners. These holes being far in, it was
difficult to be certain, since nests and old birds were out of reach.
However, another colony nested in 1878 in the Patio of the
Convent, and I was able to watch them daily and hourly for some
weeks from the A.D.C.'s room which I occupied. I soon found
that there were not any dark Swifts, and after making sure of
this I inspected their nests. On the 12th June I found five nests
— one with two eggs, three with three eggs, and one with two
young birds nearly fledged ; some of the eggs were fresh, others
much incubated. The nests (placed on the tops of rafters and on
a wall, and two between a rafter and the wall) were solidly built
of castings of insects' wings, thistledown, and bits of paja, glued
together by mucus so strongly as to require much force to separate
them from the rafters : those on the tops of the rafters were much
smaller than the others, and little more than a saucer-shaped
rampart. In all cases I caught the old birds and examined them
carefully before releasing them. It is curious that the black
Swift usually lays two eggs, rarely three, whilst three out of four
of the pale Swifts' nests contained three eggs."

151. Cypselus melba, Linnaeus. White-bellied Swift, Alpine
Swift.

Moorish. El namera. Spanish. Avion real, Avion de pecho
bianco.

" Found near Tangier on passage, crossing the Straits from
March to May, returning from August to October. It is not so
common as C, apus" — Favier.

The White-bellied Swift breeds sparingly at Gibraltar in the
inaccessible crevices of the rocks on the Mediterranean side ;
they seem to arrive, if anything, a little later than the Common
Swift. The earliest dates of arrival noticed were the 24th of March

CAPKIMULQID^. 125

1871 and 24th of March 1894, Mr. Irby, 60th Rifles, having
shot one at Tangier on the 18th. On the 4th of April, 1871,
near San Roque, I noticed a flock of about two hundred passing
in a northerly direction, with a gyrating flight, making a great
noise, though they were very high up. A few Common Swifts
(their cry attracted my attention to them) were with the flock.
On the 5th of November, 1871, at Casas Viejas, I saw six hawking
about over the marshes for about an hour, when they disappeared
in a westerly direction. An oificer who was at Fez told me that
he saw a great many Alpine Swifts there in large flights about
the 23rd of February.

Although far out of the range of this book, it is interesting to
record that Major Verner, when at Crete, noticed numbers of this
Swift passing north on the 24th of March, 1886.

The sexes are alike in plumage, except that the female is marked or
striated with a faint black line on the centre of the feathers of the white
breast. The brain of this, as in all Swifts that I have examined, is small
for the size of the bird.

Above greyish brown ; chin and belly white, with band of greyish brown
across upper breast ; toes as in last. Length 8| inches.

CAPRIMULGIDJE.

Mouth very wide, extending behind the eyes ; tail of ten
feathers ; claw of middle toe serrated on the inner edge.

152. Caprimulgus europeeus, Linnaeus. Nightjar or "Goat-
sucker."

" Occurs near Tangier, but is less numerous than the Rufous-
naped Nightjar, some, however, remaining to nest. The others
pass on across the Straits during May and June, returning from
September to November to pass the winter further south." —
Favier.

The Nightjar is found in Andalucia, as near Tangier, the earliest
date of arrival noticed being the 5th of May.

126

Male. White spot near end of inner web of three first primaries of each
wing, and the two outer tail-feathers on each side tipped with white.

Female. Like male, but without the white marks on wings and tail.
Length 10£ inches.

153. Caprimulg'us ruflcollis, Temminck. Rufous-naped Night-
jar.

Moorish. Terref el rayan. Spanish. Zumaya, Chota Cabras,
Engana-pastores .

" This Nightjar is very abundant near Tangier, arriving to cross
the Straits in April and May, to return in October and November.
Many remain to breed, nesting on the bare ground among scrubby
brushwood, and laying two eggs, which are to be found from
May to August." — Favier.

The Rufous-naped Nightjar is extremely plentiful near
Gibraltar. I knew one instance of its occurrence on the 16th of
February near Malaga ; the earliest date of arrival near Gibraltar
was on the 15th of April, the latest date of departure the 5th of
October.

Much resembles the last, but larger, with rufous nape and more ruddy
chin.

Sexes alike, both male and female having white spots on wings and tail.
Length nearly 12 inches.

P I C I D & . Two toes in front, two behind.

Subfamily PICIN^E. Tail-feathers stiff and pointed :
nostrils covered with bristles.

154. Dendrocopus major (Linnseus). The Great Spotted
Woodpecker.

This Woodpecker is very local, and is always to be seen or
heard among the old alder trees in the Soto gordo of the Cork-
wood of Almoraima. They are found all over that wood, up the
valleys (gargantas) of the sierras, particularly along that one

DENDROCOPUS MEDIUS. 127

down which runs the river Palm ones. They are common near
Ojen, also abundant about Pulverilla on the road between Casas
Viejas and Gibraltar. Further than this I never noticed them ;
nor did I ever see them where oak and alder trees were absent.
The local name is Pito real. They nest about the 1st of May in
holes of decaying trees, and do not appear to be in the slightest
degree migratory.

Black and white ; scapulars white ; lack and rump black : under tail-
coverts scarlet ; iris red.
Male. Nape scarlet.
Female. No red on head and nape.
Young. Crown of head red. Length 9| inches.

155. Dendrocopus numidicus, Malherbe. The Algerian Pied
Woodpecker.

Moorish. Nakab.

" Resident and common in the vicinity of Tangier, being found
only in large woods, wThere they nest in holes of trees, laying
from five to six eggs, similar to those of Picus major," — Favier.

1 did not find this bird " common " near Tangier ; and as for
the " large woods," there are none close to that town ; about
Tetuan this Woodpecker is plentiful, similar in habits to I), major.
Favier states that they migrate across the Straits.

Mr. Hargitt, in his ' Catalogue of Woodpeckers in the British Museum/
vol. xviii., gives the Pied Woodpecker of Morocco as a distinct species,
D. mauritamis, Brehm, resembling the Algerian D. numidicus, except that
the black stripes which border the throat and extend to sides of the chest
do not form a complete band tipped with scarlet on the chest, as in
D. numidicus ; further that the lateral tail-feathers are more broadly
marked with black, and the bill and legs less powerful. Andalucian
specimens of D. major often have traces of crimson and black crescent on
the chest ; and until a larger series of specimens are examined, I think
numidicus and mauritanus are only climatic races of D. major.

[Dendrocopus medius. The Middle Spotted Woodpecker.
This Pied Woodpecker is stated by Arevalo to be resident in

128 PICID,E.

the Province of Granada. At Potes, near Santander, in 1876,
we found this species at a higher elevation than D. major.

Both sexes have the crown vermilion, the abdomen and tail-coverts rose-
colour. Length 8£ inches.]

156. Gecinus sharpii, Saunders. The South Spanish Green

Woodpecker.

Spanish. Pito real.

This Green Woodpecker, in habits, note, and manner of
nesting, is exactly similar to the British G. viridis; they are
abundant in some localities near Seville, particularly in the Cotos
and towards Cordova and Granada. I never met with any nearer
Gibraltar than the vicinity of Seville, and it is very singular they
should not occur in the Cork-wood or in the wooded gargantas
or valleys in the vicinity of Gibraltar.

Resembles G. viridis, but has the side of the face grey and the red
moustache of the male not bordered with black. Length 11^-12^ inches.

157. Gecinus vaillanti (Malherbe). The Algerian Green

Woodpecker.

Moorish. Nakab el tebak (the borer of the wood).

" Kesident near Tangier, but not so common as Picus numi-
dicus ; like the latter avoiding the haunts of men and living in
large woods. They nest in holes of trees in April and May, and
lay from five to eight shining white eggs. The males assist in
incubation." — Favier.

We found this Green Woodpecker to be common near Tetuan
and in the province of Angera, especially among the short stunted
trees which grow in the valleys about Jebel Musa ; they are rare
near Tangier, the scarcity of trees accounting for their absence ;
in habits and note they exactly agree with G. viridis and
G. sharpii, but both the latter and the present bird, in my
humble opinion, are only climatic or local races of G. viridis.

The characters given are : — Face grey, with whitish stripe across from

IYNX TORQUILLA. 129

base of upper bill to end of moustache, which is black in both sexes ; but I
have seen male specimens from Morocco with the moustache red.

Male. Crown and nape red.

Female. Crown grey, striped with black ; nape only red. Length 12
inches.

158. Gecinus canus, Gmelin. The Grey-headed Green
Woodpecker.

I have never met with this species in Andalucia ; but there
was a specimen in an Institute at Seville, stated to have been
obtained in the neighbourhood. Lord Lilford records them from
the vicinity of Madrid, and Arevalo from Valencia.

The note of this Green Woodpecker is quite distinct from that
of G. viridis.

Nape and head grey. Below uniform ; moustache black "in both sexes.

Male. Fore crown red.

Female. Crown grey. Length 8 inches.

Subfamily lYNGIN^E. Nostrils partly covered by a membrane.

159. lynx torquilla, Linnseus. The Wryneck.

Spanish. Torcecuello, Hormiguero, Lililo.

"Rather scarce and seen only in pairs near Tangier during
passage, crossing the Straits in March and April, returning
in August and September, but occasionally observed up to
December." — Favier.

Mr. Meade- Waldo saw one near Tangier at the end of January,
1892.

On the Spanish side of the Straits the Wryneck is occasionally
heard in March, April, and September ; probably their line of
migration lies further to the east.

General colour greyish brown, vermiculated with blackish ; below dull
white ; throat and breast tinged with buff and crossed with blackish bars.
Tail soft and rounded, with six blackish bars ; the outer feather on each
side so extremely short as to give the appearance of only ten feathers.
Length 7 inches.

130 COKAC11DJE.

ALCEDINID.3E.

160. Alcedo ispida, Linnseus. The Kingfisher.

Moorish. Kandil el behar (lamp of the sea). Spanish. Martin
pescador.

" This bird, only found from August to March, is not numerous
near Tangier, but is more abundant near Rabat." — Favier.

The Kingfisher is common in winter and spring near Gibraltar,
being frequently seen among the rocks on the coast, and often

the " inundation " at the North Front ; and they have bred
near Gibraltar, where the majority arrive in October, leaving in
March. Arevalo says they are resident in Spain.

Male. Above greenish blue ; middle of back, rump, and upper tail-coverts
cobalt-blue ; throat and patch on each side of neck white ; lores black ;
rest below rich chestnut ; bill black. Length 7^ inches.

Female. Lower mandible reddish at base.

CORACIIDJE.

161. Coracias garrula, Linnseus. The Roller.

Moorish. Sharrakrak. Spanish. Carlanco, Carraca.

"This bird is seen in numbers near Tangier on passage,
migrating in pairs and crossing the Straits in April and May,
returning in August to retire further south. Their food is all
kinds of insects, even scorpions." — Favier.

The Roller breeds at Larache, nesting in holes of the walls of
the ramparts at the end of April. I did not observe any else-
where in Morocco, except about the ruins of " old Tangier."

In Andalucia they are also very local, and arrive during the
latter end of March, leaving by September. I have seen one or
two in May near Casas Viejas, one 12th April, 1894, Sierra Retin,
while Verner saw one at Pulverilla, August 20, 1878 ; but they
are not common nearer to Gibraltar than the vicinity of Seville.
Thence along the valley of the Guadalquivir they abound, nesting

181

in holes of trees, walls, and ruins ; they lay about the 14th of
April, from four to six shining white eggs.

Back, scapulars, and tertials cinnamon-brown ; inner web of end of
primaries blackish brown. Neck, throat, breast, and underparts bluish ;
rest green or purplish green. Length 13 inches.

MEPOPIDJE.

162. Merops apiaster, Linnaeus. The Bee-eater.

Moorish. El Leeamoon. Spanish. Abejaruco.

" The Bee-eater is seen on passage near Tangier in great
flights, which attract notice from their cry. They arrive and
cross over to Europe during March and April, returning in
August, many remaining to breed. They nest in May, the eggs
varying in shape, being some oval, some oblong." — Favier.

This bird did not appear to me to be quite so common in
Morocco at the end of April as on the Spanish side of the
Straits, where, during April, May, June, and July, it is one
of the most conspicuous birds in the country; at that season
Andalucia without Bee-eaters \vould be like London without
Sparrows. Everywhere they are to be seen ; and their single
note, teerrp, heard continually repeated, magnifies their number
in imagination. Occasionally they venture into the centre of
towns when on passage, hovering round the orange-trees and
flowers in some patio or garden. Crossing the Straits for the
most part in the early part of the day, flight follows flight for
hours in successiori, always exactly in the same direction, due
north. When passing at Gibraltar they sometimes skim low
down to settle for a moment on a bush or a tree, but generally
go straight on, often almost out of sight ; but their cry always
betrays their presence in the air.

My dates of their first arrival noticed are : — the 7th of April,
1868; 4th of April, 1869; 1st of April, 1870; 29th of March,

132

1871; 26th of March, 1872; 28th of March, 1874; 29th of
March, 1876 (Verner); 28th of March, 1877 (Verner) -, 29th of
March, 1894. None were seen on the 30th, many on the 31st of
March, 1894 ; none on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd of April, many on the
6th ; some on the 7th, many on 8th and 9th, most on the 10th ;
numbers on llth, 12th, 13th, and 14th. They were observed
passing in great numbers from the 10th to the 14th of April
in three consecutive years, the greatest quantity arriving on the
10th; so, in Spanish fashion, I christened that date "St. Bee-
eater's day." The latest flight I ever saw going north was on the
7th of May.

Having remained at Gibraltar once only during July and
August, I had but that opportunity of watching the return
migration, which appeared during the last week in July and also
on the llth and 12th of August, the last being noticed on the
29th of that month, all with few exceptions being heard passing
at night. Verner noticed the return migration at Gibraltar on
the 20th of July and on the 18th of August, earliest and latest
dates. The first arrivals, as is the case with all migrants, are
those which remain to breed in the immediate neighbourhood.
Commencing their labours of excavation almost immediately they
arrive, the earliest eggs that I know of were taken on the 29th
of April ; but usually they do not lay till about the second week
in May, often not so soon.

In some places they nest in large colonies ; in others there are
perhaps only two or three holes. When there are no river-banks
or barrancos in which to bore holes, they tunnel down into the
ground, where the soil is suitable, in a slightly vertical direction,
on some elevated mound.

The shafts to these nests are not usually so long as those in
banks of rivers, which sometimes reach to a distance of eight or
nine feet in all ; the end is enlarged into a round sort of chamber,
on the bare soil of which the usual four or five shining white
eggs are placed ; after a little they become discoloured from the

MEKOPS APIASTER. 133

castings of the old birds, the nest being, as it were, lined with the
wings and undigested parts of bees and wasps. Vast quantities
of eggs and young must be annually destroyed by snakes and
lizards : the latter are often seen sunning themselves at the
entrance of a hole among a colony of Bee-eaters ; and frequently
have I avenged the birds by treating the yellow reptile to a charge
of shot. The bills of Bee-eaters, after boring out their habita-
tions, are sometimes worn away to less than half their usual
length ; but as newly arrived birds never have these stumpy bills,
it is evident that they grow again to their original length. It has
often been a source of wonder to me how they have the strength
to make these long tunnels ; the amount of exertion must be
enormous ; but when one considers the holes of the Sand-Martin,
it is perhaps not so surprising after all.

During my stay at Gibraltar, Bee-eaters decreased very much
in the neighbourhood, being continually shot on account of their
bright plumage to put in ladies' hats. Owing to this vile fashion,
we saw no less than seven hundred skins, all shot at Tangier ill
the spring of 1874, which were consigned by Olcese to some
dealer in London. However, the enormous injury these birds do
to the peasants who keep bees, fully merits any amount of
punishment; but at the same time they destroy quantities of
wasps. After being fired at once or twice, they become very
wary and shy at the breeding-places ; and the best way to shoot
them is to hide near the colmenares, or groups of cork bee-hives
(corchos), which in Spain are placed in rows sometimes to the
number of seventy or eighty together ; and it is no unusual thing
to see as many Bee-eaters wheeling round and swooping down,
even seizing the bees at the very entrance of their hives.

The reason of their early departure in August is to be accounted
for by the simple fact that bees cease to work when there are no
flowers, as by that time all vegetation is scorched up.

Bill long, pointed, slightly curved downwards; iris red. Forehead white
next bill, then a bluish tinge ; crown rich chestnut ; chin and throat rich

134 UPUPID^E.

yellow, bordered below by a black line. Tail green, long ; two centre
feathers an inch longer than others. Length 10-11 inches.

UPUPIDJE.

163. Upupa epops, Linnaeus. The Hoopoe.

Moorish. Hudhud, Tair ababil, Kubaa deen Nasara (the
Christian's Crested Lark). Spanish. Abubilla, Gallo de Marzo,
Cajonera, Cagajonera, Sabubilla.

" Seen in great quantities near Tangier on passage, crossing to
Europe during February, March, and April, returning, to retire
altogether for the winter, in August, September, and October.
In some years the vernal migration is earlier, and they are seen
at the end of January. They rarely remain to nest near Tangier.
The females have a nearly white throat. The superstitious Jews
and Mahometans both believe that the heart and feathers of the
Hoopoe are charms against the machinations of evil spirits." —
Earner.

' Hoopoes seldom remain to nest in the vicinity of Gibraltar :
Verner, in 1875, found a nest in a hollow tree in the Sierra
Retin, which contained four fresh eggs on 31st May, and a few
breed about Casas Viejas, and thence northwards, where there
are trees ; towards Moron and Seville their " hood, hood" may
be frequently heard in spring and summer. They begin to lay
about the 1st of May, in holes of trees.

My dates of their earliest arrival at Gibraltar are: — the 17th
of February, 1870; 18th of February, 1871; IGth of February,
1872; 17th of February, 1894; but on the llth of January in
1872 I saw a single Hoopoe in the Goto del Eey. Verner first
noticed them in 1875 on 17th of February; 1876 on the 18th;
in 1879 on the 21st; Mr. Irby, 60th Eifles, on 17th of February,
1892 ; whilst Capt. Savile Reid informed me of one appearing as
early as the 16th of January in 1874. They mostly pass in March,
whence their local name Gallo de Mdrzo, March-cock.

CUCULID.E. 135

Bill long, thin, slightly arched and pointed. Erectile rich buff crest,
tipped with black ; the hind feathers of the crest with white before the
black tips. Tail black, of ten feathers, with broad white bar across the
lower part. Length 10-12 inches.

CUCULIDJE. Tail of ten feathers ; two toes in front,

two behind.

164. Cuculus canorus, Linnaeus. The Common Cuckoo.

Moorish. Takouk, Ukouk. Spanish. Cuco.

" More abundant near Tangier than the Great Spotted Cuckoo ;
seen during passage, in pairs, which cross to Europe in April
and May, and return in August to winter, probably, in the inte-
rior of Africa. Some remain during summer, awaiting the return
of the autumnal migration." — Favier.

The Cuckoo is very plentiful near Gibraltar, especially in the
Cork-wood and on all hill-sides wherever there are any trees. I
saw a great many at the top of the mountains at the back of
Algeciraz at the end of May, but not beyond the line of trees.
First heard on the 7th of April in 1868, on the 22nd of March
in 1870, on the 31st of March in 1871, on the 29th of March in
1872, and on the 30th of the same month in 1874; on the llth
of March, 1879 (Verner); 24th of March, 1894. They remain
till the end of July.

A female shot in the second week in May had then two eggs
remaining in the ovaries, nearly ready to lay. Verner found on
25th June, 1879, near Gibraltar, a Cuckoo's egg in a Wood-
Warbler's nest.

Male. Above bluish grey ; chin and neck ash-grey ; below white, barred
with black. Tail greyish black, graduated, slightly spotted and tipped with
white ; iris, eyelids, legs, and feet yellow.

Female. Like male, but usually with slight rufous tinge on breast.
Females much less numerous than males.

Young. Upper surface and tail clove-brown, barred with pale brown,
feathers tipped with white ; white spot on nape ; iris brown. Length
14 inches.

136 CUCULID.E,

165. Coocystes grlandarius (Linnaeus). Tlie Great Spotted
Cuckoo.

Moorish. Teir el Keber (Bird of news) (Favier). Spanish.
Cuco real, Cuco monon.

" Occurs near Tangier on passage, always in pairs, but not in
any great numbers. They cross to Europe in January, February,
and March, returning in June, July, August, and September.
Their food is entirely caterpillars, both smooth and hairy." —
Favier.

The Great Spotted Cuckoo arrives in Andalucia much earlier
than the Common Cuckoo ; and though Favier states that they'
pass in January, the 25th of February and the 2nd of March are
the earliest dates which I have for their arrival, and they mostly
appear between the 7th and 28th of March. Verner records one
on 8th March and another on 4th April, 1879, both near Gibraltar.
The latest I saw was on the 7th of August, in the Alameda at
Gibraltar ; but they are seldom noticed near there, and pass on
to districts further north, where there are Magpies (Pica rustica),
as they lay in the nests of the latter, and occasionally, it is stated,
in those of the Spanish Magpie (Cyanopicus cooJci). The eggs
can be easily distinguished by their elliptical form, those of the
Magpie being pointed at one end. They vary a good deal in
size and much in the markings, like those of the bird whose nest
they use. As far as we yet know, this Cuckoo always places its
eggs in nests of the Corvidce. The majority of eggs I have seen,
mostly obtained by Ruiz of Seville, came from the vicinity of
Cordova ; there are a good many in the Goto del Key. A female
killed on the 7th of March had the eggs so far developed as to
show that the probable number of eggs she would have laid was
four.

The Rev. John White mentions this Cuckoo as having been
killed at Gibraltar about 1776.

Adults. Crested. Head and nnpe bluish grey; rest of upper parts greyish

STRIGID^E. 137

brown ; wings, scapulars, and tail (except two centre feathers) tipped with
white ; underparts white. Sexes alike.

Young. Basal two-thirds of primaries chestnut; head blackish brown,
without any crest. Length 15-16 inches.

Order STRIGES. Family STRIGIDJE.

166. Strix flammea, Linnseus. The White or Barn-Owl.

Moorish. Youka, Tair el m6t (Death-bird), Sehar, Bou tezaz.
Spanish. Lechuza.

"This Owl, resident near Tangier, is nearly as abundant as
the Little Owl, inhabiting ruins and holes in rocks, and nesting
twice a year, between April and November. They lay from
three to four eggs. The inhabitants of Tangier consider this bird
the clairvoyant friend of the Devil. The Jews believe that
their cry causes the death of young children ; so, in order to
prevent this, they pour a vessel of water out into the courtyard
every time that they hear the cry of one of these Owls passing
over their house. The Arabs believe even more than the Jews ;
for they think that they can cause all kinds of evil to old as well
as to young ; but their mode of action is even more simple than
that of their antagonists the Jews, as they rest contented with
cursing them whenever they hear their cry. Endeavouring to
find out from the Mahometans what foundation there is for the
evil reputation of this species, I was told this : — ' When these
birds cry, they are only cursing in their language ; but their
malediction is harmless unless they know the name of the
individual to whom they wish evil, or unless they have the
malignity to point out that person when passing him; as the
Devil sleeps but little when there is evil work to be done, he
would infallibly execute the command of his favourite if one did
not, by cursing the Owl by name, thus guard against the power
of that enemy who is sworn to do evil to all living beings.'

138 STRJGID^E.

Having learned the belief of the Mahometans relative to this
Owl, it was more difficult to find out exactly that of the Jews,
who when questioned by me knew not how to answer, except
that the act of pouring out water in the middle of the courtyard
is a custom of long standing in order to avert the evil which the
Owl is capable of doing ; that is to say, the water is poured out
with a view of attracting the Evil Spirit's attention to an object
which distracts him, and so hides from him the infant which the
Owl in its wickedness wishes to show him." — Favier.

On the Andalucian side of the Straits the White Owl is
common and resident, nesting at Gibraltar in the Moorish
Castle.

I must here digress to say a few words in favour of this most
useful of birds. Almost exclusively feeding on rats and mice,
they deserve every encouragement and support that can be afforded
them ; but from being in all countries regarded with superstitious
awe and dislike, they are more or less persecuted on that account ;
and in England, through the ignorance and stupidity of game-
keepers, who fancy that they kill game (i. e. feathered game), they
suffer most severely. This excuse is ridiculous ; for the old birds
they have not the power to kill, and young pheasants and
partridges at the time the Owls are on the feed are safely being
brooded by the parent bird.

Those who wish .to encourage and increase Owls, and have
not hollow trees or buildings where they nest, may always gratify
their wishes by fixing an empty barrel (about an 18-gallon size)
horizontally in the fork of any large tree, cutting a hole in one
end large enough for the birds to enter ; but the hoops of the
cask should be screwed on, or it will soon fall to pieces. Not
only the Barn-Owl, but the Tawny Owl (Syrnium aluco) also will
use these barrels or " owl-tubs." The difficulty, however, is to
keep out Jackdaws ; but when once the Owls have established
themselves, there is no fear of that intrusion.

In a barrel put up too near another in which was an Owl's

ASIO ACCIPITEINUS. 1 39

nest, a pair of Stock Doves took possession and reared their
young. This same tub afterwards had a hornet's nest in it.

Facial disk complete and large, tuftless ; skin covering orifice of ear
(opercaluni) large.

Above pale orange-buff, speckled with grey and spotted with black and
white ; underpants and facial disk white, but these parts vary, the former
being sometimes marked with black specks, and both are occasionally of a
complete buff colour. Iris black. Toes without feathers, covered with a
few bristles ; middle claw serrated. Length 14 inches.

167. Asio otus (Linnaeus). The Long-eared Owl.
Spanish. Carabo.

This arboreal Owl is not mentioned by Favier, though Olcese
obtained one near Tangier in 1884, where Mr. Meade- Waldo
found it the most common Owl, except the Little Owl and Scops,
and, as in the Canaries, frequenting rough scrub-covered ground.

I did not meet with any near Gibraltar, but shot one in winter
in the Goto del Rey. They are found near Cordova and Granada
and breed there.

Facial disk complete ; ear-tufts very long, equal to hind toe and claw ;
operculum semicircular ; iris orange. General colour orange-buff ; above
mottled with blackish brown, below streaked and faintly barred with brown.
Length 14 inches.

168. Asio accipitrinus (Pallas). The Short-eared Owl.

Moorish. El hama (Favier). Spanish. Carabo.

"This species occurs less abundantly than the Cape-Owl
(A. capensis), being found on passage in small flights on open
and wet ground. Some breed near Tangier ; but the remainder
cross to Europe in February and March, returning in November.
This Owl interbreeds with the Cape-Owl, producing hybrids
which only differ from that species in having the front of the
facial disk, the throat and tarsi whitish, while the irides are half
yellow. The Arab chasseurs confound the two species under
the name of ' el hama ' ; but they are easily distinguished by the

140 STKIGID^E.

irides, which are yellow in the present species, and hazel in the
Cape-Owl." — Favier.

The above story about the hybrids is difficult to believe, and
is to my mind apocryphal ; however, it is given for what it may
be worth. I confess I am very sceptical as to the assertions
made about the interbreeding of different species in an absolute
state of nature, excepting only the Gallinse ; but most hybrids
among these are produced under circumstances of acclimatization
which can hardly be called a really wild state.

The Short-eared Owl may nest so far south, but, as far as my
observations go, is in Andalucia only a winter visitor, and even
then not very abundant. I should have omitted this story of
Favier's but that it has appeared in print before.

Disk and operculum like last ; ear-tufts very short.
Above tawny, each feather with dark brown down the centre ; below
buff, streaked with blackish brown ; iris yellow. Length 14-10^ inches.

169. Asio capensis (Smith). Marsh-Owl.

Moorish. El hama.

" Is a common resident near Tangier, usually frequenting wet
swampy ground, feeding chiefly on insects. Some pass over to
Europe in March and April, returning in November and
December. They nest on the ground in April or May, laying
four, rarely five, round white eggs, sometimes marked with a few
rusty spots. The young are not always hatched at the same
time, as in the same nest may be found young birds of diiferent
growths." — Favier.

My experiences of this Owl in Spain are very limited, and as
follows: — In October 1868, on my first visit to Casas Viejas,
when looking for Snipe in one of the wettest parts of the Mill
soto, two Owls rose at my feet, which I shot, winging one, which
I carried home alive to take to Gibraltar, seeing at once from the
bluish-black colour of the irides that I had got an Owl which I
did not know. Afterwards hunting about, one more was seen, and

SYRNIUM ALUCO. 141

killed. On the 10th of November following, during my second
visit, I saw three more, two of which I winged and also carried
off alive to Gibraltar, keeping them there for some time, till one
got out and flew off as if nothing was the matter with it ; so I
sent the other at once to Lord Lilford, who had it alive till 1870.
I met with no more till the 10th of November, 1870, when I
shot one and picked up the remains of another. In October and
November 1871 I repeatedly and carefully went over the same
ground, but did not see any, while friends of mine there in
August and September, whom I begged to look out for these
Owls, did not come across one. All the eight birds above
mentioned were found within a space of about a square mile ;
and, strange to say, I never saw any elsewhere. In December
1873, Capt. Savile Reid, of the Royal Engineers, shot one when
snipe-shooting in the same locality. I was there in March and
May in 1874, and, though I hunted all the likely ground over,
failed to meet with even one ; but they have since been obtained
there, notably in the winters of 1882-83 and 1893-94.

General colour above earthy brown, indistinctly vermiculated with
rufous. Ear-tufts barely visible. Iris bluish black. Length 13-14 inches.

170. Syrnium aluco (Linnseus). The Tawny, Wood, or Brown
Owl.

Moorish. Lu Lual, Bu-ru-ru, Spanish. Carabo.

" This species is the scarcest of the Owls near Tangier, being
met with on passage, crossing to Europe in February, returning
in November and December. Some remain to nest in April,
laying two eggs, of which often only one is hatched. They live
in large thick woods." — Favier.

Mr. Meade-Waldo says the Tawny Owls which he saw in
Morocco were very grey birds and very large ; all specimens
which I saw from that country were of the grey race. The
Arabic name Bu-ru-ru is delightfully suggestive of their cry.

I never met with or heard one in Andalucia, and it is not

142 STRIGID^E.

mentioned by Arevalo as an Andalucian bird ; but Mr. Stark saw
one in April, 1876, near Algeciraz, and another was obtained by
Mena in winter near Malaga.

Facial disk complete ; no tufts ; operculum large ; toes feathered ;
iris blackish. Two phases of plumage occur : grey and rufous. Length
18-19 inches.

•171. Scops giu (Scopoli). The Scops Owl.

Moorish, Maroof ("the well known"). Spanish. Corneja,
Corneta, Cuquillo.

" Occurs near Tangier on passage, crossing to Europe in March,
returning to winter further south in September and October.
Many pass the breeding-season in Morocco." — Favier.

The Scops Owl is very plentiful, both in Morocco and Anda-
lucia, but is almost entirely migratory. I was much surprised to
hear one on the 13th of January, 1872, near the Goto del Rey,
and another nearer Seville on the 15th ; but from what I after-
wards was told at Seville, there is no doubt a few sometimes
remain there during the winter ; I never observed them during
that season at Gibraltar, the earliest date of the vernal migration
noticed being the 4th of March, the first nest being on the 4th
of May. This Owl always nests in holes of trees, at least I do
not know of any instance of their nesting in rocks or ruins, like
Carine noctua, which breeds by preference in those places.

Abundant in the Cork-wood ; the nest is easily discovered by
going round and hammering at the old cork-trees with a stick,
when, if a Scops Owl flies out, ten to one there is a nest. They
are strictly arboreal, and their monotonous single note may be
frequently heard repeated at regular intervals by day as well as by
night ; they even frequent trees in the midst of towns, being often
heard in the trees which fringe the Delicias, the drive and Rotten
Row of Seville.

They chiefly feed on Coleoptera, and I believe are entirely
insectivorous.

BUBO IGNAVUS. 143

Facial disk incomplete above eyes, tufted ; no operculum. General
colour grey, with minute marks of brown and spots of dark brown. Legs
feathered ; toes bare. Iris yellow. Length 8^-10 inches.

172. Bubo ignavus, T. Forster. The Eagle-Owl.

Spanish. Bujo real.

This Owl is not included in Favier's notes on the birds of
Tangier, though it is, no doubt, found in the mountainous
districts of Morocco ; indeed, we heard of a large Owl about
Tetuan, but could not obtain a specimen.

They are resident in all rocky localities in Andalucia ; and
some frequent the "Rock," probably nesting in some of the
numerous inaccessible caverns of the east side. One was caught
in 1869 in a magazine near the Rock gun; having gone down
into the narrow space between the outer and the main wall of the
magazine, it was unable to rise. I had this bird alive for some
time, and ultimately sent it to Lord Lilford, in whose possession
it paired with another from Norway. I also had three young
from a nest near Castellar, about eighteen miles from Gibraltar.
While keeping these Owls, the wild ones used to come at night
close to the cage and answer the call of those that were shut up.
Its loud, melancholy, human-sounding note is sometimes to be
heard all night long up the Rock, and is usually supposed to be
the cry of the apes.

They breed very early : judging from the size of the young
which were obtained, they would lay about the end of January;
and such, say the cabreros, is the case. I never could succeed in
discovering the nest, though I knew of several reputed nesting-
places, but on examining them found nothing but bones of
rabbits, rats, partridges, and small birds, never even seeing one
of the Owls, though the charcoal-burners, carboneros, assured
me that they had taken the young from these situations. One
man, however, said that these Owls bring the .young from their
nests to these caves. Verner reports that on 1st of April, 1894,

144 STRIGID.E.

he saw an Eagle-Owl fly round a hill where he had seen a pair
twenty years before ; climbing up he discovered the nest, which
was merely a basin-shaped hollow in the dry sand under an over-
hanging crag: round the nest was a great mass of bones and
castings, and half a rabbit, a water-vole, and part of a peewit —
not a common bird in those parts in April. The nest, which
contained one young bird and an addled egg, was well concealed
in the thick tall heather and most difficult to find. There was
a second disused nesting-place within twenty yards.

The Eev. John White mentions the Eagle-Owl as occurring at
Gibraltar during his residence there about 1776.

Facial disk incomplete above eyes ; tufts very large; no operculurn.

General colour above blackish, mottled with tawny yellow. Toes so
thickly feathered that the last joint is hidden. Iris orange-yellow. Length
26-27 inches.

173. Carine noctua (Scopoli). Little Owl.

Moorish. Mouka, Moueka, Bouma. Spanish. Mochuelo.

" Is the commonest species of Owl near Tangier, being both
resident and migratory. Those which migrate pass to Europe
during March and April, returning in August and September.
During passage they are met with in pairs or small flights ; at all
other times they are found singly or in pairs among large rocks
and old buildings." — Favier.

The above was written by Favier under the head of Athene
ylaux, or, as he had it, " Strix noctua meridionalis" ; but as that
species has not yet been noticed in Andalucia, and as C. noctua
is the Little Owl of Tangier, I have no hesitation in referring
the above notes to that bird — not that it would have been much
loss to have omitted them altogether, the only information of
importance being that they migrate.

Near and at Gibraltar this Little Owl is common and resident,
nesting, about the end of April, in holes of trees as well as in
rocks.

VULTURID.E. 145

Facial disk ill-defined ; (uftless ; no operculum.

Above greyish brown, spotted with white ; below white, much streaked
with brown ; iris yellow ; toes without feathers, but covered with bristles.
Length 7^-8 inches.

174. Carine glaux, Savigny. Southern Little Owl.

This bird, which is only a light-coloured race of the last, does
not appear to be met with in the immediate vicinity of Tangier,
the only specimens I have seen having been obtained three or
four days' journey on the way to Fez. The Little Owl of Tangier
is undoubtedly C. nociua.

Resembles Little Owl, except is isabelline or pale fawn-colour where dark
brown in that bird.

Order ACCIPITRES. Family VULTURID^l.

175. Vultur monachus, Linnaeus. The Black or Cinereous
Vulture.

Spanish. Buitre negro.

This Vulture is mentioned by Favier as having once occurred
near Tangier ; and there is a specimen in the Norwich Museum
from that locality, perhaps the identical bird. They are probably
not so rare in Morocco as Favier implies. On the Spanish side
of the Straits they are not often to be seen, and generally alone
in winter and early spring.

They are more common near Seville than Gibraltar. Some
breed in Andalucia, as I discovered one nest by watching the
birds building or, rather, repairing it ; for on examination it
appeared to be an old nest, probably a Stork's, and was a vast
pile of sticks placed on a half-decayed alder tree, about fifteen
feet from the ground, in the midst of the thick jungle of the Soto
Malabrigo, nearCasas Viejas. This place is almost impenetrable,
surrounded by open marsh, and is formed of a mass of huge
tussocks placed far apart, on which grow wide-spreading sallows

L

146 VULTURID.E.

and brambles well interlaced. The space between these tussocks
is covered with rushes and sedges, growing in mud and water, in
places up to the waist. In my first expedition to the nest it took
me more than half an hour to reach the tree, a distance of only
about a hundred and fifty yards from the edge of this paradise of
Water-Rails and aquatic Warblers. Upon climbing the tree it
was very difficult to see into the nest, as it so overhung, owing
to the great breadth ; and, alas ! there was no egg, not even any
lining.

A few days after, on the 26th of February, I again examined
the nest, only to find it lined with wool and a few dried rushes.
Muster-day at Gibraltar, on the 28th, compelled our return to the
Rock ; so I engaged a man to take the nest and bring the egg to
Gibraltar, which he never did, probably not liking the journey
through the swampy jungle. The following year this nest was
not used by any birds; but in 1874 a pair of White-shouldered
Eagles took possession, repairing the nest and lining it with fresh
green boughs. This was early in March ; and with persistent
bad luck, on our return there in April, my friend found nothing
in the nest, although the Eagles were about ; either they had
been robbed of their eggs, or else had deserted owing to too
frequent examination. Verner took a nest, in the spring of 1875,
of the White-shouldered Eagle from this tree, which was subse-
quently burnt down, and he observed a pair of Black Vultures
about the vicinity of the Malabrigo during that and the four
following springs. He told me that once he came across a large
flock of Griffons feeding on a dead horse, and among these birds
was a single Black Vulture, which he watched and noticed was
master of the situation and drove away any Griffon that attempted
to feed too near.

The Black Vulture is said to nest near Utrera; but upon
inquiry I could not ascertain such to be the case ; they appear to
go further north to breed, as Lord Lilford found them nesting
towards Madrid, and in one season received no less than some

GYPS FL'LVUS. 147

seventy eggs. More solitary in habits than the Griffon, and
unlike that Vulture, they build in trees and not in colonies — •
laying only one egg, about the beginning of April.

This Vulture is to be recognized when on the wing, within a
short distance, by its dark appearance. The immature birds are
very dark-coloured, becoming lighter with age, till they attain
the adult plumage. The bare skin about the head and neck is
of a pale bluish colour ; nostrils rounded.

Adult. Ruff of brown down. Plumage much lighter than young.
Young. Ruff of lanceolated feathers, general colour blackish brown.
Length 42 inches.

176. Gyps fulvus (J. F. Gmelin). Griffon Vulture.

Moorish. Niser. Spanish. B nitre, Pajaraco, Buitre franciscano.

" This Vulture occurs commonly near Tangier, both as a
resident and on passage, and is often seen feeding in company
with the Neophron on the same carcass." — Foxier,

I did not see many Griffon Vultures in Morocco, but there
wrere a few pair about Jebel Musa in April. Near Gibraltar they
are very plentiful, nesting in colonies, not exceeding thirty-five
pairs, in holes or, rather, small caves in the perpendicular crags
or " lajas," which are found in many of the Sierras ; but occasion-
ally a solitary nest will be found some distance from any other,
while Mr. A. C. Stark mentions a nest " built on the ground near
the top of a hill " in the Tarifa district.

The most important breeding-places near to Gibraltar are the
Sierra de San Bartolome, the Sierra de Plata, and la Laja del
Ciscar, all near Taivilla. One egg only is the usual comple-
ment ; and they lay about the 20th of February. Should the
first egg be taken, it seems that they lay again about the 15th of
April. Of course it is impossible to prove this ; but eggs were
laid at that time in nests which had been robbed in February.
Stark says that in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar and Tarifa
fresh eggs of the Griffon may be obtained, roughly speaking,

L2

VU1TURID.E.

NEST AND EG3 OF GRIFFON" ON OPEN LEDGE 200 FEET FROM
SUMMIT OF EL CISCAR.

GYPS FULVUS. 149

from the 1st of February to the 1st of March, the majority laving
between the 10th and 20th of February. Near Malaga they
are somewhat earlier, many laying in the latter half of January.
The egg is usually white, but is occasionally marked with buff-
coloured blotches, the nest consisting sometimes merely of three
or four bits of green bush laid on the rock, but being generally
lined with green materials, mostly broom, esparto grass, rushes,
and one with furze (Stark), and the birds, like other Raptores
that use green stuff to line their nests, continually renew it.

Verner obtained " fifteen eggs on February the 25th, 1879, six
of which he blew, and found two fresh, three slightly, and one
much incubated. One of the fifteen was faintly spotted with
rufous at the large end ; the others were quite white." On 15th
of March, 1878, he took " eight eggs, one spotted with rufous at
the small end ; the others were white : four of the eggs were
fresh, four considerably incubated." On the 15th of April he got
" two eggs, which contained perfectly-formed embryos, about size
of newly-hatched Jackdaws, in which the shape of the bill, feet,
and claws of the adult Griffons was clearly discernible.'* On
May 14th, 1875, he got "two almost quite fresh eggs, no doubt
laid by birds whose first eggs had been taken. As regards the
colour of eggs : when first laid they are pure white, but soon
become stained and often covered with mud and blood. Anyone
who has seen a party of Griffons on damp soil, churning up the
ground with their feet around a carcass, can easily understand
the eggs becoming soiled. They are essentially cavern-haunting
birds, and whenever possible construct their nests in cavernous
situations — occasionally in isolated crags, very rarely on an open
ledge, as shown in the illustration on p. 148 ; but the engraving
of the young Griffon in the nest, and that of the cave (p. 150),
where two pairs of birds were nesting, better exemplify their
usual breeding-places " *.

