71^. 33 jm »ov 1 5 mi ^ ^^^ FIELDIANA Anthropology NEW SERIES, NO. 33 An Osteological Study of Nasca Trophy Heads Collected by A. L. Kroeber During the Marshall Field Expeditions to Peru Sloan R. Williams Kathleen Forgey Elizabeth Klarich November 30, 2001 Publication 1516 PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Information for Contributors to Fieldiana C.eneral; iwiduinu is primaniv u juuuun tor Field Mii^i-imi .->uilf members and research associates, although manuscripts from nonaffiliated authors may be considered as space permits. The Journal carries a page charge of $65.00 per printed page or fraction thereof Payment of at least 50% of page charges qualifies a paper for expedited processing, which reduces the publication time. Contributions from staff, research associates, and invited authors will be considered for publication regardless of ability to pay page charges, however, the full charge is mandatory for nonaffiliated authors of unsolicited manuscripts. 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Author-generated changes in page proofs can only be made if the author agrees in advance to pay for them. @ This paper meets ttie requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). FIELDIANA Anthropology NEW SERIES, NO. 33 An Osteological Study of Nasca Trophy Heads Collected by A. L. Kroeber During the Marshall Field Expeditions to Peru Sloan R. Williams*^ Kathleen Forgey* Elizabeth Klarich* * Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Chicago 1007 West Harrison Street Chicago, Illinois 60607-7139 U.S.A. * Adjunct Curator Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural History 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 U.S.A. ^Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210 U.S.A. Accepted January 14, 2000 Published November 30, 2001 Publication 1516 PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY © 2001 Field Museum of Natural History ISSN 0071-4739 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The authors and the publishers gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to reproduce material: the Univer- sity of Iowa Press, for Maps 1 and 2, which appeared in Cahuachi in the Ancient Nasca World, by Helaine Silverman, and AltaMira Press, for Maps 3 through 10 and the chro- nology in Chart 1, first published in The Archaeology and Pot- tery of Nazca, Peru: Alfred L. Kroeber's 1926 Expedition, edited by Patrick H. Carmichael. Kroeber's original maps are housed in the archives of the Anthropology Department, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Table of Contents Overview 1 Nasca Trophy Heads 1 Archaeological Background 2 The Kroeber Expeditions 4 Previous Studies 5 The Kroeber Collection 7 Methods 7 The Material 10 Aja 10 Cahuachi 12 Cantayo 20 Las Canas 23 Majoro Chico 24 Paredones 27 Results 93 Discussion 105 Acknowledgments 114 Literature Cited 114 Appendix: List of Artifacts Found With Trophy Heads 117 Maps 1 . South coast of Peru 3 2. Sites where trophy heads were found .. 5 3. Aja 11 4. Cahuachi: orientation of subsites 12 5. Kroeber's Cahuachi locations 13 6. Mound A at Cahuachi 13 7. Upper Cantayo, Area A 21 8. Cax, at Cantayo 22 9. Majoro Chico 24 10. Area A at Majoro Chico 25 Charts Chronology of the Nazca Valley 4 Size distribution of frontal bone perfo- rations 99 Specimens and Grave Artifacts 1 . Frontal view of specimen 1 29 2. Superior view of specimen 1 30 3. Specimen 1 mandible 31 4. Frontal view of specimen 2 32 5. Lateral view of specimen 2 33 6. Posterior view of specimen 2 34 7. Frontal view of specimen 3 35 8. Lateral view of specimen 3 36 9. Superior view of specimen 3 37 10. Inferior view of specimen 3 38 1 1 . Frontal view of specimen 4 39 12. Lateral view of specimen 4 40 13. Superior view of specimen 4 41 14. Inferior view of specimen 4 42 15. Overview of specimen 5 43 1 6. Frontal view of specimen 5 44 17. Lateral view of specimen 5 45 18. Posterior view of specimen 5 46 19. Frontal view of specimen 6 47 20. Lateral view of specimen 6 48 2 1 . Posterior view of specimen 6 49 22. Frontal view of specimen 7 50 23. Lateral view of specimen 7 51 24. Posterior view of specimen 7 52 25. Frontal view of specimen 8 53 26. Lateral view of specimen 8 54 27. Superior view of specimen 8 55 28. Frontal view of specimen 9 56 29. Lateral view of specimen 9 57 30. Superior view of specimen 9 58 31. Inferior view of specimen 9 59 32. Frontal view of specimen 10 60 33. Lateral view of specimen 10 61 34. Superior view of specimen 10 62 35. Inferior view of specimen 10 63 36. Frontal view of specimen 11 64 37. Lateral view of specimen 11 65 38. Superior view of specimen 11 66 39. Inferior view of specimen 11 67 40. Frontal view of specimen 12 68 41. Lateral view of specimen 12 69 42. Superior view of specimen 12 70 43. Inferior view of specimen 12 71 44. Frontal view of specimen 13 72 45. Lateral view of specimen 13 73 46. Superior view of specimen 13 74 47. Posterior view of specimen 13 75 48. Frontal view of specimen 14 76 49. Lateral view of specimen 14 77 50. Superior view of specimen 14 78 51. Inferior view of specimen 14 79 52. Frontal view of specimen 15 80 53. Lateral view of specimen 15 81 54. Superior view of specimen 15 82 55. Inferior view of specimen 15 83 56. Frontal view of specimen 16 84 57. Lateral view of specimen 16 85 58. Superior view of specimen 16 86 59. Inferior view of specimen 16 87 60. Frontal view of specimen 17 88 61. Lateral view of specimen 17 89 62. Superior view of specimen 17 90 63. Posterior view of specimen 17 91 64. Superior view of vault fragment of specimen 18 92 65. Cut marks along squamosal suture on specimen 2 106 66. Horizontal cut marks on right orbital process of frontal bone of specimen 9 ... 1 07 67. Cut marks on orbital process of right frontal bone of specimen 17 1 08 68. Cut marks on nasal bones and maxilla of specimen 17 1 09 69. Vertical cut marks on frontal bone of specimen 17 110 70. Cut marks on mandible of specimen 17 Ill 7 1 . Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: "Proto- Nazca" bowl 119 72. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: sheet cop- per around wood 120 73. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: Epigonal jar 121 74. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: Epigonal jar 122 75. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: jar frag- ments 123 76. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: plate frag- ments 1 24 77. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: incom- plete flaring bowl 125 78. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: plate 126 79. Grave artifact associated with speci- mens 17 and 18, Paredones: plate 127 80. Cloth fragments and sherds associated with specimen 15, Grave 6, Majoro Chico 128 81. Grave artifacts associated with speci- men 13, Grave 17, Cantayo Cax 129 82. Tapestry wool cloth, Epigonal type, as- sociated with specimens 3-8, Mound A, Cahuachi 130 83. Grave artifact from Cahuachi: cloth .... 131 84. Grave textiles from Cahuachi 132 Tables 1. Inventory of specimens 94 2. Summary of trophy head information .. 96 3. Age and sex distribution by site 97 4. Summary of frontal bone perforation and cranial base breakage areas 98 5. Evidence of trophy head preparation ... 100 6. Cut mark characteristics and distribu- tion 101 7. Distribution of trophy heads in archae- ological contexts 104 VI An Osteological Study of Nasca Trophy Heads Collected by A. L. Kroeber During the Marshall Field Expeditions to Peru Sloan R. Williams, Kathleen Forgey, and Elizabeth Klarich Overview Trophy head iconography is common throughout western South America, especially along the Pe- ruvian coast and in the highlands around Lake Ti- ticaca. In contrast, actual trophy head finds are largely confined to Peru's south coast, and more specifically to the river valleys populated by the Paracas and Nasca cultures. The trophy heads found in this area are characterized by a frontal bone perforation and the removal of some portion of the posterior cranium. A. L. Kroeber recovered 18 trophy heads from the Nazca Valley during the Marshall Field Ex- peditions he led in 1925 and 1926. This collection is particularly important because the heads were recovered from well-documented archaeological excavations. The heads were recovered from both Early Intermediate Period (a.d. 1-800) and Late Intermediate Period (a.d. 1000-1476) contexts and were found in three settings: as grave goods in tombs, in caches, and in pits inside structures. An osteological analysis of these trophy heads forms the basis for this study. All of the heads are now skeletalized, although many retain traces of soft tissue and hair. Fourteen of the heads belong to adults, two are subadults, and two are children. Eight of the adult trophy heads are young males, two are females, and the sex of the remaining specimens cannot be determined. Very little dis- ease is observed. A healed cranial fracture is ob- served in one specimen, and only one cranial frac- ture exhibits characteristics typical of perimortem trauma. Many of the trophy heads show signs of exten- sive preparation, including multiple cut marks at muscle attachment sites, gauze pads placed in the orbits, the nasal cavities, or both, and resinous substances applied to the cut bone margins. A wig remains attached to one specimen. Evidence of prolonged use is seen in the wear around the per- foration caused by the rubbing of the suspensory cord and in bone polishing where the mandibles were reattached to the crania. Considerable variation in the size and place- ment of the frontal perforation is noted in this collection. The amount of posterior cranium re- moved ranges from a slight expansion of the fo- ramen magnum to the complete removal of the occipital bone and posterior portions of the pari- etal and temporal bones. This variation in prepa- ration represents distinct preparation styles. Un- fortunately, the small sample size prohibits iden- tification of temporal or spatial trends that might account for this variation. The analysis of this collection provides new in- formation concerning the preparation and treat- ment of trophy heads and contributes to the on- going debate over their function in Nasca society. The considerable diversity in methods and the care with which they were prepared indicates that trophy heads played a complex and important role in the social and ritual practices of the Nasca peo- ple. Nasca Trophy Heads Trophy heads held a special fascination for human societies of the past, and continue to do so in the present. Trophy heads are human skulls that have been removed from the rest of the body at or after death.' Tello (1918) identified two general types ' Because the source and purpose of these heads is hotly debated, Coelho (1972) argued that they should be more appropriately termed "ritual" heads. Nonetheless, it has become common practice to refer to them as "tro- phy" heads or skulls (Proulx 1989; Verano 1995), so they will be designated as such here. FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, N.S., NO. 33, NOVEMBER 30, 2001, PP. 1-132 of trophy heads: (1) those in which the skull is removed in order to "shrink" the remaining soft tissues, such as those made by the Jivaro tribe of the Amazon jungle, and (2) those in which the skull is conserved along with the soft tissues, such as those found among the Munduruchu of Brazil. The Paracas and Nasca- trophy heads fall into the latter category. They are defined by characteristics that include a perforation of the frontal bone and removal of some portion of the base of the skull (Baraybar 1987; Coelho 1972; Drusini and Bar- aybar 1990; Seeman 1988; Verano 1995). The frontal perforation allowed a suspensory cord to be attached to the skull. It is generally believed that the foramen magnum was widened to facili- tate the removal of the brain and other soft tissues. Browne and colleagues (1993:275) described the following soft tissue characteristics of Nasca trophy heads: the lips or eyelids (or both) of the individual may or may not be sealed with cactus spines {Acacia macracantha); the eye sockets may be stuffed with plain-weave cotton cloth; and the skin (when preserved) may be cut under the jaw, lifted, and stuffed with plain-weave cotton. Although soft tissue is limited in the collection described here, evidence of similar preparation is present. Gauze pads are found in the orbits and nasal cavities of several specimens, and a rudi- mentary "wig" (consisting of a cotton head cov- ering to which human hair is attached) adheres to one specimen. Although trophy "skulls" refer to remains that are primarily skeletalized and trophy "heads" to specimens found with preserved soft tissues, the distinction becomes blurred in the archaeological record, where preservation often determines the category into which a specimen is placed. The specimens in this collection will be termed "tro- phy heads" because, although the remains are now primarily skeletal, soft tissues remain on the majority of heads, indicating that disintegration, not intentional removal, is responsible for their present condition. Paracas and Nasca iconogra- phy, which depicts only trophy heads, never skulls, provides further indirect evidence for their original state (Verano 1995). -This text will follow the convention (Silverman 1993a:ix) of using the ixMling "Nasca" to designate the archaeological culture jnd •Na/xa" for the modern town and valley. Archaeological Background The Nazca Valley is located inland from the San Nicolas Bay on the dry southern coast of Peru (Map 1). It is one of ten tributaries forming the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage. These numerous rivers have highly variable and scarce water sup- plies. They are separated from one another by nar- row mountain spurs and desert expanses. The riv- er valleys are generally widest where they emerge from the mountains, but soon narrow to 500 me- ters or less. Uhle (1914) discovered the first evidence of the Nasca culture in 1901 in the lea Valley and in the Nazca drainage a short time later. Based on ce- ramic stylistic similarities, he considered this cul- ture to be a continuation of the Paracas tradition but sufficiently unique to warrant its own style. Its pottery was characterized by prefire slip paint- ing depicting complex iconographic themes. In the decades following Uhle's discovery, sev- eral researchers in addition to Kroeber explored the region. Tello first visited the region in 1915 (Tello 1917). He also joined Kroeber during his 1926 ex- pedition and then returned the following year to excavate 537 tombs in the Nazca drainage (Tello and Mejia Xesspe 1967). Farabee (1922; Mason 1 926) explored some 30 miles along the Rio Nazca but focused the majority of his efforts on Cahuachi. In 1932, the Doering expedition excavated a num- ber of burials at Cahuachi and Huayuri, located along the Rio Santa Cruz (Doering 1958). A lull followed, but the area became the focus of research again in the 1950s. Strong surveyed parts of the lea and Nazca Valleys and conducted stratigraphic excavations at several sites, includ- ing Cahuachi (Strong 1957). In the mid-1950s, Rowe, Menzel, Wallace, and Dawson conducted extensive investigations on the south coast of Peru, focusing primarily on the lea Valley (Rowe et al. 1956). Dawson's widely accepted sedation of Nasca ceramic style, published in a series of articles by Rowe (1959, 1960. 1961), defines eight Nasca stylistic phases or epochs (Chart 1). The lengths of these epochs vary and have not been absolutely dated, but each probably spans 40-150 years, de- pending on the specific epoch in question (Car- michael 1988:20). Absolute dates have been col- lected for the Nasca sequence, but upper and low- er boundaries have proved difficult to establish with certainty (see Silverman 1993a:Ch. 3). Most FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ■ni ■^ Paracas ~> I Peninsula >' Pisco Ica< \w P E R U c V 1 \a ■\ v> ' v< vV ini V? Rio Grande v - ^ de Nazca drainage \\ 100 km Map 1 . South coast of Peru. researchers now agree that the Early Intermediate Period begins around a.d. 1 (Schreiber 1998; Sil- verman 1986). However, the dates given for the end of the period depend on whether the later phases 6-8 (600-800 a.d.) are considered to be the end of the Early Intermediate Period or the beginning of the Middle Horizon (Schreiber 1998; Silverman 1988a, 1993a:Ch. 3). Gay ton and Kroeber (1927) developed an ear- lier sequence of four phases. A, X, B, and Y, using a quantitative method of stylistic analysis based on shape, color, and design. Although Kroeber (1956) later revised it, this sequence has never been fully accepted by Andean scholars because of "persistent ambiguities and discrepancies in- herent in his approach" (Carmichael 1988:16). Although Schreiber (1998:262) has assembled a table that loosely correlates Kroeber's and Daw- son's sequences (see also Rowe 1960:41; Silver- man 1993a:31), Carmichael argues that the dif- ferences between the two sequences are substan- tial (Kroeber and Collier 1998:20-21). Also worth noting are Kroeber's use of the term "Epigonal" to define a period post-Wari but pre-Ica (Silver- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS Some Dates Standard Chronology Culture Names Kroeber Phases Cultural Events A.D. 1476 Late Horizon Inka conquest Late Intermediate Period Late Regional cultures re-established A.D. 750 Middle Horizon 4 3 2 1 Huaca del Loro Nasca Y Societal collapse Wari conquest A.D. 1 Early Intermediate Period 7 6 5 4 3 2 Late Nasca Middle Nasca Early Nasca Nasca B Nasca A2 Nasca Al Nasca AO Reorganization Transition Emergence of Nasca culture 1000 B.C. Early Horizon (1-10) Paracas Initial permanent occupation Initial Period Unoccupied? Preceramic Period Temporary hunter- gatherer occupations Chart I. Chronology of the Nazca Valley (after Schreiber 1998:262). man 1993a:219), and his use of "lea" to indicate the Late Intermediate Period. In recent years numerous scholars have con- ducted research programs in the area, and exten- sive surveys have covered most of the region (Browne et al. 1993; Schreiber 1998; Silverman 1993b). Large architectural features such as the Nazca lines (Aveni 1990; Hadingham 1987; Rei- che 1968) and filtration galleries (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 1995) have become important foci of interest as well. Orefici (1993) began an am- bitious research program in 1983 that has includ- ed excavations at Cahuachi and Agua Santa (also known as Pueblo Viejo; Schreiber 1998). Silver- man as well has undertaken large-scale excava- tions at Cahuachi (Silverman 1986, 1993a). Her work is particularly noteworthy for our purposes because the mound Silverman designates as Unit 1 9 corresponds to Kroeber's unit Ed, where spec- imen 9 was found. During the course of excava- tions there, Silverman discovered two trophy heads (see the discussion under Previous Studies for more information). Carmichael's (1988, 1992, 1995) extensive mortuary study of Nasca graves made use of sev- eral large collections, including the Farabee col- lection at the University of Pennsylvania, the Kroeber collection at the Field Museum of Nat- ural History, Chicago, and the Strong collection at Columbia University. His analysis of the tomb contents from the Kroeber collection provides ad- ditional information for several of the graves and all of the cemeteries discussed in this study. Also, although we relied on Kroeber's original manu- script and field notes for the work described here, Carmichael's recent editing of Kroeber's 1926 ex- pedition monograph, co-authored with Donald Collier, finally makes Kroeber's important contri- bution publicly accessible (Kroeber and Collier 1998). The Kroeber Expeditions Alfred L. Kroeber undertook two expeditions to Peru for the Field Museum of Natural History. He led the first Marshall Field Expedition in 1925, concentrating