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ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION
EMBODYING
THE ESSENTIAL FACTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
WITH CONCISE RULES FOR PUNCTUATION
AND THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
& <tet=book auto Book of Reference
FOR
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS
BY S. R. WINCHELL, A.M.
AUTHOR OF " LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION," " ELEMENTARY LESSONS
IN GREEK SYNTAX," " PRIMARY SCHOOL SONGS," " PRIMARY
FRIDAYS," " INTERMEDIATE FRIDAYS," " GRAMMAR
SCHOOL FRIDAYS," " INTERSTATE PRIMER
SUPPLEMENT," ETC., ETC.
CHICAGO A. FLANAGAN COMPANY
VV C) <- C
COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY A. FLANAGAN COMPANY.
TYPOGRAPHY as* J. s. CUSIUNU & (;o., JSUUVVOUD, MASS.
PREFACE.
IT has been the aim of the author of this little manual to present in a concise form the essential facts concerning the language we use in speaking and writing. An effort has been made at every step to set forth essential facts, not theories ; to be concise, and yet thorough ; to avoid being led into writing a treatise, and yet to give a sufficient num- ber of details to render the work complete for practical uses.
It has not been deemed advisable to cumber the pages of this little volume with all the various theories, forms, and exceptions which may be found even in several of the lead- ing authorities on the subject of which the volume treats, but the one authority closely adhered to throughout has been Webster's International Dictionary. This work is so generally accepted by American schools and writers as the guide for pronunciation and spelling, that no attempt has been made to present the points of difference between this and other eminent authorities.
As an aid and guide to teachers who use the book with classes, frequent exercises have been introduced, which should be supplemented by others of a similar nature pre- pared by the teacher, or by tho class under the direction of the teacher. Too much drill on the sounds of the letters, the spelling and pronouncing of words, and the punctuation of sentences can hardly be possible. These drills should
iii
iv PREFACE.
be both oral and written. By making much of them in u school, they become exceedingly interesting and profitable.
Part IV., on Punctuation, presents the essentials of cor- rect punctuation, illustrated by numerous examples.
It is almost superfluous to say that John Wilson's " Trea- tise on Punctuation," now out of print, is the most complete work of the kind in the English language ; but it was pub- lished thirty years ago, and is now considerably behind the times. A very valuable hand-book is that of Marshall T. Bigelow, which presents in concise form the principles set forth by Wilson. Another work, interesting and logical, is by F. Horace Teall, entitled "Punctuation," published by D. Appleton & Co. But the latest work, and therefore more nearly in conformity with present usage, as well as extremely fresh, original, and free from technicalities and rules, is an anonymous treatise entitled, "Why we Punc- tuate." These and numerous other works have been con- sulted in the preparation of this volume, and examples and illustrations have been freely drawn from them.
S. II. W. EVANSTON, ILL.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
PART FIRST— ORTHOEPY I
Phonotopy . . . l
The Alphabet as Numerals 8
Phonology 8
Diacritical Marks 8
Vowel Sounds ........ 10
Diphthongs and Triphthongs 14
Summary of the Sounds of the Vowels ... 16
The Consonants . . 22
Classification of Consonants ..... 23
The Sounds of the Consonants . . . . .24 Summary of the Consonant Sounds .... 29
Digraphs and Tri graphs .... .31
Syllabication ~ 35
Rules for the Division of Words into Syllables . . 37 Accent ......... 40
Articulation 44
List of Words often Mispronounced .... 49
PART SECOND — ORTHOGRAPHY ...... 55
Rules for Spelling . . 56
Variations in Spelling ..... .59
Formation of the Plural of Nouns . 62
Synonyms . ...... 65
Homonyms . 68
PART THIRD — ETYMOLOGY 70
Definitions . ... 72
Some Important Prefixes . . . . . .73
Some Important Suffixes ...... 75
PART FOURTH— PUNCTUATION . ..... 77
The Comma 80
General Rules 81
Special Rules . . ' . . . . . . 85
The Semicolon .88
The Colon 89
The Period 91
The Dash 93
Exclamation and Interrogation Points . 96
Marks of Parenthesis and Brackets .... 97
The Apostrophe . .99
Quotation Marks 100
Other Characters or Signs found in Books . . . 107
The Hyphen . 109
Capital Letters . . .114
Abbreviations ... . 119
PART FIFTH— SPELLING LISTS . . 125
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
For use in schools, the matter contained in this volume, should be carefully selected. It is by no means desirable that students should be required to learn and remember everything in the book, though everything should be read at least once. For instance, the pages relating to the Origin and History of the English Alpha- bet may be interesting, but a knowledge of the facts contained in them is not essential. 'Teachers sh->uld use their own judgment as to the amount of time to be given to any special topic.
For teachers who may need them, the following hints are given in addition to those in the book as to the way the book may be used in schools.
Diacritical Marks. Drill on the exercise till every pupil is per- fectly familiar with the marks and can pronounce any wrd when marked, and can also mark any word whose pronunciation is known.
Vowel Sound*. Assign a few paragraphs at a time and have them thoroughly learned and recited over and over, especially the Summary, also the tables of long vowels and short vowels.
Consonants. The same as for vowels. Have t e pupils give the sounds repeatedly, sometimes in concert.
Syllabication. The rules should be committed to memory and frequently called for in recitation.
Lists of Words Often Mispronounced. The Words in the first col- umn should be written frequently on the blackboard and pupils called on to pronounce them.
Rules for Spelling. These should be committed to memory and frequently called for.
Variations in Spelling. It is well for learners to recognize these variations, yet it is not worth while to spend much time on them.
Formation of the Plural of Nouns. Learn these rules thoroughl".
Synonyms and. Homonyms. Take plenty of time for writing ex- ercises on these lists.
'Etymology. This subject is very briefly presented. The few pages given should be thoroughly learned.
Punctuation. Have pupils commit the rules to memory, arid ap- ply them in writing. Errors in books should be pointed out by the teacher and also by the pupils, and discussion should be freely permitted. Require only a few rules everyday, and require the pupils to copy illustrations from their text-books.
Capital Letter*. The same as for punctuation.
Abbreviations. These should all be memorized and frequently recited.
PART FIRST.
ORTHOEPY.
Orthoepy treats of the correct pronunciation of words. As the pronunciation of words depends upon the pronuncia- tion of the letters of which they are composed, it is neces- sary first to understand the pronunciation of letters.
There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet. These letters are used to represent sounds, yet there are forty-four elementary sounds in the English language, com- bined into perhaps 300,000 different words. Hence the same letter must sometimes represent two or more sounds.
The science which treats of the elementary sounds is called phonology or phonetics. The representing of ele- mentary sounds by characters or letters is called phonotypy, or phonography.
The student should be careful to distinguish between let- ters, their names, and their sounds. For example, g is a letter, its name is jee, and it has two sounds.
Elementary sounds are uttered by the organs of speech, which are the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate.
PHONOTYPY. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.
The English word alphabet is derived from alpha and , the names of the first two letters of the Greek alpha-
1
2 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
bet ; or aleph and beth, the first two letters of the Hebrew alphabet.
The English alphabet is nearly the same as that used by the ancient Romans, which was derived from the Greek. The Greek alphabet was formed from the Phoenician, which, in turn, has been traced back to the phonetic hieroglyphs of the Egyptians.
The forms of the letters of the English alphabet are nearly the same as those of the Latin alphabet. Many of these forms were the same in the Greek, and, in a few instances, the resemblances are apparent in the Phoenician.
It is not the province of this book to give in detail the numerous changes in value which each letter has undergone during its lifetime. Only the most important changes will be mentioned.
A is the first letter in all these alphabets, including the Egyptian, though the phonetic hieroglyphs of the Egyptians bear no resemblance in form to our present alphabet. The form of A is identical in Greek, Latin, and English.
In English this letter is called a; in most other lan- guages, ah. This ah sound of a was first given it by the Greeks, the long a sound having come into use in the early part of the seventeenth century. There are six distinct sounds of a now recognized in English : hate, hat, far, fall, ask, cdre.
B had the same form in Latin and Greek, but in old Greek and Phoenician was written from righ't to left, the Phoenician also leaving off the lower half of the letter. The small 6 is a modified form of capital B. According to early colonial law B was stamped on the forehead of a blasphemer.
PHONOTYPY. 3
In the original Aryan tongues 6 has much the same force as p'j in modern Greek and Spanish it passes into v; in English it has but one sound, but is sometimes silent, as after final ra.
C is first found in its present form in the Latin. It was formed by rounding the angle of the Greek gamma (F).
In Phoenician and Greek c had always a " hard " sound, much like that of g or k. The "soft" sound of c in English is derived from the Teutonic languages. No Anglo-Saxon word contains c pronounced like s, except a few misspelled, as cinder for sinder, and a few words ending in -ce, where this termination takes the place of the original -es, -s, in conformity with that termination in words of French origin ; as, once, from ones; hence, from hennes. C has the sound of s before e, i, and y, elsewhere that of Jc.
As c has no distinct sound of its own, it is a redundant letter of the English alphabet.
D is the fourth letter in English, Roman, Greek, and Phoenician. Capital D is the same in form as in Latin. D is most nearly related to t and tli in pronunciation. Thex ending ed in the past tense and perfect participle of verbs was formerly t, and is sometimes pronounced as if so spelled.
E has retained its form with little change from the Phoe- nician. It is the most frequently used letter of all the English alphabet. Its form and value are from the Greek, its name from the Latin.
The letter e has two leading vowel sounds, long and short ; as in mete, met.
F was found in Phoenician, but dropped out of use in classical Greek to be resurrected in the Latin. The Latin
4 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
/appears as b in Anglo-Saxon. The Anglo-Saxon b is also a substitute for Latin and Greek p. The form and sound of / are* from the Latin, the form resembling that of the Greek digamma (/:).
G was formed from C by the Komaiis.
G has two sounds, the simple or hard sound, as in gave, go, gun, and the compound (j) or soft sound, as in gem, gin, gyves. This soft sound of g is never found at the beginning of a word of Anglo-Saxon origin.
H is of Phoenician origin, but lost its identity in the Greek, its force being indicated by the "hiatus" or "rough breathing''* Q, and its entire absence by the "smooth breathing" ('). In original Anglo-Saxon words it corre- sponds to Latin c; as, horn, Latin corn-u, Greek kenix (/cepas) ; hundred, Latin centum, Greek hekaton. The name (aitch) is from the French, the form from the Greek, through the Latin.
I may be found in Latin, Greek, Phoenician, and Egyp- tian. In the Phoenician it was a consonant; in the Latin and Anglo-Saxon it served both as 'consonant and vowel. and is found in English representing the consonant sound of y, as in union.
The English I has two principal vowel sounds : long, as in pine, and short, as in phi. The dot which we place over i dates from the fourteenth century. I and j were repre- sented by / alone until recently.
J is another form of /, used to represent the consonant sound. Originally this was the same as y in sound, but about 1630 assumed the sound of zh, or dzli. J is still used in place of / at, the end of a number in a medical prescription
PHONOTYI'Y. O
iind in the word hfjtltqlujnh) also written <t]l<>ln!<t. J is u superfluous letter of the English alphabet.
K is found in the Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek, but not in the Roman of the classical period. It reappeared in middle English to represent the hard sound of c, especially at the beginning of a word; as, king for c-tyj.gr, from cyny, a contracted form of ci/ning.
L may also be traced to the Egyptian. Its force has changed but little during the centuries, being always a trill made by the tip of the tongue. The Chinese do not distinguish between Z and r; as, Melican for American. The name el is Latin.
M is of Egyptian origin. It is the unit of measure in English type, being one square, or quadrate. Compositors are usually paid by the thousand ems. The form of M is the same in Latin and Greek. Its sound is always the same, a labial nasal, related to b and p as n is to d and t.
N is also of Egyptian origin. As an initial letter it has had the same single value as now throughout its history. In other parts of a word its use has varied somewhat. N is a dental-nasal. In printing, it measures a half em. Its form is the same in English, Latin, and Greek.
0 has undergone some change, both in form and use. In the Pho3iiician it was a consonant. In the Greek it be- came a vowel. In early Greek its form was square instead of round. Its principal sounds are long, as in stone; s.hort, as in not; and the sounds heard in orb, sou, food, and book.
P, like n, has always represented one unvarying sound. At the beginning of a few Greek words, like psalm, pneii- fr. it is silent. Its form comes from the Latin. It is
6 OUTHOGRAI'HY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
closely related to 5, /, and r. The digraph pli is from the Greek. It has the sound of/.
Q was not found in the Greek. In Latin it had the same value as &, and was followed by u as in English and French. Tn English the combination qn is pronounced like kw, and is always followed by another vowel. Q is not needed in the English alphabet.
R has always had a kind of vowel nature, though used as a consonant. Like /, it is the sign of a trill or rustle at the tip of the tongue. In Greek, and sometimes in Anglo- Saxon, it was pronounced with an 7*-soimd preceding, and this led to the introduction of h and doubling the r in such words as rheumatism, hemorrhage, catarrh. In England, and in some localities in America, the sound of r is being wholly dropped in many words. " The three K's, Kiting, Reading, and Kithmetic," was given in sincerity as a toast in 1825 by Sir William Curtis, lord mayor of London. The form of It is derived from the Greek through the Latin.
S is very ancient, and has undergone some changes. In the Phoenician it looked like w. In most languages s and z are represented by only one letter. It is the only repre- sentation of inflection in English nouns and verbs. The form and name of s are derived from the Latin.
T is another letter which has always had the same value. It was the twenty-second and last letter of the Phoenician alphabet. The letter derives its name from the Latin, its form from the Greek.
IT originated with the Greeks, and was written Y. The Latin form was U or F. Its sound was that of oo in mood.
PHONOTYPY. 7
V is never doubled. In English, u has two sounds ; long, as in use, and short, as in up.
V is the older form of U. The two forms were used interchangeably, like i and j in Latin, Norman-French, and English as late as the Elizabethan period. Until about 1617 v was called " single «," as ^o was called " double it." The German name van was the same in Phoenician. Vis never the last letter of an English word.
W in modern English comes almost wholly from Anglo- Saxon. It is a ligature of W, which later became united into one sign, but never assumed a new name, although " single u " acquired the name " ve" W is usually a con- sonant, but sometimes it is a vowel.
X is not the sign of a single sound, but the combination of c and s. It might be wholly dispensed with. The char- acter is from the Latin. The same character is used in Greek for ch. It was the last letter in the Latin alphabet till Fahd Z were added at a later date to represent sounds found in Greek words.
Y, with u, v, iv, comes from the Greek upsilon (v), as an addition to the Phoenician alphabet to represent the oo- sound. It has both vowel and consonant value. As a vowel it is equivalent to i, and hence is not needed.
Z is seldom used in English, though one of the oldest letters of the alphabet. Its use everywhere could be sup- plied by s except at the beginning of a word. In England it i*s called zed, formerly izzard. Its form is the same in Latin and Greek. It was the last letter in the Latin alpha- bet, the fourth in the Greek, and the seventh in the Phoeni- cian.
8 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
THE ALPHABET AS NUMERALS.
Among the Komans numbers were indicated by the let- ters of the alphabet, as follows : —
I, One C, One hundred
V, Five D, Five hundred
X, Ten M, One thousand L, Fifty
A letter representing a smaller number placed at the of another reduced the value of the one at the right} if placed at the right, it increased it.
IV, Four XIX, Nineteen
VI, Six XC, Ninety
IX, Nine CD, Four hundred
XI, Eleven MD, Fifteen hundred
A line over a letter multiplied its value by 1000. C, 100,000 ; CD, 400,000. .
Other letters of the Roman alphabet also had values assigned to them in later years.
B, Two K, 250 R, 80
E, 250 N, 90 or 900 S, 7 or 70
F, 40 0, 11 T, 160
G, 400 P, 400 U, 150 H, 200 Q, 500 X, 1000
PHONOLOGY.
The word diacritical is derived from two Greek words, signifying to distn«jn!xlt, l)<jtir<j<>n. As the same letter mu ;! sometimes represent two or more sounds, a system of di.i- critical marks has been adopted to aid us in distinguishing between different phonetic uses or values of letters.
PHONOLOGY.
9
Combinations of sounds are also sometimes indicated by such, marks, and sometimes by combinations of letters.
It is said that the English language offers more difficulties to a foreigner than any other language. Its pronunciation is guided by no fixed rules, and abounds in inconsistencies. Its letters have no fixed values, representing different sounds in different words (notwithstanding there are nearly twice as many sounds as letters), and sometimes even two or more letters are put together to represent one sound ; as, tli, sh, ivli.
sThe diacritical marks employed in this book are the same as those in Webster's International Dictionary. . Their names and uses are as follows : —
Macron, Greek makros, long, (~), placed over a vowel to indicate the long sound. When placed over a consonant it is called a bar. '
Breve, Latin brevis, short, (~), placed over a vowel to indi- cate the short sound.
Diaeresis or Dieresis, Greek diairesis, a taking apart, ("), placed over the second of two adjacent vowels to show that each is to be pronounced separately ; as, cooperate. As a diacritical mark it is placed sometimes above and some- times below a vowel. When used as a diacritical mark it is better to call it two dots.
Semi-diaeresis, Greek liemi, half, and diairexis, a taking apart, (•). This is the same as the period. When used as a diacritical mark it is better to call it a dot.
Tilde, or Wave, Latin titulus, a title or inscription, (~). The tilde placed over n indicates that the following vowel
10 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
is preceded in pronunciation by y consonant ; as, canon. When placed over a vowel it is better to call it a wave.
Caret, or Circumflex, Latin carere, to want, Q. The com- mon use of the caret is to indicate that something has been omitted, the omitted letter or word being written above or in the margin ; as, telling. When used as a diacritical mark it is better to call it a circumflex.
Suspended Bar, (j.), used to indicate a long sound some- what shortened. Under s it indicates the sound of a
Cedilla, Spanish cedilla, little zeta, the Greek name of z, (t). It is placed under c to show that the letter has the sound of s ; as, facade.
The French nasal tone is indicated by N following the vowel; as, bon, boN', ensemble, aN-saN-Vl.
Voice-glide, Q, used to show the omission of a vowel sound and the gliding together of two consonants ; as, pardon, par'~d'n.
VOWEL SOUNDS.
There is no exact number of vowel sounds which can be said to be distinct and separate, 'since all are produced by the glottis, or vocal cords, with no interruption of sound by the lips, tongue, or teeth, and glide so perfectly from one to another that their differences are scarcely distin- guishable except between sounds somewhat remote from each other in character. The modifications of vowel sound are produced by adjusting the flexible and movable parts of the mouth. This explains why different treatises on pro- nunciation do not agree as to the number of sounds certain vowels have. Moreover, in some localities vowel pronun- ciation is quite different from what it is in others, and the
PHONOLOGY.
same words are pronounced quite differently in different parts of the United States, as well as in England.
The principal vowel sounds recognized as distinct are the following, given in their natural order of succession:1 —
a, Italian a, as in far. This is the richest of all vowel sounds, yet is comparatively little used in English pronunciation. In German it occurs ten times as frequently, and in Sanskrit sixty times as fre- quently as in English. This sound in unaccented syllables approaches the next sound of a. The same sound is frequently given to e before r in England ; as, Derby, clerk (pronounced Darby, dark). In ser- geant this sound prevails also in America.
a, short Italian a, as in ask. This sound of a seems to be a short- ening of the broad Italian a. By some persons it ig not easily recog- nized. Some do not distinguish it from a, while others confuse it with a. In Webster's Dictionary this sound of a in final or medial unac- cented syllables closed by n, 1, etc., is distinguished by being printed in italic ; as, infant, fatally, etc.
a, medial a, as in care, there, heir. This sound is always produced by a following r sound closing a syllable more or less strongly accented. It is a prolongation of &. This is an instance in which the vowel nature of r is observable. There is sometimes a trace of the same sound to be found in New England in such words as serve, earth, earn, term, etc.
a, short a, as in am, at, usually followed by a consonant sound closing the syllable. This sound is peculiar to the English.
a, broad a, as in fall, 6rb, b6rn, bought, haul, draw, etc. When given to o, its syllable is accented and followed by r ; as, abh6r, exhOrt, Order. In unaccented syllables this sound of o is somewhat modified, approaching that of o ; as, f6rget, Ordain.
8, short o, as in not, was. Unaccented syllables in o are usually closed by a consonant, final syllables of this kind usually having the sound of 6 in son ; as, connect, oppose, bishop, donor.
a, long a, as in ate, ale, obey, eight, vein. This sound slightly modified is given to a in unaccented syllables, as in preface, savage, senate, salutary. Webster's Dictionary gives this modification as a
1 The student should consult the dictionary for a complete analysis of the vowel sounds.
- ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
separate sound marked by the suspended bar, a. This sound is given to e in pure English words only where that vowel is followed by i or y in the same syllable.
In any, many, Thames, said, again, against, the sound of a is undistinguishable from that of e.
S, short e, as in end, pet, feather, guess, bury, any, said, again A consonant sound closes the syllable in which it occurs. This soim 1 is sometimes modified toward i in final syllables ; as, wicked, roses, kitchen. Generally when e follows a consonant at the end of a syllable it has no sound, but marks the preceding vowel as long ; as, lame, mete., kite, tone, lute. . This is not always the case, however ; as, give, have, done. It is also silent in the endings -ed and -en of the past tense and perfect participle of verbs ; as, broken, whipped. But if the verb stem ends in d or t, the final syllable is fully pronounced ; as, added, omitted. When e is unaccented and closely followed by another vowel it sometimes assumes the value of y, and it' preceded by t, d. c soft, or s, the two letters often coalesce ; as, righteous, grandeur, ocean, nauseous.
In words like novel, prudent, etc., where e comes before n, 1, or r in unaccented syllables, Webster's Dictionary recognizes a distinction in sound by printing the vowel in italic.
O, long o, as in note, bone, grow, sew, door. This sound is sometimes modified, especially in New England, in such words as home, coat, stone, etc. () in unaccented syllables has another modi- fication, such as obey, tobacco, poetic. In Webster's Dictionary this is recognized as a distinct sound of o, and is marked with the suspended bar, 6.
ti, short u, as in up, son, blood.
C, 1, ft, y, as ill her, verge, sir, earn, burn, myrtle. This sound occurs before r in accented syllables, provided the r is not followed by a vowel or another r in the following syllable of the same word. This exception does not apply, however, to derived forms of verbs.
Webster's Dictionary recognizes a distinct sound in urn, hurl, tur- bid, etc., but most people regard this as the same sound heard in earn, girl, interred. Indeed, the sound of o in worm is very similar. though given by Webster as 6 in son.
This sound is the nearest approach in English pronunciation to the, French eu and the German 6 or oe.
PHONOLOGY. ] :•{
6, long e, as in eve, mete, feet, key, machine. This sound of e in unaccented syllables is marked e in Webster's Dictionary ; as, event, create.
I, short i, as in sit, hymn, been, English, busy, women. This is strictly an English sound. It is heard also in many final syllables ; as. foreign, surfeit, circuit, mischief, surface, village, captain' ended, etc.
Short i sometimes has the force of y consonant. This occurs when it is closely followed by another vowel ; as, filial, onion. When pre- ceded by c, d, t, s, or sc, the i combines with the preceding consonant to produce a sound like sh, j, zli, or eh ; as vicious, cordial, cap- tious, mansion, vision, conscious/
0, or OO, slender o, as in do, moon, food, boot, canoe, prove. This sound is also represented by ou in soup, route, etc.
U, Q, or OO, medial u, as in foot, good, wolf, full, put, woman.
U, long u, as in use, mute, duty, beauty, feud, pew, you, etc. This sound as generally given is that of a diphthong, I-oo. It is modi- fied variously, and in Webster's Dictionary the modifications are given as different sounds. Long u was originally the same sound as do or oo. In unaccented syllables it is modified to u ; as, unite, graduate, supreme. After r it becomes u ; as, rude, rural. This sound of u is essentially the same as that of oo in food. U is silent in plague, rogue, tongue, gauge, guard, guess, guide, build, etc. After q, s, or g, and before another vowel, u regularly has the sound of w; as, quite, language, persuade.
1, long i, as in Ice, right, kind, vie, guide, thy, buy. This is not a simple sound, being a running together of a or a and I ; it is really a diphthong. In unaccented syllables this sound is marked i in Webster's Dictionary ; as, idea, biology, diameter.
The first sound given in the foregoing list, that of Italian a, is the purest vowel sound in the English language. It may be said to be unmodified. All other vowel sounds are modifications of this. The organs of speech which modify this primal sound are the tongue and the lips.
If we observe carefully the various distinct vowel sounds which are modifications of d produced by the tongue, we
14 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
shall find them succeeding each other in the following order from open to close : —
a, a, a, a, 6, a, a, I, 6, e.
These may therefore be called the lingual vowels.
The various distinct vowel sounds produced by the lips succeed each other in the following order from open to close:— a, 6, 6, 6, 6, do, oo.
These may be called labial vowels.
There are also certain v'owel sounds which are modifica- tions of a by both tongu? and lips. These are u and c. It is at the extremes, e and do, where vowels and consonants come nearest together. The next step toward the conso- nants brings us to the semivowels y and w, then the liquids r and L
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
The words diphthong and triphthong are derived from the Greek phthong (sound), with the Greek prefixes di- (twice) and tri- (thrice).
^Diphthongs are sometimes distinguished as proper and improper, or pure and impure.
A proper diphthong is a union of two vowel sounds in one syllable, both of which are sounded ; as, toy, rout, toil, now.
An improper diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syllable, only one of which is sounded ; as, hail, vein, height, loaf.
A triphthong is a union of three vowels in one syllable, forming a simple or a compound sound; as, beau, lieu, view, eye.
PHONOLOGY. 15
The only pure diphthongs are : —
Oi, oy ; as, boil, boy (a and i).
Ou,' ow ; as, out, bow (a or a and 05).
Several of the single vowel sounds consist in reality of two sounds which glide into one. The sound of f, for in- stance, comprises a or a and I ; also u, after certain conso- nants, comprises i or e and oo; as, few, pure, mute, bureau, with the additional modification of the initial vowel sound by consonant y ; a is also composed of e and i.
Improper diphthongs are generally called digraphs.
EXERCISE.
Describe the diphthongs and triphthongs in the following words : —
heath taught thou blow
|
how |
feud |
ease |
people |
|
toy |
buy |
though |
book |
|
oil |
boy |
heel |
though |
|
thou |
due |
seal |
caught |
|
moon |
allow |
beauty |
they |
|
loyal |
low |
juice |
foe |
|
joy |
canoe |
field |
law |
|
oyster |
die |
say |
four |
|
voice |
town |
know |
seal |
|
renown |
point |
eat |
ceiling |
joyful coward awl
The sound of a vowel in any word may be discovered by pronouncing the word very slowly, then repeating it with the omission of consonants preceding or following the vowel, then omitting all except the vowel. For example : —
m-i-n-d, m-i-n, m-I, I ; ai-m, ai ; e-ve, e ; a-r-c, a-r, a ; b-o-ne, b-o, o ; I-n, I ; a-s-k, a-s, a.
16 ORTHOGRAPHY, OUTIK >10PY, AND Pl'NTTr ATlnN.
SUMMARY OF TH^ SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
The following summary exhibits all the vowel sounds recognized by Webster's Dictionary. For further varia- tions, see Vowel Sounds, page 10.
EQUIVALENTS.
a, as in late e, as in they, vein
a, " " delicate
a, " " care
a, " " can
a, " " arm
a, " " ask
a, " " what
e,
serene
e, " " create
e, " " eight
6, " " bend
e, " " there
e, " " fern
I, " '> bind
t, " " idea
there
" " haul " " draw
machine
ate
many bunj
care
(i, » " girl . . J u, " " hurl [y, " " myrtle
y, '« " rhyme
PHONOLOGY. 1 7
EQUIVALENTS.
I °i a I I/ ' ;, as in bit ....
o, as in women u, " " busy
e, English
i, " " pique e, " " theme
e, " " her
I, " " tt>AIrJ -j ft, " " owm
I y, " " myrtle
faw, " " hautboy
.o, " - 7,a/,z . . . . .]^ ;' || ^
* ? ,
I ow, " ." bow 6, " " obey
r a, " " caZ;
6, " " ZorfZ J aw, " " ^awZ
I aw, " " c?raio
O, " " WO^ «, " " W5«S
foo, " " moow
o, » " ^omft .,...-! °e'
O?«, " " S0?(/)
I ?/,
" "
60, " " f(Tot u, " "
done .....'.,&, " " M^
etc, new
fi, " ;c rrfuse ,•*,.„.-! e?t, " " feud
( ou, " '.' wo?<
18 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
EQUIVALENTS. " as in tomb
|
11, as }n rude |
! oo, " " moon |
|
oe, " " canoe low, " " sotep |
|
|
u, u " push |
jo, " " wolf |
|
a, " " burn |
f«, " " Aer |
|
tt, " " up |
i. y, " " myrtle Q it ti son |
|
y " " hymen |
. . . i " " 6md |
|
y, " " hyena y, " " lyric |
? tt tt Oj^ |
|
y1, " " myrtle |
r ? ' ' ' * 7> ?7* ^ i, " " sir |
|
Iw, " " ftwrn |
|
|
6"o " " foot |
j o, " " w?oZ/ |
|
oo, " " moon «f. " " 7)rt?7 |
\ oe, " " canoe - 0?<, " " .SOMp |
Oil, " "
[The teacher should require much practice from pupils in pronouncing the vowels in the above Summary. Pupils should be required to present words containing the various vowel sounds, and these words should be carefully tested by all the class.]