* The Griffon was found nesting en an oak tree in Slavouia by the late Crown
Prince of Austria.

150

VULTURID.fi.

CAVE WITH GRIFFONS' NESTS.

YOUNG GRIFFON IN C.VYERN.

GYPS FULVUS. 151

Stark also mentions that many castings, about four inches long
by one inch in diameter, composed entirely of vegetable matter,
such as long grass, fibres, and green leaves of the cork-tree, are
to be found near their nests and roosting-places ; these materials
do not appear to have been " accidentally devoured with the
intestines of animals, but are probably plucked and swallowed
by the Vultures to cleanse their stomachs, for when freshly
ejected they are coated with a tough glairy mucus."

It is a fine sight to see thirty or more of these gigantic birds
fly out at once with a rushing noisy flight from their nests, which
they do if a shot is fired at the bottom of the cliff in which they
breed ; and this is the only method of finding the exact position
of their nests, as well as those of other rock-nesting birds, though
later on each large crevice or hole where there is a nest is plainly
visible, owing to the dung which covers the face of the rock
below, looking as if a bucket of whitewash had been poured out
of the cave. Vultures in Andalucia are far more wary than in
other countries in which I have seen them, except, of course,
during the breeding-season.

Griffons roost according to the wind, generally about rocks, and
near their breeding-places ; but we found in the Sierra Retin
many roosting on cork-trees on the side of a sheltered valley.
Some of these trees were nearly killed by the Vultures' droppings,
and the ground all around strewed with their feathers, showing
they must have used this situation for many years. Verner informs
me that on the opposite side of the great cliffs where they breed
on the Ciscar, he has seen as many as eight together taking
shelter in one large sandstone cavern on the lee side of the
mountain.

How the numbers which inhabit Andalucia at times find
sufficient to eat is a puzzle to me ; they must be able to fast for
some days, or else travel immense distances for their food, as in
the winter and spring it is unusual to see dead animals about ;
but in the hot parching summer months vast quantities of cattle

152 VULTURIDJS.

die of thirst and want of pasture. A bull-fight is a sort of
harvest to Vultures, which flock in great numbers to revel on the
carcases of the unfortunate horses that have been so cruelly
killed.

The Griffon Vulture may be distinguished on the wing by its
light colour when within reasonable distance.

Nostrils perpendicular, slightly oval. General colour ashy fulvous ;
head and neck covered with whitish down ; ruff of white down. Primaries
and tail blackish ; iris light yellow.

Young. Much darker ; ruff of tawny lanceolate feathers ; iris hazel.
Length 40 inches.

177. Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). Egyptian Vulture.

Moorish. Rekhama. Spanish. Monigero (near Gibraltar),
Relijero, Alimocha, Pernetero, Abanto, and, away from the
Sierras, Quebrantahuesos.

" Appears near Tangier in flocks during migration, some
remaining to nest in the vicinity, awaiting the return of the
autumnal migration, to winter probably in the interior of Africa.
Those which pass over to Europe cross from February to April,
returning in August and September. They nest on rocks in
April, generally laying two eggs, sometimes only one. These
have a rough surface, and vary in shape. Sometimes there is an
interval of two or three days in the hatching of eggs in the same
nest. Fifty-four eggs have passed through my hands." — Favier.

Near Gibraltar, Neophrons, during their stay, are abundantly
distributed. Two pair nest regularly on " the Rock," going by
the name of " Rock-Eagle " among those who would call a
Buzzard a Bustard, and vice versa. One nest is below O'Hara's
Tower, the other below the Rock gun on the North Front.

Many pass northwards at the end of February, the 23rd of that
month in 1870, and the same day in 1892, at Tapatanilla, being
the earliest dates on which they were observed by me ; and the
greater number, many hundreds, almost always in pairs, pass
during March. On the 21st and 24th of that month, in 1872,

NEOPHftON PERCXOPTERUS.

153

NEST OF NEOPHRON, SHOWING CRAG.

NEST OF NEOPHRON, NEARER TIEW.

154 VULTUKID.E.

great quantities crossed at the same time as flights of Booted
Eagles, Snake-Eagles, Common Buzzards, Ked and Black Kites ;
Verner noticed numbers passing at Gibraltar on the 25th of
March 1877, 31st of March 1878, and 28th March 1879.

The Neophron usually begins to lay about the 1st of April.

Verner found eggs on the 6th of April, slightly incubated, and
on the 13th of April two quite fresh ; he says " the second egg
is always laid some days later than the first one ; often the eggs
in same nest vary in depth of colouring, but there is no rule as
to whether the first or second egg has most colouring."

Two eggs seem to be the usual number ; the pair are usually
alike, but those from different nests vary very much — some are
almost round, others much elongated ; some blackish brown, and
others almost white.

I have known a third egg laid in a nest from which one had
been abstracted, one having been left ; but whether the third
egg was laid by the same bird is of course " not proven."

Verner, on the 18th of April, 1879, found Neophrons laying in
an old nest of the Snake-Eagle (Circaetus gallicus), from which I
had, in May 1877, shot an old bird ; this nest was on a bough of
a cork-tree, about twenty feet from the ground. He took an egg
on the 18th, and on the 25th a second egg, snaring one of the
old birds, ultimately to liberate it. The Snake-Eagles constructed
a fresh nest close by. This is the only instance which I know
of the Neophron nesting in a tree in Andalucia, but the Indian
Neophrons usually do so.

The nest is often easily accessible from below, and, placed on
a ledge of some overhung rock, generally at the top of a sierra,
is composed of a few dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags,
and rubbish — such as a dog's head, boars' tusks, dead kittens,
foxes' skulls and fur, rotten hedgehogs, dead toads, dead snakes,
skeletons of snakes, lizards, mummified lizards, lizards' heads,
carapaces of the water-tortoise, rotten fish, excrement both of
man and beast, bones, bits of rope and paper. In one nest Verner

NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS.

155

found, among a heap of filthy rags, a number of meal-worms.
Probably the Neophron had picked up a bag with some flour in it.
Naturally from the above-mentioned contents their nests are most
offensively odoriferous.

NESTING-PLACE OF NEOPHRON.

Neither Verner nor myself ever knew a Neophron to take a
lizard or any animal alive, and we imagine that the heads &c.
found in their nests are the remains of those killed by other
animals. They are probably among the foulest-feeding birds
that live, and are very omnivorous, devouring any animal
substance, even all sorts of excrement ; nothing comes amiss to
them. Sometimes they are seen feeding on the sea-shore on
dead fish thrown up by the tide.

Neophrons in Andalucia, like Griffon Vultures, usually roost
among rocks ; but in March and April, 1894, Verner and mysel
noticed some twenty collect every afternoon to roost on some

156 VULTUKID.E.

cork-trees on the side of a hill facing west. An intelligent
cabrero told us this was their usual habit.

I never in the spring saw any Neophrons in the dark immature
plumage, so we may infer that in a wild state they get the adult
white dress, or nearly so, within eight months from their birth ;
but in captivity I have known them to take three years to assume
the white plumage.

Adults. Whitish, primaries black ; fore part of head and neck bare of
feathers and yellow.

Young. Dark brown ; front of head and neck dirty grey. Length 25
inches.

178. Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus) . The Bearded Vulture
or Lammergeyer.

Spanish. Quebrantahuesos.

This Vulture is without doubt found on the mountains on the
Moorish side of the Straits, as it is recorded from the Atlas
ranges ; but we did not notice any near Apes' Hill.

On the Spanish side the Bearded Vulture is well known in
the sierras and used to nest within a short distance of Algeciraz.

Verner says that " Twenty years ago these birds nested
regularly not far from Gibraltar, but owing to persecution have of
late years disappeared or retired to less-frequented sierras. The
four nests I have climbed to were all in caverns on isolated crags
on the rocky sides of the hills, and they appear to prefer such
situations to the great cliffs frequented by Griffons. The young
do not leave the eyry till June, as the late Crown Prince Rudolf
of Austria had on board his yacht a young bird about three-
fourths fledged, taken by him about the 18th of May near
Granada.

" The calreros or goatherds near Tarifa hold these Vultures,
right or wrong, responsible for any missing kids ; and owing to
this idea, and to their habit of nesting in crags which can often
be approached without difficulty to within easy gun-shot, added

QYPAETUS BARBATUS.

157

to the great increase of guns carried lately, their disappearance
in the districts near Gibraltar is easily accounted for."

Other causes of their decrease are attributed to poison laid for
wolves and, more than all, ornithological collectors. The
Griffons have not diminished about the Vega de la Janda, so
poison can have done little damage, though in the provinces of
Malaga and Granada many Vultures have been poisoned.

NEST OF BEABDED VULTURE.

The name of " Quebrantahuesos " is applied from their well-
known habit of taking bones up to a great height and dropping
them on the rocks, so as to break the bones small enough to
be able to swallow the fragments. These bone-breaking places,
which they regularly use on tops of the sierras, are well known to
the cabreros, and one which I examined did not appear to differ
from any other flat rock. The wedge shaped tail of the Bearded
Vulture is very apparent when flying overhead ; their flight and

158 VULTUEID.E.

habits are those of a Neophron, and the stories of their taking
live prey are doubtless erroneous and applicable to Eagles.

The following notes on the Bearded Vulture in Andalucia, as
observed by Mr. Stark some ten years ago, have been kindly sent
me by Lord Lilford, and are here given almost verbatim, omitting
of course the names of localities : —

" In Andalucia is decidedly common in the Sierra Nevada, the
Alpujarras, and all the region between Granada and Jaen. In a
day's ride five or six may be seen flying over the hill-sides or
gliding along the face of a cliff or down some ravine.

" In certain districts of the Sierra Nevada, where the Griffon
does not intrude, the Qnebrantahuesos is especially numerous, and
the goatherds and shepherds, who look upon these birds as
perfectly harmless as far as live kids and lambs are concerned,
seldom molest them. They are therefore far from shy, and may
generally be seen hunting round the outskirts of some village or
farm, on the look-out for bones, offal, ordure, both of man and
beast, or for soft materials to line their nests.

" In the Honda mountains they are fairly numerous, becoming
scarcer towards Gibraltar and Tarifa.

" On the 4th of February, 1876, I found my first nest of the
Bearded Vulture in a low cliff in the Sierra Nevada. We had
for several days previously seen one or two of the birds flying
over the steep hill-side above the village, and, suspecting that
they had a nest, watched them carefully and explored many cliffs
and rocks without effect. However, on the morning of the 4th,
as I was sitting, with an old cazador named Juan, on the edge of
a low and broken cliff, not more than sixty feet high, a Bearded
Vulture came gliding along below us and suddenly disappeared.
Climbing down, we walked along the base of the rocks and finally
stood below a narrow horizontal slit in the cliff, not more than
fifteen feet above us, and Juan now asserted that the Quebranta-
huesos had entered this hole. We shouted and threw in stones
for some time without result, but at last a larger stone than usual

GYPAETUS BARBATUS. 159

brought out the Vulture. The entrance to the cave being very
narrow, the bird, unable to spread her wings at once, fell almost
on to oar heads as we stood below ; then, gathering way, she
glided down a steep slope below us, and finally fell dead to a
charge of small shot from Juan's rustly old single barrel. The
bird proved to be a very large and magnificently-coloured female,
measuring 3 feet 8^ inches in length and from wing to wing 8 feet
7 inches. Irides pale straw-colour, sclerotic membrane blood-
red ; bill bluish-horn ; feet lead-colour.

"We then proceeded, with the aid of a rope, to inspect
the nest, and found that the hole from which the bird issued
led into a small cave, on the floor of which was a good-
sized heap of heather-stalks, bits of esparto-rope, sheep's-skin
breeches, and an old sandal (alpargata) ; a slight hollow lined
with sheep's wool contained two richly orange-coloured eggs :
one of these was on the point of hatching, the other addled.
Some men were blasting the rocks for lead-ore about two hundred
yards off, and goats were being constantly driven along the slope
beneath the nest apparently without disturbing the sitting bird.
The goatherd assured me that the Quebrantahuesos never injured
his goats or kids, but was an innocent bird (' pajaro inocente '),
and not like an Eagle.

"On the 17th of January, 1884, I returned to this place and
saw a pair of Bearded Vultures sailing along the rocks a few
hundred yards from the nesting-place of 1876. On my return to
the village my servant told me that he had been watching the
Queb rant alme sos and had seen a Cuervo (Raven) fly out of the
rock and drive them off. In the evening the old cazador, Juan,
came in and said that there were many Qtiebrantahvesos still
about, and that four years ago the Prince of Germany, i. e. Crown
Prince of Austria, had visited the spot, and he (Juan) had taken
the Prince to two nests, from which he shot a pair of old birds
and took two young from each nest. The nest of 1876 was
examined but found empty.

100

VULTUIUD.E.

KEST OF UEARDED VULTURE.

NEST OF BEARDED VULTURE. NEAR VIEW.

GYPAETUS BARBATUS. 161

"The next morning, January 18th, as we were passing along a
mule-track over a pass, we noticed first one and then a second
Bearded Vulture fly into a small cave only thirty feet up a cliff
facing the road, which is much frequented by muleteers and
labourers going to the olive-plantations. From the path below I
could distinctly see both birds — one sitting on the nest arranging
the lining, the other (the male) standing on the floor of the cave.
Later on I saw one of the birds carry a large piece of wool into
the nest, holding it, not as an Eagle would do, in its claws, but
in its bill. For some time I watched both Vultures beating to
and fro over the mountain-slopes. They fly with their beaks and
eyes turned towards the ground, after the manner of Terns. The
male, when on the wing, is conspicuously smaller than his mate.

" On the 1 9th I sent Francisco, a professional hunter of wild
bees' nests and a splendid rock-climber, into the nest ; he reported
that it was lined with clean sheep's-wool, but had as yet no eggs.
While Francisco was in the nest, the female bird watched him
from an adjacent crag, but no sooner had he reached the valley
below than she returned and stayed in the nest for a few minutest
On the 20th we went to look at some Bearded Vultures' nests of
last year : one was only six feet below the brow of a cliff, and
was, as usual, built in a small cave, being a small flattened mass
of dead sticks lined with pieces of esparto-rope, and contained,
as in the nest of 1876, an alpargata in the lining. Not far off
was a nest of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetus), a vast pile of
sticks on an open ledge of the cliff.

"On the 21st we went to look at a nest about a league off,
which turned out to be occupied by Golden Eagles ; but Juan
assured me that, although a pair of Eagles had nested in it in
1880, the year of the Prince's visit, Quebrantahuesos had bred in
it the year before. Francisco went into the nest and found it
empty ; he had just come up, and we were talking to a goatherd,
whose flock of goats, sheep, kids, and lambs were feeding about
the rocks below, when suddenly a large bird appeared round a

M

162 VULTUKIDJ3.

corner of the cliff, followed closely by two others. ' Quebranta-
huesos ! ' called out Juan ; but I saw at once that they were Golden
Eagles, and so did the goatherd, who shouted, with an oath,

* Son aquilas negras ! ' and ran down to his flocks, making all the
noise he could to scare the Eagles away, who passed us within
easy shot, going down the ravine, and then doubled back as if
intent on a kid or a lamb. Two of these Eagles were fully adult,
the other had white on the base of the tail, probably the young of
the preceding year. I was struck with their laboured napping
flight, compared with the easy gliding, and apparently effortless,
motions of the Bearded Vulture.

" On the 30th we went to inspect the nest of the 18th, and
from the valley below the rocks I could, with my glasses, see
the tail and ends of wings of the old bird as she sat on the nest,
but could not see her head, which was directed to the back of the
cave. We then inspected two old nests — one was in a hole in
detached stacks of sandstone rock, the other, in a round hole in a
low cleft very easy of access, was one of the nests harried by

* El Principe.'

" On the 31st Francisco arrived with ropes, and while Juan and
he were laying down the rope I seated myself on a projecting
rock level with the cave and about thirty yards from it. From
this I could look into the hole and see part of the nest and the
bill of the sitting bird. On a steep slope of debris fallen from the
cliff above, and which reached to within ten yards from the cave,
a large flock of goats, attended by a boy, were pasturing. The
noise made by the goats or the cries of the goatherd attracted
the attention of the Vulture, who occasionally stretched her head
out of the cave to see what was going on below, but she did not
appear to be the least alarmed ; presently some stones, displaced
by the rope above, came whistling down, and the bird, looking out
again, caught sight of me for the first time. She hesitated for a
moment, then launched heavily out of the nest, and, after one. or
two heavy flaps, sailed steadily away round an angle of the cliff;

FALCONIDJS. 163

as she passed close by me I could see every feather and the hairs in
her beard. In a few seconds she reappeared, and as long as we
remained continued sailing overhead watching our movements.
Francisco now found his way into the nest from above, and called
out that there were two eggs ; these he lowered to me in a bag,
and they proved perfectly fresh and of a uniform dull yellow-ochre
colour, the colouring looking as if it had been carelessly laid on
with a brush. This season 1884 was, on the sierra, very mild, the
snow-line fully 1000 feet higher up than in 1876, a severe spring,
when the Bearded Vultures were about to hatch their eggs on the
4th of February, so that the weather apparently does not influence
their time of laying. These nests were at an estimated altitude
of 4500 feet.

" In the lowrer ranges of the Sierra de Honda, towards Gibraltar
and Tarifa, the Bearded Vulture is not very common ; the
Griffon being, on the contrary, abundant in that district. The
majority of the Bearded Vultures seen here have been birds in
dark plumage, not fully adult.

" I have never seen the Bearded Vulture attempt to catch any
living creature. Juan, the cazador, told me that they sometimes
took rabbits and partridges ; but the goatherds, whom I questioned
on the subject, asserted that they only feed on carrion and dung,
and I have watched them walking about among the female goats,
apparently picking up the placenta? and droppings of goats, but
never molesting either the mother or the kids.

" In food, nest, and nesting-place the Lammergeyer is simply a
big Neophron."

Description. See Plate (frontispiece).

FALCONIDJE.

179. Circus seruginosus (Linnaeus). The Marsh-Harrier.
Moorish. Hedia (Favier). Spanish. Aguilucho, Eapina.
"The most common of the Harriers in Morocco, this bird is

164 FALCON ID.E.

both resident and migratory in the vicinity of Tangier. Those
which migrate, pass to Europe in February and March, returning
in September and October. They commence to breed late in
March. Their eggs differ very much in shape, being sometimes
round, sometimes elongated." — Favier.

In Andalucia, as in Morocco, over all low wet ground, the
Marsh-Harrier is to be seen in vast numbers, particularly in
winter. Great quantities remain to breed, sometimes as many as
twenty nests being within three hundred yards of one another.
The latter, loosely constructed with dead sedges, vary much in
size and depth, and are usually placed amidst rushes in swamps,
but sometimes on the ground among brambles and low brush-
wood, always near water, though occasionally far from marshes.
They begin to lay about the end of March, and at that season fly
up to a great height, playing about, and continually uttering their
wailing cry. The eggs are bluish white, and usually four or five
in number ; they certainly vary in size and shape, and are often
much stained. Like the eggs of all the Harriers that I am
acquainted with, and many others of the Accipitres, when blown
and held up to the light they show a bluish tinge. On the same
day I found a nest containing only one egg, nearly ready to
hatch, and another with six eggs (three quite fresh and the other
three hard sat-on). I believe that, if the first set of eggs be taken
they lay again in a fresh nest, as we found sets of fresh eggs as
late as the 2nd of May.

Verner says : " Many nests are built on old Coots' and Purple
Herons' nests among reeds eight or ten feet high, and in three
feet of water. Irregular in time of laying, I found in 1875, on
May 7, nest with two fresh eggs ; on May 10, nest with three
hard-set eggs ; in 1879, on May 7, five fresh eggs, and another
nest- close by with four young whose quill-feathers were shooting
out."

The Marsh-Harrier is a perfect pest to the sportsman, as,
slowly hunting along in front, they put up every snipe and duck

CIRCUS JERUGIXOSCS. 165

that lie in their course, making them unsettled and wild. I have
repeatedly seen them flush Little Bustards ; but these merely
flew fifty yards to the right or left out of the Harriers' line
of flight, and settled down again.

Cowardly and ignoble, they are the terror of all the poultry
which are in their districts, continually carrying off chickens,
and, like other Harriers, are most terribly destructive to the eggs
and young of all birds.

On account of these propensities, I never let off a Marsh-
Harrier unless it spoiled sport to fire at one. Sometimes, when
at Casas Viejas and the snipe were scarce, to pass away the time,
we used to lie up in the line of the Harriers' flight to their
roosting-places ; for they always take the same course, and come
evening after evening within five minutes of the same time.
Upon one occasion a friend and myself killed eleven, and during
that visit accounted for over twenty. We also upon every possible
opportunity destroyed the nest and shot the old ones ; but it was
the labour of Sisyphus, for others immediately appeared. How-
ever, there was a visible diminution of their numbers about Casas
Yiejas. We never found rats in their nests or crops, and believe
they have not the courage to kill them : small snakes, frogs,
wounded birds, eggs, and nestlings form the main part of their
prey. I have seen the Marsh-Harrier hawking over the sea
about two hundred yards from the shore, where there was
shallow water, but could not discover what they were taking.

I do not know whether it is always the case with the Harriers,
but, as far as my observation goes with regard to the Marsh-
Harrier, it seems that the males do not sit, as I have shot, and
seen shot, many from the nest, but never saw a male killed flying
off the eggs, and have noticed that the males only leave the
nesting-places to hunt for prey. I have also observed the same
fact with Montagu's Harrier.

The very old males have the wings and tail ash-grey ; when
flying in the sun, these parts appear almost white.

1G6 FALCOXID^E.

Outer web of fifth primary notched ; tail uniform above.

Adult male. Head creamy white, streaked with blackish brown ; wing-
coverts, secondaries, tertials, and tail ash-grey.

female. Head huffish or creamy white, streaked with blackish brown ;
creamy-white margin on shoulders of wings. General colour dark brown ;
below chocolate-brown ; tail brown.

Young of the year. Dark brown ; head chocolate-brown. In the next
plumage the head, chin, and throat vary from rufous to creamy white,
more or less streaked with blackish brown ; but in first plumage some are
said occasionally to have the head creamy white ; irides blackish. Length
21-23 inches.

180. Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus). The Hen-Harrier.

Moorish. Bou hasan (Father of beauty). Spanish. Cenizo,
Ave de San Martin.

According to Favier this " is the least common of the Harriers
near Tangier, being seldom met with."

On the Spanish side of the Straits, though a resident bird, the
Hen-Harrier is most frequently seen in winter ; but their
numbers fluctuate greatly. We observed more in the winter of
1871-72 than at any other time, particularly about Casas Viejas,
seldom, however, coming across an old male.

Outer web of fifth primary notched.

Adult male. Pale slate-grey above ; throat and chest bluish ash ; upper
tail-coverts and underparts below centre of breast white.

Female. Above brown ; hind neck streaked with whitish ; below whitish
brown ; breast streaked with dark brown ; tail brown, with five bands of
darker brown.

Young. Like female, but marked with rufous on back ; and the bars on
the tail are rufous. Length 21| inches.

181. Circus swainsoni, Smith. The Pale-chested Harrier.

Favier states that this species occurs on passage in the environs
of Tangier in April. In the Norwich Museum there is a specimen
labelled " Tangier."

On the Spanish side it is not uncommon in spring, and
doubtless breeds near Seville, where Lord Lilford was the first to
obtain it in 1872.

CIRCUS CINEKACEL'S. 167

Outer w^b of fifth primary notched ; upper tail-coverts white, banded or
spotted with ashy grey.

Adult male. Above pale slate-grey ; cJiest wldte.

Female. Much as female of Montagu's Harrier, except the grey spots on
upper tail-coverts. Length 17-20 inches.

182. Circus cineraceus (Montagu). Montagu's Harrier.

Spanish. Cenizo.

"This Harrier passes to Europe in March and April; but
some remain to breed near Tangier, where they are nearly as
common as the Marsh-Harrier, being seen during passage on all
sides in pairs. They nest on the ground, laying five eggs, which
vary much in shape, the colour being bluish white, marked with
spots of clear blue, which, after the egg is blown, turn yellowish."
— Favier.

Near Lixus, in Morocco, at the end of April, we found a
regular colony : there must have been fifteen or twenty pair on a
marsh across the river. We had no time to go round and
examine the ground, and could not cross the river at that place ;
but we could see with my telescope the hen birds sitting dotted
about the marsh. The males took a particular line across our
side of the river ; so I shot three for identification.

In the vicinity of Gibraltar this migratory Harrier is not often
met with, except on passage ; I did not observe them in winter.
Near Seville they are very common, and dark specimens, some of
them complete melanisms, are frequently procured.

Like other Harriers, they are terrible egg-destroyers, but other-
wise harmless. They can be easily recognized by their smaller
size, lighter and more Owl-like flight, their wings being longer in
proportion than other European Harriers.

Outer web of//£/t primary entire. Notch on inner web of the first and
outer web of the second primary an inch beyond the tip of the primary-
coverts.

Adult male. Above bluish grey ; throat and chest ashy grey. Axillaries,
flanks, belly, and thighs white, with rufous streaks. One Hack land across
secondaries visible when wings are closed.

108 FALCOX1DJ5.

Female. Above brown ; below bufly whifo, striped \\ith russet.
Young. General colour dark chocolate-brown, lightest below. Length
18-11) indies.

183. Melierax polyzonus (Kiippoll). The Many-banded Hawk.

Obtained by Mr. Drake at Mogador (' Ibis,' 1869, p. 153). The
Zoological Gardens also had one living a short time back, which
came diivcl from Morocco, and Lord Lilford received one from
Mogador.

Above slaty blue. Core ami legs vermilion. Upper tail-coverts white,
barred with .slaty grey. Length 21 inches.

184. Buteo vulgraris, Leach. The Common Buzzard.

Moorish. Kesir Eknnli (Famer). Spanish. Arpdlla.

According to Favier, the Common Buzzard is seen in flights
on passage in March and April, like the Black Kite. I have
seen them myself crossing the Straits on- the llth, 15th, and 2 -1th
"of March.

On the Spanish side they are very abundant from November to
the end of February. We never detected any remaining to breed
near ( Jihrultar ; but from a nest in a pine-tree, containing two
eggs, I shot one on the 29th of April near Seville.

In the Cork- wood of Almoraima there are certain high trees
which are the favourite resting-places of Buzzards. These trees are
always chosen to command a good look-out, and are used winter
after winter in succession ; if one bird is shot, another takes its
place. They are too lazy to annoy the sportsman ; so, except
now and then killing one for identification's sake, I never
molested them. I once observed a Buzzard feeding on the
carcass of a donkey, in company with some Griffon Vultures.

This species is one of the most useful of birds, destroying vast
numbers of rats, mice, voles, and moles; occasionally they take
small rabbits ; they seize their prey on the ground, Avatching
for it from a tree or rock. In one locality in England they almost

BUTKO DK.SKRTOttUM. 169

entirely subsist on earthworms. Yet this valuable \ermin-killing
bird has been in the British Isles nearly extirpated by foolish
and ignorant gaine-|treservers.

Varies so much in plumage as to defy description. Legs and toes short,
:nid bare of feathers ; legs about, ij inches long.

Very old birds :irc sometimes very dark bluish black above, and only
slightly marked with light markings on hrea-t.

Adult*. Tail brown, barred with twelve or thirteen bands of darker
brown.

Young. Upper breast white, with only a few spots ; throat brown, with
narrow white streaks; tail ashy brown, crossed \\ith leu liars of darker
brown. Length 20-2;} inches.

185. Buteo desertorum (Dan Jin). Rufous Buzzard.

Moorish. Khabbas (great hunter, mighty sportsman).

" Resident near Tangier, and found in considerable numbers
on all sides. Their food consists of rats, mice, snakes, frogs,
large insects, leverets, rabbits, and chickens. They nest on
rocks, laying two eggs (in March and April) of a white or
greenish-white colour, spotted with yellowish or reddish brown ;
sometimes these spots completely cover the thick end of the egg.
The males sit in their turn. The irides are yellow ; the third
and fourth quill-feathers, equal in length, are the longest in the
wing. Twenty-four eggs of this Buzzard have passed through
my hands." — Favier.

This red-coloured Buzzard is, as above stated, common in
Morocco. On the 26th of April, 1871, we found a nest on the
top of a very tall olive-tree in a santo or burial-ground in Garbia,
shooting both the old birds, one off the nest, which was like a
Kile's and lined with fresh olive-twigs and rags. It contained
two eggs on the point of hatching; they were of a white colour,
thinly marked all over with very small, short, reddish-black lines,
and were more rounded than average eggs of either of the Kites,
though I have seen eggs of both lied and Black Kite very like
them.

170 FALCONID.E.

In this santo, perhaps two acres in extent, were some of the
tallest wild olive-trees I have ever seen, on which were, besides the
Buzzard's nest, one of the Common Kite, with young, two of
the Black Kite ; and in a bramble-brake at the edge was a nest
of Marsh-Harriers, with young. The day before, we took Black-
Kite's eggs quite fresh, which shows the relative time of nesting
of the above-named species.

We always saw this Buzzard in wooded districts, like our
Common Buzzard, generally sitting on the bough of some dead
tree ; and this makes me wonder that Favier did not mention
them as nesting on trees as well as rocks.

On the Spanish side of the Straits I never met with any ; nor
have I seen a specimen which could be referred to this species,
but Arevalo mentions an adult female which was killed near
Malaga on the 5th of February, 1873. Slightly smaller in size,
the adults might be recognized within a hundred yards or so by
their reddish colour ; but the immature birds, dead or alive,
could not be distinguished, except possibly by size, from those of
the Common Buzzard.

Adults. Breast, thighs, upper tail-coverts, and tail rufous.
Young. Not to be distinguished from those of B. vulgaris. Length
20-21 inches.

186. Aquila cnrysaetus (Linnaeus). The Golden Eagle.

Moorish. Ogab. Spanish. Aguila ne'gra.

" Is found on passage near Tangier, passing north in January
and February, returning in July and August. Some remain to
nest on rocks in March and April." — Favier.

We found in April a nest of an Eagle, apparently of this
species, on a very high cliff near Jebel Musa, opposite Gibraltar ;
but being unable to obtain the bird, we left the nest untouched.

On the Andalucian side, the Golden Eagle is found in the
sierras, but is not common near Gibraltar, and fast decreasing ;
one pair used to nest at San Bartolome. They no doubt take

AQUILA ADALBERTI. 171

kids and lumbs, and probably tbis crime is erroneously attributed
to the Lammergeyer. Towards Granada and Alora these Eagles
are much more common, and we saw them close to Lanjaron, in
April 1877.

Legs feathered in front to the toes, the last joints of which only are covered
by three large scales (Aguila) . General colour dark brown ; nape and hind
neck light brown ; thighs uniform dark brown ; tail with one greyish bar
on under surface. Length 32-36 inches.

Young. Basal half of tail white ; base of body-feathers white. See
Plate.

187. Aquila adalberti, R. Brehm. White-shouldered Eagle.

Spanish. Aguila real.

The White-shouldered Eagle is stated by Favier to be rare
near Tangier. He calls it Aquila imperialis, and gives a local
name (" Larnaj ") describing an adult bird. I have examined
Moorish specimens in immature plumage, and seen what I
considered to be this Eagle on the wing.

In wooded districts in the west of Andalucia this Eagle is
universally distributed, being most abundant in the Cotos towards
Seville and about Cordova, not unfrequently occurring near
Gibraltar. A tree-nesting Eagle ; the old bird sits very close,
but not more so than some other Raptores. Three eggs is the
usual complement ; and these are generally laid during the first
fortnight in March, being usually white ; they are sometimes
much spotted with reddish brown, and vary much in shape and
size. One nest was lined with horse-dung as well as green twigs.
In the winter they mostly roost close to their nesting-places.
Since I first met with this Eagle in 1869, I find now, in 1894,
that their numbers are much reduced, chiefly by or owing to
collectors.

In a nest built in a pine-tree near Vejer, Mr. Stark informed
me that he found seven rabbits, three partridges, and a stilt, all
fresh. The two young birds in nest were both dead, apparently

FALCONID^B.

killed by a swarm of ants which inhabited a dead bough of the
tree on which the nest was placed.

NEST OF WHITE-SHOULDERED EAGLE (March 28th, 1894).

Mr. Stark, in 1876, found that they breed in immature
plumage ; but this is not unknown with other Raptores.

Verner writes that " this Eagle was not uncommon in the
Cork-woods about twenty years ago, but they have now, from
persecution, retired to the more unfrequented parts of the country,
and are to be found where there are any cork-trees big enough
for their nests, which usually are lined with fresh green boughs
of the ilex; but nests found in 1875 and 1877 were lined with
goat's-hair and lamb's-wool, which I take to be exceptional cases.
The White-shouldered Eagle nests with great regularity, laying
three eggs by about the 8th of March, and this number seems to
be the regular complement.

"It is interesting to notice that the habit of nearly all rock-
nesting Eagles having two situations for their nests, never far

i

« o 3

AQUILA K.EVJA. 173

apart, and which they occupy usually every alternate year, is
also regularly followed by this tree-nesting species. In every
instance in which I have found a nest there has been a second in
a tree within a few hundred yards of the first one. The Snake-
Eagle has the same habit, so much so that on finding an
unoccupied nest, one has only to search the vicinity for a second
one, and usually with success."

When sitting on trees or rocks, the white shoulders of this
Eagle are very conspicuous.

The old birds are easily recognized on the wing from their
very dark appearance. The immature are less easy to distinguish ;
for a long time some of them were thought to be specimens of
A. rapax; and I remember being considered a heretic in
ornithological matters for saying they were young White-
shouldered Eagles.

The adults are very dark brown on the body and wings, except for the
white patches on the latter, whence its name. The immature birds are at
first of a uniform reddish brown, which becomes gradually lighter. They
take, in captivity, three years to show any white in the wing.

Adult. See Plate.

Immature. General colour light brown ; breast uniform. Length 31-33
inches.

188. Aquila nsevia (J. F. Gmelin). The Spotted Eagle *.

The Spotted Eagle does not appear to have been obtained by
Favier in Morocco. The only two specimens which I have seen
from Andalucia were both from near Seville — one in spotted
plumage (the same mentioned by Lord Lilford and Mr. Saunders
in ' The Ibis '), and an adult male, killed on the 12th of
November, 1870, and now in Lord Lilford's collection.

General colour dark reddish brown. Tail nearly uniform brown above.
Young. Wing-coverts and scapulars with large oval tips of white or
brownish wThite. Length 26 inches.

* This term " spotted " is misleading, as only the immature birds are so
marked.

174 FALCONID^B.

189. Aquila rapax, Temminck. Tawny Eagle.

This Eagle is included in Favier's list. I never saw but
one Spanish specimen, which, obtained near Malaga in winter
of 1877, is in Lord Lilford's collection, and was of the light
stone-coloured plumage (young 1) figured as Falco belisarius,
Levaillant, jun., Exp. Sci. Alger., Oiseaux, pi. 2 (1850).

Little seems to be known of the plumage of this African Eagle,
which is much smaller than A. adalberti, the immature birds of
which species were long supposed to be Tawny Eagles.

The adult tawny birds are known to pair with the light-
coloured ones.

General colour from rich reddish brown to light stone-colour. Length
26-30 inches.

190. Haliaetus albicilla (Linnseus). The White-tailed or

Sea-Eagle.

Recorded as having been obtained near Cadiz, and Lord
Lilford says it was apparently known to the country-people on
the Lower Guadalquivir.

Lower half of leg bare of feathers ; that and the toes covered in front
with large scales.

Adult. Bill and iris light yellow ; head and neck much lighter than
back ; tail white.

Young. Bill blackish ; iris brown ; tail whitish, much mottled with
greyish brown. Length 28-34 inches.

191. Nisaetus fasoiatus (Vieillot). Bonelli's Eagle.

Moorish. Teir Thum (Favier). Spanish. Aguila perdicera,
Aguila de las rocas.

" This, the most common Eagle near Tangier, is resident there,
though some migrate north in February, and return in July.
They are seen alone or in pairs hunting over a wide extent,
feeding chiefly on hares and rabbits; they nest on rocks and
high trees, laying in March one or two eggs, never more, of a
rather round shape, rough and white in colour, with sometimes

DESCENT TO NEST OF BONELLI'S EAGLE.

KISAETUS FASCIATUS. 175

green and bluish stains. On the 29th April, 1867, I took a nest
containing one young female, which was able to fly on the 1st
of July and was very savage.

" They are so voracious and plucky that I have known two
instances in which they allowed themselves to be caught rather
than give up their prey : one was taken by a Moor throwing his
burnouse over the Eagle, which had struck down a tame pigeon ;
the other driving a fowl into some brambles, was caught before
it would quit its prey." — Favier.

Bonelli's Eagle is found generally distributed as a resident in
all of the mountain-ranges of Andalucia. I know of the sites
of many nests, but, not wishing to make them public for the
benefit of dealers, refrain from mentioning the exact localities,
merely observing that only one couple appears ever to breed in
the same range of cliffs, each pair holding its own district. A
pair nest annually at Gibraltar, at the " back of the Rock," to the
south of the signal-station ; there are never more than a pair,
though there are four situations where there are nests, one of
which has not been used for several years. The nests are built
of sticks, and placed on small ledges of the steep rock, with one
exception well open to observation from the signal-station, where
I used to spend many an hour watching the old birds and their
habits. For some years they used two of the nests alternately
year about ; and this is said to be a common habit of both this
bird and the Golden Eagle. The sergeant in charge of the
signal-station, and the signalmen, one of whom had been there
eight years, all agreed that they never knew two nests in one
season, or saw more than one pair of old birds. Lord Lilford
asked me to try and obtain the eggs for him ; so in 1870 I made
arrangements, by aid of the " almighty dollar," with some men
who had been goatherds at Catalan Bay, to endeavour to secure
the prize. They laid ropes down from the top to a bush-covered
ledge, which was about two hundred feet above the nest ; thence
one man lowered himself; but unfortunately the nest was so

176

FALCOMD^E.

overhung that, though he could nearly touch the eggs, he could
not take them, so was obliged to, reascend unsuccessful. The
next day we arranged with improved gear to renew the attempt ;
but a very officious official kindly reported me to the authorities
as disobeying an ancient garrison order which prohibits animals
and birds on the Rock from being destroyed ; so I had to eat
" humble pie " and give the affair up as a bad business. The

LAJA DE LA ZAEGA, NESTING-PLACE OF BONELLl's EAGLE AND GRIFFONS.

following notes as to the time of nesting may be interesting.
Sergeant Munro, of the Royal Artillery, in charge of the signal-
station, assisted me with two or three of the dates during my
absence from the Rock.

In 1869 the Eagles nested on the lower site, about 300 feet
from the base of the Rock, which here ends on the steep sand
slope south of the village of Catalan Bay.

In 1870 they used the upper nest, and two eggs were laid ;

INTERIOR OF CAVERN WITH NEST QF BONELLI'S EAGLE

NJSAETUS FASCIATUS. 177

the birds were sitting on the 20th of February ; only one was
hatched.

In 1871 the nest of 1869 was repaired, the birds beginning to
renew it about Christmas 1870 ; two eggs were laid by the 6th
of February, both of which proved fertile.

In 1872 the upper nest, that of 1870, was the favoured one :
the repairs began on the 20th of December, 1871 ; the first of the
two eggs laid wras deposited on the 5th of February. On the
16th of March both were hatched, making forty days occupied
in incubation. Both birds sometimes sat at the same time ; but
usually they relieved one another. They continually turned the
eggs over with their bills ; and sometimes, when taken, the eggs
bear marks of this in the shape of scratches. The upper part of
these nests was always entirely rebuilt with fresh green olive-
boughs, lined with smaller twigs of the same. Some of the
boughs accidentally dropped were afterwards picked up at the
foot of the Rock, gnawed through as if by rats. It must have
cost the Eagles some time and trouble to procure them, as olive
is very hard and tough.

In 1873 I was not at Gibraltar ; but on my return in 1874, on
the 24th of February, it appeared that they had built in a fresh
situation near the other sites, and that two unspotted bluish-
white eggs, rather smaller than the usual type, had been taken
the day previously by the aid of the same men whom I had
employed in 1870. This nest was hid from view of the signal-
station by a projection of the rock, and was easily obtained, the
cliff there being less than half the height of that where the nest
of 1870 is placed. In company with the officers who obtained
these eggs, we took another nest of Bonelli's Eagle at some
distance from Gibraltar. It was on some rocks where the
previous spring they had had the good fortune to take two eggs.
We found the nest built in a different situation, easily obtained
by the aid of a rope, and very neatly built and lined with twigs
and leaves of the cork-tree ; it contained two splendid eggs,

N

178 FALCONID.E.

beautifully marked with red streaks and spots, similar to those
taken in 1873, and doubtless laid by the same bird. I was in-
formed that the latter nest was lined with leaves of the asphodel,
and that the spoilers literally walked into the nest. I saw the
situation myself; and it was certainly the easiest to reach that I
know of, as they usually build on the face of steep cliffs.

A nest found in 1874 contained only one egg, which was
addled ; but curiously enough the bird was sitting hard on this
rotten egg, and I succeeded in shooting the female. This nest
was in a hole, and only about 50 feet from the base of the steep
cliff in which it was placed, and was lined with twigs and leaves
of butcher's broom (Ruscus hypophyllum). Not having enough
rope to lower to the bottom of the rock, we had much trouble in
getting the egg ; however, we sent for more rope and lowered it
down from above, tying a sack full of stones to the end to prevent
it lodging in the rock ; but after securing the object of our
labours from below, we discovered that the rope, of which there
was over 400 feet, had become fixed in the rock about halfway
up, and no power would move it. The idiotic Spaniard whom
we had left at the top, when he found that he could not pull it
up, flung it down without tying a stone to the end ; so it caught
in several places ; and by way of finishing he came down to
where we were sitting, and, after pulling violently at the lower
end, suddenly let go, when of course the rope flew up and lodged
in the rock out of reach ; so we had to leave it dangling about
the cliff as a memorial or, rather, as a Spaniard remarked, " un
serial de los locos Ingleses"

The usual number of eggs of Bonelli's Eagle is two, and but
rarely one ; the colour is generally white, and I have only seen a
few marked with red and buff spots and streaks.