on the north and central coast, but also undertook some excavations in the Caiiete Valley on the south-central coast. At that time, he made a reconnaissance trip to the Nazca Valley to survey and perform limited surface collections (Kroeber 1937). The following year Kroeber returned to the Nazca Valley to focus his attention on the Rio Nazca from Cahuachi to Cantayo (Map 2). He decided to confine the excavations to graves, "be- FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Rio Grande dr Nauj Draiiugr b Map 2. Sites where trophy heads were found. cause Nazca ruins and structures are very modest in comparison with the fine ceramics and textiles contained in Nazca cemeteries" (Kroeber and Collier 1998:25). Accompanied by William Schenck, Kroeber ar- rived in the Nazca Valley on July 26 and com- pleted the field season on October 1 1 . Excavations were undertaken at eight sites: Agua Santa, Aja, Cahuachi, Cantayo, La Huayrona, Majoro Chico, Ocongalla, and Soisongo (Map 2). During the first part of the season, Schenck directed excavations first at Ocongalla, then at Majoro Chico, Agua Santa, La Huayrona, and Soisongo, while Kroeber concentrated on exploration. Schenck returned to the United States after completing excavations at Soisongo, and Kroeber directed the later excava- tions at Aja, Cantayo, and Cahuachi. Tello, lead- ing an expedition from the Museo Nacional de Arqueologia, joined the expedition for the month of September, and the two groups worked coop- eratively at Soisongo, Aja, and Cantayo. By prior agreement, the artifacts recovered by the Field Museum team were sent to the United States and the artifacts excavated by Tello's Museo Nacional group were taken to Lima for analysis and cura- tion. Kroeber completed the field season, leading a solo excavation at Cahuachi. Previous Studies Direct information concerning the preparation and function of Nasca trophy heads comes from two sources, physical evidence and iconography. Al- though the osteological remains are rare and largely confined to the Nasca and Paracas periods in the Nazca Valley, trophy head iconography is common and widespread throughout the area in virtually all time periods. Depictions of trophy heads appear on ceramic vessels, textiles, and sculpture throughout the pre- Columbian Andes (Blasco Bosqued and Ramos 1974; Paul 1990; Proulx 1968; Tello 1918; Tous- saint-Devine 1984; Uhle 1914). Trophy head im- ages in ceramic and textile collections can be identified by the following five features: a carry- ing cord, pinned lips, bodiless presentation of the motif, rolled eyes (representing eyeballs rolled upward in death or closed eyes), and locks of hair extending from the head (Carmichael 1994). Car- michael considers the first two features to be "highly diagnostic" because they exactly parallel the physical remains. He views the last three as "secondary features" that indicate "an associa- tion with death" (Carmichael 1994). Trophy head images first appear during the Ear- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS ly Horizon (Chart 1), usually in stone sculpture (Proulx 1971). The earliest images appear as com- ponents of the "Decapitator theme" in scenes de- picting mythical beings carrying a tumi knife in one hand and a trophy head in the other. On the north coast, the Decapitator first appears in Cup- isnique ceramics (Early Horizon) and continues into Moche culture (Early Intermediate Period; Cordy-Collins 1992). In fact, in 1999 Verano and colleagues reported the first trophy head find out- side the Nasca Valley from this area. South coast trophy head iconography begins in late Paracas (Early Horizon) and similarly continues into the later Nasca period (Early Intermediate Period). On the northwest side of Lake Titicaca, Early Horizon Pukara textiles and monumental sculptures often depict realistic humans carrying trophy heads (Chavez 1992; Moseley 1992). During the Middle Horizon, trophy head images are found in both Wari and Tiwanaku iconography. Wari trophy heads are usually shown being carried in the hands of individuals, while Tiwanaku trophy heads are shown either worn on belts or carried in hands (Klarich n.d.). Trophy head imagery de- clines dramatically after the Middle Horizon in most areas. The exception is the north coast, where trophy head iconography continues through the Late Intermediate Period and into the Late Ho- rizon Chimu culture (Lapiner 1976). Although trophy head iconography is not found in Inka ce- ramics or textiles, there are accounts and depic- tions of trophy head taking and display in the chronicles (Guaman Poma de Ayala 1980:130, 168). On the south coast, trophy head images begin to appear in Late Paracas, Epochs 9 and 10. Ann Peters has written that trophy head images in Late Paracas and Early Nasca iconography occur in three main contexts: "with hunter/warriors, with beans and feline/monkey figures, and with con- dors and images of human sacrifice" (Peters 1991:31 1). In these Late Paracas and Early Nasca periods, trophy heads are often associated with mythical beings such as the Killer Whale and the Oculate Being (Menzel et al. 1964). Trophy head depictions are most prevalent in the early Nasca epochs and begin to decline in frequency in the Nazca Valley toward the end of Epoch 4 (Proulx 1968:89). A strong association between war im- ages and trophy heads begins in Middle Nasca times (Epoch 5) and continues throughout the lat- er phases and into the Middle Horizon. Militaris- lic themes dominate these later phases, and trophy heads are seen associated with individuals and de- picted in battle scenes. Trophy head iconography is rich, and the lit- erature devoted to trophy heads is abundant. Un- fortunately, because trophy head finds are rela- tively rare, studies on the physical evidence of human trophy head collecting are correspondingly uncommon. Many specimens lack detailed con- textual information, so that provenience and date are often uncertain. Even in cases where more in- formation exists, some of the heads attributed to these early periods may come from later periods, such as the Middle Horizon and Late Intermediate Period (for example, specimens 3-8 in our study). We will briefly touch on some of the contexts in which trophy heads have been recovered. Pezzia Assereto (1968) and Riddell and Belan (Riddell 1986) reported trophy head finds from some of the earliest contexts, in Late Paracas/Ear- ly Nasca times. Pezzia Assereto reported the ex- cavation of two caches of trophy heads at the Ha- cienda Ocucaje in the lea Valley. The first cache, found in 1956, consisted of two heads buried in a shallow pit, on a bed of pacay leaves, at the base of Cerro Max Uhle. Pezzia Assereto's second cache, recovered from a looted Paracas cemetery on Cerro de la Cruz in 1966, contained 13 heads covered by a large cloth. Riddell and Belan dis- covered five trophy heads buried in ceramic jars beneath the floors during the excavation of several rooms at Tambo Viejo, in the Acari Valley. Many of the better-documented examples of Nasca period trophy heads were found at the site of Cahuachi. Doering (1958, 1966; burial 28 in Carmichael 1988:482-483) recovered nine trophy heads in a high-status tomb dating to Early Inter- mediate Period 8. The grave also contained the incomplete remains of an adult male seated on a basketry throne. The head and upper body of the individual were missing and the grave goods were in disarray, leading Doering to conclude that the grave had been looted, although he could find no exterior evidence of that disturbance (Carmichael 1988:374). Unfortunately, because Doering was unclear about the grave location, later researchers were unable to find it, and the exact location of this tomb remains unknown (Carmichael 1988: 139). Strong (1957:36) briefly reported the recov- ery of two trophy heads (burials 12 and 14) from excavations at Cahuachi, but a full report was never published. Silverman (1993a), using Strong's original field notes, has provided the fol- lowing descriptions of their contexts. Burial 12, believed to date to Nasca 5 or 6, contained a tro- FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY phy head buried in a pit near a globular vessel in burial area 1 (Silverman 1993a:219).' Some hairs, a tooth, and some small pieces of bone were found inside the vessel, which we interpret as in- dicating that the pit had been disturbed. An adult male of about 20 years of age was buried in burial 14 (Silverman 1993a:206). He was found leaning forward, seated in a cross-legged position. His head was not attached to the spinal column. A trophy head had been placed upside down on the neck. The portion of the occipital bone that had been removed during the trophy-making process was found in the individual's lap. Four ceramic vessels were found in the grave, dating the con- tents to Nasca 5. Silverman recovered two trophy heads during her 1983 excavations in a series of rooms on terrace IV of Unit 19 (Kroeber's Unit E). The soft tissues were well preserved. Both were adult males. One trophy head was found in a cist, in the uppermost floor of one of the rooms, and probably dates to Nasca 5. The other speci- men had been placed in the corner of a different room sometime after Nasca 3. Both were wrapped in plain-weave cloth and were not associated with other artifacts. Drusini and Baraybar (1989) de- scribed seven trophy heads recovered from a loot- ed context during Orefici's excavations at Cahu- achi. Orefici's crew believed that looters had taken trophy heads from other graves and buried them in a shallow pit, where they were later found. Neira Avedaiio and Coelho (1972) excavated 1 1 trophy heads from a Nasca cemetery at Chav- iria in the Acari Valley. The heads were arranged in a linear fashion along the western face of a mud-brick wall. Nine were placed in small cir- cular pits dug through a hard caliche floor, and two were found on the hardened surface, covered with sand and domestic refuse. Most of the heads were wrapped in textiles, like Pezzia's cache of 1 3 trophy heads at Hacienda Ocucaje and the Rid- dell and Belan finds at Tambo Viejo. Neira Ave- daiio and Coelho were unable to determine the exact nature of the wall with which the heads were associated because they performed only lim- ited excavations. However, they believed that the wall was part of a ceremonial structure. Browne et al. (1993) recovered 48 trophy heads from a salvage operation at Cerro Carapo in the Palpa Valley. Looting activity had exposed the cache. Although it was clear that the trophy heads had been buried together in one large pit, the sal- vage nature of the excavation did not permit fur- ther expansion outside the pit to determine its context. Browne and colleagues found a Nasca 5 sherd in the fill above the pit, indicating a similar or earlier date for the pit contents. The trophy heads were included in an osteological study un- dertaken by Verano (1995). He reported that the 47 trophy heads belonged to males aged 20-45 years at death. The remaining head belonged to an adolescent 12-15 years old at death. Verano (1995:213) stated that the observed cranial defor- mation was of the "Nasca" type and that all spec- imens exhibited similar patterns of cut marks and perimortem modification. The Kroeber Collection Eighteen trophy heads were collected during Kroeber's two expeditions.^ Five trophy heads were collected in 1925: two from Cahuachi (spec- imens 2 and 3), one from Las Canas (specimen 14), and two from Paredones (specimens 17 and 18). Thirteen trophy heads were recovered during excavations the next year: one from Aja (speci- men 1), eight from Cahuachi (specimens 4-11), two from Cantayo (specimens 12 and 13), and two from Majoro Chico (specimens 15 and 16). This collection is frequently cited (Baraybar 1987; Carmichael 1992; Coelho 1972; Doering 1966; Kroeber 1956; Kroeber and Collier 1998; Lothrop and Mahler 1957; Neira Avedaiio and Coelho 1972; Proulx 1989; Silverman 1993a; Strong 1957), and many of the trophy heads have been documented to varying degrees (Konigsberg n.d.; Verano 1995). Nevertheless, the collection has never been systematically described or stud- ied. Below we provide a brief methodological overview, followed by a detailed description of each specimen. The results of the analyses are then summarized and discussed in the context of the ongoing controversy over the role of trophy heads in Nasca society. Methods A set of standard observations was recorded for each specimen, using the format described below. Unless otherwise specified, the criteria selected ' Strong's burial area 1 is located in an open area north of Kroeber's Locations F and H. * An additional trophy skull was discovered but was left in the field because of its fragmentary nature. WILLL\MS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS for evaluation follow those proposed by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Each specimen description is organized into seven sections: presence and condition, age determination, sex determination, cranial deformation, other features, perimortem modification, and archaeological contents and as- sociated artifacts. Presence and Condition — A general inventory of the remains, including the presence and con- dition of the cranium and mandible for each in- dividual, is presented here. The majority of these specimens are incomplete crania because portions were intentionally removed during the perimortem modification process. Therefore, the designation "complete" as used in this study refers to whether the trophy head is complete. Elements removed during the process of trophy head making are dis- cussed under Perimortem Modification. Elements lost or broken since then are described here. Taph- onomic alterations such as color changes and sur- face wear or weathering are noted. Any postmor- tem damage not resulting from trophy head prep- aration is included in this section as well. Determination of Age — Age-at-death determi- nations for children and subadults were based on dental calcification and eruption rates, following Ubelaker (1989). Age estimates were obtained by counting the number of teeth erupted, observing the degree of cusp and root development, and re- lating these to standard figures. In humans, the deciduous dentition erupts from approximately 6 months to 2 years, and the permanent dentition erupts from about 6 years to 13 years. For spec- imens ages 2 through 13 years, stages of dental calcification of the crown and root in mandibular canines and molars were used to estimate chro- nological age (Moorrees et al. 1963a,b; Ubelaker 1989). Postcranial skeletal morphology and histology provide the best estimates of age at death in adults (Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Krogman 1962; Ubelaker 1989). However, in the absence of postcranial remains, changes in skull morphology allow reasonably reliable age esti- mations to be made (Feremback et al. 1980). Because age-at-death determinations were based solely on skull data in this study, the age ranges are necessarily broad. Each specimen was assigned to one of three categories as suggested by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994): young adult (20-34 years), middle adult (35-49 years), and old adult (50+ years). Specimens were assigned to one of these categories based on three features: dental eruption, molar occlusal surface wear, and cranial suture closure: Dental Eruption — Third molar eruption is the most basic indicator of developmental maturity. Degree of Occlusal Surface Wear of Mo- lars— Scoring was done by recording the degree of wear in each quadrant of the two dental ar- cades. The degree of wear was scored from min- imal {no wear) to maximal wear {roots only). Al- though this method is very general, it allows age determinations to be made rapidly and reliably (Brothwell 1981). Degree of Cranial Suture Closure — The cranial suture closure was evaluated according to the degree of fusion of endocranial (Ascadi and Nemeskere 1970), ectocranial (Meindl and Love- joy 1985), and palatal sutures, according to the methods outlined in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Seventeen sutural regions were scored on a scale of 0 to 3, representing open to complete fusion. In this study, incomplete assemblages of all crania prohibited composite scoring, necessi- tating assessment of age based on sutures that are present and observable. Overall size and devel- opment were used to reinforce individual assign- ments to the general category of "adult" in cases where the remains are very incomplete. Determination of Sex — Sex identification based on adult skull morphology can be accurate (Hr- dlicka 1939; St. Hoyme and Iscan 1990) but de- pends on specimen completeness and population sexual dimorphism (Konigsberg and Hels 1998). An additional analysis of more complete skeletons recovered from these sites has indicated that these populations are quite sexually dimorphic (unpub- lished data). Five basic features emphasized in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) were used in this study: Nuchal Crest — This point of muscle attach- ment on the occipital bone is generally larger and more robust in males. Mastoid Processes — This feature is scored by relative volume rather than length and is more substantial in males. Supraorbital Margins — This feature, which can be most readily evaluated by palpating the lateral aspect of the supraorbital foramen, appears thicker and more rounded in males than in fe- males. FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Prominence of Glabella — Glabellar promi- nence is most easily observed from a lateral view. It is more pronounced in males and appears smooth, with little or no projection, in females. Mental Eminence — The feature is found at the midpoint of the external mandibular surface and is maximally expressed in males. Mandible traits such as the angle of the as- cending ramus and the lateral expansion of the gonial angle were also considered. Overall rugos- ity or gracility, as determined by relative bone size and weight, provided further support for the estimates. Artificial Cranial Deformation — Culturally in- duced cranial deformation, either intentional or unintentional, results from the application of ex- ternal forces that alter the normal contour of the skull (Ubelaker 1989). External forces do not alter intrinsic neurocranial growth but do alter its di- rection (Moss 1958). The final cranial shape is affected by many fac- tors, including the type of deforming device used, differences in deforming duration and intensity, and individual variation in cranial growth. Buiks- tra and Ubelaker (1994) have attempted to stan- dardize the description of cranial deformation, but identifying the deforming practices used by spe- cific groups remains difficult. Cranial morpholog- ical variation observed in a particular sample may indicate that more than one deformation practice was employed or that individual variation exists within a single deforming method. Hrdlicka (1912), and later Imbelloni (Dembo and Imbelloni 1938; Imbelloni 1937) divided de- formation into two basic categories, designating crania as either tabular, if pads or boards were used, or annular, if wrappings were used. Later, Weiss (1961), as Imbelloni himself realized, ar- gued that the combination of bandages and pads could produce either tabular or annular forms. Consequently, a simple classification based on the material used is not possible, and defining these categories by the distribution of applied pressures is more appropriate. Therefore, Anton's (1989) general categories of "anteroposterior" and "cir- cumferential" will be used here. The anteropos- terior style is characterized by a flattening of both frontal and occipital bones or, less commonly, by a flattening of the occipital region alone. Lateral parietal expansion is observed when the temporal and parietal bones become foreshortened from the pressures exerted by anterior and posterior forces. This appearance is often called "bilobated" (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:160-161). Circum- ferentially deformed crania are characterized by elongated, cylindrical, or "conical" (Anton 1989: 254) vaults that extend posteriorly. Lateral parie- tal expansion is not seen in this type of defor- mation; rather, the cranial vault appears long and "loaf-like." Both forms may be further divided, depending on whether subsequent cranial growth follows a vertical or oblique orientation. This fur- ther distinction is often impossible in this collec- tion because the posterior portions of the crania are frequently absent as a result of the the trophy- making process. Frontal flattening, occipital flattening, degree of lateral parietal expansion, bregmatic elevation, and postcoronal depression are among the traits we observed and describe here, following Buik- stra and Ubelaker's (1994) recommendations (see also Hoshower et al. 1995). Variants such as asymmetric flattening or reshaping are also noted. Other Features — Any pathologies, traumas, and anomalies are described in this section. Our observations are grouped into the following cat- egories: Pathology — We examined specimens for evi- dence of anemia (cribra orbitalia and porotic hy- perostosis), infectious disease (periostitis), and de- generative joint disease (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Ortner 1985; Roberts and Manchester 1995; Schwartz 1995; Ubelaker 1989). The observed dental pathologies included abscesses, antemor- tem tooth loss, alveolar resorption, and caries (Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Ortner 1985; Schwartz 1995; Scott and Turner 1997). Trauma — Both antemortem trauma, such as healed or healing fractures, and perimortem trau- ma, or injuries sustained immediately before or at the time of death (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Ortner 1985; Roberts and Manchester 1995), are observed in the collection. Postmortem damage is described under Presence and Condition. Anomalies — Congenital anomalies such as missing permanent teeth are described here. The nonmetric traits (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:87- 94) scored as part of the study are on file at the Field Museum of Natural History. However, me- topic sutures, which affect cranial deformation, are noted here. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS Perimortem Modification — Skeletal alterations related to trophy-making activities are discussed in this section. The following features are de- scribed: Perforation of the Frontal Bone — We mea- sured minimum and maximum diameters of the perforation and recorded the location by measur- ing the distance from the inferior margin of the frontal perforation to nasion and the distance from nasion to bregma. Any associated cut marks or evidence of wear or polish resulting from rubbing by the carrying cord are recorded here as well. Posterior Breakage — This highly variable modification was scored by the extent of involve- ment of cranial bones. Breakage ranged from a minimal widening of the foramen magnum to the removal of posterior half of the cranium. Any ev- idence of how the posterior breakage area was removed is noted when possible, as well as any associated cut marks. Cut Marks — The size, location, and general pattern of cut marks are recorded for each crani- um and mandible. Cut mark size can be roughly divided into two groups: short (averaging less than 15 mm) and long (averaging anywhere from 15 mm to approximately 30 mm), and then further categorized as deep or shallow. A correspondence between cut mark distribution and expected pat- terns of removal of overlying soft tissue due to defleshing activities is noted in some cases. CuRATioN (OR Preparation) of Soft Tissue — Other material involved in the processing or dis- play of presumed trophies, such as gauze found in orbital and nasal cavities or associated carrying cords and crossbars, is noted. Polish and discol- ored areas are described in this section as well. Although the fragile bones of the nasal cavity and orbit are frequently lost or broken in museum specimens, their loss is described here because of the evidence of their intentional removal in some specimens. Undoubtedly most of the breakage re- sulted from more recent handling, but the bones are too delicate to permit confident assessment of time of occurrence. The zygomatic arch damage observed in several specimens is treated under Presence and Condition, however, because the broken edges are clearly due to recent breakage. Associated Artifacts and Archaeological Con- text— Each specimen is placed within its associ- ated context using Kroeber's field notes and his final report. His report of the excavations, co-writ- ten with Donald Collier, has since been edited by Patrick Carmichael and published by AltaMira Press (Kroeber and Collier 1998). The artifacts recovered from each grave are listed and illus- trated in the Appendix (page 117), and photo- graphs have been provided where possible. The Material The trophy head analyses are grouped and pre- sented by site. Each section begins with a brief description of Kroeber's excavations at that site and the context in which the heads were discov- ered. Each specimen is then summarized individ- ually. Aja Tello, while accompanying Kroeber's group, found the site of Aja at the base of a pyramidal foothill known as Cerro San Luis, at the northern margin of the Nazca Valley (Map 2). Kroeber and Tello located three spatially discrete cemeteries within this area. No habitation features were ob- served. Sites A and C were post-Nasca cemeter- ies. Site B was an early Nasca cemetery, located at the south or southwest base of a rocky knoll. Its location near the edge of cultivated land at the base of the wide mouth of a dry gully meant that the site experienced intermittent moisture, result- ing in relatively poor preservation. Kroeber noted one looted tomb at Aja B. It was stone-lined and measured 2 meters square by 2 meters deep. A cluster of eight intact graves'* was excavated, all within 10 meters of the looted tomb. The intact graves contain material from Early Intermediate Period phases 2 and 3 (Car- michael 1988). No later materials were found in the area, implying that the looted tomb dates to this early period as well. The trophy head (fmnh 170912) was found beneath a large ceramic frag- ment in a pit designated Grave 8 in Cemetery B (Map 3). Specimen 1 (fmnh 170912) (Figs. 1-3) Presence and Condition — Kroeber noted that this specimen was discovered intact, but it was so decayed and covered with salt crystals that the •'' Kroeber used the burial-grave category rather loose- ly and included what appear to be offerings, such as this trophy head, as well as true burials that contained bodies and their grave goods. 10 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY /. u oo \T] 80 Specimen 1 Q AJA B i » I I I I 10 meters □ Stone grave ^ Shaft graves X Pot Map 3. Aja. cranium fragmented during its recovery (Kroeber and Collier 1998:79). Although the cranium is now fragmentary (and partially glued), the man- dible is complete and in very good condition. No soft tissues remain. Age — Young adult. Three erupted third molars are present (one molar was lost postmortem), and all show moderate to significant wear. Although substantial tooth wear is observed, a younger age is suggested by the fact that no observable en- docranial, ectocranial, or posterior and transverse palatine sutures are completely fused. Sex — Probable male. The cranium is too frag- mentary to allow sex determination, but the mas- culine mandibular characteristics include a broad mental eminence, vertical ascending rami, and lat- eral expansion at the gonial angles. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior type. The cranium is fragmentary and the occipital and posterior portions of parietal bones are absent. However, the frontal bone is flattened, and the an- terior parietal bones exhibit slight lateral expan- Other Features — The two mandibular central incisors were lost prior to death, and the area ex- hibits extensive alveolar resorption. Mild peri- odontal disease is observed on both dental arches. There is no other evidence of pathology or trau- ma. Perimortem Modification — The frontal bone, al- though fragmented, exhibits an area suggesting in- tentional drilling approximately midline on the lower third of the bone. This opening is at least 9.5 mm in diameter, but its maximum diameter and distance from nasion cannot be determined. The posterior half of the crania has been removed, in- cluding the entire occipital bone and the posterior half of both the parietal and the temporal bones on each side, including both mastoid processes. The surface of the cranium is too deteriorated to allow the detection of cut marks, but none are observed on the well-preserved mandible. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This specimen was recovered from Cem- etery B, in a pit designated Grave 8 (Kroeber and Collier 1998:67). Grave 8 was located about 3 meters south of the east edge of the looted stone tomb designated Grave 1 (see Map 1). The pit contained no evidence of other human remains. The head was found at a depth of 1 10 cm, covered by the upper portion of a three-handled jar with vertical stripes (fmnh 170911; see Fig. 155 in Kroeber and Collier 1998:1 18). Kroeber identified the cranium as a trophy head, based on the per- foration in the frontal bone and the missing oc- cipital and basal portions. Unfortunately, the skull was in very poor condition and fragmented when they attempted to remove it. A polished blackware sherd (fmnh 170913, no photograph) was found in the pit fill. Kroeber identified these ceramic finds as early Nasca A. Carmichael has stated that WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 11 ^.r-.^r.",:-. J^AS CJilfJiS Hac. CAHUAC-Hl: Orientation of suh^Hes. Map 4. Cahuachi: orientation of subsites. the artifacts recovered from the surrounding graves date to Early Intermediate Period phases 2 and 3 (Carmichael 1988:464). However, because polished blackware disappeared rapidly after Ear- ly Intermediate Period (Silverman 1993a:231), the trophy head may date to an earlier phase than the surrounding graves. Cahuachi Cahuachi, located on the Rio Nazca, about 20 km west of the modern town of Nazca, is the largest known Nasca site (see Map 2). Its architectural remains consist of a series of artificially leveled and terraced hills. Several low (<50 cm in height) adobe walls demarcate large areas of the site. The most densely clustered group of mounds is found on the south side of the river, stretching for about 3 km and 200-400 meters wide (Map 4). Al- though no formal studies have been undertaken on the north side of the river, Carmichael (1988) has suggested that the site continues for an addi- tional 50 hectares there. The archaeological remains indicate that parts of Cahuachi were in use in the previous Paracas Period and in later Early Intermediate Period phases 4, 5, and 8. The site grew dramatically during Early Intermediate Period phases 1-3 as it gradually changed from a dispersed agricultural village to a large ceremonial center, reaching its apogee during Early Intermediate Period phase 3 (Silverman 1986, 1988a,b, 1990, 1993a; Strong 1957). Although its importance as a ceremonial center declined dramatically afterward, it contin- ued to serve as a cemetery throughout the re- maining Early Intermediate Period, Middle Hori- zon, and Late Intermediate Period. The cemeteries dating to the early Early Inter- mediate Period occupation phases were generally placed on top of mounds (Kroeber and Collier 1998). Apparently, Strong (1957) found evidence of a cemetery from this period in an open area between mounds, but this case is poorly docu- mented (Carmichael 1988:138). Burials from the later periods were generally located at the base of mounds or in open areas away from the mounds (Kroeber and Collier 1998). Kroeber divided the site into a series of "lo- cations," followed by a capital letter, which des- ignated mounds, terraces, and other important fea- tures (see Map 4). Lowercase letters were used to designate subunits (Map 5), such as cemetery ter- races within Mound A (Map 6). Kroeber con- ducted surface collections in 1 1 of these locations, A-E and G-L. He excavated graves in three ar- eas: Mounds A and E, and Location O. Excava- tions in burial terraces g, j, and 1 on top of Mound A yielded 15 features: ten burials and five caches. Two burials were excavated in Mound E, subunit d. Two more graves were excavated in the Loca- tion O cemetery. Kroeber believed that although the majority of the burials they excavated were intact, several graves had been looted (Graves Ag 2, Aj 11, and Ed 2). In total, Kroeber recovered ten trophy heads at Cahuachi, nine of which came from mound A and two (specimens 2 and 3) of which were collected during surface reconnaissance the first year. Spec- imen 2 was found in a jar containing another un- modified skull at the edge of a tomb on the sum- mit of Mound A. Specimen 3 was retrieved from a large rectangular tomb in Cemetery n at the base of Mound A. The following year, the rectangular tomb where specimen 3 had been found the pre- vious year yielded five more heads (specimens 4- 8). The placement of the tombs at the base of the mound, combined with the recovery of a fragment 12 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ,,— ^ HUARANGA^ /»Mo^ CULTIVAT/OW a STAKCS PLAT WASH FROM BETWEEN ^,^ K *♦"> L CAHUACHl SUBSITES A -J j(\ Map 5. Kroeber's Cahuachi locations. Specimens 3-! CAHUACHI A j>00 5m.27m ELEVATIONS (METERS. BSTIM.) ABOVE RIVER, r s.- GRAV£S EDGE OF HlLl, MOT A CONTOUR. SLOPrs SAMDV TERRACE TERRACES .. SUMMIT, LEVEL 9,i.j.l.n) BURIAL TERRACES I RIFLED CRAVES j VERY LE.VEL b.d c «.f h K UNWORKED HILl.. CONMECT- IH6 WITH B n. O SQUARl BUILT GRAV£S P^^hWALL. 65 MITXS^ VONG ^5^ ADOBE WALLS WITH CHAMBERS Map 6. Mound A at Cahuachi. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 13 of textile wrapping that Kroeber described as "Epigonal," suggested that these trophy heads were interred later, possibly during the Late In- termediate Period. Two more trophy heads were found in a cache or offering in cemetery Ag (specimens 10 and 11). The cache contained a third trophy head that was not collected because of its heavily fragmented condition. These latter two trophy heads were recovered from the summit of Mound A, suggesting that they were buried there during earlier Early Intermediate Period ep- ochs. The tenth trophy head (specimen 9) was part of the grave goods excavated from a partially dis- turbed burial (Grave 2) in section d near the heavily looted Location E (also called Area E; see Map 5). The tomb also contained the partially ar- ticulated remains of another individual (fmnh 171 135). Parts of Area E were later excavated by Silverman (1993a:Ch.l2). Kroeber's section d corresponds to Silverman's Unit 19, terraces IV and V. Silverman recovered two trophy heads from the rooms of the structure she and her crew excavated in Unit 19. Specimen 2 (fmnh 170222) (Figs. 4-6) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium and mandible in excellent con- dition. Some soft tissue fragments remain on the palate and on the cranial vault. A small depression (12 mm long) is located in the middle of the fron- tal bone immediately to the right of the sagittal plane. Age — Young adult. All third molars have erupt- ed, but only one remains in its socket. Minimal dental attrition is noted. Internal vault sutures are significantly closed, while external vault sutures remain open. The basilar suture is not closed, sug- gesting that this individual was less than 25 years old at death. Sex — Male. The brow ridges are prominent with blunt supraorbital margins. The mandible is extremely rugose with a broad mental eminence and massive, vertical ascending rami with pro- nounced gonial angle lateral curvature. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior type. Bilateral flattening of the frontal bone is observed on both sides of an incompletely fused metopic suture. The parietal bones exhibit pronounced lat- er;! i expansion. Other Features — Periodontal disease is evident. Abscesses are noted on all maxillary right molars. The left first molar and all second and third mo- lars of the mandible were lost prior to death, and the alveoli are completely resorbed and remod- eled. The posterior alveoli around the third molars extend buccally on the mandible. A metopic su- ture, completely fused along the lower third of the external surface and along its entire length on the internal surface of the frontal bone, is observed. A deviated nasal septum is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal bone perforation measures 7X8 mm^ and lies 33 mm above nasion. The diameter of the perforation in the outer table is larger than the perforation of the cancellous bone beneath it, and slight wear is not- ed. No wear is present on the inner surface. The posterior half of the cranium has been removed. The posterior breakage margin extends laterally from the posterior wings of the sphenoid bones to the external auditory meati, then superiorly through the midportions of the temporal and pa- rietal bones. The jagged margin of the breakage area is smooth and worn. Several short (less than 5 mm), deep cut marks are present on the right temporal line, just above the orbit. Several long (30-50 mm), deep, vertical cut marks lie parallel to the breakage margin on the left parietal bone. Additionally, numerous short, shallow cut marks cover the external vault surface (see Fig. 65). The mandible exhibits very short (less than 5 mm) horizontal cut marks on the labial and lingual sur- faces of the body, particularly at the point of tongue attachment. Tiny but deep horizontal cut marks are located on the posterior borders of both rami. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This trophy head was collected during the 1925 trip to Cahuachi, when only minimal surface collection was undertaken. Kroeber noted in the catalogue that this specimen was found with an- other skull inside a jar at the edge of a tomb on the summit of Mound A (see Map 6). Neither the other skull nor the jar is listed in the catalogue, so it is assumed that they were not collected. Specimen 3 (fmnh 170224) (Figs. 7-10) Presence and Condition — The cranium is in good condition, but the mandible is absent. The cranium shows fairly extensive signs of weather- ing but little deterioration of the outer table. Most of the zygomatic process of the right temporal 14 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY bone is absent. Some soft tissues remain on the occipital bone between the occipital protuberance and the lambdoid suture. There is a crushing frac- ture approximately 20 mm in diameter on the lat- eral side of the right parietal bone (Fig. 8). The fracture shows no evidence of healing. A textile fragment is wedged inside the fracture. The textile fragment suggests that this fracture did not occur at the time of the individual's death but is more likely the result of later postmortem damage. The crushing pattern indicates that the bone was fairly fresh at the time the fracture occurred, but it is not a "classic" perimortem fracture (L. A. Beck, pers. comm.). Age — Young adult. The first and second molars have erupted and the third molars appear to be congenitally absent. Tooth wear is minimal; den- tin is exposed only on the first molars. All vault (both internal and external) and palatine sutures are open. The basilar suture is closed. The pos- terior portion of the sagittal suture is obliterated because of healed trauma (see discussion under Other Features). Sex — Indeterminate. The cranial features are ambiguous, but the skull bones are somewhat heavy and rugose, suggesting that the individual may be male. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. Asymmetric flattening and lateral parietal expansion of the posterior cranium is noted. Pres- sure was applied to the posterior cranium at an angle perpendicular to the transverse plane, sug- gesting an erect type of deformation. Other Features — There is healed depression measuring 35 mm in diameter, located superior to lambda that obliterates the posterior half of the sagittal suture (Fig. 9). The upper third molars of this individual are congenitally absent. Oddly, the frontal sinus, which should be observable through the frontal perforation, is absent. No other evi- dence of pathology or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration, obviously drilled from the outside, is large and measures 21 X 24 mm^. Edges of the perfo- ration are straight, with no evidence of wear. It is located 9 mm above nasion. Oddly, no frontal si- nuses are present. A substance, possibly a resin of some kind, has been applied to the surface of the hole. The posterior breakage is minimal. The foramen magnum is slightly enlarged, and both condyles have been removed. No cut marks are observed. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This specimen was collected during the 1925 expedition from Cemetery n on the north- west side of the base of Mound A (see Map 6). Three large rectangular tombs measuring 3X4 meters and lined with flat semicylindrical adobe bricks were located in this area. These tombs were described both in the report (Kroeber and Collier 1998:80) and in more detail in Kroeber's field notes. They were arranged along an east-west axis. The trophy head was found on the south side of the westernmost tomb designated Tomb 1 . Five additional trophy heads (specimens 4-8) were re- covered from the same tomb in 1926. See speci- men 4 for more information. Specimen 4 (fmnh 171096) (Figs. 11-14) Presence and Condition — The cranium is in very good condition, but the mandible is absent. Thin layers of soft tissue are present on both outer and inner vault surfaces. Age — Young adult. All molars have erupted, but they exhibit little wear. The single remaining third molar shows no wean Most sutures are ob- scured by soft tissue, but all observable internal and external vault sutures are significantly fused. Significant closure of the palatine sutures (with the exception of a minimally fused transverse su- ture) indicates that this individual was less than 35 years old at death. Sex — Male. The cranium is large, with pro- nounced brow ridges and rounded supraorbital margins. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. There is flattening of both frontal bones lateral to the metopic suture. The parietal bones show posterior lateral expansion. Other Features — A closed but not obliterated metopic suture is present. Degenerative joint dis- ease is evidenced by a slight porosity on the an- terior surface of both occipital condyles. Mild periodontitis is present, with alveolar porosity around the first molar. No other evidence of pa- thology or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 5X9 mm^ and lies 44 mm above WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 15 nasion. Wear approaching polishing is noted on the outer surface of the perforation. Some break- age is also seen on the internal edge of the hole. The posterior breakage margin is jagged, and it crosses the posterior third of both parietal bones. The breakage line begins in the basicranium at the posterior border of the occipital condyles, follows the occipitomastoid suture, and cuts through the parietal bones immediately anterior to the lamb- doid suture. The same resinous substance noted in specimen 3 is applied to the cut edges of the pos- terior breakage of this specimen. Short cut marks are found on the parietal, temporal, and zygomatic bones. The ethmoid bone, including the cribriform plate, and the nasal bones have been removed and replaced with gauze material (Fig. 11). Both orbits are filled with gauze pads. Faint polishing is ob- served on the superior border of the left zygo- matic arch. Soft tissues obscure portions of the frontal bones, zygoma, maxilla, and cranial base. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimens 4-8 were collected in 1926. They were recovered from the same tomb, des- ignated No. 1 by Kroeber, which yielded speci- men 3 the previous year. The trophy heads were all found "lining the tomb" (Kroeber and Collier 1998:80) in the southern or southwestern corner at a depth of 40 cm. A wool tapestry fragment, which Kroeber judged to be of "Epigonal type" (fmnh 171101; Fig. 82), was recovered from the same tomb. Four ears of red maize (fmnh 171 102) were found in one of these tombs, either in the northwest corner of Tomb 1 or in the southeast corner of the easternmost tomb designated No. 3 (the field notes are unclear). See also specimen 3. Specimen 5 (fmnh 171097) (Figs. 15-18) Presence and Condition — The cranium is in good condition. The mandible is absent. Some soft tissues are present on the palatine and max- illary surfaces. Age — Young adult. The third molars have erupted. The teeth show moderate wear. Soft tis- sues obscure most sutures, but the palatine sutures are significantly closed. The posterior median pal- atine is completely fused. Sex — Male. The cranial features are rugose. The right supraorbital margin is blunt, the glabel- lar eminence is pronounced, and the right mastoid process is large. Cranial Deformation — Slight anteroposterior deformation. The frontal bone is slightly flattened. Other Features — Antemortem loss of the upper right second and third molars is noted, accompa- nied by substantial remodeling of the alveoli and moderate periodontal disease. No other evidence of pathology or trauma is seen. Perimortem Modification — This specimen ex- hibits extensive processing. The frontal perfora- tion measures 7X8 mm- and is located 31 mm above nasion. A little wear is noted on the per- foration edges. The exterior surface of this open- ing is larger than the perforation. Several short cut marks are present around the perforation. Both pa- rietal and the left temporal bones have been re- moved. A resinous substance covers the cut sur- faces of the breakage area. Long cut marks ( 1 5- 25 mm) are found on the left sphenoid and pari- etal bones between the coronal and squamosal sutures. The cut marks cross the sphenoparietal suture and run parallel to the coronal suture. Tiny cut marks are also observed on the posterior as- pect of the orbital process of the frontal bone just superior to the sphenofrontal suture. Gauze pads are present in both orbits (Fig. 16; the pad has been removed from the left orbit). The orbital plates of the ethmoid bone are absent. A wig is attached to this specimen, consisting of cloth ma- terial with hair and scalp attached to it (Figs. 16 and 17). Accompanying this specimen is a stick with cord wrapped around it (Fig. 15). A thinner cord is wrapped around the greater wing of the left sphenoid (Fig. 18). Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimen 5 is one of six trophy heads found in tomb No. 1 in Cemetery n. See the dis- cussion of specimens 3 and 4 for more informa- tion. Specimen 6 (fmnh 171098) (Figs. 31-33) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium and right mandible. The left side and face of the cranium is sun-bleached, and the outer table has begun to flake off in places, indicating that the bone lay exposed on the sur- face for some time. The right cranium and man- dible were protected from the elements, however, and these bones are well-preserved and darker in color. FIELD! AN A: ANTHROPOLOGY Age — Young adult. Both maxillary and the right mandibular third molars have erupted. There is moderate to significant dental attrition. All the internal vault, external vault, and palatine sutures that remain are open or minimally fused. Sex — Indeterminate. The poor condition of the cranium makes it difficult to assess the cranial features; however, the oblique angle of the as- cending ramus suggests that the individual may have been female. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The frontal bone is slightly flattened. Bregmatic elevation and lateral parietal expansion are observed. Asymmetric reshaping of the cra- nium has resulted in more pronounced flattening of the left vault. Other Features — The second left maxillary premolar appears to be congenitally absent. The mandibular right third molar has a single root. No evidence of pathology or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration on this specimen measures 8X9 mm- and is located 19 mm superior to nasion. The opening extends into the frontal sinus. Both external and internal surfaces are the same size as the perfo- ration. The posterior breakage area involves the posterior portions of both parietal bones, the left temporal bone, and the posterior half of the right temporal bone, including the mastoid process. Cut marks averaging 10 mm in length are observed on the right parietal bone near the squamosal su- ture and roughly parallel to the breakage. Several tiny but deeper cut marks are located on the right temporal bone along the breakage area as well. Cut marks may be present on the maxilla, but the poor condition of the bone prohibits certainty. Tiny cut marks are noted on the right nasal bone. Several long cut marks (24 mm long) are present on the buccal surface of the ascending ramus and coronoid process of the right mandible. The lac- rimal bones and the orbital plates of the ethmoid bone are absent. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimen 6 is one of six trophy heads found in Tomb 1 in Cemetery n. See specimens 3 and 4 for more information. Specimen 7 (fmnh 171099) (Figs. 22-24) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium and mandible in very good con- dition. Bone composition is excellent. Age — Young adult. The third molars have erupted, and there is moderate to extensive tooth wear. Remaining internal and external vault and palatine sutures are open or minimally fused. Sex — Indeterminate. The cranial features are ambiguous. The mental eminence is slightly more substantial than those generally present in fe- males, but all other traits are neutral. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The frontal region is flattened, with breg- matic elevation and postcoronal depression ob- served. Lateral parietal expansion is seen as well. Other Features — An unfused metopic suture is present. A large carious lesion involves the entire crown of the lower left second molar. Antemortem loss and remodeling of the lower left first pre- molar alveolus are observed. Antemortem loss of lower right molars and significant alveolar remod- eling are observed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 9X9 mm- and is located 39 mm above nasion. The external surface is wider than the actual perforation, and wear is noted on the right side of the opening. Cut marks are observed around the outer surface of the hole. The interior surface is also slightly wider than the opening. The posterior breakage area involves both parietal regions. Breakage begins along the posterior sphenoid bones and extends through the middle of both temporal bones. The occipital bone and the posterior portions of both parietal bones have been removed. A resinous substance covers the cut areas of the posterior breakage area. Numer- ous long (20 mm), shallow cut marks are ob- served above the right supraorbital ridge and on the surfaces of both parietal, right sphenoid, and left temporal bones. Cut mark orientation varies. A gauze pad is present in the left orbit. Cut marks are also present on the lingual surface of the body of the mandible. These cut marks occur in all di- rections and are of various lengths and depths. There are a few short cut marks located at the midpoint of the right mandibular notch. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 17 Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimen 7 is one of six trophy heads found in Tomb 1 in Cemetery n. See specimens 3 and 4 for more information. Specimen 8 (fmnh 171100) (Figs. 25-27) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a complete but very fragmented cranium. The bone quality is good. The mandible is in ex- cellent condition. Age — Child, aged 4-6 years. The permanent first maxillary molars are erupting, but their roots are incomplete, suggesting an age of 5 or 6 years. Second maxillary molar crowns are incomplete, suggesting an age range of 4-6 years. Sex — Indeterminate. The remains are those of a young child. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The frontal bone is sloped. A postcoronal depression and lateral expansion of the parietal bones are noted. Other Features — No evidence of pathology or trauma is observed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 7.5 X 9 mm^ and is located 21.5 mm above nasion. The external and internal edges are slightly larger than the actual perforation. The margin of the posterior breakage area is very jag- ged. The posterior portion of the parietal bones, both temporal bones, and the entire occipital bone are absent. Multiple long cut marks (15-25 mm) are present on the frontal bone and on the left parietal, sphenoid, zygomatic, and maxillary bones. Numerous short cut marks (8 mm) are con- centrated on the lingual surfaces of the mandible, near the mylohyoid grooves. Additionally, cut marks are observed on the buccal surfaces of the mandible on the borders of both rami. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimen 8 is one of six trophy heads found in Tomb 1 in Cemetery n. See specimens 3 and 4 for more information. Specimen 9 (fmnh 171136) (Figs. 28-31) Presence and Condition — The cranium and mandible are complete and in very good condi- tion. Age — Young adult. The third molars have erupted, and there is only minimal tooth wear. Ex- ternal vault and all palatine sutures except incisive suture show minimal fusion. The internal vault sutures are significantly fused. Sex — Female. The supraorbital margins are sharp, the glabellar eminence is smooth, the left mastoid process is small, and the cranium is gen- erally gracile. The mental eminence is small. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. This cranium exhibits slight lateral pari- etal expansion only. Other Features — Antemortem loss of the upper left third molar is observed, with significant al- veolar remodeling and periodontal disease. Ante- mortem loss of all lower right molars is noted, along with complete remodeling of the first molar alveolar region and considerable remodeling in the second and third molar regions. Additionally, the loss of the lower left first and second molars is observed, with complete alveolar remodeling. No other evidence of pathology or trauma is not- ed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 8.5 X 10 mm- and lies 34 mm above nasion. The outer surface is larger than the opening, and the inner surface is approximately the same size as the perforation. No obvious wear is present on the surfaces, but there is some sug- gestive flaking. The posterior breakage area in- cludes the posterior portions of both parietal bones, the posterior left temporal bone, and the occipital bone. The perforation is surrounded by several short cut marks. Multiple horizontal cut marks are located directly above each supraorbital ridge (see Fig. 66). More cut marks are present on the right ridge. Multiple additional cut marks of various lengths (4-23 mm) are seen on the right frontal, right and left parietal, and temporal, sphenoid, and zygomatic bones, within the area of the temporalis muscle attachment. Several short, shallow horizontal marks are seen bilaterally on the anterior and posterior borders of both mandib- ular rami. Deep horizontal cut marks are also seen anterior to inferior borders of both rami. The lac- rimal bones and orbital plates of the ethmoid bone are absent, and the inferior edges of the nasal bones are broken. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Specimen 9 was found during the 1926 IS FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY season in a tomb designated Grave 2, in Unit Ed (Kroeber and Collier 1998:81) (see Map 4). The grave was initially believed to be intact, but Kroe- ber later concluded that the tomb had been some- what disturbed. The contents revealed the slightly scattered, skeletonized remains of an adult male with a slightly deformed skull. Only the individ- ual's skull (FMNH 171135) was collected. Several cloth fragments were found, including some red cloth fragments with border and crocheted fringe (FMNH 171 137; Fig. 83); a tubular cloth band with a yellow, red, and blue pattern (fmnh 171 138; Fig. 84); and a blue-and-white-striped cloth fragment (FMNH 171139; Fig. 84). The base of the grave was 250 cm below ground surface. Specimen 10 (fmnh 171185) (Figs. 32-35) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a fragmented cranium in fair condition, with some pieces glued together. The superior portion of the nasal and medial orbit region is missing. The sphenoid and posterior palate is in- complete as well. A well-preserved mandible is present. Age — Young adult. Two of the four third mo- lars remain in place. Both molars have erupted, and they show only minimal wear. The outer table is too incomplete to allow evaluation of external cranial suture closure. However, the internal vault and posterior median palatine sutures are com- pletely fused. Sex — Female. The glabellar prominence and mental eminence are both small. The gonial an- gles of the mandibular rami exceed 90°. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. Frontal flattening is observed, but no lat- eral parietal expansion is noted. The cranial vault is elongated, suggesting an oblique type of an- teroposterior deformation. Other Features — Antemortem tooth loss of the maxillary right second and third molars with ac- companying alveolar remodeling is observed. An- temortem loss of the mandibular left second and third molars with significant alveolar remodeling is also noted. The upper and lower teeth are un- usually worn for such a young adult. Carious le- sions are observed on the lower left second pre- molar and lower right second and third molars. No periodontal disease is noted. No other evi- dence of pathology or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — Because of the frag- mented condition of the cranium, only the supe- rior half of the frontal perforation remains, mea- suring 15.5 mm. The distance from nasion cannot be measured, but the opening is located in the lower third of the frontal bone, at or immediately above glabella. The internal surface is the same size as the opening, and the extent of the outer surface cannot be determined. The posterior breakage area is confined to the occipital bone. The area of bone removal is defined anteriorly by the posterior margin of the foramen magnum and occipital condyles, laterally by the occipitomas- toid sutures, and posteriorly by the nuchal crest. The poor bone preservation of the cranium pro- hibits the observation of cut marks there. How- ever, some short, deep horizontal cut marks are present on the posterior border of the left man- dibular ramus. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Two trophy heads (fmnh 171185 and 171186) were found in "Grave" or Cache 9 in Cemetery g on the summit of Mound A (see Map 6). Kroeber (1998:79, n.d.a.:III-87) stated that a cache of three heads, from a young female, a mid- dle-aged male, and a child, were found side by side in a pit "looking southeast and somewhat up." They were found at a depth of 15 cm. No other grave goods were found in the pit. See spec- imen 1 1 for further information. Specimen 11 (fmnh 171186) (Figs. 36-39) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a fragmented calvarium and mandible in good condition. Almost all of the facial bones are absent. Four unusual, long (at least 27 mm), deep cut marks are located on the left parietal bone. The bone surrounding these cut marks is much lighter in color, indicating that the cut marks oc- curred long after the individual's death. Age — Subadult, around 15-16 years of age. The maxillary third molars have erupted, but both lower third molars remain in their crypts. None of the remaining molars show any wear. In addi- tion, observable sutures exhibit only minimal fu- sion, and the cranial bones are thin. The basioc- cipital suture is absent. Sex — Indeterminate because of an incomplete assemblage and young age. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 19 Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The cranium exhibits frontal and occipital flattening. The parietal regions exhibit slight lat- eral expansion. An oblique type is suggested be- cause posterior pressure is centered below the in- ion, at an obtuse angle relative to the transverse plane. Other Features — A carious lesion is observed on the mandibular left second molar. No other ev- idence of pathology or trauma is observed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration is missing, although a curved, broken edge suggests that it was originally located at glabella. This opening would have measured no less than 10 mm. The distance from nasion cannot be de- termined because of the specimen's fragmentary condition. The posterior breakage area does not involve either parietal bone, but it is difficult to determine the total extent of basicranial involve- ment, owing to the incompleteness of the assem- blage. The temporal bones are apparently unmod- ified, although the right mastoid process appears to have been broken more recently. The basioc- cipital area of the occipital bone from the basilar suture to the nuchal crest is absent. Some or all of the area may have been removed in the process of perimortem modification. Medium-length (20- mm) vertical cut marks are present on portions of the frontal and parietal bones. Three long areas of discoloration are located approximately 40 mm posterior to the coronal suture. One discolored area is on the right parietal bone, 1 8 mm from the sagittal suture. The other two stains are on the left parietal bone about 10 and 30 mm from the sag- ittal suture respectively. Each discolored area runs parallel to the sagittal plane. A dark, reddish- brown coloring is observed around the perimeter of each of these areas. This pattern is identified in one other specimen in this study (see specimen 16, Figs. 58 and 60, where the discolored areas can be see more easily). No cut marks are ob- served within these areas on this specimen. No cut marks are observed on the mandible. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This specimen was recovered from Cache 9 in Cemetery g on Mound A along with speci- men 10 (Kroeber and Collier 1998:79) (see spec- imen 10 for more information). Kroeber stated that the child's skull fell to pieces and was left behind, so only two of the three trophy heads were collected. Although the facial bones of this specimen are no longer present, Kroeber noted the presence of a frontal perforation in the field. He identified the specimen as a trophy head, based on the frontal perforation combined with the en- larged foramen magnum. Kroeber's catalogue lists specimen 10 as an adult male and specimen 1 1 as a young female; however, we find the remains of a young adult female (specimen 10) and a sub- adult (specimen 1 1 ) whose sex cannot be deter- mined. Although -other explanations are possible, the most likely one is that the age and sex of the specimens were incorrectly determined in the field. No other artifacts were present. Cantayo The Hacienda Cantayo (also known as Cantalloq) is located 2 km east of modern-day Nazca, on the south side of Rio Tierras Blancas, near its conflu- ence with Rio Aja (see Map 2). A series of cem- eteries is found in the hills and washes along the sides of the valley, just outside the region of cur- rent cultivation. It covers an area of more than 4 km. Kroeber and Tello divided the region into two parts, upper Cantayo (sections A-F; see Map 7) and lower Cantayo (sections L-M). They tested sections C, D, and E in upper Cantayo and sec- tions L and M in lower Cantayo. Cax, a structure located within section C on a high area well back from cultivated areas (Map 8), had been systematically looted. Kroeber be- lieved that this activity indicated that the area had been a productive one for looters. Kroeber exca- vated a series of adobe walls at Cax, and noted that he encountered a great deal of debris, repre- senting either domestic refuse or scattered tomb offerings. Some of the burials were found beneath the walls, while others were located just above the foundations. Although it could not be determined whether the burials predated or postdated the con- struction, clearly all activity had ceased by Early Intermediate Period 3. Carmichael's (1988:58) ex- amination of the artifacts confirmed Kroeber's im- pression that the site was early, indicating an Ear- ly Intermediate Period 2 component with the strong possibility of earlier activity as well. Schreiber (1998:269) commented that the remains of architectural fill, including layers of corn stalks, can still be seen today. She stated that this typical Early Nasca construction technique suggests that the structure was some sort of platform. Kroeber found two trophy heads in section C. The first trophy head (specimen 12) was found in 20 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY UPP£R CANTAYO AFTER. PLAM By T MtJIA XCSSPE ;5-;: WASHES FROM ROCKV HILLS. DELIMITING LETTERED SITES *•* PUCTM Eft., ARBITRARY DELIMITATIONS OF SlTgS 6 SUBSITES ^OPERTV LIMES Map 7. Upper Cantayo, Area A. Grave 2 in Area Cb. It had been placed inside an enormous ceramic vessel measuring 100 cm high and 1 10 cm in diameter. Similar vessels were used to bury adults in two burials found at Majoro Chi- co A (Graves 2 and 4), and an adult woman was found in Cax burial 13. The second trophy head was found in Cax burial 17 (specimen 13). Ad- ditionally, a child's cranium was found with a large number of grave goods. Carmichael sug- gested that this latter grave was a looted burial from which the main cadaver had been removed (1988, p. 482). Specimen 12 (fmnh 171008) (Figs. 40-43) Presence and Condition — The cranium and mandible are in fair condition. Some scattered soft tissues are present on the inside of the vault and on the external surface of the basicranium. Some strands of hair are found inside the cranium. The superior surface of the specimen has experienced extensive weathering. The cranial vault is bleached and moderately weathered, exhibiting only minimal cracking with no flaking. There is a large opening (21 mm in diameter) located above the left supraorbital ridge (Fig. 40). The poor con- dition of the bone prevents confident determina- tion of when the damage occurred, but the smooth edges and lack of spiral fractures are more sug- gestive of weathering processes than of perimor- tem trauma. Recent cut and scrape marks on the left frontal and temporal bones indicate locations where the specimen has been labeled and rela- beled. Age — Subadult, aged 14-18 years. The maxil- lary third molars are erupting and the mandibular third molars have not yet erupted. The first molars show moderate wear, but there is only minimal wear on the second molars. Minimal suture clo- sure is observed on the internal and external cra- nial vault, with most sutures classified as "open." Soft tissues cover most of the palate. Sex — Indeterminate because of this individual's young age. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation, erect form. The frontal bone is slightly flattened and there is a slight postcoronal depres- sion. The parietal bones are slightly expanded and asymmetrical. Pressure is centered at lambda at a perpendicular angle relative to the transverse plane, indicating an erect type of deformation. The left side of the cranial vault is more de- formed. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 21 N V"'--, :'"'\ , 1 -\.J '---''' () 1 ■--f 1 :! , 1 1 1 ■lem. 1 5 '^ y / "^ "~- ' V.,-'' 1 •1 !i ii T 42nv A ii c 1 1 Z L Ji 2 8 m. VI «• 4^ -.-.-.-. - Bsm. ^lw> U /I Li- «>Id Specimen 13 17 16 £ 18? ^ ^ CANTAYO CAX (Part) 1 RocK.r 1 fioiMr Of ^^— EjtPOSED WALLS — ^I'VI-T PROBABLE TBUi WALLS I cetuio UMCtRTAlN ADOBe FACINOS. FILL. OR WALLS 1 /"} KUAQUEROS' HOLES '*'' Map 8. Cax, at Cantayo. Other Features — The posterior cranium exhib- its well-healed porotic hyperostosis. As in speci- men 3, no frontal sinuses are observable in the frontal perforation. No other evidence of pathol- ogy or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 16 X 21.5 mm-^ and lies directly at glabella. The outer surface of the opening is slightly larger than the actual perforation, and a resinous substance coats the margins. The poste- rior breakage area involves only the occipital bone around the foramen magnum. There is min- imal breakage of the posterior rim of the foramen. The right condyle and the articular surface of the left condyle have been removed. Several short cut marks are present on the vault midway along the sagittal suture. There are also several cut marks (approximately 10 mm long) located bilaterally on the parietal and temporal bones above and pos- terior to the external auditory meati. One tiny cut mark is present on the right zygomatic bone, just above the midpoint of the inferior border. Several short cut marks are visible on both the anterior and posterior borders of the left ramus of the man- dible. The lacrimal bones, nasal conchae, and pos- terior borders of the nasal bones are absent. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This specimen was removed from Grave 2 in section Cb (Kroeber and Collier 1998:70-71) (see Map 7). The trophy head had been buried in an enormous ceramic vessel about 100 cm tall by 120 cm in diameter. The rim of the vessel was encountered about 70 cm below the ground sur- face. The vessel broke during excavation, so it was left in the field. Tello collected its engraved rim for the Museo Nacional. The trophy head was lying in the western part of the jar about 30 cm from its base, and faced north. Remnants of a black cord were associated with the specimen. The mandible was separate and located in the eastern half of the vessel. A guinea pig skull and hair and a piece of black wool or a hair band fragment were found inside the trophy head. The vessel fill also contained some Nasca sherds, braided string, gypsum (fmnh 171009), and frag- ments of an incised gourd (fmnh 171034). Al- though the notes do not explicitly say so, a dis- turbed context is suggested by the weathered con- dition of the cranium, the location of the cranium in one part of the vessel and the mandible in an- other, and Kroeber's characterization of the area around Cax as heavily looted. Specimen 13 (fmnh 171058) (Figs. 44-47) Presence and Condition — The cranium and mandible are both in very good condition. The right and posterior portions of the external vault 22 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY are covered with soft tissues. Soft tissues are also found internally on the sphenoid and nasal bones. The zygomatic process of the right maxilla is ab- sent. There is an uneven red stain (probably veg- etal) measuring about 30 X 50 mm- on the left parietal and temporal bones. Age — Child, aged 8-10 years. This individual possesses both deciduous and permanent teeth. The deciduous incisors have been lost, and the lower left permanent canine has not yet erupted. The permanent first molars have erupted, but the second molars remain in their crypts. Sex — Indeterminate because of the young age of this individual. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The frontal bone is slightly flattened. The parietal bones show slight lateral expansion with a postcoronal depression. The slightly elongated vault suggests an oblique form of anteroposterior deformation. Other Features — A slight, active periostitial re- action associated with dental eruption is seen on the left mandible between the condyle and coro- noid process. A partial metopic suture, fused but not obliterated, is observable for a distance of 10 mm from glabella. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration is somewhat jagged and measures 8 X 12 mm-. It lies slightly to the left of the metopic su- ture, 23 mm above nasion. Some resinous mate- rial is present around the margins. Cut marks ra- diate out from the perforation. The posterior breakage area extends into the posterior portions of both parietal and temporal bones, and all but the most anterior portions of the mastoid process- es have been removed. The margins are jagged. Slight breakage is observed on both gonial angles of the mandible. Slight polishing is present on the left gonial angle. Both lacrimal bones and por- tions of the nasal septum are absent. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This specimen was recovered at Cax in Grave 17 about 170 cm below the ground surface (Kroeber and Collier 1998:72-73) (see Map 8). The head, resting on a bed of pacay leaves, was covered with a piece of red bordered cloth about 20 cm- (fmnh 171059; Fig. 81; also shown in O'Neale 1937, Plate 43). The following artifacts were arranged around the head: a wisp of cotton on a stick (fmnh 171057); a wad of cotton (fmnh 171060); wool cord with three metatarsal bones attached (fmnh 171061; Fig. 81); two-colored wool cords (FMNH 171062; Fig. 81); some strips of cotton mesh (fmnh 171063); a double-barreled pottery whistle in the form of a bird (fmnh 171064; Fig. 81); and a small blackware bowl (fmnh 171065) containing food remnants covered by a fragment of a plain jar (fmnh 171066). Car- michael (1988:482) believed that this feature was not a cache but a grave from which a cadaver had been removed by looters. Las Cartas Las Canas is located on the north side of the Rio Nazca about 18 km west of the modem town of Nazca (see Map 2). It is only 2 km east of Ca- huachi and may be an extension of that site on the north side of the river. In 1925, Kroeber undertook a general survey and limited surface collection at Las Caiias. He found the trophy head at this time but did not note its exact location or map the site. Kroeber col- lected some surface sherds there the next year, but performed no excavation. Specimen 14 (fmnh 170223) (Figs. 48-51) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium in fair condition. Significant weathering and bleaching of the external surface is observed. Substantial portions of the left max- illa and palatine structure are missing, and most of the left zygomatic arch is absent. No mandible is present. Age — Young to middle-aged adult. Both third molars have erupted. Significant external, internal, and palatine suture closure is noted. Dental wear cannot be scored because of complete postmortem tooth loss. Sex — Male. The glabellar eminence and supra- orbital ridge are prominent. The supraorbital mar- gins are very blunt. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. Pronounced frontal bone flattening ex- tends from the supraorbital ridges to the coronal suture. Lateral parietal expansion is present. An oblique form of anteroposterior deformation is suggested by the sharp angle at lambda caused by pressure applied to the inferior occipital bone. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 23 4 fj l*OE [oi Fracchio house C u I t i V Huarangos — Ocongalla Road->^ M AJORO CHICO a t i 0 n Map 9. Majoro Chico. Other Features — Lytic lesions, either inactive or in the process of healing, are observed on the posterior vault. Weathering makes it difficult to determine disease state. An abscess is present be- neath the upper right first molar with pronounced periodontal disease. A tiny button osteoma is ob- served on the frontal bone. No other pathology or trauma is observed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal bone perforation measures 6X8 mm^ and lies to the left of the midline, 63 mm above nasion. There may be slight wear around the margins, but no resin is observed. The outer surface of the per- foration is wider than the actual opening, and the interior rim exhibits minimal breakage. Short cut marks are present on the right side of the perfo- ration. The posterior breakage area includes the posterior third of both parietal bones. Lacrimal bone and ethmoid breakage is observed, and the nasal septum is absent. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— According to the notes in Kroeber's 1925 catalogue, this trophy head was found on the sur- face. No associated artifacts were noted. Majoro Chico Majoro Chico covers an area about 200 X 600 m^ along a ridge, located on the south side of the Rio Tierras Blancas, about 4 km west of the modem town of Nazca (see Map 2). Kroeber and Schenck spent about two weeks at Hacienda Majoro. Kroe- ber identified five loci at Majoro Chico, designat- ed A-E (Map 9), all of which were extensively looted. He stated that Areas A and E dated to the Early Intermediate Period and Area B to the Late Intermediate Period. The other two areas were not dated. Kroeber and Schenck focused most of their ef- forts on locus A (Map 10), an area comprising about 60 square meters, uncovering a series of adobe walls associated with Early Intermediate Period burials. They attempted to delineate the outline of the structure, but looting activity had destroyed the walls in some areas. The area be- tween the western and central wall was filled with layers of corn stalks, loose adobe, and other re- fuse. The burials, dating to Early Intermediate Pe- riod phases 3-8, were found near the adobe walls, but the walls were not directly incorporated into any tomb structure. At the south end of the west wall, a rectangular area covered with two layers of adobe was excavated. Kroeber believed this rectangular structure to be the remains of an elab- orate tomb. Twenty-two burials were located during Kroe- ber and Schenck's excavations at Majoro Chico A. Graves 6 and 1 1 contained trophy heads. Both graves were located along the northeast portion of 24 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY '16 •l5 '18 • 14A • 17 • 3 MAJORO SITE A Adobe Walls and Graves 10 15 meters .1. N Specimen 15 21 no. ^s. D Highest portion End lost End lost Q 15 m. »12 Ftoored ^^ ^^ oi^er Specimen 16 End t 5 m. 28.5 m. between walls 2lay0rs \ ^ of \^ adobe I lo 5.6 m. I • 10 7B Posr 8 25 m. ^"'^'^ 5».9 tosf • 7A Map 10. Area A at Majoro Chico. the northern wall of the large adobe structure. Grave 6 contained the incomplete postcranial re- mains of an adult male, a trophy head (specimen 15), and a number of other grave goods. Carmi- chael (1988:346, 482) identified the incomplete skeleton as a secondary bundle interment, stating that the innominates and long bones were wrapped in several layers of fine textiles. The sec- ond trophy head (specimen 16), found in cache or Grave 1 1 , was buried in a simple pit with no as- sociated grave goods. Specimen 15 (fmnh 170463) (Figs. 52-55) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium in good condition and a man- dible in excellent condition. Many teeth are bro- ken and have been glued in place. The midsec- tions of both zygomatic arches are absent because of postmortem breakage. Separate hairs accom- pany this specimen. Age — Young adult. All third molars have erupt- ed. Minimal wear is noted. All internal vault and the majority of palatine sutures are significantly fused. However, external vault suture fusion is in- consistent and asymmetric, with the right lateral sutures exhibiting a greater degree of fusion than those on the left side. Sex — Male. Both cranium and mandible are large, with prominent muscle attachment sites. The supraorbital margins are very blunt. The mental eminence is large and rectangular. The as- cending rami are vertical and exhibit lateral de- viation at the gonial angles. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. The upper two-thirds of the frontal bone is flattened and the angle of pressure is pro- nounced. Posterior pressure was centered at lamb- da, with some additional flattening of the inferior WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 25 occipital region. The latter suggests an erect type of anteroposterior cranial deformation. Other Features — A large hole measuring 84 X 62 mm- is present on the left parietal bone. Its radiating fracture pattern and the uneven breakage of the inner and outer tables suggest perimortem damage. Carious lesions are present on the lower right first and second molars and the lower left second molar. Slight periodontal disease is noted. Both maxillary second molars are absent and may have been congenitally absent, given the close proximity of the first and third molars to each oth- er. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration measures 17.5 X 22 mm- and lies 24 mm above nasion. The external surface of the perfo- ration is the same size as the actual opening. No evidence of wear or resin around the perforation is observed. The internal surface is wider than the perforation and extends inferiorly to include the area just superior to the cribriform plate. The pos- terior breakage area comprises the inferior occip- ital bone. Its margin extends posteriorly and su- periorly from the foramen magnum to the base of the mastoid processes, leaving about 30 mm of the superior occipital bone intact. No cut marks are observed. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Grave 6 was located immediately north of the midpoint of the adobe structure's northern wall (Map 10) (Kroeber and Collier 1998:49). The irregular walls appeared to be of Nasca form but were not part of the burial. The grave was filled with sandy, gravelly soil. At 140 cm below the ground surface, a bundle of upright maize stalks was found in the southwest corner, with a few canes to the north. Between the maize stalks and cane, the midsection of a camelid, including the vertebral columns and ribs, three kinds of cloth (fmnh 170462; Fig. 80), and some pacay leaves were found. Some of the camelid ribs were bound with human hair. A number of large, irregular adobes were found at 160 cm. At 200 cm, a man- dible was found in the center of the grave, and a bundle of cana brava tied at the base was found on the northwest side of the grave. The trophy head was found lying behind and beneath the bun- dle of cana brava. An incomplete human skeleton of an adult male (fmnh 170464), consisting of long bones and innominates, was recovered from thf north side of grave at 240-260 cm. The bones were wrapped in several kinds of cloth (fmnh 170465). Additional photographs of the cloth fragments (fmnh 170462-170465) can be found in O'Neale (1937:Pls. 36, 37, 57, and 67). Other grave goods included some Nasca sherds (fmnh 170466; Fig. 80) and an intact jar filled with sand too fragile to save. Kroeber believed that the in- complete skeleton and the trophy head "belonged together," possibly meaning that they belonged to the same individual (Kroeber and Collier 1998: 49). Both the trophy head and the postcranial re- mains are those of an adult male aged 35-42 years, which is consistent with Kroeber's hypoth- esis (Forgey and Williams, manuscript in prepa- ration). Carmichael (1988:482) noted that this burial was a secondary "bundle" interment of an older adult male and dated to EIP 3 (Carmichael 1988:463). Specimen 16 (fmnh 170489) (Figs. 56-59). Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium, left ascending ramus, and a right mandibular condyle in fair to good condi- tion. The left orbit is incomplete because of post- mortem damage. The left maxilla has separated from the cranium, but most of the bone is intact. The left zygomatic bone is absent. A postmortem fracture, 18 mm long X 6 mm wide, is observed on the left posterior parietal bone approximately 15 mm superior to the midpoint of the lambdoidal suture. Age — Young adult. Both upper third molars have erupted. There is minimal closure of several external cranial vault sutures, and the superior and midcoronal sutures and the inferior and superior sphenotemporal sutures remain open. The palatine suture is unfused as well. Sex — Male. Several features of the cranium are very rugose. The mastoid processes are large, the supraorbital margins are blunt, and the supraor- bital ridges are prominent. Cranial Defiyrmation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. Posterior flattening is observed, with asymmetric reshaping of the left lambdoid region. Some lateral parietal expansion is noted. An erect type of anteroposterior cranial deformation is sug- gested because pressure was centered at lambda. Other Features — Small bilateral anomalous folds (20 mm long) occur along the posterior squamosal suture in the parietal notch of both FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY temporal bones. No evidence of pathology or trau- ma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal perfo- ration is large, measuring 18 X 21 mm- and lo- cated 9 mm above nasion. The borders of the per- foration are straight. Multiple short cut marks and possible wear are observed above the superior border of the perforation. The posterior breakage area is small. The right and part of the left occip- ital condyles have been removed. The posterior margin of the foramen magnum is enlarged, and approximately 20 mm of bone has been removed from the right basioccipital bone. There are sev- eral long cut marks, approximately 30 mm long, that transect the right coronal suture just superior to the temporal line. Also, there are two discol- ored areas, similar to those observed on specimen 11, which look like glue marks (Fig. 58). These marks are bilaterally located, parallel to the sag- ittal plane on the superior aspect of the frontal bone. There are several large cut marks, 19-20 mm long, in each discolored area. The perimeter of the area is defined by a dark reddish-brown discoloration. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This trophy head was found in Grave 1 1 at a depth of 25 cm (Map 10). Kroeber (Kroeber and Collier 1998:50) noted that a carrying cord was attached to the trophy head and that the right eye had some type of covering in it when the specimen was first found, but no evidence of these artifacts remains. Grave 1 1 was located along the north wall as well, about 5 m east of Grave 6 on the south side of the wall. No grave goods or hu- man remains were found with this specimen. Paredones Paredones, located 1 km south of the modern town of Nazca (see Map 2), is believed to have been the main Inka installation in the Nazca Val- ley during the Late Horizon (Kroeber and Collier 1998:53). The area immediately east of the ruin is a cemetery from earlier periods dating back to at least Early Intermediate Period phase 4. The extensive Inka deposits have made it impossible to determine whether the site was occupied or functioned only as a cemetery in earlier times (Carmichael 1988). Kroeber visited Paredones in 1925 but made no map of it. While there, he purchased some arti- facts from looters, including the two trophy heads listed below (Kroeber's 1925 catalogue, p. 16). He declined to excavate there the following year be- cause of the extent of looting activity, but returned to collect some surface sherds from the main area. Kroeber stated that the surface material around the ruin was from the lea period (Late Interme- diate Period), but that Nasca A material predom- inated in the eastern portion of the site. Specimen 17 (fmnh 170157) (Figs. 60-63) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a cranium and a mandible in good con- dition, but both are missing some elements. Al- though much of the cranium has been removed as part of the trophy head preparation, some of the missing bones are probably absent because of postmortem damage. The right zygomatic bone and adjoining maxilla and temporal processes are missing. The left temporal bone and half of the left zygomatic bone are absent, as is the left as- cending ramus of the mandible. There is a small depression fracture, measuring 21 mm, to the left of the sagittal suture (Fig. 62). The fracture ap- pears to be the result of postmortem damage, as there is no evidence of healing. Age — Young adult. All third molars have erupt- ed, but all the molars present show minimal wear. The majority of the cranial vault sutures present are open except those at pterion. The incisive pal- atine sutures show minimal closure. Sex — Male. The supraorbital margins are rounded, and the glabellar eminence is prominent. The mandible is also masculine in appearance, with a bilateral mental eminence and vertical right ascending ramus. Cranial Deformation — Anteroposterior defor- mation. Slight flattening of the superior frontal bone and lateral expansion of the parietal bones are observed. Other Features — Antemortem loss of the lower left third molar with resorption of the alveolus is seen. No other evidence of pathology or trauma is noted. Perimortem Modification — The frontal bone perforation measures 8X13 mm^ and is located slightly to the right of the sagittal plane, 29.5 mm above glabella. The exterior surface is wider than the actual opening, with slight wear, but the in- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 27 terior border is the same size with a smooth mar- gin. Slight wear is noted on the exterior surface. The posterior breakage area is large. At least two- thirds of the parietal bones have been removed, leaving only 30-40 mm of the anterior parietal bones present. The border of the breakage area is very light in color where the resinous substance observed on other specimens was removed during a later cleaning process. The entire occipital and both temporal bones are absent. The numerous cut marks observed on this specimen suggest exten- sive postmortem processing. They cover the entire surface of the cranial vault and face, and are par- ticularly concentrated on the left side. Multiple long (32 mm) vertical cut marks are located to the left of the frontal perforation (Fig. 69). Many small cut marks are observed on the left sphenoid and left parietal bones in the region of the tem- poralis muscle attachment. The right side of the vault exhibits several short, shallow cut marks along both sides of the coronal suture. Cut marks are present on the face and mandible as well. Sev- eral short, deep cut marks are visible on the lateral edge of the right orbit (Fig. 67). Cut marks are also present on the medial aspect of the left orbit. Medium-length horizontal and vertical cut marks are observed on the lingual, buccal, and labial sur- faces of the body of the mandible. On the lingual surface, fairly deep cut marks run parallel to the body of the right mandible. Tiny but deep cut marks are present on the right condyle and coro- noid process (Fig. 70). Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— Kroeber purchased a grave lot from looters that included two trophy heads. The grave lot is described as coming from Grave 3, but there is no further information about this grave. Kroeber stated in a 1959 addition to his manuscript (Kroe- ber and Collier 1998:53) that he was visiting the site when looters opened a tomb east of the adobe ruin. Kroeber returned later in the day and pur- chased the items the looters recovered from the tomb. The trophy heads (specimens 17 and 18) are described in the field catalogue (p. 16) as hav- ing been found "held by a mummy." The other grave goods purchased include a red, white, and black bowl (fmnh 170147; Fig. 71); a fragment of a sheet of copper wrapped around wood (fmnh 170148; Fig. 72); a minute fragment of cloth (fmnh 170149); an "Epigonal" jar depicting a man's head, painted faces, and limbs (in many fragments, but complete; fmnh 170150; Figs. 73 and 74); fragments of a double-spouted jar (fmnh 170151; Fig. 75); a plate in two pieces (fmnh 170152; Fig. 76); a flaring bowl, painted outside, fragmented and incomplete (fmnh 170153; Fig. 77); a red plate with a white zigzag border (fmnh 170154; Fig. 78); a plate with a fish pattern (fmnh 170155; Fig. 79); and a plate with a geometric pattern, along with some fragments of the previ- ous three items (fmnh 170156). Carmichael (Kroeber and Collier 1998:228) assigned the "Epigonal" jar to Nasca 7, according to Dawson's seriation scheme. Specimen 18 (fmnh 170158) (Fig. 64) Presence and Condition — This specimen con- sists of a fragmented calva and is treated as a trophy head here because Kroeber described it as such in his notes (Kroeber's 1925 field catalogue, p. 16). Because Kroeber was well aware of trophy head criteria in other cases, his identification was considered sufficient reason to include the speci- men here. Only portions of the superior frontal and anterior parietal bones in the bregma region are present now, and these bones have been pieced together and glued. The outer table has flaked off in several places. The mandible is ab- sent. Age — Middle-aged to older adult. The large size clearly indicates adulthood, and complete fu- sion is observed in the following sutures: the an- terior sagittal, bregma, and midcoronal regions of the external vault sutures, and the sagittal and left coronal sutures of the internal vault. Sex — Indeterminate because of insufficient as- semblage. Cranial Deformation— Indti&rrmnoiQ because of insufficient assemblage. Other Features — No evidence of pathology or trauma is observed. Perimortem Modification — The frontal bone is too fragmentary to allow observation of presence or absence of a perforation. However, there may be evidence of intentional breakage, on the exter- nal surface of the posterior border of the parietal bones. No cut marks are observed. Archaeological Context and Associated Arti- facts— This trophy head was part of a grave lot purchased from looters. See specimen 17 for more information. FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm ■^ 17-09/A. Fig. 1. Frontal view of specimen 1 (fmnh 170912). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13618.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 29 5 cm II-O^IX Fig. 2. Superior view of specimen 1 (fmnh 170912). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13617.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm — I l?-09/^ Fig. 3. Specimen 1 mandible (fmnh 170912). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13619.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 31 5 cm \^02- Fig. 4. Frontal view of specimen 2 (fmnh 170222). (fmnh neg. no. Al 1361 1.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm ^ l-=^ozx2- FiG. 5. Lateral view of specimen 2 (fmnh 170222). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13634.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 5 cm :■ 2 J cr Fig. 6. Posterior view of specimen 2 (fmnh 170222). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13635.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY >?>■, ?0 22.^ 5 cm Fig. 7. Frontal view of specimen 3 (fmnh 170224). (fmnh neg. no. A 11 3587.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 5 cm ^022.^ Fig. 8. Lateral view of specimen 3 (fmnh 170224). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13588.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY V ■4 >'?V •SWE^ \ v: 5 cm H R022.^ Fig. 9. Superior view of specimen 3 (fmnh 170224). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13589.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 5 cm H 17 022.^ Fig. 10. Inferior view of specimen 3 (fmnh 170224). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13590.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ^. w 'iW 5 cm H I'HO'IU, Fig. 11. Frontal view of specimen 4 (fmnh 171096). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13597.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 39 5 cm ^/O'?(o Fig. 12. Lateral view of specimen 4 (fmnh 171096). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13599.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm (?-/0'?(o Fig. 13. Superior view of specimen 4 (fmnh 171096). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13598.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 41 5 cm I'hlO^l^ Fig. 14. Inferior view of specimen 4 (fmnh 171096). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13600.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY "Ni^^ Fig. 15. Overview of specimen 5 (fmnh 171097). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13633.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 43 t Fig. 16. Frontal view of specimen 5 (fmnh 171097). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13639.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm Fig. 17. Lateral view of specimen 5 (fmnh 171097). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13641.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 45 I 1 Fig. 18. Posterior view of specimen 5 (fmnh 171097). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13640.) 46 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm ^ Rio^ Fig. 19. Frontal view of specimen 6 (fmnh 171098). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13620.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 47 r 5 cm ^ m^\ o'^ Fig. 20. Lateral view of specimen 6 (fmnh 171098). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13632.) 48 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY "^ I^IO^ Fig. 21. Posterior view of specimen 6 (fmnh 171098). (fmnh neg. no. A 1 13631.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 49 5 cm ^ ( 07^ Fig. 22. Frontal view of specimen 7 (fmnh 171099). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13602.) 50 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm -{ /^(O?^ Fig. 23. Lateral view of specimen 7 (fmnh 171099). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13629.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 51 5 cm I ^ ( 079 Fig. 24. Posterior view of specimen 7 (fmnh 171099). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13630.) 52 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm \-^ \\oo Fig. 25. Frontal view of specimen 8 (fmnh 171 100). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13585.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 53 5 cm mwoo Fig. 26. Lateral view of specimen 8 (fmnh 171100), superior vault only, (fmnh neg. no. Al 13586.) 34 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm i l=f 1 loo Fig. 27. Superior view of specimen 8 (fmnh 171 100). (fmnh neg. no. AI 13584.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 55 5 cm i^( rsfc Fig. 28. Frontal view of specimen 9 (fmnh 171 136). (fmnh neg. no. A II 3625.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm 1^1 I3 ^ 5 cm Fig. 32. Frontal view of specimen 10 (fmnh 171185). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13665.) :')() FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY |-^l\"^S 5 cm Fig. 33. Lateral view of specimen 10 (fmnh 171185), superior vault only, (fmnh neg. no. Al 13666.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 61 I'^M^S 5 cm Fig. 34. Superior view of specimen 10 (fmnh 171 185). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13667.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY i^w^s ^ 5 cm Fig. 35. Inferior view of specimen 10 (fmnh 171 185). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13664.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 63 5 cm ^ I "q- \ \ '^ (o Fig. 36. Frontal view of specimen 11 (fmnh 171186). (fmnh neg. no. A 113591.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm 1^1 l^(o Fig. 37. Lateral view of specimen 1 1 (fmnh 171 186), superior vault only, (fmnh neg. no. Al 13606.