PHONOLOGY.
19
a,
The vowels may also be divided into two groups — Ion; and short, as follows : —
VOWELS. as in tale » « far
" " fa-ii
" " cSre
' theme
' vf'rg'e
' eight
' mice
' jtfgue
o,
0, oo,
9'
fl
II
a, y, y,
ol, ou,
girl
old
lord
coop
tomb
use
rude
burn
hymen
myrtle
boil
|
SHORT |
VOWELS. |
|
a, as |
in /m£ |
|
& " |
" delicate |
|
a,' " |
" /ds« |
|
a, " |
" what |
|
6 " |
" metf |
|
e,' " |
" create |
|
I, » |
" sHp |
|
i, " |
" tdea |
|
0, " |
u not |
|
6, " |
" *6ey |
|
do, ** |
" ./W« |
|
9, " |
" wpl/ |
|
6, " |
u (^dwe |
|
fi, " |
" MS |
|
u, " |
'* unite |
|
u, " |
" J9MS^ |
|
$, " |
" Zyn'c |
|
y,. " |
" ^ewa |
Certain long vowels may also be said to have correlative short vowels, as follows : —
LONG. SHORT. a e
a a
a 6
e i
do do
II U
The so-called short vowel sounds indicated by a, e, ?, o, u, are by no means the corresponding long sounds shortened.
20
ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
|
Pronounce the following |
words and name the vowel |
||
|
•sounds : — |
; |
||
|
bar |
there |
bold |
abuse |
|
pass |
dance |
pi'que |
chance |
|
boot |
bake |
broom |
book |
|
path |
tear |
hog |
pass |
|
ridge |
awe |
taught |
lime |
|
tear |
fought |
lord |
care |
|
task |
gaudy |
spurn |
put |
|
odd |
who |
card |
[Pupils should be required to name the sounds of the vowels quickly, as well as to pronounce them. The teacher will find it help- ful to write the vowels on the blackboard, with their diacritical marks, and require the pupils to name them promptly. Artificial monosyl- labic words may be made also by the teacher, and marked ; as, jx'ni, pan, pan, pan, pan, pan. The teacher may also name the sounds and let the pupils write the letters representing the sounds, properly marked, on the blackboard ; or they may be given by the pupils orally. ]
EXERCISE.
Name the diacritical marks used in the following words, and tell the purpose of their use : —
same
son
myrrh
find
horn
glide
fare
hard
mercy
do
last
mall
mow
house
porch
scent
seat
odd
cup
purge
pull
rige
myth
tra^e
dress
truce
c6rn
convex
stare
blue
wind
wind
farm
shook
police
rude
ask
come
•wash"
wolf
§ite
chaige
caiion
girl
where
was
has.
fond
PHONOLOGY
21
Write the following words with the proper diacritical nuirks to indicate the sounds of the letters: —
|
word |
nine |
grass |
choice |
|
sin |
myrrh |
want |
claws |
|
trace |
nice |
moon |
ball |
|
now |
haunch |
chain |
urge |
|
verse |
machine |
guest |
cell |
|
use |
sound |
touch |
bold ' |
|
letters |
hole |
think |
fringe |
|
purse |
stare |
put |
mirth |
|
there |
alone |
eat |
truth |
|
was |
coin |
pull |
spread |
|
cent |
hair |
flea |
broad |
|
pear |
tease |
scowl |
notch |
|
breath |
feud |
soft |
race |
|
calf |
sage |
bridge |
sieve |
|
breathe |
mercy |
thirst |
card |
|
skein |
myth |
loose |
use |
|
eight |
scorch |
four |
tare |
|
eighth |
lodge |
gauge |
wrath |
|
sluice |
cloth |
two |
wrap |
|
mark |
dance |
yea |
who |
|
word |
north |
heifer |
floor |
|
chant |
gait |
aunt |
chord |
|
wall |
fought |
corpse |
move |
|
lynx |
buy |
shoe |
bruise |
|
soar |
nut |
priest |
nose |
|
plaid |
name |
seen |
fresh |
|
eye |
sir |
corps |
nice |
|
psalm |
chess |
canon |
should |
|
caught |
tell |
term |
niece |
|
man |
vex |
Avon |
sum |
|
street |
sight |
wash |
corn |
|
tear |
love |
firm |
hard |
Note to the Teacher. — The above exercise is very important. Much time should be spent on it. It, will be found very interesting to
22 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
the pupils. Such study is the only way to become familiar with the sounds of words. Each pupil should have a school dictionary at his desk, and a copy of the International Dictionary should be found in every schoolroom. The correct pronunciation of many words will not be learned unless pupils are required to write them with the diacritical marks. The above list of words should be gone over again and again, and the number multiplied by additions by both teacher and pupils. Let pupils bring in lists of common words for the class to mark. Such exercises should be frequent for months.
" The study of phonetics has long been coming forward into more and more prominence as an essential part of the study of language ; a thorough understanding of the mode of pronunciation of alphabetic sounds, and of their relations to one another as determined by their physical character, has become an indispensable qualification of a linguistic scholar, and he who cannot take to pieces his native utterance, and give a tolerably exact account of every item in it, lacks the true foundation on which everything else should repose." — W. D. WHITNEY.
THE CONSONANTS.
The difference between a vowel and a consonant is this : — a vowel represents a sound uttered without any interruption by the organs of speech, while a consonant represents the result of such interruption or obstruction. There is no well-defined difference between vowels and consonants, certain vowels possessing more or less of the nature of consonants, and certain consonants retaining a distinct vowel nature. For example, r, I, w, n, ng, 6, d, g, while possessing the characteristic of consonants — the absolute closure of the oral passage — yet have the prolonged vowel sound. The words was and ye illustrate the similarity between vowels and consonants.
PHONOLOGY. 23
Iii whispering, the vocalization is produced by a forcing of the breath upon the organs -at the place of obstruction. Many of the consonants have only this breath sound ; as, /, s, sh, th (thin), h, k, p, t, ch. The vowel sounds in whisper- ing are produced similarly, by friction of the breath upon the vocal cords.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS.
The following classification of the consonants is arbitrary and not essential : —
Oral. — This term is applied to those consonants which represent sounds produced while the passage through the nose is completely closed.
Nasal. — The nasal consonants are m, n, ng, b, d, g hard. These are pronounced while the passage through the nose is open and that through the mouth is closed.
Sonant. — When the tone is only partially suppressed or weakened, the consonant is called sonant (sounding). Vowels are sonants with no consonantal obstruction of the tone. Sonant consonants are sometimes called subvocals.
Surd. — If there is a complete absence of tone, the conso- nant is called a surd. Most of the surds have correspond- ing or cognate sonants, as, p, b; t, d; ch, j; k, g hard; /, v; th' (thin), th (thy) ; s,z; sh, zh.
As to the place of articulation the consonants may be divided into : —
Labials, or lip letters, p, 6, m, w, wh.
Dentals, or tooth letters, t, d, n, s, z, and sometimes r. These letters being pronounced by the aid of the tongue are also called lingual*. Th is usually called a dental, but as
2* ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
the tongue is essential in. pronouncing it, it is properly called a lingual) or lingua-dental. F and v are labio-denials.
Palatals, made by the aid of the palate; as, sh, zh, ch,j. With these may be classed y, I, and one variety of r.
Gutturals, k, g hard, ng.
The following classifications are also given to consonants:—
Mutes. — The term "mute" is properly given only to those consonants which are pronounced without tone ; as, p, Jc, t, but it is customary to include also b, d, g hard, among the mutes. The first are called surd mutes, the latter sonant mutes.
Fricatives. — These require a forced issue of the breath to overcome obstructions. F, tli (thin), s, sh are called surd fricatives; their cognates, v, th (thy), z, zh are called sonant fricatives.
Sibilants. — S, sh, z, zh.
Semivowels. — W and y are called semivowels because their sounds so easily assimilate with the vowel sounds of oo or oo and e or i. L, m, n, r also sometimes have a vowel value, and are therefore called semivowels.
Liquids. — L, m, n, r are more generally called liquids be- cause of their service as aids in the flowing together of vowel and consonant sounds ; as, barn, trap, play, hdp> smaU9 snow.
THE SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS.
B. A labial sonant mute, usually silent after m or before t in the same syllable ; as, dumb, debt.
C. This letter has sometimes the "soft" or sibilant sound of 8, as in civil, ice, etc., and sometimes the " hard " sound like k (marked e), as in cat, corn, etc. The soft
PHONOLOGY. 25
sound of c is heard before e, i, and y. This sound becomes sonant, like z, in a few words, as, suffice, sacrifice, discern. C followed by e or i and another vowel in the same syllable has the sound of sli; as, ocean, oceanic.
Hard c is found before a, o, and n, or a consonant, also at the end of a syllable, if not followed by e or i; as, cave, cove, cup, acrid, arc; by exception also in sceptic and scirroiis. C is silent in czar, victuals, indict, muscle, etc.
D. A dental, or sonant mute. It has the sound of t when preceded by a surd in the same syllable ; as, worked, kissed, etc. It is silent before g in the same syllable ; as, badge, judge, wedge-, also in Wednesday, handkerchief, handsome.
F. A labio-dental, or surd fricative. It is represented by gli in lanijli, y>// in photograph, and has the sound of v in of.
G. The hard sound of g (marked g) is a guttural sonant mute. G hard is used before a, o, u, I, r, s, and at the end of a word; as, gave, gone, gun, glad, grow, rag. By excep- tion g is hard before e, i, y in a few words ; as get, give, n"'{l{ni- & at the end of a word is always hard, also when before a final letter doubled in derivatives, even though followed by e, i, or ?/ ; as, bag, l>aggy, drag, druggist.
The soft sound of g (marked g) is the same as the sound of ./. It is a diphthongal consonant; as in gem, cage. This sound is found before e, i, and y, also before a in gaol. It is represented by dg in judge, badge, etc.
In words from the French g retains the sound of z or zh ; as in rouge, mirage, cortege, etc.
It is silent before m or n final and when initial before n ; as, phlegitij sign, gnat; also in the digraph ng ; as, sing, and in seraglio and bagnio.
26 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
H is sometimes called an aspirate. When used alone and sounded, it is purely a breath, sound. It does not have this nature in the digraphs ch, sh, gh, ph, th. It is silent when preceded by g or r in the same syllable ; as, ghost, ghastly, rhetoric, rhyme, etc.; also in heir, herb, honest, honor, hour, and their derivatives; also in asthma, isthmus, Thomas, Thames, phthisic, Man, and John; sometimes also in hostler, humor, humble, and their derivatives. H final is silent when preceded by a vowel in the same syllable ; as, ah, oh, Sarah, Jehovah. H is farthest removed from the vowels, or vocality.
J is equivalent in sound to g soft, or dg, hence is a redun- dant letter. It is a diphthongal consonant, compounded of d and zh. The sound is represented by ge in surgeon, etc. ; by gi in region, etc. ; by di in soldier, etc. ; by de in grandeur, etc. ; and by d in verdure, etc.
K. A guttural surd mute. Its sound is the same as that of hard c, ch, gh. It is silent before n in the same syllable ; as in knock, knit. It is sometimes represented by ck, as in back; and by Ik after a or 6, as in talk, folk.
L. A liquid. It is silent in such words as would, could, should, balm, half, salve, talk, folk, and their derivatives.
M. A labio-nasal consonant. At the beginning of a syl- lable and followed by n it is silent ; as in mnemonics.
N. A dento-nasal or lingual-nasal consonant. Final n after m is silent; as in hymn, solemn, etc., and generally in participles derived from such words as condemning, damned. N is silent in kiln.
N often has the sound of ng (marked n) ; as in anger, uncle, congress, conquer, prolongation, ink, thank, anxious, etc,
PHONOLOGY. 27
P. A labial surd mute. It is silent as initial before n, s, sh, and t; as in pneumatics, psalm, pshaw, ptarmigan; also in raspberry, receipt, sempstress, corps, and their deriva- tives.
Q is always followed by n, and the two together have the sound of kw, as in queen. Q is therefore a superfluous letter. In a few words from the French qu has the sound of k, as in coquette; also que in antique, burlesque, etc.
R partakes somewhat of the nature of a dental, a palatal, and a vowel.
As a dental it occurs before a vowel in such words as rise, try, oral, etc., also with vowels or consonants produced near the front of the mouth ; as, fear, preach, trace, hurt, etc. By some people it is slightly trilled.
As a palatal it is found in such words as arm, raw, urn, roar, cry.
R with a vowel nature is never followed by a vowel sound. It is heard in fern, ever, war, farm, more, here, care, worm, etc., where it resembles the sound of u or 6, or is a prolongation of the vowel preceding. So slight is the consonant force of the letter in such words that some inac- curate people in New England and the South almost wholly omit the sound in pronunciation. The same careless people are 'apt to add r after final a if the next word begins with a vowel sound ; as, his idea(r) of it. The Chinese find it dif- ficult to utter this sound and usually substitute I for r; as, Amelican for American.
S is a sibilant, either surd or sonant. As a surd: sip, surd, sock, lisp, etc. As a sonant it has the sound of z (marked §) ; as in is, runs, resolve, etc. The sonant * is
28 O LITHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
often found in verbs whose cognate nouns have surd ,s; as, rise, use, etc.
S is sometimes sounded like 8k; as in re won. xur<\ sugar, etc.; and like 2/i; as in vision, pleasure, leisure, etc. It is silent in &fe, aYs/e, island, demesne, viscount.
T is a dental surd mute. T followed by \ and another vowel often assumes the sound of sli; as in portion. T is silent in mortgage, Matthew, hautboy, chasten, fasten, often, listen, castle, gristle, chestnut, Christmas, etc. ; also before ch in the same syllable ; as in match, fetch, hitch, etc.
V is a labio-dental sonant fricative. Its correlative surd is/.
W is a labial sonant fricative. When sounded, it is always followed by a vowel in the same syllable, and has much of the vowel nature. It is therefore called a semi- vowel. It is closely related to do or do. In such usage it is sometimes represented by u; as in quite, quail, quince, language, persuade, etc. It is silent after a vowel in the same syllable, also before r in the same syllable, and in answer, sword, toward, two, who, whom, whoop, etc.
X is both surd (ks) and sonant (gz). As a surd: hos, exit, exhibit, etc. As a sonant : exist f exalt, exhort, etc. X sonant occurs most frequently when followed by an ac- cented syllable beginning with a vowel or silent h. X has the sound of z at the beginning of words ; as, X«//^>//o//.
Y consonant is a palatal sonant fricative. Like w it is a semivowel, being closely related to e or i. In certain words these vowels still remain; as in poniard, onion, Jamil fur. lineal, grandeur. It also forms a part of the vowel u (use). Y as a consonant occurs only at the beginning of a syllable.
PHONOLOGY. 29
Z is a sonant fricative, also a sibilant. Its corresponding surd is s.
Tlie redundant letters are c, j, q, x, since they have 110 sounds of their own.
SUMMARY OF THE CONSONANT SOUNDS.
EQUIVALENTS.
b, as in boy
( -e/i, as in echo
Ufc, '• " kiity
' } tjh, » " hough
[ qu, " " coquette
t s, " " sing sc, " " scene
j, «* " join
in,' " " ma 11, u " not
( ps, "• " psalm d, " " c^o
j9/i, " " photograph
g, " " give gh, " " ghost
( j II U
g, " ". &* , '{^ u u
h, k' u ^OWJ
c^, " " spinach
d, " " verdure
di, " " soldier
de, " " grandeur
-e, " " coo -e^,, *' " chorus
" " coquette
30 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION
EQUIVALENTS.
|
p, |
as in jm£ |
|
|
q, |
" " quench |
|
|
r, |
" u rim " " swn |
rps, as in psalm \ sch, " " schism |
|
» |
If, " " receive |
|
|
sc, " " scene |
||
|
t |
" " top. . . . |
| £/&, as in thyme |
|
T? |
l,ed final after a surd, as in whipped |
|
|
\r |
" " VOW ." • |
{/, " " o/ |
|
TV, |
" " was |
rpfe, " " nephew w, " " queen |
|
X, |
" " 6ox |
i, " " union |
|
> |
" " zebra . |
. J c. " " .s?//f?re |
ch,
ng,
sh,
th, tk,
Xenophon nature
«,
fa', ' question
{ tch, "
n'ngr ...... n before palatals, as in finger
show
c, as in ocean
ch, " " chivalry
c/is, " " fuchsia
sc, " " conscious
sch, " " schottische
s, " " nauseous
t. " " notion
this when
PHOXOLO(!Y. 31
EQUIVALENTS.
• &
zh, as in azure
s, as in erasure
sz, " " fusion,
g, " •• n»tf/t'
zi, " •• ylazivr
Cognate sounds are those which are uttered by the same organs of speech similarly placed. The letters representing cognate sounds are called cognate letters. There are nine pairs of cognates, a pair consisting of a surd and a sonant, as follows : —
p, b ; f , v ; t, (I ; th, tfe ; k, g ; ; s, z ; sh, zh ; ch, j ; wh, w.
The sounds of the consonants may be found by the same process as that employed to find the sounds of vowels. Eor example : —
o-l-d, 1-d, d ; t-e-11, 6-11, 11 ; r-a-t, r-a, r ; b-6-cl, b-e, b.
The sounds of the consonants should be thoroughly learned. The teacher should give the class daily drills in pronunciation until every pupil is able to give any sound called for, without hesitation. Let the pupils imitate the teacher, not only in pronouncing the sounds of the letters, but in forming them. Cultivate a flexibility of the lips, and a free movement of the jaw in producing the sounds of letters.
The teacher should give such exercises in pronunciation as will enable the pupil to detect the several sounds of any word. For example, prolong for some seconds the sounds indicated by the capital letters : —
seeM, raiN, loNG, seaL, wiTH, iS, Ate, At, On, EE1, End, AH, lOse, bOIl, thuS, sAy, bAH, Bah, L,ah, Sah, Man, JAW, Go, eMber, subMit.
DIGRAPHS AND TRIGRAPHS.
The words digraph and trigraph are from the Greek root <jr<tj>7i, meaning to write, with the prefixes di-, twice, and tri-, l1rri<-<\ These words have much the same meaning as diph- thong and triphthong. A true digraph is one in which two
32 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
letters represent a separate and distinct sound; as, lit in thin. The words digraph and tngraph are applied to com- binations of vowels or consonants, while diphtliony and triphthong are used only in case of vowels.
The following are some of the combinations most fre- quently met with : —
VOWELS. — Italian a; as ea in hearth, au in haunt, ua in guard.
Broad a ; as au in haul, aw in draw, on in bought, ao in extraordinary, eo in georgic.
Long e ; as ee in feet, ea in beam, ei in deceive, eo in people, ey in key, ae in Caesar, ie in field, ay in quay, 03 in Phoebus, ue in Portuguese.
Long a; as ei in eight, ey in prey, ai in pain, ay in day, ao in gaol, au in gauge, ea in break.
Short e , as ea in feather, ei in heifer, eo in leopard, ie in friend, ae in diaeresis, ue in guess, ai in said.
Medial a ; as ai in pair, ei in heir, ay in prayer.
Short a; as ai in plaid, ua in guaranty.
Long i ; as ie in vie, ui in guile, ei in height, ai in aisle, uy in buy, oi in choir, ye in rye, eye, ay in aye O'.s) .
Short i ; as ui in build, ie in sieve, ee in breeches, ei in foreign, ia in parliament, oi in tortoise, ai in certain, uy in plaguy.
oo; as oe in canoe, ou in group, ui in recruit, eu in rheum, ew in drew, ceu in manoeuvre.
Long u; as eau in beauty, eo in feodal, eu in feud, ew in pew, ieu in lieu, iew in view, ue in cue, ui in suit, ou in you, ewe.
Short t* / as ou in pious, oi in porpoise, eo in dungeon, ou in couple, iou in gracious.
Short o; as ow in knowledge, ou in hough.
Long o ; as oa in roan, oe in foe, ou in shoulder, ow in grow, eo in yeoman, eau in beau, au in hautboy, oo in door, ew in sew, owe.
CONSONANTS. — Ch, as in child, church, etc. This sound may be represented by tsh. It is the same as tch in watch, hatch, etc. In spinach it has the sound of j. In question, Christian, etc., it i* represented by ti ; in righteous byte; in nature, literature, etc..
PHONOLOGY. 33
by t. In words from the French ch retains the sound of sh (marked ch); as in chaise, machine, mustache, etc. Ch has the sound <;f k (marked eh) in words derived from the Greek or Hebrew ; as in chorus, echo, character, architect, Nebuchadnezzar, Enoch.
EXCEPTIONS: church, chart, Rachel, cherub, archbishop, arch- deacon, archduke, etc. In the prefix arch-, ch is hard before a vowel and soft before a consonant. Ch is silent in drachm, schism, yacht, fuchsia.
Gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard ; as in "•host. It is silent : After i, as in high, straight, eight, etc. ; before t in the same or following syllable, as in bought, caught, daughter, etc. : often after au or ou, as in overslaugh, dough, though, bough, etc. In draught it has the sound of f ; also usually after au or ou at the end of a syllable ; as in laugh, cough, enough. In hough, lough, shough, it has the sound of k. In hiccough it has the sound of p.
Rg represents a simple gutturo-nasal sound. It occurs only at the end of a syllable, as in long ; or with vie added at the end, as in tongue. In the participial ending -ing, the g is sometimes omitted in pronunciation by careless people ; as lickin', comin', etc. The sound of ng is represented by n before palatals ; as in drink, finger.
Ph occurs chiefly in words of Greek derivation, and has the sound of f ; as in philosophy, etc. In Stephen it has the sound of v. In nephew most orthoepists give it the sound of v. In naphtha, diph- thong, triphthong, ophthalmy, etc., it is sometimes pronounced as p.
Rh has the sound of r alone in rhetoric, rheumatism, etc.
Sh is a surd sibilant. Its correlative sonant is z (zh) ; as in azure. The same sound is sometimes represented by si, as in fusion ; by g, as in rouge, mirage, and other French words.
Til is both surd and sonant. As a surd : thin, thing, breath, etc. 'As a sonant (marked th) : the, this, with, breathe, father. In some nouns it is surd in the singular and sonant in the plural ; as bath, baths; cloth, cloths ; also breath, breathe; wreath, wreathe ; hath, bathe. Th has the sound of t in thyme, Thomas, Thames, Ksther. It is silent in isthmus and asthma. The French and Germans find it difficult to utter this sound and are apt to substitute d for it ; as, dat for that.
Wh is pronounced as if it were written hw. It is incorrectly pro- nounced by some without the sound of h ; as wen for when.
34 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
PRONOUNCING EXERCISE.
Pronounce very distinctly the following words, and tell the sound of each letter. Pronounce the letters separately, then pronounce them backward, omitting all silent letters.
|
ant |
soup |
police |
|
bflt |
drop |
can |
|
choose |
vaunt |
deign |
|
is |
tall |
catch |
|
nudge |
m6rn |
•worse |
|
this |
sound |
name |
|
squash |
tongue |
gory |
|
mute |
sh6rt |
long1 |
|
ravine |
rude |
mourn |
|
It |
•wash |
tail |
|
c6rk |
fruit |
wolf |
|
Or |
fair |
moan |
squad loge
aunt
edge
bath
best
brook
pure
bald
like
pastor
Its
It is a good exercise to change the spelling of words as many ways as possible without changing the pronuncia- tion; as, —
Kate eat
< ait eate
ceight
sat
cat
cat
soul
sol
cole soal sole
EXERCISES IN PRONUNCIATION.
The following words may be used for practice in pronun- ciation, accent, articulation, or the use of diacritical marks. Make free use of the dictionary to determine uncertainties.
1 The sound of o in such words as long, soft, dog, cross, god, etc., is a modification of 0, approaching o. In Webster's Dictionary it is marked tf, but it is neither customary nor proper to give these words the short sound of o.
SYLLABICATION.
3/i
|
teach |
for |
spelling |
conquered |
|
oval |
next |
combine |
explain |
|
with |
must |
exercise |
•wandering |
|
work |
used |
awaken |
recollection |
|
more |
lesson |
interest |
philology |
|
move |
marks |
practical |
department |
|
train |
should |
educate |
primitive |
|
ear |
syllable |
recitation |
significance |
|
speech |
accent |
orthography |
repentance |
|
while |
diacritical |
assign |
fascinate |
|
brand |
derivation |
dictionary |
strength |
|
word |
pronounce |
prepare |
beautiful |
|
close |
pronunciation |
review |
language |
|
seem |
opinion |
consonant |
preface |
|
time |
author |
parallel |
constitution |
SYLLABICATION.
Every word consists of one or more syllables. Before attempting to pronounce a word it is well to notice the syl- lables of which it is composed. Syllables make words as links make a chain ; by taking them one at a time we get the whole word. A word is only a succession of syllables, as each syllable is a succession of letters. Having learned the sounds of letters, we may group two or more letters into a syllable and pronounce them quickly in succession ; in the same way, pronouncing a succession of syllables gives us the pronunciation of a word. Any word, however long, may thus be pronounced easily by pronouncing its successive syllables, and no word need be regarded as difficult to pronounce, if we only know how to pronounce letters and syllables.
Each syllable contains one or more vowels ; the conso- nants are attached to the vowels, and the separation of
36 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION7".
syllables is determined chiefly by euphony. No word with only one vowel can have more than one syllable. Bear in mind that the basis of syllabication is in pronunciation, not in etymology.
Any long vowel, also a, a, oi, on, followed by a single consonant (except n, 1, or v, followed by i with a y sound, as, al-ien, geii-ius, behav-ior), or by any two consonants which may begin a word (except st), is separated from the following consonant in syllabica- tion ; as, po-ker, ma-son, wa-ter, poi-son, has-ty, ina-tron.
But if the vowel has its short sound, the following consonant is joined with it in syllabication ; as, pol-i-cy, rgl-ish. This is true also of a and u, or do, when accented, but not when unaccented ; as, di-a-dem, fru-gal'-i-ty.
Short i is sometimes separated from a consonant following, and sometimes draws the consonant to itself, especially in initial syllables, and when followed by s and another consonant ; as, am'-i-ty, im-ag'- me, dis-ease', mln'-is-ter.
The r following a, e, I, 6, u, is always joined with its vowel preced- ing ; as, par'-6nt, ser'-vant.
If two vowels come together, not forming a diphthong, they must, of course, be separated in syllabication ; as, a-e'-ri-al.
When two or more consonants come together, the division follows the above rules. But no combination of consonants can begin a syllable which cannot begin a word, hence one or more of a group of consonants may go with the preceding vowel and the others with the following ; as, —
ohil-dren ac-tress p&m-phlet an-thra-clte
ver-dure fin-gel €n-dfire e-lec-tri-ei-ty
ffll-crum at-mos-phere co§-m6-p61-I-taii hos-plce
In derivative and compound words syllabication comes regularly between the parts ; as, —
|
de-pend-ence hold-ing oon-sist-ent trans-mit |
as-sist-ant build-er pa-tri-arch-al u-nl-fy |
com-mend-able re-tro-speet-ive mak ri- per-si st |
hope-less pro-gress-ive trfist-y en-trust |
SYLLABICATION. 37
But if the spelling, pronunciation, or accent is changed in the derivative word, or it' the meaning of the parts is changed in the derivative; that is, if the derivation is not plainly apparent, the divi- sion of syllables may vary ; as, —
pres-i-dent, from pre-side ; proc-la-ma-tion, from pro-claim ; trus-tee, from trust.
RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.
The principles of syllabication have already been given, but for the sake of easy reference the following rules are formulated : —
RULE I. If the parts forming a compound word retain their original meanings, they are separated in syllabication ; as,—
stove-pipe, hat-rack, mouse-trap.
RULE II. Prefixes and suffixes are usually separated from the body of the word with which they are used ; as, —
sweet-lsh, vig-or-ous, trans-act, lead-er, visit-ing, wast-ing. post-age, east-ern, grasp-ing, wasp-ish, mak-er, baptiz-ing.
When a suffix causes a doubling of the final consonant, the sylla- bles are divided between the consonants ; as, glad-den, rob-ber, begin-ning, allot-ted.
RULE III. When two or more letters, whether vowels or consonants, represent a single sound, — that is, diph- thongs, digraphs, and trigraphs, — they are not to be separated in syllabication; as, —
ea in tear-ing, ss in caress-es, ng jn sing-er, gh in laugh-ingr
In such words as pas-sion, ex-pres-sipn, mis-sion. pres-sure,
is-sue, etc., the double s is divided, because it does not represent a single sound. (See also Rule VII.)
38 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
RULE IV. Two vowels coming together and sounded separately belong to separate syllables ; as, — a-orta, curi-osity, a-eri-al, moi-ety, ortho-epy.
KULE V. A short accented vowel retains the following consonant ; as, —
capac'-ity, mag'-ic, hab'-it, liv'-id, piin'-ish.
1. In other cases c soft and g soft (except in dg = j) go with the vowel following ; as, ra-ging, enti-cing, rava-ger, delu-ging. aeknowledg-i ng.
2. When c, t, s, z, sc, g, or cl unites with a following i, e, or 11, pro- ducing the sound of sh or zh, ch or j, these consonants go with the following vowel ; as, na-tion, physi-cian. so-cial, spe-cial, o-cean. gra-cious, con-science, gla-xier, vi-sion, coura-geotis, ques-tion, ambi-tioii, reli-gion. sol-dier, oflfi-cial, man-sion.