At Gibraltar, Bonelli's Eagle may be often seen suspended, as
it were, in the air, head to wind, apparently immovable, like an
artificial kite, for sometimes nearly two minutes. At this time,
when watched through a glass, no movement of the wings can be

KISAETUS FASCIATUS. 179

noticed beyond an almost imperceptible quivering ; but the legs
and feet are continually shifted as if used to balance the bird.
When not breeding, they hunt together, one high above the
other, suddenly stooping down on some luckless rabbit or else
gliding off to take up a fresh aerial station whence to watch for
their prey, which seems to be always taken on the ground.
They feed chiefly on rabbits, but have taken poultry away from
the signal-station ; and Sergeant Munro informs me that one of
the Eagles once struck at and seized his cat, but let it go after
cutting its back open and drawing blood.

At Gibraltar, in February, I watched two Eavens for a long
time bullying one of these Eagles, which now and then made a
futile dash at his tormentors, but at last turned tail, leaving the
Ravens masters of the situation. On another occasion, in the
same month, I saw a Bonelli's Eagle flying about not far from
the Osprey's nest, when down swooped an Osprey, like a stone,
striking the Eagle on the back and knocking out a lot of
feathers. Shrieking out, they were bound together for a few
seconds, and then separated, neither apparently the worse for the
encounter, and each flying off towards their respective eyries.
They were so close as to be within easy shot when they " collided."
A young bird about a month old was bought from a Moor at
Tangier, and sent to me on the 18th of April ; but it was so
wild and savage that I thought it would kill itself, and all that I
have since seen alive have been equally so.

The fully adult birds have a white patch on the back between
the wings ; and when viewed from above this mark is very
apparent and will at once identify the species ; when below them
the white appearance of the underparts and their very powerful
gliding flight distinguish them. To a novice they mostly resemble
the Osprey when on the wing ; but the latter has a more flapping
flight and shows its whitish head.

The tarsus, feathered to the feet, is very long for the size of
the bird, the thigh being still longer in proportion.

N2

180 FALCONID^E.

Adult. Above brown ; feathers of mantle showing a whitish patch, owing
to only the tips of the feathers being coloured ; below white, streaked with
black ; irides golden yellow.

Immature. Fulvous brown.

Length 26-29 inches, tarsus 4|. From tip to tip of extended wings a
female measured exactly 5 feet.

192. Nisaetus pennatus (Gmelin). The Booted Eagle.

Moorish. Ta-ferma (Favier).

" This Eagle is migratory, crossing to Europe in March and
April, returning in September; some remain to breed in the
vicinity of Tangier to go south for the winter with the return
migration, and they are abundant when on passage. They
nest on high trees in April and May, laying from one to three
white eggs, often much stained and with a rough surface." —
Favier.

On the Spanish side this, the smallest of the European Eagles,
is, about Gibraltar, entirely migratory. Many were noticed
crossing on the 24th of March. They frequent wooded districts,
and the most plentiful of the birds of prey in the Cork- wood
during the summer, when their wailing cry may be heard all day
long. The nests there were, without exception, on oak-trees,
sometimes completely hidden in ivy. In the Cotos near Seville
they generally built in pine-trees. The same nest is used year
after year ; if the old birds be shot, next season another pair take
possession to repair and reline it with fresh green twigs of the
oak. Two is the usual number of eggs ; I have known three,
but frequently only one; their general colour is pale bluish
white, sometimes stained or spotted with faint buff marks. The
earliest taken was on the 12th of April ; but about ten days later
is the best time to get them. This Eagle when put off the nest,
instead of flying straight away, stoops down till it nearly touches
the ground, and then flies away gradually rising.

Verner writes : — "This Eagle varies somewhat in its time of

9.

NISAETUS PENXATUS. 181

nesting. On May 25, 1877, I took an egg from a nest, replacing
it with a hen's egg ; the next clay a second egg was laid.

" On June 27th, 1879, I found a nest with a young bird about
three days old, and an addled egg ; on visiting this nest on 17th
July the eaglet was only just shooting its quill-feathers. On
July 1st I found another nest with two fully-fledged young, and
on the 14th another with one fully-grown young. Most eggs
that I have seen were stained with blood ; indeed, it is unusual
to get a clean specimen. On the 17th, when climbing to take
the young Eagle from the nest, an old bird dashed off the nest
and sat on a bough within thirty feet, screaming while I was
securing the young. This is the only instance in which a bird of
prey has ventured close to me when at their nests.

" I brought up several of the young : at first they were bold
and fearless, but when full-grown became sulky and savage, and
would not take food from me. I broke them by starving, and
then putting food down near them, would read a book for an hour
perhaps, or more, when at last hunger got the better of their
temper, and they would suddenly dash at the meat, and, turning
their backs raise their wings and make a screen round their food,
within shelter of which they tore it to pieces. By degrees they
grew tamer and could be carried, coming regularly to the lure. I
flew two on Europa Flats, but was never certain of them. I kept
these, as well as other Eagles and Kites, on blocks with jesses
and a swivel and leash."

Their principal food, judging from the examination of nests
and the crops of specimens, appears to be young rabbits. These
Eagles are easily recognized by their small size when on the wing
and by the light colour of the underparts. A local name which
I have heard for them is " Bacallao," from the fancied but far-
fetched resemblance in colour and shape which they are supposed to
have when flying overheard to that staple article of Spanish diet, a
split dried salt codfish ; but I may as well mention that I cannot
help thinking this name was fabricated for my special benefit.

182 FALCONID.E.

The young birds generally are of a uniform dark reddish-
brown colour, but this is not always the case.

Description. See Plate. Length 23-24 inches.

193. Circaetus gallicus (Ghnelin). The Snake-Eagle.

Moorish. Tair el hesan. Spanish. Culebrera (the snake-eater),
Aguila parda, Melion.

" Migratory. Some remain to nest near Tangier, building on
very tall trees or rocks, laying in April or May one egg, very
round in shape, though slightly smaller at one end, of a white
colour, sometimes marked with rusty spots. The males sit in
their turn ; the young do not fly till September. Those which
pass over to Europe cross in March and April to return in
October. Although not uncommon in the vicinity of Tangier, it
is more so than Bonelli's Eagle. They will sometimes allow
themselves to be killed on the nest rather than desert their young.
Sixteen eggs have passed through my hands." — Favier.

" The Short-toed " — best named the Snake-Eagle — is very com-
mon both in Morocco and Andalucia, frequenting wooded districts
and the valleys of the sierras, being by far the most abundant
Eagle near Gibraltar, except the Booted Eagle in some localities.
As far as could be observed, they are migratory, as I never saw
one in the winter months — but Rafael Mena got one near
Malaga on the 10th of January, 1882, a bird apparently of the
second year, and the only specimen but one obtained by him there
up to that date, — the absence of their chief food (snakes and
lizards) at that season being quite sufficient to account for their
departure, as the temperature at that season, even in sunny
Andalucia, is quite low enough to cause these reptiles to
hibernate.

This Eagle breeds about the middle of April ; all nests I have
seen were in cork, oak, or pine trees, and consisted of a mass of
sticks, generally lined with fresh leaves and twigs of the cork-

CIRCAETUS GALLICUS.

183

NEST OF SN AKE-EAGLE IN CORK-TREE.

ANOTHER NEST OF SNAKE-EAGLE IN CORK-TREE.

184 FALCOXID.E.

tree. I found one exception to this among the ruins of the
ancient city of Lixus near el Arish, or Larache, in Morocco, the
nest being built in a thick mastick or lentiscus bush, the base
of the nest actually touching the ground on the hill-side. In this
instance there was no want of trees in the neighbourhood to
account for the nest being placed in such an unusual situation.

On the 24th of April I shot the hen bird as she flew out of the
bush. Had she remained quiet, probably the nest would not
have been found ; it contained the usual single large rough
white egg, slightly incubated.

I never knew the Short-toed Eagle to nest in rocks, as Favier
states, though have often seen them perched on crags and large
stones ; but it is now well known that no absolute rule can be
laid down as to the breeding of many species of the Diurnal
Raptores exclusively on rocks or trees ; they simply accommodate
themselves to the country, even nesting on the ground if trees,
rocks, or ruins are not available.

Verner remarks that " all the nests I have seen of the Snake-
Eagle were, with one exception out of about forty, on horizontal
boughs of cork-trees, between ten and twenty feet from the
ground. These Eagles take no pains to conceal their nest, but,
owing to the similarity of the cork-trees and enormous extent of
country covered by them, manage to escape detection more often
than might be expected. The nest is abnormally small for so
large a bird, some not being larger round than a hand-basin, and
are an almost flat platform of sticks with a slight hollow in the
middle.

" The earliest dates of eggs were : 2Cth of March, 1894 ; ICth
of April, 1878, one fresh egg; 21st of April, 1878, and 25th of
April, 1879, incubated eggs.

" On 25th March, 1877, I saw great numbers passing north at
Gibraltar; and on 7th April, 1876, one with a broken wing was
picked up close to Europa Lighthouse."

This bird appears to almost entirely live on reptiles, and is

ASTUR PALUMBARIUS. 185

therefore very useful and to be encouraged. However, I have
known of a dead Turtle-Dove in their nest, which the Eagle could
hardly have caught uninjured.

The long tarsus, bare of feathers, will alone serve to distinguish it from
any other bird of prey of its size to be met with near Gibraltar.

Adult. Above dark brown. Breast pure white, streaked with black.
Primaries banded below. Cere, legs, and feet pale greyish yellow on a
bluish ground-colour ; iris yellow ; inside of mouth pale blue. Length
26-30 inches.

194. Astur palumbarius (Linnaeus). The Goshawk.

Moon'sh. El boz (Favier). Spanish. Azor, Gavilan.

"This Hawk is resident near Tangier, and is frequently seen
during passage ; but they are rarely met with in winter. They
pass northwards in April ; those which breed nest in May. The
eggs are pure bluish white, often much stained with yellow. The
young are so fierce that sometimes those in the same nest will
kill and eat one another." — Favier.

The Goshawk, well known in the wooded districts in Andalucia
under the same name as the Sparrowhawk, is considered " muy
valiente," being said to carry off partridges when they fall to the
gun : this I know from my own experience. I can but consider
them rare, having only met with the nest once, on the 15th of
May, 1871, when I shot the female bird as she flew off the nest,
which was a mass of sticks on an alder tree, about fifteen feet
from the ground or, rather, mud, in the thickest part of the Soto
Gordo, in the Cork-wood. The nest was evidently not a new one,
and seemed to be an old nest of some eagle repaired by the
Goshawks. It contained three eggs on the point of hatching,
stained yellow all over with dirt, so as to resemble the eggs of
a Grebe which had been sat on some time. On washing one of
these eggs, however, the bluish ground-colour appeared.

I saw at Tangier several eggs, stained in the same manner,
marked as Goshawk's ; and until I took their fac-similes did not
believe them to be genuine.

186 FALCONID.E.

Lord Lilford took a nest of the Goshawk, with three eggs
(which appears to be the usual number), in the Goto Donana, in
April or early in May.

Above ashy brown ; thin white line above ear-coverts ; below white,
thickly barred with ashy brown ; tail ashy brown, with four broad bars of
darker brown ; iris yellow.

Young. Above brown ; below and under wing-coverts light buff, streaked
with blackish brown ; tail brown, with five bands of darker brown ; iris
pearly white.

Length : male 19, female 23-24 inches.

195. Accipiter nisus (Linna3us). The Sparrowhawk.

Moorish. Bou-umeira takouk (Cuckoo-Kestrel). Spanish.
Gavilan, Milano jaspeado (Marbled Kite).

" Is resident in the vicinity of Tangier, and common during
passage in small flights, which pass to Europe during February,
March, and April, returning in August and September." —
Favier.

The Sparrowhawk is resident in wooded districts near Gibraltar,
though not in any great abundance, being most frequent in winter
and during migration. Noticed passing the Straits on the 28th
of March, and I have dates of nests obtained on the 13th of May,
10th of May, and 17th of May in different years, the first two
nests containing fresh eggs ; all were in tall trees, in the Cork-
wood, near the Mill. Verner took a nest near Second Venta,
with four eggs, on 8th May, 1878.

Toes rather slender ; the middle toe very much longer than the others.

Adult male. Above slate-blue ; nape mottled with white ; cheeks and
ear-coverts bright rufous ; below white, barred with bright rufous ; iris
orange. Length 12 inches.

Female. When very old rarely assumes the same plumage ; the adult
females usually have the breast barred with greyish brown, with a reddish
patch of downy feathers on the flanks. Much larger than males. Length
]5 inches.

Young. Above brown ; nape mottled with white ; feathers of back edged
with rufous brown ; below white, barred with rufous brown ; iris pale
yellow.

MILVUS MIGRANS. 187

196. Milvus ictinus, Savigny. The Red Kite.
Moorish. Siwana. Spanish. Milano real.

" Found in the vicinity of Tangier in much smaller numbers
than the next species, being seen on passage only in pairs ; the
birds which remain to nest appear to be those which are the first
to go south ; the remainder cross to Europe in March, returning
in October ; a few, however, stay throughout the winter. The
eggs, two or three in number, are very similar to those of the
Black Kite, but always larger." — Favier.

The Red Kite is resident and to be seen almost everywhere on
the Spanish side of the Straits — though in the immediate vicinity
of Gibraltar they seldom occur except on passage ; but Verner
found between 1875-79 two pairs nesting about the first week in
April, in some pine-woods not very far from the Rock, using
Ravens' old nests. They are as common in winter as at any other
season, and they particularly aifect districts where there are many
pine-trees, on which, in company with the Black Kite, they nest,
but from a month to at least a fortnight earlier, and never in
such numbers as that bird. The Red Kite is easily distinguished
from the next species, when on the wing, by the light colour and
much more forked tail ; when flying overhead by the wings,
which, underneath, are light coloured, with one dark patch on
each ; in the Black Kite the underparts of the wing are dark.

General colour rufous. Tail rufous and much forked ; legs short ; iris
yellow. Length 24 inches.

197. Milvus migrans (Boddaert). The Black Kite.
Moorish. Siwana. Spanish. Milano negro.

" Seen near Tangier in immense flights, which pass over to
Europe in February and March, to return in August and
September. Many remain to breed, awaiting the return migration
from Europe, when they all disappear for the winter." — Favier.

Though a Spanish name is given above, very few Spaniards

188 FALCONIDJE.

distinguish the difference between the Common and the Black
Kite ; " black," however, is a misnomer, as the primaries are the
only part of the plumage which is of that colour. The name
migrans, by which this Kite is generally known, is most
appropriate, as they are entirely migratory — the earliest day on
which I observed them crossing the Straits being the 5th of
March, then in great numbers, other days on which large flights
passed being the 26th, 27th, and 28th of that month, some on
the 23rd, one on the 29th of April, and six or seven on the 5th
of May. The latest date of the return migration was the 9th of
October. Verner's dates of large flights passing are 25th, 31st,
and 28th of March, in 1877, '8, '9. Meade- Waldo at Tangier
noticed on 22nd March, 1892, quantities passing over to Spain
at the same time as Cranes and Storks. More abundant in the
vicinity of Seville and where there are pine- woods ; very few
remain to breed near to Gibraltar, but we noticed a pair about the
western slopes of the Sierra Bartolome on the 5th and 6th April,
1894. Both in Morocco and in Andalucia they nest, often in
colonies, about the end of April ; and on the 24th of that month
we took two nests near Larache, each containing the usual
number of two eggs, both lots quite fresh. The nests, built of
sticks and placed in tall trees like those of the Common Kite, are
lined with rags, paper, bits of rope, and such-like rubbish.

Verner remarks that these Kites have a very peculiar habit of
collecting on the open patches of baked mud in the marisma,
and crouching down like Pratincoles ; he saw as many as twenty-
two on 26th May, 1879, in this position, and although the
ground was like iron, and all herbage burnt up by the sun, they
appeared to be eating something at times.

The eggs are subject to great variation both in shape and
colour ; sometimes they are almost white, without any spots ;
others are richly marked all over with reddish brown ; some only
so marked at the ends, generally at the large one, though now
and then at the smaller end.

TERMS APIVORUS. ISO

Above dark brown, below rufous brown ; bill black. Heal and throat
whitish, with black stripss. Tail brown, not much forked. Length 22
inches.

198. Pernis apivorus (Linnseus). The Honey-Buzzard.

Moorish. Khabbas el grain (Favier). Spanish. Aguila de
Moros.

" Only observed near Tangier during passage, migrating north
during April and May, returning in August and September.
The autumnal migration is not in such great nights as the vernal
one, the greatest number seen in autumn being from twelve to
fourteen, usually six or eight, while in spring nights of many
more than a hundred may be seen crossing the Straits in a body.
Their plumage is so variable, it is almost impossible to find two
exactly alike." — Favier.

The Honey-Buzzard, as above stated, is to be seen in swarms
during the spring migration, which extends over some twenty
days, being at its climax about the 8th of May, but many
hundreds passed on the 12th of May between Gibraltar and
Malaga. The latest flight noticed was on the 15th of that
month. When they have once passed the water the passage is
usually made in a gyrating flight of eccentric circles, sometimes
very high and as often within shot of the ground. They seem,
when thus circling onwards, as if about to alight ; but I never
saw them do so, nor ever saw them except at the period of
migration. Lord Lilford observed large flocks passing south in
September.

We found the Honey-Buzzard nesting in the province of
Liebana near Santander, in 1876 ; it would be interesting to
know their most southern breeding-range.

Lores or spaces between eyes and bill covered with feathers ; legs finely
reticulated all round. (Perms.)

Adult male. Head ash-grey ; above brown ; below white, the chest
barred and spotted with brown.

Adult female. Like male, but has not the grey head.

190 FALCONID^E.

Young. Head whitish ; upper parts brown, marked with white ; below
white, streaked with brown.

A dark or melanistic form also occurs, in which the underparts are
uniform brown, the young birds being striated with blackish brown.

Length 22-25 inches.

199. Elanus cseruleus (Desfontaines). Black-shouldered Hawk.
Moorish. Aislia hemika (Favier).

" Scarce in the vicinity of Tangier, being seldom seen — and
then in very limited numbers, in February and March and again
during September and October. They are more common near
Larache, where some are found breeding in April. They live on
birds and small mammals, and are very voracious. Their cry is
a sort of whistle." — Favier.

On the African side of the Straits we found the Black-winged
Hawk common near Tetuan in April, as well as about Cape
Negro ; near Tangier at that time we only saw two. They nest
on trees, and (as in other countries in which I have seen them)
keep to slightly wooded places, not frequenting open ground.

Meade-Waldo says they fly when it is nearly quite dark.

On the Spanish side this Hawk is very .rare. I never obtained
one ; but Lord Lilford records a specimen (* Ibis,' 1865, p. 177)
as occurring near Seville. Easily recognized on the wing by its
greyish-white colour ; it has a peculiar habit of hovering at about
thirty yards from the ground, with the wings forming a sort of
V or acute angle with the body, never bringing them level with
one another until it flies off" to take up a fresh position. They
are rather wary when thus engaged in hunting for their prey.

Lores feathered.

General colour above ash-grey. Below and axillaries white ; black
patch on shoulders; iris crimson. Length 13 inches.

200. Falco peregrinus, Tunstall. The Peregrine Falcon.
Moorish. Teir el hor. Spanish. Alcon.

" Is not uncommon near Tangier, where some remain to breed ;

H CO

FALCO PUNICUS. 191

the remainder are migratory, going to Europe in' February and
March, returning in November and December. They nest from
March to May on rocks and on trees, laying four eggs, eleven of
which have passed through my hands for sale." — Famer.

The Peregrine Falcon is common in Andalucia in winter ;
those Falcons which are resident belong to the subspecies or
small race called F. punicus, as no doubt do those which Favier
mentioned as nesting on the African side of the Straits.

Adult. Above bluish grey, paler on rump, barred with a darker tint.
Crown, cheeks, ear-coverts, and short moustachial band blackish ; below
white, with a buffy tinge on the breast, spotted on the throat and upper
breast, and barred on the lower breast with blackish ; cere, eyelids, and
legs yellow.

Young. Above brown, with buff margins to feathers ; below whitish,
with dark brown streaks ; tail irregularly barred, tipped with whitish buff;
cere, eyelids, and legs blue.

Length 15-20 inches.

201. Falco punicus, Levaillant, jun. The Mediterranean Falcon.

This small race of the Peregrine is resident about the Straits ;
one pair nest on the Rock near O'Hara's Tower, occasionally
coming into the town and carrying oif tame pigeons. A pair
used to breed close to Cape Spartel, in the middle of a colony of
Rock-Doves ; but I did not observe that they molested their
neighbours.

Lord Lilford kindly writes to me as follows : — " There is no
specific difference between F. punicus and F. peregrinus ; but the
former is generally, if not always, the smaller bird, and never in
my experience gets the white breast and black bars of the adults
of the typical European race — especially noticed in winter-
killed specimens from Egypt, Italy, Algeria, and Spain. As a
rule, the adult F. punicus has the breast more or less tawny, and
the barring closer than in F. peregrinus, but this is not invariable.
jP. punicus, in my opinion, is a good local race, like F. anatum
and F. melanogenys of America and Australia."

102 FALCONIDJ2.

In the ' Ibis' for 1887, p. 275, plate viii., Lord Lilford treats of
this Falcon, and considers that without doubt it is " the Barbary
Falcon " of our old English authors on Falconry.

In the ' Ibis,' 1882, pp. 305-321, the late Mr. J. H. Gurney
gave an exhaustive account of the measurements and plumage
of F. barbarus, F. punicus, and F. minor. It seems to me that
there is no difference in the immature plumage of the three
birds.

Description. See Plate.

202. Falco barbarus, Linnaeus. The Barbary or Rufous-

naped Falcon.

The true Barbary Falcon occurs near Tangier, as a specimen
in the Norwich Museum came from there, and I obtained another
from Olcese.

This bird is, without doubt, identical with F. babylonicus,
which shows how little measurements can be relied on. Falco
barbarus is figured, Ibis, 1859, pi. vi., F. babylonicits, Ibis, 1861,
pi. vii.

Adult. Above as in adult Peregrine, but nape rufous ; lower parts with
rufous tinge ; moustachial stripe large. Length 14-20 inches.

203. Falco lanarius, Schlegel. The Lanner.

Favier has, in his MS., under the head of Falco barbarus^
evidently described the Lanner, as his measurements are larger
than those of F. peregrinns, instead of smaller; and all the
specimens of the Lanner which I have seen from Tangier, with
one or two exceptions, were labelled " barbarus." Favier
adds : — " This species, which the Moors confound with the
Peregrine, is resident and as common as that species around
Tangier."

This bird seems to be the most common Falcon in Morocco.

On the 1st of May, 1872, 1 obtained a female Lanner and three
eggs. The nest was on some rocks near the above town. Two

FALCO SUBBUTEO. 193

of the eggs were slightly sat on ; the third, much lighter in
colour, was addled, which is often the case with eggs faintly
marked or differing from the usual colouring.

On the Spanish side of the Straits I did not succeed in
obtaining this Falcon near Gibraltar, but have seen them on the
wing, as has Verner in the Sierra Enmedio. They were found
nesting on pine-trees in the Goto del Hey, near Seville. In one
instance, an old nest was used, from which three years previously
I had shot a Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris) and taken two eggs. The
last nest found contained eggs at the end of March.

Adults. Forehead whitish ; crown and nape pale rufous, with very
narrow black frontal line ; moustachial stripe very small and narrow.
Young. Crown and nape lighter. Length 16-18 inches.

204. Falco eleonoree, Gene. The Eleonora Falcon.

I never met with this species on either side of the Straits ; and
there is no authentic record of a specimen having been obtained
in Andalucia. Gilbert White's brother, the Rev. John White,
writing from Gibraltar about 1776, mentions the Hobby as
nesting at the " back of the Rock." If a Hobby did nest there,
it could not well have been any species but the Eleonora Falcon,
as the true Hobby (Falco subbuteo) is a tree-nesting bird. The
Eleonora Falcon, however, occurs at Mogador, and used to breed
there.

Adult. Entirely blackish brown. Wings as in next, very long.

Immature. Marked below somewhat as Hobby, but lower parts more
rufous ; black moustache. Tail much banded with rufous and black.
Length 15^ inches.

205. Falco subbuteo, Linnaeus. The Hobby.
Spanish. Alcotan.

According to Favier this little Falcon is seen near Tangier in
pairs on passage only, " crossing to Europe in May, returning in
autumn to winter further south."

Near Gibraltar the Hobby appears in the same manner ; the

o

194 FALCONID.E.

earliest dates on which I noticed them were the 8th of April,
loth of April, and 20th of April, in three different years, and we
saw them near Seville very early in May. They have bred near
Coria del Rio, and Arevalo mentions them also near Granada.

The Hobby takes its prey, birds and insects, on the wing, and
no authentic record is known of its taking anything on the ground.

Adult. Above bluish black, with black moustachial stripe ; tbroat and
breast white, occasionally tinged with buff, the breast striped with black ;
thighs and vent rusty red.

Young. Buff edgings to feathers of buck ; thighs and vent only very
slightly rufous. Length 12-14 inches.

206. Falco eesalon, Tunstall. The Merlin.

Spanish. Esmerejon.

" Occurs during winter near Tangier, coming from Europe in
September, returning north in March." — Favier.

The Merlin is not uncommon in open ground in Andalucia in
December and January. The earliest noticed was on the 24th
of November, the latest on the 7th of March. About Casas
Viejas they were very plentiful, and often to be seen chasing
Calandra Larks ; they wrere, for the most part, adult blue-backed
birds *.

Adult male. Above slaty blue, with black shaft to each feather ; nape
rufous ; throat white ; underparts rufous, streaked with blackish brown ;
tail blue-grey, the end broadly banded with black and tipped with white.
Length 10 inches.

Female. Extremely rarely acquires the same plumage as the adult male ;
but usually resembles young male, being above dark reddish brown,
margined with light brown ; nape whitish, spotted with buff ; imderparts
white, broadly streaked with brown ; tail brown, crossed with narrow
bands of lighter brown and tipped with white. Length 12 inches.

* My friend Colonel Delme-Radcliffe, with his vast knowledge of practical
falconry, considers the Merlin to be one of the most cowardly of the tribe. This
is rather against the theory of book or table naturalists, that it is one of the
most courageous of the Falconida}, and there is little doubt that deeds commonly
attributed to the Merlin are those of the Tiercel or male Peregrine.

FALCQ TINNUNCULUS. 195

207. Falco vespertinus, Liunseus. The Western Red-footed

Hobby.

Favier confounded this insectivorous Falcon with the Hobby,
calling it a variety; he, however, gives a description which
identifies this species, and says "This variety is found near
Tangier in April." They are certainly not common there, and
said only to appear when there are locusts, which they follow
from the east. In 1874, on the 27th of April, I saw two near
Tangier ; shortly afterwards some were obtained by Olcese ; and
just at that time nights of locusts arrived. Curiously enough, in
1874, on the very same day in April I saw one close to Tangier,
and the next morning saw quantities of locusts as we were
crossing over to Gibraltar.

On the Spanish side of the Straits one is recorded as having
occurred near Seville ; but they are in Andalucia only accidental
visitors.

Claws yellowish white.

Adult male. Uniform lead-grey, except reddish-chestnut thighs, vent,
and under tail-coverts; legs and feet red.

Female. Above ash-grey, barred with bluish black ; head and nape
rufous ; below uniform dull chestnut.

Young. Like female, but head, nape, and underparts streaked with
brown ; outside tail-feather with both webs barred. Length 11-12 inches.

208. Falco tinnunculus, Linnaeus. The Common Kestrel.
Moorish. Bou-umcira. Spanish. Cernicalo.

" Is both resident and migratory in Morocco. Those which
migrate cross to Europe in February and March, returning in
August and September. They nest by preference on old ruins
and walls." — Favier.

It is needless to say much about this Kestrel, so well known
in England. They are resident both in Morocco and Andalucia,
and are very common, more so in autumn and spring, nesting in
April on trees, rocks, and buildings.

Adult male. Head, neck, lower back,, rump, and tail blue-grey, the latter

02

196 FALCOA'JD^E.

tipped with white on a broad black band ; back pale chestnut, with small
black spots.

Female and young. Above entirely rufous, banded with black; tail rufous,
with black bands and tipped with a broad black band. Old females occa-
sionally partially assume male plumage, being marked with blue on rump
and tail. Length 13-15 inches.

209. Falco cencriris, Naumanu. The Lesser Kestrel.

Moorish. Souif (Faoier}. Spanish. Primilla.

" Is nearly as abundant near Tangier as the Common Kestrel,
passing to Europe in February and March, returning during
August and September." — Favier.

The Lesser Kestrel is almost entirely migratory, though a few
remain at Gibraltar during winter. Vast numbers nest there,
chiefly on the steep face of rock on the North Front. These
birds arrive about the loth of February ; but I saw a great flight
passing as late as the 4th of April. Probably these were birds
which would breed much further north. They nest on rocks and
ruins, particularly on the old Moorish buildings and towers, of
which there are so many in Andalucia. In some, as for instance
at Las Alcantarillas, near Seville, they swarm like bees at a hive, as
also at Seville ; while, curiously enough, at Cadiz they were absent.

So far as I am aware, the Lesser Kestrel never nests on trees
like the common species. At the Goto del Key, on the 26th of
April, I took a nest with four eggs out of a hole in a wall which
was within reach of the ground, In the Crimea, I remember,
they nested in holes of river-banks. On the 12th of May, near
Marchena, we obtained sixty eggs out of an old tower, and might
have taken as many more. Some of these eggs were hard sat-on ;
and the old birds were caught on the nest, to be released after
examination. The eggs varied very much, a few being almost
colourless, others half white, half red, piebald in appearance.

Adult male. Much resembles Common Kestrel, but is smaller, and has
the back uniform pale chestnut without any spots.
Female. Much as female of last.
Length 12| inches. Claws white.

TAXDIOX HALIAETUS. 197

210. Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus). The Osprey-.

Moorish. Bou haut (Father of fish). Spanish. Aguila pescador.

" This bird is not uncommon near Tangier, living among the
rocks on the coast, where they nest in March, laying two or three
eggs ; the young do not fly until July. The migrating birds
arrive in October and November, returning north in March." —
Favier.

The Osprey is most abundant in the Straits in winter. We
saw a pair catching fish near Cape Negro, at Lake Esmir, in
April ; and a pair nest on the rocks westward of Tangier and at
Cape Negro : they also nest in nearly every favourable situation
on the coasts. Another pair regularly breed at Gibraltar, on the
rocks a little to the north of " Monkeys' Cave." The Rev. John
White noticed the nesting of the Osprey at Gibraltar about 1776 ;
probably this is the same situation, and has been used ever since.
I first knew of the eyry in May 1869, when there were young in
the nest ; these did not fly till the middle of July. In 1871 the
nest was taken in the middle of March, and then contained three
eggs ; the old birds did not leave the vicinity, and bred again the
next season, but in a different situation close to the old one.
The first site of the nest was only to be seen from the Europa
Advance Battery, where I spent many an hour watching the old
birds with a telescope. They, in 1894, were still at the old
site.

Being positive that only one pair of Ospreys breed at Gibraltar,
and knowing the date of laying of that pair, it is difficult to
account for the fact of seeing, on the 23rd of April, one take up
from the surface of the sea and carry off a stick or splinter some
three feet long ; and on the 30th of March I also saw another
carrying a stick. Could this be done in play ? On the 17th of
February I saw one of these Ospreys give a Gannet, which had
ventured too near the nest, a great buffeting, knocking him about
and chasing him for half a mile. The Isla de Palomas, a small
patch of rock near the celebrated and dangerous Pearl Eock, is a

198 PELECANIDuE.

favourite resting-place of these birds ; and one is usually to be
seen there at all seasons, perched on a small pinnacle.

A brother officer of mine killed an Osprey on the wing at
Europa Mess-house with a pea-rifle. The bird was flying high
up over the sea ; but the very strong westerly wind blowing at
the time caught and landed it among the men's huts.

Adult. Above brown ; below white, except brown on breast.

Young. Pale margins to feathers above : tail distinctly barred.

Cere blue. Legs and feet blue, very finely reticulated (or covered with
minute scales) and prickly underneath ; legs very short, about 2^ inches
long ; outer toe reversible ; claws long, much curved, and very sharp.
Length 23 inches.

Order S T E G AN 0 P OD E S.

Family PELECANID^l. Feet entirely webbed or all
four toes connected by webs.

211. Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnseus). The Cormorant.

Moorish. Gharrak. Spanish. Cuervo marino.

"The Cormorant is found near Tangier from December to
February, and frequents the coasts, lakes, and rivers, where it is
not uncommon." — Favier.

The above remarks equally apply to this bird on the Andalucian
side. I never saw it in summer.

Tail of fourteen feathers.

Adult. General colour above purplish UacTf. In spring slender white
plumes on head and neck and white patch on thighs. These white marks
are lost after breeding-season is over. Length 36 inches.

Young. Brown above, whitish below.

212. Phalacrocorax graculus (Linnaeus). The Shag or Green

Cormorant.

Favier includes this species in his list as P. desmaresti, stating
that it "is rare near Tangier, but found during the whole year.

SULA BASSANA. 199

The Shag is very common and resident about the Straits. They
nest at the island of Peregil, under Apes' Hill on the African
coast, and occasionally, as in 1883, at the back of the "Rock."

Tail of twelve feathers.

Adult. General colour shiny blackish green icithout any white. In early
spring a crest curled forwards on front of head. Length 27 inches.
Young. Brown above, whitish below.

213. Sula bassana (Linnaeus) . The Gannet or Solan Goose.

Spanish. Alcatraz ; but this name is often applied to any large
Gull.

Favier merely remarks of this bird that it " arrives in October
and leaves during March, not being very numerous." There are
always, however, during the winter season, great numbers of
Gannets in the Straits, particularly close to Gibraltar, where,
according to the wind, they may be noticed fishing on the lee-
ward side of the Rock and watched darting down from a con-
siderable height on their prey, often disappearing quite under
the wTater. On the wing, to an inexperienced observer, they
appear like a large Gull. The immature birds in their dull
spotted dress, perhaps through not attracting so much notice,
seem to be less in number than the more conspicuous white
adults with their black primaries. The earliest dates on which
this species was observed near Gibraltar were on the llth of
November, 1870, and the 12th of October, 1871, the latest
being on the 28th of March, 1870, and the 22nd of March, 1871,
and the 28th of March, 1872. Many on the 28th of March,
1876 (Verner), one near Valencia, 17th March, 1882, and several
seen near Cape St. Vincent on the 30th of April, 1877.

Adult. Head and neck huffish white ; the rest white, except the black
primaries and primary-coverts ; tail long and wedge-shaped.

Young. Head, neck, and upper plumage blackish brown, spotted with
white ; below white, very thickly covered with blackish-brown spots, but
vary much. Length 30 inches.

200 ARDEID^E.

Order HERODIONES. Family ARDEID^E.

214. Ardea cinerea, Linnaeus. The Common Heron.

Moorish. Aishush, Bou-onk (perhaps " ouk," neck, more likely
from cry). Spanish. Garza, Garza ceniza.

"This species is, in the vicinity of Tangier, both resident and
migratory. Those which migrate pass over to Europe during
February and March, returning in November and December,
being at all seasons plentiful." — Favier.

The Common Heron visits the neighbourhood of Gibraltar in
great numbers during the winter season ; and they particularly
frequent the district " between the rivers " near Palmones.
Mostly departing by March, some few pairs are resident about
Casas Viejas. I never found them breeding, but some of the
numerous nests supposed to belong to the Purple Heron possibly
had the present species for their rightful owner.

Male. General colour ashy grey ; crown white ; crest and nape black ;
hind neck pale grey ; sides of breast black.

Female. Crest less developed and plumage duller.

Young. Crown ashy; sides of breast striped with black; no plumes on
back. Length 36 inches.

215. Ardea purpurea, Linnaeus. The Purple Heron.

Moorish. Siad el mraj (the hunter of the marsh). Spanish.
Garza.

" This Heron is, in Morocco, a summer visitant, and nearly as
numerous as the Common Heron. They pass north in April,
returning in September, many remaining in the country to breed,
frequenting reed-beds and rushes on the edges of lakes and
rivers . ' ' — Favier.

The Purple Heron, in Andalucia, only remains for the nesting-
season ; and I never knew an instance of its occurrence in winter.

ARDEA PURPUREA. 201

My earliest dates of arrival observed near Gibraltar were the 4th
of April 1870, 7th of April 1871, 25th of March 1872, 7th of
March 1874, 25th of March 1894. They are extremely abun-
dant and generally easy to get a shot at, being seldom found in
the open, but almost always among rushes or swampy jungle,
and are very rarely seen to perch on trees. There was, about
five miles from Gibraltar, beyond the First River (Guadarranque),
on the right of the road to Los Barrios, a leech-preserve, grandly
called the " laguna," perhaps two acres in extent and surrounded
by poplar trees. This swamp was a dense mass of tall rushes
(Juncus) springing up through masses of dead ones, the growth of
years past, all so matted and tangled together as to make it
very difficult to pass through them, more especially as the water
was in places up to one's armpits. This delightful spot was a
very favourite breeding-place of the Purple Heron ; where there
generally used to be three pairs nesting, also two nests of Marsh-
Harriers.

These Herons commence to lay about the 13th of April, as a
rule depositing three eggs (rarely four), as the following few
instances of nests taken and seen will show: — on the 21st of
April two nests — one with four, one with three eggs, all fresh ;
on the 18th of April two nests— one with one, the other with
three fresh eggs ; on the 6th May two nests — one with three fresh
eggs, the other with three eggs hard sat-on. The nests, varying
much in size and consisting merely of a few dried rushes
collected together so as to form a sort of platform just clear of
the water, are generally twenty or thirty yards apart. The eggs
are light bluish green, similar to those of Ardea cinerea.

It is rather remarkable that Purple Herons should generally
choose their building-places near to Marsh-Harriers, as the latter
repeatedly rob them of their eggs. Many a nest have I seen
with nothing but empty shells, the work of the egg-sucking
Harrier.

Adult. Crown anl crest black, with purple sheen ; back, wings, and

202

AEDEID.E.

tail dark slate-grey ; plumes on back pale chestnut ; under wing-coverts
chestnut ; thighs rufous buff ; breast rich maroon-red.

Young. General colour above rusty red ; below brownish white. Length
30-32 inches.

216. Ardea alba, Linnaeus. The Great White Heron.

We saw one at the lakes of Ras el Doura, on the 26th of
April, but were unable to shoot it. I know the bird well, having
shot them both in the Crimea and in India. Mr. James J.
Walker, R.N., in 'Transactions of Entomological Society,' 1890,
P. 364, mentions having seen this Heron at Esmir once or twice.

On the Spanish side I never saw one, or beard of a specimen
being obtained ; but Verner saw one at Laguna de la Janda,
May 18, 1875, and Mr. L. P. Irby, 60th Rifles, saw another
there in February, 1894 ; whilst they are reported by Arevalo to
occasionally occur in winter at the Albufera, which is, however,
rather beyond the district of " the Straits."

.. Entirely white ; bill and iris yellow -; legs and feet black.

Jn summer. Has bill black and many very long filamented plumes on
back. Length 36-42 inches.

217. Ardea garzetta, Linnaeus. The Little Egret.

Moorish. Bou-fala, Bou-bliga, Bou-biiira (Favier). Spanish.
Garza blanca.

"This bird is not uncommon near Tangier in small flights
when on migration. They pass north in April, returning during
November and December ; but some remain to breed in the
country. " — Fa vier.

The Little Egret is the least common of the small Herons
in Andalucia, and, as Favier observes, some remain very late,
as I have seen and obtained them on the 17th of November.
The greater number arrive about the middle of April, first date
observed 13th April, 1894, at Laguna de la Janda, and linger
here and there on their route, gradually passing on to their
breeding-places on the borders of the marisma and elsewhere.

ARDEA BUBULCUS. 208

They nest on trees, in some seasons, near Rocio, but are so
molested that they change their ground frequently. When on
the wing, and within a short distance, the black legs and bill are
very apparent.

Entirely white ; bill and legs black ; iris yellow ; bill yellow in winter.
In summer. Has long filamentous plumes on back, and two or three
long feathers pendent from crown. Length 20 inches.

218. Ardea bubulcus, Audouin. Buff-backed or Cattle-Heron.

Moorish. Tair el bukkar (the Cow-bird). Spanish. Garrapatosa,
Purgabueyes.

"This is the most common of the Herons around Tangier,
and keeps in small flocks, always following herds of cattle, often
sitting on their backs, and chiefly feeding on insects. A small
proportion remain- during the breeding-season ; but the majority
pass northwards in February, March, and April, returning late in
the year," — Favier.

The Buff-backed Heron is very common in low-lying districts
in Andalucia, and some are resident, breeding in the marisma ;
but they are very irregular in their movements, and chiefly'
noticed, while passing, during March and April, as they always
attend cattle when in wet marshy ground. The Spanish herds-
men naturally object to have them molested, especially as there
was at Casas Viejas a legend of a sporting Briton from Gibraltar
having shot one as it sat on a cow's back — a story which
unhappily was founded on fact, and only shows what the
Englishman is capable of.

The local names of this Heron all originate from its habit of
attending cattle and freeing them from parasites — Garrapatosa,.
homgarrapata, a tick or louse: Purgalneyes, cattle-cleaner or
purifier.

A male bird, which had been kept alive for about four years
in the patio of the Fonda de Europa, at Seville, during the first
week in April (his fifth spring, as far as could be ascertained)

204 ARDEID.E.

began to change the colour of the legs and the basal half of both
mandibles to a pinkish red ; the irides also changed to beautiful
rich pink colour, with a very slight golden ring round the black
pupil. This change was quite completed before the bird had
fully assumed the buff-coloured back, which is the mark of the
breeding-dress.