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 65 5 cm l^\ V^(o Fig. 38. Superior view of specimen 1 1 (fmnh 171 186). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13605.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm 1 q- \ V ^ (o Fig. 39. Inferior view of specimen 1 1 (fmnh 171 186). (fmnh neg. no. A! 13605.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 67 .:^^^ 5 cm \lr\ 00? Fig. 40. Frontal view of specimen 12 (fmnh 171008). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13621.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ^ s ^ $ r-»l^,- 5 cm ll-lOO? Fig. 41. Lateral view of specimen 12 (fmnh 171008). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13624.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 69 5 cm ii-ioo^ Fig. 42. Superior view of specimen 12 (fmnh 171008). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13622.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm I^IOO? Fig. 43. Inferior view of specimen 12 (fmnh 171008). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13623.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 71 5 cm I If I O^/? Fig. 44. Frontal view of specimen 13 (fmnh 171058). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13616.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm 1^105"? Fig. 45. Lateral view of specimen 13 (fmnh 171058). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13615.) ? WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 73 5cm 1^105^ Fig. 46. Superior view of specimen 13 (fmnh 171058). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13613.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm |:^|0r^^? Fig. 47. Posterior view of specimen 13 (fmnh 171058). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13614.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 75 5 cm R0Z23 Fig. 48. Frontal view of specimen 14 (fmnh 170223). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13612.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm ^ I 70 2-2.3 Fig. 49. Lateral view of specimen 14 (fmnh 170223). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13609.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 77 V y:i^ ^j^'-^. r 5 cm ^ l?DZ23 Fig. 50. Superior view of specimen 14 (fmnh 170223). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13608.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm I7DZ23 Fig. 51. Inferior view of specimen 14 (fmnh 170223). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13610.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 79 5 cm ^ 1^0 ^(o3 Fig. 52. Frontal view of .specimen 15 (fmnh 170463). (fmnh neg. no. A 113593.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY -^^ \70^r^r^^^ 5 cm ■« 1^0 ^C=3 Fig. 53. Lateral view of specimen 15 (fmnh 170463). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13595.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 81 f )-cS^^^*^^.v5fi^?^ 5 cm H \'=^oH(c,^, Fig. 54. Superior view of specimen 15 (fmnh 170463). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13596.) HI FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm l?0^(o3 Fig. 55. Inferior view of specimen 15 (fmnh 170463). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13594.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 83 ' nz — • i=? ^4 Fig. 56. Frontal view of specimen 16 (fmnh 171489). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13603.) FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOG^ ,'i -^^*^i^yj- 5 cm H H-O^PI Fig. 57. Lateral view of specimen 16 (fmnh 171489). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13583.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 85 5 cm ^ 11-0^ Fig. 58. Superior view of specimen 16 (fmnh 171489). (fmnh nag. no. Al 13582.) 86 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm /^o^P^ Fig. 59. Inferior view of specimen 16 (fmnh 171489). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13581.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 87 5 cm 1-OI57- Fig. 60. Frontal view of specimen 17 (fmnh 170157). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13607.) 88 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY -»r' ,-70^- 5^7 5 cm ^ ITOI5?- Fig. 61. Lateral view of specimen 17 (fmnh 170157). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13637.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 89 \ .A /" 5 cm H \~^0\S^ Fig. 62. Superior view of specimen 17 (fmnh 170157). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13636.) vO FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 5 cm I "^f O I 5 f FiG. 63. Posterior view of specimen 17 (fmnh 170157). (fmnh neg. no. A 11 3638.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 91 5 cm RO)5"? Fig. 64. Superior view of vault fragment of specimen 18 (fmnh 170158). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13601.) 92 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Results Presence and Condition Kroeber's field notes from the 1926 expedition demonstrate that he was well aware of the criteria necessary for a cranium to be labeled a trophy head. Frontal perforation location and the extent of the posterior cranium removed were carefully recorded for each specimen collected during that trip. Although three (specimens 1, 11, and 18) of the 18 skulls he brought back to the Field Muse- um no longer meet the minimal skeletal criteria necessary to be termed trophy heads because of incompleteness or poor preservation of remains, or both, Kroeber was confident in his assessments. In the field, specimen 1 was described as a large male, with a hole in the frontal bone and a pos- terior breakage area that included the removal of occipital and basal portions (Kroeber and Collier 1998:67). The specimen was in very poor condi- tion and fragmented during the recovery process, so the complete frontal perforation is no longer present. Nonetheless, a curved area of breakage of the appropriate size can be observed immedi- ately superior to glabella on the frontal bone. The entire posterior portion of the cranium is missing, but no resin or cut marks are present to clearly demonstrate intentional removal. Kroeber also identified specimen 1 1 as a trophy head in his field notes, noting the presence of a frontal hole and an enlarged foramen magnum (Kroeber and Collier 1998:79). Specimen 11 is now very frag- mentary, making identification of a frontal per- foration and posterior breakage difficult, but a curved broken border on the frontal bone suggests the original position of the frontal perforation. The external vault surface exhibits cut marks and discolored areas similar to those observed on oth- er trophy heads. Cut marks are present on the mandible as well. Specimen 18 is the most prob- lematic specimen because it is very incomplete now, and no conclusive evidence of either a fron- tal bone perforation or intentional posterior cra- nial breakage remains. Furthermore, it was col- lected during the 1925 expedition, when less de- tailed information was recorded. Because Kroeber recorded the specimen as a trophy head in the inventory and was clearly well aware of the di- agnostic criteria, it has been included in the study. The condition of each specimen is summarized in Table 1. All 18 specimens are represented by at least some portion of the cranium, but only 1 3 specimens retain mandibles. Eight of the crania are complete and in fair to excellent condition (specimens 2, 4, 5, 7-9, 13, and 15). Five of the remaining crania are fragmentary and often miss- ing elements, but the bone is in good condition (specimens 10, II, and 16-18). Specimen 18 is the least complete of these crania, represented only by a calva. The bone of the five remaining specimens is in poor condition. Specimen 1 is en- crusted with salt crystals and fragmented during recovery. The other four crania had lain exposed on the surface and show signs of weathering (specimens 3, 6, 12, and 14). Ten of the 13 man- dibles are complete and in fair to excellent con- dition. The other three mandibles are incomplete: specimen 6 is missing the left half of the mandi- ble, specimen 16 consists of a left ascending ra- mus and the right condyle, and specimen 17 is missing the left ascending ramus. Soft tissue frag- ments still cling to six of the crania. Strands of hair are found with specimens 12 and 15. A red stain (probably vegetal) is observed on the left parietal and temporal bones of specimen 13. Cranial damage occurring at or sometime after death, but unrelated to trophy making, is observed in five heads (specimens 3, 12, and 15-17). Only the fracture observed in specimen 15 exhibits the spiral fractures and adhesion fragments character- istic of perimortem trauma. Specimen 12 is too sun-bleached to determine the cause of the large opening above the left orbit. However, its smooth edges and lack of radiating fractures suggest post- mortem damage. The crushing fractures observed in the three remaining specimens are relatively short and narrow (each less than 22 mm long). Specimen 3 has a textile fragment wedged tightly inside the fracture, indicating that the cranium was probably skeletalized at the time the damage occurred. Neither of the other two fractures ex- hibits spiral fractures typical of fresh bone break- age, suggesting that the damage occurred some time after death. It is often difficult to determine when postmor- tem damage occurred. Both old and recent dam- age are clearly evident in the collection. For ex- ample, the wear observed around the frontal per- forations in six heads (specimens 2, 4. 5. 7, 14, and 17) and the polishing observed on specimens 4 and 13 most likely result from their use during Nasca times. However, the removal of the resin from specimen 17 and new cut and scrape marks on several specimens clearly resulted from the cleaning and labeling of those specimens by lab- oratory assistants some time during their 75-year curation period. WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 93 u CS _« a. ^ > VI L. X %> 1 3 ^ 3 c E .ss T3 > -o T3 C a CS O c 03 e« o '■3 Si a c c 1^ t/3 ^ E 3 T3 ' J2 C C3 T3 'S , Si rt c3 o 2 « c« _c c X) 3 ■T3 T3 T3 T3 O -^ O O O S o o "2 >,13 >. >^'0 T3 •a o O C 00 S) i^ o ^8<<< ^ ^ ^ ^ u. >(uZZZoo>(U>> ;3 y u .h > z ■8< ooZ 'o-'o.c c c ^ 'o-'a.'a-'D-'D.'a.'n. c "a, C C 1/3 c« c/i -£. CCCCCCCi/iC OOXIXIXI.^OOOOOOOXIO T3 O 00 T3 T3 (U O I- O 00 13 O O 00 4J O y (U o « > 00 > > 00 > T3 "O T3 (U O D I- O t- T3 O O 00 >^ E E S ^ c*^ ^ ^ ^ s ^ _ _^ E &,•:; Cl, D- Ci Ci E Cl,-— •— D. ex- ooE^EEEEME^^Eg eo'gooooSo'E'Soo E E 3 "u (U > - - Wi o E E — (NmTt«ovor--ooaNO — (NroTj-u-jvor-oo >M FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY The bones of the nose and orbits, such as the lacrimal, nasal conchae, ethmoid, and nasal bones, are fragile and can be broken if handled exten- sively. Many of the heads (specimens 1-5, 7, 8, 10, and 11) exhibit this type of damage. The crushed orbital plates observed in these specimens may have occurred as the result of repeated han- dling during ritual use of the heads by the Nasca people, or much later in the laboratory. Broken edge coloration must be compared with surround- ing bone to estimate the break's time of occur- rence, but these edges are difficult to observe in these tiny, fragile bones. The damage in most cas- es exhibits the asymmetric crushing that typically results when fingers are placed in the orbits to hold the cranium. Further corroboration comes from the fact that the orbital plates are more ex- tensively damaged than the structures beneath them. Some of this damage may have resulted from the process of trophy head modification as well, though, because these delicate bones were removed and replaced with cloth in specimen 4. The broken zygomatic arches and processes ob- served in several specimens, notably specimens 14 and 15, can result from handling as well. These specimens have been handled extensively by both the Nasca people and later researchers. The bro- ken ends observed here are lighter in color than the surrounding bone, however, indicating fairly recent postmortem damage. Finally, some ethnographic reports of trophy head preparation (Redmond 1994) have described the intentional removal of anterior teeth. Sixteen of these heads (specimens 1-7 and 9-17) have lost anterior teeth, and specimens 14 and 16 ex- hibit some alveolar breakage around the incisors. Unfortunately, since anterior teeth are single-root- ed, they are often lost from skeletalized remains, no matter how carefully curated. Consequently, determining whether any of the anterior teeth in this collection were intentionally removed during the trophy-making process is not possible. Age and Sex Table 2 records age, sex, cranial shape, and pa- thology by individual. Table 3 summarizes the age and sex determinations for each of the trophy heads and presents them by site. There are 14 adults, two subadults, and two children. Seven of the adults are male, one is probably male, two are female, and the sex of the remaining four adults could not be determined. The adult age estimates are necessarily conser- vative because of the absence of postcranial ma- terial. Specimens are assigned to broad age clas- ses (young, middle-age, or older adult) based on third molar eruption (observed in 13 individuals), extent of molar wear (observed in 1 3 individuals), and degree of cranial suture closure (observed in all 14 adult individuals). Specimens 1 1 and 12 are classified as subadults because, although their maxillary third molars have erupted, their man- dibular molars remain in their crypts. Most of the subadults' cranial sutures are unfused. Addition- ally, little to no wear is observed on their molars. Age assessment for the two children was based primarily on root and crown development in spec- imen 8 and on dental eruption of permanent first molars in specimen 13. The small size of their crania and mandibles is consistent with a young age as well. Several factors make sex assignment in this collection difficult. First, an obvious problem is the lack of postcranial remains — particularly the best indicator of sex, the pelvis. Second, because perimortem modification results in the loss of much or all of the posterior cranium in many specimens, traits such as nuchal crest develop- ment can only be observed in two individuals. Consequently, increased emphasis is placed on fa- cial and mandibular traits here. Finally, the cranial deformation observed in 1 7 of the 1 8 specimens makes sex assignment more difficult because of its potential for influencing sexually dimorphic traits. Fortunately, a study of sex differences un- dertaken in more complete remains recovered from these sites (Forgey and Williams, unpub- lished data) indicates that this population exhibits a fair degree of cranial sexual dimorphism. Con- sequently, sex can be assigned to the majority of the adult specimens despite these problems. Pre- vious age and sex assignments from inventory un- dertaken by Konigsberg in 1987 (n.d.) are in good agreement with our independent observations. All of his age assessments are in accordance with ours, as are all but one of the sex determinations. Konigsberg considered the sex of specimen 10 to be "indeterminate," whereas we designate it "fe- male" on the basis of its flat glabellar eminence, rounded orbital margins, small mental eminence, and obtuse gonial angles. Cranial Deformation The "Nasca" style of cranial deformation is wide- ly cited in the literature, but in fact it is an am- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 95 jz nj jz O O > o o > > o ^ Ui ^ ^ ;_, ;_, ;_ ^ Ui ;_ Vn u- k. ;^ l-H l-a l-l ^ O o _o o o ,o ,o o _o O .9 .9 o o _o _o _o 'C 'C 'C u 'C 'C *n 'C 'd *c *c u u u B B u u B B u 2i 2i 1) u o u w u CA c/5 c/5 C/D « 1/3 t/3 tx-. . >-. U) M bO 00 00 00 00 60 00 ^ oo c c c c c c c C c ^^ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ^ 3 3 1 1 o o o o o O O 1 O O IT) •* >> >> >. >. >% >% >> ^ >. >i — — O — — 00 ■a -= ^ 4:; ^ 1 •c ■)o FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Table 3. Age and sex distribution by site. Site Adults Male Female Sex Subadult Child Total Aja Cahuachi 1 3 Cantayo Las Cafias 1 Majoro Chico Paredones 2 1 Total 8 1 10 2 1 2 2 biguous category. Generally, researchers agree that the "Nasca" deformation is an anteroposte- rior form, but further classification differs accord- ing to the researcher. For example, Weiss (1961: 44, 90), basing his descriptions on deforming ap- paratus, classified Nasca deformation as a frontal style that can produce considerable variation in posterior deformation. Others define the type more narrowly, such as Orefici (1993) and Drusini and Baraybar (1989), who classified the Nasca style, at least at Cahuachi, as a tabular oblique style (called anteroposterior oblique here). Pezzia Assereto (1968) defined the lea Valley Nasca style as tabular oblique as well. He also documented variation in Paracas cranial deformation in the lea Valley as including both erect (vertical) and oblique forms of fronto-occipital (anteroposterior or tabular) deformation. Allison and colleagues (1981) included 27 Nasca and 20 Paracas crania in their large study of Andean cranial deforma- tion. They characterized Nasca deformation as produced by the application of two different types of deforming devices, resulting in four different head shapes. They noted three different head shapes among the Paracas sample. Although most of the observed variation they described in their study would be characterized as anteroposterior oblique, one cranial shape would more likely be considered anteroposterior vertical. Kroeber best described the reasons for at least some of the confusion, writing: Between Caiiete and Nazca I found, at all sites from which surface or collected materials were available, the two constant associations: Nazca or Nazcoid with frontal deformation, and non-Nazca or Late with occipital (or absent) deformation. The frontal deformation may be accompanied by lateral, pos- terior or superior compression, or combinations thereof, resulting in long, broad, or low heads. These several forms are constant for sites or even for valleys. That is, they reflect local and perhaps temporal variations of custom within the geograph- ical and chronological limits of a larger culture. The trait of frontal deformation is however constant for the culture as a whole (n.d.b:26). Anteroposterior cranial deformation is ob- served in 17 of the 18 individuals (Table 2). Spec- imen 18 is too incomplete to be scored. Although deformation is of this type, both vertical and oblique forms are observed in this sample. Un- fortunately, the occipital and parietal bones criti- cal for accurate classification are often missing from these trophy heads, making subtype assign- ment difficult. Eight specimens possess sufficient posterior and/or lateral vault assemblages to allow subtype classification. Four specimens are as- signed to the vertical subtype (specimens 3, 12, 15, and 16) and four are assigned to the oblique subtype (specimens 10, 11, 13, and 14). Whether the observed variation in deformation results from temporal or geographic differences cannot be de- termined at this time. Other Features Relatively little pathology or trauma is observed in this collection (Table 2). The young age of many of the individuals in this sample contributed in part to the generally good levels of health not- ed. One healed depression fracture is observed in specimen 3. Healed porotic hyperostosis is pre- sent on the posterior vault of specimen 12. No cases of cribra orbitalia are observed. Inactive or healing lytic lesions are observed on the superior vault of specimen 14. Slight active perio.stitis is observed on the left mandibular notch on speci- men 13, probably related to imminent dental erup- tion. Degenerative joint disease is observed in specimen 4, where slight porosity is present on both occipital condyles. Periodontal disease rang- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 97 Table 4. Summary of frontal bone perforation and cranial base breakage areas. Frontal bone perforation Diameter (mm) Distance (mm) Cranial base Relative of perforation Maxi- from perforation to breakage Speci- Maximum men Site size Minimum mum Nasion Bregma area removed 1 Aja small? 