Note. — If the preceding vowel is short and accented, and no other consonant intervenes, these consonants are joined with the preceding- vowel ; as, az'-ure, pleas'-ure, nat'-ural, ed'-ucate, sch6d'-ule.
RULE VI. X (= ks or gz), r preceded by d or e (or an equivalent), I or n or v followed by i consonant, must be joined to the preceding vowel; as, —
anx-ious. complex-ion, par-ent, fair-est, aver-age. gener-al, timor-ous. fol-io, al-ien, gen-ius, un-ion, sav-ior, Span-iard.
RULE VII. Combinations of- consonants which cannot begin a word cannot begin a syllable. Except in the case of derivatives, syllabication occurs between the consonants ; as, —
an-gfel, sym-bol, con-vul-sive, rob-ber, mil-lion, at-tack, ban- ner, cam-brie, fer-tile, oc-tave, min-strel. (See Rule V.,^.) But bank-er, dress-es, ebb-ing, tell-ing. (See Rule II.)
RULE VIII. A single consonant or a consonant digraph between two vowels is joined with the second -} as; —
SYLLABICATION. 39
fa-vor, wa-ter, beau-ti-ful, ro-ta-to-ry, fa-ther, fe-ver, vi-tal, ho-ly, du-ty.
Exception 1. When the first vowel is short and accented ; as, liv'-id, proph'-et, hab'-it, acad'-emy, pun'-ish, ep-id6m'-ic. (See Rule V. )
Exception 2. When the first vowel is in an initial syllable or prefix ; as, im-agine, in-augurate, en-amor.
Exception 3. When the first vowel has a short or obscure sound, and especially when it is in an unaccented root syllable ; «as, vision- ary, system-atic, visit-ation, novel-ist. (See Rule II.)
Exception 4. When the first vowel is long and the case falls under Rule II. or Rule VI.; as, hat-ing, promot-er, gen-ius, conven-ieiit.
RULE IX. Combinations of consonants which, can begin a word are joined to the following vowel when the preced- ing vowel is long ; as, —
ha-tred, hy-dra, bfi-gler, o-blige, vl-bra-tion, a-crostic, re- spect, fa-ble, tri-fle.
Note. — Usually st, str, and sp are divided in syllabication ; as, has-ty, Eas-ter, pas-try, mas-ter, aus-tere. (See, however, Rule II.)
If the preceding vowel is short, the first consonant must be joined to it ; as, Af-ricaii, tab-let, pet-rify, sac-rament, jfts-per, proc- lamation, ob-latioii.
EULE X. Final le, and French derivatives in re, when preceded by a consonant other than I or r, draw the preced- ing consonant into the final syllable ; as, — trou-ble. tic-kle, han-dle, star-tie, sa-bre, fl-bre, me-tre, lus-tre.
It is important to understand the rules of syllabication not only for the purpose of exact pronunciation, but also in order that we may divide words correctly at the end of a line, when, from want of space, part of a word must be carried over to the beginning of the next line.
It is never proper to divide a word at the end of a line except between two syllables, and there may also be some
40 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
choice between the syllables. A compound word should be divided only between the parts of which it is composed ; as, common-wealth (not com-monwealth) } twenty-two (not twen-ty-two).
If the pronunciation of a word is rendered doubtful by division at the end of a line, it is better to carry the whole word to the next line; for example, ac-id,- doc-ile, lur-imj, reg-ister, por-ing. No letter or combination of letters can begin or end a syllable which cannot begin or end a word ; hence no syllable can begin with x and none can end in j; as, ma-jes-ty} pre-ju-dice.
Q must not be separated from the u which always follows it ; as, an-ti-qui-ty, li-quid, re-qui-si-tion.
EXERCISE.
Separate the following words into syllables, and give the rule for each one : —
|
rapid |
philosophy |
antithesis |
synonym |
|
letter |
educate |
answering |
primitive |
|
consonant |
microcosm |
discriminative/ |
dangerous |
|
pronunciation |
syllabication |
considerable |
paragraph |
|
syllable |
reference |
unhesitatingly |
retrograde |
|
meaning |
continually |
imagination |
analyze |
|
determine |
dictionary |
confusion |
separating |
|
uttered |
accurate |
pictures |
disability |
ACCENT.
Accent is an extra stress of voice 011 one syllable of a word of two or more syllables. In words of four or more syllables there is often a primary and a secondary accent, pro- ducing a rhythmic pronunciation. The natural tendency is
ACCENT.
41
to place the primary accent on the root of a word. Deriva- tives also usually retain the accent of their primitives.
As a rule, words of two syllables are accented on the penult, and words of more than two syllables on the ante- penult, but the exceptions are very numerous.
Dissyllabic; nouns often have their penults accented, while verbs of the same spelling are accented on the final syllable. Adjectives also follow nouns in this respect, but are distinguished from them by being accented on the final syllable when there is no verb of the same spelling.
|
NOUN. |
VERB. |
NOUN. |
VERB. |
|
ab'stract |
abstract' |
gal'I ant |
|
|
ac'cent |
accent' |
adj. gallant' |
|
|
Au'gust |
in'cense |
incense' |
|
|
adj. august' |
iii'crease |
increase' |
|
|
cem'ent |
cement' |
in'stinct |
|
|
coin/pact |
adj. instinct' |
||
|
adj. compact' |
in'sult |
insult' |
|
|
com'pound |
compound' |
ob'ject |
object' |
|
com'press |
compress' |
per' fume |
perfume' |
|
con' duct |
conduct' |
per'mit |
permit' |
|
con'flict |
conflict' |
pre1 fix |
prefix' |
|
cou'test |
contest' |
prem'ise |
premise' |
|
con'tract |
contract' |
pres'ent |
present' |
|
coii'trast |
contrast' |
prod'uce |
produce' |
|
con'verse |
converse' |
proj'ect |
project' |
|
con 'vert |
convert' |
pro'test |
protest' |
|
con'vict |
convict' |
rec'ord |
record' |
|
es'cort |
escort' |
sur'vey |
survey' |
|
ex 'port |
export' |
tor'ment |
torment' |
|
ex 'tract |
extract' |
trans 'fer |
transfer' |
Words derived from the Greek or the Latin, with little or no change in spelling, accent the penult if dissyllables,
42 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
In words of more than two syllables the accent falls on the penult if that is long, otherwise on the antepenult.
Many dissyllables of French origin retain their accent on the final syllable ; as, unique', fatigue', caprice', machine'.
When we wish to emphasize a certain syllable of a .word, such emphasis is allowed to override the regular accent ; as, " he must in' crease, but I must de'crease " ; fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, in counting, but fifteen', sixteen', seven- teen1, in answer to the question, "How many?" bear and for' bear, jas'tice and in' justice, ex'terior and in'terior. This emphasis of a syllable is less ^frequent than the emphasis of a word or a phrase.
In dissyllabic compounds both syllables are pronounced with some degree of stress ; as, sony'-birds, house'-top, horse'- rake. Some other words are similarly pronounced; as, ab'- scess, fare-well' , con'qnest, ac'cess.
In general, long vowels and diphthongs are more promi- nent in pronunciation than short vowels ; that is, they never become so wholly obscure in pronunciation. The tendency of uneducated people is to corrupt the sounds of vowels in unaccented syllables. Walker, the lexicographer, says, " There is scarcely anything more distinguishes a per- son of mean and good education than the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When the vowels are under the accent, the learned and the ignorant, with very few excep- tions, pronounce them in the same manner, but the unac- cented vowels in the mouth of the former have a distinct, open, and specific sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change them into some other sound. Those, there- fore, who wish to pronounce elegantly must be particularly
ACCENT. 43
attentive to the unaccented vowels, as a neat pronunciation of these forms one of the greatest beauties of speaking."
EXERCISE.
Pronounce the following words and tell whether the accent is on the first or second syllable : —
common hammer whether condign approve rudely
Which syllable of the following words is accented ? — advertisement professional following triangular
|
instead |
condor |
sudden |
|
consent |
inquest |
attack |
|
upon |
duplex |
eclipse |
|
nothing |
under |
relax |
|
happen |
over |
border |
|
horseshoe |
industry |
subdued |
imitate |
|
revolution |
anecdote |
entire |
primeval |
|
sinister |
utterance |
derivative |
reference |
|
syllable |
audience |
particular |
superstructure |
|
associate |
evident |
recommend |
contrary |
|
primary |
Write the following words and mark the primary accent by an oblique stroke, and the secondary accent by two oblique strokes, thus: su"perstruct'ure. At least one sylla- ble must intervene between the primary and the secondary accent.
|
lemonade |
characteristic |
confederated |
|
magnifier |
incomprehensible |
imposition |
|
affability |
incomprehensibility 1 |
condescension |
|
undertake |
extraprofessional |
gravitation |
|
contradict |
parliamentary |
identification |
|
disrepute |
1 In some long words there may be a tertiary accent.
44 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
Name the following figures, placing the accent as if eacl figure were a syllable : —
1'2 123' 1234' 1'234'5
12' 1'23'4 123'4 1'23'45
1'23 12'34 1'234' 12'34'56'78 12'3 1'234 12'345
ARTICULATION.
There is no surer sign of a poor education than slovenli- ness in pronunciation, and no better indication of good scholarship than accuracy in pronunciation In order to pronounce words accurately one must carefully articulate each sound contained in the words. Carelessness in pro- nunciation is a sign of inaccuracy in scholarship.
Words should drop from the lips as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight. — AUSTIN.
It is not possible to pronounce words distinctly and correctly without a thorough familiarity with the elemen- tary sounds, and much practice in combining those sounds into words. Without practice it is not easy to distinguish between sounds differing but little from each other, or to express them both distinctly and accurately.
The following are examples of some common faults of articulation : —
|
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
|
every |
ev'ry |
participle |
participle |
|
fellow |
feller |
terrible |
turruble |
|
desperate |
desp'rate |
comfortable |
comf'table |
|
history |
hist'ry |
circular |
circular |
|
memory |
mem'ry |
yellow |
yeller |
|
forever |
f'rever catch |
ketch |
ARTICULATION.
46
|
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
|
just |
jest |
whether |
wether |
|
boil |
bile |
playing |
play in' |
|
since |
sense |
February |
Febuary |
|
regular |
reg'lar |
handful |
han'ful |
|
I don't know |
I d'no |
antip'-o-des |
an'-ti-podes |
|
mountain |
mount'n |
ex-tem'-po-re |
extem'-pore |
|
present |
presn't |
cranberry |
cramberry |
|
shrink |
srink |
window |
windur |
|
trough |
troth |
scarce |
scurs |
EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION.
Pronounce the following words very carefully, articulat- ing the sounds with great care : —
|
elegant |
captain |
exorbitant |
unnecessarily |
|
Handsome |
aerial |
corridor |
trousseau |
|
shrimps |
American |
admiralty |
presentiment |
|
substitute |
auxiliary |
decorous |
organization |
|
expect |
eminent |
equation |
homoeopathy |
|
mountain |
constitution |
dysentery |
orchestra |
|
present |
general |
garrulous |
plagiarism |
|
February |
granary |
vehement |
menagerie |
|
patriotism |
burden |
zoology |
beneficent |
|
numeral |
cowardice |
simultaneous |
souvenir |
|
raisin |
annihilate |
sobriety |
sarsaparilla |
chants, chance ; except, accept ; tense, tents ; cheer, chair, jeer ; ice cream, I scream ; hundreds, hundredths ; six, sixths ; worlds, whirls ; breadths, breaths, breathes ; hast, hadst ; thousands, thousandths.
The following are forms used in Webster's International Dictionary to indicate the pronunciation of words. Much practice in reading such forms will familiarize the student with the diacritical marks and tend to cultivate a correct pronunciation : —
46 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
|
kon-vfils' |
lo'ber |
li-a'iia |
et-er |
|
fya'kr |
jak'me-no |
las'ment |
tod'flaks |
|
vo-ka' |
da |
a'jen-sy |
too'ra |
|
kon-va'er |
nif |
kar'pal |
sal |
|
la-to-ry^ |
kech |
8j'e-ny |
wik'6-py |
|
la'tgr |
mer |
hol'6-fot |
ba-le-a'nes |
|
pres'aj |
ke'tm |
me-tab'6-la |
rood-ja'ro |
|
flert'jll |
ke'toii |
bre-at |
wa-ga'-te |
|
fo-sgf |
toi'de-a |
jlvz |
thes'mo-thet |
|
werdz |
ma-te-6-tgk'ny |
fo'tlv |
koch |
|
for'ta |
ma'ta |
faf'n |
si-fo-na'rid |
|
b'lz |
pa-twa' |
feg |
rek-re-at |
|
ji-fSrm |
no-to-brau-ki-ii'ta |
egz-^m'pli-fi-a-b'l |
re-knit' |
|
ho'mo-jen |
kOr'dal |
shoo'er |
pla'zi-b'l |
|
ho-moi-op- |
no-to-rl'zal |
nozd |
pftth'6-jeii |
|
to'ton |
ban |
bal |
mak'i na |
|
kweii-sy |
The pronunciation of some words may be fully indicated by the use of diacritical marks only ; as, com-pdr'-l-son ; but the exact pronunciation may generally be better shown by respelling the word, using any letters and marks which will most clearly show the pronunciation; as, Jcom-pdr'-l-swi; dictionary, dik'-shun-er-l.
Write the words in the above exercise, indicating the exact sound of each by respelling if necessary and using diacritical marks.
Other lists of words should be written in a similar way.
RECREATIONS IN ARTICULATION.
1. Six thick thistle sticks.
2. A rural ruler truly rural.
3. Flesh of freshly fried flying fish.
4. The sea ceaseth, and it sufficeth us.-
ARTICULATION. 4 1
5. She sells sea-shells : shall he sell sea-shells ?
6. Some shun sunshine : do you shun sunshine ?
7. Sam Slick sawed six long, slim, slick, slender saplings for sale.
8. Eight great gray geese grazed gayly into Greece.
9. Thrice six thick thistle sticks thrust straight through three throbbing thrushes.
10. Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, with barest wrists and stoutest boasts, he thrusts his fists against the posts, and still insists he sees the ghosts.
11. She uttered a sharp, shrill shriek, and then shrunk from the shriveled form that slumbered iii the shroud.
12. Pluma placed a pewter platter on a pile of plates; where is the pretty pewter platter Pluma placed the pie upon?
1.3. He built a nice house near the lake, and shouted, " Ice cream for two young ladies."
14. Shave a cedar shingle thin. What! shave a cedar shingle thin ? Yes, shave a cedar shingle thin.
lo. Did you say you saw the spirit sigh, or the spirit's eye, or the spirits' sigh ? I said I saw the spirit's eye, not the spirit sigh, nor the spirits' sigh.
16. Peter Prangle, the prickly, prangly pear picker, picked three pecks of prickly, prangly pears on the pleas- ant prairies.
17. .Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thou- sand thistles through the thick of his thumb. Now if Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb, see that thou in sifting a
48 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust not three thousand thistles through the thick of thy thumb. Success to the successful thistle sifter.
18. A day or two ago during a lull in business, two little, boot-blacks, one white and one black, were standing at the corners doing nothing, when the white boot-black agreed to black the black boot-black's boots. The black boot-black was of course willing to have his boots blacked by his fellow boot-black, and the boot-black who had agreed to black the black boot-black's boots went to work.
When the boot-black had blacked one of the black boot- black's boots till it shone in a manner that would make any boot-black proud, the boot-black who had agreed to black the black boot-black's boots refused to black the other boot of the black boot-black until the black boot-black who had consented to have the white boot-black black his boots should add five cents to the amount the white boot-black had made blacking other men's boots. This the boot-black whose boot had been blacked refused to do, saying it was good enough for a black boot-black to have one boot blacked, and he didn't care whether the boot that the white boot- black hadn't blacked was blacked or not.
This made the boot-black who had blacked the black boot- black's boot as angry as a boot-black often gets, and he vented his black wrath by spitting upon the blacked boot of the black boot-black. This roused the latent passions of the black boot-black, and he proceeded to boot the white boot-black with the boot which the white boot-black had blacked. A fight ensued, in which the white boot-black who had refused to black the unblacked boot of the black
ARTICULATION. 4(.>
boot-black, blacked the black boot-black's visionary organ, and in which the black boot-black wore all the blacking oft' his blacked boot in booting the white boot-black.
.19. Five wise weeping wives weave wiggling withered withes.
20. Give Grigham Grimes Jim's great gilt gig- whip.
21. Smith's spirit flask split Philip's sixth sister's fifth squirrel's skull skillfully.
LIST OF WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED.
WORD. CORRECT. INCORRECT.
abdomen ab-do'-men &b -do-men
accept ak-sept' 6k-sept'
acclimate Sk-kli'-mat ak'-kli-mat
adept a-dept' ad'-ept
again a-gen' a-gan'
agnomen ag-no'-meii ag'-ii6-m6n
algebra al'-ge-bra al'-ge-bra
alias a'-H-as al'-i-as, a-li'-as
allopathist al-16p'-a-thist al'-6-path-ist
ally fil-H' al'-li
almond a'-mund al'-miind, aiii'-iniincl
alpaca al-pak'-a al-a-pak'-a
altercate al'-ter-kat al'-ter-kat
amenable a-me'-na-b'l a-men'-a-b'l
ancestral an-ees'-tral an'-ces-tral
anchovy an-cho'-vy ICn'-ko-vy, an-ko'-vy
animalcule an-i-inal'-cul an-i-mal'-cu-le
(The plural is animalcules, not animalculae.)
antarctic ant-ark'-tik ftnt-ar'-tlk
apparatus ap-pa-ra'-ttts Sp-pa-ra'-tfls
appendicitis ap-p6n-di-cl'-tis ap-pen-dis'-i-tis
archipelago ark-i-pel'-a-go arch-i-pgl'-a-go
arctic ark'-tik ar'-tlk
50 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION,
|
WORD. |
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
|
bade |
bSd |
bad |
|
banana |
ba-na'-na |
ba-na'-iia |
|
bayou |
bi'-6o |
ba-yoo' |
|
been |
bin |
ben, ben |
|
bicycle |
bi'-sik'l |
bi'-si-k'l |
|
bronchitis |
bron-ki'-tls |
bron-ke'-tis |
|
buoy |
boi |
boo'-y |
|
burlesque |
biir-lesk' |
bur'-lesk |
|
cabal (a junto) |
ka-bal' |
ka-bal' |
|
cadaver |
ka-da'-ver |
ka-davfc-er |
|
calyx |
ka'-liks |
kal'-iks |
|
canine |
ka-nin' |
ka'-nin |
|
cassimere |
kas'-si-mer |
kaz'-i-mer |
|
catch |
katch |
ketch |
|
chasten |
chas'-'n |
chas'-'n |
|
chastisement |
chas'-tiz-ment |
chas-tiz'-m6nt |
|
clematis |
kl6m'^a-tis |
klem-at'-Is |
|
coadjutor |
ko-ad-ju'-ter |
ko-ad'-ju-t6r |
|
communism |
korii'-mu-nlzm |
kom-mun'-izm |
|
comparable |
kom'-paY-a-b?l |
kom-par'-a-b'l |
|
condolence |
kon-do'-lens |
kon'-do-16ns |
|
contour |
kon-toor' |
kon'-toor |
|
contumely |
kon'-tu-me-iy |
kon-tu'-me-ly |
|
conversant |
kon'-ver-sant |
kon-ver'-sant |
|
creek |
krek |
krik |
|
cupola |
ku'-po-la |
ku'-po-lo |
|
decade |
d6k'-ad |
dfik-ad' |
|
deficit |
d6f-is-It |
de-fls'-it |
|
depths |
depths |
deps |
|
designate |
dgs'-Ig-nat |
dgz'-ig-nat |
|
discourse |
dls-kors' |
dis'-kors |
|
disputable |
dts'-pu-ta-b'l |
dis-pu'-ta-b'l |
|
disputant |
dis'-pu-tant |
dis-pu'-tant |
|
divan |
di-van' |
di'-van |
|
docile |
dos'-il |
do' sH, do'-sH |
|
dominie |
dom'-i-nl |
do'-ml-nl |
|
e'er |
&r or ar |
er |
ARTICULATION,
|
WORD. |
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
|
exquisite |
gks'-kwi-zit |
eks-kwrz'-it |
|
exponent |
eks-po'-nent |
eks'-po-ngnt |
|
extant |
eks'-tant |
eks-tant' |
|
falcon |
fa'-k'n |
fal'-k'n |
|
faucet |
fa'-set |
fas'-et |
|
finance |
fi-nans' |
fi'-nans |
|
fricassee |
frl-kas-se' |
frig-a-xe' |
|
frontier |
fron'-ter |
friin-ter' |
|
genealogy |
j6n-e-al'-6-jy |
jen-e-ol'-o-jy |
|
gladiolus |
gla-di'-6-lus |
gla-di-o'-lus |
|
gondola |
gon'-do-la |
gon-do'-la |
|
government |
guv'-ern-ment |
guv'-er-miint |
|
granary |
gran'-a-ry |
gra'-na-ry |
|
gum arabic |
gum ar'-a-bik |
gum ar-a'-bik |
|
hearth |
harth |
herth |
|
heinous |
ha'-iius |
hen'-yus |
|
heroism |
heV-6-Izm |
he'-ro-Izm |
|
horizon |
ho-ri'-zim |
hOr'-i-zfin |
|
hymeneal |
hl-me-ne'-al |
hi-me'-ne-al |
|
ignoramus |
ig-no-ra'-nius |
Ig-no-ram'-Os |
|
immediately |
iiu-me'-ili-at-ly |
Im-me'-jat-ly |
|
indisputable |
iii-dis'-pii-ta-b1! |
m-dis-pu'-ta-b'l |
|
inexorable |
in-3ks'-6-rab'l |
m-eks-o'-ra-b'l |
|
inquiry |
in-k\vi'-ry |
in'-kwi-ry |
|
integral |
in'-te-«ral |
in-te'-gral |
|
interesting |
iii'-ter-est-ing |
m-tor-est'-ing |
|
inveigle |
iri-ve'-g'l |
m-va'-g'l |
|
jaundice |
jan'-dls |
jan'-dis |
|
jugular |
jfi'-gu-ler |
ju«'-u-ler |
|
juvenile |
ju'-ve-nil |
ju'-ve-ml |
|
lamentable |
lam'-ent-a-b'l |
Ia-m6nt/-a-b'l |
|
legislature |
16j'-is-la-tur |
lej-Is-la'-tilr |
|
lichen |
li'-ken |
Hch'-en |
|
licorice |
llk'-o-ris |
llk'-o-rish |
|
lyceum |
li-se'-iini |
li'-se-flm |
|
meningitis |
men-m-ji'-tls |
in^n-tn-je'-tis |
|
mercantile |
iiK'i-'-kan-til |
mer'-kan-tiel or -til |
52 oirnmuKAi'iiY, OUTHOKPY, AND
|
WORD. |
CORRECT. |
TXCORREC'T. • |
|
mineralogy |
mm-er-al'-o-j^ |
min-er-ol'-6-jy |
|
misconstrue |
mls-kon'-stru |
inis-kdn-stru' |
|
mistletoe |
mlz'-'l-to |
mis'-'l-to |
|
museum |
inu-ze'-iini |
iuii'-/.e-fliu |
|
mustache |
miis-tasli' |
iniis'-(ash |
|
naiad |
na'-yad |
ni'-ad |
|
national |
ii ash '-n n -al |
iia'-shun-al |
|
nepotism |
nep'-6-tixin |
ne'-po-tlzni |
|
nominative |
\n6m'-l-na-tlv |
iiom'-i-tiv |
|
oleomargarine |
( o-le-o-inar'-ga-rln ^ I or -ren j |
o-le-o-mar'-ja-ren |
|
opponent |
op-po'-nent |
6p'-po-nent |
|
ordeal |
Or'-de-al |
or-de'-al |
|
orthoepy |
6r'-tho-e-py |
or-tho'-e-py |
|
pantomime |
pan'-to-mim |
paii'-to-ineiii |
|
papyrus |
pa-pi'-riis |
pSp'-i-rus |
|
partner |
part'-nor |
pard'-ner |
|
patriot |
pa'-trl-ot |
pat'-ri-6t |
|
patron |
pa'-trfln |
pat'-ruii |
|
pedagogy |
ped'-a-«d-jy |
ped'-a-go-jy |
|
peremptory |
per'-6inp-to-ry |
per-emp'-to-ry^ |
|
piano forte |
pi-a'-no for'-ta |
pi-a'-no fort |
|
pincers |
pln'-serz |
pinch'-erz |
|
plait |
plat |
plet |
|
precedence |
pre-se'-<lens |
pres'-e-dens |
|
precedent (adj.) |
pre-se'-dent |
pres'-e-dent |
|
precedent (n.) |
pr6s'-e-dent |
pre-se'-dent |
|
predecessor |
pred-e-ses'-ser |
pred'-e-s6s-ser |
|
presentiment |
pre-sent'-i-ment |
pre-zent'-i-mgiit |
|
pretense |
pre-tens' |
pre'-tens |
|
pretty |
prit'ty |
pret'-ty |
|
process |
pros'-es |
pro'-ses |
|
produce |
prQd'-us |
pro '-d us |
|
pumpkin |
pump'-kin |
punk'-In |
|
pyramidal |
pi-rain'-I-dal |
pir'-a-mid-al |
|
recess |
re-s6s' |
re'-ses |
|
research |
re-surch' |
re'-surch |
|
WORD. |
CORRECT. |
INCORRECT. |
|
resource |
re-sors' |
re'-sors |
|
reveille |
rg-val'-ya |
rgv'-el-e. |
|
(Commonly pr< |
moimeed rev-a-le' in |
military circles.) |
|
robust |
ro-bttst' |
ro'-bfist |
|
romance |
ro-mans' |
ro' mans |
|
roof |
roof |
roof |
|
sacrifice |
sak'-ri-fiz |
sak'-rl-f Is or -f is |
|
salmon |
sam'-iin |
sal'-mtin |
|
senile |
se'-nil |
sen'-Il |
|
serpentine |
ser'-pen-tin |
ser'-pen-ten |
|
simultaneous |
sl-inul-ta'-ne-us |
siiri-ul-ta'-ne-fis |
|
solace |
sol'-as |
so'-las |
|
squalor |
skwa'-lor |
skwa'-ltir |
|
suffice |
Sttf-fi*' |
siif-fTs' |
|
tassel |
tas'-s'l |
t6s'-s'l |
|
telegraphy |
te-leg'-ra-fy |
t61'-e-graf-y |
|
tenet |
ten'-et |
te'-net |
|
tepid |
t6p'-Id |
te'-pld |
|
tiny |
ti'-ny |
tm'-y |
|
tribune |
trlb'-un |
tri'-bnn |
|
truths |
truths |
truths |
|
turquoise |
f tur-koi/y | ttur-kez' / |
tur'-koiz |
|
vagary |
va-ga'-ry |
va'-ga-ry |
|
vehement |
ve'-he-ment |
ve-he'-m6nt |
|
won't |
\vont |
\viint |
|
(A contraction |
of woll not.^) |
' |
|
wont |
\vfint |
ivont |
|
zoology |
zo-61'-6-jy |
zoo-61'-6-jy |
Some proper nouns frequently mispronounced : -
Arab Beethoven Danish Orion
Arabic Berlin Disraeli Palestine
Archimedes Bologna February Persia
Asia Cairo Genoa Powhatan
Balmoral Calliope Iowa
Beatrice Chicago Italian
54 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
Additional French, words frequently met with : —
|
apropos |
fip'-ro-po' mirage |
me-razh' |
|
|
attache beau-monde |
at-ta-sha' bo-in6\d' |
monsieur |
f mo-sier' ; Fr. mo- \ sye' |
|
belles-lettres |
bgl-let'-ter |
morale |
mo-ral' |
|
bijou |
be-zhoo' |
nai've |
na'-ev |
|
. |
( blv'-wfik or blv'- |
naivete |
na-ev-ta' |
|
bivouac |
t ob-ftk |
negligee |
neg-li-zha' |
|
blanc-mange boudoir |
bla-maNzh' boo-dw6r' |
parquet |
rpar-ka' or par- l kef |
|
bouquet cafe* |
boo-ka' ka-fa' |
piquant |
( pe'-kftnt or pik'- t fiiit |
|
chaperon |
shfip'-er-on |
pique |
pek |
|
cognac |
kon'-yak |
prestige |
pres'-til |
|
corps |
kor |
protege" |
pro-ta^lia' |
|
cortege |
kdr-t&zh' |
qui vive |
ke-vev' |
|
coterie |
ko-te-re' |
regime |
re-zhem' |
|
coup de grace coupe* |
koo dg gras' koo-pa' |
rendezvous |
f rgn'-dg-voo or \ ran'-de-voo |
|
cuisine |
k\ve-zen' |
resume1 |
ra-zu-ma' |
|
d6bris |
da-bre' |
roue |
roo-a' |
|
debut |
d^-bu' |
sobriquet |
so-bre-ka' |
|
e"clat |
e-kla' ; Fr. a-kla' |
soiree |
s\va-ra' |
|
e"lite |
a-let' |
sortie |
s6r'-te |
|
encore |
ax-kor' |
surveillance |
f sur-val'-yfins or |
|
ennui |
aN-nwe' |
t va'-lfins |
|
|
entree |
iiN-tra' |
te-te-a-tgte |
tat-a-tat/ |
|
mademoiselle |
m^d'mwazgl' |
trousseau |
troo-so' |
|
f mgin'-wor or |
tulle |
tul |
|
|
memoir mesdames |
I mem'-\vor ma-dam' |
vignette |
fvln-ygf or vln'- t yet |
|
f m6sh'-yerz ; Fr. |
vis-a-vis |
ve-za-ve' |
|
|
messieurs |
J \ ma-sye' |
PAKT SECOND.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of the proper arrangement of letters into words, or correct spelling.