A female, in confinement with the above-mentioned, laid many
eggs of a very pale bluish-white colour, showing a greenish tint
inside when held to the light.

These captive Herons were quite masters of the various Kites
and Buzzards confined in the same patio, and ceaselessly wandered
around, hunting flies, which they caught when settled on the
walls or ground, never attempting to take them on the wing ;
but, poising the head two or three times, as a man would a dart
before throwing it, they never missed their aim.

In summer. Crown, nape, feathers hanging from lower neck, and plumes
on back reddish buff ; these feathers are elongated and hair-like, especially
on the back ; rest of plumage white ; bill reddish at base, yellow at tip ;
iris rich pink, with golden ring round pupil.

In winter. Entirely white, except a patch of reddish buff on the crown ;
bill and iris yellow. Length 18 inches.

219. Ardea ralloides, Scopoli. The Squacco Heron.

Moorish. Aishus (Favier ; but he applies this name to all the
Herons). Spanish. Garza canaria (from colour).

" This species is nearly as common around Tangier as the last,
occurring in small flocks during migration. Some remain in the
country to breed, nesting on the ground among sedges, laying in
May and June five eggs, which are more oval in shape than those
of the Purple Heron, but of the same colour." — Favier.

I found this bird in great numbers about the swamps of Eas
el Doura towards the end of April, where they were by far the
most common of the Herons.

On the Spanish side the Squacco Heron is entirely migratory,
arriving during the month of April. They are common in the

NYCTICORAX GEISEUS. 205

marisma of tlie Guadalquivir ; but I never observed any near
Gibraltar, nor did I ever see them following cattle, like the
preceding species. They nest late in the season ; but I regret to
be unable to give any personal information as to their breeding-
habits.

This species (beautiful as all the family are) is, to my mind,
by far the most handsome and elegant of all the European
Herons.

Head light buff, with crest of from eight to ten elongated, narrow,
pointed white feathers, bordered at the sides with black ; plumes on back
dark reddish brown to light buff, long and hair-like ; wings, rump, tail,
and lower parts, except the buff feathers pendent from neck, white ; bill
leaden blue at base, black at tip. Length 18 inches.

220. Nycticorax griseus (Linnaeus). The Night-Heron.

Spanish. Garza de noche, Garza gris, Martinete.

Favier says : — " This species is common near Tangier when on
migration, passing in small lots, which frequent wooded spots
close to lakes and rivers." We saw the Night-Heron near
Larache in April, and near Tetuan at the end of March.

In Andalucia they are entirely migratory, chiefly arriving in
April ; but I have no date of their autumnal departure, and never
observed any very near to Gibraltar. About the district of
Seville they are common, nesting in companies on trees on the
Rocina near Rocio and on the banks of rivers — like the other
smaller Herons, breeding about the middle of May.

The Night-Heron, as its name implies, is a nocturnal-feeding
bird, frequenting trees by day, and if disturbed usually flying
from one tree to another ; but I have scarcely ever seen them on
the move by day, unless frightened up.

The immature birds, in their brownish spotted plumage, are,
but for their arboreal habits, at a little distance very liable to be
mistaken for the Bittern.

Crown, nape, and back brownish black, with green gloss ; Avings and
tail ash-grey. Crest usually of three, but rarely of as many as six long,

206 ARDEID.E.

narrow, white feathers pendent from nape ; legs yellow ; bill black ; iris
red. Females less brightly coloured.

Young. Without crest ; above dark brown, spotted with white ; below
ctiill white, striped with dark brown. Length 21-24 inches.

221. Ardetta minuta (Linnseus). The Little Bittern. '

" This species is, near Tangier, the most scarce of the Ardeid&f
being not often met with, and then always either alone or in
company with the Squacco Heron. They arrive and pass on
north in April, and return during August to winter further
south." — Favier.

The Little Bittern is, in Andalucia, entirely migratory, arriving
late in April. Considerable numbers nest among rushes and
sedges. They are late-breeders, nesting early in June, and laying
as many as six white eggs. I have no exact date of the autumnal
migration ; but they are all gone by October.

Male. Crown, nape, back, tail, wing-quills, and upper surface of bill
black, with greenish gloss ; underparts buff ; lower neck-feathers elongated ;
feathers of upper breast blackish brown, margined with buff ; iris yellow.

Female. • Crown blackish ; above chestnut-brown, margined with buff ;
primaries dark brown.

Legs greenish yellow; tail of ten feathers. Length 12 inches.

222. Botaurus stellaris (Linnseus). The Common Bittern.

- Moorish. Sebaa el Mraj (Lion of the marsh). Spanish. Pajaro
toro (Bull-bird), Guia de las Gallinetas (Guide of the Woodcocks).

The Bittern, according to Favier, "winters in Morocco, and is
seen in abundance on passage, arriving during August and
September, and leaving in February. They are found in pairs
and in small lots, frequenting rushes and reed-beds." This bird,
.however, breeds as far south as the neighbourhood of Kabat,
^whence I have seen the eggs.

On the north side of the Straits they used to breed at Casas
Viejas, at the Laguna de la Janda, and in the Soto Torero near
.Vejer, and still do so. in the marshes pf Rocio, near the Goto

207

Doiiana. Nesting about the middle of May, they lay four or five
pale brown-coloured eggs, placed in the midst of thick rushes.
I was unable personally to find a nest, but had several eggs
brought to me, and have often heard them calling in the daytime
— a peculiar, booming unmistakable cry, whence, in almost all
countries, their local name is derived.

They are more abundant in the winter months, arriving in the
end of October, and in some places are at times quite numerous
wherever there are rushes and sedges ; and I have occasionally
shot them in the sotos of the Cork-wood. Dull and sluggish
in habit, it is not until nearly trodden on that they will rise ; but
on one occasion I remember finding several in some rather open
marsh, and they flew up one by one far out of shot, seeking
refuge in the nearest thick reed-bed. Though often flushed
among sallows and bushes in the Soto Malabrigo, near Casas
Viejas, I never saw the Bittern perch on bushes or trees there OF
in any other country.

Crown and nape black; general colour buff; a, large ruff on front of
neck ; the back irregularly marked with black ; primaries chestnut, barred
ivith blackish ; tail of ten feathers. Length 28-29 inches.

CICONIID.E.

223. Ciconia alba, Bechstein. The White Stork.

Moorish. Belarech, as pronounced correctly "Blarij." SpatrislL
Cigiiefia.

" This Stork is seen on migration in vast numbers around
Tangier, passing to Europe during January and February, some
of the birds terminating their journey by remaining to breed in:
Morocco. These are the first to depart south, returning again
year after year to the same places, and apparently by the same-
route as that taken in their gradual departure.,

"Some large flights pass on without stopping; those which

208 CICON1IDJ1.

migrate in August rest awhile on their way south ; so during the
autumnal migration (which lasts, like the spring, for about a
month, the latter half of August and the first part of September)
this species is extremely numerous and seen around the environs
of Tangier in all directions ; they are very tame, and often follow
close behind the plough.

" The superstition which shelters this bird from molestation
by the natives has been mentioned in my notes on the Swallow ;
but it may be added that some of the Arabs believe that the
Storks originate from a wicked Kadi and his family, who, as
a punishment for their great cruelty, were all changed into
these birds, and that these miseralles humble themselves to
appease Allah, and, in the hope of some day regaining their
original human form, pray without ceasing day and night, and
whenever they rest, prostrate themselves and clack their bills."
— Favier.

The White Stork, owing to the protection it everywhere
receives, is much more abundant in Morocco than in Audalucia,
although plentiful in some level districts in the latter country,
being most common in the marismas and in the vicinity of
Seville, nesting on some of the churches in that city. On the
African side of the Straits, in many situations they breed on
trees, generally in colonies, as well as on houses, but usually
near villages ; and almost every Moorish hovel has a Stork's nest
on the top, a pile of sticks lined with grass and palmetto-fibre.
It usually contains four white eggs, which are very rarely marked
with pink blotches ; these are sometimes laid as early as the 25th
of March, and are very good eating, either hot or cold. When
boiled hard, they have the white clear, as with Peewit's or
" Plover's " eggs, the yolk being of very rich reddish yellow.

The White Stork is rather irregular as to the time of nesting,
for we found in Morocco, on the same day (the 25th of April),
young birds, eggs, and unfinished nests ; and, to show how
varied is the time of migration, saw on that day a flight of about

CICON1A ALBA. 209

a hundred, flying northward at an immense height. As they
passed over the " Storkery," which was in a large grove of high
trees, they lowered themselves to within a hundred yards or so of
the nests, and after wheeling round a few minutes, as if to see
how affairs were going on, they worked up in a gyrating flight to
their original elevation, and continued their northerly journey,
doubtless to the great delight of the resident Storks, who were in
a great state of perturbation and disturbance at the appearance
of their brethren. I may here remark that Storks usually
migrate in large flocks at a great height, with a gyrating flight.
The earliest date of their arrival that I noticed near Gibraltar
•was on the llth of January ; and they nearly all leave by the
end of September. Feeding on insects of all kinds, mice, snakes,
and other reptiles, they are most useful birds, and certainly
deserve the protection and encouragement which they receive in
Morocco, where they are in consequence excessively tame.
Their grotesque actions when nesting, and their habit of con-
tinually clacking their bills together, making a noise like a rattle,
render them very amusing to watch. I was informed by a
Frenchman who had passed two years in the city of Morocco,
that there, as well as at Fez and some other large towns in the
Moorish Empire, there is a regular Storks' hospital, and that
should one be in any way injured, or fall from the nest, it is sent
to this institution, or, rather, enclosure, which is kept up by
subscription from wealthy Moors, wrho consider the Stork a
sacred bird. I merely mention this story to draw attention to
the subject in case of any future ornithologists visiting these
cities ; and wrere not my informant worthy of credence, should
have omitted noticing it.

White, except primaries, secondaries, scapulars, large wing-coverts, and
bare space round eye, which are black. Bill and legs red. Length 42
inches.

210 TLATALEIDJE.

224. Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). The Black Stork.

Moorish. Geringa (Favier and D. Hay). Spanish. Cigiiena
negra.

"This species is much less common in the vicinity of Tangier
than the White Stork (C. alba). They are seen crossing the
Straits during the months of February, March, April, and May,
returning in November to pass further south. During their
passage, they keep in pairs and in small lots, frequenting much
the same ground as the Crane (Grus cinerea)" — Favier.

From their shy and wild, and, as far as my observations go,
solitary habits, the Black Stork on both sides of the Straits
appears to be much less common than perhaps is really the case,
I saw one near Tangier in October 1869, and another on the
26th of April, 1871, and have seen several specimens obtained in
the neighbourhood. Verner reports seeing five daily near Tetuan
between the 8th and 12th of January, 1890. Near Gibraltar I
saw one on the 22nd of February, another on the llth of January,
1872, near Seville, and obtained a specimen from there on the
18th of November, 1870. These were the only instances when I
personally noticed them.

Head, neck, and upper parts blackish with metallic gloss ; only breast
and underparts white. Bill, legs, and bare space round eye red ; irides
reddish brown.

Young. Dark parts brownish black without gloss ; bill and legs olive-
green ; feathers of head and neck tipped with buffy white. Length 39-40
inches.

PLATALEID.&.

225. Platalea leucorodia, Linmeus. The White Spoonbill.

Moorish. Bou-kar-kaba (Favier) (Father of the cymbals, " kar-
kaba " being large wooden cymbals used by negroes). Spanish.
Espatula, Paleton, Paleta, Patera, Pilato, Cuchareta.

" This species occurs near Tangier when on passage. They

1B1DIDJE. 211

migrate north in March, April, and May, returning during
October, and are never observed in winter." — Favier.

We saw many Spoonbills in April at the lake of Meshree el
Haddar, near Larache ; and they then appeared to be on
migration.

The earliest occurrence of this species in spring near Gibraltar
that I know of was one shot on the 9th of April, at the First
River; and the latest seen was a single bird wading about the
river Barbate, near Casas Viejas, on the 20th of November. They
were common in the marisma in flocks in May; in some wet
seasons they nest there, and also in the Soto Torero, near Vejer,
where, sad to relate, a Spaniard, in 1873, took upwards of seventy
eggs early in May. He brought most of these eggs into Gibraltar,
to some collectors who were there at that time ; and next year he
described to me the nests as merely made of a few sedges, and
placed close (junto) together, each containing four eggs. The
season of 1874 was very dry, and no Spoonbills appeared there ;
indeed, had it been wet, probably after being so robbed, the birds
would not have nested again in that spot ; but in 1875 Major
Verner reports them again nesting there and also breeding during
the following season in the Soto Malabrigo. He further reports
seeing at La Janda a flock of about a dozen on the 20th of
February, 1876.

White ; lower neck and the short bushy crest tinged with yellow ; bill
black at base, yellow and broadly flattened at the end ; chin bare and
yellow ; iris dull red. Length 32—36 inches.

Young. "Without crest or yellow skin ; bill blackish ; iris black/

IBIDID^.

226. Ibis comatus, Ehrenberg. The Red-cheeked Ibis.

Favier included in his MS., without any description, another
species of Ibis as having once been obtained by him near Tangier.
He called it " His caha " ; but it could hardly have been that

r2

212 IBIDUXE.

South-African species, and was doubtless this rock-frequenting
and migratory bird, which has occurred at Mogador, and is said
to have nested among the rocks on the island there.

General colour iridescent green, with feathers of neck elongated and
pointed. Bill, head, bare throat; and legs red. Length 24 inches.

227. Plegadis falcinellus (Linn^us). Trie Glossy Ibis.

Moorish. Maiza (Favier}, Maiza el Wad (D. Hay) (river goat).
Spanish. Morito.

" This bird occurs near Tangier on passage, returning to pass
the winter further south. Some must remain to nest in the
country ; for they are frequently met with during May, June, and
July." — Favier.

We saw great flocks of the Glossy Ibis at the lakes of Eas
el Doura towards the end of April ; but they were very wary, as
they are in Andalucia, whereas I remember in India we used to
walk up to within thirty yards of them.

When flying they much resemble the Spoonbill in their manner
of flight. They nest in Morocco, as I have seen eggs obtained
in the country; and in wet seasons they breed in the Soto
Torero, near Vejer, and also in the marisma of the Guadalquivir ;
but I have no personal knowledge of their nesting-habits. The
eggs are of a uniform pale bluish-green colour. Near Gibraltar
I have only noticed this Ibis when passing late in April and
in May. A female shot at the First River, on the 31st of May,
had the gizzard full of minute shrimps ; four eggs in the ovary
were slightly enlarged, which tends to confirm what I have heard,
that they are late breeders.

Bill long, curved down (as in Curlew) ; face bare ; general colour
chestnut-brown ; the back much glossed with green and purple ; legs
greenish grey. Length 22 inches.

.PHffiNICOPTERIDvE. 213

Order 0 D 0 N T 0 GL 0 S S -E.

Family PHCENIC OPTERIDJE.
228. Phcenicopterus roseus, Pallas. The Flamingo.

Moorish. Nihof. Spanish. Flamenco.

Favier says : — " The Flamingo, near Tangier, passes north-
wards in April, May, and June, returning in August up to as late
as December. The females are the first to arrive during the
autumn migration. The males rejoin their mates in November,
accompanied by the young of the previous year ; the young of
the year are never seen here. They are met with in large flocks
on the lakes, always staying in the water, though they never
swim about, and are very wary and difficult to approach. The
only month in which they are entirely absent is July. Their
temporary absence during other months is regulated by the
quantity of water in the lakes ; and as one month is not suffi-
cient time for them to lay and hatch their eggs, they ought to
nest not far from Tangier: indeed an old chasseur, worthy of
belief, informed me that he had shot one which, when it fell,
dropped an egg in the water."

The movements of the Flamingo are certainly very irregular
and perplexing, and, no doubt, influenced by the amount of water
in the brackish lagoons which they frequent. Most of these
lagoons, being formed by rain-water, are brackish from the salt
contained in the earth, and in very dry seasons hold hardly any
water.

In very wet seasons these birds breed in the marismas of the
Guadalquivir, and used to nest at Fuente Piedra between Cordova
and Malaga.

Flights of Flamingoes are frequently seen passing near Gibraltar
as early as the 4th of February, and as late as the 1st of May ;
and they again appear in August and September, when immature
birds are met with. I have seen flocks of thousands in the

214 PH(ENTICOPTERID^E.

marisma near the Isla Menor, and, by the aid of a stalking-horse,
managed to shoot five at a shot. Usually they are extremely
wild and shy, except during actual passage, when they alight to
rest at the mouths of rivers.

Their note is not unlike that of the Grey-lag Goose, and more
than once at night I have mistaken the sound for that of these
Geese.

Verner sends the following extract from his journal for the
year 1879 : — " On the 27th of May, whilst in the marismas of the
Guadalquivir, I made an expedition with Crown Prince Rudolf to
obtain some Flamingoes' eggs, of which he wanted some Spanish
specimens. After a long and tedious ride across the waste we
finally left hard ground and traversed the mud-flats ; these were
either sun-baked or sticky, and for the last two miles or so were
mostly covered with shallow water. The mud, where not dry,
was very slippery, and two of our party (including myself) took
a mud-bath, owing to our horses slipping and falling.

" After what seemed an endless journey under the broiling
sun, we sighted an enormous flock of some thousands of
Flamingoes, at where, the Spaniards said, was their usual nesting-
station. When at a good distance from them they took wing,
except a few which remained dotted about, and apparently
crouching down on the mud. The day was extremely hot, and
the usual mirage was intensified by the steamy exhalations from
the fast-drying mud. Through this shimmering atmosphere the
great flock of Flamingoes on the wing presented an extraordinary
sight, resembling a drifting cloud, which seemed to change colour
from a rosy pink to snowy white as the mass of birds wheeled and
turned in their flight. On reaching the spot where the birds
had remained behind when the main flock flew off, we found a
few eggs (of which I myself took two) lying on small mud-
hillocks raised above the water and slush ; these eggs were
fresh, white, tapered at both ends, and with the chalky surface
of a Cormorant's egg.

AKATID^E. 215

" Unluckily, I was prevented from visiting the main colony of
the Flamingoes, for the Crown Prince, having got the eggs he
wanted, decided to return at once to where we had seen Lams
gelastes in the morning, which bird, according to Dr. Brehm, who
accompanied us, was not known then to breed in Spain.

" Two wild-looking men, frequenters of the marisma, who the
Guardias contemptuously termed Indians, because of their
savage appearance, and who had conducted us to the Flamingoes'
nesting-place, assured me that if I would go on for a media legua
they would show hundreds of nests placed together (junto}. They
described the nests as all small mud-hillocks, raised a few inches
above the surface of the water when first built, but subsequently
left high and dry as the water receded both from evaporation and
natural drainage. These men were, of course, well acquainted
with the camels, whose presence in the marisma they seemed to
think the most natural thing in the world, since they had alike
been born and bred in this extraordinary wilderness."

Mr. Abel Chapman appears to have visited this identical
situation on llth May, 1883, and gives an interesting account
(' Ibis,' 1884, p. 66, pi. iv.) of the Flamingoes' nests, but which
on that date did not contain eggs.

Head, neck, and throat black ; front and sides of head and upper throat
white ; black mark between eye and bill. Length 25 inches.

Young in first plumage. Basal half of upper bill blackish ; general colour
greyish white, each feather above striated with dark brown ; no pink in
the plumage ; legs and feet blackish.

Order ANSERES. Family AN ATID.33.

Subfamily CYGNIN^E.

229. Cygnus musicus, Bechstein. The Whooper Swan.
Spanish. Cisne.

This is the only species of Swan which I was able to identify
in Andalucia, having examined one specimen shot on the Guadal-

216 ANATHXE.

quivir below Seville, where in some winters they occasionally
occur.

Adults. White ; bill, basal part to below nostrils yellow, the rest black.
Young. Greyish brown ; bill flesh-colour. Length 60 inches.

[Cygnus olor, J. F. Gmelin. The Mute Swan.

Favier says : — " This Swan is tolerably numerous, and seen flying over
near Tangier in small flights, rarely remaining in the vicinity ; but they
did stay in 1845 and 1849. They pass south in Decemb3r, returning in
April"

Most probably the above refers to the Whooper, which Favier does not
mention; as it is unlikely that the Mute Swan would occur, I have omitted .
to number the species in my list.

Adults. White ; bill yellow, with black tubercle above nostrils.
Young. Greyish brown ; bill lead-coloured. Length 60 inches.]

Subfamily ANSERINE.

230. Anser cinereus, Meyer. The Grey-lag Goose.

/
Moorish. Wiz. Spanish. Ganso, Anser.

The above names equally apply to A. segetum.

Favier's notes are the same for both this and the following
species, viz. : — " This Goose, which the Arabs confound with
Anser segetum, is as numerous as that bird near Tangier, arriving
during November and December. They retire north in March,
seldom making any stay near Tangier ; they pass on to the large
lakes and rivers."

On the Spanish side of the Straits the Grey-lag Goose is
found in some winters at the Laguna de la Janda and in the
various lagoons of the marisma of the Guadalquivir in enormous
numbers. They generally arrive at the former place about the 20th
of November, the earliest that I noticed in two consecutive years
being on the 8th of November and the 25th of October.
Commencing their departure about the 14th of February, they
are all gone by the first week in March ; Major Verner saw

ANSER ERYTHROrUS. 217

many on the 9th in 1889, and they seem for the most part to
migrate by day. Although, like Ducks, they " flight " at night —
as a rule, rather later in the evening and later in the morning —
they affect particular favourite spots and pools without any appa-
rent reason for their likes and dislikes, some places never being
frequented by them.

They can always be easily distinguished at some distance on
the wing by the ash-grey of the shoulders, which colour, when
they are on the wing, is very apparent, and they always can be
known by their note or cry. They also, when flying, make a
creaking noise, caused by the stiff primaries, somewhat resem-
bling the rattling together of dry reeds, which can be heard only
when they pass very close ; and a very joyous sound it is for the
gunner to hear.

Rump and wing-coverts asliy grey r; bill flesh-colour; nailte/<& ; legs and
feet flesh-coloured.

Adult. White round base of bill ; breast with a few black marks.
Length 35 inches.

231. Anser albifrons, Scopoli. The White-fronted Goose.
One of this species was obtained near Tapatanilla on the 8th

of January, 1876, by Major Kelham, 74th Highlanders, and
another was got near Seville by Ruiz. Lord Lilford further
informed me that he recognized the cry of this Goose in the
marisma.

Much smaller than preceding ; bill orange-yellow ; nail white ; legs and
feet orange-yellow.

Adults. White round base of bill ; much marked with black on breast,
most so in male.

Young. Without black on breast, and in first plumage without white
round bill; bill and feet paler than in adult, and nail of bill brownish black,
pale at the tip. Length 27 inches.

232. Anser erythropus, Linnaeus. Lesser White-fronted

Goose.

A male of this small race was obtained near Seville in February

218 ANAT1D.E.

1878, and I clearly made out two among a lot of other Geese near
the Isla Menor in March 1882.

Resembles the last, but is very much smaller, and the markings
of adults more defined.

233. Anser segetum (J. F. Gmelin). The Bean-Goose.

On the Spanish side of the Straits this species is much less
numerous than the Grey-lag Goose ; and it was some time before
I could succeed in obtaining a specimen for identification. As
far as my experience goes, I should say the present species occurs
in the proportion of one to every two hundred of the Grey-lag ;
but as Favier considers both kinds equally common in Morocco,
perhaps in some seasons the present species may be more abun-
dant than in others.

Major Verner informs me (1894) that out of some hundreds of
Geese that he has seen killed at La Janda during the last twenty
years he only once saw any Bean-Geese, when, on February the
loth, 1890, he shot two out of a lot of seven.

No black on breast; bill blackish brown, nail black; legs and feet orange-
yellow. Length 34 inches.

The Pink-footed Goose (Anser brachyrhynchus, Baillon), which does not
appear to have yet been met with in the vicinity of the Straits, is much as
last, but smaller ; nail of bill black ; legs and feet flesh-colour. Length
28 inches.

234. Bernicla leucopsis, Bechstein. The Bernicle Goose.

A single specimen of this coast-frequenting Goose, obtained
near Seville several years ago, was in the possession of the land-
lord of the Fonda de Europa, possibly an escaped bird from San
Lucar, and is the only instance yet known of its occurrence in
Andalucia.

Head, neck, and throat black ; front and sides of head and upper throat
white ; black mark between eye and bill. Length 25 inches.

TADORNA CASARCA. 219

Subfamily TADORNIN^E.

235. Tadorna cornuta (S. G. Gmelin). The Sheld-duck.

Moorish. Bou-he-baida (Favier). Spanish. Pato tarro,
Anserata.

" This species is not regular in its appearance near Tangier,
and occurs between November and February." — Favier.

Not observed in vicinity of Gibraltar, this coast-frequenting
Sheld-duck is found near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, where
they breed.

Male. Head and neck green, below that a white collar, with a broad
rich chestnut band, covering the breast j wing-coverts white ; wing-spot
or speculum, formed by colours of the outer webs of the secondaries,
green ; fleshy knob on base of upper mandible ; bill red ; legs and feet
pink.

Female. Smaller than male,; less bright markings, and no knob on bill.
Length 25-26 inches.

236. Tadorna casarca (Linnaeus). The Ruddy Sheld-duck.

Moorish. Bou-he (Favier}. Spanish. Pato tarro, Pato canelo,
Labanco.

" This species is resident at noc great distance from Tangier;
and others are migratory, crossing to Europe during April and
May, returning in September and October. In the immediate
vicinity of Tangier it is scarce and only observed in small lots on
the lakes and large rivers. Often they entirely, though irregu-
larly, disappear for months at a time, probably going to marshes
not very far off. The months during which they are usually
absent are February, March, and June." — Favier.

They were repeatedly to be seen exposed for sale in Tangier
market, with their throats slit in Mahometan fashion, but are
very poor food, not worth cooking, as was the case in India,
where the Ruddy Sheld-duck is best known to Anglo-Indians as
the Brahminy Duck.

220 ANATID.E.

They are quite inland birds, though occasionally frequenting
salt lagoons, and are much more frequent on the African than on
the Spanish side of the Straits, where I never met with any,
though have seen a few in Seville market in spring and the
end of autumn. They breed near the mouth of the Guadalquivir,
and used to do so at Fuente Piedra ; also no doubt elsewhere
north of the Straits. They nest in holes in cliffs and rocks ; and
an account is given of one nest by Mr. Salvin, in ' The Ibis ' for
1859 (p. 362). In Morocco they are very wary; and I recollect,
in company with a brother officer, trying in vain to approach
three which we saw near Vincent's Farm, Sharf el. Akab, in
October : but at last they luckily pitched close to a horse feeding
in the marsh ; so we stalked up behind the animal to within
twenty-five yards of the birds, bagging all three.

General colour rufous buff; crown light buff; wing-coverts white ;
wing-spot green ; bill, legs, and feet blackish.

Sexes alike, except that the male has a blackish ring round neck. Length
25 inches.

Subfamily ANATIN^I.

237. Anas boscas, Linnaeus. The Wild Duck (Mallard,
male).

Moorish. Zerak el ras (Blue head). Spanish. Pato real.

" The Wild Duck frequents the vicinity of Tangier throughout
the year. Those which are not resident cross to Europe during
March and April, returning in November and December. Those
which remain to nest begin to lay during the month of February ;
and eggs may be occasionally found as late as the beginning of
June. Tame Ducks are called Bourk by the Arabs." — Favier.

The Moorish name given above is not appropriate, the head of
the Mallard being green.

In Andalucia the present species is abundant in winter ; and a
considerable number remain for the breeding-season, hatching by

ANAS STREPERA. 221

about the 25th of April ; but are so molested by egging that it
is a wonder that any young are brought up.

Wing-spot purple ; tail of sixteen feathers ; bill rather longer than
head.

Male. Head and neck green ; four central tail-coverts black, lengthened
and curled upwards.

Female. General colour brown.

Male in summer. Resembles female. Length 21 inches.

238. Anas strepera, Linnaeus. The Gadwall.

" This species is as scarce near Tangier as Fuligula rujina,
the - Red-crested Pochard ; and their appearance, which takes
place between February and March, is irregular and uncertain."
— Favier.

The Gadwall, on the Spanish side of the Straits, cannot be
termed a common bird. I only met with them on a few
occasions : one shot at flight on the 26th of November, 1869,
another shot at flight on the 22nd of December, 1871, at
Tapatanilla, and three others killed there in February 1874, are
my only personal experiences ; but I have seen them in Seville
market in February and March.

Lord Lilford informed me that he saw ten or twelve Gadwall
at the lakes of Santa Olaya, in the Goto de Donana, in the early
part of May, and considered that they were breeding, although
he was unable to discover a nest then; afterwards they were
found breeding there. He also informed me that the local name
there was " Frisa " — a word which signifies coarse cloth or
frieze, probably from grey colour. The Portuguese name given
by Arevalo for this Duck is " Frisada."

The note of the Gadwall, in winter, is a hoarse croak, by
which they can be distinguished at " flight."

Wing-spot white ; bill shorter than head, and narrowing slightly towards
tip. General colour grey.

Male. Chestnut on shoulder of wing.
Female. Brown and grey. Length 20 inches.

222 ANAT1D.E.

239. Spatula olypeata (Linnaeus). The Shoveler.
Moorish. Bou-zlafa (father of the bowl). Spanish. Paleton,

Sardinero, Pato cuchareta.

" This Duck is, in some winters, common near Tangier, arriving
during September and October, leaving for the north in February
and March." — Favier.

The Shoveler is met with in considerable numbers on the
Spanish side of the Straits, and chiefly frequents shallow waters,
as they do in every country in which I "have seen them. They
mostly arrive around Gasas Viejas and on the Laguna de Janda in
October ; and I have known of their occurrence there in August,
but have no certain knowledge of their nesting in the neigh-
bourhood ; indeed I never saw any later than the end of April,
but Lord Lilford informs me he has fairly good evidence of their
breeding in the marisma of the Guadalquivir.

The only species of the genus found in Europe ; owing to the
shape of the bill, they cannot be well mistaken for any other
Duck.

Bill broadly dilated at the end, being twice as broad near the tip as at
the base ; wing-spot green.

Male. Head and neck green ; shoulders pale blue ; iris yellow.

Female. Dark brown.

Male in summer. Resembles the female. Length 20 inches.

240. Daflla acuta (Linnaeus). The Pintail.

Moorish. Bou-sbula^y^r) ("sbula" is "ear of corn"; "seboula,"
a " two-edged dagger "). Spanish. Pato rabiido, Pato careto.

"This Duck is, during the winter season, nearly as plentiful
in the vicinity of Tangier as the Wild Duck (Anas boschas).
They arrive during September and October, and leave in April
and May." — Favier.

On the Spanish side I never found the Pintail before the
month of November ; it is exceedingly abundant in some winters
on the Laguna de la Janda and other large open pieces of water,

MARMAROXETTA ANGUS! IROSTRIS. 223

and is in consequence very difficult to shoot by day without the
aid of a stalking-horse. These Ducks mostly depart during
March, some lingering on later into the month of April, the
latest that I myself observed being on the uth of that month.

Tail graduated, of sixteen feathers, two centre feathers much elongated
in male, slightly so in female ; wing-spot dark green, glossed with copper ;
bill as long as head.

Male. Head, cheeks, chin, sides of neck, and upper neck in front rich
dark brown ; two centre tail-feathers black.

Female. Brown above, greyish white below. Length 24-28 inches.

241. Marmaronetta ang-ustirostris (Menetries). The Marbled
Duck.

Moorish. Ashab (grey), Bourk el biad, (white duck) (D. Hay).
Andaludan. Ruhilla, Pardilla.

This Duck, on both sides of the Straits, -appears in spring, to
remain only for the breeding-season, and is exceedingly abundant
in Morocco, where, at the lakes of Ras el Doura in April 1871,
we saw flocks numbering many hundreds ; and they are frequently
seen exposed for sale in Tangier market.

Favier states that they arrive during March and April,-
departing in October, and that after the Common Teal they rank
as the most common Duck in the country.

On the Spanish side I heard of three being seen at the end of
February, and saw six or seven myself on the 23rd of March ;
but the majority do not appear until late in April, though I have
noticed them passing near Gibraltar early in that month. As a
rule, they mostly leave by the end of September ; but of course
stragglers remain later.

The Marbled Duck breeds during the last week in May,
nesting in patches of rushes. The nest is like that of a Teal,
containing a good deal of the down from the breast of the female ;
and eleven eggs appear to be the usual complement. The latter
much resemble those of the Common Teal, being of a yellowish-
white colour. Favier states that they also nest in rushes during

224 ANATIDJ3.

May and June, and that incubation lasts from twenty-five to
twenty-seven days.

I was unable to find this Duck near Casas Yiejas or about the
Laguna de la Janda ; but in the marisma of the Guadalquivir,
especially near the Goto del Eey, they are very numerous.

In flight, the Marbled Duck somewhat resembles the female
Pintail ; but it is more of a Teal, as Lord Lilford observes. We
found them in Morocco wary and difficult to approach ; but
in the dusk they " flight " very low, and by watching the direction
taken by them for one night you may on the next evening be
tolerably certain of shooting a good many ; and they are excellent
eating.

Sexes alike. Bill narrow.

Entire plumage light brown and grey. Secondaries creamy brown.
Bill, legs, and feet black. Length 14£ inches.

242. Querquedula crecca (Linnseus). The Teal.

Moorish. Frifar (Favier). Spanish. Sarceta.

"This species is abundant near Tangier during winter, passing
north in February and March, returning in September and
October." — Favier.

The Teal is very numerous on the Spanish side, and, from
their habit of haunting small streams and marshes, more easily
shot than any other of the Ducks. Their numbers vary con-
siderably, as in some seasons they are much more abundant than
in others. They chiefly arrive during October, leaving for the
north in March, and have been known, though very rarely, to
breed near Casas Viejas. Lord Lilford observed a single bird at
Santa Olaya in May 1872, and has fairly good evidence of their
nesting in the district since that date.

Wing-spot black and green ; tail of sixteen feathers.

Male. Head and neck chestnut, with broad green stripe from eye down
sides of neck, margined on sides of head with buff.

Female. Above dark brown, feathers edged with grey ; below whitish.
Length 13-15 inches.

MARECA PENELOPE. 225

243. Querquedula circia (Linnaeus). The 'Garganey or

Summer Teal.

Spanish. Capitan.

" This Teal appears irregularly near Tangier, only on migration,
and does not occur every year. They arrive during February and
March, passing on to the north, and are seen returning south in
September." — Favier.

The Garganey seems to be equally irregular in its appearance
in Andalucia, as I only saw one in Seville market in March
1869, and did not again meet with any till March 1874,
when they were for a few days not uncommon about Casas
Viejas and near Seville. Lord Lilford informs me that he saw a
pair at Santa Olaya, near Rocio, in May 1872, and that since
then they have been found nesting there.

Male. Wing-spot green, between two bars of white ; wing-coverts or
shoulders bluish grey ; neck and breast dark brown, with pale brown
crescent-shaped bands.

Female. Much as female of Q. crecca, but without green metallic
speculum ; shoulders with very slight grey tinge. Length 15-16 inches.

244. Mareca penelope (Linnaeus). The Wig-eon.

Moorish. Bou-khe-siwa. Spanish. Silbon (Whistler), Pato
franciscano.

" This species is the most abundant Duck near Tangier, being
found in large flocks throughout the winter months. They
commence to arrive in August and September, and leave during
March and April." — Favier.

Exactly the same may be said of the Wigeon on the Spanish
side of the Straits, except that I never saw any so early as Favier
mentions. They begin to arrive early in October ; but the
greater number do not appear until November; and they are
then by far the most common Duck, in some winters swarming
in thousands on the Laguna de la Janda. Their departure for
the north begins about the end of March ; but a few linger on
throughout the whole of April.

Q

226 AXATID.E.

Tail of fourteen feathers ; bill shorter than head.

Male. Forehead and crown huffish white ; wing-coverts white ; back
white, finely vermiculated with black ; wing-spot green.

Female. Above brown and greyish brown ; head and neck mottled with
light brown and blackish brown ; shoulders of wings greyish white ; wing-
spot greyish.

Males in summer lose the whitish crown, and to a certain extent resemble
the females. Length 20 inches.

Subfamily FULIGULIN.E.

245. Fuligula ruflla (Pallas). The Red-crested Pochard.

" This Duck is accidentally met with around Tangier, but is a-
very rare species. I only obtained two — one in 1835, the other
in 1849."— Favier.

I never met with this Pochard on either side of the Straits,
and have seen but one specimen said to be Andalucian. A more
eastern species (frequenting still, deep waters, and seen rarely on
rivers), they are of more common occurrence in the south-east of
Spain; and Lord Lilford mentions them as common on the
Albufera near Valencia, where they used to breed.

Wing-spot white ; tail of fourteen feathers, as in next four species.

Male. Head and upper neck reddish chestnut', feathers on crown forming
an erectile crest ; back yellowish brown ; lower neck, breast, and belly
black ; bill and legs vermilion ; iris red.

Female. Crown dark brown without crest ; cheeks, neck, and sides of
throat light grey ; bill and legs reddish brown. Length 21 inches.

246. Fuligrula ferina (Linnaeus). The Common Pochard.

Spanish. Cabezon, Cenizo.

"This species arrives during October to remain in Morocco
for the winter, departing for the north in April and May." —
Favier.

We found the Pochard common about the lakes near Tetuan,
and shot one there as late as the 30th of March. On the Spanish
side of the Straits I have rarely seen this Duck near Gibraltar,

FUL1GULA NYROCA. 227

and then only in winter; but at times a good many are to
be seen at the Laguna de la Janda. In the marisma below
Seville they are much more abundant, and Lord Lilford informs
me "that in August 1892 a female Pochard and a quantity of
eggs were brought to him from the marisma ; and the man who
brought them declared that in the previous spring and summer,
Pochards, which were almost unknown there, were only slightly
less abundant than Marbled Ducks, which latter were in
most extraordinary profusion owing to the abundance of
water."

In the spring of that year, 1892, I never saw the country
around Gibraltar so flooded, the Laguna de la Janda resembling
an inland sea.

"Wing-spot grey ; bill black, longer than head, broad band of blue across
the middle.

Male. Head and neck chestnut-red ; breast and upper back black ; back
and scapulars white, finely vermiculated with black ; iris red.

Female. Markings as in male, but with dull brown head and neck ; dark
brown breast and upper back. Length 17—19 inches.

247. Fuligula nyroca (Guldenstadt). The White - eyed
Pochard or Ferruginous Duck.

Moorish. Ziriguil (Favier). Andalucian. Negrete, Pardote.

The White-eyed Pochard may be considered, like the Marbled
Duck, a summer resident on both sides of the Straits, and is most
abundant in Morocco.

I saw many hundreds at the lakes of Has el Doura towards the
end of April, being even then in large flocks. We shot them at
flight in the evening at the same time as some Marbled Ducks ;
but the two species did not fly together. There were also a few
of the White-eyed Pochards about the lake of Esmir at the end
of March. Favier writes of the present species, that it is
" abundant near Tangier, arriving from the south during May
and departing in November and December, totally disappearing

Q2

228 ANATID.E.

for a time in winter *. They are most abundant at Ras el Doura,
breeding in June and July, the incubation lasting thirty days."

On the Spanish side this Duck is common during the breeding-
season in some parts of the marismas, and commences to nest
about the end of April. Lord Lilford obtained a nest in May
1872, in the Goto de Donana, composed of dead dry water-plants,
flags, &c., lined with thick brownish- white down and a few white
feathers. It was placed at a short distance from the water, in
high rushes, and contained nine eggs. Although they generally
pass south early in autumn, some are found occasionally
in the winter months, I once saw and shot a single bird as
late as the 6th of December, which, albeit in fair condition, from
its excessive tameness, was probably from some cause incapable
of migration.

I have always found this Duck, like its allies, F. rufina and
F.ferina, frequenting deep, still, weedy water rather than shallow
open places ; and the flesh of the present species is not only, like
theirs, excellent eating, but far surpasses either in that respect.

Wing-spot wldte ; tail short, of fourteen feathers, much graduated ; bill
lead-coloured, longer than head.

Male. Head, neck, and general colour above chestnut-brown ; under-
parts greyish white ; iris wldte.

Female. Marked as male, but duller ; iris dull white. Length 15-17
inches.

248. Fuligula cristata (Leach). The Tufted Duck.

" This species is in some years very abundant near Tangier,
arriving here for the winter in November, and returning north
during February. In some seasons they are not to be met with,
but were common in the years 1845, 1846, 1849, 1850, 1858,
and 1861."— Favier.

Kelham saw great numbers at Esmir in March 1881.

* It is remarkable that the instances recorded of this Duck's appearance in
the British Islands should have been often iu the winter months.

(EDEMIA NIGItA. 229

The Tufted Duck is sometimes plentiful in winter on the
Laguna de la Janda, is well known in the marisma, and I have
occasionally seen them in the Bay of Gibraltar.

Wing-spot white.

Male. Head and neck glossy purplish black, with an occipital crest or
tuft ; breast, belly, sides, flanks, and speculum white ; the rest of plumage
black ; iris yellow.

Female. Crest smaller ; brown where black in the male ; underparts
brownish white. Length 17 inches.

249. Fuligula marila (Linnaeus). The Scaup Duck.

This Duck is a rare visitant in the Straits, but has occurred in
the Bay of Gibraltar in December ; marine and coast-frequenting,
they are not liable to much notice and seldom likely to appear in
the markets.

Wing-spot white ; bill very broad, about as long as head.

Male. Head, neck, upper breast, rump, and under tail-coverts black,
with green gloss ; back and scapulars white, broadly verrniculated with
black ; belly white ; iris straw-yellow.

Female and young male. White band round base of bill, broadest in,
female ; head and neck dark brown, as are all the parts which are black iu
the male. Length 18 inches.

250. Clangula glaucion (Linnaeus). The Golden-eye.

All to be stated regarding this northern species is that they
rarely occur about the Straits in winter.

Bill much shorter than head ; tail of sixteen feathers, as in next.