9.5 NP NP NP posterior cranium 2 Cahuachi small 7 8 33 124 posterior cranium 3 Cahuachi large 21 24 9 104.5 posterior magnum 4 Cahuachi small 5 9 44 109 posterior cranium 5 Cahuachi small 7 8 31 100.5 posterior cranium 6 Cahuachi small 8 9 19 107 posterior cranium 7 Cahuachi small 9 9 39 102 posterior cranium 8 Cahuachi small 7.5 9 21.5 91 posterior cranium 9 Cahuachi small 8.5 10 34 112 posterior cranium 10 Cahuachi large? 15.5 19? NP NP foramen magnum 11 Cahuachi large? >10 NP NP NP inferior occipital bone 12 Cantayo large 16 21.5 0 99.5 foramen magnum 13 Cantayo small 8 12 23 100.5 posterior cranium 14 Las Caiias small 6 8 63 113 posterior cranium 15 Majoro Chico large 17.5 22 24 107.5 inferior occipital bone 16 Majoro Chico large 18 21 9 107 foramen magnum 17 Paredones small 8 13 29.5 108.5 posterior cranium 18 Paredones small? NP NP NP NP unknown Note: NP = measurement not possible. ing from mild to pronounced is observed in seven individuals (specimens 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, and 15). Six individuals exhibit antemortem tooth loss (specimens 1, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 17). Specimen 1 has lost the lower central incisors. The remaining individuals have lost molars. Specimen 7 has lost a premolar in addition to molar teeth. Abscesses are noted in two individuals (specimens 2 and 14). Carious lesions were identified in four individuals (specimens 7, 10, 11, and 15). Metopic sutures are seen in four individuals (specimens 2, 4, 7, and 13). Perimortem Modification Skeletalized Paracas and Nasca trophy heads are identified by the presence of two characteristics: a perforation in the frontal bone and an enlarge- ment of the foramen magnum. The frontal per- foration may vary in size and location. The pos- terior enlargement similarly varies in size and shape, from the simple widening of the foramen magnum to the complete removal of the entire posterior cranium. Table 4 lists the minimum and maximum di- 1 meters of each perforation and the distance from the perforation to nasion. The distance from na- sion to bregma is included to provide a measure of size variation, to allow comparisons between trophy heads. The perforations can be roughly di- vided into two categories by size. The small per- forations range from 5 to 12 mm in diameter, while the large perforations vary from 15.5 to 24 mm in diameter (Chart 2). The small perforations are located in the center of the frontal bone, placed approximately on the midline of the bone. The large perforations are located roughly at gla- bella. Six specimens (2, 4, 5, 7, 14, and 17) show wear around the perforations, generally more pro- nounced on the right edge. The amount of bone removed from the base of each cranium differs widely (see Table 4). In four specimens (specimens 1, 10, 12, and 16), minimal bone was removed. The foramen magnum was en- larged in each specimen by removing one or both of the occipital condyles and the posterior margin. The entire basioccipital portion of the occipital bone was removed in two cases (specimens 1 1 and 15). The remaining 11 crania show the most extensive modification of the inferior and poste- rior regions of the cranial vault. In these cases, the entire occipital bone and the posterior portions of both the parietal and temporal bones were re- .8 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Frontal Perforation Diameter 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 Diameter (mm) { Chart 2. Size distribution of frontal bone perforations. moved, essentially resulting in removal of the en- tire posterior half of the cranium. Cranial base breakage cannot be observed in specimen 18 be- cause of the minimal assemblage present and its fragmentary nature. The perimortem modification of the frontal bone and posterior cranium observed in this sam- ple can be organized into three groups: 1) a very small frontal perforation about 10 mm in diameter in the middle of the forehead, combined with the removal of most of the posterior cranium, includ- ing the posterior half of the parietal bones; 2) a large hole about 20 mm in diameter at glabella combined with an enlargement of the foramen magnum and very little posterior region involve- ment; and 3) a large hole similar to that found in the previous group (2), but with the basioccipital portion of the occipital bone removed. Eleven tro- phy heads are included in the first group, four heads are of the second type, and two heads are of the third type (see Table 4). Specimen 18 is too incomplete and fragmentary to assign to a group. No obvious pattern of distribution is apparent among these three trophy head types. The com- mon first type was found in all archaeological contexts and at every site except Majoro Chico. The less common second and third types were found at Cahuachi, Cantayo, and Majoro Chico. One trophy head of the second type was found in the Late Intermediate Period tomb at the base of Cahuachi Mound A. A cache in Cemetery g on the summit of Cahuachi Mound A contained one of each of the latter two types. Of the two trophy heads buried along an adobe wall at Majoro Chi- co, one head was of the second type and the other of the third type. The fourth trophy head of the second type was found in a looted grave at Can- tayo. Cut marks are observed on 14 of the 18 spec- imens in this study (Tables 5 and 6). They are present on the crania of 13 individuals (sp)ecimens 2, 4-9, 11-14, 16, and 17) and on eight of the available 13 mandibles (specimens 2, 6-10, 12, and 17) (Fig. 70). They are commonly seen around the frontal perforation (specimens 5, 7, 9, 13-14, and 17) (Fig. 66) and along the posterior breakage areas (specimens 2, 6, and 12). Cut marks are frequently observed on the internal sur- face of the mandible where muscles of the tongue attach (specimens 2, 7, and 17). In specimens from other collections, where soft tissues are bet- ter preserved (Verano 1995:208), the tongue has been removed and attached to the carrying cord. Cut marks are common where the chewing mus- cles attach to the mandible (Fig. 70) and cranium (zygomatic, sphenoid, and temporal bones; Fig. 65), and on the mandibular condyle near the tem- poromandibular joint (specimens 2, 4, 6-10, 12, and 17; Fig. 70). These cut marks indicate that the mandible was removed from the skull. Long WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 99 o ■3 c a g aj (U D C/} C/^ C/D a> >Ot^OOONO— 'O'v0l^00 *- .2 o ^ I? t2< 1 00 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY cs u u s aa _9j "a 3 OC '•5 C G '^ S s CQ Otf III I - I o E o o .2? o ■5 y !- i^ p-2 U s _ o cs 'S S ^ O o U Cm t: H U 00 .In :« 00 ti -- ;■ d « D o 00 3 > 13 cs r ^ ^ H 00 c« c« cA — Q.X) U 2 ~5 !^ u 3 '5b 3 !y5 c3 cd Q. 1/5 ^^ T3 "rt M ■5 2 2 Xi S CS H CS 3 ■a 3 , •C N 00 > ^ O. Q. W5 ^ ^ « P P 0 § §2 2 ^ 0 S 0. ^ J= c cs cS cs UUU WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 101 cut marks are sometimes present on the cranial vault. Cut marks lying parallel to the breakage area may be associated with the removal of that area. Vertical cut marks found on the frontal bone may result from the removal of the skin, the mak- ing of incisions similar to those described by Bar- aybar (1987), or from some other unknown pro- cess (specimen 16; Figs. 56 and 58). The tiny cut marks found on the bones of the face most likely result from the removal of the skin (Fig. 68; spec- imens 2, 5-9, and 17). Verano (1995; Verano et al. 1999) described the presence of numerous cut marks on trophy head crania and mandibles that he argued resulted from the removal of the skin and underlying tissues. Once the underlying tissues were removed, the skin was replaced with gauze pads inserted be- neath the skin to replace the missing tissues. The pads, combined with cactus spines that were used to pin the lips together, helped to maintain a life- like appearance. Verano used evidence from his examination of the Cerro Carapo skulls to support this interpretation of the cut marks. Although those trophy heads were skeletalized, he reported hair and tissue impressions in the surrounding soil matrix that showed that the soft tissue had been lost because of poor preservation. The trophy heads' current skeletalized condition enabled Ver- ano to identify cut marks, and the soil attested to their previous state as mummified heads. Six of the trophy heads in the Kroeber collec- tion (specimens 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 17) show evi- dence of extensive processing, similar to the prep- aration described by Verano, with cut marks found over most of the cranial vault and mandible surfaces. Additional evidence of processing in- cludes the application of resin to cut margins, the placement of gauze pads in orifices, and the pres- ence of wear-polish where mandibles were reat- tached to crania. A resinous material has been rubbed into the cut edges of the frontal perforations, the posterior breakage areas, or both in four of the more exten- sively processed cases (specimens 4, 5, 7, and 17) and in three others (specimens 3, 12, and 13). Specimen 17 clearly shows where the substance has been removed much later during cleaning, re- vealing the white bone beneath. The application of resin to the cut edges of bone would be a prac- tical way to prevent the oozing typical of fresh bone. A similar practice using clay has been ob- st! \ed in trophy heads from Mesoamerica (L. A. " >:V pers. comm.). Gauze pads are observed in three of the six heads (specimens 4, 5, and 7). These pads were placed in the orbits of all three individuals and in the nasal cavity of specimen 4. Textile fibers are found in specimen 3. The excellent condition of the nasal turbinates in specimen 4, which lie an- terior to the gauze pad, indicate that the pad was inserted into the nasal cavity from the internal posterior aperture. Verano (1995) and Guillen (cit- ed in Silverman 1993a:224) proposed that the pur- pose of the gauze pads found in the orbits and beneath the skin of the cheeks was to "maintain a lifelike appearance" of the trophy head. How- ever, the gauze pad found in the nasal cavity of specimen 4 was inserted through the posterior ap- erture, and would therefore have had no effect on the appearance of the face (Fig. 14). Consequent- ly, this pad suggests an additional function for gauze pads, consistent with ethnographic reports of plugging orifices to keep an individual's spirit from escaping (Proulx 1971, 1989; Weyer 1958). A primitive "wig" is attached to specimen 5 (Fig. 15). Hair and possibly skin are attached to one of two textile fabrics, which is then affixed to the external vault of this individual. Because little soft tissue remains on this specimen, the ex- act relationship between hair, scalp, and textile is difficult to ascertain. It may be a wig, or the fabric may have been placed there to retain a more life- like appearance, similar to gauze pads (Verano 1995:210). The latter possibility seems somewhat less likely, given the small amount of tissue pre- sent in this region of the cranium during life, but subsequent soft tissue disintegration makes eval- uation difficult. Specimens 11 and 16 exhibit discolorations on the upper third of the frontal bones, lying parallel to the sagittal plane. These markings measure ap- proximately 30-35 mm in both specimens. Cut marks approximately 20 mm in length are present in the discolored areas on specimen 16. These dis- colorations and associated cut marks may have been made while affixing some type of ornamen- tation to the skull. Alternatively, these areas may be associated with the scalp lacerations that Dru- sini and Baraybar (1990) observed in other spec- imens and attributed to sacrificial bleeding rituals. Clear evidence of prolonged use of some of these specimens suggests an ongoing ritual func- tion. Wear on the frontal perforations is observed where the cords rubbed against the bone in six cases (specimens 2, 4, 5, 7, 14, and 17). Polishing is noted on the zygomatic arch of specimen 4 and the left gonial angle of specimen 13. The making !02 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY of wigs like the one found with specimen 5 may reflect extended use as well. The discolored areas observed on specimens 11 and 16 may be evi- dence of glues used to attach similar items to those heads. Archaeological Context and Associated Artifacts In contrast to many previously described collec- tions of trophy heads, a significant fraction of the Field Museum specimens are from the early Nas- ca epochs. Although a wealth of iconography ex- ists from this early period, most trophy heads have come from later Nasca times (Browne et al. 1993). Seven of the heads can be dated to the Early Intermediate Period phases 1-4 (specimens 1, 9-13, and 15), based on associated artifacts or surrounding tombs (Table 7). Two heads are from late Nasca, based on the accompanying ceramics (Kroeber and Collier 1998). Specimen 16 can be generally assigned to the Early Intermediate Pe- riod, based on surrounding material. Six are from a tomb that probably dates to the Late Interme- diate Period (specimens 3-8). Contextual infor- mation is insufficient to date two of the heads (specimens 2 and 14). These trophy heads were found in three main archaeological contexts: 1) in architectural fea- tures, 2) included as grave goods in the burials of others, and 3) buried alone or in small caches in cemeteries. Three trophy heads (specimens 13, 15, and 16) were found in architectural features. Ten of the trophy heads (specimens 3-9, 12, 17, and 18) were found in tombs. Three trophy heads (specimens 1, 10, and 11) were recovered from caches in cemeteries. The original placement of the remaining two heads is unknown because they were found on the surface. Specimen 2 was found in a jar with another cranium on top of Cahuachi Mound A, lying on the surface at the edge of a tomb. The trophy head was collected, but the oth- er cranium was left in the field. Specimen 14 was found on the surface at Las Carias. Three trophy heads were found near architec- tural features, in pits dug near walls. Specimen 1 3 was found at Cantayo Cax. Specimens 15 and 16 were recovered from Majoro Chico. Although Kroeber excavated a series of walls at Cantayo Cax, the nature of the architecture remained un- clear. He found a great deal of material, but whether it was domestic refuse or the debris from looted tombs could not be determined (Carmi- chael 1988). Schreiber (1998) states that the lay- ered cornstalks visible on the surface today sug- gest that the Cax structure is the remains of a platform. The original contents of the pit in which specimen 13 was found were uncertain. The pit contained a trophy head, covered by a cloth and lying on a bed of pacay leaves, surrounded by numerous artifacts. Although Kroeber did not identify the pit as disturbed, Carmichael (1988) believed that the pit had been looted and the body removed, presumably because of the number of other artifacts present was unusual for a trophy head cache. Kroeber believed that the walls at Majoro Chico were of a more clearly ceremonial nature than those at Cax and included the remains of an elaborate rectangular tomb at the south end of the walled area. Like specimen 13, specimen 15 was found in unusual circumstances. Incom- plete human remains were found in this grave, which Carmichael described as a secondary burial (Carmichael 1988:482). Kroeber believed that the incomplete human remains, consisting mostly of long bones, and the trophy head belonged to the same person. Again, although Kroeber did not ad- dress the issue, his description of the contents in- dicates that artifacts were found at multiple levels throughout the grave, which suggests that this pit might be a disturbed burial. Specimen 16, found alone in a pit near one of the walls at Majoro Chico, was one of only four specimens recovered from seemingly intact contexts. As the previous paragraph illustrates, determin- ing whether trophy heads have been included in the grave of another individual is difficult in the case of looted graves from which some of the original contents, including the deceased's body, may have been removed. Even the identification of graves as intact or disturbed may be difficult in this area of the world, where looting has oc- curred for centuries. The amount of disturbance may range from severe, in which the entire tomb contents have been removed, to mild, in which the only evidence of entry is the disarray of some of the grave artifacts. Fortunately, even severely dis- turbed tombs can still yield useful data if the in- formation is interpreted cautiously. Here, the most difficult task is to determine whether a burial con- taining only a trophy head at the time of exca- vation ever contained the remains of another in- dividual. Ten trophy heads (specimens 3-9, 12, 17, and 18) were recovered from what are believed to be the graves of other individuals. Three of these specimens were recovered from graves where ev- WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 103 4* *j 1 = C/5 T3 "O "Q "O T3 "O T3 U 1) 1> D D CJ W X) X) X) X5 X) JD X) "" y y B B TO CU tr? -^ 'O "^ 'O 'O "^ 'O 1) flj ^ X) X) Xi X) Xi 3 D O 3 D ' ' ^ C3 *-; ■*-; "5 "3 "3 "3 "o '"5 "5 .S .E -5 •5 "5 "5 .E •5 ■5 C3 — XI X3 xi X) XI X) a. E E S E E E^ oooooo.t;'^'^' ? = .ti *^ 'E 'S 'S 'S 'E 'S 3 rt c« u. o < <<<<< T3 -ra T3 13 T3 -o c c c c c c 3 3 3 3 3 o o o o o >%>.>-. >^ V- L_ ;- u. 0) S W IJ U oj u u E E E E U (U HJ (U ., ^ .< ,, < tt) < < (U T3 "O "O "O :3 (_) o — . 3 3 3 3 00 O O O O _Q u << CS « c c (x a. CJ C3 J -J 3^ c c o o c« S IS o o 'S T, T^ S i2 (-^ o o C C CO '^"^ >.u '•'^ ^>^ ^^ ^^ ^"^ ^^ w^ w C^ C3 c^ ^^ ^^ UUUUUUUUUUUhJSS 3333333 " X) X3 E E o o X3 X3 X5 X5 ^ EEEEc«i/2a!j^ OOOOUOiutn c c c c c c •a TD T3 -a -o T3 00 00 00" .•a c 00 3 3 3 3 3 ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o <; -s -s _U _U _C> _U 3 O -^ 00 00 00 3.S.E.S 3 C o TD -a -o £ o ^ c c ^ o 3 3 1/: fc fc «3 ^< _ _ 3 3 x; ^ i-5 x: 3 c/3 c/5 c/; 00 /-. C/3 C/3 T3 Xl X2 E E o o CuCl.CuClCl.Cl.!>- 3 XX h-H t—i t^^ H-H t-^ t-^ (^ rr^ fr^ r*-\ fvi I> ^ ^ -J J J J J hJ ' ■ ' ' I O 1$ !$ 3:D::3:3:3CKcucua.o-DH^Q-a.cucu fOT}-i/-jvor-oooNO — fNt^-^invor^-oo CU (U 0 0 T3 TD -a 0 ,/ «.!>• «»^ »»« ^.>S35i^^K3if:'s Fig. 81. Grave artifacts associated with specimen 13, Grave 17, Cantayo Cax. A red-bordered cloth (fmnh 171059), a wool cord, and three metatarsal bones on cord (fmnh 171061); two-colored wool cords (fmnh 171062); and a double-barreled bird-form pottery whistle (fmnh 171064). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13643.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 129 Fig. 82. Tapestry wool cloth, Epigonal type (fmnh 171101), associated with specimens 3-8, rectangular tomb, base of Mound A, Cahuachi. (fmnh neg. no. Al 13644.) 130 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Fig. 83. Artifact associated with specimen 9, Unit Ed, Grave 1, Cahuachi. Fragments of red cloth, with a border and crocheted fringe (fmnh 171 137). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13646.) WILLIAMS ET AL.: NASCA TROPHY HEADS 131 w %^r^^£5*^::<55;^v: Fig. 84. Grave textiles associated with specimen 9. Unit Ed, Grave 1, Cahuachi. A tubular cloth band of yellow, red, and blue pattern (fmnh 171138) and a blue-and-white-striped cloth fragment (fmnh 171139). (fmnh neg. no. Al 13642.) 132 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 053336639 Field Museum of Natural History 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 Telephone: (312) 665-7055