English orthography is constantly changing, and has been changing since the beginning of English history. Before the invention of printing there was great diversity of spell- ing among writers, and even proper names were spelled in various ways. The name of Shakespeare has been spelled in more than thirty different ways, and well-known men have spelled their own names in several different ways. At the present time there is a tendency to simplify our spelling by making it more phonetic and omitting silent letters. It is quite common in these days to see programme written program; catalogue, catalog, etc. Hence rules for spelling must vary with the times. Lexicographers themselves have failed to establish any uniformity or even to agree in- formulating rules and principles.
The following rules are given as an aid to learners in re- moving some of the most common difficulties. They are based upon the rules and spellings of Webster, which are most extensively followed by Americans.
55
56 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
KULES FOR SPELLING.
RULE I. The letters/, I, and s are doubled at the end of monosyllables when preceded by a single vowel; as, clijf', • •ress, belL (The conjunction till drops one I when the pre- fix un- is added ; as, until)
Exception 1. The letter s is not doubled when used to form tlie possessive case or plural of a noun, or the third person singular of a verb ; as, ring's (possessive), rings (plural of noun and third sing, of verb), boy's, boys, has, etc.
Exception 2. Clef, if, of, pal, as, gas, yes, his, this, pus, us, thus.
RULE II. The final consonant is doubled in ebb, add, odd, egg, inn., bunn, err, shirr, burr, purr, frett, mitt, butt, Jizz, buzz, fuzz.
KULE III. Monosyllables ending with the sound of k, in which c follows the vowel, terminate with ck; as, sick, back, lock, etc.
Exceptions. Talc, zinc, arc, disc, sac.
RULE IV. When a termination beginning with e, i, or y is added to a word ending in c, k is inserted before the vowel to preserve the hard sound of c; as, trafficking, colicky,, bivouacked, etc.
RULE V. A single final consonant preceded by a single vowel is doubled before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel, —
1. In monosyllables ; as, running, skimming, getting, etc.
2. In words accented on the last syllable ; as, beginning, forget- ting, excelling, etc.
Note. — This is an important rule, and if well understood will often prove a great help in determining the spelling of words.
OKTHOGKAPHY. 57
Exceptions. Derivatives in which the accent of the primitive is thrown back upon another syllable; as, cabal', ca'balism; prefer', preference; refer', reference. Also gas'eous, infer' able, transfer' able.
RULE VI. Final silent e is dropped before an addition:;! syllable beginning with a vowel; as, trace, tracing; pruti:\ pruning. It is also dropped before any suffix if immedi- ately preceded by another vowel; as, woe, wofully ; due, duly ; awe, awful.
Exceptions. In hoeing, toeing, shoeing (from hoe^ toe, shoe), e is retained to preserve the pronunciation of the primitive. In dyeing, singeing, tingeing (from dye, singe, tinge}, e is retained to show the spelling of the primitive, and the meaning of the derivative. Mileage is more properly written milage. Final e is retained in the termina- tions ce and ge when a suffix is added beginning with a or o, to pre- serve the soft sound of c and g ; as, courageous, peaceable, changeable.
RULE VII. Words ending in ie drop e and change i to // before the suffix -ing ; as, lie, lying ; die, dying.
RULE VIII. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i before an additional syllable beginning with a conso- nant or any vowel except i; as, icy, iciest; mercy, merciful ; pity, pitiless; fly, flying. Also daily, laid, said, paid, slain, staid, gaiety, gaily.
Exceptions. Derivative adjectives of one syllable ; as, shy, shyness ; sly, slyest ; spry, spryer. But dry usually follows the rule ; as, drier driest. Before the suffix -ship, or -like, y is usually retained ; as, sec retaryship, ladylike.
RULE IX. Compound words usually retain the spelling of their derivatives ; as, harelip, rosebush.
After compounds have acquired the force of simple words they often modify their spelling ; as, almighty, welcome, n-el- fare; also compounds of -mass; as, Candlemas, Christmas,
58 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
etc. ; also when the suffix is -full ; as, harmful, hateful, etc. j also chilblain, fulfill, and some others.
Give the rule or exception for the spelling of the follow ing words : —
|
WHY |
INSTEAD OF |
WHY |
INSTEAD OF |
|
judgment |
judgement |
gaseous |
gasseous |
|
lying |
lyeing |
lacing |
laceing |
|
hunting |
huntting |
pruning |
pruneing |
|
egg |
eg |
ruling |
ruleing |
|
leg |
legg |
savior |
' saveior |
|
tell |
tel |
changeable |
changable |
|
allotment |
allottment |
duly |
duely |
|
differing |
differring |
awful |
aweful |
|
controlling |
controling |
shoeing |
shoing |
|
odd |
od |
dyeing |
dying |
|
sill |
sil |
singeing |
singing |
|
stiff |
stif |
courageous |
couragous |
|
pin |
pinn |
defacement |
defacment |
|
inn |
in |
defacing |
defaceing |
|
lack |
lac |
peaceable |
peacable |
|
cress |
cres |
whiteness |
whitness |
|
his |
hiss |
lying |
lie ing |
|
buzz |
buz |
dying |
dicing |
|
back |
bac |
iciest |
icyest |
|
kick |
kic |
merciful |
mercyful |
|
arc |
arck |
shyness |
shiness |
|
disc |
disck |
slyer |
slier |
|
frolicking |
frolicing |
daily |
dayly |
|
musical |
musickal |
gaiety |
gayety |
|
running |
runing |
slain |
slayn |
|
getting |
geting |
drier |
dryer |
|
trotting |
troth ig |
ladylike |
ladilike |
|
recoiling |
recoilling |
worshiping |
worshipping |
|
beginning |
begin ing |
harmful |
harmfull |
|
foretell |
foretel |
chilblain |
chillblain |
|
preference |
preferrence |
almighty |
allmighty |
|
referring |
refering |
Christmas |
Cliristmass |
|
reference |
referrence |
abridgment |
abridgement |
ORTHOGRAPHY.
59
VARIATIONS IN SPELLING.
Some of the most prominent differences in the spelling of English words should be understood as due to the varying authority of English and American lexicographers. It is not likely that a universal standard will ever be adopted, and there is no doubt that variations in. spelling are con- tinually multiplying, though the diversities are by no means so numerous now as they were two hundred years ago. Not only are great dictionaries becoming more numerous, each differing from the others in the spelling of certain words, hut the spelling reformers are again increasing in numbers, so that it is not a strange thing to see spellings in books and periodicals which are not found in any dictionary. However, while Worcester is the prevailing authority for those who adhere most strictly to the old English spellings, Webster is more generally recognized as authority in America. The differences illustrated by these two authori- ties are the chief ones deserving our attention. They may be summarized as follows : —
1. Worcester adheres to the English custom of doubling the final consonant in derivatives of certain words (often arbitrarily selected), while Webster uniformly discards it. Consistency and reason certainly favor Webster's method, which now generally prevails in America. The following are examples : —
WORCESTER. WEBSTER.
dishevelled disheveled
duellist duelist
empaneKed empaneled-
enamelled enameled
|
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
|
apparelled |
appareled |
|
barrelled |
barreled |
|
biassed |
biased |
|
cancelled |
canceled |
60 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
|
WORCESTER. |
- WEBSTER. |
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
|
epauletted |
epauleted |
pencilling |
penciling |
|
equalled |
equaled |
perilled |
periled |
|
fuelling |
fueling |
quarrelling |
quarreling |
|
gambolling |
gamboling |
revelling |
reveling |
|
gossipping |
gossiping |
rivalling |
rivaling |
|
grovelling |
groveling |
shovelling |
shoveling |
|
hovelling |
hoveling |
shrivelled |
shriveled |
|
imperilled |
imperiled |
stencilling |
stenciling |
|
jeweller |
jeweler |
tasselled |
tasseled |
|
kennelled |
kenneled |
tinselled |
tinseled |
|
labelled |
labeled |
towelling |
toweling |
|
levelled |
leveled |
trammelled |
trammeled |
|
libelled |
libeled |
tranquillize |
tranquil ize |
|
marshalled |
marshaled |
traveller |
traveler |
|
marvellous |
marvelous |
victualling |
victualing |
|
modelling |
modeling |
woollen |
woolen |
|
panelled |
paneled |
worshipping |
worshiping |
|
parcelling |
parceling |
2. Worcester gives the prevailing English spelling ou where Webster gives only o; as, mould, mold; saviour, savior; smoulder, smolder.
3. Webster doubles the I in installment, enrollment, etc., also the final letter in such words as fulfill, instill, etc.
4. Webster writes defense, offense, etc., for defence, offence, etc., also practice for practise.
5. Worcester uses the termination -re where Webster uses -er.
|
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
|
accoutre |
accouter |
fibre |
fiber |
|
amphitheatre |
amphitheater |
goitre |
goiter |
|
centre |
center |
litre |
liter |
|
centilitre |
centiliter |
manoeuvre |
maneuver |
|
decilitre |
deciliter |
mitre |
miter |
ORTHOGRAPHY.
61
|
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
WORCESTER. |
WEBSTER. |
|
ochre ombre |
ocher omber |
sceptre sombre |
scepter somber |
|
reconnoitre sabre |
reconnoiter saber |
spectre theatre |
specter theater |
|
saltpetre |
saltpeter |
6. The shortened termination -m is becoming quite com- mon in the United States in place of the old termination 'mine; as, gram for gramme, centigram for centigramme, pro- gram for programme.
7. The termination -ize instead of ise is gaining favor in both England and America.
8. Various other differences in spelling may be observed in the following :
|
ENGLISH. |
AMERICAN. |
ENGLISH. |
AMERICAN. |
|
accessary |
accessory |
enclose |
inclose |
|
adze |
adz |
encyclopaedia |
encyclopedia |
|
JEolian |
Eolian |
ensnare |
insnare |
|
alignment |
alinement |
felspar |
feldspar |
|
appall |
appal |
foetus |
fetus |
|
asafcetida |
asafetida • |
fy |
fie |
|
asbestos |
asbestus |
forray |
foray |
|
ascendent |
ascendant |
foundery |
foundry |
|
ascendency |
ascendancy |
fulness |
fullness |
|
axe |
ax |
glycerine |
glycerin |
|
bandanna |
bandana |
guerilla |
guerrilla |
|
bawble |
bauble |
guild |
gild |
|
cantilever |
cantalever |
hinderance |
hindrance |
|
clew |
clue |
horehouud |
hoarhound |
|
cosey |
cozy |
homoeopathy |
homeopathy |
|
cyclopaedia |
cyclopedia |
homonyme |
homonym |
|
diarrho3a |
diarrhea |
hostlery |
hostelry |
|
disinthrall |
disenthrall |
hypothenuse |
hypotenuse |
|
empanel |
impanel |
lodgement |
lodgment |
62 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION".
|
ENGLISH. |
AMERICAN. |
ENGLISH. |
AMERICAN. |
|
moustache |
mustache |
sanhedrim |
sanhedrin |
|
oesophagus |
esophagus |
Sanscrit |
Sanskrit |
|
ourang-outang |
orang-outang |
scath |
scathe |
|
pappoose |
papoose |
sceptic |
skeptic |
|
paraffine |
paraffin |
Sedlitz |
Seidlitz |
|
pedler |
peddler |
Shemitic |
Semitic |
|
phoenix |
phenix |
somerset |
somersault |
|
plough |
plow |
synonyme |
synonym |
|
prsetor |
pretor |
vice (a clamp) |
vise |
|
revery |
reverie |
villany |
villainy |
|
rotundo |
rotunda |
whiskey |
whisky |
It is important to know whether to use the adjective termination -able or -ible in spelling. This may often be determined by considering the origin of the word. If derived from the Latin, the vowel of the Latin word is retained ; as, accusable, from accusabilis ; accessible, from accessibilis. If the word is formed by adding a suffix to an English verb, the termination is nearly always -able ; as, abatable.
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF NOUNS.
RULE I. The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular ; as, boy, boys ; stone, stones.
If the singular ends in an s sound, the plural is formed by adding es, unless the word ends in silent e ; as, mass, masses ; lace, laces ; bush, bushes; age, ages; 'box, boxes.
A few nouns in o preceded by a consonant take es ; as, negroes, echoes, heroes, cargoes, vetoes, mottoes, potatoes, tomatoes, tornadoes, volcanoes, mosquitoes, embargoes.
RULE II. Letters, figures, signs, and words form their plurals by adding an apostrophe and s ; as, " There are two
ORTHOGRAPHY. 63
/'.s in ball" " Dot your i's and cross your £'s." Some writers omit the apostrophe in such cases ; as, " There are two that a in the sentence," " The pros and cons."
RULE III. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es ; as, fly, files ; lady, ladies.
Proper nouns of this class generally form their plurals by adding s ; as, "The two Marys."
Note. — Nouns ending in y originally ended in ie, so that their plurals retained their original form, with s added to the singular according to the regular rule.
RULE IV. Most nouns ending in / or fe form their plurals by adding s ; as, grief, griefs ; safe, safes ; but the following with their compounds change / or fe into ves leaf, sheaf, calf, self, half, loaf, beef, shelf, wolf, knife, wife, life, thief, elf.
The plural of staff, a corps of officers, is staff's, otherwise staves ; of wharf, usually wharves.
RULE V. The following nouns and their compounds form their plurals by a change' of vowel sound: man, men , woman, women; goose, geese ; foot, feet; tooth, teeth ; 'mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; workman, workmen ; dormouse, dormice. Also child, children; ox, oxen.
Nouns ending in -man, not compounds, form their plurals regularly ; as, German, Germans; talisman, talismans ; Mussulman, Mussulmans.
Note. — The words brother, die, pea, and penny have two plurals with different meanings ; as, brethren, used only in connection with religion, or in scriptural language, and brothers, members of the same family ; dies, meaning a metal block or plate used to impress a device on an object or surface, and dice, a number of small cubes used in playing games of chance ; peas, referring to a number of single peas,
64 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOKl'Y, AND I't'NCTlTATloN*.
and pease, a quantity in bulk ; pennies, and pence, with much 11 ir same distinction as between peas and pease. Also jishes and .//sA, and fowl.
RULE VI. In compound nouns the chief substantive part is pluralized, the descriptive part remaining un- changed ; as, brothers-in-law, mouse-traps, wagon-loads, courts- martial.
If the compound has acquired the force of a single word, the plural is formed regularly ; as, cupfuls, handfuls, spoonfuls. Sometimes both parts are pluralized ; as, men-servants, women-servants, Knights- Templars. These words are now usually written without the hyphen.
RULE VII. When names are preceded by titles, usage varies; as, "The Misses Smith/*' or "The Miss Smiths." But if persons of different names are spoken of, the title alone is pluralized ; as, " The Misses Mary and Susan Smith," " Doctors Jones and Brown."
RULE VIII. Foreign words retain their original plurals until they become thoroughly Anglicized, when their plurals follow the rules above given ; as, cherub, cherubs or cherubim (never cherubims) ; bandit, bandits or banditti; beau, beaus or beaux; focus, focuses or foci; medium, mediums or media; gymnasium, gymnasiums or gymnasia; hippopotamus, hippo- potamuses or hippopotami; datum, data; criterion, criteria; genus, genera; larva, larvw; crisis, crises.
Often the two spellings in the plural have different meanings ; as, index, indices, exponents, indexes, pointers ; genius, genii, good or evil spirits, geniuses, persons endowed with peculiar powers of mind.
A few nouns have the same form in the plural' as in the singular ; as, trout, deer, swine, sheep, grouse. Also Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Tyrolese.
SYNONYMS. 65
Write the plural of the following words : hat, ring, cress, truce, bush, brush, box, eye, miss, Cicero, jiegro, folio, echo, hero, two, piano, cargo, tornado, fly, lady, army, money, colloquy, yiercy, day, key, attorney, Henry, grief, (>, -f, t, safe, leaf, scarf, knife, wife, fife, staff, half, life, calf, chief, brother-in-law, hanger-on, wagon-load, cupful, man, woman, goose, foot, mouse, child, ox, German, Irishman, talisman, Mussulman, mouse- trap, isthmus, bandit, focus, analysis, index, genius, (Dr.) Moore and Johnson, stratum, larva.
SYNONYMS.
Synonyms are words whose meanings are nearly the same, yet differ somewhat when studied etymologically. The most careful writers distinguish between such words, while the superficial reader recognizes no difference between them except that of spelling. The study of synonyms is one of the very best for the cultivation of mental acumen, and becomes intensely interesting to one fond of philological studies.
Synonyms may sometimes be used interchangeably, and such use of them often lends grace and elegance to a paragraph, yet there is usually a fundamental difference in meaning, and this difference should be kept in mind when making a choice between them. Dean Trench says : " If no words are synonymous except those which are identical in use and meaning, so that the one can, in all cases, be substituted for the other, we have scarcely ten such words in our language." Moreover, most words have different shades of meaning, so that in some connections they may
66 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PI " XCTUATION.
I*;- used interchangeably, while it would not be proper to use them so in other connections.
As more fully setting forth the real nature of synonyms, the following quotation is also taken from Trench on " The Study of Words " : —
" Synonymous words are words which, with great and essential resemblances of meaning, have, at the same time, small, subordinate, and partial differences, — these differ- ences being such as either originally and on the ground of their etymology inhered in them ; or differences which they have bjy usage acquired in the eyes of all; or such as, though nearly latent now, they are capable of receiving at the hands of wise and discreet masters of the tongue. Synonyms are words of like significance in the main, but with a certain unlikeness as well."
A limited number of synonyms is here given, including only such as are frequently met with. Pupils should be required to discriminate between them, and to write sen- tences illustrating their use. In some cases the words are not strictly synonyms, but are apt to be used interchange- ably by careless writers.
lofty
sublime
discover
invent
morose
sad
sterile
barren
pride
vanity
|
heavenly celestial |
death decease |
often frequent |
|
keeping custody |
tell communicate |
old ancient |
|
worthy meritorious |
cease discontinue |
new novel |
|
meaning signification |
opening aperture |
forlorn lonesome |
|
high elevated |
corner angle |
sublime grand |
SYNONYMS.
67
|
tacit silent |
announce proclaim |
outward external |
faintly dimly |
|
glory splendor |
abundance plenty |
eastern oriental |
abrupt short |
|
tranquil quiet |
worth value |
sight vision |
hate dislike |
|
silly foolish |
force strength |
servile slavish |
firmness constancy |
|
adroit cunning |
character reputation |
emulation competition |
truth veracity |
|
feeble weak |
secure attain |
impediment obstacle |
ignorant untaught |
|
defend protect |
occasion opportunity |
discreet prudent |
teach learn |
|
great large |
tame gentle |
vain proud |
hopeful confident |
|
help aid |
begin commence |
dispute contradict |
empty vacant |
|
agreement contract |
enough sufficient |
detain hinder |
apology excuse |
|
colleague partner |
freedom liberty |
notorious celebrated |
genius talent |
|
like love |
pious godly |
behavior conduct |
hasten hurry |
|
murder kill slaughter |
emphasis accent stress |
aim view scope |
allure entice decoy |
|
bold brave .audacious |
sad dispirited melancholy |
just right lawful |
freedo.m liberty license |
|
merry jolly happy |
timid faint-hearted afraid |
libel slander defamation |
teacher educator instructor |
68 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTl 'ATION ,
|
speech language dialect |
tale novel story |
pretty handsome splendid |
scholar student pupil |
|
proverb aphorism saw |
foe opponent antagonist |
ehoke suffocate smother |
hope expect desire |
|
duty |
fear |
teach |
obligation terror instruct
Using the words in the foregoing list, make other syno- nyms from them by using affixes; as, newness, novelty ; godli- ness, piety.
As a further study of words, select those of opposite meaning to any of the above, and construct derivatives of opposite meaning; as, gentle, rude, gentleness, rudeness; old, novel, oldness, novelty. The teacher will need to assist in the selection of such words.
Give synonyms of the following : —
teachable hard supply bury
scholarship manage forgive cozy
livtmely donor weak fulfill
nicely power dwell specter
affection bold pleasure compact
build give modest abstract
abide edge custom
HOMONYMS.
Homonyms are words pronounced alike but spelled differ- ently and having different meanings.
Construct sentences embodying the following homo- nyms : —
HOMONYMS.
G9
|
heard |
pale |
hue |
canon |
|
herd |
pail |
hew |
cannon |
|
hie |
pane |
sum |
bow |
|
high |
pain |
some |
bough |
|
rope |
nose |
shone |
vice |
|
rows |
knows |
shown |
vise |
|
way |
clause |
idle |
waste |
|
Aveigh |
claws |
idol |
waist |
|
cast |
colonel |
|
liar |
|
caste |
kernel |
male |
lyre |
|
cede |
gate |
stare |
night |
|
seed |
gait |
stair |
knight |
|
sealing |
mite |
steal |
lie |
|
ceiling |
might |
steel |
lye |
|
quire |
fir |
peace |
ate |
|
choir |
fur |
piece |
eight |
|
threw |
flee |
wait |
core |
|
through |
flea |
weight |
corps |
|
tide |
loan |
toe |
cousin |
|
tied |
lone |
tow |
cozen |
|
son |
maid |
too |
crewel |
|
sun |
made |
two |
cruel |
|
new |
aisle |
buy |
raise |
|
knew |
isle |
ty |
rays |
|
gnu |
I'll |
bye |
raze |
|
rain |
meet |
cite |
cent |
|
rein |
mete |
site |
sent |
|
reign |
meat |
sight |
scent |
|
mode |
write |
||
|
mowed |
right |
vain |
rode |
|
mantel |
rite |
vein |
road |
|
mantle |
wright |
vane |
rowed |
PART THIRD.
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the origin and history of words, with their changes in form and meaning.
English words are derived chiefly from the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin languages. Most of the shorter and simpler words of our language are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Such are the words first learned and used by children, the homely maxims, and the common phrases of everyday life. More than sixty per cent of the words used in common speech are of Anglo-Saxon origin. These words often give place to Norman-French or Latin words in the more polite and literary circles, and in formal writings. It was the mixing of French words with Anglo-Saxon, after the Norman Con- quest, which formed the basis of our present English lan- guage. This language has since been greatly enriched by importations which may. be traced back through the Indo- European languages to a Greek origin.
The following list will illustrate the varied sources of some of our most common words : —
ENGLISH. ORIGIN.
agriculture . . Latin, ager, cultura.
bayonet .... Bayonne, a city of France.
bouquet .... French, bosquet ; Latin, boscus.
buy Anglo-Saxon.
bet Anglo-Saxon.
70
ETYMOLOGY. 71
ENGLISH. ORIGIN.
calico .... Calicut, a city in India.
cambric .... Kameryk, a city in French Flanders.
chestnut . . . Kastanaia, a city in Pontus.
canary .... Latin, canarius.
currant .... Corinthus, a city in Greece.
candidate . . . Latin, candidatus.
crown .... Latin, corona.
damask .... Damascus, a city in Syria.
desk Latin, discus.
gate Anglo-Saxon.
husband . . . Anglo-Saxon.
lapidary . . . Latin, lapidarius.
libel Latin, libellus.
muslin .... Mossoul, a city in Mesopotamia.
meander . . . Maeander, a river in Phrygia.
millinery . . . Milan, a city in Italy.
manufacture . . Latin, manus, factura.
preface .... Latin, prcefari.
prairie .... Latin, pratum.
phenomenon . . Greek, phainomenon.
reckon ... . Anglo-Saxon.
road Anglo-Saxon.
sardine .... Sardinia, an island in the Mediterranean.
sell Anglo-Saxon.
stick Anglo-Saxon.
tariff. .... French, tarif.
telephone . . . Greek, tele, phone,
villain .... Latin, villa.
wife Anglo-Saxon.
work Anglo-Saxon.
wash Anglo-Saxon.
72 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
DEFINITIONS.
A primitive word is one not derived from another word ; as, great, hat, since.
A primitive word may be a compound word ; as, hatband.
A derivative word is one formed by adding something to a primitive, or by changing it; as, happiness, gave.
The root of a word is the primitive part ; aSj sweet, in the word sweetness.
A prefix is one or more syllables joined to the beginning of a word ; as, un-, in undesirable.
A suffix is one or more syllables joined to the end of a Word ; as, -ing, in dancing.
An affix is either a prefix or a suffix.
A monosyllable is a word of one syllable.
A dissyllable is a word of two syllables.
A trisyllable is a word of three syllables.
A polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables.-
The syllable next to the last is called the penult, the one before that the antepenult. The last syllable is sometimes called the ultima.
A simple word is any word not a compound.
A compound word is one formed by a union of two or more simple words, either with or without a hyphen; as, writ ing- table, bookshelf.
Many words commonly recognized as simple are really compound words; as, Sunday, blackberry. The original grammatical relation between the parts of such words has become lost by the frequent usage of the parts as one word.
ETYMOLOGY.
|
Other examples |
of the unifying |
of compound |
words may be |
|
observed in the |
following : — |
||
|
golden rod |
toothpick |
pickpocket |
classmate |
|
bombshell |
tinsmith |
horseshoe |
footman |
|
angleworm |
earring |
bulldog |
bedquilt |
|
firefly |
sunrise |
seaweed |
stateroom |
|
anthill |
daylight |
eyeball |
sandhill |
|
bookkeeper |
grandfather |
godsend |
peppermint |
|
dustpan |
bookseller |
nightcap |
can dies tick |
|
brickbat |
bandbox |
newsboy |
waterproof |
|
clockwork |
oatmeal |
oilcloth |
seasick |
|
gunboat |
postmaster |
seaside |
peacock |
|
classroom |
ironwork |
snowball |
landlord |
|
earthquake |
roadside |
witchcraft |
necktie |
|
hatband |
rosebud |
warfare |
drawbridge |
|
gunpowder |
cowboy |
milkweed |
brasswork |
|
motherwort |
manhole |
faultfinding |
haycock |
SOME IMPORTANT PREFIXES, WITH THEIR MOST
COMMON SIGNIFICATIONS. ENGLISH : —
A, at, in, on ; as, ahead, abed, ashore. Be, to make, by, for ; as, beside, behead, bedim, bespeak. En, in, into, on, to make ; as, entomb, enroll. For, not, from ; as, forbid, forbear. Fore, before ; as, foretell. In, to mak'e ; as, insure. Out, beyond ; as, outdo, outbreak. Un, not ; as. unable, unwise. With, against, from ; as, withstand, withhold. LATIN : —
Ab (a, ab>i), from, away ; as, abdicate, abstract, avert. Ad,1 to ; as, adhere, administer.
1 For the sake of euphony the last letter of a prefix is often changed to the first letter of the root, or is dropped ; as, empower, imbitter, aggregate, commingle, cooperate, differ.
74 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION,
Ante, before ; as, antedate, antechamber.
Bi (bis), two (twice) ; as, bivalve, biweekly.
Circuin, around ; as, circumnavigate.
Con,1 with, together ; as, conjoin.
Contra (counter), against, opposite ; as, contradict, counteract.
De, down ; as, depend, depress.
Dis,1 not, apart ; as, distract, disinter, disoblige.
E (ex), out, from ; as, export, emerge.
Extra, beyond ; as, extraordinary.
lu,1 in, not ; as, indent, imprudent, illegal, irregular.
Inter, between, among ; as, intercollegiate, interchange.
Mis, wrong ; as, misconduct, misunderstand.
Non, not ; as-, nonsense.
Ob,1 against, in the way; as, object, obstinate.
Per, by, through ; as, perchance.
Post, after ; as, postpone.
Pre, before ; as, prefix.
Pro, for, forward ; as, project, pronoun.
Re, back, again ; as, rebound, reseat.
Semi, half ; as semicircle.
Sub,1 under ; as, submarine, succumb, suppress.
Super, above, beyond ; as, superstructure, supernatural.
Trans, across, through ; as, translate, transform, transfix.
GREEK : —
A (an), without; as, atheist, anarchy.
Amphi, both, around ; as, amphitheatre.
Anti (ant), against, opposite ; as, antichristian.
Auto, self ; as, autobiography. ,
Dia, through ; as, diameter.
En, in ; as, engraft.
Epi, upon ; as, epidermis, epigram.
Hemi, half ; as, hemisphere.
Hyper, over, beyond ; as, hypercritical.
Meta, beyond ; as, metaphysics.
Peri, around ; as, perimeter.
1 See footnote, p. 73.
ETYMOLOGY. 75
Write as many words as you can containing prefixes, and tell the meaning of the parts. For example : beside is com- posed of the prefix be, meaning by, and side. Beside means by the side.
SOME IMPORTANT SUFFIXES, WITH THEIR MOST
COMMON SIGNIFICATIONS. NOUNS : —
An, ant, ent, er, ier, 1st, or, one who (agent) ; as, historian defendant, adherent, writer, cashier, fatalist, surveyor.
Ate, ee, ite, ive, one who (is, or to whom) ; as, associate, devotee, favorite, captive.
Ary, cry, ory, place where ; as, aviary, hennery, lavatory.