Male. Head and neck glossy green ; feathers on crown slightly
lengthened ; small ivhite spot at base of bill ; scapulars white ; wing-spot
white.

Female and young male. Head and neck ash-brown ; no white spot on
head ; wing-spot white, divided by a black line. Length 16-11) inches.

251. CEdemia nigra (Linnaeus). The Common Scoter or

Black Duck.

Moorish. Bourk - el - behar (Sea - Duck). Spanish, Malaga.
Coquinero, Pato negro.

230 A\ATID.E.

Favier states that the Scoter is " found in abundance near
Tangier, arriving sometimes as early as August, retiring north-
wards in April."

I found this Duck in some seasons very common about the
Straits, especially after rough weather in Gibraltar Bay; but
they do not appear except in small lots. The earliest noticed
was on the 12th of November ; the latest on the 12th of March,
1872 ; and was very abundant off Malaga in March 1882.

Adult male. Entirely black; bill black, with centre of upper mandible
yellow, and a knob at the base.

Female. Sooty brown ; chin and throat whitish ; side of head greyish
•white ; bill without knob.

Young. Cheeks, chin, sides, and front of neck dull greyish white; belly
speckled with brown and white. Length 21 inches.

[CEdemia fusca (Linnaeus). Trie Velvet Scoter.

Is recorded from Valencia, by Vidal, but has not been observed
within the district treated of in this work,

Adult male. Velvet-black, except the large wing-spot, eyelid, and patch
below eye, which are white ; iris yellowish white.

Female. Blackish brown, but with white wing-spot. Length 21 inches.]

Subfamily ERISMATURIN^.

252. Erismatura leucocephala (Scopoli). The Spiny-tailed
or White-faced Duck.

Spanish. Porron.

" This species occurs near Tangier on passage, passing north
during April and returning to winter further south in October.
Some of the spring migrants remain in the country to breed in
June, laying as many as ten pure white eggs, with a rough
granulated surface. This Duck is not at all regular in its
appearance, but in some seasons is quite common." — Favier.

In Andalucia the Spiny-tailed Duck occurs as above, chiefly

MERGUS SERRATOR. 231

on the coast and on large lakes, but T never met with any near
Gibraltar.

Bill longer than head, much swollen at the base.

& /

Tail long, pointed, and stiff.

General colour chestnut to buff, vermiculated with blackish grey.

Male. Crown black ; forehead, sides of head, chin, and nape white.

Female. Crown and nape dark brown. General colour more chestnut
than in male, white streak below eye to nape, chin and upper throat white.
Length 17^ inches.

Subfamily MERGING.

The following — Mergansers, or " Saw-bills " — have the bill
slender and straight, the edges with strong saw-like teeth
pointing backwards.

253. Mergris merganser, Linnseus. The Goosander.

The Goosander is recorded by Favier as having been once
obtained by him near Tangier in October 1862, and another was
found dead on the shore near that town during the winter of
1869-70, the only instance in which I met with any. Arevalo
records this species from Malaga.

The immature males of this and the next two species can be
at once distinguished by the trachea, which in the males has
more or less bony enlargement at the base, while in the females
it is uniform in size throughout the entire length.

Male. Head and upper neck glossy metallic black, slightly crested ;
lower neck and underparts white ; rump and tail ashy grey ; bill blood-red,
and, as in next, longer than head ; iris red.

Female. Head and upper neck light chestnut, crested ; above slate-grey ;
below white ; wing-spot white.

Young. Like female, but without crest. Length 26 inches.

254. Mergns serrator, Linnseus. The Red-breasted Mer-

g-anser.

Spanish. Pato cle sierra (Saw-duck).

This species is not mentioned in Favier's MS., but is found in

232 COLUMBID.E.

some winters in considerable numbers in the Bay of Gibraltar,
generally during December and January.

Male. Head and neck glossy metallic black ; crest of narrow elongated
black feathers ; white collar on neck, showing much when flying ; rump
white, with wavy black lines ; tail uniform brown ; bill vermilion ; legs
orange ; iris red.

Female and young. Like those of preceding species, but much smaller,
and head darker, black bar across wing-spot. Length 22-24 inches.

255. Mergus albellus, Linnaeus. The Smew.
The Smew occurs in some winters about the Straits in imma-
ture plumage.

Bill shorter than head.

Male. Black, grey, and white. Head and neck white ; black stripe
through eye to nape; slightly crested ; ramp ash-grey.

Female. Head and nape chestnut, crested ; above slate-grey ; black patch
from bill to eye ; rump greyish black.

Young male. Like female, but has no black patch between eye and bill.
Length 14-17 inches.

Order COLTJMB^. Family COLUMBIA.

256. Columba palumbus, Linnaeus. The Ring-Dove or Wood-
Pigeon.

Moorish. Kamor. Spanish. Paloma torcaz.

"This Pigeon is found near Tangier throughout the year.
Some are migratory, crossing to Europe in March and April." —
Favier.

In some localities in Morocco the Wood-Pigeon positively
swarms. In April, up a valley near the Fondak, to the south-
west of that place, on the road between Tangier and Tetuan, it
would have been easy to shoot a hundred in a day, they were in
such numbers and so excessively tame. Two or three, which we
shot to eat, had their crops full of the tuberous root of some
weed which had been ploughed up and was lying in quantities
about the fallow fields. During the same month, about three

COLUMBA (EN AS. 233

years previously, we noticed considerable numbers near Larache ;
but there they were much more wild, though not so shy as in
England or Andalucia. In the latter country, about Gibraltar,
a few pairs nest in the Cork-wood and other wooded districts ;
they are most abundant during the winter months, though I
never saw any great quantity.

Adult. White on outer wing-coverts ; white patch on each side of neck.
Young. Without white patch on neck. Length 16-17 inches.

257. Columba oenas, Linnaeus. The Stock-Dove.

Moorish. Hamam el Berri (Wild Pigeon).

The Stock-Dove is neither mentioned by Favier nor Mr. Drake
as occurring in Morocco. We found them near the Fondak
between Tangier and Tetuan at the same time and place that the
Bing-Doves were so abundant, and they are sufficiently common
to be known to the Moors there by the above-mentioned name,
which, by the way, is the same as that used for the next species,
C. lima. They were in some numbers, and we shot one or two
for identification, being further informed by the Moors that they
nested in holes of trees. They evidently were breeding at that
time ; but we failed to discover a nest during the Tery short
period that we remained there. We also noticed the Stock-Dove
in April near Larache, and Meade-Waldo observed them in
March 1894.

On the Spanish side of the Straits I only observed this species
once near Gibraltar, but Arevalo mentions them as - occurring
near Malaga.

The absence of the white patches on the carpal joints of the
wings will often serve to distinguish them, when flying, from the
King-Dove, independently of their smaller size, while the absence
of the white rump equally distinguishes them from the Rock-
Dove — not that the latter species is usually met with in the same
locality. . . .

Adult. Sides of neck with metallic-green patch ; axillaries grey.
Young. Without patch on neck. Length 13 inches.

234 COLUMBIA.

258. Columba livia, J. F. Gmelin. The Rock-Dove.
Moorish. Ham am el Berri. Spanish. Zurita, Paloma brava.
"This is the most common of the Pigeons about Tangier,

living in rocks and even in the ramparts of the town, breeding
both in a wild and in a domestic state all the year round." —
Favier.

The Rock-Dove is plentiful on both sides of the Straits
wherever there are rocks and caves, inland as well as on the
coast. Many are resident at Gibraltar, on North Front and at
the " back of the Rock " ; and at one time some sport was to be
obtained upon getting permission to shoot them ; but a " young
and inexperienced " arrival one day, instead of killing pigeons,
shot one or more of the celebrated Gibraltar Apes, for which he,
amongst suffering other indignities and punishments, was after-
wards known as " Du Chaillu." In consequence of this exploit,
all leave to shoot there was thenceforth withheld, and very
rightly so.

Pied and white varieties are frequently seen ; whether escaped
tame Pigeons or real wild Rock-Doves, I cannot say, probably
the former.

Lower back and rump white ; two conspicuous black bands across the
wings ; axillaries white. Length 13 inches.

259. Turtur communis, Selby. The Common Turtle-Dove.
Moorish. Imam, Stitsia, Targal. /Spanish. Tortola.

" Is a summer resident near Tangier, vast numbers arriving to
cross the Straits in flocks during April and May, returning in
September and October, then to retire south for the winter.
This species is without doubt the origin of the domestic Turtle-
Dove *, called limama or deJcrallah (praise of God), some of
which birds are pure white." — Favier.

* Favier's opinion is given, but it is not certain which species is the origin of
the domestic Dove.

TURTUR SEXEGALENSIS. 235

The Common Turtle-Dove is seen in extreme abundance in
Andalucia, during its stay being a great object of pursuit to the
Spanish tirador, who, in August, often makes a puesto, or hiding-
place, near some favourite drinking-haunt of the doves, and
shoots them much in the same way as the Partridge — that is, on
the ground, three or four in a row ; only with the Doves he has,
of course, no reclame, or call-bird.

The Turtle-Dove chiefly arrives during the first week in May,
more coming in that week than during all the rest of their
migration, which is about the time that the seed of the Greater
Honey wort (Cerinthe major] is ripe, and on which they feed on
arrival. I first saw one in 1870 on the llth, and in 1872 on the
14th of April. They mostly disappear by the beginning of
October. The latest I noticed was a single bird at Casas Viejas
on the 31st of October. In my note-book I have one recorded
as seen on the 9th of October, in the middle of the Bay of
Biscay.

Head, nape, rump, and outer wing-coverts bluish ash ; under tail-coverts
white ; collar-patch of four rows of black feathers tipped with white on
each side of neck; tail graduated, two centre feathers brown, the rest
slate-grey, the ends and outside web of outer pair white.

Young. Without neck-patch. Length 11^ inches.

260. Turtur senegralensis (Linnaeus). The Egyptian Turtle-
Dove.

This species is mentioned by Mr. Drake as found commonly
in the southern part of Morocco, but does not appear to have
been obtained by Favier, nor were any met with by us, in the
north-west of that country.

The absence of spots on the back, and its smaller size, will distinguish it
from any other species likely to be met with in Morocco.

Feathers of the fore neck bifurcated, black, with two rufous spots at end
of each, forming collar ; rump bluish lead-colour. Length 1 1 inches.

236 PTEROCLID.E.

Order PTEROCLETES. Family PTEROCLID^.

261. Pteroclurus alchata (Linnaeus). The Pin-tailed Sand-
Grouse.

Moorish. El Gata. Spanish. Ganga.

Favier states this species to be " scarce near Tangier, but
common about Dar el Baidar " ; and says ". they cross the Straits
in spring, returning in August and July."

This beautifully marked bird is the most common Sand-Grouse
on the Spanish side, although very local, being abundant about
the edges of the marisma, where they nest late in May, as also
near Granada. Some may be migratory ; but I have seen them
in January near Seville. I never saw any in the neighbourhood
of Gibraltar.

The flight of both species of Sand-Grouse is very powerful ;
and sometimes they go to such a height that, although you can
hear their croaking hoarse call, they are almost out of sight.
Becoming excessively tame and familiar when kept in con-
finement, in a wild state they are very difficult to approach
without a stalking-horse, and when obtained are, in my opinion,
of no use to eat. They are very difficult birds to skin, the
feathers coming out like those of a Pigeon.

Eggs of this Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse, taken near Seville, are of
a reddish-buff" colour, marked all over with spots of reddish
brown and light grey.

The European and African form has been separated as a
distinct species, P. pyrenaicus, because they are of richer colour
.than Asiatic birds (!).

Lower breast and belly white. Chest chestnut, with black line above and
below. Two centre tail-feathers much elongated and pointed.
Male. Throat black.
Female. Throat white. Length 13^ inches, tail 5£ inches.

THASIANID^. 237

262. Pterocles arenarius (Pallas). The Black-bellied Sand-
Grouse.

Moorish. El Koudri. Spanish. Corteza.

Favier merely mentions that this Sand-Grouse " occurs in Dar
el Baidar."

On the European side, this large species of Sand-Grouse,
though extremely local, is resident in the marisma and near
Utrera, nesting late in May, but does not appear near Gibraltar.
I do not think there is any migration of this bird. The different
species of Sand-Grouse lay three eggs only, of an elliptical form,
placed on the bare ground without any nest ; eggs of this species
taken near Seville are of a pale cream-colour, marked all over
with faint spots of very light brown.

Belly uniform black ; centre tail-feathers not elongated.

Male. Throat chestnut.

Female. Throat yellowish white. Length 13 inches.

Future visitors to Morocco should look out for Pterocles seneyallus
(Linnseus), which most probably occurs in the southern part of the country,
and has no pectoral zone. Chest and upper parts covered with round
black spots. Length 13 inches.

Order GALLINJE. Family PHASIANIDJE.

263. Caccabis rufa (Linnseus). The Western Red-legged or
French Partridge.

Spanish. Perdiz.

This Partridge is, throughout Andalucia, plentiful and resident,
frequenting the monte or scrub, not, as in some parts of England,
being found in cultivated places. Never known to occur on the
African side of the Straits, it is not even found on the Rock of
Gibraltar, which would seem rather strange, as it is to be seen
on the Queen of Spain's Chair, and occasionally on the plain

238 PHASIANID.E.

below within a couple of miles of the neutral ground. Mr. Stark,
in February 1876, found " large packs of this Partridge on the
Sierra Nevada at an elevation of some 7000 feet."

Almost every Spanish sportsman, or cazador, keeps one or more
of these birds as call-birds (reclames}, each wretched Partridge
being confined in a cage which is so small that the unfortunate
bird has scarcely room to turn round. To add to this cruelty, at
certain seasons they are never given water, as it is supposed to
be fatal to them ; but in a wild state they drink a great deal, and
during the scorching month of August, and the first half of
September, one of the favourite Spanish methods of shooting
them is to make a hiding-place (puesto) near their drinking-
haunt, placing call-birds on each side of the water out of the line
of fire — so that, when a covey comes to drink, as many as possible
may be mowed down at once by the concealed " sportsman," who,
throughout the whole year, regardless of the season, shoots them
whenever he can, the acme of his diversion being to shoot a
Partridge from the nest. However, it may as well be mentioned
that these men shoot for profit, not for sport. In spite of this
ceaseless persecution, Partridges do not decrease, which is truly
wonderful. Since the above was written a close-season has been
established, but not observed.

Light-coloured and white varieties of the Eed-legged Partridge
are of not unfrequent occurrence : for some years in succession
there was a white covey near the Guadiarro on the road to
Gaucin. They breed in May, and the eggs vary greatly in size,
being subject to the same variations as those of C. petrota, but
usually larger than the eggs of that bird, although sometimes
smaller.

Sexes alike, except that male has knobs or blunt spurs on legs. Black
gorget or collar from bill through eyes, enclosing a white throat ; dirty
white below this collar, spotted and streaked with black ; bill, eyelids, and
legs red ; tail chestnut, of fourteen feathers. Length 14 inches.

CACCABIS PETROSA. 239

264. Caccabis petrosa (J. F. Gmelin). The Barbary Partridge.

Moorish. Hejel.

"The Barbary Partridge," says Eavier, "is resident around
Tangier, and very common, sometimes perching on trees."

This species is far more common in proportion in Morocco
than C. rufa is in Spain, and chiefly frequents palmetto scrub ;
in some localities it is so numerous that it would be quite easy
for one gun to bag fifty brace in the day. The flesh of this
Partridge is not so good even as that of the Common Eed-leg,
which does not say much in its favour, but they submit to capti-
ivty very well, and may be kept alive in coops like fowls, to be
used as required — and, after being fed on corn for a month or so,
improve greatly in a culinary point of view.

As is well known to all ornithologists, the Barbary Partridge is
the only species found on the Rock of Gibraltar, being in great
numbers there. Sometimes they may be seen sitting on the
stones within a few feet of the sea, and a pair or two used even
to frequent the rocks below the "rope ladder" at Europa.
Although protected from guns and carefully preserved from the
attacks of human beings, they suffer considerably from the number
of cats which abound, and are also preyed on by Genets and
Eagles, whilst lizards and snakes destroy the eggs and young.

This bird, like ether Partridges, is very noisy at dusk : in the
nesting-season they have a peculiar long-drawn croaking cry,
which puzzled me for a long time before I could make out from
what bird it came; but whether the male only thus calls I do not
know, though I suspect such to be the case.

They commence to lay about the 15th of April. The eggs are
very similar to those of C. rufa, and vary much in the markings,
some being quite free from the usual small freckles.

The Rev. John White mentions this Partridge as being plentiful
at Gibraltar about 1770, and not being found on the mainland of
Spain.

This species is at once distinguished by the chestnut collar round the

240 PHASIANID.E.

neck, studded with small white spots, and is also a smaller bird than the
Common Red-leg, besides having a metallic-blue tinge on the wing-coverts.
The legs are not always red, sometimes being a pale buff colour. Length
inches.

265. Francolinus bioalcaratus (Linnaeus). Double-spurred

Francolin.

This is no doubt the species mentioned by Mr. Drake, and
occurs as far north in Morocco as Rabat, where I am informed
the local name is " Ragh " ; and of late years many have been sent
alive from Mogador to England.

The male has two pairs of spurs. The sexes are alike in plumage.

Above brown vermiculated with black ; chin and throat white. General
colour below buff, each feather with a black racquet-shaped shaft-streak.
Length 12^ inches.

266. Coturnix communis, Bonnaterre. The Common Quail.
Moorish. Summin. Spanish. Codorniz.

. Favier states that the Quail is very abundant on passage on
the Moorish side of the Straits, many remaining to breed, the
majority crossing over to Europe during March and April,
returning in October and November.

On the Spanish side of the Straits it appears to me that the
chief vernal migration of the Common Quail is during the months
of March and April, whilst the autumnal passage is almost entirely
executed during the latter half of September, at that time their
numbers being sometimes almost incredible.

The Andalucian cazadores profess to recognize two kinds of
Quail — those which are migratory and called " Criollas," and
those which are resident and so named " Castellanas" There is
certainly much difference in the colour of the plumage and of the
legs, the Criollas being lighter-coloured and slightly smaller birds
than the Castellanas, which are very dark ; otherwise, in habits,
note, and eggs, there is no difference, although at a glance the
resident and migratory races can be easily distinguished.

TURNICIDJE. 241

There are a great number of these resident Quails, which,
throughout the winter, seem to collect together and haunt certain
favourite spots, these places never being without them. You
may kill three or four and hunt about unable to find more ; but
go to the same place in a few days' time, and you will find that
some fresh ones have taken possession of the ground.

In summer Quail are universally distributed all over the culti-
vated country ; in autumn the best place to shoot them is in the
maize-fields or, rather, stubbles. Vast quantities are caught in
the spring with small nets by the aid of the " Quail-call " (pitillo).
The birds begin to call their love-note about the 9th of March ;
after that time their " quit que-twit " is to be heard on every side
as long as the nesting-season lasts. They commence to lay in
May ; and I have known of a nest with eleven eggs taken as late
as the 17th October.

General colour buff, marked much as Partridge above.

Male. Chin and throat blackish.

Female. Chin and throat buff ; larger than male. Length 7 inches.

Order HEMIPODII. Family TURNICIDJB.

267. Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines) . The Andalucian Bush-
Quail or Three-toed Quail.

Moorish. Zerquil (Favier). Spanish. Torillo.

" This little Quail is both resident and migratory in the vicinity
of Tangier, and is a much less common bird than the ordinary
Quail; those which migrate pass northwards during May and
June, and are seen on the return passage in September and
October. They nest in July, depositing four eggs in any slight
depression of the ground, often among corn. The young, from
the moment of exclusion, are attended by both male and female —
all remaining together in parties for some time, in the same
manner as Quails. I kept a female bird in captivity for about
thirteen months, feeding it on millet and water. This bird was

E

242 TURN1CIDJE.

very fond of eating flies, and also used to devour the ants which
came into its cage to carry away the dead. Very gentle in its
character, the call of this bird was very triste : it cooed day and
night, much in the manner of a Turtle-Dove, only the note was
more subdued and lengthened. I have reason to believe that
these Quails would breed in captivity, although this individual
bird did not lay." — Favier.

On the Spanish side I was unable to detect any migration of
this bird, though it is said by Andalucian bird-catchers and
cazadores to be migratory. The probability is that they are so,
but yet am inclined to think the reverse, as they are found in the
same localities in equal numbers at all seasons of the year.

Near Gibraltar it is very local and nowhere plentiful, apparently
less so than is really the case, for they are difficult birds to flush,
and if put up once will rarely rise a second time. Scattered here
and there,they chiefly frequent palmetto (Chamcerops humilis] scrub,
and appear to be most common near the coast, being more abun-
dant to the east of the Queen of Spain's Chair, especially about
the Lomo del Rey and a place called Las Agusaderas. In their
flight and habits, from what I could observe of them, they
resemble the Indian Button-Quail (Turnix dussumieri).

I have often seen them among the rough grass and bents close
to the sea-shore, but always near palmetto, and one bird in parti-
cular for a long time frequented a patch of thick herbage near
the mouth of the "First Iliver"; whenever I rode by, my dog
used to flush it, till at last one day, wanting a specimen, I went
purposely to shoot the bird ; but, of course, upon this occasion
my friend was not to be found, nor did I again see one there for
some months.

They are scarce between Algeciraz and Tarifa, but occur
towards Vejer, and are tolerably plentiful on the palmetto-
covered high ground above Casas Viejas, called La Mesa ; further
than this I did not meet with them personally, nor could I obtain
any near Seville.

TURX1X SYLVAT1CA. 243

The nest is, from the skulking habits of the birds, extremely
difficult to obtain. I never had the good fortune to find one,
but had one lot of eggs brought to me from near San Roque,
on the 6th of July, 1869. The finder said the nest was under
shelter of a palmetto bush, and merely consisted of a few bits of
dried grass. These eggs, four in number, which is, without
doubt, the regular complement laid by all the Three-toed
Quails *, were very slightly incubated, and in appearance much
resembled those of the Common Pratincole, Glareola torquata,
only being, of course, much more diminutive. Later in July
I received several eggs from Mogador, which exactly resembled
the Spanish ones ; but not having been blown and being hard
sat-on, the shells were so tender and rotten as to be useless.
My friend Captain S. Reid, of the Royal Engineers, informed me
that he had the luck to find a nest, placed in grass near the
shore on the eastern beach, on the 19th of May, 1873 ; this nest
contained four incubated eggs, as did another from near Tangier
obtained by Olcese. Verner tells me that on the llth of August
two eggs hard sat-on were brought him by a Spaniard, who had
caught the old bird on the nest. There were four eggs, but he
broke two whilst catching the old one.

The males of this species, and, I believe, of all the genus, are
very much smaller than the females ; this difference is so striking
that the cazadores always declare there are two species. I have
at different times kept these little birds alive, and sent them to
England, and they are easily reconciled to captivity, becoming
very tame and confiding pets ; at times they coo in a moaning
way, whence their trivial Spanish name of torillo or little bull.
They also have another single note, much like that of the female
Quail but less loud.

This bird was called by Latham in 1783 the Gibraltar Quail.

The Anglicized name of Hemipode is fallacious, as Nature

* Captain Loche,^(?e Canon Tristram, seems to have been singularly fortunate
in finding a nest with seven eggs (' Ibis,' 1859, p. 80).

E2

244 KALL1D.E.

produces no half-footed animal, whilst the absence of the hind
toe or hallux is not peculiar to the Turnicidse. Bush-Quail,
Three-toed Quail, or Button-Quail, as in India, would be more
appropriate as English names.

Sexes alike. Centre of chest bright rusty. Length : male 6 inches ;
female 7^ inches.

Order FITLIC AKI JE, Family RALLIDJE.

268. Crex pratensis, Bechstein. The Landrail or Corn-

Crake.

Moorish. Zelga (Favier). Spanish. Eey de los Codornices
(King of the Quails), Guia de los Codornices (Guide of the
Quails), Polluela rubia.

" This Crake is found in Morocco on passage, crossing the
Straits during the month of February, returning in August,
September, and October, being occasionally obtained throughout
the winter months." — Favier.

The Landrail does not seem to remain in Andalucia during the
breeding-season, as I never heard its well-known cry ; but I have
seen them as late as the 2nd of May. They are not obtained in
any abundance, but, like other Rails, are, no doubt, more
common than they appear to be, and occur most frequently in
October and February, being sometimes found during the winter
months.

General colour above brownish buff, each feather on back with a black
centre ; axillaries chestnut ; bill shorter than head — as in the three following
species. Length 10^ inches.

269. Porzana maruetta (Leach). The Spotted Crake.
Spanish. Polluela (under which name the next four species are

also included).

" This bird is met with near Tangier during passage, but not
in any great number, and is the most common of the family,

PORZANA PARVA. 245

haunting thick beds of rushes in swamps and on the edges of
lakes and rivers." — Favier.

The Spotted Crake is extremely abundant on the Spanish side,
being more numerous than the Water-Rail, and is most frequent
in spring and autumn. Many remain during the winter months ;
and they are found also in the breeding-season.

General colour above olive-brown ; each feather on back with blackish
centre, and spotted with white ; axillaries barred with white ; breast
spotted. Length 8| inches.

270. Porzana bailloni (Vieillot). Baillon's Crake.

Favier says of this bird: — "Very rare; I only met with one,
in 1857." But I obtained two near Tangier in spring of 1877,
and probably it is common.

Seldom seen, owing to its skulking propensities. We found
this prettily marked Crake very common when snipe-shooting
at Casas Viejas from October to February. We also obtained it at
the Laguna de la Janda in May. Many are resident, breeding
at the end of April, when they make a small nest of sedges and
grass placed at the edges of swamps, laying from five to seven
olive-brown eggs spotted with darker brown, very like Jay's eggs.

Above dark reddish brown, marked with black ; cheeks, throat, and
breast slaty blue ; flanks black, barred with white ; more white streaks and
spots on back than in next species ; under wing-coverts mottled with
whitish.

Young. Chin and throat white ; breast and belly buff. Length 7 inches.

271. Porzana parva (Scopoli). The Little Crake.

The Little Crake is not noticed by Favier as occurring in
Morocco ; and on the Spanish side of the Straits I never could
succeed in meeting with any, though have seen specimens said
to be Andalucian, and Arevalo records them from province of
Malaga. Owing to the powers of concealment which these small
Rails possess, it is very difficult to obtain them, and impossible
to learn much of their habits. Without the aid of a good dog it

246 RALL1D.E.

is very hard to compel them to rise ; and in consequence they
appear to be much more rare than they really are. I recollect
finding a nest of this or Baillon's Crake situated in a very small
isolated patch of swamp ; and instead of trying to snare the birds,
I stupidly endeavoured to flush them with three good water-
dogs ; but it was quite useless ; we could find no signs of them
whatever ; so the unidentified eggs were valueless, as the
resemblance is so great between the eggs of this and Baillon's
Crake, that unless the bird be obtained it is impossible to tell to
which species they belong.

Much like last, but larger, and with flanks slate-grey ; white spots only
on centre of back ; under wing-coverts uniform. Length 8 inches.

272. Rallus aquaticus, Linnseus. The Water-Rail.

Spanish. Rascon, Rascon de agua.

" This bird is found on passage near Tangier in about the
same numbers as the Landrail, frequenting the edges of rivers
and swamps, where they hide up in the sedges." — Favier.

The Water-Rail is very common in all suitable localities on the
Spanish side; and their croaking frog-like call is always to
be heard in the swampy jungle at Casas Viejas. Being to a
great extent a migratory bird, they are most common in winter ;
but, owing to the cover being more thin, at that season all the
Rails and Crakes are easier to obtain. They build in rushes or
sedges, laying about the 20th of April. On the 13th of May we
found two nests, from each of which Mr. Stark succeeded in
snaring one of the old birds ; these nests, built entirely of
dry sedge and lined with a few bits of dry grass, were just
raised above the water, and measured 6 inches in height,
depth, and diameter; the hollow of the nest was 4J inches
across by 2J deep. Each nest contained seven eggs hard
sat-on — one lot being of the usual type, the other resembling
more those of the Spotted Crake, or, rather, looking like
miniature Waterhen's eggs with larger blotches than usual.

PORPHYRIO (LERULEUS. 247

Bill reddish at base, longer than the head, and slender. '

Above brown, blotched with black ; below slaty blue ; axillaries, belly,

and flanks black, barred with white ; legs and feet brown. Length 10

inches.

273. Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus). The "Waterhen or

Moorhen.

Moorish. Zelga-kahla (Favier). Spanish. Polla de agua.

The Moorhen, according to Favier, is " resident in the vicinity
of Tangier, being met with in abundance ; many, however, are
migratory."

It is needless to say much about a bird so well known as our
Common English Waterhen. They are not so common in
Andalucia as the Spotted Crake ; but I was unable to detect any
migratory habits on the Spanish side of the Straits, where they
are tolerably plentiful and generally distributed in all suitable
localities, often being seen about the gardens at the edge of the
small stream at Algeciraz and at Vejer, seeming, as in England,
to be fond of living in the vicinity of houses and cultivation.
They nest about the end of April.

General colour above olive-brown, below greyish black ; scarlet frontal
plate in adult, greenish brown in the young ; legs and feet greenish.
Length 13 inches.

274. Porphyrio cseruleus (Vandelli). The Purple Waterhen.

Moorish. Kazeid (Reid). Spanish. Mancon aziil, Calamon.

"This bird is chiefly migratory, and not common near Tangier,
passing north during the months of February and March, and
returning in December and October. They are occasionally to
be seen during the month of January, but not every year. Those
which remain for the breeding-season construct their nests in the
midst of wet sedges or rushes, depositing, in April, from three to
five eggs. When these birds are moulting they are very easy to
obtain, as they lose all their quill-feathers at once, and so cannot
fly." — Favier.

248 RALLID^E.

The Purple Waterhen (a large and very handsome bird) is, on
the Spanish side of the Straits, very irregular in its appearance
both as to time and locality. In some years, during January and
February, they are to be seen near Gibraltar in situations where
they do not occur at any other time, and are then, doubtless, on
migration.

In wet seasons they nest near Casas Viejas in April, in the
Soto Malabrigo, where I have shot them as late as the 27th of
October. They are very difficult to flush without a dog ; when
they rise they make a flapping noise, and with a heavy flight
merely take refuge in the nearest thick patch of rushes or wet
sedgy jungle, whence, from being Crake-like in their habits, it is
almost impossible to make them rise a second time. Some are
to be found in a few places at the edge of the marisma of the
Guadalquivir. The nest resembles that of the Common Coot ;
and the eggs, which are richly coloured, are laid towards the end
of April.

The gizzards of those which I have examined contained nothing
but vegetable matter (grass, seeds of rushes, &c.), with a good
deal of coarse gravel.

Purplish blue, darkest on tail ; tail-coverts white. Bill and frontal
shield bright red ; legs and feet red. Length 16-18 inches.

275. Fulica atra, Linnaeus. The Common Coot.

Moorish. El Ghor (Favier). Spanish. Mancon, Gallareta.

" This Coot is resident near Tangier, but is not very numerous,
often consorting with Fulica cristata. Some are migratory,
passing northwards during the months of January and February,
and returning in August and September." — Favier.

We found the Common Coot abundant near Tetuan in March ;
and they are common on the Spanish side, particularly in winter,
when very large flocks appear, and some are then to be seen on
the inundation at the North Front. They breed about the
middle of April in all large swamps, particularly at the Laguna

GRUID.E. 249

de la Janda, wrhere, though the nests are numerous, it is almost
impossible to see the birds, owing to the density of the grass and
rushes.

Front toes with rounded lobes.

General colour slaty black ; secondaries tipped with white, forming a
wing-bar ; broad white shield on forehead ; legs bluish grey ; iris crimson.
Length 16 inches.

276. Fulica cristata, Gmelin. The Red-lobed Coot.

Spanish. Gallareta.

" This bird is both resident and migratory near Tangier.
Those which migrate return from the north in September.
The nest and eggs resemble those of Fulica atra, with which
species they associate, but are much more numerous." — Favier.

This Coot breeds at Ras el Doura in numbers about the 20th
of April; and, as above mentioned, the eggs are not to be
distinguished from those of the Common Coot (F. atra) ; so
unless the bird be snared on the nest, the eggs cannot be said to
be identified.

In Andalucia they have been obtained about the Laguna de la
Janda, but are much more common further east.

I prefer to call this bird Red-lobed, as it certainly is not crested, and
resembles the Common Coot in all respects except having two red lobes or
caruncles on the white frontal shield and not having a white wing-bar or
white tips to the secondaries. Length 16 inches.

Order ALECTORIDES. Family aRUID£).

277. Grus communis, Bechstein. The Common Crane.

Moorish. Gharnook (Favier). Spanish. Griilla.

" This Crane, common in flocks, is found in Morocco only
during the winter season, arriving in October and November;
they leave for the north in February." — Favier.

On the Moorish side of the Straits the Common Crane does

250 GRUID.E.

not appear to remain to nest, as I looked in vain for them in the
marshes there during the month of April.

On the Spanish side some thirty to forty pairs breed in the
district (comprising many thousand acres) which extends from
Tapatanilla along the Laguna de la Janda to Vejer, and thence
eastward to Casas Viejas. These birds commence to lay about
the last week in April (but Verner records a nest with two fresh
eggs on the 4th of April, 1876), constructing their nests somewhat
like those of the Swan, of sedges, grass, and rushes. The nests
vary much in size, some being quite five feet across, others
perhaps not much more than eighteen inches : some are deep,
and stand high up ; others are almost level with the water, in
which they are always built. The nest is always placed among
sedges or rushes sufficiently short for the bird, when standing up,
to be able to see around, and is never built in tall reeds. They
are very easy to find, as the old birds never fly direct to the nest,
but alight some twenty or thirty yards away and, walking up to
it, form regular tracks like a cattle-path ; so by following one of
these tracks you may be sure of finding the nest : nor do the old
birds fly straight away from the nest, but walk off quietly to the
end of one of these paths and then take wing. When approached
while sitting on the nest, the bird slips off, crouches down, and
runs away for some yards.

Mr. Stark watched a pair of Cranes for two or three days from
a hill which directly overlooked a marsh where the process of
building was being carried on ; and he informed me that only
one bird worked at a time, the other standing on guard. The
nests are never in very close proximity to each other, and never
contain more than two eggs, placed side by side so as almost to
touch, both the small ends pointing in the same direction.
Sometimes the second egg is not laid until two or three days
after the first, and they differ much in size and shape in different
nests ; but the pair in a nest are always alike in size, shape, and
colour, which varies from light buff to an olive-brown, sometimes

GRUS COMMUNIS. 251

marked all over with brown and reddish-brown spots, generally
thickest at the larger end ; but some eggs are almost spotless.

These noble-looking birds are very much harassed during the
breeding-time ; and being said, I believe correctly, not to lay a
second time in the season after the nest has been robbed, they
will, I am afraid, soon cease to breed near Casas Viejas, as they
have almost done in the marisma of the Guadalquivir, owing to
ceaseless persecution. According to what one hears, they used
years ago to nest there in great numbers. However, it is the
same story everywhere: all wild birds are in Europe certainly
decreasing at their breeding-places, owing to egging, drainage,
and what is termed civilization ; and soon it will come to nothing
but Dorking Fowls and domestic Pheasants.

These Andalucian-breeding Cranes are very largely reinforced
by the autumn migration, which arrives early in October ; and
they then form immense bands of from two to three hundred in
number, though generally they keep in smaller lots of from five
to thirty or forty. Those which do not remain to nest, pass
north in March. On the llth of that month, in 1874, Mr. Stark
and myself had the pleasure of seeing them on passage ; and a
grand and extraordinary sight it was, as flock after flock passed
over at a height of about two hundred yards — some in single line,
some in a V-shape, others in a Y-formation, all from time to time
trumpeting loudly. We watched them for about an hour as they
passed, during which time we calculated that at least four
thousand must have flown by. This was early in the morning,
and we were obliged to continue our journey ; but when we lost
sight of the vega of Casas Viejas, over which the Cranes were
passing in a due northerly direction, there appeared to be no
diminution in their number, and, as my friend remarked, " One
would not have believed there were so many Cranes in all
Europe." These birds must have crossed the Straits from Africa
that morning, the place over which we saw them passing being
not twenty miles in a direct line from Tarifa, and a line drawn

252 GRUID^E.

in the direction from which the birds came would have fallen a
little to the west of that town. At Adra on the 16th of March,
1882, we saw eleven Cranes passing north at a great height.

In the winter of 1870-71 1 found that Cranes could be easily
shot in the evening by waiting for them in the swamps where they
resort to pass the night, as they " flight " earlier than Ducks ;
and although in the daytime no bird is so wide awake, they are
quite stupid in the dusk, flying, if you keep perfectly still, within
a few yards. It is, however, a barbarous shame to shoot such a
fine and noble bird. Although the Spaniards gladly take them
to eat, to my mind their flesh is coarse and worthless ; but in
India, where they feed much on grain and on rice-stubbles, they
are, on the contrary, much sought after for the table. One or
two shot in the evening near Casas Viejas had been eating
beetles and insects, which in winter seems their chief food.
They do a great deal of damage to beans when ripening and to
newly sown grain of all descriptions.

General colour slate-grey ; inner secondaries bluish black, forming
elongated plumes.

Adults with a red warty patch on crown. In young this is absent, and
the grey feathers on back are mixed with brown. Length 48 inches.

278. Grus virgo (Linnseus). The Demoiselle Crane.

Spanish. Grulla moruna (Seville).

The only note which Favier has relative to this handsome
Crane is that "it is scarce and seldom obtained near Tangier,
passing northwards without making any stay, during March,
April, and May."

Favier's successor at Tangier evidently considered this species
a rare bird ; for he asked fifteen dollars (over £3) for a specimen,
and at that price it was likely to continue for some time on his
hands. He stated that the local name was " Bou-gernan " (father
of thistles) ; but if the bird be as rare as Favier implied, how
could it bear a local name ?

OTIDIB.E. 253

On the Spanish side I failed to meet with this Crane near
Casas Viejas, but strongly suspect that in some seasons they nest
there ; indeed a pair of Cranes' eggs that were brought to me
were so small that I could not refer them to the Common Crane,
but could of course obtain no reliable information about them.
Indeed, an egg unidentified is worse than useless to the ornitho-
logist ; and unless the collector takes and identifies specimens
himself, he had better not keep them.

In the marisma of the Guadalquivir there is no doubt that
in former years the present species used frequently to breed.
Specimens are often to be obtained near Seville during March,
April, and the early part of May, and again in August. Judging
from this, they must nest somewhere a little further north.

General colour bluish grey, sides of the head, throat, neck, the lengthened
pointed feathers on upper breast, and quill-feathers black; from each eye
a tuft of lengthened white feathers extending backwards. Length 30
inches.

OTIDIDJE. No hind toe.

279. Otis tarda, Linnaeus. The Great Bustard.

Spanish. Abutarda.

Favier states that this Bustard " occasionally migrates to
Morocco during winter from the European side of the Straits,
but very rarely remains for the breeding-season."

I have seen one or two specimens obtained near Tangier, and
Mr. Drake also mentions one ; whilst Mr. Meade-Waldo kindly
informs me that in the spring of 1892 he met with many, and
saw one band of twenty-three. He found a male on a small
plain which when fired at flew round and round, not seeming to
like to pass over the hills ; at last he got right up, and went
away like a goose.

On the Spanish side of the Straits the Great Bustard is first
to be met with near Gibraltar on the plain below Facinas, about
ten or twelve miles from Tarifa ; northwards from there they are

254 OTIDID.E.

to be seen in gradually increasing numbers all along the vega of
the Laguna de la Janda up to Casas Viejas and along by Medina
Sidonia to the plains which lie towards Jerez and the marisma
of the Guadalquivir. They are found in abundance along the
line of railway to near Utrera, being more plentiful in the open
corn-growing country about Marchena, Coronil, and Carmona
than in any other district that I have visited ; thence to the
north side of the Guadalquivir they are also common, particularly
about Brenes and Alcala del Rio, sometimes appearing very near
to Seville — in fact in all open country the Great Bustard may be
^expected to be seen in varying numbers. I never saw any very
large flocks, but occasionally have observed as many as fifty
together ; from ten to twenty-five is the usual number seen at
once. I did not detect any migration of the Great Bustard,
which is singular, as in the Crimea some very large flights
appeared on passage in autumn; however, doubtless they
migrate, as they are occasionally seen, and in 18£9 two were shot
very near Gibraltar ; certainly they shift their ground in Spain,
as they are most numerous about the vega of La Janda during
the breeding-season, which tends to the belief that they pass over
to the African side of the Straits. In a wild state they feed
chiefly on grass and vegetable substances ; and when kept tame
they will devour any amount of grasshoppers, insects, &c., the
best food for them, however, being cabbage-leaves.

Bustards are very difficult to approach except by some such
stratagem as driving a cart near them, when they seem to fear
no danger ; but the best way of obtaining them is by driving
when the corn is sufficiently high to shelter the guns, which it
usually is by the end of March. It is necessary to have for a
Bustard-drive, with any chance of success, at least four guns ; the
more the better ; and as the birds fly almost always well within
shot of the ground, they are very easily killed if they pass over
the spot where a gun is posted. Indeed, considering the size of
the bird, it is wonderful how light a wound will bring one down.

OTIS TARDA. 255

I have seen an old male when winged and, as it were, brought to
bay, turn round and charge his pursuer. This diversion of
Bustard-driving is rather an expensive pastime, and often, like
the Irishman's pig, they refuse to be driven in the required
direction ; so, beyond the novelty of the affair, and the sight of
so many of these truly noble birds on the wing, there is nothing
very exciting in the sport, if it may be so called ; and, as in all
" driving," there is no sporting-skill required on the part of the
shooter. . Nevertheless the thorough enjoyment of the bright and
glorious climate, and the sense of freedom to go where you wish
without being warned off as a trespasser, and last, but not least,
the sociable nature of the " entertainment," render a few days'
Bustard-driving very agreeable : they ought not to be shot after
the third week in April, as they then begin to lay; but most
of those killed, I am sorry to say, are destroyed during the
breeding-season. There is, morever, the lamentable fact that the
game is not very much worth having, the flesh being dry and
coarse ; at least such has been the case with almost all that I
have tasted.

One circumstance in favour of these excursions after Bustard
is that they are easily managed from Seville by starting by the
early morning train and returning late in the evening, and there
is no trouble in having to search for uncomfortable country
quarters for the night.

The man we always employed to drive was one Molino, of
Algaba, a small village or pueblo on the Guadalquivir, above
Seville, a wiry active little fellow, but with an enormous capacity
for meat and wine. He never attempted to drive the birds with
more than three men, including himself; but his skilful manage-
ment, owing to his knowledge of the birds and the ground, and
consequently of the route they would take, was something
marvellous. Molino was always employed by some Sevillanos,
who regularly several times in the spring go out dressed in green,
like Free Foresters at the Crvstal Palace : and a suitable dress it

256 OTIDID.E.

is ; for the colour being that ot the corn or grass in which the
tirador lies hid, the Bustards are not nearly so likely to notice
the ambuscade. The day these verdant gentlemen choose for
their " funcion" of Bustards is invariably Sunday ; and sometimes
they succeed in killing a dozen birds in the day, usually about
the vicinity of Las Alcantarillas. In August, near Casas Viejas,
and, I am informed, also in other places, the Spaniards ride down
Bustards with dogs, continually flushing them till they are
exhausted ; but probably young birds only are thus caught.
They are also said to tire out the Red-legged Partridge in the
same way. This is very likely, as I have seen these Partridges
when driving in Norfolk, after being flushed two or three times,
allow themselves to be caught quite uninjured.

The Great Bustard is easily noticed when on the ground where
the cover is not too high to hide them ; and at times their size
appears gigantic as they fly with a slow, measured, laborious-
looking flight ; but their pace is much faster than it appears to
be ; and when put up they often fly a distance of at least two
miles. They have great power of concealment ; and I remember
an instance of one which was unable to fly, from some injury he
had received in one of his wings. We saw this bird in a corn-
field of some forty acres, and forming line we tried to catch him ;
but he suddenly disappeared in the corn, which was not more
than two feet high, and in many places not a foot high. We
spent an hour in vain hunting for him with a dog ; so, after
beating the whole field over more than once, we sat down in
view of the ground to eat luncheon. In about a quarter of an
hour the Bustard appeared some three hundred yards off in the
middle of the corn ; so I went straight at him, running as hard
as I could. He again disappeared ; but going on I suddenly
spied something white running, as it were, close to the ground,
and rushing after it, up jumped the Bustard, running along and
flapping his wings ; unable to catch him (for he ran as fast as I
could), I was compelled to shoot him, a magnificent Barbon of

OTIS TETRAX. 257

about thirty pounds weight. I could not have believed so large
a bird could crouch so low and at the same time make such
good running.

About Casas Viejas a few Bustards are to be found near the
banks of the rivers Barbate and Celemin, where, from the nature
of the ground, which is intersected by the windings and branches
of these rivers, which are nearly dry in August, it is sometimes
possible to stalk them under cover of the banks, and is very
good ground to have them driven over ; but the Spaniards then
could not be made to understand such work.

The Great Bustard nests in corn or grass early in May, laying
two olive-brown eggs marked with spots and blotches of dark
brown. Verner says he has twice come across nests containing
four eggs, but the Spaniards say two is the complement laid by
each hen, and if more than that number are found in a nest then
two hens have laid together. He found a nest as late as the
27th of June, 1879, containing three fresh eggs. They appear to
be polygamous, whilst the Little Bustard undoubtedly pairs.
The gular pouch, which always exists in the old males or
Barbones, is sometimes very large and necked in the middle,
somewhat like an hour-glass, the lower part being the largest ;
this shape is not constant and perhaps the result of age.

3 [ale. Head bluish grey ; general colour above reddish buff, with black
bands on each feather ; wings white or greyish, except the dark primaries ;
tuft of long bristly white feathers from base of bill ; band of rich chestnut
across breast, with grey band underneath, below this white.

Female and young male. Without bristles on throat or band on chest, and
back more banded with black. Length: male 45 inches, female 36. Greatest
weight of a male 37 Ib. (Verner}, others have recorded to 36 Ib.

280. Otis tetrax, Linnceus. The Little Bustard.

Moorish . Bou-zerat (Father of the armourer : Ead, " thim-
derer "), Saf-saf ; Sirt, sirt (from call or note). Andalucian. Sison,
Francolino.

" The Little Bustard is abundant in the vicinity of Tangier in

258 OTID1D.E.

small flocks, which are very wild and wary. They migrate to the
north during the months of April and May, returning in October
and November. In addition to these migratory birds, great
numbers are resident during the nesting-season. The males do
not attain the full breeding-plumage until their third year, and
by October regain the dress of the females." — Favier.

My experience of the breeding-plumage of the Little Bustard
is rather different from the above ; for, as far as I have been able
to ascertain, the males lose the black markings of their nuptial
dress by the end of August, if not before. I could not make out
the exact period ; but never saw a black-marked male which had
been killed after the middle of August. The adult males never
lose the minutely marked or vermiculated plumage on the back,
which part in the females and young males is more spotted or
blotched, like the feathers of the Great Bustard. I found the
Little Bustard equally common in Morocco as in Andalucia on
all open low cultivated ground. On the dead level, or vega," of
the Barbate near Casas Viejas at times, in early autumn, they
positively swarmed in flocks sometimes of as many or more than
a hundred together, frequenting this flat ground till swamped by
the rains. They then resorted to higher and undulating ground,
and these large flocks gradually dispersed and broke up into lots
of from five or six to twenty in number. They are, as Favier
remarks, exceedingly wary, except during the breeding-season
and in the month of August. At other times the only way to
obtain them was by driving, very uncertain work, as, unlike the
Great Bustard, they usually rose high up at once, and their
power and rapidity of flight is astonishing for their size and
weight.

They were often to be seen flying somewhat like Golden Plover,
twirling and twisting about at a great elevation ; and sometimes
I watched them rise and go to such a height that it would have
been difficult to tell what birds they were unless I had seen them
fly up from the ground.

OTIS TETBAX. 259

During August, when very hot, between eleven and four, they
lie " like stones " in long grass, requiring a dog to flush them ;
but the heat is then so excessive that one is almost as likely to
get a sunstroke as a Little Bustard, and I myself could never
stand such work.

The nearest place to Gibraltar that these birds are seen is on
the plain between Los Barrios and Palmones, where occasionally
in autumn and winter a few appear ; but they are too much
bullied by Gibraltar sportsmen to remain there long. The
Moorish names given above are significant of the rattling noise
which the Little Bustard makes in rising ; and when the flock is
large this can be heard a very long way off. There is none of
this sound of the wings in the rising of the slow-flying Great
Bustard.

When on the wing, the Little Bustard, except when at a great
height, may always be recognized by its white or, rather, pied
appearance, caused by the greater part of the wings being white.
"When these are closed, and they are settled on the ground, this
white does not show, and they are very difficult to make out or
notice, particularly as they usually frequent ground which has
some cover (in the shape of weeds, thistles, or grass). In the
breeding-season they keep entirely among thick herbage, and at
that time I never could get a sight of one on the ground.

In my opinion there is no bird better food than the Little
Bustard, and they are equal to the Indian Florican in this respect,
which is saying a great deal for them.

The male Little Bustard in the breeding-season has a most
peculiar call, which can be easily imitated by pouting out and
pressing the lips tight together and then blowing through them ;
the birds when thus calling seem to be close to you, but are often
in reality half a mile off. They must possess powers of ventri-
loquism, as I have often imagined that, they were quite close to
me, and upon hunting the spot with a dog found no signs of
them anywhere near ; indeed, at that season it is sometimes as

s2

260 . OTIDID.E.

difficult to make them rise as a Landrail. They nest in the
beginning of May, laying three shiny smooth olive-green eggs,
more or less blotched with dark brown, which are placed among
the corn or long grass.

Male in spring till August. General colour above sandy brown ; throat
and cheeks bluish black, with two white gorget-marks across.

Adult male. Back vermiculated with black, but otherwise in winter
resembles the female.

Female. Back spotted or Uotclied with black on sandy-brown ground-
colour ; underparts white ; iris golden yellow. Length 16-17 inches.

281. Eupodotis arabs (Linnaeus). The North - African

Bustard.

This large Bustard was obtained by Mr. Tyrwhitt-Drake in the
north of Morocco ; and towards the south, about Mogador, it is
stated to be common.

Larger than the Great Bustard (Otis tarda), it has the entire
back covered with those delicate vermiculated feathers, sandy
brown crossed with fine lines of deep brown almost black, which
are so valuable for artificial flies. Similarly marked feathers are
found in the other species of Eupodotis in India, the Cape, and
Australia.

282. Houbara undulata (Jacq.). The Western Houbara or

Ruffed Bustard.

This Bustard is not mentioned by Favier; but I saw one
specimen which had been obtained near Tangier in August ;
further south it is stated to be frequently met with.

In Andulacia is a rare straggler and has occurred near Malaga.

Above blotched, not vermiculated. Crest of white feathers ; black and
white ruff on sides of neck. Length 26-30 inches.

GLAREOLID.E. 261

Order L IMI C 0 L 53 . Family GL AREOLID.E.

283. Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus). The Pratincole.

Moorish. Gharrak (Favier), Harrak-diad (Drummond - Hay,
P. Z. S. 1840). Spanish. Canastela.

Favier's notes on the Pratincole are confined to remarking
" that it arrives from the south and passes to Europe during the
month of April, being observed returning thence in September
to join those which have remained near Tangier for the breeding-
season. All disappear south for the winter months."

We found this bird in April, on the dried mud at the lakes of
Meshree el Haddar, south of Larache, in countless thousands.
They had not then begun to lay; so possibly some of these
swarms would pass on northwards. We there witnessed a
number of these birds mobbing a Marsh-Harrier which had
intruded on their ground, buffeting and bullying him just as
Peewits will do when a Hawk passes near their breeding-ground.
At times at least a hundred Pratincoles were dashing at once
about the Hairier, which soon made its best way out of their
district. Pratincoles are very crepusculine in their habits,
flitting up and down over the surface of a river or a pool much
after the manner of the Indian Skimmer (Ehynchops albicollis)
very late in the evening — as late, indeed, as they can be
distinguished. They are then silent, but by day, especially
when disturbed, their cry is ceaseless ; and the Moorish name
given by Favier is doubtless derived from, as it is suggestive of,
their note. They are generally very tame and fearless, often
allowing one to approach within a few yards, and are birds of
very powerful flight, reminding one much of the Terns in this
respect.

On the south side of the Straits the Pratincole is found in
large numbers wherever there are lagoons, which, drying up in

262 CHARADRIID.E.

spring, leave a surface of- sun-baked mud on which they deposit
their complement of three eggs only, about the second week in
May. The earliest egg I saw was taken on the 3rd of that
month, and they mostly arrive about the 20th of April, the
earliest date on which I saw one being the 4th and 10th of that
month in two consecutive years. Verner noticed six at Palmones,
near Gibraltar, on the 21st of April, 1878. They fly very high
when on passage, and attract notice chiefly from their cry. The
latest date of the return migration observed was the 14th of
October, when a young bird was procured.

In some seasons they breed about the edges of the Laguna de
la Janda, but the marisma of the Guadalquivir is their chief
resort.

A friend of mine, who shot several on the autumnal passage,
informed me that they were excellent eating ; but in this respect
I can give no personal information.

Axillaries cJtestnut-red ; tail much forked.

Above dull brown ; rump and tail-coverts white ; throat buff, bordered
by a black line meeting at the gape, forming a bridle or collar ; wings very-
long, about 7^ inches. Length 9-10 inches.

CHARADRIIDJE. Hind toe absent in most species.

284. CEdicnenms scolopax (S. G. Gmelin). The Stone-Curlew.

Moorish. El Karuana. Spanish. Alcaravan.

The Stone-Curlew is found on both sides of the Straits as a
resident in considerable numbers, nesting generally about the
beginning of May, and depositing its complement of two eggs
usually on stony dry ground.

These birds are far more common in the winter months, and
most so during their migration, which is northwards during
March and April, and southwards in October, November, and
December. They pass in lots of from five or six to fifty in
number, and are chiefly observed on ploughed fields, generally

CURSORIUS GALLICUS. 263

near the banks of rivers, where I have sometimes' shot them as
they flew by when waiting for ducks in the evening, and they are
doubtless nocturnal feeding birds. Except in the breeding-season,
when they are very noisy, I have found them rather wild.

Two obscure white bands across (extended) wings ; breast streaked ;
chin and throat white ; tail rather long and graduated ; bill yellow,
terminal half black ; legs yellow ; iris very large and yellow. Length
1G inches.

285. Cursorius g-allicus (J. F. Gmelin). The Cream-coloured
Courser.

Moorish. Gueta (Fattier) i but this name applies also to
Pier odes alchata.

" This Courser appears annually during July in some numbers
on the plains of Sharf el Akab, not far from Tangier. Their stay
there and their numbers vary according to the abundance or
scarcity of insects, and also with the temperature ; for unless the
latter is favourable, they are rarely met with, and none were seen
during the year 1854. They leave these plains in August or the
first part of September. Early in summer they ought to be found
nesting near Sharf el Akab, as in May, 1847, a male was brought
to me by a chasseur, who rescued it from a Falcon which had
struck it down.

"Their food is entirely insects or larva?, particularly Pcntatoma
torquata and different sorts of grasshoppers. They are met
with in small lots, usually frequenting dry arid plains, where
they spread out in all directions, running about after insects, and
are very wary and difficult to get a shot at. Their cry of
alarm is much like that of the Plover. They rest and sleep
in a sitting position, with their legs doubled up under them.
Should they not fly away when approached they run off with
astonishing swiftness, manoeuvring to get out of sight behind
stones or clods of earth ; then, kneeling down and stretching the
body and head flat on the ground, they endeavour to make them-

204 CHARADRIID-E.

selves invisible, — though all the time their eyes are fixed on the
object which disturbs them, and they keep on the alert ready to
rush off again if one continues to approach them.

" The age of the young birds can be well made out by the zig-
zag markings with which the plumage is speckled, which becomes
clearer each moult till the end of the second year, when they
assume the regular adult livery. There is no difference at any
age in the plumage of the sexes.

" In 1849 they did not leave till the llth of September, when
a chasseur brought me one slightly wounded in the wing. I
tried to keep this bird alive ; but it died directly the weather
became cold. It proved on dissection to be a female ; and from
the large size of the eggs in the ovary it appeared as if it would
soon have nested, probably in October or November, when
doubtless they retire to a much warmer climate.

"Towards the end of August, 1851, two others were brought
to me, both slightly wounded — one an adult, the other an imma-
ture bird. To prevent the birds this time from dying of cold, I
placed them by day in a room where there was always a fire kept
up. At night I put them in a box, making a door at the side,
lining the top and sides with cotton-wool, placing sand an inch
deep on the bottom ; this was warmed and dried by putting a
charcoal brazier inside during the day. I fed the birds on grass-
hoppers till November, when these insects became very scarce,
and, as each bird ate fifty daily, it was necessary to change their
diet to the larvee of coleoptera, which, after some reluctance, they
began to take. This food suited them better than grasshoppers,
the birds becoming fatter, at the same time eating less. They
did well till January, when, the adult bird pining and refusing
food, I tried to save it by cramming ; but this was useless, as it
died in February, and on dissection I found that death was
caused by a very large tumour in the stomach. It proved to be
a female ; and from the ovaries it appeared the season for laying
had passed.

CURSORIUS GALLICUS. 265

"The surviving bird continued well till the end of January;
then, appearing ill, I fed it by hand till April, when as the
weather became warmer it grew more healthy. I then shut it
up in a cage with a white Turtle-Dove. The Courser was the
stronger bird, and did little else than play with the Dove ; but
they lived in perfect harmony. In May, sexual desire was shown
in a very marked manner ; but, unluckily, the Dove was also a
female. During the exhibition of this passion the Courser used
to make a noise which may be expressed thus, ' rerererJ

" This continued till the middle of June, then entirely ceasing
till the next year (1853), when it resulted in the Courser laying
eight eggs — the first on the 15th, the second on the 16th, the
third on the 30th of May, the fourth on the 1st, the fifth on the
llth, the sixth on the 14th, the seventh on the 23rd, and the last
on the 25th of June. In 1854 she laid again, with the same
irregularity, twelve eggs — the first on the 17th of May, the last
on the 28th of July. Though in perfect health, treated and fed
in the same way, she did not lay in 1855 — but in 1856 laid two
eggs, on the 6th and 7th of July. In 1857 she again, at irregular
intervals, laid ten more eggs — the first in May, the last in July.
In 1858 none were laid. In 1859 she produced four more eggs
— the first two on the 6th and 7th of July, the others on the 9th
and 10th of August.

" Shortly afterwards this bird, in perfect health, plumage, and
vigour, was lost to ornithology, owing to the war between Spain
and Morocco ; for on the 25th of October I was ordered, with
other French subjects, to embark in the French war-steamer
' Mouette,' and not knowing when I should return, and still less
how to take care of my bird, I made up my mind to let it go ;
but it was so tame that it either would not or could not use its
wings ; so, in my dilemma, I gave it in charge of a Moor during
my absence; but, unfortunately, on my return in April 1860 I
found it had died.

" From my observations it seems that these birds could be

-66 CHARADRIID.E.

domesticated and bred so as to be perhaps used for the table ; but
their value would make them rather expensive luxuries, worthy
of comparison with those splendid feasts given by the ancient
Roman Emperors ; for . each bird would cost more than twelve
dozen capons.

" Meanwhile, considering the eggs laid by the above-named
female bird, the size of the testes of the males and ovaries of the
females in August and September, one may conclude that they
breed more than once a year, and that the complement of eggs is
two. These are rather elliptical in shape, of a cream-colour,
spotted or marbled with red, bluish ash, and brown." — Famer.

This Courser occasionally wanders across the Straits, having
been obtained near Malaga, in 1877, and two which were shot
at Coria, near Seville, in 1883, are in Lord Lilford's collection.

General colour sandy buff ; primaries and primary-coverts black ;
axillaries Hack', bill as long as head, slightly curved; legs greyish white.
Length 9^-10 inches.

286. Charadrius pluvialis, Linnseus. The Golden Plover.

Moorish. Tullit. Spanish. Chorlito.

" This Plover is very abundant around Tangier in large flocks,
which arrive during October and November, and which return to
Europe in February and March." — Famer.

The Golden Plover occurs as above on the Andalucian side of
the Straits ; but at the same time their numbers fluctuate very
much, in some winters the quantity seen being very great. Upon
their first arrival they are generally tame ; but being so much
sought after by the cazadores, they soon learn their danger and
become more wary. The earliest noticed near Gibraltar was on
the 1st of November ; the latest was on the 6th of March.

The best ground for Golden Plover is the vicinity of Tapata-
nilla. They always frequent the same places ; and if put up from
any spot are almost certain to return in less than an hour. I
regret to say that occasionally the Spaniards catch them like

SQUATAROLA HELVETICA. 207

eels, by laying night-lines or hooks baited with a worm in their
feeding-places : this is a most cruel method of procuring them,
as the unfortunate birds linger in agony for hours, often being
left till they flutter themselves to death.

Male in spring. Above blackish, spotted with yellow; chin, throat, breast,
and belly black.

Female. Less black below, being mottled with white feathers.

In winter. Below white, chest and flanks marked with brown. Axilluries
white. Lenoih 9 inches.

o

287. Charadrius fulvus, J. F. Gmelin. Asiatic Golden Plover.

A specimen of this Eastern Golden Plover was killed near
Malaga in 1878, and is in Lord Lilford's collection.
Axillaries smoky grey; otherwise as last, but slightly smaller.

288. Squatarola helvetica (Liunseus). The Grey Plover.

Spanish. Redolin.

Favier only remarks that " this Plover is found near Tangier
between the months of December and March."

The Grey Plover appears chiefly to arrive near Gibraltar during
the middle of November, and, though frequently seen in autumn
and spring, cannot be said to be at any time abundant. I have
noticed them on the small plash of water which after heavy rains
is formed on the western part of the Neutral ground.

On the 22nd of May, 1869, I killed a pair at one shot near
the mouth of the Guadiaro, the male being in almost perfect
summer plumage, the female not being so far advanced, and the
eggs in her ovaries very slightly developed. It is very remarkable
that this northern-breeding bird should linger so late in such a
sunny southern country ; and the day above mentioned was very
hot for the time of the year. But the Grey Plover is not singular
in thus remaining south so late ; both the Knot and the Curie \v
Sandpiper loiter equally late into the spring.

The marks by which this species is to be distinguished from
the Golden Plover are the presence of a very small hind toe and

2G8 CIIAKADmiD.E.

the black axillaries ; it is, moreover, a larger bird, and shore-
frequenting, very rarely being found inland like the Golden
Plover.

Axillaries black ; small hind toe present.

In spring. Above white, barred with black ; underparts black, or black
marked with white.

In winter marked much as Golden Plover, but the yellow spots of that
species are replaced by white, young birds only being marked with a few
yellow spots. Length 10-12 inches.

289. Eudromias morinellus (Linnaeus). The Dotterel.

" This bird, which appears to travel in company with Cursorius
isabellimts, is found near Tangier sparingly on its annual passage
during August and September, frequenting in small flocks the
same dry places that the Courser inhabits ; and, like them, it
seems to dread the cold." — Favier.

Could Favier occasionally have seen the Dotterel on mountain-
tops in Scotland, he would not have supposed them to fear the
cold ; but curiously enough he omits to mention the date of their
appearance in spring ; and I have no record in my notes of
observing them at that season on the Spanish side of the Straits :
the few I have seen were in autumn, the latest being shot about
the 9th of November. Probably they pass straight on, and thus
appear rarer than is the case ; but doubtless their line of migra-
tion must be further to the east.

Axillaries greyish. Crown nearly black with white lines below, all round
above eyes to bill; chin and throat white; upper breast chestnut-red; belly
black.

Females brighter than males. Length 9 inches.

290. JEglalitis hiaticula (Linnseus). The Ringed Plover.

Moorish. Kouba (Drummond-Hay) (" the hooded one," vide
Crested Lark). Spanish. Andarios, Correrios, Frailecillo (the
first two applied to all small Waders).

" This Ringed Plover is, near Tangier, found in small numbers
in pairs and companies on the sea-shore. They arrive during the

uEGIALITIS CURCmCA. 2C9

months of September, October, and November, returning north
again in April and May." — Favier.

Though without absolute proof, I am nearly sure that this
species occasionally remains to breed near Gibraltar, having shot
them as late as the 28th of May, and having seen eggs obtained
near Seville as early as on the 23rd of March ; but this is the
only instance I know of their nesting so far south. During
autumn and until April the Ringed Plover is extremely plentiful
along the coast, and most so in the month of March.

Above hair-brown ; forehead white ; fore crown black, reaching to and
below eyes on each side, and to base of bill and ear-coverts ; throat white,
forming a complete ring, below this a broad black band round breast ; both
these collars narrowing to a line round nape ; rest of underparts white ;
eyelids, legs, and feet orange ; basal half of bill yellow, rest black.

Females have the collars less clearly defined.

Young brown where black in adults ; bill black ; legs brown. Length
7-7^ inches.

291. ^gialitis curonica (J. F. Gmelln). The Little Ringed
Plover.

This small inland species is not mentioned by Favier in his
MS., although included by Mr. Drake in his ' List of the Birds
of Morocco.' We found them very common in that country on
river-banks during the month of April. Equally abundant at
that time on the Spanish side, the Little Ringed Plover is only
seen during the breeding-season. They mostly arrive about the
14th of March, some passing on ; others remain to nest,
depositing, about the 14th of May, four eggs on the sand or
shingle by the sides of rivers. The earliest eggs Major Verner
found were on the loth May, 1875. Many pairs nest on the
river Barbate, near Casas Viejas. There is, of course, no
approach to a nest ; but the eggs, with the small ends inwards,
are placed in a slight depression probably formed by the birds
themselves in the sand or gravel.

Resembles last, but much smaller, is a more inland bird, and has shaft of
first primary only white ; eyelids golden yellow ; legs and feet pale brown.
Length 6£ inches.

270 CIIARADRIID.E.

292. ^Eg-ialitis cantiana (Latham). The Kentish Plover.

Moorish. Bou-hejaira (father of stones, Fauier}. Spanish.
Charran, Andarios.

" This bird is very Abundant near Tangier, and generally found
at the mouths of rivers. Many are resident, those which are
migratory arriving during September and October, leaving north-
wards in March and April." — Favier.

The Kentish Plover is by far the most plentiful of the sea-
shore Waders on the Spanish side ; and they are always very
tame, being seldom molested by the Spaniards. The local name
of Charran, which I have heard for them near Gibraltar, signifies
a low unmitigated blackguard, and the application of which to
this harmless and charming bird is not easy to understand. This
name is also applied near Malaga to some species of Terns.

This little Plover is found throughout the year, but is most
abundant during the seasons of migration ; they are very active,
nimble little birds, running along the shore sometimes in front
and within a yard of one's horse's feet ; frequently running out
on the wet sand as one wave recedes, to rush back again as
another returns, like the Sanderling ; but they are much too
agile ever to be caught by the influx.

About the 20th of April they commence to lay their four stone -
coloured eggs, marked with black spots and streaks. Some regu-
larly breed on the dry sandy hillocks and banks near the mouth
of the First River (Guadarranque) ; but, like the other species of
jEgialitis, they frequently nest far away from the shore, as on the
dried mud of the marisma. Verner took four fresh eggs on the
9th of May, 1879, near Gibraltar, and he remarks that the
Kentish Plover in England nearly always lays only three eggs ;
that is to say, between 1885 and 1893, of many nests he saw
only one contained four eggs, and the fishermen about Dungeness,
who rob the nests for collectors, assert that three eggs and no
more is the invariable number.

Bill and legs black.

VANELLUS VULGARIS. 271

Male. Above hair-brown ; forehead white, black patch ' on fore crown ;
rest of crown and nape buff ; black line through eye from bill to ear-
coverts ; a black patch on each side of breast, not forming a collar ; rest of
underparts white.

Female. No black on fore crown, but that and crown uniform with the
back ; the patch on each side of breast same colour as back. Length
6 inches.

293. Vanellus vulgaris *, Bechstein. The Peewit, Lapwing,
or Green Plover.

Moorish. Biliat, El Thudi (the Jew). Spanish. Ave fria (cold
bird), Judia (Jewess).

" This Plover occurs near Tangier in abundant flocks throughout
the winter months, arriving from the north during October and
November, crossing back again to Europe in February and
March.

"The superstitious Arabs believe that these birds are Jews
changed into the shape of birds, and also believe that they still
retain all their Israelitish characteristics, even wearing the black
Hebrew skull-cap." — Favier. Hence the name " El Thudi."

We observed towards the end of April three or four pairs of
Peewits, which were nesting at the northern end of the lakes of
Ras el Doura. As we had not sufficient time to go further than
the commencement of these lakes, possibly many others were to
be found breeding still further south. The place where we saw
them was some eighty miles at the least to the south of Tangier.
On the Spanish side of the Straits very few, compared with their
numbers in winter, remain to breed in the marismas of the
Guadalquivir, where we found the nest with young on the 26th
of April. Curiously, none remain to breed about the Laguna de
la Janda, or, as far as could be ascertained, anywhere but in the
marisma. The majority of the Peewits arrive near Gibraltar

* This is an instance of abolishing the long-used and distinctive synonym
(cristatug) for a vague one, because of two years' priority.

272 CHARADKIID^E.

about the middle of October, and take their departure north
about the first week in March. During the winter they are to be
found on every level piece of ground ; and have occasionally been
seen on the green glacis of the batteries near the Alameda at
Gibraltar, and often noticed on the "North Front"; while at
times they are found on hill-sides at a considerable elevation if
there be any grassy and suitable open spot. They seem to be
more scattered and dispersed about than is usual in England,
although large flocks may sometimes be seen.

The Peewit used to be an unfailing source of diversion to the
British subaltern, and also to the " sportsman " of the Rock, who,
a marvel of leather straps, gaiters, bags — leather all over — used
to sally out of Gibraltar for a Sunday's shooting, accompanied
generally by a bob-tailed, mangy, lean, and hungry-looking
species of pointer — by appearance warranted to devour imme-
diately anything his master might kill ; but the unfortunate
animal probably seldom had the opportunity of having its
appetite so gratified.

Hind toe present and well developed.

Above glossy green ; crown, throat, and breast black ; crest of long
slender black feathers ; upper and under tail-coverts rufous ; legs flesh-
coloured.

Young. Crest short ; feathers above with buff edges ; legs dark brown.
Length 13 inches.

294. Vanellus gregrarius (Pallas). The Black-bellied
Lapwing1.

Mr. Saunders mentions having seen one specimen of this
Lapwing hanging up in Cadiz market, whilst Arevalo records
some from near Malaga.

Is an eastern bird, having the gregarious habits of the Golden
Plover. When on the wing the white secondaries show
markedly.

Secondaries entirely white ; shortest primaries black on the outer webs
and white on the inner webs ; hind toe present. Length 13 inches.

STREPSILAS INTERrRES. 273

Adult. Crown black, bordered below by a broad white stripe above eye
to nape ; belly black, bordered below with chestnut to the vent.

Young. Crown dark brown ; band from forehead to nape buffish white ;
breast white, marked with dark brown.

295. Hsematopus ostralegus, Linnaeus. The Oystercatcher.

Moorish. Aisha el behar (Favier) (the pied one of the sea)
Spanish. Ostrero (Arevalo).

" This species is found near Tangier on passage, passing north
during April and May, and returning in October." — Favier.

Favier also states that the Oystercatchers sometimes remain to
nest. Very possibly this is the case ; but the eggs which were
marked as " Oystercatcher's " by him were to all appearance those
of the Stone-Curlew.

On the Spanish side this bird is not at all numerous near
Gibraltar, and appears irregularly from autumn to spring, the
latest recorded was one observed by Lord Lilford on the 5th of
May near the mouth of the Guadalquivir.

No hind toe ; bill yellow, longer than head.

Plumage black and white ; head, neck, scapulars, and terminal half of
tail black ; rump, upper tail-coverts, and axillaries white ; legs pink ;
eyelids crimson. Length 16 inches.

296. Strepsilas interpres (Linnaeus). The Turnstone.

Moorish. Shorno (Favier). Spanish. Revuelve-piedras (Malaga)
(Arevalo).

" This bird is not numerous, being found near Tangier on the
coast and sometimes on the edges of freshwater lakes. They are
more abundant near Rabat. Arriving from the north in
September, they return in February." — Favier.

The Turnstone is found on the Spanish coast in autumn and
spring. I never saw them in any numbers, and chiefly observed
them about the end of March, occasionally in company with the
Ringed Plover.

274

Hind toe present ; bill black, strong, straight, and pointed, shorter than
head ; chin and throat pure white.

In spring. Back and wings marked with chestnut and black ; loicer back
and rump ichite, the latter crossed by a black band ; legs and feet orange-
red.

In winter, chestnut colour absent ; legs pale red. Length 9^ inches.

SCOLOPACIDJE.

297. Recurvirostra avocetta, Linnaeus. The Avocet.

Moorish. Bou-am-hait. Spanish. Avoceta.

" This species is not common in the vicinity of Tangier, being
only met with on passage, on the edges of rivers and lakes, in
small flights, which pass northwards during March, April, and
May and return south in November." — Favier.

I never met with the Avocet near Gibraltar. In some seasons
many nest in some parts of the marismas during the month of
May, and specimens of both eggs and birds are occasionally
brought into Seville.

Bill black, curved upwards and pointed.

White, except crown to below eye, hind neck, primaries, and some of
the inner secondaries and wing-coverts, which are black ; legs and the
partially webbed feet light blue ; iris red.

Young. Crown and hind neck brown. Length 18 inches.

298. Himantopus candidus, Bonnaterre. The Black-winged

Stilt.

Moorish. Bou-ksaiba (Favier) *. Spanish. Cigiienela.

" This bird is not found close to Tangier, but frequents fresh-
water lakes further south, where many remain for the breeding-
saason; others, arriving during the month of April, pass on
northwards and return in November. They appear to migrate
by night." — Favier.

* " Ksaiba " is diminutive of " Kaaba," a reed, and probabty applies to the thin
legs of this Stilt, not to their aquatic habits.

PIIALAROPUS FULICARIUS. 275

This Stilt is, in spring, one of the most common of the marsh-
birds on both sides of the Straits. At Meshree el Haddar, in
Morocco, and in the marisma of the Guadalquivir their numbers
were perfectly marvellous. In some seasons they have nested at
the Laguna de la Janda. They frequent open shallow pools and
lakes, and are very seldom seen where there is grass or rushes,
being, as a rule, very tame and confiding ; while their
conspicuous black-and-white plumage and noisy habits render
them certain to attract attention, either as they fly with their
long pink legs stretched out, Heron-like, behind them, or as they
wade about, usually up to their knees, in the shallow water,
where they seek their food in the shape of aquatic insects, gnats,
and flies.

The Black-winged Stilt is almost entirely migratory ; but in
some years a few undoubtedly remain in Spain throughout the
winter, as I have seen small lots on the 26th and 27th of
November in different years, many on the 22nd of December,
and others on the 14th of January. The chief number appear
towards the end of March and beginning of April ; and they are
then not (infrequently seen near Gibraltar at the mouths of various
rivers, but soon pass on to their breeding-places, where they nest
in colonies and deposit their four eggs on the half-dried mud.
I have seen eggs as early as the 28th of April; but the majority
lay about the 10th of May.

Bill black, twice as long as head, slender, straight, and ointed ; hind
toe absent ; nape, upper hind neck, wings, and back black ; underparts
white ; legs pale pink, about 4^ inches long.

Old males have pure white heads. Length 13 inches.

299. Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus). The Lobed-footed
Stint or Grey Phalarope *.

Favier mentions only two specimens of this bird as having been

* " Phalarope," like " Hemipode," is an Anglicized compound name only-
understood by ornithologists. An English name, as used by Jerdon, is more
intelligible to the world in general.

T2

276

obtained by him near Tangier, in December, 1858. Mr. Drake
also refers to this Phalarope as having been shot near Tangier
during the month of January ; and others have since occurred.

On the Spanish side one was killed on 29th of November,
1872, others on the 4th of December, 1875, and they occur
irregularly, as in England, sometimes in numbers.

These birds never appear to go on the land except to nest, and
are always seen swimming, often far at sea.

Front toes as in next species lobed, like a Coot.
Bill short and wide ; tail graduated.
In summer. Below chestnut.

In winter. Forehead and crown white ; grey nape, white wing-bar f
below white. Length 8 inches.

300. Scolopax rusticula, Linnaeus. The Woodcock.

Moorish. Hejel el himar (red partridge), Khadim el ajel (the
servant of haste), Bou-monkar (Father of the bill), applied to all
long-billed birds. Andalucian. Gallineta. Spanish. Chocha.

The Woodcock, according to Favier, is " not abundant around
Tangier, arriving during November and departing in March."

Uncertain, both in numbers and as to time of arrival near
Gibraltar, in some seasons Woodcocks are tolerably plentiful, as
in 1873 ; in others, as in the winter of 1871-72, they are very
scarce. Five or six couple in the day for two guns is a very fair
bag ; but there was an instance of a Spanish cazador bagging
twenty-one in a day near Algeciraz ; those who wish for good
Woodcock - shooting had better not try either Andalucia or
Morocco, but go to the east of the Mediterranean.

My earliest note of the arrival of a Woodcock about Gibraltar
was on the 17th of October, but very few arrive until the middle
of November. The latest noticed was on the 8th of March ; but
I have seen them in Seville market on the 22nd of that month.
I obtained near that city a fine white variety, which is now in
the Norwich Museum.

Second-hand information is not always trustworthy, but the

GALLLYAGO MAJOR. 277

postmaster at San Roque, the late Mr. Macrae, an official well
known in those clays to the garrison of Gibraltar, and upon whose
veracity and knowledge of the bird I can depend, told me that
once, and only once, he saw at break of day a regular flight, or
what the Spaniards would call a " band " of Woodcocks passing
south. He described them as being about twenty or thirty in
number, but the light was so dim he could not see where they
went to.

Feathers on breast barred ; sixteen tail-feathers with silvery-white tips
on underside ; greyish tips above. Length 13 inches.

301. Gallinag-o major (J. F. Gmelin). The Great or Solitary
Snipe.

Spanish. Agachadiza real.

Favier only mentions a single specimen of this Snipe as having
been obtained by him near Tangier, in 1859. It is, however,
included in Mr. Drake's list, ' Ibis,' 1869, p. 153, as twice noticed
in March.

The Great Snipe is only met with near Gibraltar on passage,
" here to-day, gone to-morrow." I saw two and shot one at
Casas Viejas on the 24th of October, 1868 ; one was killed near
Gibraltar on the 17th of October, 1871 ; and I know of another
obtained in April. It is there a well-known bird, but, passing
north late in April and early in May, and returning again in
September and October, is not very liable to be noticed; and
probably their chief line of migration lies more to the eastward.

This Snipe is usually very tame, and, lying closely, shows the
external white feathers of the tail very much when rising ; and
generally alights again within a short distance, never uttering
any sound.

Belly barred to the vent ; sixteen tail-feathers, lower half of the four
outside pairs white in adults, white with brown bar in young. Length
inches.

278 SCOLOPACID.E.

302. Gallinag-o coelestis (Frenzel). Tlie Common Snipe.

Moorish. Bon monkar (Father of the bill). Spanish. Near
Gibraltar, Agachadiza ; further north, Agachona ; near Malaga,
Agachadera.

Favier remarks that on the African side " the Common Snipe
is fonnd very plentiful around Tangier from the month of October
until February," which may be said of them likewise as regards
the Spanish side of the Straits ; and although better sport is to
be had with this (in a sporting sense) king of birds on the
Moorish side, the amusement is, as has been already stated,
greatly reduced by the want of accommodation and utter absence
of comfort ; not that there is much of the latter in many places
on the Andalucian side. At Casas Viejas, Snipe sometimes
arrive as early as the beginning of September. I have heard of
a straggler during August (one was shot by Verner in the Soto
Malabrigo on the 21st of that month in 1879), but the greater
quantity do not put in an appearance till the end of October and
the first week in November. They commence their departure
in March ; and by the first week in April all have disappeared
except a stray loiterer, perhaps a wounded bird. We noticed
one as late as the 3rd of May, having observed it for several days
previously in the same situation, and would not shoot it, wishing
to see how long it would remain : this bird did not appear to
have anything the matter with it. I never heard the drumming
noise of the Snipe in Andulacia — though at home in England I
have occasionally heard them drumming of an evening in the
New Forest as early as the 20th of January, the weather then
being unusually mild, and the place where they were heard
being their regular nesting-ground.

I have often noticed that, in the marshes both in Morocco and
Andalucia, the best ground for Snipe was a spot where sedges
and rushes had been burnt during the summer ; but the conse-
quent absence of cover in these places rendered it useless to try
and walk up to the birds, and the only way was to stand or sit

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GALLIXAGO GALLINULA. 279

perfectly still in the most favourite spot and await their return.
I have more than once taken a chair down and sat in it, waiting
for their flight overhead, much to the astonishment of the native
population, who could not understand such a proceeding.

Varieties or races of this species, varying in size and colour,
have been named russata, delamottii, and brehmi; but it is
difficult to perceive any distinction, as these varieties are not
constant. " Sabine's Snipe " is merely a dark variety.

Axillaries white, barred with blackish grey ; tail-feathers fourteen.
Length 10^ inches.

303. Gallinago gallinula (Linnaeus). The Jacksnipe.

Moorish. Saiga (Favier).

This bird is stated by Favier to be " nearly as common in the
winter months around Tangier as the Common Snipe, arriving
during November, and departing northwards in February."

On the Spanish side of the Straits the Jacksnipe is generally
distributed throughout the winter, and is extremely numerous
about some favourite black muddy spots at Casas Yiejas and in
the " ojos," or land-springs, at the edges of the marisma, but is
by no means so plentiful as the Common Snipe. Towards the
end of February, Jacksnipes assemble together very much ; and
this gathering of them is a sure prelude to the general departure
of most of the Snipes for the north. The greatest number of the
present species that I ever saw anywhere was in some of the
" ojos " westward of Coria del Rio, near Seville ; these circular
spots, about ten yards in diameter, were very muddy and sparingly
covered with short sedge. Many of them held fifteen or a dozen
Jacksnipe ; and the often-cited, and perhaps imaginary, individual
who is said to have found a single Jacksnipe afford him sport for
months until his friend unluckily killed it, would here, indeed,
have been in happy hunting-grounds.

I could not ascertain any good local Andalucian name for this
bird. I have heard some ; but they were too absurd and varied

280 SCOLOPACID^E.

to repeat. The Jacksnipe is said occasionally to arrive in Anda-
lucia towards the end of September ; but my two earliest notes of
their arrival are the 24th and the 27th of October near Seville.

Purple gloss on back ; axillaries white ; tail-feathers twelve, centre pair
longer than the rest. Length 1\ inches.

304. Calidris arenaria (Linnaeus). The Sanderling1.
Spanish. Churrilla de tres dedos (Malaga) (Arevalo).

" This bird is abundant during migration near Tangier in small
flocks along the coast, crossing the Straits during March, April,
and May ; they are found returning south as late as December.
I found numbers near Tetuan in February 1848 at the mouth of
the river, where they are known to the Moors under the name of
Medrouan." — Favier.

On the African side we saw large flights of Sanderlings early
in April between Tetuan and Ceuta. On the Spanish side they
are common from autumn to spring along the sea-shore ; the
latest noticed was during the first week in May.

Legs and bill black ; bill as long as the head and straight; no hind toe.

In spring. Upper parts rufous and black; head, throat, and upper breast
rufous, marked with black.

In winter. Grey above, white below ; rump ashy grey ; bill as long as
the head. Length 8 inches.

305. Tring-a subarquata, Giildenstadt. The Curlew Sand-

piper.