Acy, age, al, ance, ence, ancy, ency, doin, head, hood, ing, ion, ism, ment, niony, ness, ry, ship, tude, ty, ity, lire, state, condition ; as, lunacy, pupilage, personal, endurance, expectancy, transparency, martyrdom, godhead, knighthood, writing, emancipation, skepticism, advancement, patrimony, goodness, pleasantry, apprenticeship, solitude, safety, ability, rapture.
Cle, cule, kin, let, ling, ock, ule, ette, little, young ; as, par1- ticle, animalcule, lambkin, eyelet, gosling, hillock, globule, statuette.
Ess, ix, a female ; as, huntress, administratrix.
ADJECTIVES : —
Ac, al, an, ar, any, ic (ical), ile, ine, ory, pertaining to ; as,
demoniac, personal, suburban, consular, planetary, oceanic,
infantile, butterine, declamatory.
Able (ible, ble), that may or can be ; as, habitable, convertible. En, made of ; as, golden. Ful, ive, ose, ous, some, y, full of, having the quality of ; as,
careful, oppressive, verbose, dangerous, troublesome, flowery. Ish, like, ly, aceous, like, resembling, having the nature of ; as,
childish, ladylike, motherly, herbaceous. Less, without ; as, sleepless.
76 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AM) PUNCTUATION
VERBS : —
En, fy, ise (ize)s to make ; as, whiten, beautify, immortalize. ADVERBS : —
Ly, like ; as, manly.
Ward, wise, in the direction of : as, backward, endwise.
Write as many words as you can containing suffixes, and tell the meaning of the parts. For example: himbkiu is composed of the word Iamb and the suffix Tein, meaning small. Lambkin means a small lamb.
Make as many derivative words as possible from the fol- lowing, and tell their meanings : —
love
blot
gripe
calm
think
tell
step
slave
rag
man
end
five
some
after
beech
ink
home
tooth
length
define
invent
contend
vital
reduce
pay
consign
law
art
just
note
bull
nose
babe
wind
silk
take
furl
fold
trust
author
orate
science
sincere
Analyze the following words, giving the primitive word in each case with its meaning, then its prefix or suffix with meaning, then the meaning of the derivative. Consult the dictionary freely.
manikin
duckling
crumble
shallow
darling
pillow
afloat
|
humanity |
kitten |
humanize |
|
defiance |
rivulet |
contention |
|
forbid |
tamable |
trustee |
|
mislead |
obtainable |
nominee |
|
forehead |
diffusive |
pianist |
|
bedaub |
diffusion |
superadd |
|
befall |
benevolent |
satisfy |
PART FOURTH.
PUNCTUATION.
RHETORICAL pause and grammatical punctuation are two very different things, though sometimes they conform to each other. The word punctuate is derived from the Latin panctum, a point; hence to punctuate is to mark with points. In writing, these points are used to separate words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, in order to aid the writer in expressing his meaning. They are a guide to the reader, — a hint as to the meaning of the writer. They have no reference whatever to rhetoric, being used to aid the eye, not the ear, in obtaining a correct understanding of a sen- tence. They are not used to indicate pauses, as some have taught. Pauses may be more or less in number than the marks of punctuation. To insert a mark wherever a rhetorical pause is desirable would tend to confuse the reader and obscure the meaning of the sentence. Only such marks should be used as will aid the reader in under- standing the full meaning of the writer, and none such should be omitted.
The following rules should be fully explained and illus- trated by the teacher, and the pupils should be required to present additional examples, 'both of correct and incorrect
77
78 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
punctuation, which should be thoroughly discussed by the class.
Inaccuracy of punctuation causes misunderstandings and difficulties in the affairs of life, needless disputes and discussions between authors and editors, and some- times erroneous views of things to be entertained by reason of misinterpreting a sentence incorrectly punctuated. Pupils cannot, therefore, become too familiar with the correct use of all the essential marks, and the teacher should examine and mark every written exercise with this fact in view.
For practice work the pupils may be required to tran- scribe from the blackboard and punctuate any paragraph which has been previously placed there with all the points omitted. The comparison and correction of several such copies will prove an interesting and profitable exercise. Or the teacher may read aloud from a book, while the pupils write and punctuate what is read.
The use of punctuation marks varies so very much with the meaning and emphasis designed to be conveyed by the writer, and depends so much upon his style of expression, that it is simply impossible to formulate a series of rules which shall govern all writers, or the same writer at all times. There is, and must be, great diversity among writers in the use of the comma, for instance, and it would be as absurd to try to give rules and exceptions for all the possible uses of the comma as to attempt to illustrate all the forms of expression and shades of thought which are capable of expression in written language. Even the most obvious rules may be violated sometimes, and hence a
PUNCTUATION. 79
thorough familiarity with the English language and its construction into sentences will prove a better aid to correct punctuation than any body of rules formulated in a book.
The following rules are given, therefore, not to be fol- lowed invariably, nor for the purpose of covering the whole subject, but simply to present briefly the most common principles, and to furnish those who would write for the press some guide in general punctuation.
Many people seem to think that if they make some kind of mark with their pen in every place where a punctuation point ought to be, they are punctuating correctly, or at least sufficiently, so they make no distinction between a comma and a period, and they make no other kind of mark at all. The only mark made by others is a short dash, and the reader is compelled to decide for himself whether he should interpret it as a comma, a semicolon, or a period. Punctuating a manuscript in that way is scarcely better than making no marks at all, and is only equaled by the total neglect to cross the t's and dot the i's.
The marks of punctuation are the following : —
Comma (,) Exclamation Point (!)
Semicolon (;) Interrogation Point (?)
Colon (:) Marks of Parenthesis [()]
Period (.) Apostrophe (')
Dash (— ) Quotation Marks (" ")
80 ORTHOGRAPHY, OUTHOKPY, AND IM NCTIATION.
THE COMMA.
The chief use of the comma, as, indeed, of all punctuation, is to aid the reader in understanding the exact meaning of the writer. Too many commas tend to confuse, and it must sometimes be left to the taste and judgment of the writer to determine their use. Therefore different writers may punctuate very differently and yet all correctly. The comma usually represents a brief pause, though not always, and in reading or speaking, rhetorical pauses should be made with no regard to punctuation.
It may be set down as a rule that when words are closely united in meaning no comma is placed between them, but when, for any reason, it is desired that the force and mean- ing of consecutive words, phrases, or clauses should be con- sidered separately, then they are separated by commas.
" There speech and thought and nature failed a little."
'• I sat and looked and listened, and thought how many thousand
years ago the same thing was going on in honor of Bubastis."
" Those who held Republican opinions were as yet few, and did not
venture to speak out."
" And, feeling all along the garden wall, Lest he should swoon and tumble and be found, Crept to the gate, and opened it, and closed."
In the second line of the last illustration commas might be inserted after " swoon " and " tumble," to lend additional force to those words and to " found."
The following quotation from Teall's " Punctuation" illus- trates clearly the fact that the comma is used to aid the
81
reader in his interpretation of. a sentence rather than to mark the grammatical construction : —
" 1. He went because he was told to go.
" 2. Brown's daughter Mary did it.
" :?. Smith's wife Jane testified against him.
" 4. The imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the -present tense. — Jii.tllions.
" 5. He did not go. because he was not told to.
"G. Brown's daughter, Mary, did it.
" 7. Smith's wife, Jane, testified against him.
"8. The imperfect tense lias three distinct forms, corresponding to those of the present tense.
" The first sentence is a mere assertion of a reason for action, while the fifth makes two assertions — that he did not go, and that it was so for a certain reason. The second and third sentences mean a particular one of a number of daughters and wives, while the pointing in the sixth and seventh marks the fact that there is only one daughter and only one wife. Bullions' saying as cited in the first in- stance implies more than three forms, and the correctly pointed sentence restricts the number to three.'7
GENERAL RULES.
RULE I. The comma is used to separate two or more consecutive words, phrases, or clauses in the same gram- matical construction.
•• A clear, frosty, moonlight evening had set in.'-'
'• From the land of the Ojibways, From the land of the Dakotas, From the mountains, moors, and fen lands."
" Ants build great edifices, keep them clean, close the doors in the evening, and post their sentries."
82 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
(a) Such words may be arranged in pairs ; in that case they are punctuated in pairs.
" Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote."
(6) The comma is sometimes, though incorrectly, omitted when a conjunction occurs between the last two of a series of words in the same construction.
" Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness."
(c) If, however, an adjective is used to qualify only the first of three nouns, the comma should be omitted before the conjunction.
" The characteristics of Mr. Mason's mind were real greatness, strength and sagacity."
(d) A comma is used also after the last noun or phrase in a series, if it is not joined to the others by a conjunction.
" Industry, honesty, temperance, are essential to happiness."
(e) The last of a series of qualifying words used as in (d) is not followed by a comma unless the word qualitied precedes the series or is separated from the last by one or more intervening words.
" Too much of our love is an instinctive, ungoverned, narrow, sel- fish feeling. "
" There is something real, substantial, immortal, in Christian vir- ture."
(/) Some writers, confusing the rhetorical pause with the idea of punctuation, insert commas where they are not required by the rules.
" For his sake, empires had risen, and flourished, and decayed."
PUNCTUATION. 83
RULE II. Words or phrases used in apposition are sepa- rated by commas.
"The following is a dialogue between Socrates, the great Athenian philosopher, and one Glaucon, a private man."
" 1 am not now to discuss the question, whether the souls of men are naturally equal."
(a) On the same principle, a word or phrase repeated for the sake of emphasis is separated from the context by commas.
" Here, and here only, lies the democratic character of the revolu- tion."
(6) For a similar reason, a direct quotation, or an expres- sion used like a quotation, is preceded by a comma.
"Patrick Henry commenced by saying, 'It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.1 "
(c) If the two words or phrases are used as a compound name, or as a single phrase, the comma should be omitted.
"Paul the Apostle."
" Jack the Giant Killer."
RULE III. Words used as names or titles of persons addressed are separated by commas from the other words with which they are used.
" I remain, sir, your obedient servant.'1 " I 'm to be queen of the May, mother."
RULE IV. A phrase or clause denoting cause, purpose, condition, or concession is followed by a comma when it precedes the principal clause.
" Had a conflict once begun, the rage of their persecutors would have redoubled."
" Shame being lost, all is lost."
84 OUTHOOIIAI'HY, <> K'TI K )FJ> V, AND PITNCTUATION.
" Conscious of her innocence, many came to the trial without fear." "To make a long story short, 1 married Hie widow."
KII,K V. A comma, is sometimes used 1o mark the gram- matical separation of parts of speech, as between a complex subject or object and its verb, especially when such object is placed before the word on which it depends.
"Even the kind of public interests which Englishmen care for, he held in very little esteem."
"The same modification of our Germanism by another force which seems Celtic, is visible in our religion."
(a) An adverb or phrase out of its natural place is set off by a comma, to help the reader to understand the meaning. If the meaning is clear without the comma, it should not be used. (See Rule IV.> also Rule VI.)
" In their eyes, the very ground on which lie trod was sanctified." "As an orator, perhaps, he was not magnetic or inspiring." " Patience, I. say ; your mind perhaps may change."
Note. — It will be noticed that "perhaps" is followed by a comma when it modifies the preceding phrase, but not when it modifies the expression following.
RULE A7 1. An adverb or any expression used parentheti- cally may be separated from the context by commas instead of parenthesis marks.
" The farmers of the neighborhood had made haste, as soon as the event of the fight was known, to send hogsheads of their best cider as a peace-offering to the victors."
" He, like the world, his ready visit pays Where fortune smiles."
"The pursuers, too, were close behind."
(a) This applies to a relative clause, whether introduced
Pl'NCTrATIOX. 85
by a relative pronoun or adverb, used as explanatory, or to present an additional thought.
" Mis stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to order."
" They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily."
(b) Sometimes the dash is used instead of commas, to avoid ambiguity or obscurity.
" The expenditure of this vast sum of money is intrusted to a cum- bersome body of school officers — trustees, inspectors, and commis- sioners— created by a jumble of laws, in which responsibility is divided hopelessly."
(c) Some adverbs may be used either parenthetically or as modifiers. If used as modifiers, the comma should be omitted.
"Take due notice and govern yourselves accordingly." " He was, accordingly, executed the next day."
RULE VII. Words or clauses used to denote contrast or opposition should be separated by a comma.
"The more I reflected upon it, the more important it appeared." " The Quaker revered principles, not men ; truth, not power."
SPECIAL KULKS.
RULE VIII. When the conjunction "too" is placed at the end of a sentence or a clause, it must not be separated from the context by a comma.
"• I would that they had changed voices too."
RULE IX. After the word " price," when immediately preceding the value of any article, the comma may be omitted.
1 * Trice $5. ' » " Price fifty cents. "
86 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
RULE X. Numbers consisting of more than three figures, except dates, are divided by commas into periods of three figures each, beginning at the right. This is not a mark of punctuation, but a device to aid in reading the number.
"1,247." "244,392,000."
EXERCISES FOR THE COMMA.
Write the following sentences, inserting commas where they belong, and give the rule for each : —
"An aged venerable man." " A venerable old man."
" How poor how rich how abject how august How complicate how wonderful is man !"
** The authority of Plato and Aristotle of Zeno and Epicurus stil
reigned in the schools."
"They shrunk from no dangers and they feared no hardships."
" His trees extended their cool umbrageous branches."
" Kinglake has given Aleck a great handsome chestnut mare."
" There are no mediaeval personages ; they belong to an older pagan
mythological world."
"It is the center of trade the supreme court of fashion the umpire
of rival talents and the standard of things rare and precious."
"I have had to bear heavy rains to wrestle with great storms to
fight my way l and hold my own as well as I could." " Then speech and thought and nature failed a little." " We bumped and scraped and rolled very unpleasantly." " My manors halls and towers shall still be open at my sovereign's
will."
1 A comma may be omitted after "way," because the expression following is more closely connected with it than with the other words in the series.
PUNCTUATION. 87
** Black spirits and white Blue spirits and gray Mingle mingle mingle You that mingle may."
"Plays and poems hunting and dancing were proscribed by the austere discipline of this saintly family."
"The discourse was beautifully elegantly and forcibly delivered."
"The spirit of the Almighty is within around above us."
"Thompson Brown Jones and Company.
" The man professed neither to eat nor drink nor sleep."
" The husband and wife and children suffered extremely."
" Who to the enraptured heart and ear and eye Teach beauty virtue truth and love and melody."
"From generation to generation, man and beast and house and land have gone on in succession here, replacing following renewing repairing and being repaired demanding and getting more support."
" Saying with a loud voice, Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power and riches and wisdom and strength and honor and glory and blessing. And every creature which is in heaven and on the earth and under the earth and such as are in the sea and all that are in them heard I saying, Blessing and honor and glory and power be unto him that sitteth upon the throne and unto the Lamb forever and ever."
"Punish guide instruct the boy."
" Verily verily I say unto you."
"The colleges the clergy the lawyers were against me."
" Your ends objects seem to me important. I see I feel the great evils of our present social state."
"The world that is outward material is the shadow of that which is spiritual."
" The more of common objects of common tastes of common sources they possess, the more tender and beneficent will be their union."
" Interest and ambition honor and shame friendship and enmity gratitude and revenge are the prime movers in public transactions."
"Let elevation without turgidness purity without prurience pathos without whining characterize our style."
88 ORTHOGRAPHY, OKTHOEPY. AND PUNCTUATION.
" Nothing is more wise or more admirable in action than to be reso- lute and yet calm earnest yet self-possessed decided and yet modest.1' " She is a virtuous and excellent young woman." "She had dark blue eyes and beautiful light brown hair." " He then proceeded to draw on a pair of old shabby and very dirty white kid gloves."
" One truth is clear Whatever is is right."
THE SEMICOLON.
RULE I. The semicolon should be used to separate two consecutive clauses either of which is subdivided by one or- more commas.
"In prosperity, he was too much elated ; in adversity, too despon- dent."
RULE II. The semicolon is used to separate consecutive phrases or clauses which are independent of each other grammatically, but depend alike upon some word preceding or following.
*' Children, as they gamboled on the beach ; reapers, as they gath- ered the harvest ; mowers, as they rested upon the scythe ; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household ; — were victims to an enemy who disappeared the moment a blow was struck, and who was ever present where a garrison or a family ceased its vigilance."
(a) When the connection between phrases or clauses is very close, the comma may be used unless the semicolon is required by Rule I. When the connection between sentences is not close, the period may be used.
"He saw that London society was, in truth, a kind of microcosm, or the whole world in a little, a place where you had to make and keep your own footing."
A semicolon after " little " would be better punctuation ; a dash would be still better.
PUNCTJJATION. 89
(6) When the members of such a series of expressions till depend upon or govern a clause following them all, a dash should be used with the last semicolon, as in the example given under llule II.
EULE III. The semicolon may properly be used between two clauses, instead of a comma, when the latter clause is not closely connected in thought with the former, and is more or less adversative.
"The past seems to promise it ; but the fulfillment depends on the future."
EULE IV. When a word, pjirase, or clause is given as an example or illustration of a preceding statement, it is usually separated from such statement by a semicolon. "As," "viz.," "e.g./' "i.e.," or their full expression, may follow the semicolon and be followed by a comma. (See numerous illustrations in Part First of this book.)
THE COLON.
The use of the colon is being restricted more and more to certain special or technical uses, and its place is supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash.
The old rule was that a colon should be used to separate two consecutive clauses, or members of a sentence, either of which is subdivided by one or more semicolons; as, —
" Early reformations are amicable arrangements with a friend in power ; late reformations are terms imposed upon a conquered enemy : Early reformations are made in cold blood; late reformations are made under a state of inflammation."
The most common use of the colon is when a series of words or statements is given in a formal way j especially
00 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
when "the following/' "as follows/' or words of similar meaning are expressed or implied ; as, —
" Correct the errors in the following expressions : 1' " We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- ness."
" Again," " In conclusion/7 " To sum up all," or any simi- lar expression used to introduce a series of sentences to all of which it refers, may be followed by a colon ; as, —
" To sum up all : My friends, the time is short. We are as guests in a strange land, who tarry but one night. We wander up and down," etc.
This is particularly the case if a direct quotation is given.
"The air was sweet and plaintive; and the words, literally trans- lated, were these : ' The winds roared and the rains fell, when the poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat under our tree.' "
In the case of a quotation like the above, instead of the colon, sometimes a comma is used, or a comma and a dash ; sometimes also the dash is used with the colon. This is especially the case when the quotation begins a new para- graph; as,-
"At a meeting held last evening, the following resolution was passed, viz. : —
" ' That it should be the duty,' " etc.
The more formal or independent the quotation, the greater is the mark of punctuation, and if the quotation is not introduced in an independent, formal way, it is not preceded by any mark except the inverted commas ; as, —
" Dr. Thomas Brown truly says that ' the benevolent spirit is as uni- versal in its efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved.' "
PUNCTUATION. 91
The colon is used similarly after the introductory words of an address ; as, —
" My dear father:,'' '; Gentlemen of the jury :,r' "To the editor of the Journal :."
The colon is used between figures expressing hours and minutes, chapter and verse; as, "3:40 P.M."; "Psa. 44:8."
The colon is used sometimes between the name of the place where a book is published and the name of the pub- lisher ; as, " Chicago : A. Flanagan Company."
The colon may properly be used after the adverbs uyes" and " no," if they are followed by an independent sentence which gives a reason or explanation of the answer; as, —
" Will he pretend to say that this is an offensive war, — a war of conquest ? Yes : the gentleman has dared to make this assertion."
THE PERIOD.
Besides the regular use of the period at the close of a sentence or paragraph, it is used to mark an abbreviation ; as, "Mass.," "K Y.," "Mr."
(a) A distinction should be made between what seems to be an abbreviation and an actual abbreviation. For example, no period should follow such forms as "1st," "2d," "3d," "4th," "8vo,v " 16mo," etc.
An abbreviation is a word in which one or more letters are used to represent the whole word; it is not a word which simply has one or more letters omitted between the first and the last. That is a contraction. AVhen the last letter of the word is written, an apostrophe usually marks the place of the omitted letters and no abbreviation point is
92 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
used; as, "sec'y," " Sam'l," "Gen'l." In some cases, how- ever, the apostrophe is omitted and the abbreviation mark is used; as, "supt.," "prest.," "dept.," "Mt." These arc not properly called abbreviations, but contractions.
(6) The period is not used at the close of a sentence it the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory, and followed by an interrogation or exclamation point ; but all abbrevi- ations should be marked by the period, whatever other mark is necessary besides ; as, " While I was living in Boston, Mass., I became acquainted with Governor Long."
(c) Sometimes an abbreviation becomes so generally used instead of the full word that it is regarded as a complete word and the abbreviation mark is omitted; as, "per cent" for " per centum," " Ben," " Sam/' " Will," etc., for " Benja- min," " Samuel," " William," etc.
(d!) A sentence closing with an abbreviation requires but one period at the close ; as, " The library is well supplied with books, pamphlets, magazines, etc."
(e) The period should also be used before decimal num- bers, at the close of a heading or sub-heading, after figures used to number a series, also where such figures are intro- duced as citations ; in short, at the end of every complete written expression.
Four successive periods in the body of a sentence or para- graph, with spaces between them, denote an omission of words or sentences ; as, —
"In the long, dark alley, while my friend .... was wondering where I had gone."
A line of periods, well spaced, between two paragraphs denotes that one or more paragraphs have been omitted.
PUNCTUATION. 93
A succession of periods is used for "leaders" in tables, etc., between the end of a topic or sub-head and a figure at the end of the line.
Roman numerals should be followed by the period except when they are used as cardinal numbers, -such as the folios of books or papers.
It may be difficult to decide whether a period or a semi- colon should be used between several consecutive sentences. No arbitrary rule can be given to determine this, but it may be said that when the sentences are somewhat closely con- nected in meaning, or are similar in their use, the semicolon is to be preferred.
A decimal number is always a fraction, hence less than one unit ; and no fraction should be read as represent- ing more than one, or the plural of the object spoken of. " Jyd.," ".5yd./' etc., should be read "one-half yard," "five tenths of a yard," etc. ".625 " is 625 thousandths of a unit. If grains are spoken of, it should be written ".625 of a grain," or ".625 grain " ; not ".625 grains."
The point should not be used with a number denoting dollars unless some cents are also included. It is incorrect to write $25., since the point belongs only to the decimal part of the number. Hence, if a number denoting dollars and cents is divided at the end of a line (which should be avoided if possible), the decimal point should be written in the second line.
THE DASH.
The primary significance of the dash is that at the place where it is used there is a suspension or incompleteness in
94 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
the expression, and perhaps a sudden transition to another thought.
In many instances the dash is used simply to fill a blank space, either as a mechanical device or to unite the parts before and after a pause.
It is a mark of great carelessness, not to say ignorance, for a writer to use the dash indiscriminately, where marks of a different kind should be used. Such use of the dash is excusable, if ever, only in rapid and exciting discourse.
The following are some of the cases in which the dash is used : —
(a) To mark a sudden suspension or change in thought.
' ' For I was born at Bingen — at Bingen on the Rhine."
"He has been unkindly — he has been shamefully treated by his friends."
" It was the beginning of the end — the downfall of the Farmers' College."
" Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there ever — but I scorn to boast."
(6) After a period following a sub-heading.
"NOTE. — This is the only instance of the kind to be found in Shakespeare."
(c) After a colon, if the following series is very long; also after a comma or colon when the next word begins a new paragraph. This includes the use of a dash after the salutation of a letter.
"The following are illustrations of the principle above stated : — ." " This quotation might be written as follows : — ." "Mr. John Smith,
Dear Sir:—."
',
PUNCTUATION. 96
(d) Before the name of an author appended to a quotation.
" Uncle Sam's gold — meaning no disrespect to him — has a quality of enchantment like that of the devil's wages." — Hawthorne.
(e) After a direct question when the answer immediately follows.
" What then ? are we better than they ? — No, in nowise." (/) To take the place of omitted letters or figures ; as, — B—n, for Boston; 1808-09, for 1808 and 1800.
(g) To separate sentences when the second would regu- larly begin a new paragraph but from lack of space does not. This is sometimes the case in a conversation between two persons, or in gazetteers, encyclopedias, etc.
"One day John made his reply to an intimate friend of the lady, who shortly went away, leaving a card and a promise to call again.
As the card was handed to Mrs. , she said, 'John, what did yon
say to the lady ? ' — 'I told her 'you were not at home.' — ' Well, John. I hope you did not laugh ? ' — ' Oh, no ! ma'am,' said John ; 'I never laugh when I tell a lie.' "
(7i) As a substitute for the marks of parenthesis. This occurs —
1. When the parenthesis contains one or more commas.
2. When it consists of a word or thought repeated for rhetorical effect.
3. When it is used in an explanatory sense.
"Unlike as they were externally — and there could scarcely be a more decided contrast than between Florence in her delicate youth and beauty and Captain Cuttle with his knobby face, his great, broad, weather-beaten person, and his gruff voice — in simple innocence of the world's ways and the world's perplexities and dangers, they were nearly on a level."
" Shall'I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought
ORTHOGRAPHY, oirriK >KPY, AND iTNCTi ATloN.
up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves — shall I compare myself with this half-year captain ? — a captain, before whom should one place the two armies without their ensigns, I am persuaded he would not know to which of them he is consul."
" To Anderson — a young man of vivid fancy, fine senses, and cor- dial sympathies, who had been reared in the blessed air of renuncia- tion — everything in Italy was a delight."
There is great diversity of practice in the use of other marks with the dash, though most authorities claim that the use of the dash does not in any case prevent the use of other marks of punctuation which the construction or sense would require without the dash, and that such points should always precede the dash. Teall insists, however, that when the dash is used, it is needless and illogical to insert other marks.
EXCLAMATION AND INTERROGATION POINTS.
The use of these points needs no explanation. They are regularly used after exclamations and direct interrogations, whether independent or parenthetical.
It is not proper to use the exclamation point immedi- ately after the interjection 0. This form is used instead of Oh in direct address, the expression of a wish, or as an intro- duction to an exclamatory phrase, in which case the excla- mation point is used at the end of the phrase.
The exclamation point should not be used after any inter- jection unless such interjection is exclamatory.
The form Oh is always immediately followed by the point unless used with an exclamatory sentence or phrase which
PUNCTUATION. 97
requires the point at its close. It is never properly used in a direct address.
As a rule, the word following an interrogation or exclama- tion point begins with a capital letter, though not always.
In some questions it is difficult for a writer to decide which of these points should be used. It is a safe rule to say that if an answer is expected or implied, the interroga- tion point should be used; but if no answer is expected, the question may be regarded as exclamatory, and the exclama- tion point may be correctly used.
MARKS OF PARENTHESIS AND BRACKETS.
The marks of parenthesis are used to enclose an explana- tory or qualifying phrase or sentence, not grammatically connected with the sentence in which it is inserted.
"A certain amount of instruction in song (by the Italian method) should be given early in the life of a child."
Marks of parenthesis are not so common in these days as formerly, the dash often taking their place, and even the comma being frequently used where we might expect to find the marks of parenthesis.
Commas are used to set off words, phrases, or short clauses slightly parenthetical ; dashes are used with longer clauses, having more of a parenthetical nature, especially if subdivided by a comma; and the upright curves or marks of parenthesis are used when the clause is wholly paren- thetical and grammatically independent.
" Know then this truth (enough for man to know), Virtue alone is happiness below."
98 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PFNCTl A IMON.
This quotation might be written with dashes enclosing the parenthesis, as follows : —
" Know then this truth, — enough for man to know,— Virtue alqne is happiness below."
The parenthesis does not affect the punctuation of the sentence, except that any mark which would be used with- out the parenthesis is placed after the second curve.
If dashes are used instead of curves, and the additional mark is also retained, it must be placed before each dash. (See the example above.)
The following illustration shows the three ways of punc- tuating the parenthesis : —
" If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them unless we exercise them), they must be perpetually on the increase."
" If -we exercise right principles, and we cannot have them unless we exercise them, they must be perpetually on the increase."
**If we exercise right principles, — and we cannot have them unless we exercise them, — they must be perpetually on the increase."
The marks of parenthesis are sometimes used to enclose figures or letters enumerating subordinate divisions of a general subject, when other figures or letters have been used without the marks in the general divisions. (See illus- trations throughout these rules.)
Brackets are used within quotations to enclose the words of the writer — not those of the person quoted.
" Were you on [the] deck of the steamer at [the time of] the col- lision ? "
" He told you and I [me] to go."
PUNCTUATION. 99
THE APOSTROPHE.
The apostrophe should be written in the place of an omitted letter or letters ; as, " thro'," " e'en."
The use of the apostrophe in the possessive case of nouns shows the omission of /' or hi, hence it should invariably precede the s ; but in case of plurals and other words ending inland such expressions as "for righteousness' sake," "for conscience' sake," " for goodness' sake," " for Jesus' sake," etc., the s of the possessive is omitted, to prevent too much hissing sound.
The possessive case of pronouns does not take the apos- trophe; as, "yours," "its," "theirs."
The apostrophe is used in writing the plural of char- acters and signs and generally in writing the plural of figures ; as, " 2's," " i's," " *'s."
When the elision of a syllable causes two words to be pronounced as one, the elision is supplied by an apostro- phe, , but the tiro H'ordfi remain separated in space; as, "A book 's a book, although there 's nothing in- 't." The only exceptions to this are "don't," "can't," "won/t," and " sha'n't." However, many printers throw together as one word all combinations pronounced as' one word.
It was formerly the custom to write such forms as "con- quer'd," "thro'," "pow'r," etc., in poetry, also to elide a vowel, as t9 for to, tW for the, when a line of poetry would have one too many syllables, but unless the pronunciation of the word is changed it is no longer customary to use these forms.
Formerly the final ed in the imperfect tense and perfect
100 ORTHOGRAPHY, OKTIIOFJ'Y, AND PUNCTUATION.
participle of verbs was pronounced as a separate syllable, but this is now seldom the case ; when it is, the e is marked by a grave accent. (See Wilson's Punctuation, pp. 199, 200.)
QUOTATION MARKS.
When the exact words of another are introduced, they should be enclosed in quotation marks.
A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed within single marks.
" God said, ' Let there be light,' and there was light."
A quoted passage, like a parenthetical clause, has its own punctuation, independent of the quotation marks.
" For shame ! How can you say, ' Do you love me ? ' ! "
If a .quotation extends beyond a single paragraph, the marks should be repeated at the beginning of each para- graph, but should not be used at the close of any except the last.
No paragraph should be made within a quotation, unless the quotation begins with a paragraph.
The same rule applies to stanzas in poetry. The first line of each stanza quoted should be preceded by quotation marks. Such marks should stand outside the stanza, but if a quotation is made within a stanza, the marks should not be set outside.
The following example illustrates a combination of marks which should be avoided : —
" It is written in the Gospel. ' Jesus answered the Jews. " Is it not written in your law, — ' I said, " Ye are gods " ' ? "
PUNCTUATION". 101
It would be mucli better in such an exceptional case ;is this to omit some of the marks of quotation entirely ; thus, "It is written in the Gospel, 'Jesus answered the Jew? Is it not written in your law, — I said, Ye are gods ? ? '
It should be noticed that the introductory marks of quotation are two inverted commas, and the closing marks are two apostrophes. Both are placed above the line.
The comma and the period are always placed before the closing marks of a quotation, and most printers now place all other marks similarly, but it is a rule with some of the most careful printers to place the other points after the quotation when they do not form a part of it.
Quotation marks should be used to include titles, names, or any expression which might not be distinctly understood if not so quoted. Italics may sometimes be used to mark a quotation, especially if quoted from a foreign language.
GENERAL EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE.
Punctuate the following sentences so as to express their intended meaning, and give the rule for each mark : 1 —
1. Woman without her man would be a savage.
2. John Keyes the lawyer says he is guilty. (In how many ways can you punctuate this sentence ?)
3. Writers on punctuation generally provide for if they do not actually prescribe certain uses which are not nearly universal in prac- tice and of which some are absolutely unnecessary though they can- not truthfully be called erroneous.
1 The teacher should bear in mind that quite a good deal of liberty should be allowed in the punctuation of many sentences. When pupils differ as to the punctuation of any sentence, each different form should be studied Carefully and all differences in meaning should be pointed out. Comparatively few arbitrary rules should be insisted on.
102 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTT ATloX.
4. Words joined in pairs by conjunctions or other particles should be separated into pairs by commas.
5. On the whole it will be found that the art of punctuation is founded rather on grammar than on rhetoric that its chief aim is to unfold the meaning of sentences with the least trouble to the reader and that it aids the delivery only in so far as it tends to bring out the sense of the writer to the best advantage.
6. The types made us say in our last something about the Dogs of the Seine we certainly wrote Days of the League We have no doubt that in a large majority of cases of this sort if the question between the types and the pen were left to a jury they would decide in favor of the types.
7. What do you think
I'll shave you for nothing And give you some drink.
8. Every lady in this land
Hath twenty nails upon each hand Five and twenty on hands and feet And this is true without deceit.
9. In paradise Adam and Eve reigned supreme There was in Eve's every gesture dignity and love.
10. Rhetoric is the science and oratory the art of speaking well.
11. A rhetorical sometimes a grammatical pause should be used after words in apposition or in opposition to each other.
12. The swan whose neck is out of all proportion to his body is the most beautiful of all birds.
lo. The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid whose works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathematicians in mod- ern times.
14. It is probable that every planet as the Creator has made nothing in vain is inhabited.
15. I maintain that as knowledge extends the range of all imagery is enlarged and what is far more important that the conception kindles by the contemplation of higher objects.
16. Morning is the best time to study my beloved children.
PUNCTUATION. 103
17. God from the mount of Sinai whose gray top Shall tremble he descending will himself Ordain their laws.
18. We must however pay some deference to the opinions of the wise however much they are contrary to our own.
19. The young man was indeed culpable in that act though indeed he conducted himself very well in other respects.
20. 1 know of no great expounder of moral principle I know of no eloquent teacher of divine truth who is more useful in God's world than the business man that carries his religion into his business.
21. A wise man seeks to shine in himself a fool to outshine others.
22. Curiosity allures the wise vanity the foolish and pleasure both. 28. Patrick Henry commenced by saying It is natural to man to
indulge in the illusions of hope.
24. The poet Gray one of the most intellectual and fastidious of men says Happy they who can create a rose-tree or erect a honey-suckle.
25. Prosperity is naturally though not necessarily attached to vir- tue and merit adversity to vice and folly.
26. There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retire- ment and whose intellectual vigor deserts them in conversation whom merriment confuses and objection disconcerts whose bashful ness re- strains their exertion and suffers them not to speak till the time of speaking is past or whose attention to their own character makes them unwilling to utter at hazard what has not been considered and cannot be recalled.
27. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel.
28. Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear Full many a flower is born to blush unseen And waste its sweetness on the desert air.
29. Our duties to individuals are classed under four heads viz as arising from affinity friendship benefits received contract.
80. It is with narrow-souled people as with narrow-necked bottles the less they have in them the more noise they make in pouring it out.
104 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
31. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods There is a rapture on the lonely shore There is society where none intrudes
By the deep sea and music in its roar.
32. We all admire this sublime passage God said Let there be light and there was light.
33. The infinitive mood is often used as the nominative to a verb as To err that is error .is human.
34. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only affirmed that a question has been asked and the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other shape than that of a direct question as I was asked if I would stop for dinner If put in the interrogative form this sentence would be read and punctuated according to the rule I was asked will you stop for dinner.
35. How often in an instant doth a hand unseen shift the scenes of the world.
36. Oh I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space were it not that I have had bad dreams.
37. The Egyptian style of architecture see Dr Pocock not his dis- courses but his prints was apparently the mother of the Greek.
38. She had managed this matter so well oh how artful a woman she was that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger.
39. You say said the judge that the bag you lost had a hundred and ten dollars in it Yes sir Then replied the judge this cannot be your bag as it contained but a hundred dollars.
40. Young master was alive last Whitsuntide said the coachman Whitsuntide alas cried Trim extending his right arm and falling instantly into the same attitude in which he read the sermon what is Whitsuntide Jonathan for that was the coachman's name or Shrove- tide or any other tide or time to this.
41. I forgot my Your portmanteau hastily interrupted Thomas The same.
42. To pull down the false and to build up the true and to uphold what there is of true in the old let this be our endeavor.
43. The collision of mind with mind the tug and strain of intellec- tual wrestling the tension of every mental fiber as the student reaches forth to take hold of the topmost pinnacle of thought the shout of joy
PUNCTUATION. 105
that swells up from gladsome voices as he stands upon the summit with error under his feet these make men.
44. You speak like a boy like a boy who thinks the old gnarled oak can be twisted as easily as a young sapling.
45. There are times they only can understand who have known them when passion is dumb and purest love maintains her whole dominion.
46. In our dwellings and in concert rooms aye and in opera-houses so the theme be pure and great there is preaching as surely as within church-walls.
47. I am come to regard the world as an arena in which I have to do two things improve others and improve myself.
48. If men would confine their talk to those subjects only which they understand that which St John informs us took place once in heaven would happen very frequently on earth silence for the space of half an hour.
49. How are you Trepid How do you feel today Mr Trepid A great deal worse than I was thank you almost dead I am obliged to you Why Trepid what is the matter with you Nothing I tell you in partic- ular but a great deal is the matter with me in general.
50. To one who said I do not believe there is an honest man in the world another replied It is impossible that any one man should know all the world but quite possible that one may know himself.
51. They that go down to the sea in ships that do business in great waters these see the works of the Lord and his wonders in the deep for he commandeth and raiseth the stormy wind which lifteth up the waves thereof They mount up to the heaven they go down again to the depths their soul is melted because of trouble.
52. O how weak is mortal man how trifling how confined his scope of vision.
53. A shot Ah he falls but his life's latest sigh
Is Tis sweet O tis sweet for our country to die And thus Warren fell Happy death noble fall.
54. Tertullian an earnest Christian pastor in Carthage wrote
If the Tiber overflowed its banks if there was famine or plague if the season was hot or dry or scorching whatever public calamity happened the universal cry of the populace was To the lions with the Christians.
106 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PIXCTU ATION .
55. Pain and cold and hunger and weariness and loneliness I have borne with a prayer and a tight mouth and I never said before that I thought Him cruel hard.
56. Mr. Field wrote thus of Longfellow In his modesty and benevo- lence I am reminded of what Pope said of his friend Garth He is the best of Christians without knowing it.
57. What a teacher therefore most especially needs and parents need it too is the faith that knows how to work and wait.
58. The storm passed by the happy trees
Stood up and kissed the sun And from the birds new melodies Came floating one by one.
59. When the Black Book as the report of the commissioners was called was read in the House of Commons and the iniquities practiced in many of the monasteries under the guise of religion were exposed the chamber was filled with cries of Down with them Down with them.
60. Why is thy life so sorely smitten Wait
And thou shalt learn Dead stones thy teachers were Through years of toil thy hand did minister To joyous Art thou wast content with Fate Take now thy ruined passion fix its date Peruse its growth and if thou canst replan The blended facts of Life that made thee man Could aught be spared or changed for other state
01. At the foot of that great oak I have often poured out to my Heavenly Father the secret woes of my life yet the straggling winds that pass through its branches have never in all their wanderings lisped a word of what I said The tender plants that listen to my moans and witness my tears turn their bright faces .to the sky saying Look up the light of God's love can dispel the damps and dews of the dreariest night that sorrow ever brought upon the human heart Surely
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods There is society where none intrudes and
I love not man the less but nature more From these our interviews.
PUNCTUATION. 107
62. The quality of mercy is not strained
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath it is twice blessed
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes
Tis mightiest in the mightiest it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown
His scepter shows the force of temporal power
The attribute to awe and majesty
Wherein doth sit the fear and dread of kings
But mercy is above his sceptered sway
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings
It is an attribute of God himself
And earthly power doth then show likest God's
When mercy seasons justice Therefore Jew
Though justice be thy plea consider this
That in the course of justice none of us
Should see salvation we do pray for mercy
And that same prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy.
OTHER CHARACTERS OR SIGNS FOUND IN BOOKS.
Asterisk, or star (*). Section (§).
Dagger (t). Parallel (||).
Double dagger (J). Paragraph (Tf).
The above signs are used as references to notes at the foot of the page. If more than six are needed on a single page, they are doubled (**).
It is becoming quite common to use superior figures instead of signs (]).
The asterisk is also used to denote an omission of letters or words; as, B ****», for Boston; "Our dictionaries record the different systems * * * with a few exceptions."
The dagger is generally used in dictionaries to indicate that the word to which it is attached is obsolete.
108 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
The section mark is used to indicate a division of a book ; as, § 24.
Ditto marks („ or ") are placed under words to show that they are to be repeated in the next line. These marks are sometimes two commas and sometimes two inverted commas.
A brace (J) indicates that the lines enclosed by it are each to be taken with what stands before the point of the brace.
The index (jy), sometimes called hand, or fat, calls par- ticular attention to a special statement.
The asterism (%*) is sometimes used for the same pur- pose as the index.
Leaders are periods or hyphens used to lead from the terminus of a short line to a word or figure at the extreme end of the line.
The accent — (') acute, (^) grave, and (A) circumflex — is used to indicate pronunciation. In mathematics, a' is read a prime; a", a second; a'"} a third.
In linear measurement, one acute accent denotes feet; two, inches; three, lines; as, 2', 10", 5'", two feet, ten inclwx, five lines.
The degree (°) is used in expressing the register of a thermometer or barometer, and in designating one or more of the three hundred and sixty equal parts of a circle. It is used also, with the acute accents, in recording latitude and longitude ; as, 10°, ten degrees; 80° 20' 10", thirty degrees, twenty minutes, ten seconds.
PUNCTUATION. 109
THE HYPHEN.
The most common use of the hyphen is to join together the parts of a compound word, or to separate the syllables of a word ; as. heart-broken, cos-mo-pol-i-tan.
It is impossible to lay down any set of rules to be invariably followed in the use of the hyphen. The custom of writers is quite various and changeable. The tendency is toward omitting the hyphen in compound nouns. Many nouns now commonly joined by a hyphen will, after a time, undoubtedly be united without the hyphen, especially the shorter ones, such as prayer-meeting, horse-jockey, deaf-mute, title-page, catch-basin, slate-color, story-teller, money-maker, mince-meat, life-preserver, lamp-post, flea-bite, base-burner.
Instances of the omission of the hyphen may be seen in nevertheless, highwayman, forthcoming, everlasting, not- withstanding, beeswax, townspeople, whatsoever, hereupon.
The first and most obvious rule for the use of the hyphen in compound nouns is that it should be used when each of the two words retains its own accent and meaning, or the two are pronounced as if not compounded ; as, child-study, telegraph-pole, quarter-deck, dinner-table, battle-field, text-book, loop-hole, tea-chest.
(a) When the two words are accented as one, they should be joined without a hyphen ; as, inkstand, clergyman, black- smith, nobleman, bookseller, rainbow, railroad, snowball, earth- quake.
(b) If the first part is an adjective, or a noun used like an adjective, and especially if the accent is strongest 011 the second part, they do not form a compound ; as, armed chair,
110 ORTHOGRAPHY, OKTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
blank verse, gold ring, tin basin, business block, common sense, good will, north wind, family party, leisure hours, village par- son, old maid, pine table, oak boards, brick wall, glass pitcher, silver spoon, home life, mountain top, Sunday school.
(c) If the first word ends and the second begins with, the same letter or digraph, or with a vowel, the hyphen is used, regardless of the accent; as, head-dress, sail-loft, book- Iceeping, ear-ring, pale-eyed, glow-worm, night-time, fire-arms, pine-apple, peace-offering, pre-occupy, re-enter, snoiv-white, fiag- grass.
(d) Some printers omit the hyphen, but place a dieresis over the second vowel when both are the same ; as, cooper- ate, zoology.
(e) The prefixes bi and tri are united to their words with- out a hyphen ; as, biennial, triune.
(/) The hyphen is used where the second word is tree or when the first word contains more than one syllable ; as, scrapbook, bankbook, commonplace-book, apple-tree, oak-tree, bluefish, devil-fish, ivhitefish, swordfish, blackbird, humming- bird, ricebird, bluebird, weaver-bird, rifie-bird, writing-book, canal-boat, daylight, candle-light, dwelling-house, schoolhouse, roundhouse, senate-house, clubroom, bedroom, dining-room, hillside, river-side, graveyard, lumber-yard, cupboard, sailboat, dressing-room.
(g) Many compounds beginning with school omit the hy- phen; as, schoolboy, schoolmate, schoolmaster, schoolhouse; but school days, school district, school teacher, school children, etc.
(h) When two or more words are used with a combined force as an. attributive adjective qualifying a noun, the qualifying words should be joined by a hyphen ; as, a red-
PUNCTUATION. Ill
hot stove, the well-known writer, a bandy-legged fellow, hand- sewed clothing, a never-to-be-forgotten occurrence, a heart-broken woman, sweet-scented, sixty-Jive, forty-third, three-legged, first- born, good-looking, down-trodden, high-water mark, bird's-eye view, Jirst-dass car, up-hill work, New-England customs, a matter-of-fact man.
(i) A noun in the possessive case forming a compound with the noun following it is joined to its noun by a hyphen ; as, Solomons-seal, Jew's-harp, lady's-slipper, king's-evil, crow's-nest.
This is not the case, however, with proper nouns ; as, St. John's College, St. Paul's Church, Van Dieman's Land, Mer- chants' Exchange, New Year's Day.
(J) The hyphen is used where a prefix is joined to a proper noun ; as, Ex-President Harrison, pre- Adamite, Anglo- Saxon.
(k) The hyphen is generally used when a noun or adjec- tive of more than one syllable is compounded with the prefix over, under, out, cross, or counter; as, under-current, counter-c u rren t, over-issu e, over-frequent.
Undergraduate does not take the hyphen.
(7) Such words as step-mother, father-in-law, attorney-at-laic, comma,nder-in-chief, etc., are usually written with hyphens, also military and civic titles ; as, attorney-general, vice-presi- dent, Ueutenarit-coloftelj ex-president.
(m) A hyphen is generally placed between the two parts of a compound numeral, also compounds of. half or quarter; as, twenty-one, ninety-nine, twenty-fifth, forty-second, half-pint, quarter-barrel.
(w) Xoims joined with holder and monger are usually writ-
112 ORTHOGRAPHY, OKTHOKI.'Y, AND PUNCTUATION.
ten without the hyphen; as, stockholder, landholder, eheese- monger, ironmonger.
(0) Compounds ending witli like usually omit tlw hyphen unless derived from a proper name; as, childlike, lifelike, workmanlike, Argus-like, Bedouin-like.
( p) The hyphen is used at the end of a line in print to show that a part of the last word in the line is carried to the next line ; as, " These bonds are convertible at the pleas- ure of the secretary, in an instant, into cash."
EXERCISE.
Distinguish in meaning between : a broad-brimmed hat and a broad brimmed hat, a walking-stick and a icalking stick, a hot-bed and a hot bed, a singing-school and a singing school, boy-hunters and boy hunters, a light-armed soldier and a light armed soldier, a man-eating alligator and a man eating alli- gator, many-colored birds and many colored birds, a ladi/'s- vlipper and a lady's slipper, a dog's-ear and a dog's ear, forty-jive cent-pieces and forty jive-cent pieces, re-creation and recreation, writing-ink and writing ink, printing-office and printing office, lumber-yard and lumber yard, great-grand- father and great grandfather, grand-uncle and grand nude, black-haired and black haired, old-fashioned and old fashioned, a sharp-edged, instrument and a sharp edged instrument, a negro-merchant and a negro merchant, the Washington-street pedler and the Washington street pedler, re-collect and recollect, re-petition and repetition, blackbird and blackbird, re-fun tinn and reformation.
ITXrTUATION. 118
It is strange that the use of " points " for purposes of punctuation should he such a comparatively modern invention. Of the four generally used "points" only the period (.) dates earlier than the fifteenth century. The colon (:) is said to have been first introduced about 1485, the comma (,) some thirty-five years later, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. It is difficult to understand how the literary world dispensed for so many cen- turies with the useful " points," and their lack must have added to the toil of the decipherer of written documents. When we remember what curious inversions of meaning may be caused by the misplacing of a comma we marvel how early authors contrived to escape strange misreadings of their works, in which no " points " guided the students. No other " point " is so hardly worked as the comma. Some writers rarely use any other stop. Many epistolary correspondents still cling to ancient usages, and dispense as entirely with " points " as did any writer of the early ages. This some- times renders their dispatches enigmatical. But it is easier to comprehend an unpunctuated than a mispunctuated epistle. " Points" showered with a free and careless hand (generally in wrong places) are perplexing to a reader.
The work done by the various " points " is very unfairly divided among them. Some signs are in constant use, others unknown to the general writer. The comma is a slave; the parenthesis nearly as toilworn. The latter might justly complain of overwork, for it is frequently pressed into service without any real necessity. AVhile the pampered mark of interro- gation, the idle colon, the rarely used semicolon, are most unfairly excused work by the majority of letter-writers, the comma is made to do the work of two of his brethren, and the parenthesis utilized to make bad grammar comprehensible. The old definition of a parenthesis as " certain words introduced into a discussion which are independent of the rest, and may be omitted without any injury to the sense or grammar" would not apply to the parenthesis of some correspondents. Often the parenthesis carries the whole sense of the sentence, or serves to make involved phrases comprehensible, and to omit the parenthesis would be to play " Hamlet" without representing the prince of Denmark. There is the old legend of the epitaph to one "John Bunn, who was killed by a gun," with the explanatory parenthesis " His real name wasn't Bunn; his real name was Wood, but as Wood didn't rhyme with gun I thought Bunn would."
Apostrophes are points whose date appears uncertain. Points have been the subject of many curious and ingenious definitions. There was wicked wit in the speaker who told a deformed and inquisitive lady that a mark i»f interrogation was a " crooked little thing that asked questions." More poetical was the printer who became an itinerant preacher, and informed his hriuvrs that '• Youth might be likened to a comma, middle life to a
114 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
semicolon, old age to a colon, and death to a period." Modern writers. or, at least, modern printers, are less profuse in their use of marks of exclamation (!) and dashes (— ) than were earlier authors and pub- lishers. What an amount of these "signs" are found in the novels and plays of some fifty and seventy years ago !
It is said that English printers were the last to use the semicolon, Eng- lish typographical works appearing as late as 15W-D2 without this useful point, adopted hy foreign printers some years previously. It is said that the English Bible of 1592 is printed without a semicolon ; but in 1633 the " full rights of the semicolon were established by Butler's English gram- mar." Like an illegible handwriting, omission of punctuation may have its advantages for the writers. " Society authors " of a past generation certainly largely availed themselves of the shelter of the useful asterisks and dashes which sometimes stand for proper names. Modern purveyors of society gossip have no scruple in giving " name and address " in full ; but the cautious writer of earlier date only alludes to the private affairs " of Lord A**** " or " the duke of B****." " You need not print his name ; if you will put his initial and some stars, he will never detect it, and everybody else will," said Rogers to Mrs. Grote, when the latter hesitated at publishing a letter of Sydney Smith's, in which a mutual acquaintance was alluded to by name in an unflattering manner. Many writers of a past generation appeared to have shared the poet's theory, that the jealous use of asterisks, while it protected themselves from actions for libel, did not obscure the identity of individuals to whom they alluded. Such ambiguity of expression at least furnished amusement to later commentators, who can dispute at leisure as to whom the author slandered under initials and asterisks. The modern "society writer" leaves no such exercise for "ingenious wits." — LONDON STANDARD.
CAPITAL LETTERS.
In the use of capital letters there is much difference in practice as well as in authority. In the German language every noun begins with a capital. During the Elizabethan period many more capitals were used in English writing than at present. There is an element of importance given to a word by having it begin with a capital. Hence all important words, like proper names, should be thus dis- tinguished.
CAPITAL LETTERS. 115
The following general rules will serve as a guide to the learner in the use of capital letters : —
1. The first word after a period or its equivalent.
" You cannot, without guilt and disgrace, stop where you are. The past and the present call on you to advance."
" What is it that keeps men in continual discontent and agitation ? It is that they cannot make realities correspond with their conceptions."
(a) Under this rule the first word of a paragraph, chap- ter, essay, treatise, or book will begin with a capital.
(7>) Phrases or clauses, when numbered in a series, should be'giii with a capital.
" There are three ways in which Henry incurred the displeasure of his father : —
" 1. By direct disobedience.
" 2. By misrepresentation.
" 8.. By associating with evil companions."
2. All proper names 5 such as, God, the Holy Spirit, George Washington, Mississippi River, Monday, Broadway, Easter, the Alps.
(a) The same word may sometimes be written with a capital and sometimes without. For example, God is the name of the Supreme Being, but the same word without the capital letter is used in speaking of false divinities; as, " The Lord is a great God above all gods." The same may be said of Supreme Being, Lord, King, Savior, Providence, Heaven, Devil.
Without good reason many writers capitalize the pro- nouns referring to the Deity; as, —
" These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good."
11C OHTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PI" NCTT ATION.
It would seem to be sufficient to use the capital only in case of direct address or to avoid confusion.
" O Thou that hear'st the mourner's prayer."
" It entereth not his thoughts that God
Heareth the sufferer's groan ; That in His righteous eye their life Is precious as his own."
(Observe the use of "His" and "his" in the third and fourth lines.)
" ' My Lord has need of these flowrets gay,'
The Reaper said, and smiled ; ' Dear tokens of the earth are they, Where He was once a child.' "
Why He instead of lie in the last line £ (b) If an expletive word, like lake, river, street, avenue, university, etc., is used as a part of a name, it should begin
W
with a capital, otherwise not; as, Lake Minnetonka, Hudson River, Wabash Avenue, Washington Street, Mount Etna, Rocky Mountains, Appalachian Range, University of Chicatjo. This rule may need a little further elucidation. When the expletive word precedes the distinctive word, and is not itself preceded by the, both words begin with capitals; as, Comity Cork, Lake Michigan, the river Rhone, but when it follows, it takes a capital only when it is distinctly a part of the name, and not a common noun. This may sometimes be determined by the nature of the other word. If this is also a common noun, both words may begin with capitals ; as, North River, Sand, Lake; but if the first word has more the force of an adjective, and especially if the second is pronounced as subordinate, the emphasis being on the first,
CAPITA U LETTERS. 117
the second begins with a small letter ; as, Cook county, Lukr street.
(c) Xorth. Mouth, /'Jastj and West are capitalized wlien they are preceded by the, and are used to denote a certain section of country or the people living there ; as, " His firm gave shim the whole South in which to travel," "No amount of argument could induce the West to vote for him."
(d) Names of religious and political organizations should begin with capitals ; as, Republican, Democrat, Methodist, Protestant, Episcopalian, Baptist, etc.
(e) Names of inanimate beings should begin with capitals when personified ; as, Freedom's hall, the palace of Slavery.
In these cases the personification should be positive and vivid ; otherwise small letters should be used. Capitals will seldom be called for except in poetry and oratory.
(/) Words used as titles or designations of office or rank should begin with capitals ; as, His Excellency, Mr. Presi- dent, the Governor of Illinois, Professor Harper, Judge Wortliington, Doctor Shumway, Senator Mason.
In general, it may be said that when such words as chair- man, president, treasurer, secretary, committee, directors, trus- tees, board, university, society, college, academy, etc., are used in a specific sense they may be capitalized. This would not permit the use of capitals in the plural number or when used in a general sense ; as, the Board of Education of the city of Chicago, the President of Upper Iowa University, the Trustees of Armour Institute, the Secretary of the Princeville Academy reported that in accordance with instructions from the Executive Committee, he had gathered information from tlnj boards of managers and trustees of many institutions.
118 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
This permits us to speak of the gospel of Jesus Christ, meaning his general teaching, hut the specific Gospel of Matthew; the revelation of God as set forth in the Scriptures^ but the Revelation of St. John, as given in the Apocalypse.
3. Words derived from proper names ; as, American, Chris- tian, Lutheran, Congressman (as distinguished from Senator).
(a) Some words are so little associated with the names from which they are derived that they are no longer written with capitals ; as, damask from Damascus, currant from Corinth, cashmere (shawl), china (ware), turkey (a fowl), champagne (wine), india-rubber, boycott, bowie-knife, hercu- lean.
4. Words of special importance. These are found in title pages, headings of chapters, articles, etc. ; as, Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard."
(a) In advertisements, circulars, etc., capital letters are freely used to give prominence to important words.
5. The first word of every line of poetry. (See example under 2, (a).)
6. The first word of every direct quotation or question.
" Solomon says, ' How forcible are right words ! ' " " Maury asks, ' What is this you call eloquence ? ' "
A quotation is said to be indirect when introduced by the conjunction "that"; as, Socrates said he believed that "the soul is immortal."
Or it may be introduced informally ; as, " The current idea of the way to bring up a child is to ' tell him what he must do and enforce obedience.' "
"0" and "I" should always be written as capitals, "Oh" only at the beginning of a sentence.
ABBREVIATIONS.
119
ABBREVIATIONS.
An abbreviated word is one which is represented by only a part of the letters of which it is composed. These letters always include the first letter of the word, usually the first syllable, but not usually the last letter.
A contraction differs from an abbreviation. In a contrac- tion one or more letters are omitted between the first and last letters of a word, and their omission is usually indi- cated by an apostrophe. (See page 87.)
When two or more words are represented by an abbrevi- ation, a single letter is generally used to represent each im- portant word ; as, N. Y., New York j F. R. S., Fellow of the Eoyal Society.
A point, called an abbreviation mark, always follows an abbreviation.
The following are the most common abbreviations, with the prevailing usage as to capitalization: —
STATES AND TERRITORIES.
Ala. Alabama.
Ariz. Arizona.
Ark. Arkansas.
Cal., Calif. California.
Col., Colo. Colorado.
Conn., Ct. Connecticut.
D.C. District of Columbia.
Del. Delaware.
Fla. Florida.
Ga. Georgia.
la. Iowa.
Ida. Idaho.
III. Illinois.
Ind. Indiana.
I.T., Ind. T. Indian Territory.
Kans., Kan. Kansas.
Ky. Kentucky.
La. Louisiana.
Mass. Massachusetts.
Md. Maryland.
Mich. Michigan.
Minn. Minnesota.
Miss. Mississippi.
Mo. Missouri.
Mont. Montana.
N.C. North Carolina.
120 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION,
N.D., N. Dak. North Dakota.
Neb., Nebr. Nebraska.
Nev. Nevada.
N.H. New Hampshire.
N. J. New Jersey.
N.M., N. Mex. New Mexico.
N.Y. New York.
O. Ohio.
Okla. , O.T. Oklahoma Territory.
Or., Ore. Oregon.
Pa., Pen n. Pennsylvania.
R.I. Rhode Island.
S.C. South Carolina.
S.D., S. Dak. South Dakota.
Tenn. Tennessee.
Tex. Texas.
Utah. (Not abbreviated.)
Va. Virginia.
Vt. Vermont.
Wash. Washington.
Wis. Wisconsin.
W. Va. West Virginia.
Wyo. Wyoming.
Me., Maine.
OTHER COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.
@ At.
A. B. Artium baccalaureus
(bachelor of arts). %, acct. Account. A.D. Anno Domini (in the year
of our Lord).
ad., advt. Advertisement. adj. Adjective. adv. Adverb. agt. Agent. Alex. Alexander. alg. Algebra. A. 31. Anno mundi (in the year
of the world). Ante meridiem
(before noon). Artium magi-
ster (master of arts). ami. Amount. Anon. Anonymous. ans. Answer. A.O.U.W. Ancient Order of
United Workmen. A. P. A. American Protective
Association.
Apr. April.
arith. Arithmetic.
A.R.U. American Railway Union.
assoc., ass. Association.
ass't. Assistant.
astr., astron. Astronomy.
Atty. Attorney.
Aug. August.
av., ave. Avenue.
B.A. Baccalaureus artium (bachelor of arts). British America.
bal. Balance.
Bait., Balto. Baltimore.
Bap. Baptist.
bbl. Barrel.
B.C. Before Christ. British Co- lumbia.
B.D. Baccalaureus' divinitatis (bachelor of divinity).
bell. Bundle.
Benj. Benjamin.
biog. Biography.
ABBREVIATIONS.
121
bot. Botany.
boul., blvd. Boulevard.
bro. Brother.
bu., bush. Bushel.
<*., ct. Cent.
Cap., Capt. Captain.
Cash. Cashier.
cat. Catalogue.
Cath. Catholic.
cent. Centum.
of., conf. Confer (compare).
C.H. Court House.
Chap. Chapter.
Chas. Charles.
elk. Clerk.
C.L.S.G. Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.
Co. Company.
C.O.D. Collect on delivery.
Col. Colonel.
Comr. Commissioner.
Cong. Congregational.
conj. Conjunction.
cons. Consonant.
Cor. Corinthians.
Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secre- tary.
Cr. Credit.
cts. Cents.
cwt. Hundredweight. .
Cyc. Cyclopedia.
Dan. Daniel.
D.C. Da capo (from the begin- ning).
D.C.1J. Doctor of Civil Law.
Dec. December.
Dem. Democrat.
Den. Denmark.
Dept. Department.
Deut. Deuteronomy.
Diet. Dictionary.
disc., disct. Discount.
do. Ditto (the same).
D.M. Doctor of Music.
doz. Dozen.
Dr. Doctor. Debtor.
D.V. Deo volente (God being, willing).
E. East.
Ed. Editor.
e. g. Exempli gratia (for example) .
Eng. England. English.
ESQ. Esquire.
et al. Et alibi (and elsewhere). Et alii (and others).
etc. Et cetera (and other things, and so forth).
et seq. Et sequentia (and the following).
ex. Example.
F.A.M. Free and Accepted Masons.
Feb. February.
fern. Feminine.
F.F.V. First families of Virginia
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geographi- cal Society.
f.o.b. Free on board.
Fr. France. French.
Fred. Frederick.
Fri. Friday.
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety.
Ft. Fort.
ft. Feet. Foot.
gal. Gallon.
Gal. Galatians.
122 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
G.A.R. Grand Army of the Re- public.
Gen. General.
Geo. George.
geog. Geography.
geol. Geology.
geom. Geometry.
Ger. German.
Gov. Governor.
govt. Government.
hdkf. Handkerchief.
H.M.S. Her Majesty's Ship.
Hon. Honorable.
hort. Horticulture.
hund. Hundred.
ib., ibid. Ibidem (in the same place) .
id. Idem (the same).
i.e. Id est (that is).
I.H.S. lesus hominum salvator (Jesus the savior of men).
ill., ill us. Illustrated.
inc., ineor. Incorporated.
incog. Incognito (unknown).
inst. Instant (the present month) .
int. Interest.
I.O.F. Independent Order of Foresters.
I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows.
I.O.U. I owe you.
Is. Island.
Jan. January.
Jas. James.
Jno. John.
Jos. Joseph.
jour. Journal.
J.P. Justice of the Peace.
Jr., Jun. Junior.
Jul. July.
K.P. Knight of Pythias.
Lat. Latin.
lat. Latitude.
L.A.W. League of American
Wheelmen. Ib. Libra (pound). Li.I. Long Island. lib. ' Liber (book) . LL.B. Leyum baccalaureus
(bachelor of laws). IjL.D. Legum doctor (doctor of
laws) .
log. Logarithm. Jjt., Iiieut. Lieutenant. M.A. Magister artium (master
of arts) . JIaj. Major. Mar., Mch. March. inasc. Masculine. math. Mathematics. M.C. Member of Congress. 31. D. Medicince doctor (doctor
of medicine). mdse. Merchandise. 31. K. Methodist Episcopal. Me. Maine.
Messrs. Messieurs (gentlemen), Mfg. Manufacturing. Mfrs. Manufacturers. Mile. Mademoiselle. Mine. Madame. mo. Month. Mr. Mister (master). Mrs. Missis (mistress). MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.
ABBREVIATIONS.
123
IHt. Mount.
N. North.
N.A. North America.
Nat. Hist. Natural History.
N.B. New Brunswick. Nota
bene (note well).
N.E. New England. Northeast. N.F. Newfoundland. No. North. Numero (number). Nov. November. N.S. Nova Scotia. N.W. Northwest. Northwestern. obs. Observation. Oct. October. O. K. All correct. Ont. Ontario. op. Opus (work). oz. Ounce. p. Page. pp. Pages. payt. Payment. pd. Paid. Ph.B. Philosophic baccalaureus
(bachelor of philosophy). P.E. Protestant Episcopal. Ph.D. Philosophies doctor
(doctor of philosophy). Phil., Phila. Philadelphia. pkg. Package. pi. , plur. Plural. P.M. Postmaster. Post meridiem
(afternoon). P.O. Postoffice. P.P.C. Pour prendre conge (to
say good-by) .
Pres. Presbyterian. President. Presb. Presbyterian. P. Rico. Puerto Rico.
Prin. Principal. Prof. Professor. pro tern. Pro tempore (for the
time) .
prox. Proximo (the next month ) . P.S. Post scriptum (postscript). Ps., Psa. Psalms. Pub. Doc. Public Document. q.e.d. Quod erat demonstrandum
(which was to be demonstrated). qt. Quart. Que. Quebec. Ques, Question. qy. Query. reed. Received. Rep., Repub. Republican. Rev. Reverend. rit. Ritardando (slower). Robt. Robert.
Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. R.R. Railroad. R.S.V.P. lUp&ndtz, s'il von*
plait (answer, if you please). Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. Ry. Railway. S. South. S.A. South America. Soutli
Africa.
Sam. Samuel. Sat. Saturday. Sec. Secretary. sing. Singular. Soph. Sophomore. sq. ft. Square feet. S.S. Sunday School. st. Street. St Saint.
124 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
S.T.D. Sanctce theologw doctor
(doctor of sacred theology). str. Steamer. subj. Subjunctive. Supt, Superintendent. tf. Till forbidden. , Theo. Theodore. Thos. Thomas. Thurs. Thursday. tp., twp. Township. tr. Transpose. Treas. Treasurer. trig. Trigonometry. Tues. Tuesday. ult. Ultimo (the last month). Unit Unitarian. Univ. Universalist. University. U.P. United Presbyterian. U.S. United States. U.S.A. United States of America. U.S.M. United States Mail. U.S.N. United States Navy. U. S. V. United States Volunteers. vb. Verb.
rid. Vide (see).
viz. Videlicet (to wit, namely).
vocab. Vocabulary.
vol. Volume.
vs. Versus (against).
V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.
W. West.
W.q.T.U. Woman's Christian Temperance Union.
Wed. Wednesday.
W.I. West Indies.
wk. Week.
Wni. William.
Xen. Xenophon.
Xinas. Christmas.
yd. Yard.
Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Christian Association.
Y.P.S.C.E. Young People's So- ciety of Christian Endeavor.
Y.W.C.A. 'Young Women's Christian Association.
Y.W.C.T.U. Young Women's Christian Temperance Union.
PART FIFTH.
SPELLING LISTS.
Preliminary Note. — The following lists are composed largely of words recommended for insertion by many leading city superintendents and others in the western states. The purpose of the collection was to prepare a pretty complete list of the common words most frequently misspelled by children in grammar and high schools and by people in common life. For this reason most technical and scientific terms have been omitted ; also, with few exceptions, words not used in ordinary conversation, business, or correspondence.
The lists are intended to be of practical value to ordinary people, and include nearly all common words likely to be misspelled by those who are not experts in spelling.
It will be observed that some plurals of nouns, also other deriva- tives, have been included in the lists. That is because they were submitted by the superintendents above mentioned, as forms frequently misspelled, and because it is often found that people misspell certain derivatives, while spelling primitives or other derivatives from the same root correctly. For instance, one may have no difficulty in spelling (jus, but feel quite uncertain whether the plural is yasses, according to Rule V. 1, or yases, by exception. The same may be said of many other plurals.
It is recommended that the teacher dictate sentences and paragraphs which shall contain the words in these lists, to be written by pupils ; also that pupils shall be required to write sentences and sketches con- taining the words in any given list.
The figures following some of the words indicate the total number of times such words were recommended by all those submitting lists,
125
126 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
and will serve to show which words are most frequently misspelled and -hence should receive most attention. These words especially should be spelled over and over again. Every teacher should make sure that these words are thoroughly learned.
It is often said that children leaving school in these days do not spell as well as those of forty or fifty years ago. If this is so, it may be well to adopt some of the old-fashioned customs of oral spelling — such as "choosing sides," "going up," etc., as supplementary to the prevailing custom of writing the spelling lesson.
One of the most interesting of the lists above referred to consisted of the November, 1900, spelling tests in the schools of an Illinois city. Each word given had been used and misspelled by some one in the grade designated during the month of November and had been noticed by some pupil of that grade. The pupils are required to do all the finding of the misspelled words. This serves to create a "spelling sense " among the pupils.
The following list, therefore, represents words in common use most frequently misspelled, not words difficult to spell. It is worthy of note that the lists submitted by the superintendents above mentioned contained such a great variety of words, and at the same time the words repeated most times in the lists are the most common ones, such as separate, judgment, principal, etc.
COMMON WORDS FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED. A.
1. apprentice (3) 10. available 19. addition
2. anonymous (6) 11. allotted (2) 20. anomaly
3. ambassador (4) 12. agility (3) 21. assurance
4. accommodate (6) 13. appetite (4) 22. auspices
5. acquaintance (6) 14. annual (4) 23. amiable (>. acquainted 15. alligator (3) 24. abyss (_?)
7. affiliate (2) 16. anxious (4) 25. annul
8. appearance (6) 17. access 26. Atlantic
9. appreciate 18. atrocity (4j 27. acorn
SPELLING LISTS.
127
28. ammunition
29. arid
30. artificial (2) Ml. Americans
32. awful (4)
33. assassin (2)
34. annihilate
35. alimentary .36. actual
37. America
38. angel (6)
39. amethyst
40. abscess (3)
41. acid (6)
42. acre (3)
43. amount (2)
44. abscond
45. adieu
46. adjective
47. again (6)
48. abstruse (3)
49. anxiety (2)
50. ague
51. appointing
52. ache (2),
53. animals (4)
54. abundance
55. armory
56. although (4)
57. almost (4)
58. altogether (4)
59. attendance (4)
60. advertise (2)
61. accompanist
62. anodyne (2)
63. abhorrence (2)
64. attendants (2)
65. agriculture (4)
66. antecedent (6)
67. abridgment (2)
68. actually (2)
69. anticipate (2)
70. artillery (3)
71. apparatus (11)
72. auxiliary (9)
73. accessible (8)
74. avoirdupois (2)
75. analysis (6)
76. accomplice (3)
77. aconite (2)
78. amateur (4)
79. acquisition
80. adjacent (8)
81. apparently (2)
82. apology (2)
83. answer (11)
84. arithmetic (8)
85. admittance (4)
86. accident (4)
87. announced
88. agitate
89. allege (2)
90. ancient
91. ankle (3)
92. aloe
93. accede (6)
94. ancestors
95. archives
96. ambulance
97. attacked (6)
98. argue
99. angelic
100. against (9)
101. arrested
102. ascend
103. accepting
104. autumn (8)
105. ached
106. asthma (4)
107. article X6)
108. agreeable
109. attorney
110. appall (2)
111. author
112. annoying
113. aching (2)
114. apparel (5)
115. apiece
116. afraid (4)
117. alpaca (3)
128 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
|
118. adverbially |
147. aggravate (2) |
176. antiquity |
|
119. acceptance |
148. assimilate (4) |
177. accuracy |
|
1 -( >. assessor (2) |
1 19. apostrophe (6) |
178. alkali |
|
121. advertising |
1.50. aristocracy (3) |
179. acme |
|
122. Augustus |
151. advantageously (2) |
ISO. allegory |
|
123. athlete |
152. admissible (6) |
181. anatomy |
|
124. alternative |
153. acknowledge (2) |
182. armistice |
|
125. 'Arctic (3) |
154. acceleration |
183. augur (2) |
|
126. accumulate |
155. absence (15) |
184. alliance |
|
127. avalanche |
156. ancestor (2) |
185. analogy |
|
128. aggrieve |
157. abbreviation |
186. architect |
|
' 129. always (9) |
158. adherence (2) |
187. abundant |
|
130. abbreviate |
159. appalling (2) |
188. assets |
|
131. atom |
160. accelerate (3) |
189. assuage |
|
132. aisle (4) |
161. aqueduct (4) |
190. alien |
|
133. achieve (6) |
162. academies (2) |
191. abolition |
|
134. alcohol (4) |
163. adolescence (2) |
192. accidental |
|
135. axle (3) |
164. anglicize (2) |
193. abridging |
|
136. alleys (4) |
165. achievement (2) |
194. affect |
|
13T. any (3) |
166. acquiesce (3) |
195. adage |
|
138. affirmative |
167. advantageous (2) |
196. allies (2) |
|
139. audible (2) |
168. anniversary |
197. antiquity |
|
140. ability (2) |
169. adjutant (2) |
198. affidavit |
|
141. address (2) |
170. acquittal (2) |
199. already |
|
142. assistance |
171. archipelago (3) |
200. attempt |
|
143. aeronaut |
172. ascertain (2) |
201. audible (2) |
|
144. almond (3) |
173. astronomer |
202. also |
|
145. accept (2) |
174. analyze (2) |
203. asphalt |
|
146. alacrity |
175. acknowledgment (3) |
SPELLING LISTS.
T29
1. bilious (8)
2. besiege (3)
3. baptism (2)
4. busy (4)
5. benefit (5) <>. IJritain (5)
7. basin (6)
8. l»i >dies
9. balloon ( I i
10. IJriton (2i
11. bonnet
12. button
13. because (4)
14. blur
15. banana (11)
16. bluing
1 7. bureau (5)
18. botanize 10.% buried (3)
20. build
21. l)icycle (11)
22. biscuit (4)
23. British (4)
24. ballot (4)
25. baggage (4)
26. burlesque
B.
27. bedstead (4)
28. benefited (4) 2(.). biography
30. bargain (<>)
31. bronchitis (4)
32. beefsteak ((i) 3.'). business (23) '»!•. l>elieve (25) 3.5. bouquet (7) 3(>. balance (17)
37. breakfast (3)
38. brunette (3)
39. boulevard (4)
10. brethren (4)
1 1 . beautiful (0)
42. bachelor (2)
43. beginning (12)
44. beautifully (2) 4r>. besieged (4) 46'. benefiting (2)
47. besetting (2)
48. barbarous (2)
49. battalion (2)
50. barometer (2)
51. bowie-knife
52. birch
53. bridge
54. breast
55. breathe
56. breath
57. bear
58. bare
59. buy
60. busily
61. before
62. boughs
63. barrier
64. beeves
65. breadths
66. barrel
67. beggar (2)
68. billiards (4)
69. blainable (2)
70. bunion
71. bulletin
72. Bible
73. bounded
74. boiler
75. brushy
76. beans
77. buying
130 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
1. concern
2. civilization
3. Curriculum
4. chorus (4)
5. climbed
6. cabinet
7. cynical
8. cozy (2)
9. column (11)
10. Consequence
11. character (4)
12. codicil
13. cholera (2)
14. central
15. camellia
16. canal
17. conspicuous
18. confidence
19. committing
20. certain
21. calliope
22. cemetery (8)
23. Catiline (3)
24. Christianize 2~>. caramel (3)
26. catarrh (2)
27. calendar (8)
28. cabbage (2)
C.
29. convalescence (3)
30. compliments
31. constitution (3)
32. courageous (2)
33. cupboard (5)
34. camphor (5)
35. consensus (2) .')(>. condemn (2)
37. crystallize (8)
38. corroborate (4)
39. chloroform (4)
40. campaign (3)
41. comparative (2)
42. conferred (7)
43. conscious (6)
44. corollary (2)
45. continent (2)
46. continually (5)
47. cigarette (4)
48. commerce (2)
49. certainly (2)
50. currents (4)
51. commodity (2) .52. changing (2)
53. concurrence (2)
54. cannibal (2)
55. chandelier (3)
56. comparatively (2)
57. complaint
58. compelled
59. canopy
60. corridor (2)
61. college (5)
62. Catholics
63. cultivated
64. console (2)
65. Christian
66. circus (4)
67. constitute
68. Carolina
69. challenge
70. chemistry
71. courses
72. cheaper
73. calcimine
74. colander
75. cornice (3)
76. cement (2)
77. corridor
78. claimed
79. citizen
80. council (2)
81. catarrhal
82. colonel (4)
83. clique
84. compel
SPELLING LISTS.
131
85. chagrin (2) SC). capital (10)
87. 'cayenne (3)
88. consummate (3)
89. calisthenics
90. consistent (2)
91. crescent (3)
92. committee (2)
93. coercion (3)
94. collectible (3)
95. criticise (4)
96. Connecticut (6)
97. chocolate (4)
98. counterfeit (6)
99. chrysanthemum (4)
100. confederacy
101. circumference (4)
102. concession (2)
103. convenient (2)
104. cinnamon (4)
105. centennial (4)
106. coefficient (2)
107. capillary (3)
108. centenary (2)
109. courteous (4)
110. confectionery
111. contagious (2)
112. conscientious (7)
113. cauliflower (4)
1 1 4. changeable (7)
|
115. crisis (2) |
145. courtesy (2) |
|
116. cruel (2) |
146. countries |
|
117. caught |
147. cymbal '(2) |
|
118. creatures |
148. .cider (2) |
|
119. cafe (3) |
149. concede (2) |
|
120. crises |
150. condiment |
|
121. cellar (4) |
151. croquet (8) |
|
122. conceal (4) |
152. chaise (2) |
|
123. chasm |
153. compliment |
|
124. choice |
154. cistern (3) |
|
125. civil |
155. carriage (7) |
|
126. cleat |
156. coarse (5) |
|
127. catch |
157. crochet (4) |
|
128. coffee (6) |
158. comrade (2) |
|
129. conduce |
159. circuit (4) |
|
130. crater |
160. complement |
|
131. caloric |
161. continents |
|
132. collapse |
162. crevice (4) |
|
133. cynic |
163. complete (2) |
|
134. collision |
164. captain (3) |
|
135. chiefly |
165. canvass (4) |
|
136. colors |
166. conceive (4) |
|
137\ choir (2) |
167. custom (2) |
|
138. chalky |
168. credible (2) |
|
139. conceal |
169. cologne (3) |
|
140. cheese |
170. colonies |
|
141. circle (2) |
171. celery (6) |
|
142. coerce |
172. children (2) |
|
143. cherub |
173. cupola (4) |
|
144. census (4) |
174. clothes (4) |
182 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
175. Correct 19$. conscience (6)
176. caring (2) 101). confederacy
177. cousin (6) 200. cushion (5)
178. could (4) 201. chancellor (2> 170. capacity 202. continuance
180. castle 203. cylinder (4)
181. chenille 204. ceiling (11)
182. calf 205. Christmas (4)
183. canoe (3) 206. chimneys (4)
184. clause 207. composite (2)
185. chief (5) 208. Cincinnati (6)
186. cynosure- 200. cocoanut (5) t-1-87. color (8) 210. currants (4)
188. chamois 211. customs (5)
189. conceit 212. caterpillar (3)
100. cripple 213. coquette (2)
101. course (5) 214. conqueror (2)
102. ceasing 215. convalescent (2)
103. cipher 216. Cleveland (2)
104. conquer 217. condescension (2)
105. chute 218. chimney (5)
106. coterie 210. committed (4)
107. country 220. chestnuts (2)
221. chemical
222. crawl (2)
223. ceased (3)
224. control (7)
225. cuticle (2) 22(5. chisel (3) 227. capitol (7) 228: coming (6) 220. chronicle
230. catastrophe
231. cargoes
232. curtain (4)
233. cancel
234. caterer
235. celestial
236. censure
237. ceremony
238. centrifugal 230. channel
240. certificate
241. comma
242. comparison '243. colony
1. daffodil
2. discern (3)
3. disease (10) 1. decease
5. disappointment (4)
6. demagogue (3)
7. diphtheria (10)
8. dependence (2)
0. dimension (6X,
10. definite (3)
11. disperse
12. dollar (I)
SPELLING LISTS.
.13. daisies (8)
14. discipline (13)
15. disappoint (8) 1C), dysentery (4)
17. decision (2)
18. describe (4)
19. Delaware (2)
20. dissipate (2)
21. disappointed (6)
22. desirable (2)
23. defendant (2)
24. development 2."). descendants (2)
26. delicious (3)
27. descension (2)
28. description (4)
29. dissyllable (4)
30. difficult (4)
31. Deuteronomy f'2 .'12. disguised (4)
-33. desiccate (4)
34. diameter (3)
35. different (4) 3(5. determination
37. definition (2)
38. dramatical (2)
39. deference (8)
40. dependent (2)
41. difference (6)
42. discernible (4)
|
43. daily |
73. diagonal |
|
43. delineate (6) |
74. develop |
|
45. does (4) |
75. dropped < 1 1 |
|
46. deodorize |
76. debasing |
|
47. division |
77. democrats |
|
48. deplete |
78. decimal (6) |
|
49. distance |
79. dialogue |
|
50. derogatory |
80. disciple (2) |
|
51. dwarfs |
81. docile (2) |
|
52. deficit |
82. delicious |
|
53. desert (4) |
83. dominie |
|
54. detriment |
84. durable |
|
55. detached |
85. during (2) |
|
56. decorate |
86. diligence |
|
57. dying (6) |
87. descent (3) |
|
58. diocese (2) |
88. depth |
|
59. duly |
89. dangerous |
|
60. district |
90. descend |
|
61. despair (2) |
91. dahlia (6) |
|
62. disparity |
92. deprecate |
|
63. denial |
93. discretion |
|
64. dolorous |
94. dairy (4) |
|
65. divine |
95. diary (4) |
|
66. deity |
96. dropsical |
|
67. demijohn |
97. diplomacy |
|
68. disappear |
98. domicile |
|
69. delirium |
99. decisive (2) |
|
70. deceive (6) |
100. demagogue |
|
71. debtor |
101. directory |
|
72. dreadfully |
102. divide |
134 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
103. dissuade - 105. dungeon (4) 107. dizzy
104. divorce 106. dirk 108. drizzly
1. enough (8)
2. epilepsy .'). endurance
4. every (6)
5. epaulet (2)
6. eminent
7. editor
8. erasing (2)
9. essence
10. ecstasy (8)
11. enamel
12. enemy
13. eligible (3)
14. equally (4)
15. equanimity
16. erasible (2) '7. equator
18. eighth (6)
19. embellish
20. equinox
21. equipped
22. etiquette
23. exceed (4)
24. eying
25. evaporate
E.
26. excellent (4)
27. eightieth (3)
28. essential (4)
29. eccentric (4)
30. economy (3)
31. experience (2)
32. exhaustion (2)
33. equation (4)
34. excelling (2)
35. elementary (4)
36. expenses (3) «*>7. embarrass (16)
38. embellishment
39. economize (2)
40. especially (2)
41. entertaining
42. emphasize (2)
43. excepting (2)
44. exaggerate (10)
45. electricity (2)
46. endeavor (3)
47. entertainments
48. erysipelas (6)
49. exhausted (4)
50. exhilarate (3)
51. exhale
T>2. expense (6)
53. enemies
54. England
55. exhort
56. excel (8)
57. early
58. element (3)
59. eclipse (3)
60. evening
61. encircle
62. elapse
63. errand
64. effeminacy
65. effect (2)
66. egotism (3)
67. exist
68. emanate (6)
69. either
70. euphony
71. explosion
72. exodus
73. epitaph
74. exquisite (3)
75. efficient
SPELLING LISTS.
130
76. eulogy
77. ellipse (2)
78. equipage
79. elliptical
80. existed
81. excavate
82. enforces
83. equilibrium (2)
84. eczema
85. engine
86. eulogize (3)
87. existence (5)
88. enamci*
89. emancipation
90. evangelic
91. extremely
92. explicit (2)
93. euchre (2)
94. extol (3)
95. elucidate
1. finical
2. fertilizer
3. fruits
4. facetious
5. friend (6)
6. farinaceous
7. fatiguing
8. fascinate (4)
9. filigree
10. fear
11. filament
12. facile (4)
13. formally
14. feud (2)
15. feeble
16. fairy .17. fiercely
18. fracas
19. forty (8)
20. furlough (3)
F.
21. forfeit (3)
22. fanatical
23. familiar (4)
24. February (21)
25. fifteenth (2)
26. facsimile (2)
27. fanciful (2)
28. fricassee (4)
29. ferrule (2)
30. fourteen
31. flippant
32. frontispiece
33. florid
34. forbidding (2)
35. frenzy
36. foreigner
37. frivolous
38. forest (2)
39. fatal
40. feasible (3)
41. firkin
42. fertilize (3)
43. fuzz
44. freight
45. fierce (3)
46. future
47. firmament
48. family
49. fiscal
50. freezing (2)
51. flagrant
52. frigid (4)
53. funereal
54. flannel (3)
55. fatally (2)
56. foreign (4)
57. facility (2)
58. friends (3)
59. fertile (2)
60. forbearance
136 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
61. favorite (3)
62. felicity
63. feminine (5)
64. financier
65. flour (2)
66. fir (2)
67. franchise (2)
68. forehead (2)
1. great (4)
2. generate
3. grammar (24)
4. ghost
5. gingham (3)
6. government (21)
7. glycerine (2)
8. governor (13)
9. generally (7)
10. grateful (9)
11. gossamer (2)
12. gooseberries
13. guidance (3)
14. grievance (2)
15. guinea (2)
16. geography (4)
17. guttural (4)
18. gazetteer (3)
19. glutton (2)
|
69. Florida |
77. forcible (2) |
|
70. freeze (2) |
78. financial |
|
71. forcing (2) |
79. fifth |
|
72. fur |
80. fragile |
|
73. faithfully |
81. finally (2) |
|
74. fortieth (2) |
82. fossil (3) |
|
75. fruitful |
83. fallacy (2) |
|
76. final |
84. faucet |
|
G. |
|
|
20. glacier (3) |
39. gauntlet |
|
21. gnarled |
40. guitar (2) |
|
22. gauge (6) |
41. guardian |
|
23. gossip |
42. golf |
|
24. genius (2) |
43. gallop (2) |
|
25. gouge |
44. galaxy (2) |
|
26. gluttonous |
45. grimace (3) |
|
27. grizzly (2) |
46. grocery |
|
28. granary (6) |
47. Galesburg |
|
29. genesis |
48. guilt |
|
30. genuine (4) |
49. grieve (3) |
|
31. grievous (4) |
50. gnat |
|
32. gravy |
51. guard (3) |
|
•>•>• gypsy (4) |
52. guilty |
|
34. gelatine (2) |
53. gospel |
|
35. Gibraltar |
54. gas |
|
36. gaseous (3) |
55. guarding |
|
37. gases (4) |
56. gallows (2) |
|
38. guess (6) |
57. grievance |
SPELLING LISTS.
137
1. honest
2. heresy (2)
3. hypnotize
4. harass (9) it. haniniock 0. hominy
7. hybrid
8. halves V). haggard
10. heart
11. hungry
12. holiday (4) horse humor heirloom hilarity height (9) honorary horrible (2) happy heifer (2)
1.'). 14. ir>. 10 1 7. IS 19 20 21
H.
22. harelip (2)
23. handsome (2)
24. humorous (4) 2r>. hysterically 20. hygiene (11)
27. hyacinth (3)
28. heliotrope (2)
29. hesitancy (2)
30. hysterical (3)
31. hypocrisy (9)
32. heterogeneous (3)
33. having (3)
34. hypocrite (2)
35. hundred (2)
30. handkerchiefs (3)
37. hurricane (2)
38. hemorrhage (5)
39. hundredth s (3)
40. heinous (3)
41. hymeneal (3)
42. homestead (2)
r.
43. hopping
44. heroes
45. habit 40. hear (7)
47. house
48. halos
49. Huguenots
50. haunt
51. horizon (3)
52. heavenly
53. honor
54. horror
55. hospital 50. here (5)
57. homage
58. hoeing
59. hospitably
00. heroine
01. hostile .
02. hoping (3)
03. hoarse
|
1. icicle (12) •J. imminent (6) 3. initiation 4. irrigate (0) 5. isthmus (0) |
0. interfere (4) 7. indelible (10) 8. isosceles (7) 9. intercede (3) K). immigrate (2) |
11. instrument 12. interpret 13. interprets 14. ideal 15. idea |
138 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
16. indigenous
17. integral (3)
18. inquiringly
19. indecency (2)
20. insensible (2)
21. instead (5)
22. interstice
23. intolerant
24. • invincible (3)
25. Illinois (2)
26. italicize (2)
27. illegible (2)
28. indefinite (3)
29. ignoramus
30. irritable (3)
31. inferred (2)
32. intellectual
33. implicit (2)
34. itinerancy
35. incisive (3)
36. infinitive (3)
37. interrogative
38. imagine (4)
39. influential
40. invention
41. insipid (2)
42. immerse (2)
43. intercourse
44. isinglass (3)
45. ignorance
46. indictable (3)
47. irresistible (2)
48. iceberg (3)
49. inflammation (4)
50. intelligent (3)
51. indispensable (2)
52. interference (4)
53. inaugurate (3)
54. indescribable (2)
55. inevitable (2)
56. incorrigible
57. inseparably (2)
58. intercede (3)
59. insterstices (2)
60. innocent (4)
61. inaccessible (2)
62. intersperse (2)
63. imbecile (3)
64. inquisitive (2)
65. incentive (2)
66. immediately (7)
67. independent (3)
68. independence (2) <>9. inflammable (3)
70. impossible (2)
71. infallible (4)
72. imperative (2)
73. influence (2)
74. ignitible
75. igneous
76. Iliad (2)
77. increase
78. incense
79. italic (3)
80. infamous
81. impetus
82. informant
83. immediate
84. install (2)
85. invisible
86. interval
87. island (2)
88. interest
89. ivy
90. idiocy (2)
91. imperil
92. inquiry
93. inaudible
94. ivory (3)
95. Indian (3)
96. illicit
97. inflexible
98. iron
99. intensely
100. incessant
101. inoculate
102. invented
SPELLING LISTS.
139
1. journal
2. janitor
3. jaunt
4. Jesuit
5. justice
6. jealousies
1. knead (3)
2. knock
3. knot
4. knack
5. knitting (2)
1. laggard
2. limit
3. league (4)
4. lexicon (3)
5. laughed. (3)
6. luscious (4)
7. length
8. lyric (2)
9. lily (7)
10. lease
11. lacquer 1± led (6) lo. levity •
1 4. license (11)
7. juice (5)
<S. judgment (25)
•9. Japanese (3)
10. jaundice (2)
11. jeopardy (2)
K.
f). kerosene (8)
7. kindergarten (2)
8. kaleidoscope (2)
9. knapsack (2) 10. knowledge (3)
L.
15. litany
16. language (5)
17. lieutenant (4)
18. laboratory (12) 1.9. landscape (2)
20. lynx (2)
21. leopard (3)
22. lessen (2)
23. lethargy
24. lightning (3)
25. learning (2)
26. luncheon (2)
27. lose (14)
28. liniment (4)
12. joke
13. juvenile (2)
14. jealous (3)
15. jubilee (2)
16. jockey
11. know (3)
12. kitchen (3)
13. kiln (2)
14. knell (4)
15. knuckle
29. licorice (2)
30. loaves (3)
31. laxity
32. libraries 3.S. litigate (2) 34. loose (8)
.35. lucid
36. ladies
37. linen
38. lozenge (2)
39. legislative
40. leisure (6)
41. lesson (2)
42. legible. (11)
140 ORTHOGRAPHY, OUTHOEI'Y, AND PUNCTUATION.
43. lichen (3)
44. lettuce (6)
45. lyceum (4)
46. library (5)
47. lief (4)
48. lullaby (3)
49. loosing (2)
50. liturgy (3)
51. liquor (2)
52. lying
53. lovingly
1. mantel (5)
2. mantle (3)
3. millionaire (8)
4. monopoly
5. manned
6. Montreal
7. many (10)
8. metallic (6)
9. malign (3)
10. mouth
11. Manhattan
12. martyr (2)
13. miracle (4)
14. metric
15. mercury
16. muscles (2)
|
54. laxative (2) |
65. lapel (2) |
|
55. latitude (3) |
66. luggage |
|
56. lascivious (3) |
67. lagoon • |
|
57. labyrinth (6) |
68.% lapse |
|
58. lever |
69. lattice ((•» |
|
59. lilies (3) |
70. label |
|
60. legislature |
71. lacerate (2 ) |
|
61. laundry |
72. liquid |
|
62. literal (2) |
73. loiter |
|
63. larynx |
74. laudable |
|
64. laughable |
75. lecture |
|
M. |
|
|
17. monotonous |
33. mastodon |
|
18. mammal (2) |
34. medley |
|
19. molasses (4) |
35. missile ((>) |
|
20. misdemeanor (3) |
'>(). malice |
|
21. machine (3) |
37. machinist |
|
22. Massachusetts (3) |
38. monogram |
|
23. meningitis (2) |
39. mosquitoes |
|
24. moccasin (2) |
40. magician |
|
25. Macaulay (3) |
41. motor |
|
26. municipal (2) |
42. moneys (2) |
|
27. mackerel (3) |
43. mysterious |
|
28. Mississippi (3) |
44. mutilate |
|
29. medicine (6) |
45. manacle (2) |
|
30. malicious (2) |
46. menace |
|
31. massacre (5) |
47. misspell (4) |
|
32. inelodeon (2) |
4<S. mutual |
SPELLING LISTS.
141
|
49. mammoth (3) |
75. mane |
101. moving (2) |
|
50. miscellaneous |
76. mullein |
102. monopoly |
|
51. metallurgy (2) |
77. mystery |
103. monk (2) |
|
52. marriage (4) |
78. minutes (2) |
104. minute (4) |
|
53. millinery (3) |
79. mulish (2) |
105. merely (3) |
|
54. murmuring (2) |
80. machinery |
106. mischief (3) |
|
55. marshal (3) |
81. miscreant |
107. meadow (2) |
|
56. Mediterranean (2) |
82. muscle (4) |
108. mountain |
|
57. military (3) |
83. meridian |
109. mollify (2) |
|
58. meerschaum |
84. monotony |
110. murmur (3) |
|
59. mignonette (2) |
85. mineral |
111. monsieur (2) |
|
60. mortgage (5) |
86. militia (3) |
112. myriad (4) |
|
61. mnemonics (3) |
87. masculine |
11*3. mythical |
|
62. menagerie (6) |
88. memorable |
114. mucilage (6) |
|
63. magazine (8) |
89. mineralogy |
115. mortise (3) |
|
64. mahogany (2) |
90. martial (2) |
116. minstrelsy |
|
65. melancholy (3) |
91. miniature |
117. measles (3) |
|
66. mercenary (3) |
92. manual |
118. monetary |
|
67. misspelled (3) |
93. maritime (3) |
119. milliner (3) |
|
68. mischievous (9) |
94. mirage (3) |
120. mercenary |
|
69. mercantile (3) |
95. matinee (3) |
121. merciless |
|
70. monosyllable (4) |
96. modifier |
122. metaphor |
|
71. metropolis (3) |
97. musician |
123. melon (2) |
|
72. maneuver (2) |
98. mittens |
124. metaphysics |
|
73. mementos (2) |
99. molecule |
125. message (4) |
|
74. manufacture |
100. maple |
126. movable (2) |
|
1. neighbor (9) |
3. niece (17) |
5. nourish |
|
2. napkin |
4. naught |
6. nineteen |
142 OKTHOGKAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
7. nucleus (3)
8. negroes (2)
9. narcotic
10. nasturtium
11. nihilism
12. narrative (2)
13. niche
14. noticeable (3)
15. novice.
16. northern
17. needle (2)
18. numerous
19. notice
20. nuisance (8)
21. nominative (9)
22. necessity (3)
23. necessary (29)
24. necessities (3)
25. Nazarene (2)
26. nickel (1.0)
27. ninety
28. notices
29. neuralgia (7)
30. neutrality
31. neither (2)
32. neighbors
33. nullify
34. national
35. nymph
36. notch
37. nonpareil (2)
38. nicety
39. narrated
1. occasional (2)
2. oval
3. onions (4)
4. official (3)
5. ordnance
6. oxygen (4)
7. origin (3)
8. occur
9. opposite (2)
10. opened
11. off (2)
12. obliged (3)
13. oblige (4)
14. obscene (4)
15. oscillation
16. odium
O.
17. occurred (11)
18. obelisk
19. ozone
20. omniscient (2)
21. occurrence (10)
22. ominous (2)
23. ostracize (2)
24. often
25. oculist
26. omniscience (3)
27. onion (2)
28. oyster (2)
29. officer
30. once (4)
31. odor (3)
32. oblique (3)
33. obsequies
34. ostensible
35. ocean
36. oracle (2)
37. opera
38. orthodox
39. obstacle (3)
40. observance
41. ordinance
42. obeisance (3)
43. offense (2)
44. omitted (2)
45. organized
46. ounces
47. occasion ((>) 4<S. opportunity
SPELLING LISTS.
49. office (2)
50. opaque
51. orthoepy
1. perform
2. partner
3. perhaps
4. polls (2) T>. parcel (8)
6. police (3)
7. please
8. petrify
9. pharmacy
10. progeny
11. promise (3)
12. presents
13. piston
14. physique
15. proceed (8) If), proceedings
17. performing
18. placid (3)
19. plaintiff (2)
20. precede (10)
21. predecessor
22. plains 2.'1 porous 24. politician 2.~>. pursue -(7)
52. omnivorous (2)
53. oscillate (4)
54. obstinate
P.
26. Philippines (2)
27. particular (3)
28. portable (2)
29. permissible (2)
30. penniless (2)
31. peaceable (5)
32. preferred (4)
33. primitive (3)
34. precipice (2)
35. perceive (4)
36. participle (6)
37. preceded (8)
38. professor (12)
39. perspiration 10. pneumonia (5;
41. principle (18)
42. preposition (3)
43. protestant (4)
44. precedent (3)
45. precedence (4)
46. patience (9)
47. possession (2)
48. probably (4)
49. parliament (8)
50. penitentiary (3)
55. oasis
56. orchestra
57. overture
51. produced
52. picture
53. purgative
54. precious
55. province
56. poem
57. pigeon (3)
58. putrefy
59. poultice (4)
60. peasant
61. poplar
62. palace (5)
63. process
64. parallel (26)
65. pallid
66. pretty (8)
67. psalter
68. patient
69. persecution
70. puerile
71. pulleys (2)
72. piracy
73. purpose
74. persecution ,j75. pumpkin (8)
144 ORTUOdKAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
76. plumage
77. piazza (3)
78. planned
79. panel (3)
80. pshaw (4)
81. pickerel
82. persecute 8.'). prairie (12)
84. pageantry
85. planning
86. physical
87. possessed (3)
88. philosophy
89. parasol (2)
90. piety
91. president
92. pessimist
93. parable (5)
94. pitiful
95. philosopher
96. pardoned
97. peculiar
98. permanent
99. patented
100. palliate
101. precise (3)
102. pudding ;•,
103. precision
104. preference
105. prayers
106. panacea (2)
107. principal (20)
108. pleurisy (3) 10'.). promissory (3)
110. paralyze (3)
111. physician (5)
112. parricide (3)
113. proclamation
114. preceding (3)
115. portmonnaie
116. possessive (3)
117. persuade (5)
118. practical (3)
119. precocity (2)
120. porpoise (2)
121. physiology (8)
122. paralysis (3)
123. prejudice (9)
124. prophecy (3)
125. procedure (4)
126. peninsula (3)
127. pretense (2)
128. parachute (2)
129. phosphorus (2)
130. Pentateuch (5) 1.31. parasite (3)
132. pumpkins (2)
133. preparation (9)
134. plagiarize (2)
135. pinnacle (4)
136. people (.">)
137. polar
138. pau'aii
139. plenteous
140. pictures .141. palate (2)
142. pistol
143. proprietor
144. perfidy
145. permeate
146. peace
147. pious
148. pitiable (2)
149. pillar
150. pyramid (3)
151. pulpit
152. pewter (2)
153. percussion
154. primary
155. pianist
156. porridge (3)
157. pivot
158. pneumatic
159. piccalilli
160. pencil (3)
161. parsnip
162. pretentious
163. paradise
164. pedant
165. phrase (2)
SPELLING LISTS.
|
160. prayer |
174. possess (11) |
182. pare (2) |
|
107. Philip |
1 7r>. pleasant (8) |
183. priority |
|
108. piquancy |
170. privilege (11) |
184. prairies (2) |
|
109. pestilence |
177. promontory |
18."). particle (3) |
|
170. pursue (3) |
17S. pennant (2) |
180. practice (3) |
|
171. psalm |
179. prophesy (3) |
187. punctilious |
|
172. picture |
180. polygamy (2) |
188. pooh |
|
17.°). piece (6) |
181. paroxysm (3) |
189. possible (3) |
|
Q. N_ |
||
|
1. question |
7. quotient (8) |
13. quantity (3) |
|
2. quarrel (4) |
8. quadruped (2) |
14. quietly |
|
3. quiet |
9. quarantine. (3) |
15. quandary |
|
4. quinsy (2) |
10. quintessence |
16. quadrille (4) |
|
T>. quantities |
11. quarreling (2) |
17. queue . |
|
6. quinine |
12. quarry (2) |
18. qualm |
|
R. |
||
|
1. recede (2) |
11, religious (3) |
21. receipt (10) |
|
2. ruffian (5) |
12. receive (20) |
22. rapacity (2) |
|
3. ratchet |
13. rheumatism (4) |
23. razor (3) |
|
4. relegate |
14. recompense (3) |
24. repugnant |
|
T>. rational (2) |
!.*>. recurrence (3) |
25. roguish (3) |
|
('). ravage |
10. reversible (3) |
26. rinsing (2) |
|
7. reptile (2) |
17. rummage (4) |
27. requisite |
|
8. rhubarb (4) |
18. reparation (2) |
28. rarefy (5) |
|
9. romance |
19. reference (3) |
29. reservoir |
|
10. raisin. (6) |
20. recommend (14) |
30. resonant |
146 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
31. recipient (2)
32. resultant
33. resources
34. rosette
35. revelation
36. revenue (3)
37. rhetoric (3)
38. rebellious
39. rancor (2)
40. rarity
41. religion (3)
42. rancid (2)
43. radius
44. restaurant (6)
45. referred (3)
46. reverential
47. rinse (9)
48. reindeer (2)
49. recollection
50. reciprocity
51. republicans
52. railways
53. relieve (3)
54. rescind (2)
55. reconcile
56. retinue (2)
57. radish (5)
58. raiment (2)
59. reminiscence (2)
60. receptacle (4)
61. remained (2)
62. resuscitate (4)
63. reticence (2)
64. raspberry (2)
65. rhinoceros (4)
66. remember (7>)
67. rebellion (3)
68. resistance (2)
69. ridiculous (5)
70. righteous (5)
71. reconnoissance (3)
72. resistible (2)
73. respectfully
74. recognized (2)
75. representative
76. recognize (4)
77. received (3)
78. representatives
79. remissible (2)
80. rhomboid (3)
81. responsibility
82. raspberries (2)
83. remembrance
84. refrigerator
85. religions
86. reverse
87. resin
88. radical
89. right
90. rigmarole
91. ready
92. rite
93. recite
94. really (2)
95. rubies (2)
96. raisins
97. ribbon (2)
98. robin (2)
99. rich
100. ratios
101. retaliate
102. recipe (3)
103. release (2)
104. raceme (2)
105. reign (2)
106. remedies
107. roguery
108. revenue
109. ravine
110. recess (3)
111. relief
SPELLING LISTS.
147
s.
|
1. suet (3) |
29. supersede (10) |
57. skirmish |
|
2. scene (4) |
30. strychnine (6) |
58. salable (3) |
|
o. syrup (2) |
31. sympathize (2) |
59. sluice |
|
4. sea (3) |
32. subtraction (2) |
60. stubborn |
|
5. surely (2) |
33. sovereign (3) |
61. sieve (14) |
|
6. satellite (2) |
34. sincerely (4) |
62. sorry |
|
7. summary |
35. suspicion (2) |
63. sure (3) |
|
8. syringe (4) |
36. seminary (3) |
64. seized (5) |
|
9. shriek |
37. superintendent (6) |
65. spurious |
|
10. see (3) |
38. statistics (3) |
06. seize (13) |
|
11. sirloin (2) |
39. stimulant (3) |
67. social (5) |
|
12. successor |
40. stationery (4) |
68. skedaddle |
|
1:5. Spanish (3) |
41. spontaneity |
69. sagacity |
|
14. squeeze (2) |
42. specimen (3) |
70. salad (4) |
|
IT), some |
43. succotash (5) |
71. suitable |
|
KJ. suavity |
44. sufficient (3) |
72. shone |
|
17. sensible (8) |
45. stomach (3) |
73. sciatica (2) |
|
18. stared |
46. sentence (3) |
74. sanitary |
|
19. species |
47. separate (40) |
75. stamina |
|
20. stratify |
48. stationary (4) |
76. specie |
|
21. sorghum |
49. souvenir (2) |
77. satellite (3) |
|
22. surmised |
50. symmetry (3) |
78. seated |
|
23. shining |
51. sarsaparilla (2) |
79. stopped (3) |
|
24. stencil (3) |
52. scimiter (2) |
80. salary (7) |
|
25. scallop |
53. succeed (11) |
81. spiral |
|
26. specialty |
54. serviceable (3) |
82. scurrilous |
|
27. suitor (3) |
55. shepherd (4) |
83. stammer |
|
28. surfeit |
56. separated (3) |
84. sorrel |
148 ORTHOGUAIMIV, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
85. sincerity
86. senior
87. solecism
88. surplice
89. special (4)
90. speech
91. serious
92. stereotype
93. sanatory
94. science (4)
95. similes (3)
96. shield
97. suppliant
98. solace (2)
99. sugar (17)
100. squirrel (4)
101. sincere
102. suppurate
103. squalor
104. sweetness
105. sense (2)
106. skirmish
107. Swede (2)
108. Spaniards
109. swallow
110. stalactite
111. supports
112. stalagmite
113. such (2)
114. scared
1 15. syllable (0) 1 K). synonym (4)
117. shoulder (3)
118. similar (5)
119. symmetrical
120. sensitive (2)
121. system (3)
122. scholar (9)
123. secretary (2)
124. scarcely (3)
125. superfluous (3)
126. succession
127. sheaves (2)
128. surrounded
129. suggestion
130. sacrifice (6)
131. systematic
132. sauerkraut
133. scissors (8)
134. strength (3)
135. sympathetic
136. sovereignty (2)
137. solemn (4)
138. sagacious (3)
139. spherical (4)
140. sanguine (5)
141. spinning (2)
142. strategy (3)
143. scenery (3)
144. schedule (2)
145. settling
146. storms
147. sacrilege
148. stral.Mgem
149. satirize
150. surgical
151. swift (3)
152. seizure £2)
153. servant
154. scuffle
155. satirical
156. several (7)
157. staring
158. stupefy
159. suffice
160. surveying .161. surgeon
162. sphinx
163. school (2)
164. submitted
165. succeeded
166. serenade
167. scheme
168. siege (6)
169. sleigh
170. solstice
171. sentries
172. saucer (6)
173. secede (7)
174. square
SPELLING LISTS.
149
175. sheriff (2)
176. sacerdotal
177. shell 17S. sagacity
1 7'.). silhouette
ISO. sword
181. said (0)
1S2. searched
183. subtract
184. soldiers -(3) IS."), sausage (2) 1S6. supplementary JS7. surcingle (6) 1.88. straight (7)
189. spectacle (2)
190. spinach (2)
191. sergeant (2)
192. sentence
193. steer
194. sleighing
195. scrofula
196. suite
197. searches
198. sparse
199. scythe (3)
200. sleeves
201. successful
1. turquoise
2. tomorrow ,"). toward
4. terrace (4)
5. tongue (6)
6. tedious
7. tolerate (2)
8. themselves
9. telegraphy
10. terrify (2)
11. twenty
12. temperance 13. -there (15) 1.4. town
15. terrific (2) 1C), triphthong (2)
17. these
18. tenacious
T.
1-J. tobacco (3)
20. transferred (6)
21. technical (3)
22. thousandths (2)
23. together (13)
24. telephone (2) 2."). territorial
26. trouble (8)
27. traceable (2)
28. theosophy (2)
29. tyrannical (3)
30. Tennessee (6)
31. Tuesday (5)
32. thorough (15)
33. tweezers (2)
34. timorous (6)
35. thought (3)
36. twelfth (3)
37. tourist
38. tired (2)
39. throat
40. transient
41. tough (4)
42. touch
43. treason
44. tense
45. tension
46. their (18)
47. three
48. tried
49. truant
50. thief
51. trousseau
52. thesis
53. trim-
54. thirteen
150 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
55. talisman
56. telegram T>7. terrible
58. tiny
59. tentacle (2)
60. tennis
61. toothache
62. termagant
63. turkeys (7)
64. traveler
65. terse
66. tomato
67. tyranny (6)
68. tuition
69. transparent
70. trivial
71. truly (11)
72. treatise (3)
73. torrent (2)
74. tropical (3)
75. trellis (4)
76. temerity
77. trenchant
78. typify (2)
79. thoroughly
80. tornadoes
81. tomatoes (3)
82. tyrannize (3)
83. turkey (5)
84. tragedy (2)
85. transitive (2)
86. temperate (2)
87. testimonial (3)
88. tarpaulin
89. tambourine (3)
90. trafficking (2)
91. though (4)
92. trousers (4)
93. twentieth
94. trisyllable (4)
95. thermometer
96. Thursday (3)
97. tariff (2)
98. trolley-car
99. threw (3)
100. turtle
101. taffy
102. too (17)
103. troche (3)
104. typhus
105. tacit
106. tantalize
107. tansy (2)
108. totally (2)
109. to (3)
110. tapioca
111. thawing
112. tassel (11)
113. those (6)
114. tableau
115. tactics
116. two (6)
117. territory
1. until (30)
2. usury (3)
3. usually (4)
4. utensil (2)
5. university
6. utilize (4)
U.
7. usefulness
8. unanimous (2)
9. unparalleled (2)
10. umbrageous
11. umbrella (4)
12. uniform
13. ubiquity
14. union
15. usurp
16. uncle
17. using (2)
18. utility
SPELLING LISTS.
151
V.
1. visible (13)
2. vinegar (6)
3. vaccinate (15)
4. ventilate (7)
5. versatile (3) (>. variegate (2)
7. vacillate (3)
8. vegetable (4)
9. velocipede (2)
10. ventricle (3)
11. vignette (2)
12. vicissitude (3)
13. vengeance (3)
14. vermilion (3)
15. ventriloquist H>. varioloid (3) * 1 7. vertical (9) JS. valuable (3) 19. valleys (3)
1. Wednesday (20)
2. Westminster
3. weather (12)
4. whether (10)
5. woman (3)
6. women (8)
7. whose (14)
|
20. veins |
39. vicinage |
|
21. value |
40. verdict |
|
22. villain (11) |
41. vying |
|
23. village (9) |
42. very (8) |
|
24. vein |
43. vermin (3) |
|
25. vacillating |
44. vane |
|
20. vessel (3) |
45. virtues |
|
27. vineyard |
46. verdigris |
|
28. villainous |
47. veneer (3) |
|
29. volunteer |
48. vehicle (2) |
|
30. vagary |
49. vigorous |
|
31. victuals (7) |
50. venom |
|
32. venison (2) |
51. verdant |
|
33. valise (3) |
52. venerable |
|
34. vacuum (3) |
53. volatile |
|
35. velocity (4) |
54. visitor (3) |
|
36. vestige |
55. vigilant (2) |
|
37. vertices |
56. valid |
|
38. voice |
57. volatile |
|
W. |
|
|
8. weird (8) |
15. writing (2) |
|
9. woolly (11) |
16. wriggle |
|
10. wield |
17. worst |
|
11. weigh |
18. write (3) |
|
12. which (16) |
19. wizard (3) |
|
13. wound |
20. wrecked |
|
14. would |
21. woolen (3) |
152 ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOEPY, AND PUNCTUATION.
|
22. wagon (4) |
32. |
worship |
42. witticism (4) |
|
23. whistle |
33. |
warrant |
43. whey |
|
24. where |
34. |
wrist |
44. wainscoting |
|
25. were |
35. |
weasel (4) |
45. whimsical |
|
26. wish |
36. |
weapon (6) |
46. whoa |
|
27. whole (3) |
37. |
worsted |
47. wily |
|
28. wealth |
38. |
wrestle (5) |
48. wheeze |
|
29. wrong |
39. |
wrinkle |
49. wince |
|
30. water |
40 |
whir |
50. written |
|
31. wearisome (3) |
41. |
woes |
51. wholly (2) |
|
Y. |
|||
|
1. yeast (4) |
4. |
yield (2) |
7. yesterday |
|
2. yacht (4) |
5. |
yeoman |
8. yule |
|
3. youth |
(>. |
yolk (3) |
|
|
Z. |
|||
|
1. zephyr (4) |
3. |
zealous (8) |
4. zinc (4) |
|
2. zodiac |
APPENDIX.
In many parts of this work the plan of its publication precludes such full treatment of the subject as the author desired to make. For the purpose of throwing light on some statements which might seem to be hardly correct as they stand, the following notes are appended:
Page 32, last line. — In Webster's "Guide to Pronunciation," §132, it is said that "in the greater number of cases [where u is found] there comes in, as a connecting glide, a more or less full sound of consonant y, which in many cases encroaches upon, and either almost or even quite displaces, the initial vowel element [T or e]. When preceded by certain consonants, the y glide has a tendency to be fused with the consonant, thus taking the shape of a sibilant, sli or zh, glide, — the whole process issuing in what is called the palatalization of the co: sonant."
And in §165 we find:— "The sound of u after t differs from u by a partial or entire cha ige of the y into a more or less clear sh, and usually after d into a zh glide; as in na'ture, yerMure, etc." Cer- tainly it does not appear that t and d in these words have their regular sound, as in §189, (2), and that the sound of sh or zh ia inserted between these mutes and the following u. It is plain that the mutes themselves have a modified sound, — that the glide is "fused with the consonant," and whether it takes the force of sh, ch, or zh may be a question.
This note will also explain the use of d and de as an equivalent of j, on page 29, and of t, te, and ti a« equivalents of ch, on page 30.
It would perhaps be quite as correct to say that the vowel follow- ing the consonant equivalent should be joined with the consonant as forming a part of the equivalent (see Webster's "Guide to Pro- nunciation," §§97 and 106), yet the fact that the consonant equiva- lent is sometimes sounded independently of the vowel (as in
153
154 APPENDIX.
oceanic, nauseating, associate) shows that it is the consonant which possesses the chief force of an equivalent.
Page 40. — "No letter or combination of letters can begin or end a syllable which cannot begin or end a word; hence no syllable can begin with x and none can end in j; as, ma-jes-ty, pre-jn- dice. Q must not be separated from the u which always follows it; as, an-ti-qui-ty, li-quid, re-qui-si-tion."
These statements are made, and illustrations given, though the author is aware of the fact that they do not agree with Webster's International Dictionary, to which he so frequently refers, and which, in the main, is accepted as authority in spelling, pronun- ciation, and syllabication. While conceding the fact that syllabi- cation depends more upon pronunciation than upon etymology, yet it does not seem necessary that the division of words into syllables should be determined arbitrarily by pronunciation rather than by principles. A syllable should be capable of pronunciation when standing alone; that is, it should be a word of one syllable, and should not violate the established rules for words. If q is not used alone, but must always be followed by n, then both should be pronounced together or the pronunciation is not exact. If a word can not end in q or j, then a syllable should not end in either of these letters, since a syllable is a part of a word, capable of being pronounced separately as a word of one syllable. The division of words into syllables in Webster's Dictionary is a slav- ish adherence to the prevailing pronunciation rather than the observance of any rules or principles laid down for the guidance of a learner. Webster's "Guide to Pronunciation," §213, says, 'The kw sound in quiet, quality, etc., and the tw in twine, etc., are compound and momentary sounds." If this is true, as it is: then they should not be pronounced separately by placing the q or the t in one syllable and the u or w in another, even though in rapid pronunciation they seem to stand in separate syllables. (Ju, as the dictionary says, form a momentary compound and should not be separated. They are bound as closely together in pronun- ciation as k and s in the momentary compound x. Who would say extravagance should be divided into syllables as it seems to be pronounced, — ek-stravagance? These two sounds of k and s hap- pen to be represented by one letter, x, while the sounds of k and
APPENDIX. 155
W when united just as closely, are represented by q and u. The sound of these two combined should not be separated in pronun- ciation or syllabication.
The reference to x in the above quotation, is, of course, a refer- ence to x as x, not as z. When x is found as first letter of a word it is equivalent to z and is not subject to the rules for x.
The reference to j does not apply when j is found in words of foreign origin; as Taj-mabal, Ajalon, etc.
Page 41.— The noun gal'lant, is by Webster accented on the second syllabic, and the adjective, in certain significations, on the first. Other orthoepists give both accents for both noun and adjective. The word is included in this list simply as an illustra- tion of the few adjectives accented differently from nouns of the 3ame spelling.
PE Winchell, Samuel Robertson
1H3 Orthography, orthoepy,
W55 and punctuation
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