All that Favier has in his MS. relative to this bird is that it
" passes near Tangier during the month of April, returning south
in September."

I never obtained the Curlew Sandpiper on the autumnal
passage ; but in some years vast numbers passed at Gibraltar
towards the end of April, usually in lots of from ten to twenty
in number ; they were occasionally mixed up with Dunlins, and
were chiefly to be seen at the mouths of rivers, particularly about
Palmones, where one was shot with the first primary in each wing

TRINGA ALPINA. 281

white. When flying they are easily distinguished by the white
rump, which is then very conspicuous. They are in good red or
breeding-plumage by the 26th of April ; that is to say, the male
birds are ; but the females are slower in assuming this dress, and
probably never become as bright as their mates. About Gibraltar
this Sandpiper and others bear the trivial name " pitillo." Lord
Lilford informs me that he met with the present species at the
same place and time as the Knots, and in equal numbers.
Curiously, during that spring, Curlew Sandpipers were unusually
abundant near Gibraltar, but not a single Knot did I obtain or
see. There is, however, not very much ground suitable for the
various species of Tringa in the vicinity of the Kock.

Bill curved downwards ; rump white.

In spring. General colour dark reddish chestnut, marked above with
blackish.

In autumn. General colour grey above; below white. Length 7 inches.

306. Tringa canutus, Linnaeus. The Knot.

Favier merely remarks of this species that they " pass near
Tangier in June." If such be the case, it must be very early in
that month. The Knot is somewhat irregular in appearance
about the vicinity of Gibraltar ; and I have rarely met wdth any,
and the few seen have only occurred in April and May. Lord
Lilford, however, found them in countless numbers about the
10th of May near the edge of the Goto de Donana. They were
at that time in their fine red or summer plumage, and doubtless
en route to their breeding-grounds in the extreme north.

Bill black, quite straight, longer than head.

Plumage changes much as in last, but the red is not so dark ; rump and
upper tail-coverts whitish, barred with blackish ; legs and feet black.
Length 10 inches.

Young. Feathers on back bordered with dark bars, tipped with buffy
white ; below tinged with buff; legs and feet yellowish green.

307. Tringa alpina, Linnaeus. The Dunlin.

Favier remarks that the Dunlin " passes to Europe from the

SCOLOPACID.E.

Moorish coast during the months of April, May, and June, re-
turning to winter further south in October and November."

This well-known species, however, is to be seen throughout
the winter near Gibraltar, sometimes in considerable numbers.
Occasionally they wander far up the rivers some distance from
the sea, especially in the spring.

The majority of these Dunlins arrive in flocks about April
and May, when they have assumed their full summer dress with
black breasts.

Mr. Chapman found a nest of the Dunlin in the marisma
containing four eggs.

Bill very slightly bent down towards the tip and longer than head ; bill,
legs, and feet black.

Summer. Belly black; general colour above reddish brown, marked with
black.

Winter. Belly white. General colour above ashy grey. Length
8 inches.

308. Tringa striata, Linnaeus. The Purple Sandpiper.

This species, which might perhaps be well termed the Rock-
Sandpiper, from the habit of frequenting rocky and stony coasts,
is altogether omitted by Favier as a Moorish bird.

They are not common in autumn and spring.

Bill as in Dunlin, but base dull yellow.

Rump and upper tail-coverts nearly black, with a purplish tinge; seventh
to ninth secondaries nearly white ; legs rather short and dull yellow.
Length 8 inches.

Young have feathers above with white margins.

309. Tringa mirmta, Leisler. The Little Stint.

This small Sandpiper is not mentioned by Favier as occurring
on the Moorish coast ; but is found there from autumn to spring,
and we fell in with vast flocks at Meshree el Haddar on the 26th
of April in company with Dunlins and Ringed Plovers ; they had
then attained their full breeding-dress. Mr. Irby, 60th Rifles,
obtained them at Tangier on the 18th of March, 1894.

MACHETES PUGNAX. 283

On the Spanish side, the Little Stint occurs in like manner ;
but I never saw any large numbers near Gibraltar.

Plumage above much as in Dunlin both in summer and winter, but bill
quite straight.

Outer tail-feathers ashy brown ; legs and feet black. Length 6 inches.

310. Tringa temmincki, Leisler. Temminck's Stint.

This Stint is not referred to by Favier or recorded by Mr.
Drake as occurring on the African side of the Straits, where,
however, they are of course to be found as on the Spanish side,
being common there during the winter and found in small parties
of from six to a dozen or more in number. They keep much to
the muddy banks of tidal rivers, especially frequenting the
salinas, or salt-pits ; a sure locality for them used to be the
abandoned or unused salinas near Palmones, between Algeciraz
and Gibraltar, and they are very seldom seen alone, being usually
tame and easy to obtain. I failed to observe any later than the
month of March ; but no doubt they further prolong their stay in
southern parts.

Bill straight ; legs and feet greenish brown.
Outer tail-feathers pure white. Length of inches.

311. Machetes pugnax (Linnaeus). The Ruff (male). The

Reeve (female).

Moorish. Habeeb el tchibeeb (the friend of the Godwit).

" This species is only observed near Tangier when on migration,
crossing to Europe during March, returning in July, August, and
September. Those which return in the last days of July still
exhibit traces of the breeding-plumage." — Favier.

The greater number of Ruffs pass northwards through Anda-
lucia in April; but flocks occasionally occur during January,
February, and March, some passing as late as the last week in
May. The males, or " Ruffs," are then in their inconvenient-
looking nuptial plumage, but they have not yet been detected
nesting so far south.

284 SCOLOPACID.E.

Axillaries white, no white on primaries, secondaries, or central upper
tail-coverts ; outside tail-feathers mottled ; hill straight, as long as head.

Male in spring. With a ruff of various shades from black to pure white
and chestnut.

Female, and male in winter. Without ruff. Legs yellowish brown.
Length : male 12^ inches, female

312. Totanus ochropus (Linnaeus). The Green Sandpiper.

Spanish. Lavandera.

" This species is not uncommon in winter around Tangier,
frequenting the edges of lakes and the banks of rivers alone or
in pairs. They depart northwards during February and March,
reappearing by August and September." — Favier.

The Green Sandpiper, a bird in which I have from my boyish
days in Norfolk always taken a special interest, is in Anda-
lucia, as in England, extremely irregular and uncertain in its
movements, changing its ground continually, and fluctuating
greatly in numbers ; days elapse without seeing a single bird,
and suddenly several appear, but are seldom observed in any
greater number than two or three together ; generally they are
solitary in their habits, and without exception frequent shores of
freshwater lakes, ponds, and streams. The loud note of this
Sandpiper and the white tail-coverts, which show markedly on
the wing, can hardly fail to cause recognition. The curious
fact of their nidification on trees in old nests of other birds
has probably led to their nests in many countries being over-
looked ; and who can tell that they may not yet be found
breeding in Andalucia 1

The Green Sandpiper is most common in the winter months
near Gibraltar ; and the only month in which I have not seen
any has been July ; but then I had no opportunity of so doing.
This Sandpiper always has a musky odour.

Bill straight, longer than head, as in the genus Totanus.

Above greenish brown, with minute white spots ; below white ; rump
and outer tail-feathers on each side white ; axillaries brownish black, with
narrow white bars ; legs dark green. Length 9| inches.

TOTANUS HYPOLEUC'US. 285

313. Totanus glareola (J. F. Gmelin). The Wood-Sandpiper,
This bird is not noticed by Favier as occurring in Morocco ;

but there were plenty to be seen towards the end of April at the
lakes of Ras el Doura and other swamps in that country ; and
near Gibraltar I have observed them frequently on passage from
the 9th of March to the beginning of the month of May.

Being, as far as my observations go, entirely a freshwater
Sandpiper, the species most resembles in habits the Marsh-
Sandpiper (T. stagnatilis).

Above greenish brown, each feather margined with buffy-white spots ;
upper tail-coverts white ; axillaries white, sometimes with a few dusky
bars ; legs pale olive, 1^ inches long. Length 7£ inches.

314. Totanus hypoleucus (Linnaeus). The Common Sand-

piper.

Spanish. Lavandera chica.

" This is the most common of the Sandpipers around Tangier,
passing north during April and May. They are seen returning
in August, September, and October." — Favier.

The Common Sandpiper in Andalucia prefers the banks of
running streams and salt or tidal marshes, being not much
noticed in freshwater marshes or about stagnant pools. Near
Gibraltar, particularly when on passage in spring, they greatly
frequent the sea-coast wherever there is much seaweed thrown
up by the tide ; and I have repeatedly observed them on rocks,
like the Purple Sandpiper.

The present species swarms about the Straits in March and
April, passing in lots of four or five together. I have no record
of any in November, but saw one on the 24th of October and
one on the 7th of December ; they are not abundant in spring
until the month of March, their passage being at its height about
the 15th of April. Though I never succeeded in finding a nest,
am positive some remain to breed, as in the end of May,
near the mouth of the Guadiaro, a pair, from their manner,

286- SCOLOPACID^.

were certainly nesting ; but all my efforts to discover the situation
were futile. Arevalo says they breed in Andalucia.

Above greenish brown ; axillaries white ; secondaries brown, with white
bases and tips. Length 7| inches.

315. Totanus cinereus (Gtildenstadt). The Terek Sandpiper.

This bird has been once obtained near Malaga. Is a fresh-
water Sandpiper, and an Eastern species, ranging to in winter as
far south as S. Africa and Australia.

Bill slightly turned up, as in Greensbank; secondaries marked with
white ; axillaries white. Length 8£ inches.

316. Totanus stagnating, Bechstein. The Marsh-Sandpiper

or Lesser Greenshank.

This eastern species has been obtained near Malaga and
Valencia (Arevalo).

Is a freshwater Sandpiper, and a miniature Greenshank, having grey
secondaries, but a straight bill. Length 10 inches.

317. Totanus oanesoens (J. F. Gmelin). The Greenshank.

All that Favier has to say of this bird is that it is met with on
passage, " returning south during the month of October to winter
probably in the interior of Africa " ; and as the Greenshank is
recorded by Andersson as common in Damara Land, Favier was
not much out in his supposition. He does not, however, mention
the date of its vernal migration, which takes place in March,
April, and May, the birds being most frequently seen during the
latter month, and the latest recorded by me was the 22nd of
May. I have also noticed them in November and January, but
never in any numbers ; in all probability their chief line of
migration lies further to the east.

The Greenshank is a very noisy bird, and sure to attract notice
by its loud whistling cry, which, as is well known, consists of two
notes.

TOTANUS FUSCUS. 287

Secondaries uniform grey ; bill black, longer than 'head, and slightly
turned upwards ; legs olive-green.

In breeding-season has blackish marks on back and black spots on flanks,
most developed in the female. Length 13-14 inches.

318. Totanus calidris (Linnaeus). The Common Redshank.
Andalucian. Archibebe.

Favier states that " this Redshank is very abundant near
Tangier, in small lots, which frequent the edges of rivers and
lakes, and mostly pass northwards during March and April,
returning to remain for the winter in September and October.
Some, however, remain in the country for the breeding-season.''

We found the Common Redshank in some numbers at the
lakes of Ras el Doura towards the end of April ; and they were
then evidently beginning to nest, but were not in anything like
the quantity which breed in some parts of the marisma of the
Guadalquivir, where they breed a little later than the Peewit,
which is there the earliest marsh-nesting bird. In Andalucia
this Redshank is, though frequently seen in winter, and much
too often for the sportsman, chiefly migratory, passing north in
great abundance mostly towards the middle of April, when many
are to be seen and heard shrieking out their three notes about
the old salinas or abandoned salt-pits at Palmones, near Gibraltar ;
and a great many fall victims, to appear ultimately in the market ;
but they are quite unfit to eat.

Secondaries, axillaries, and upper tail-coverts white; legs and feet red in
adults, yellowish in young. Length 10-11 inches.

319. Totanus fuscus (Linnaeus). The Dusky Redshank.

Favier's notes relative to this species are as follows : — " Fre-
quents the vicinity of salt marshes near Tangier during the
months of September and October " ; but the brevity of his
remarks on most of the Waders and aquatic birds would lead
one to suspect that Favier, like many other Frenchmen and all
Spaniards, had a cat-like antipathy to water.

288

On the Spanish side of the Straits I never shot a specimen of
the Dusky Redshank ; but it occasionally occurs in spring and
autumn. Their whistle is a single note.

Larger than last ; secondaries white, barred with grey ; upper tail-coverts
white, barred with blackish brown ; legs red. Length 12 inches.

320. Limosa lapponica (Linnseus). The Bar-tailed Godwit.

Moorish. Tchibeeb (Favier).

" This species is, during passage, nearly as numerous in the
vicinity of Tangier as L. cegocephala. They arrive from the
north during September, and, passing on further south, return
and cross over to Europe during the months of February, March,
and April. The chasseurs of Larache call this Godwit Bou-
meraisa indiscriminately with the other species." — Favier.

The Bar-tailed Godwit, chiefly from frequenting salt-marshes
and estuaries of rivers, is not noticed near Gibraltar in such
numbers as the larger Black-tailed Godwit, and is only observed
on passage. The latest date I have of seeing them in spring
was on the 10th of May ; and the earliest date of their appearance
recorded in autumn was the 21st of September; but no doubt
they pass much sooner than this. I did not observe any during
the winter months.

Bill as in next species very long.

Rump nearly white ; axillaries barred with black and white ; tail barred
in spring and in young birds ; adults in winter have tail ash-grey, marbled
at the base, long tail-coverts barred.

Female Godwits much larger than males.

In summer. Below pale red, darker in male.

In winter. Below white, above greyish brown ; feathers with dark shaft-
streaks. Length 15-16 inches.

321. Limosa belgica (J. F. Gmelin). Tlie Black - tailed

Godwit.

Moorish. Tchibeeb (Favier). Andalucian. Abujeta, Sarseruelo.

" This Godwit is found on passage near Tangier in abundant

flocks, migrating to the north during the months of February and

LIMOSA BELGICA. 289

March ; they are observed returning in August and September."
— Favier.

Favier also further asserts that this species occasionally remains
to breed in Morocco — a statement which sounds improbable, and
therefore to be received with reserve, though it would not perhaps
be more surprising than the fact of the Crane, Peewit, and the
Dunlin nesting so far south as they have been proved to do.

The Black-tailed Godwit appears in Andalucia during February,
in bands of from four or five to as many as two or three hundred,
frequenting the grassy marshes or rather inundated ground about
Casas Viejas and the marisma. They are very restless, and
continually on the move, uttering their loud cries. As they are
usually rather wary and difficult to get a shot at, the best chance
of obtaining any is either to lie up for them, or, in Spanish
fashion, to use a stalking-horse. Their numbers vary considerably
in different years ; and they do not seem to stay long in the same
district, as some hundreds may be noticed one day and hardly
any on the next. The passage continues far into the month of
March, by which time they are well advanced in their rufous
breeding-plumage ; and this ruddy appearance shows much when
they are on the wing. The earliest assumption of this dress was
observed on the 24th of February. Immense quantities are
brought into Seville market for sale during March ; and the
latest seen there was on the 6th of April. In that district their
local name is Sarseruelo ; but about Casas Viejas they are known
as Abujeta, evidently a word of Moorish origin.

They are excellent eating and fully deserve the derivation
which has been given of their English name " Godwit," i. e.
good food (from " good," and " wihta," animal).

I have no note of their autumnal migration ; but occasionally
they are met with in winter, usually solitary birds, as I killed
one on the 5th of December at Tapatanilla, and have seen others
now and then obtained in January.

Larger than last ; upper tail-coverts white ; tail black, with white base ;

U

290 SCOLOPACID.E.

white bar across wing ; axillaries white, but sometimes barred with
brown.

In summer. Breast reddish, belly white, barred with blackish brown.

In winter. Ashy brown above, beloAv greyish white. Length 16-20
inches.

322. Numenius arquata (Linnaeus). The Common Curlew.

Moorish. Bou-khalal (Father of the toothpick or pin). Spanish.
Zarapito.

"This bird is, near Tangier, only a winter resident, which
arrives in September and October and leaves during March.
They frequent the mouths of rivers and the sea-shore in large-
numbers, but they are very wild and difficult to get a shot at."
— Favier.

When at Larache towards the end of April I observed several
Common Curlews ; and a Spaniard who resided there asserted
that they nested near the town. No doubt if any Curlew breeds
there it would be the next small species.

The Common Curlew is very plentiful near Gibraltar during the
winter months, being, perhaps, most frequent in February ; but is
very wary, as everywhere else in the world that I have met with it.

Bill as in next three species, very long and curved downwards.
Crown pale brown, regularly streaked with dark brown; axillaries white,
barred with dark brown; rump paler than back. Length 21-26 inches.

323. Numenius tenuirostris, Vieillot. The Mediterranean

Curlew.

This small Curlew is said to occur in spring and autumn about
the Straits. I never met with any, but Arevalo records them
from the Province of Malaga.

Capt. Savile Reid mentions ('Ibis,' 1885) that this bird was
abundant during the winter of 1884-85 in the Laraish Valley, in
flocks of from twenty to a hundred. He obtained specimens
there, and also saw numerous flights at Meshree el Haddar ; he

LAKID.E. 291

further describes the note as resembling that of the Common
Curlew, " but not so loud or musical."

Crown uniformly striated, no pale streak ; axillaries white ; flanks marked
with conspicuous dark pear-shaped spots. About size of the Whimbrel.

324. Numenius phseopus (Linnaeus) . The "Whimbrel.
Favier's notes on this species are the same as on the Curlew,

except that he adds " this bird arrives earlier from the north, and
though very common, does not remain in the neighbourhood of
Tangier for the winter, but passes on further south."

On the Spanish side of the Straits, the Whimbrel, plentiful in
autumn and spring up to the end of April, is occasionally seen
in winter; and, as elsewhere, is far less wary and difficult to
approach than the Curlew.

Crown dark brown, with pale streak along the top ; in some young birds
this streak is almost obsolete, and the brown on head has a glossy sheen ;
axillaries white, barred more or less with brown. Length 16-18 inches.

325. Numenius hudsonicus, Latham. The American Whim-
brel.

A specimen of this Whimbrel was obtained by Lord Lilford in
the Coto de Donana on the 3rd of May, 1872 (' Ibis,' 1873,
p. 98).

About size of the last. Crown pale brown, with pale streak along the
centre ; axillaries rufous.

Order GAVIJ3. Family LARIDJE.

Subfamily STERNIN^E. Legs and feet small and weak ;
bill as long as or longer than head.

326. Hydrochelidon nigra (Linnaeus). The Black Tern.
Spanish. Cencerillo, Paino.

" This Tern is abundant near Tangier when on passage,
crossing the Straits in large nights during May, and returning in

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292 LARID.E.

September and October. They are not seen in the winter
months." — Favier.

The Black Tern, on the Spanish side, begins to appear about
the end of April. Is rather later than the Whiskered Tern,
nesting also later in the same situations as that species, but not
in such numbers. I have noticed quantities crossing the Straits
on the 10th of May, and they are often seen on arrival, hawking
about over cornfields and low ground near water.

Head, neck, breast, and belly black ; vent and under tail-coverts white ;
under wing-coverts pale grey ; rest of plumage slate-grey ; bill black; legs
reddish brown. Length 10 inches.

Autumn. Forehead, throat, and nape white ; below barred with white.

327. Hydrochelidon leucoptera (Schinz). The White-winged

Black Tern.

On the African side the only instance recorded of the occur-
rence of this bird is a single specimen shot in May, 1869, at Sharf
el Akab, near Tangier. It is not included in Favier's list ; and
we never met with any on either side of the Straits, but three
shot in the marisma are in Lord Lilford's collection ; probably
they rarely wander so far west. I have several times imagined
that I saw some, but upon shooting the birds found them to be
fine old H. hybrida, which, when flying in the bright sunshine
and showing the blackish belly, is very apt to be mistaken for
the present species.

Head, neck, underparts, and under wing-coverts black ; vent, tail, and
tail-coverts white ; bill dark red ; legs scarlet. Length 9^ inches.

328. Hydrochelidon hybrida (Pallas). The Whiskered Tern.
Spanish. Paino mayor (Malaga) (Arevalo).

11 This Tern is scarce near Tangier, and seen only on passage
during April, returning south in August. Immense numbers are
found breeding at the lakes of Eas el Doura, where, nesting
together in vast colonies, they bear the local name of Mershifc."
— Favier.

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STERNA ANGLICA. 293

On the Spanish side the Whiskered Tern arrives about the
middle of April, and is only seen near Gibraltar on migration.
Hovering over every swamp and wet spot, they soon pass on
to their breeding-haunts in the Laguna de la Janda and the
marisma, where, among rushes and sedges, they nest about the
middle of May in colonies. Like other Terns, they lay three
eggs ; of a pale green ground-colour, with variable markings of
blackish brown.

I saw a large flock of these Terns on the sea near Cadiz on
the 18th of July. Verner visited a breeding-colony of these
birds at La Janda on the 7th of May, 1875, and found several
hundred nests floating on the top of the water ; they were simple
platforms of reeds and rushes, and were kept from drifting to
some extent by the young rushes growing up in the water. Only
two nests contained a single egg. Five days later over thirty
nests had eggs. In the interval between the visits a strong wind
had arisen and blown many of the Terns' nests along the water
till they were packed in a dense mass on the lee side of the
laguna.

Forehead, crown, and nape black ; chin and sides of neck white ; belly
very dark brown, almost black; rest of plumage grey or white; under wing-
coverts white; bill dark red; legs vermilion. Length 11^ inches.

329. Sterna ang-lica, Montagu. The Gull-billed Tern.

Spanish. Cagalo (Arevalo).

Strangely enough, no mention is made of this Tern in Favier's
MS.; but we found them in great numbers about the lakes of
Ras el Doura towards the end of April. As far as we could
ascertain from the Arabs, they said that these birds remained in
the neighbourhood and bred a little later on in the season.
Essentially a freshwater or marsh-frequenting species, I never
noticed the Gull-billed Tern on the sea-coast. Some of those
we shot had been feeding on green frogs ; their note, loud and
frequently repeated, is (as near as I can render it) Jcuh-wuJc,
kuh-wuk. I never noticed the present species about Gibraltar,

294 LARID.E.

but it occurs in the marshes of the Guadalquivir towards San
Lucar, breeding there in considerable numbers, and its eggs from
thence have been supposed to belong to Larus melanocephalus.

Head and bill black; lower mandible slightly angnlated or "Gull-billed";
tail bluish grey. Length 13-14 inches.

330. Sterna caspia, Pallas. The Caspian Tern.
Spanish for all Terns. Golondrina de mar.

This large Tern is stated by Favier to be " very rare near
Tangier," he having only obtained a single specimen (in February,
1844), which occurrence I can supplement by one which occurred
in the winter of 1869.

Near Gibraltar I did not meet with any, though two were
obtained by Lord Lilford near the Isla Menor, below Seville, in
April, 1883. They are only accidental stragglers so far west, but
further east in Spain, near Mar Menor, they are reported by
Guirao to be common.

The largest of the Terns.

Head black ; tail white ; bill coral-red, dark at tip; legs black. Length
19-21 inches.

331. Sterna maxima, Boddaert. The Royal Tern.

This Sea-Tern was once obtained by Favier in the Straits and
is described in his MS. The specimen, which I purchased from
his successor, was an adult bird in winter plumage, and is now in
the possession of Lord Lilford. Two specimens shot near Tangier
in December, 1882, are in Mr. J. J. Dalgleish's collection, to
wbom I am obliged for this information.

Crown black and slightly crested ; bill orange-red. Length 19 inches.

332. Sterna cantiaca, J. F. Gmelin. The Sandwich Tern.

Spanish. Charran (Malaga) (Arevalo).

" This Tern is seen near Tangier in abundant flocks from
November to February." — Favier.

STERXA MACKURA. 295

They were very numerous at the mouth of the river at Larache
during April.

The Sandwich Tern is very common in the Straits in autumn,
winter, and spring. Sometimes thirty or forty may be noticed
sitting together on the small isolated rocks near Cabrita Point,
and will allow a boat to approach within a few yards. They pass
north about the first week in April, when I killed an old male
tinted on the breast and under wing-coverts with a beautiful
pink blush, just as is sometimes found in the spring on old males
of the Brown-headed Gull (Lanes ridilundus). They nest in
the marisma and, according to Arevalo, near Malaga.

Head black ; tail white ; bill black, with yellow tip ; legs black. Length
15 inches.

333. Sterna media, Horsfield. The Allied Tern.

" This species is one of the least common of the Terns near
Tangier, and only occasionally met with. Further south, in the
vicinity of Larache, it is more frequently seen ; and I found it
there during September, October, and November, in company
with S. cantiaca, which species it resembles in habits." — Favier.

This Tern occurs in the Straits in spring. Two, both males,
were shot near Tarifa on the 20th of April, 1873, and many have
been obtained near Tangier. Probably they breed on the coast.

This bird is very much like the Sandwich Tern (S. cantiaca), but is a
trifle larger and has the bill yellow. I found, on comparing male specimens
shot on the same day, that it differs from that species also in having the bill
stouter in proportion, and the lower mandible slightly angulated, or " Gull-
billed." The feathers of the black crest are more elongated, and the upper
tail-coverts and tail are grey, the same colour as the back. The primaries
underneath are more broadly marked with grey next the shafts ; and the
tarsus is rather longer.

334. Sterna macrura, Naumaun. The Arctic Tern.

I obtained this Tern in winter plumage in the Straits of
Gibraltar; and there is no doubt that they occur regularly on

296 LAKID^E.

migration ; but it was very difficult to get specimens of the Terns
for identification.

Crown black ; below as grey as the back. First primary with the grey
stripe along the shaft of the inner web no broader than the outer web ; bill
and legs coral-red; legs shorter than in next. Length 15 inches.

335. Sterna fluviatilis, Nauuiann. The Common Tern.

Favier includes this species in his notes, and states that they
are found near Tangier in large flights on the coast during
migration, passing south during September and October. Pos-
sibly he may mean the previous species.

The Common Tern is frequently seen in autumn and spring in
the Straits, and may very possibly be found nesting near Cadiz.

Crown black, below white.

First primary with the grey stripe along the shaft of the inner web twice
as broad as the outer web ; bill and legs coral-red ; bill blackish at tip.
Length 14 inches.

336. Sterna minuta, Linnaeus. The Little Tern.

Spanish. Catalinita (Arevalo).

"This small Tern is seen near Tangier, passing in small
flights along the coast and on the rivers and lakes. They arrive
during May, and return in September, some, however, remaining
in the country to breed. They all retire south for the winter." —
Favier.

The Little Tern occurs on the Spanish as on the Moorish side
and, keeping to the sea-coast, is the latest to arrive of all the
family. They are nowhere very abundant ; but a few nest near
the mouth of the Guadiaro about the end of May, as well as in
other localities on the coast.

The earliest date on which noticed was on the 10th of May ;
and the latest was on the 25th of October.

Primaries white, with black tips, edged on the inner web with black and
usually on the outer web. Length 15-16 inches.

LARUS MELANOCEPIIALU3. 297

Subfamily L ARIN^. Legs and feet large and strong ; bill
shorter than head.

Moorish for Gulls. Garvia or Kerzeit. Spanish. Gaviota.

337. Larus minutus, Pallas. The Little Gull.

Favier only mentions having once obtained this diminutive
Gull near Tangier, in February, 1854. I have seen them in
some numbers, though very irregularly, in winter. Verner says
a small flock frequented the Laguna de las Jabas in February,
1892. I saw two sitting on the bowsprit of a yacht anchored at
Gibraltar on the 24th of March, 1894.

Spring. Head black.

Winter. Head white, with a few dusky spots.

Young. Head brownish, marked with black and grey.

Smallest Gull, length offing under 9^ inches. Length 10-11 inches.

338. Larus ridibundus, Linnaeus. The Brown-headed Gull.
According to Favier this Gull is the most common species

around Tangier, arriving chiefly during November, and departing
north in March.

Is found as above on the Spanish side, and was noticed as late
as the 10th of April, 1894, at the Laguna de la Janda.

Head sooty brown from about March 1st to August 1st.

Winter. Head white, with grey patch behind eye.

Young. Marked above with brown, and, as in all Hack-headed Gulls, has
a blackish bar at the end of tail.

Primaries white, with black tips, edged on the inner web with black and
usually on the outer web. Length 15-16 inches.

339. Larus melanocephalus, Natterer. The Adriatic Black-

headed Gull.

This Gull may occasionally occur in the Straits in winter ; but
I never obtained one, and Lord Lilford tells me that he never saw
any westward of Malaga.

Mr. H. Saunders writes to me as follows : — " There has been a

298 LARID^E.

good deal of confusion about the supposed breeding of this bird
in Spain, and as I have in some degree contributed to this I will
do my best to clear matters up. I saw and have specimens of
this Gull from Malaga and also from the Trocadero, near Cadiz,
and I had eggs — said to have been taken with the birds (which I
examined) in the marisma. I also saw a colony, apparently
breeding, below Huelva, but the steamer in which I had taken
my passage whistled me back before I could land. The eggs above
mentioned have proved to be those of the Gull-billed Tern ; so
were those obtained by Mr. Abel Chapman ('Ibis,' 1884, p. 86),
who shot an Adriatic Gull near them * ; so were those acquired
by Mr. Dresser (save one, which is a Sandwich Tern's) ; and I
do not know of an authenticated egg of L. melanoceplialus from
Spain.

" Of course I had not seen the eggs when I inserted the
' advanced notes ' furnished by Mr. Dresser in my ' Manual of
British Birds ' ; the whole account will be cancelled in the next
edition.

" I think it is probable that the species will be found nesting
along the coast or on the etangs of the Landes between Bayonne
and Bordeaux, because the birds visit St. Jean de Luz in spring
and also the mouth of the Gironde."

Bill stouter than last.

In summer. Head jet-black.

Adults. Primaries white, except the first, which has the outer web
margined with black.

Young. Outer webs and shafts of first five primaries dark brown, outside
of inner web of third primary white. Length 15 inches.

340. Larus canus, Linnaeus. The Common Gull.
This Gull is not mentioned by Favier, but is during some
winters common in the Straits of Gibraltar.

In spring. Head and neck white ; mantle pale grey ; bill and legs
greenish yellow ; former yellow at point.

* But this bird was not brought home for identification.

LARUS GELASTES. 299

In winter. Head and neck streaked and spotted with brown ; legs pale
brown.

Young. Head, neck, and underparts white, mottled with light brown ;
tail with black band at end. Primaries black or dark brown, with white
spots at the end or next the end. Length 18 inches.

341. Larus audouini, Payraudeau. Audouin's Gull.

This Mediterranean Gull is recorded by Natterer as having
been once obtained near Tarifa, and has since then occurred at
Malaga.

Lord Lilford, who discovered them breeding in 1874 off the
south of Sardinia on a rocky island, and also found them on the
island of Alboran in April, 1879, kindly gave me the following
notes of the colours of the soft parts, which will serve to distin-
guish the adults of this species : —

" Feet and legs very dark grey, claws black. Bill brilliant
coral-red, with one broad black band. Iris brilliant hazel, pupil
black. Inside of mouth pale flesh-colour. Eyelids coral-red."

The following are the measurements (in inches) of a pair,

taken from the dried skins : —

d. $.

Bill from gape 3'00 2'80

Wing, carpus to tip 15'75 15'75

Tarsus 2'45 2'30

Tail 6-00 6-00

Length 20 inches.

342. Larus gelastes, Lichtenstein. The Slender-billed Gull.

Favier only records a single specimen of this Gull as obtained
by him near Tangier, in 1852 ; but he remarks that the feet of
the immature birds are orange-yellow, which would lead to the
supposition that he observed them more often.

They are not uncommon in spring on the coast of Southern
Spain, nesting near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, where

300 LARID.E.

Verner, when with the Crown Prince of Austria, found eggs
about the 27th of May, 1879.

Bill slender, as long as head.

Head, nape, and neck white. Bill, eyelids, legs, and feet vermilion.
Irides white. Length 16 inches.

343. Larus argentatus, J. F. Gmelin. The Herring-Gull.
The Herring-Gull is stated by Favier to be " as common near

Tangier during winter as L. ridibundus, arriving in August,
September, and October, and returning north in March, April,
and May."

This bird and the Lesser Black-backed Gull feed in large
numbers on the refuse from the slaughterhouses at Gibraltar;
and it is not uncommon to see three or four hundred of them
together there.

Perhaps some of the immature birds remain during the
summer ; but all the adults disappear by about the 15th of
April.

Head and neck white ; mantle pale grey ; legs and feet flesh-colour ;
eyelids yellow.

Young. Feathers above brown, with pale edges ; tail barred with brown ;
underparts white, streaked with brown. Length 22-24 inches.

344. Larus cachinnans, Pallas. The Southern or Yellow-

legged Herring-Gull.

Favier remarks that " this Gull is not very common near
Tangier, where it consorts with L. fuscus and L. argentatus"

This race of Herring-Gull is common about the Straits and
southwards from Santander, where it occurred abundantly in May,
1876.

The adult birds are distinguishable by the colour of the legs, which are
yellow, as in L. fuscus ; the eyelids are scarlet, the back being much lighter
in colour, but darker than in the next.

The size of the three species is about equal, and the birds in immature
plumoge appear identical.

RISSA TRIDACTYLA. 301

345. Larus fuscus, Linnseus. The Lesser Black-backed Gull.
This Gull is merely included in Favier's list, but it is one of

the most abundant species of Laridse in the Straits in winter.
The greater part pass northward by the end of March ; but some
few pairs remain to nest on the rocks of the African shore, laying
about the end of April.

Head and neck white ; mantle slaty black ; legs and feet yellow ;
primaries nearly uniform dark brown.

Young. Like last. Length 21-23 inches.

346. Larus marinus, Linnseus. The Great Black -backed

Gull.

This large Gull is, according to Favier, found about the Straits
in small numbers from January to March, and he further states
that he never saw any but immature birds ; this agrees with my
own observations, except that I have occasionally seen adults.

Resembles the last, but larger. Legs and feet flesh-colour ; distinct
wedge on third and fourth primaries.

Young. Like last. Length 26-33 inches.

347. Larus glaucus, 0. Fabricius. The Glaucous Gull.

This Arctic Gull is not mentioned by Favier, but was once
obtained by him in immature plumage near Tangier.

Adult. Entirely wJiite, except grey mantle ; head and neck streaked
wTith ash-grey in winter.

Young. Dull white, mottled with pale brown ; primaries greyish white ;
for a short time before assuming adult plumage the mantle is entirely
white. Length 26-33 inches.

348. Rissa tridactyla (Linnseu*). The Kittiwake.

" This species is nearly as common during winter in the Straits
as the Herring-Gull, appearing during the month of November
and leaving in March." — Favier.

The Kittiwake is to be seen in the Bay of Gibraltar during
winter, sometimes in great abundance, at other times hardly any
are to be found ; their presence or absence is due to the state of

302

the weather. They are often seen about the Laguna de la Janda,
where, in February, 1892, Verner reports seeing vast numbers and
caught two alive so gorged with black worms as to be unable to
fly. He examined one and found a round mass of these worms,
of the size of a golf-ball, in its throat.

Hind toe absent or rudimentary.

In summer. Head, neck, and tail pure white ; bill greenish yellow.
In winter. Head and neck slate-grey.

Young. Bill black; brown feathers on back; tail with black band at end.
Length 15 inches.

Subfamily STERCORARIIN.E. ROBBER-GULLS.

Base of upper mandible covered with a cere or skin, and
hooked at the point.

349. Stercorarius catarractes (Linnseus). The Great Skua.
Favier records a single specimen obtained near Tangier, in

December, 1852. It occurs regularly, but not commonly, during
winter in the Straits.

General colour above dark brown; below lighter brown; axillaries dark
brown; primaries blackish brown, bases white, forming a well-marked
band. Tail dark brown, white at the base, but this is hidden by the
coverts; two centre feathers very slightly longer than the others. Length
24-25 inches, leg 2f-3±.

350. Stercorarius pomatorhinus (Temminck). The Twist-

tailed or Pomatorhine Skua.

Stated by Favier to be very rare near Tangier ; and he only
mentions one specimen, obtained as far back as November, 1845.
Is recorded from Malaga.

Two forms or races are found, both dark brown above. The dark form
as dark below as above; the light form white below, barred on flanks and
tail-coverts with dark brown, white on the throat, tinged with golden
yellow, and sometimes extending round nape.

Two centre tail-feathers 4 inches longer than the others, and twisted
upwards.

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS. 303

Young. Above dark brown; below paler, with buff margins to the
feathers ; tail brown, two centre feathers only very slightly longer than
the others. Length 21 inches, leg 2.

351. Stercorarius crepidatus (J. F. Gmelin). Richardson's

Skua.

Spanish. Cagalo (Malaga) (Arevalo).

Favier only mentions one specimen of this Skua, killed near
Tangier in 1844. It is, however, not uncommon in winter. "NY as
often seen off Malaga in March, 1882.

Two forms or races are found.

Dark race. Adult uniform sooty brown, to which the name Richardson's
is strictly applied; but the name Arctic, also employed, is a misnomer, as
this bird breeds and also migrates further south than any of the other
northern Skuas *.

Light race. Adult nearly as those of next species, but two centre tail-
feathers only 3 inches longer than the others. Legs black.

Young. Sooty brown; paler below; centre tail-feathers little longer than
the others.

All primaries with white shafts.

Length, including centre tail-feathers, about 20 inches.

352. Stercorarius parasiticus (Linnseus). The Long- tailed or

Buffbn's Skua.

This Skua is recorded by Favier as twice obtained near Tangier
— in 1846, and in October, 1858, the first being an immature
specimen.

Adult. Crown black; above brownish grey; below white; sides of neck
white, tinged with yellow; legs slate-grey. Two central tail-feathers about
9 inches longer than the others.

Young. Sooty brown; flanks and tail-coverts with buff margins; centre
tail-feathers little longer than the others.

First two primaries with white shafts, but it is said that the nostrils of
Buffon's Skua are nearer the frontal feathers than the tip of the bill — in
Richardson's Skua the contrary being the case.

Length, including central tail-feathers, 22£ inches.

* The writer has observed a light male and a dark female paired together at
their nest on one of the Hebrides, where the dark and light forms were about
equal in numbers.

304 ALCID^E.

Order PYGOPODES. Family ALCID^ffiJ.

353. Alca torda, Linnseus. The Razor-bill.

Moorish. Bou-drihima (Favier). Spanish. Gallareta de mar.

Favier only says of this species that it "is found near Tangier
from November to February."

The Razor-bill, in some winters, appears in the Straits in very
large numbers, as in the winter of 1871-72, when, during
February, they were to be seen in all directions about Gibraltar
Bay, some coming into the New Mole so close to the land that
we threw stones at them, and they lingered on very late, as I saw
ten on the 19th, one on the 21st, and two on the 28th of March,
and one on the 7th of April. In this case their appearance was,
no doubt, attributable in the first instance to heavy gales and
storms outside the Straits.

In 1877 I saw one at the New Mole during the last week in
May. In March, 1882, there were vast numbers off Malaga.

Bill black, straight, large, much decurved towards point, with curved
white line across centre on each side; upper mandible hooked, with three
grooves across.

In summer. Above black, with green gloss ; secondaries tipped with
white, forming a band; narrow white streak from base of upper mandible
to eye; below white, but chin and throat blackish.

In ivinter. Green gloss above nearly absent ; chin, throat, and sides of
head white; in young birds bill less developed. Length 17 inches.

354. Uria troile (Linnseus). The Common Guillemot.

This Guillemot is occasionally seen in small numbers about
the Straits in winter, especially after severe weather from the
westward.

Bill blackish, straight and pointed.

In summer. Head, neck, and upper surface dark brown; below white.
In winter. Throat and sides of head white. Length 18 inches.
The Ringed Guillemot is a race or variety, with a white ring round the
eye and a white line running backwards therefrom.

COLYMB1D.E. 305

355. Fratercula arctica (Linnaeus). The Puffin.

Spanish. Frailecillo.

" This species is found near Tangier from November to March,
sometimes even lingering as late in the spring as April and May.
They are more abundant than the Gannet, and are frequently
picked up dead on the sea-shore after stormy weather." — Favier.

I have seen Puffins in Gibraltar Bay as late as the 5th of
March, but never in such numbers as the Razor-bill.

Bill shorter than head, higher than long; both mandibles arched (and in
summer grooved across with orange).

Above black ; forehead and crown greyish brown ; black ring round
white throat; below white; axillaries brown; legs orange.

In winter the bill is smaller and without brighter colour, the base of the
bill being shed in autumn. Length 12 inches.

COLYMBIDJE. Females smaller than males.

356. Colymbus glacialis, Linnaeus. The Great Northern

Diver.

Occasionally seen in winter in the Straits.

Adult: spring. Head and neck black, with purple gloss; a band of white
stripes on throat, below which is another band of white stripes; bill black;
iris red.

Winter. Above uniform blackish brown, more or less spotted with white ;
below white. Length 30-33 inches.

357. Colymbus arcticus, Linnseus. The Black-throated Diver.
Occasionally seen in winter in the Straits.

Adult : spring. Chin and throat Hack, with a purple gloss, divided by a
patch of white with black lines; iris red.

Winter. Like last, but smaller. Length 25 inches.

358. Colymbus septentrionalis, Linnaeus. The Red-throated

Diver.

This Diver is common in the Straits in winter, and I obtained
one specimen with a red throat.

x

306

Adult : spring. Throat grey, with lower part chestnut-red.
Winter. Above ashy grey, speckled and spotted with white, most so in
the young; underparts white. Length 21-23 inches.

PODICIPEDID^]. Feet with lobes ; no true tail.

359. Podicipes cristatus (Linnseus). The Great Crested
Grebe.

Spanish. Zambullidor (applied to all Grebes and Divers).

" This large Grebe is, near Tangier, less common than Podiceps
minor. Some remain in the country to breed ; the others pass
north during March. They are very abundant at the lakes of
Has el Doura." — Favier.

"We can quite corroborate the latter statement; for when we
were at those lakes at the end of April, the number of these
Grebes, as well as of the next species, was perfectly marvellous.
They were in pairs, but had not commenced laying. These
swampy lakes, much covered at the sides with aquatic plants
and sedges, must be a paradise for all Grebes and water-birds ;
but it is vexation of spirit and almost useless for the ornithologist
to go there. The Arabs, at the egging-season, move their tents
close to the lake and plunder every nest they can find, and
further pester Europeans to an unbearable degree, being almost
as annoying and intrusive as the mosquitoes, which were there
more troublesome than in any country I have been in. Towards
Casas Viejas and Gibraltar I never obtained the present species ;
but Lord Lilford found them breeding plentifully in May near
the edge of the Goto de Donana.

Male : summer. Crown and tufts black ; tippet round face chestnut,
with black edges.

Female. Rather smaller ; crest and tippet not so much developed.

In winter these ornaments are scarcely present in the adult male, less so
in the female, and absent in the young ; all have white eye-stripe. Length
20-24 inches.

PODICIPES NIGRICOLLIS. 307

360. Podicipes grriseig;ena(Boddaevt). The Red-necked Grebe.
" This bird is less common near Tangier than the last, being

seldom observed on passage. Some remain in the country to
breed, the others migrating northwards in March, returning
again during September. They are more abundant at the lakes
of Ras el Doura, and are there called Mazan by the Arabs." —
Favier.

Some specimens of the Red-necked Grebe obtained in Morocco
by Favier were so young that they must have been bred in the
country ; and we saw many at the above lakes in April, but I
have no record of them on the Spanish side.

In summer. Crown, nape, back of neck black ; chin and throat grey ;
neck in front chestnut-red ; no tippet ; bill black, base of bill yellow.
In winter. Neck in front grey ; no eye-stripe. Length 16^ inches.

361. Podicipes auritus (Linnaeus). The Lesser Crested or

Slavonian Grebe.

Although Favier has not mentioned this Grebe as occurring
near Tangier, I have seen one specimen obtained in the Straits
in October, 1867 ; it probably is often to be met with in winter.

Bill straight.

In summer. With tuft of lengthened chestnut feathers on each side of
head from bill to nape ; crown, forehead, chin, and ruff or tippet black ;
neck and flanks chestnut.

In winter. As in last. Length 13 inches.

362. Podicipes nigricollis, C. L. Brehm. The Black-necked

or Eared Grebe.

This species is the most common of the Grebes, breeding in
lagoons and swamps on both sides of the Straits. In the winter
they take to the salt water, and are generally plentiful in
Gibraltar Bay.

Bill slightly curved upwards ; inner four primaries white throughout.

In summer. Head and neck black, with a stripe from eye to nape of
lengthened golden-reddish feathers.

In winter. Resembles last in plumage, except the white on primaries.
Length 12 inches.

x2

308 PEOCELLAR11D.E.

363. Podicipes fluviatilis (Tunstall). The Little Grebe or

Dabchick.

Moorish. El ghotis (Favier).

" This small Grebe is resident near Tangier, although to a great
extent migratory, passing north during April, and reappearing
from October to December. They are resident and especially
numerous at the lakes of Kas el Doura, where the Arabs, during
the breeding-season, in a great measure subsist on the eggs of
various aquatic birds, destroying a prodigious quantity." — Favier.

The Dabchick is resident in Andalucia, breeding abundantly
in some localities ; but is most common in winter ; and how they
reach the isolated patches of water, which are dry in summer, is
marvellous, as I never saw one on the wing.

The Dabchick, in winter, is almost always to be seen on the
.inundation at the North Front of Gibraltar, taking no notice of
the numerous passers by.

In summer. Chin black; cheeks, sides, and front of neck reddish chestnut.
In winter. Chin white, the reddish chestnut of neck replaced by brown ;
iris brown. Length 8-9 inches.

Order TUBINARES.

Family PROCELLARIIDJE. Nostrils in a tube.
Oceanic birds, seldom landing except to breed.

364. Puffinus kuhli, Boie. The Cinereous Shearwater.
This species of Shearwater is abundant in the Straits, and is

occasionally found dead on the shore. They nest about the
beginning of May, under rocks and stones on islands, and a
Shearwater is reported to breed at the back of the Eock.

Head, nape, and back dull brown ; cheeks and chin grey ; below entirely
white.

Bill yellowish, tips horn-colour ; legs flesh-colour (10th March). Length
18 inches.

Puffinus gravis, likely to occur in the Straits, is similar in size, but lias
head and nape dark brown, forming a cap ; cheeks and chin white ; centre
of belly brownish. =P. major } auctorum.

PROCELLARIA PELAGICA. 309

365. Pufflnus anglorum (Temminck). The Manx Shearwater.

Spanish. Animas (souls), Diablos (devils) *.

Favier states that this Shearwater is " found from August to
November, and usually picked up dead on the sea-shore."

It is common in the Straits in autumn, occasionally coming
close in to the land in the Bay of Gibraltar.

They seem to feed where porpoises swim at the surface of the
water, and were thus seen in flocks of forty and fifty off Malaga
in March, 1882, often sitting together on the water in company
with P. Jculdi. We shot a great many of both species, which
were eaten by the yacht's crew.

Mediterranean specimens have the back lighter than northern
birds, and are marked with grey on the flanks. This climatic
race has been named P. yelkouan, Acerbi.

Head, back, wings, and tail blackish brown ; breast and flanks white ;
rest of underparts dark smoky grey ; bill and legs bluish grey. Length
13-14 inches, wing 9^.

366. Puffinus obscurus (J. F. Gmelin). The Dusky Shear-

water.

Recorded from Malaga.

Smaller than Manx Shearwater. Above blackish brown ; underparts
pure white ; axillaries white. Length 11 inches.

367. Procellaria pelagica, Linnaeus. The Storm-Petrel.
This little Petrel is frequently seen skimming about in the

Straits, and, no doubt, nests on some of tbe small islands or
patches of rock on the coast, as they are reported to do near
Cabo de Palos, Mar Menor.

Above slaty black ; upper tail-coverts and sides of vent white ; below
darker ; tail slightly rounded ; legs and feet black. Length 5£ inches.
Smallest web-footed bird.

* This Shearwater is very numerous in the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, passing
continuously up and down in small flights, never being seen except on the wing ;
they are known as the " souls of the damned," who are allowed no rest.

310

PROCELLA.RIID.E.

368. Procellaria leucorrhoa, Vieillot. Fork-tailed Petrel.
This species is stated by Favier to be of rare occurrence in the

Straits. Those which he obtained were all found dead on the
sea shore after storms. He mentions picking up six in 1846, and
one in each of the years 1852, 1854, and 1858.
Is recorded from Malaga.

Slate-black above, darker below ; upper tail-coverts white ; tail long,
deeply forked. Length 7£ inches.

369. Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl). The Long-legged or

Wilson's Petrel.

This wide-ranging Petrel was obtained near Malaga by Fran-
cisco de los Rios.

Sooty black, darkest below ; upper tail-coverts and sides of vent white ;
tail almost square ; hind toe absent.

Legs \\ inches long and slender, covered with large scales ; toes black,
with the centre of the webs yellow. Length 1\ inches.

LAJA. DEL CISCA.B.

APPENDIX.

THE following list of Lepidoptera may be of use to collectors,
and is chiefly compiled from " Notes on Lepidoptera from the
Region of the Straits of Gibraltar," by James J. Walker, R.N.,
F.L.S., published in the * Transactions of the Entomological
Society of London,' 1890,'pp. 361-391.

Most of the Butterflies have been obtained by my son, L. P.
Irby, 60th Rifles, and myself; possibly a few more species may
be found.

The list of Moths is incomplete, and is almost entirely from
Mr. Walker's paper, to whom I am much indebted for permission
to make use of his notes and for his kind assistance in looking
over this list.

Those species marked with an asterisk occur on the Rock of
Gibraltar. All the Moorish specimens were found by Mr. Walker.

RHOPALOCEBA (BUTTEEFLIES).

*Papilio podalinus. L. Gibraltar (L. P. Irby).

P. machaon, L. February to October.
* Thais rumina, L. March, April.
*Pieris brassicce, L. All the year.
*P. rapce, L. All the year.

P. napi, L. Cork-wood (L. P. Irby).
*P. daplidice, L. March to November.
*Euchloe belemia, Esp. January, February (ab. glauce, Hb.).

E. belia, Esp. February.

E. tagis, Esp. March.

E. cardamines, L. Cork-wood, 18th April, 1894.

312 APPENDIX.

*Euchloe eupJienoides, Stand. March, April.

E. eupheno, L. Morocco only. March.

LeucopJiasia sinctpis, L. March to July.
*Colias edusa, F., and ab. Tielice, Hiibn. All the year.

Gonopteryx rhamni, L. (Hibernates.) June.
*6r. cleopatra, L. (Hibernates.) May, June, July.
*Theda spini, Schiff., and ab. $ lynceus, Hiibn.

T. ilicis, Esp., v. cesculi, O. May, Jnne.

T. quercus, L. July.

T. roboris, Esp. June.

T. rubi, L. February and March, in numbers.
*Thestor baling, Hiibn. February to April.

T. mauritanicus, Lucas. Morocco only. March, April.

Polyommatus pTdceas, L. All the year round, and v. eleus, F., in summer.
*Lijccena bcetica, L. All the year.

L. telicanus, Hiibn. March to October.

L. iheopTirastus, F. Only near Tetuan. July.

L. baton, Berg, v. panoptes, Hiibn. May.

L. lysimon, Hiibn. August, November.

L. astrarche, Berg. All the year.
*L. icarus, Eott. February to November.

L. bellargus, Eott. April and July.

L. minimus, Fuess., v. lorquinii, H.-S. May 16th.

L. melanops, Bdv. April, May.
*L. argiolu-s, L. January to July.

*Charaxasjasius,Ij. Bare at Gibraltar; one in 1872. Common at Tangier
in September.

* Vanessa polychloros, L. (Hibernates.) June.

V. urticce, L. (L. P. Irby.) Also included by Bosenhauer.

* V. atalanta, L. All the year.

* V. cardui, L. All the year.

Melitcea aurinia, Bott., v. desfontainii, Godt. May 27th.

M. phoebe, Kn., v. cttheria, Hiibn. May.

Argynnis latona, Esp. June.

*A. pandora, Schiff. May to July ; September, Gibraltar.
*Danaisplexippus, L. One, Gibraltar, Oct. 24, 1886 (J. J. Walke.

Melanargia ines, Hfsgg. (tJietis, Hiibn.). April, May.
*Satyrusfidia, L. June to August.
*S. statilimis, Hufn., v. allionia, F. July, August.

Pararge mcera, L., v. adraste, Hiibn. April.
*P. megcera, L. January to October.
*P. cegeria, L. All the year.

*EpinepJiele janira, L., v. hispulla, Hiibn. May to August.
*E. ida, Esp. May to September.

APPENDIX. 313

*Epinephele pasiphae, Esp. April to June.

Ccenonympha arcanioides, Pierret. Morocco only. March.

C. dorus, Esp. July.
*C. pamphilus, L. May, June.
*Spilotliyrus alcece, Esp. May, June.

S. althece, Hiibn. All the year.

Syriclithus proto, Esp. May, July.

S. fritillum, Hiibn. July.

S. sao, Hiibn., v. thempne, Ebr. April, July.

Hespena thaumas, Hufn. May, June.

II. action, Esp. May, June.
*H. nostradamus, F. June to September.

H. zelleri, Lederer. Morocco only. July to November.

HETEROCEKA (Moras), to end of GEOMETER.
SPHINGES.

*Acherontia atropos, L. Many larvae on Solanum sodomceum (L. P. Irby, 1894).

*Sphinx convolvuli, L.

*Dci1ephila eupJiorbice, L. Many larvae (L. P. Irby, 1894).

*D. livornica, L. Summer.

* Chcerocampa celerio, L. September, October.

Smerinthus populi, L. Morocco.

Pterogon proserpina, Pall. Larvae common on (Enothera, June (J. J. AValker).
* Macroglossa stettatarum, L. All the year. k

*Sdapteron tabaniforme, Kott. July.

Sesia ramburi, Stand. June.
*Paranthrene tineiformis, Esp. June.

Zygcena sarpedon, Hiibn. May, June.

Z. st&chadis, Bork. June.

Z. lavandulce, Esp. May.

Z. bcetica, Ebr. May, August, September.

BOMBTCES.

*Nola cicatricalis, Tr. April, October.

*Emydia cribrum, L., v. Candida, Cyrill. May, August, September.

*Deiopeia pulchella, L. All the year.

Euchelia jacobcece, L. June.
*Euprepria pudica, L. August, September.

Arctia villica, L. March, April.

A. casta, Esp. April.

Phmymatobia fuliginosa, L. Esmir, Morocco.
*Porthesia auriflua, L. June.

314 APPENDIX.

Orgyia Josephines, Oberth, Esmir, Morocco.
*0. trigotephras, Bdv. June.

*0cneria dispar, L. June. Larvae in astonishing abundance near Algeciraz,
June 1888 (J. J. Walker).

0. ailantica, Rbr.

Cossus ligniperda, L.
*Zeuzera pyrma, L. June.
*Bombyx neustria, L. September.
*B. trifolii, L. June.
*Megasoma repanda, Hiibn. August.

Saturnia pavonia, L. April.
*S.pyri, L. March.

Cerura vinula, L. Tangier, May.
*C. bifida, L. August.

Pygcera bucepTiala, L. March.

*Ra<phia hybris, Hiibn. July.

Acronycta psi, L. Morocco, April.

A. rumiris, L. Morocco, February.
*Bryophila muralis, Forst., v. par, Hiibn. July.
*B. ereptricula, Tr. August, September.

Tapinostola musculosa, L. May.
*Leucania loreyi, Dup. October.
*L, l-album, L. October, November.
*Caradrina exigua, Hiibn. October.
*C. ambigua, W. V. April, October.

Pachnobia rubricosa, "W . V. May.
*0rrhodla erythrocepTiala, W. V. October.
*Triphcena pronuba, L. Summer.
*Agrotis dahlii, Hiibn. November.
*A. saucia, Hiibn. All the year.
*A. hucoc/aster, Frr. One, Tetuan.
*A. puta, Hiibn. October.
*A. segetum, SchifE. October, November.

A. spinifera, Hiibn. February, October.
*A. ypsilon, Eott., suffusa, Hiibn. October.
*A. crassa, Hiibn. September.

*Briihys pancratii, Cyr. February, November. Larvae on Pancratium
mauritimum.

Dryobata saportce, Dup. October, November.
*Mamestra serena, W. V. March.
*Jf. dysodea, W. V., chrysozona, Bork. April.
*M. oleracea, L. October.

APPENDIX, 315

*Triyouopliomflamnua, Esp. (empyrea, Hiibn.).
*Eriopus latre'dlei, Dup. October.
*Calocampa vetusta, Hiibn. October.

Calophasia platyptera, Esp. Tangier, September.

Cleophana antirrJiini, Htibn. May.

C. yvanii, Dup. May.
*Cucullia verbasci, L. April.
*C. chamomillce, W. V.
*Eurhip!a adulatrix, Bdv. September.

Heliothis armlgera, Hiibn. October.

//. incarnata, Fr. May, July.
*H. peltigera, W. V. May to July.
*PLusia chalcites, Esp. October.
*P. gamma, L. All the year.

Acontia luctuosa, W. V. May to September.

A. lucida, Hiibn., v. albicollis, JF. Sierra Eetin, March 28, 1894.
*Catocala elocata, Esp. September.

O. dilecta, Hiibn. July.

C. promissa, Esp. June.

(7. conversa, Esp. June.

C. nymphagoga, Esp. June.

Cerocala scapulosa, Bdv. April, May.

Ophiusa bifasciata, Petagna. Tangier, September 1888.

0. algira, L.

Pseudophia lunaris, W. V. March.
*P. tirrhcea, Cr. Larvae on Schinus molle,

Spiniherops spectrum, F. June.

Agrophila trabealis, Scop. August.

Prothymia conicephala, Staud. July.
* Thalpochares ostrina, Hiibn. April to October.
*T. parva, Hiibn. August.
*Metophia monogramma, Hiibn. April, May.
*Herminia crinalis, Tr. October.
*H. lividalis, Hiibn. June, October.
*H. obsitalis, Hiibn. October.

GEOMETER.

*Nemoria herbaria, Hiibn. October.

Acidalia vittaria, Hiibn. April, June.

A. ochrata, Scop. June.

A. perochraria, Eossl. June.

A. nexata, Hiibn. June, October.
*A. virgularia, Hiibn. October.

316 APPENDIX.

Acidalia elongaria, Rbr. May.

A. circuitaria, Hiibn. Morocco only. June.

A. ostrinaria, Hiibn. June.

A. ? transmutaria, Rbr. June.

A. promutata, Guen. (marginepunctata, Goze). July.

A. luridata, Zell. September.

A. emutaria, Hiibn. Esmir, Morocco. November.

A. imitaria, Hiibn. July.

A. ornata, Scop. May to August.

Zonosoma pupillaria, Hiibn. July.

Z. porata, F. July.

Pellonia calabraria, Zell. April, May.

Abraxas pantaria, L. April, July.

Terpnomicta dilectaria, Hiibn. Tangier, September.

Boarmia gemmaria, Brahm (rhotnboidaria, W. V.). June.

Pachychnemia hippocastanaria, Hiibn. May.
*Onophos respersaria, Hiibn. June.
*6r. mucidaria, Hiibn. October.

Anthometra plumularia, Bdv. June.

Fidonia plumistaria, Vill. Sierra Eetin, 26tb March, 1894.

Sdidosema ericetaria, Vill. Summer and autumn.

Thamnonoma gesticularia, Hiibn. May, June.
*Aspilates ochrearia, Eossi. April.

Lozogramma obtusaria, Walker. A New-Zealand species, once taken near
Gibraltar by Mr. J. J. Walker, 19tb March, 1888.

Ligia opacaria, Hiibn. October.
*Sterrha sacraria, L. All the year.
*S. consecraria, Eamb. Once in October.
*Lithostege griseata, W. V. May.

Anaitis plagiata, L. May, June.

Chesias rufata, F., v. obliquaria, W. V. March.

Ortholitha peribolata, Hiibn. October.
* Cidaria fluctuata, L. Autumn.
*C.Jluviata, Hiibn. All the year.

C. basochesiata, Dup. October.

(7. bilineata, L. July.
*Eupithecia centaureata, W. V. (oblongata, Thub.). Spring and autumn.

E. satyrata, Hiibn. May, June.
*E. pumilata, Hiibn. Spring and autumn.

INDEX TO BIRDS.

Accentor, Alpine, 49.
Accentor collaris, 49.

— modularis, 49.
Accipiter nisus, 186.
Acredula caudata, 71.

- irbii, 71.

— rosea, 71.
Acrocephalus aquaticus, 58.

— palustris, 58.

— phragmitis, 58.

— streperus, 57.

— turdoides, 57.
Aedon galactodes, 56.
-/Egialitis cantiana, 270.

— curonica, 269.

hiaticula, 268.

.^Egithalus pendulinus, 74.
Alauda arborea, 118.
arvensis, 117.

- bsetica, 120.

- bracbydactyla, 120.

— calandra, 121.

cristata, 118.

macrorhyncha, 119.

- theckLe, 119.
Alca torda, 304.
Alcedo ispida, 130.
Anas boscas, 220.
strepera, 221.

Anser albifrons, 217.
brachyrhynchus, 218.

— cinereus, 216.

— erythropus, 217.
segetum, 218.

Anthus campestris, 116.
cervinus, 115.

— obscurus, 1 15.
pratensis, 115.

— richardi, 116.

— spipolecta, 116.

— trivialis, 114.
Aquila adalberti, 171.

chrysaetus, 170.

na3via, 173.

rapax, 174.

Ardea alba, 202.

- bubulcus, 203.
cinerea, 200.

- garzetta, 202.

- purpurea, 200.

- ralloides, 204.
Ardetta minuta, 206.
Argya fulva, 70.
Asio accipitrinus, 139.
capensis, 140.

- otus, 139.

Astur palumbarius, 185.
Avocet, 274.

318

INDEX TO BIRDS.

Babbler, North-African, 70.
Bee-eater, 131.
Bernicla leucopsis, 218.
Bittern, Common, 206.

— , Little, 206.
Blackbird, 35.
Blackcap, 51.
Bluethroat, Red-spotted, 46.

— , White-spotted, 46.
Botaurus stellaris, 206.
Brambling, 104.
Bubo ignavus, 143.
Bulbul, White-vented, 67.
Bullfinch, Desert, 106.
Bunting, Cirl, 108.

— , Corn, 107.

— , House, 110.

— , Little, 110.

— , Ortolan, 109.

— , "Reed, 109.

— , Rock, 110.

, Snow, 111.

Bustard, Great, 253.

— , Little, 257.

— , North-African, 260.

— , Ruffed, 260.
Butcher-bird, 88.
Buteo desertorum, 169.

— vulgaris, 168.
Buzzard, Common, 168.

— , Honey, 189.
• , Rufous, 169.

Caccabis petrosa, 239.

- rufa, 237.
Calidris arenaria, 280.
Caprimulgus europa3us, 125.

- ruficollis, 126.
Carduelis elegans, 98.

spinus, 100.

Carine glaux, 145.

noctua, 144.

Certhia familiaris, 75.
Certhilauda bifasciata, 117.
duponti, 117.

— lusitanica, 117.

Cettia cettii, 61.
Chaffinch, European, 102.
, North-African, 103.

Charadrius fulvus, 267.
pluvialis, 266.

Chelidon urbica, 94.
Chiffchaff, 63.
Chough, Red-billed, 80.
, Yellow-billed, 80.

Chrysomitris citrinella, 100.
Ciconia alba, 207.
nigra, 210.

Cinclus albicollis, 76.
aquaticus, 76.

Circaetus gallicus, 182.
Circus seruginosus, 163.

cineraceus, 167.

— cyaneus, 166.
swainsoni, 166.

Cisticola cursitans, 69.
Clangula glaucion, 229.
Coccothraustes vulgaris, 97
Coccystes glandarius, 136.
Columba livia, 234.
— — cenas, 233.

— palumbus, 232.
Colymbus arcticus, 305.

glacialis, 305.

septentrionalis, 305.

Coot, Common, 248.

— , Red-lobed, 249.
Coracias garrula, 130.
Cormorant, 198.

— , Green, 198.
Corn-Crake, 244.
Corvus corax, 84.

comix, 86.

corone, 86.

frugilegus, 86.

monedula, 83.

tingitanus, 84.

Cotile riparia, 95.

rupestris, 96.

Coturnix communis, 240.
Courser, Cream-coloured, 263.
Crake, Baillon's, 245.

INDEX TO BIRDS.

319

Crake, Corn, 244.

, Little, 245.

, Spotted, 244.

Crane, Common, 249.

, Demoiselle, 252.

Creeper, Rock, 75.

, Tree, 75.

Crex pratensis, 244.
Crossbill, Common, 106.

— , Parrot, 107.
Crow, Carrion, 86.
, Grey, 86.

— , Hooded, 86.
Cuckoo, Common, 135.

— , Great Spotted, 136.
Cuculus canorus, 135.
Curlew, Common, 290.
, Mediterranean, 290.

— , Stone, 262.
Cursorius gallicus, 263.
Cyanopica cooki, 82.
Cygnus musicus, 215.

- olor, 216.
Cypselus apus, 122.

— melba, 124.

— murinns, 123.

Dabchick, 308.
Dafila acuta, 222.
Daulias luscinia, 47.
Dendrocopus major, 126.

mauritanus, 127.

medius, 127.

numidicus, 127.

Dipper, Greyrbacked, 76.
Diver, Black-throated, 305.

, Great Northern, 305.

, Red-throated, 305.

Dotterel, 268.

Dove, Common Turtle, 234.

— , Egyptian Turtle, 235.

— , Ring, 232.
, Rock, 234.

— , Stock, 233.
Duck, Black, 229.

— , Brahminy, 219.

Duck, Ferruginous, 227.
, Marbled, 223.

— , Scaup, 229.

— , Spiny-tailed, 230.

— , Tufted, 228.

, White-faced, 230.

, Wild, 220.

Dunlin, 281.

Eagle, BoneUi's, 174.

— , Booted, 180.

, Golden, 170.

, Sea, 174.

, Short-toed, 182.

— , Snake, 182.

, Spotted, 173.

, Tawny, 174.

, White-shouldered, 171.

— , White-tailed, 174.
Egret, Little, 202.
Elanus caeruleus, 190.
Emberiza cia, 110.

cirlus, 108.

citrinella, 108.

hortulana, 109.

miliaria, 107.

pusilla, 110.

saharaB, 110.

schceniclus, 109.

Erismatura leucocephala, 230.
Erythacus rubecula, 46.
Erythrospiza githaginea, 106.
Eudromias mormellus, 268.
Eupodotis arabs, 260.

Falco aesalon, 194.
babylonicus, 192.

— barbarus, 192.

cenchris, 196.

eleonorae, 193.

lanarius, 192.

— pcregrinus, 190.

punicus, 191.

subbuteo, 193.

tinnunculus, 195.

320

INDEX TO BIRDS.

Falco vespertinus, 195.
Falcon, Barbary, 192.

— , Eleonora, 193.

— , Peregrine, 190.

— , Mediterranean, 190.

, Rufous-naped, 192.

Fieldfare, 35.
Finch, Citril, 100.

— , Serin, 101.

— , Snow, 104.
Flamingo, 213.
Flycatcher, Collared, 92.

— , Pied, 92.

— , Spotted, 91.

Francolin, Double-spurred, 240.
Francolinus bicalearatus, 240.
Fratercula arctica, 305.
Fringilla coalebs, 102.
incerta, 106.

— montifringilla, 104.

- spodiogenys, 103.
Fulica atra, 248.

— cristata, 249.
Fuligula cristata, 228.

- ferina, 226.

- mania, 229.

— nyroca, 227.

- rufila, 226.

Gadwall, 221.

Galerita macrorhyncha, 119.

- thecklae, 119.
Gallinago brehmi, 279.

cffilestis, 278.

delamottii, 279.

— gallinula, 279.

major, 277.

russata, 279.

Gallinula chloropus, 247.
Gannet, 199.
Garganey, 225.
Garrulus cervicalis, 82.

glandarius, 81.

Gecinus canus, 129.

sharpii, 128.

vaillanti, 128.

Gecinus viridis, 128.
Glareola pratincola, 261.
Goatsucker, 125.
Godwit, Bar-taUed, 288.

— , Black-tailed, 288.
Golden -eye, 229.
Goldfinch, 98.
Goosander, 231.
Goose, Bean, 218.

— , Bernicle, 218.

— , Grey-lag, 216.

, Lesser White-fronted, 217.

, Pink-footed, 218.

— , Solan, 199.

— , White-fronted, 217.
Goshawk, 185.
Grebe, Black-necked, 307.
, Eared, 307.

— , Great Crested, 306.

— , Lesser Crested, 307.

— , Little, 308.
, Red-necked, 307.

— , Slavonian, 307.
Greenfinch, 98.
Greenshank, 286.

, Lesser, 286.

Grosbeak, Scarlet, 106.
Grouse, Black-bellied Sand, 237.

— , Pin-tailed Sand, 236.
Grus communis, 249.

— virgo, 252.
Guillemot, Common, 304.
Gull, Adriatic Black-headed, 297.

— , Audouin's, 299.
, Brown-headed, 297.

— , Common, 298.
, Glaucous, 301.

— , Great Black-backed, 301.

— , Herring, 300.
, Lesser Black-backed, 301.

— , Little, 297.

— , Slender-billed, 299.

, Southern, 300.

-, Yellow-legged Herring, 300.

Gypaetus barbatus, 156.
Gyps fulvus, 147.

INDEX TO BIRDS.

121

Haomatopus ostralegus, 273.
Haliaetus albicilla, 174.
Hammer, Yellow, 108.
Harrier, Hen, 166.
— , Marsh, 163.

, Montagu's, 167.

, Pale-chested, 166.

Hawfinch, 97.

Hawk, Black-shouldered, 190.

, Many-banded, 168.

Hedge-Sparrow, 49.
Heron, Buff-backed, 203.
, Cattle, 203.

-, Common, 200.
-, Great White, 202.
-, Night, 205.
-, Purple, 200.
-, Squacco, 204.

Himantopus candidus, 274.
Hirundo rufula, 94.

rustica, 93.

Hobby, 193.

., Western Eed-footed, 195.

Hoopoe, 134.
Houbara undulata, 260.
Hydrochelidon hybrida, 292.

leucoptera, 292.

nigra, 291.

Hypolais icterina, 65.

olivetorum, 66.

opaca, 65.

polyglotta, 65.

Ibis, Glossy, 212.

— , Red-cheeked, 211.
Ibis comatus, 211.
lynx torquilla, 129.

Jackdaw, 83.

Jacksnipe, 279.

Jay, Algerian Black-headed, 82.

, West-European, 81.

Kestrel, Common, 195.

, Lesser, 196.

Kingfisher, 130.

Kite, Black, 187.
— , Red, 187.
Kittiwake, 301.
Knot, 281.

Lammergeyer, 156.
Landrail, 244.
Lanius algeriensis, 87.

collurio, 88.

— meridionalis, 87.

minor, 88.

pomeranus, 89.

Lanner, 192.
Lapwing, 271.

— , Black-bellied, 272.
Lark, Andalucian Short- toed, 120.

, Desert Curved-billed, 117.

, Dupont's, 117.

, Calandra, 121.

— , Crested, 118.
, Horned Desert, 121.

— . Short-toed, 120.

, Sky, 117.

, Small Curved-billed, 117.

— , Wood, 118.
Larus argentatus, 300.

— audouini, 299.

cachinnans, 300.

canus, 298.

fuscus, 301.

— gelastes, 299.

— glaucus, 301.

marinus, 301.

melanocephalus, 297.

minutus, 297.

- ridibundus, 297.
Ligurinus chloris, 98.
Limosa belgica, 288.

lapponica, 288.

Linnet, Common, 104.

, Mountain, 105.

Linota canuabina, 104.

— flavirostris, 105.

rufescens, 105.

Locustella luscinioides, 59.
nasvia, 59.

322

INDEX TO BIRDS.

Loxia curvirostris, 106.
Lusciniola melanopogon, 61.

Machetes pugnax, 283.
Magpie, Common, 82.
, North-African, 82.

— , Spanish Azure-winged, 82.
Mallard, 220.
Mareca penelope, 225.
Marmaronetta angustirostris, 223.
Martin, Crag, 96.

— , House, 94.

— , Sand, 95.
Melierax polyzonus, 168.
Merganser, Red-breasted, 231.
Mergus albellus, 232.
merganser, 231.

— serrator, 231.
Merlin, 194.
Merops apiaster, 131.
Milvus ictiuus, 187.

• migrans, 187.

Monticola cyanus, 36.

— saxatilis, 38.
Montifringilla nivalis, 104.
Moorhen, 247.
Motacilla alba, 111.
borealis, 114.

• cinereocapilla, 114.

- flava, 113.

— lugubris, 112.

— melanope, 112.

— raii, 114.

Muscicapa atricapilla, 92.
collaris, 92.

grisola, 91.

Neophron percn op torus, 152.
Nightingale, 47.
Nightjar, 125.

— , Rufous-naped, 126.
Nisaetus fasciatus, 174.

— pennatus, 180.
Nucifraga caryocatactes, 80.
Numenius arquata, 290.
hudsonicus, 291.

Numeuius phaeopus, 291.

— tenuirostris, 290.
Nutcracker, 80.
Nuthatch, Common, 74.
Nycticorax griseus, 205.

Oceanites oceanicus, 310.
OEdemia fusca, 230.

- uigra, 229.

CEdicnemus scolopax, 262.
Oriole, Golden, 76.
Oriolus galbula, 76.
Ortolan, 109.
Osprey, 197.
Otis tarda, 253.

— tctrax, 257.
Otocorys bilopha, 121.
Ouzel, Ring, 36.

— , Water, 76.
Owl, Barn, 137.

— , Brown, 141.

— , Eagle, 143.

— , Little, 144.

— , Long-eared, 139.

— , Marsh, 140.

— , Scops, 142.

— , Short-eared, 139.

— , Southern Little, 145.

— , Tawny, 141.

— , White, 137.

— , Wood, 141.
Oystercatcher, 273.

Pandion haliaetus, 197.
Pauurus biarmicus, 70.
Partridge, Barbary, 239.

, French, 237.

— , Western Red-lcggcd,
Parus ater, 73.
casrulcus, 72.

— cristatus, 73.

— ledouci, 73.
major, 71.

— palustris, 73.

— teneriffae, 72.
Passer domesticus, 101.

INDEX TO BIRDS.

323

Passer hispaniolensis, 102.

— montanus, 102.
Pastor roseus, 79.
Peewit, 271.
Pernis apivorus, 189.
Petrel, Fork-tailed, 310.

— , Long-legged, 310.

— , Storm, 309.

— , Wilson's, 310.
Petronia stulta, 102.
Phalacrocorax carbo, 198.
desmarestii, 198.

— graculus, 198.
Phalarope, Grey, 275.
Phalaropus fulicarius, 275.
Phcenicopterus roseus, 213.
Phylloscopus bonellii, 63.

- rufus, 63.

— sibilatrix, 63.

— trochilus, 64.
Pica raauritanica, 82.

— rustica, 82.
Pigeon, Wood, 232.
Pintail, 222.
Pipit, Meadow, 115.
, Red-throated, 115.

— , Richard's, 116.

— , Rock, 115.

— , Tawny, 116.

— , Tree, 114.

— , Water, H6.
Platalea leucorodia, 210.
Plectrophenax nivalis, 111.
Plegadis falcinellus, 212.
Plover, Asiatic Golden, 267.

— , Golden, 266.

— , Green, 271.

— , Grey, 267.

— , Kentish, 270.

— , Little Ringed, 269.

— , Ringed, 268.
Pochard, Common, 226.

— , Red-crested, 226.

— , White-eyed, 227.
Podicipes auritas, 307.
cristatus, 306.

Podicipes fluviatilis, 308.
— • griseigena, 307.

— nigricollis, 307.
Porphyrio caeruleus, 247.
Porzana bailloni, 245.

— maruetta, 244.

— parva, 245.
Pratincola rubetra, 43.

— rubicola, 43.
Pratincole, 261.
Procellaria leucorrhoa 31

pelagica, 309.

Pterocles arenarius, 237.

senegallus, 237.

Pteroclurus alchata, 236.

pyrenaicus, 236.

Puffin, 305.

Puffinus anglorum, 309.

— gravis, 308.
- kuhli, 308.

— major, 308.

— obscurus, 309.
— yelkouan, 309.

Pycnonotus barbatus, 67.
Pyrrhocorax alpinus, 80.

graculus, 80.

Pyrrhula erythrina, 106.

Quail, Andalucian Bush, 241.
— , Button, 244.

, Common, 240.

-, Three-toed, 241.

Querquedula circia, 225.
• crecca, 224.

Rail, Water, 246.
Rallus aquaticus, 246.
Raven, Common, 84.

, Tangier, 84.

Razor-bill, 304.
Recurvirostra avocetta, 274.
Redpole, Lesser, 105.
Redshank, Common, 287.

, Dusky, 287.

Redstart, Black, 45.
, Common, 44.

324

INDEX TO BIEDS.

Redstart, Moussier's, 44.
Redwing, 35.
Reedling, Bearded, 70.
Reeve, 283.
Regulus cristatus, 66.

ignicapillus, 66.

Rissa tridactyla, 301.

Robin, 46.

Roller, 130.

Rook, 86.

Ruff, 283.

Ruticilla cyanecula, 46.

moussieri, 44.

phoenicurus, 44.

suecica, 46.

— titys, 45.

- wolfi, 46.

Sanderling, 280.

Sand-Grouse, Black-bellied, 237.

— , Pin-tailed, 236.
Sandpiper, Common, 285.

— , Curlew, 280.

, Green, 284.

, Marsh, 286.

, Purple, 282.

— , Terek, 286.

— , Wood, 285.
Saxicola albicollis, 40.

• leucura, 41.

• cenanthe, 39.

— stapazina, 40.
Scolopax rusticula, 276.
Scops giu, 142.
Scoter, Common, 229.

— , Velvet, 230.
Serinus hortulanus, 101.
Shag, 198.
Shearwater, Cinereous, 308.

— , Dusky, 309.

— , Manx, 309.
Sheld-duck, 219.

, Ruddy, 219.

Shoveler, 222.

Shrike, Algerian Grey, 87.

, Hooded, 90.

Shrike, Lesser Grey, 88.

— , Red-backed, 88.

— , Spanish Grey, 87.

— , Woodchat, 89.
Siskin, 100.
Sitta csesia, 74.
Skua, Arctic, 303.

— , Buffon's, 303.

— , Great, 302.

— , Long-tailed, 303.

— , Pomatorhine, 302.

— , Richardson's, 303.

— , Twist-tailed, 302.
Smew, 232.
Snipe, Common, 278.

— , Great, 277.

— , Sabine's, 279.

, Solitary, 277.

Sparrow, Hedge, 49.
, House, 101.

— , Rock, 102.
, Spanish, 102.

— , Tree, 102.
Sparrowhawk, 186.
Spatula clypeata, 222.
Spoonbill, White, 210.
Squatarola helvetica, 267.
Starling, Common, 77.

, Rose-coloured, 79.

-, Spotless, 78.

Stercorarius catarractes, 302.

crepidatus, 303.

parasiticus, 303.

pomatorhinus, 302.

Sterna anglica, 293.

cantiaca, 294.

caspia, 294.

- fluviatilis, 296.

macrura, 295.

maxima, 294.

media, 295.

rainuta, 296.

Stilt, Black-winged, 274.
Stint, Little, 282.

— , Lobed-footed, 275.
, Temminck's, 283.

INDEX TO BIRDS.

325

Stonechat, 43. ,
Stone-Curlew, 262.
Stork, Black, 210.

, White, 207.

Strepsilas interpres, 273.
Strix flammea, 137.
Sturnus unicolor, 78.

vulgaris, 77.

Sula bassana, 199.
Swallow, Common, 93.

, Red-rumped, 94.

Swan, Mute, 216.

, Whooper, 215.

Swift, Alpine, 124.

, Common, 122.

, Mouse-coloured, 123.

— , White-bellied, 124.
Sylvia atricapilla, 51. .

cinerea, 50.

• conspicillata, 51.

curruca, 50.

• hortensis, 51.

melanocephala, 54.

orphea, 52.

subalpina, 53.

undata, 55.

Syrnium aluco, 141.

Tadorna casarca, 219.

cornuta, 219.

Tchagra, 90.
Teal, 224.

, Summer, 225.

Telephonus erythropterus, 90.
Tern, AUied, 295.

, Arctic, 295.

, Black, 291.

-, Caspian, 294.

, Common, 296.

, Gull-billed, 293.

, Little, 296.

, Royal, 294.

, Sandwich, 294.

, Whiskered, 292.

-, White-winged Black, 292.

Thrush, Blue Rock, 36.

Thrush, Mistle, 34.

— , Song, 34. ,

— , White-backed Rock, 38.
Tichodroma muraria, 75.
Tit, Algerian Coal, 73.
, Blue, 72.

— , Crested, 73.

, European Coal, 73.

, Great, 71.

, Marsh, 73.

, Penduline, 74.

, Spanish Long-tailed, 71.

, Ultramarine, 72.

Totanus calidris, 287.

canescens, 286.

cinereus, 286.

fuscus, 287.

glareola, 285.

hypoleucus, 285.

ochropus, 284.

— stagnatilis, 286.
Tringa alpina, 281.

— canutus, 281.

— minuta, 282.
- striata, 282,

— subarquata, 280.

— temmincki, 283.
Troglodytes parvulus, 75.
Turdus iliacus, 35.

— merula, 35.
musicus, 34.

— pilaris, 35.
— torquatus, 36.

— viscivorus, 34.
Turnix sylvatica, 241.
Turnstone, 273.
Turtle-Dove, Common, 234.

, Egyptian, 235.

Turtur communis, 234.

senegalensis, 235.

Twite, 105.

Upupa epops, 134.
Uria troile, 304.

Yanellus gregarius, 272.

326

INDEX TO BIRDS.

Vanellus vulgaris, 271.
Vultur monachus, 145.
Vulture, Bearded, 156.

, Black, 145.

, Cinereous, 145.

, Egyptian, 152.

, Griffon, 147.

Wagtail, Blue-headed Yellow, 113.

, Grey, 112.

• , Grey-headed, 114.

, Yellow, 114.

— , Pied, 112.

— , White, 111.
Warbler, Aquatic, 58.
, Black-headed, 54.

— , Bonelli's Willow, 63.

, Cetti's Bush, 61.

, Chestnut-breasted, 53.

, Dartford, 55.

, Fantail, 69.

, Furze, 55.

, Garden, 51.

, Grass, 69.

, Grasshopper, 59.

, Great Reed, 57.

< , Marsh, 58.

, Moustached Swamp, 61.

, Reed, 57.

, Savi's, 59.

, Sedge, 58.

, Short-winged Yellow Tree, 65.

Warbler, Spectacled, 51.

, Subalpine, 53.

, Western Orphean, 52.

, Western Pallid, 65.

, Western Rufous, 56.

, Willow, 64.

, Wood, 63.

Waterhen, 247.

— , Purple, 247.
Wheatear, Black, 41.

, Black-eared, 40.

, Common, 39.

, Western Black-throated, 40.

Whimbrel, 291.

, American, 291.

Whinchat, 43.

White throat, Common, 50.

— , Lesser, 50.
Wigeon, 225.
Woodcock, 276.

Woodpecker, Algerian Green, 128.
, Algerian Pied, 127.

— , Great Spotted, 126.

— , Grey-headed Green, 129.

— , Middle Spotted, 127.

, South Spanish Green, 128.

Wood-Pigeon, 232.
Wren, 75.

— , Fire-crested, 66.
— , Gold-crested, 66.
Wryneck, 129.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, KED LION COURT, FLEET STItEET.

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KC\T.

811998 r^F-

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY