Our Nation and the Sea A Plan for National Action Co^^ rcEANOGaAj 9f^ -fc- ^/c" Report off the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources DATA ! IPRARY J't-VVtii^M Panel Reiiorte of the Commission on Marine Science, Euginc-ering unci Uesouixes :* Volume 1 Report of the Panel on Basic Science Rei)ort of tlu>. Panel on Knviroiinientjil Jlouitoring Report of the Panel on .Management and Development of tlie Coastal Zi Report of the '•■""•i '"■ m :iiii... James A. Orutchfield ^uoi: ~£S°^ Taylor A. Pryor <£ >^ w-2^1^ y^i^^"^ 2. i^^-^L^ E'rank C. DiLuzio Leon Jaworski '^/L^ A. /^^i^ew^s^ John A. Knauss '«i.vv£_|l -OOV-*^ Jobn H. Perry, Jr. /Uj-'M^CcdZ, Robert M. White George E. Reedy ^<-CA^y^L^i.^ ^ George H. Sullivan Contents Chapter 1 An Introduction and Summary 1 Our Stake in the Uses of the Sea .... 1 A Phm for National Action 4 Chapter 2 National Capability in the Sea 21 Advancing Marine Science 23 University-National Laboratories. . 25 Coastal Zone Laboratories 27 Federal Laboratories 29 Naval Research 29 Diversity of Support 30 Advancing Marine Technology 30 Fundamental Technology 35 National Projects 37 Industry and Universities in Marine Technology 38 The Navy in Marine Technology. . 40 Manpower for the National Capa- bility 43 Information and the National Capa- bility 44 Costs for National CapabiUty 44 Chapter 3 Management of the Coastal Zone 49 The Nature of the Coastal Zone 49 Intensification of Coastal Zone Usage 52 A Proposed Coastal Management System 56 Functions and Powers of State Coastal Zone Authorities 57 Management in Interstate Estu- aries 60 Federal Role in Coastal Zone Management 60 Information Needed for Coastal Zone Management 62 Opportunities for Coastal Develop- ment 69 Moving Operations Offshore 69 Special Attention to Recreation ... 70 A Plan for "Seasteads" 72 The Pollution Problem 72 Program Costs 79 Chapter 4 Marine Resources 83 National Resource Policy 83 Development of the Sea's Living Re- sources 86 Marine Fisheries 86 The Ocean's Food Potential 88 World Production and Demand. ... 89 Principles of Fisheries Manage- ment 90 Rehabilitation of U.S. Domestic Fisheries 94 International Fisheries Management. 104 Aquaculture 115 Sea Plants 118 Extracting Drugs from the Sea. ... 119 Development of Nonliving Marine Resomxes 121 Petroleum 122 Natural Gas 127 Other Marine Minerals 130 Fresh Water Resources 137 Pre-Investment Surveys 139 Federal Agency Roles 141 An International Legal-Political Framework 141 Existing Framework 143 Recommended Redefinition of the Continental Shelf 143 Recommended Legal-Political Ar- rangements for Subsea Areas Beyond the Shelf 146 Relations between the U.S. Gov- ernment and Private Firms in Registering Claims 153 A Proposed Course of Interim Action 155 Government-Industry Relationships. 157 Goverament and Industry Roles. . . 157 Industrial Activities and Attitudes. 158 Capital Sources and Requirements. 159 Legal and Regulatory Framework . . 160 Technology and Services 161 Collaboration in Planning 166 Program Costs 166 on Chapter 5 The Global Environ- ment 1G9 Exploring and Understanding the Global Oceans 171 Research and Survey Programs. . . . 172 Marine Geology and Geo- l)hysics 172 Marine Biology 172 Phj'sical Oceanography 173 Polar Seas 173 Decade of Ocean Exploration 174 The Technology 175 The Global Monitoring and Predic- tion System 181 System Operations and Manage- ment Arrangements 182 A Program for Immediate Improve- ment 188 The Technology for NEMPS 191 Research 194 Environmental Modification 197 An International Framework: Orga- nizational and Legal 198 International Organizations 199 A Legal Framework for the Con- duct of Marine Research 201 Program Costs 205 Chapter 6 Technical and Operat- ing Services 209 Mapping and Charting the Oceans. . . 209 Navigation 213 Safety at Sea 215 Control of Offshore Traffic 215 Certification 215 Search and Rescue 216 Recreational Boating 216 Underwater Safety 217 Policing and Enforcement 217 Data Services 218 Instrument Testing and Calibration. . 221 Program Costs 224 Chapter 7 Organizing a National Ocean Effort 227 Federal Organization for Marine Affairs 227 A National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency 230 Organization and Functions 230 Capabilities of the New Agency . . . 234 Considerations Relevant to the Recommended Agency Transfers . 236 Overseeing the National Program. . . . 244 Operational Planning and Coordi- nation 244 National Advisory Committee for the Oceans 245 Executive Office of the President . . 246 Congressional Oversight 247 Conclusion 249 Chapter 8 A Financial Plan for Marine Science 251 The Commission's Approach to Cost Estimates 251 Present Funding Levels 252 The Commission's Estimates: An Overview 254 A Budget for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency 258 Conclusion 258 Epilogue 260 Appendix 1 Public Law 89-454 261 Appendix 2 Table of Recommen- dations 267 Appendix 3 The Operations and Task of the Commission 278 Appendix 4 Commission Studies and Reports 283 Photo Credits 286 Index 289 Chapter 1 id^^' An Introduction and A Summary Our Stake in the Uses of the Sea IIdw fully ;uul wisely the United States uses the sea in the decades ahead will affect lirofoundly its security, its economy, its abil- ity to meet increasing demands for food and raw materials, its position and influence in fix' world community, and the quality of the enxironment in which its people live. The need to de\elop an adecjuate national ocean |)roo;ram arises from a combination of rapidly converginc' and interacting forces. The world population is expected to ap- proximately double by the year 2000, but even a lesser rate of growth would intensify the al- ready serious food supply problem. The need for supplemental animal protein sources is critical and is growing daily. The sea is not the only source of additional protein but it is an extremely important one. The United States itself faces no serious [)rotcin shortage, and its rate of population growth shows a promising decline. Neverthe- less, it is exi>ected that l)y the end of the cen- tury the population of our countiy will reach ;iOO to 350 million people and that the Nation will rely increasingly on food from the sea. .Vs the population grows, new means must be developed to expand the economy, to gen- erate new jobs and products, and to pay the costs of publicly rendered services. Although land-based activities will continue to domi- nate the economy for many years to come, new and expanded ocean industries offer some of the Nation's most inviting opportunities for economic growth. The recent achievements of te-chnology in the sea have focused national attention on ocean resources to a greater extent than ever before. The sea's potential as a source of "food, drugs, and minerals has been much publi- cized, and the oceans have been depicted as a "last frontier"' to be conquered by man. The Commission's appraisal is more modest than many of these glowing assessments, but even hard estimates show great possibilities for the future. The potential for expanded economic ac- tivities is evident in today's marine industrial operations. Offshore petroleum, gas, and sul- fur recovery attests that the wealth in the land under the sea is available to man; the mining of tin, diamonds, sand, gravel, and shell from the seabed shows the possibilities of recovering other imi)ortant minerals. Deep submersibles and undersea habitats demon- strate the ability of man to live and work imder the sea. Yet technological development for economically important work in the sea remains largely in the future. Vital though marine economic develop- ment is, it must be tempered by other con- siderations. There is increasing concern over the need to imderstand our physical environ- ment, of which the oceans are but one part. This concern is based on growing apprecia- tioii that the environment is l>eing affected by man himself, in many cases adversely. It is critical to protect man from the vicissi- tudes of the en\'ironment and the environ- ment, in turn, from the works of man. Today, man's damage to the environment too often is ignored because of immediate economic advantage. To maximize the jDres- ent economy at the expense of the future is to perpetuate the pattern of previous genera- tions, whose sins against the planet we have inherited. If adequately protected, the sea and shore- line can provide unique and valuable oppor- tunities for recreation. The growth of the country's jsopulation, most pronounced in urban areas along the shoreline, and the in- creased wealth and leisure of many of our people, are creating inexorable pressures for access to the sea. Contamination or destruc- tion of beach, marsh, waterway, and shore- line aggravates these pressures by denying Growth Patterns in the Nation's Coastal Population iCounties bordering oceans and Great Lakes) Pet Cent of Nation's Population Living in Coastal Counties 1800 1850 1900 1950 1960 TOTAL U. S. use of the sea and shore to a growing popiUation. The pollution problem pervades all aspects of our expanding technological society. Even witli stronger abatement programs, it ap- pears likely that pollution will increase alarmingly in the years ahead. Much of our unwanted waste will find its way into our lakes and estuaries and ultimately into the sea. Intensified use of the marine environ- ment is also generaiting its own polluting effects, which must be kept in check in order to preserve the sea for a diversity of human uses. Because the rate of marine-related ac- tivity is increasing very raj^idly, delay may mean excessive, irrevereible damage to some parts of the marine environment, particularly in the coastal zones near the great centers of population and in the estuaries of major rivers. The oceans and marine-related activities must be viewed in the context of the total land-air-sea environment. In many ways, the oceans are the dominant factor in this total environment. However, intervention by man in any one element produces effects on the others, frequently through processes we do not yet understand. Mankind is fast ap- proaching a stage when the total planetary environment can be influenced, modified, and perhaps controlled by human activities. The Nation's stake in the oceans is therefore an important part of its stake in the vei-y future of man's world. The oceans impartially wash the shores of most of the world's nations, whose interests in the uses of the sea mirror ours. Means for reaching reasonable accommodation of com- peting national interests must be found to achieve efficient and harmonious development of the sea's resources. The atmosphere, wliich is so influenced by the oceans, knows no na- tional boundaries; the nations of the world share a common interest in its monitoring and prediction and in its modification. The Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966 recognized that the national interest in marine programs is inter- twined witli the interests of the peoples of tlie whole world. The United States has sought to carry out the policy stated in the Act by ad- vancing a proposal to tlie nations of the world for an International Decade of Ocean Exploration. Through the President and the Congress, tlie Ignited States also has given its support to the World Weather Progi'am in whicli all nations of the world are seeking to explore and monitor global atmospheric I)rocesses. The Commission shares the conviction that marine scientific inquiry and resource devel- opment, as well as meteorological prediction, offer many real opportunities to emphasize the common interests of all nations and to benefit mankind. The gap between the living standards of the rich and poor nations is ever widening. The world cannot l)e stable if a liandful of nations enjoy most of the planet's riches while the majority exists at or below subsistence levels, and many of tlie efTorts to aid tlie less fortunate nations will involve uses of the sea. Because instabilities in the world situation cannot be remedied quickly, military power will continue to be a central factor in world affairs. As naval technology increases, the depth and variety of undersea operations re- quire detection systems of ever increasing jiower and complexity. Today's advances in military undersea technology forecast an in- creasingly important role for U.S. defense and deterrence capabilities in the global sea. As the uses of the sea multiply, the Navy's defense mission will be complicated by the The United Stutca requires a Navy raiHible of currying out its national defense missions anywhere in the oceans, at any desired depth, at any time. Here tlie Polaris submarine Daniel Boone cruises on. :iie surface. presence of structures, vehicles, and men. The resulting problems can be resolved only by the closest cooperation between civil and military users of the sea. Furthermore, mili- tary and civil science and technology for undersea operations can and should be mu- tually supporting, emphasizing the need for cooperative action. The Commission believes strongly that the Nation's stake in the uses of the sea requires a U.S. Navy capable of carrying out its national defense missions anywhere in the oceans, at any desired depth, at any time. However, the oceans must not provide a new dimension for the nuclear arms race. The official position of the United States de- clares that the seabed and deep ocean floor should be used exclusively for peaceful pur- poses, with the understanding that the test of whether an activity is "peaceful" is whether it is consistent with the United Na- tions Charter and other obligations of inter- national law. Further, the United States has requested the U.N. Disarmament Committee to take up the question of arms limitation on the seabed and ocean floor with a view to defining those factors vital to a workable, verifiable, and effective international agree- ment which would prevent the use of this new environment for the emplacement of weapons of mass destruction. The Commis- sion supports this position, as well as the U.S. proposal that any agreement prohibit- ing the deployment of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction designed for use on the bed of the seas should be negoti- ated in a broader arms control context and not in relation to devising international ar- rangements for the exploration and exploita- tion of marine resources. A Plan for National Action Like the oceans themselves, the Nation's marine interests are vast, complex, composed of many critical elements, and not susceptible to simplicity of treatment. Realization and accommodation of the Nation's many diverse interests require a plan for national action and for orderly development of the uses of the sea. The plan must provide for deter- mined attack on immediate problems concur- rently with initiation of a long-range pro- gram to develop knowledge, technology, and a framework of laws and institutions that will lay the foundation for efficient and pro- ductive marine activities in the years ahead. Although the Commission has addressed its proi)osals principally to the Federal Govern- ment, the States, the scientific community, industry, and otliers will need also to exer- cise initiative in their respective areas and participate fully in order that there may be a genuine national effort. The Commission has chosen in this report to present its findings and recommendations in chapters that represent primary areas of national emphasis. To mobilize and impart energy to the total undertaking, and in keep- ing with its Congressional mandate, the Com- mission recommends the formation of a new, independent Federal agency, which might be called the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency ( NO A A ) . The role of this new orga- nization as ^^■ell as its imperative need emerge more clearly with each successive chapter, and a detailed discussion is therefore deferred until near the end of the report.. Since a strong, solid base of science and technology is the common denominator for accomplishment in every area of marine in- terest, actions necessary to advance our tech- nical capability are presented at the outset. Then follow chapters on the protection and management of the coastal zones and estu- aries, the development of living and nonliv- ing resources of the sea, and the exploration and monitoring of the total global environ- ment. In Chapter 7 the proposals for strengthening organizations, built upon pro- gram needs, are brought together, and the report concludes with an estimate of costs. The remainder of Chapter 1 provides in brief, narrative form an overview of the total pro- gram proposed by the Commission together with an indication of major recommendations. Improving the National Marine Capability A full realization of the potential of the sea is presently limited by lack of scientific knowledge and the requisite marine technol- ogy and engineering. Marine Science Support of basic marine research is vital if we are to understand the global oceans, to predict the behavior of the marine environ- ment, to exploit the sea's resources,, and to assure the national security. Marine .science has become "big science," and our efforts are limited by inadequate technology. The Nation is poorly organized to marshal the arrays of mvdtiple ships, buoys, submersibles, special platforms, and aircraft, as well as the complex undersea facilities required for important oceanic in- vest ifratioiis and experiments of a basic char- acter. The Commission proposes that a small jrroiip of institutions, including the present leaders in ocean research, he designated by tiie Federal Government as ITniversity-Na- tional Laboratories and be equipped to un- dertake major marine science tasks of a global or i-egional nature. The laboratories should be distributed geographically for ade- (|uate coverage of all parts of the oceans and would be expected to connnit their facilities to serve the needs of scientists affiliated with otliei- institutions. The funds granted should i)e sufficient to support each laboratory, its facilities, and its staff as an on-going institu- Tlie Chesapeake Bay Institute's research catamaran and the ocea>i^frmit campus of the Scripps InxtUiitiitn nf Oceanography exemplifii the far-ranging nature of l.'.S. marine science research. T* j^BH tion and to enable it to carry out broad pro- grams of research on a continuing basis. With such continuity assured, the labora- tories also could seek additional funds for specific projects from the National Science Foundation, the Navy, and other public and private agencies. Establishment of the University-National Laboratories should not, however, preclude support of marine science research in other institutions, for a divei"sity of institutions and individuals working in these fields is es- sential to the health of marine science and should be maintained. The Department of Defense for its part must continue to recognize the vital relation- ship of basic marine science to its own mis- sion and support such scientific research as it has in the past. Marine Technology The Commission urges that the proposed National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency initiate a major program to stimulate the development of fundamental marine technol- ogy and engineering in order to expand the scope and to lower the costs of undersea operations. The Commission proposes two goals for a national effort : • The development of the necessary technol- ogy to make jwssible productive work for sustained periods at depths to 2,000 feet. • The development of a technical capability sufficient to allow useful access to depths to 20,000 feet, comprising more than 98 per cent of the world's ocean floor. It is recommended that these two objectives be sought simultaneously. Fundamental Technological Development Fundamental technology is comparable to basic science in that it provides a foun- dation for man}' uses, and a lack of this basic technology currently limits potential Landmarks in the Development off Ocean Technology Commerciai recovery of bromine from seawater. 1933; magnesium from seawater, 1941 Introduction of nylon purse seine. 1956-58 First 1 million gal. per day desalting plant. Freeporl. Tex.. 1961 First city to use seawater for water supply (2.6 tvlGD). Key West. Fla.. 1967 U.S. Government approval of FPC. 1967 Oil well repair, 25 min.. Sept. 1964 Navy lab. saturation with excursion to 1.100'. Feb. 1968 Sea Level 20 First workable scuba. James, 1825 33 CONSHELF I. 1 wk., Sept. 1962 , 36 CONSHELF II, 1 mo.. June 1963 i 50 First oil well offstiore, beyond siaht of land. La.. 85 CONSHELF I. 5-tir. work day. Sept. 1962 ,90 CONSHELF II, 1 wk.. June 1963 1 100 "Aqualung," Cousteau & Gagnan. 1942 (approx. 100') 165 CONSHELF II, work camp, June 1963 192 Sealab I, 10 days, July 1964 200 First at-sea saturation dive, Stenuit, 1 day, Sept. 205 Sealab II. 45 days. Aug. -Sept. 1965 220 Scuba dive, Dumas. Oct. 1943 243 Squalus recovery, 1939 250 Oil production — California 1961 285 Oil production — Gulf of tulexico. 1956 328 CONSHELF III. 22 days. Sept. 1965 340 Oil production — Gulf of (Mexico, 1967 <^ \ 432 Open sea saturation, Stenuit & Lindbergh, 48 hrs.. June 1964 '^^ % ° *^ o, ■^^ ^ eriods. The Nation should anticipate the fiittire by starting now to develop deep submersibles with ocean transit capabilities for use as research and exploration platforms at depths to 20,000 feet under the sea and to study the feasibility of manned deep ocean stations. Environmental Modification Tiie Nation needs a focus for understand- ing and exploring the feasibility and conse- quences of environmental modification. It must also establish the scientific capability, facilities, and monitoring networks to make possible an assessment of the global conse- quences of man's activities, such as the burn- ing of fossil fuels, the use of pesticides and insecticides, and the effects of particulate and gaseous pollutants. Similarly, it is urgent that the Nation explore a wide range of pos- sibilities for environmental modification that can be brought about by our new technologi- cal capabilities. The Commission recom- mends that NOAA undertake the necessary comprehensive efforts. Organizing for Action -V i^lan for national action must be based on national policy established by the Presi- dent and the Congress and implemented by tlie exercise of Federal leadership and sup- port. The very existence of the Commission is an expression of the intent of the Congress and the President to develop a national ocean program worthy of a great sea nation. Marine missions have proliferated throughout the Federal Government, but most i)rograms are too small to achieve real effectiveness. There are voids and overlaps. Until the advent of the National Sea Grant Program, there was no broad Federal agency mission concerned with using the sea more effectively to meet public needs. Yet the na- tional objective is "to develop, encourage and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine sci- ence for the benefit of mankind," which pre- supposes an orientation of national marine activities to broad human needs, not simply to those concerned with food, transport, or minerals. The Commission finds that the present Federal organization cannot meet the chang- ing, broadening aspects of marine affairs. In the past, the Federal agencies have concen- trated on science, surveys, some technology, supporting services, and minimal and fre- quently inadequate support for fisheries. By far the largest part of the Federal ocean budget has been that of the Navy. For the most part, the agencies have performed their fragmentary missions well, within the limits of inadequate funding and — too frequently— a lack of strong support from the heads of agencies with primary concerns other than the oceans. Recognition of the lack of proper Federal organization is not new. Measures were taken, starting with the creation of the In- teragency Committee on Oceanography by the Federal Council for Science and Tech- nology nearly a decade ago. In 1966 the Na- tional Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development was established by the Congress to initiate and oversee Federal programs until such time as the Commission had completed its study and the President and the Congress had decided on the final organization required to meet the Nation's marine needs. The Council should continue to perform these functions until that decision is reached. Despite the Council's value and the excel- lence of its staff and committees, experience 18 has demonstrated that strength at the Presi- dential staff level cannot compensate for weaknesses in the agency operating structure. A new, strong Federal focus for marine ac- tivity is essential to a national ocean effort. The organization should direct a civil ocean program to the Nation's economic and social needs, conducting the scientific, technologi- cal, and management programs required to ensure that those needs are met. The orga- nization should serve as stimulus, guide, and supporter for State marine activities and provide a central point in the Federal Gov- ernment to which industry can look for ad- vice, cooperation, and some kinds of support in industrial marine enterprises. Because the needs of people and of indus- try are affected and even determined by the interaction of sea, air, and land, it is not enough to organize around the marine en- vironment alone. Basic theory, experimental techniques, equipment, and even personnel ai'e much the same for both atmospheric and ocean studies. The scale of effort needed, and the necessity of measuring interactions among the various parts of the environment, make it imperative to organize within the larger context of the air-sea environment. This is sound both from the standpoint of good science and the prudent management of per- sonnel, fimds, and equipment. The Commission recommends, as was briefly noted earlier in this summary, the organization of an agency : • To explore the marine frontier and its in- terrelationships with the atmosphere • To define its resources • To advance capabilities for its use • To provide supporting services including weather and ocean forecasts • To minimize conflicts over uses of the ma- rine environment • To coordinate scientific and technical re- quirements and recommendations in sup- jx)rt of foreign policy objectives • To serve marine industry and the marine interests of the American people. Fui-tlier functions are defined in Chapter 7. The proposed National Oceanic and Atniosjiheric Agency should report directly to tlie President and should acquire through transfer those Federal organizations and programs integral to its mission but which do not provide close operational support to the departments and agencies in which they are presently located. ^Vny recommendation for reorganization has many consequences, and the Commission came early to the conclusion that a whole- sale consolidation of marine activities within a single structure would be unsound. None- theless, the Commission is convinced that the value to the Nation of creating an inde- pendent agency as the prime Federal center of marine strength outweighs the inevitable trauma and difficulty of shifting agency elements and programs. Creation of an in- dependent agency would not prejudge any future Federal organizational plans; the agency could be moved as a whole. The central purpose of the Conunission in I'ecommending the formation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency is to pro- vide the means for undertaking the full range of actions needed to realize the Nation's growing stake in the effective use of the sea. In some cases, the existence of such an agency is critical to implementation of the Commis- sion's recommendation; in others, recom- mended programs could appropriately be implemented through existing agencies. In these latter cases, the Commission in its rec- ommendations has identified parentlietically the appropriate action agency. I!) The reorganized Federal machinery must liave j)ro\ision for ohtaininc: advice and in- formation from tiie broad national marine connnunity. The Commission recommends estahlislunent of a Presidentially appointed. l)roadiy repivsentative committee to jirovide contiiniing advice in the development of the national marine program. The committee miglit l)e designated the National Advisory Connnittee for the Oceans (NACO). It woidd issue a comprehensive biennial public report, on the status and progress of U.S. marine and atmospheric activities. The Connnission also recognizes the need for the (V)ngress to organize its committee activities in a manner which will jjermit gi'eater focus on marine activities, but any reorganization or realignment of Congres- sional committee functions and jurisdictions is for the Congress itself to determine. A Time for Decision The Nation's stake in the uses of the sea is synonymous with the promise and threat of tomorrow. The promise lies in the economic opportunities the sea oft'exs, in the great stim- ulus to business, industry, and employment that new and expanded sea-related industries can produce. The promise lies also in expand- ing the Nation's horizons, in strengthening its international position and peaceful col- laboration among nations, and in the possi- bility that action today will permit man to make a start toward ultimate control of his planetary environment. The promise lies in making available new reserves of important minerals and in ensuring new sources of food. The threat lies in the potential destruction of large parts of the coastal environment and in the further deterioration of economically important ports, recreational facilities, coastal shellfisheries, and fisheries on the high seas. There is the threat inherent in any fail- ure by the Nation to utilize successfully its fair share of a major planetary resource; the United States simply cannot afford less than its best effort to utilize the global sea. Finally, there is the threat that unbridled interna- tional competition for the sea's resources may provoke conflict. A time of decision is here. Multiple pres- sures force the Nation to turn to the sea, and multiple opportunities await the seaward turning. The time of decision is not for the Federal Government alone, although Federal leadership is essential. State and local gov- ernments, industry, academic institutions, and the American people must share in deci- sion and action. The ocean does not yield its food and min- eral treasures easily ; damaged environments are not restored by scattered attacks or the good intentions of a few; the planet's domi- nant element cannot be understood, utilized, enjoyed, or controlled by diffuse and uncoor- dinated efforts. The Nation's stake can only be realized by a determined national effort great enough for the vast and rewarding task ahead. Chapter 2 'Vr . -|^, National Capability in the Sea SI The Nation's mariiie capability niiist be built, upon an expandinp; base of knowledge and practical skills. Tnclerstandin^ the sea is till' task of marine science. Improvement of operational skills, equipment, and meth- ods is tlie responsibility of marine technol- <>fi".V- There are needs for scientific and engi- noering knowledge common to nearly all marine programs, although each marine ac- tivity lias additional specialized require- ments. The Nation nnist have very broad capability to satisfy all these needs, including adequate facilities, the organization and know-how to accomplish specialized tasks, an assured supply of highly skilled and edu- cated manpower, and close integration of the Nation's scientific and technological resources. Arrangements to support marine science are well established on a strong base of com- petence in tlie universities and in Govern- ment. Marine science could be improved, however, by greater continuity in funding and by provision for concerted attacks on big problems. In contrast to its fostering of marine science, the Federal Government has not yet assumed a mission to support the advance of civil marine technology. There are no centers for technology development comparable to the major institutions devoted to marine science. Sufficient knowledge and experience do not now exist to permit hard decisions on alter- native courses of action for developing the resour<-es of the sea. For example, before major capital investments are made in min- ing at continental shelf depths or in em- placing great numliers of data-gathering and rei)orting buoys for environmental monitor- ing and prediction, more basic scientific in- formation and technologA' will l)e needed. The Connnission concludes that a national program to build capability in marine sci- .\ltlioii(/li till- Xution has e-rccllent fariliticx likr thr Tl'oorf.t IJolr Orinnoijniphic Institution for the mipimrt of marine xricncc. thrre arc no romparattlc erly classed as small business and have neither the organization nor resources to conduct research and development on a large scale: yet the total contribution of such small firms to the economy is sub- stantial. 28 Understanding the marine environment, hascd on scientific research and analysis, is crucial to such national ohjctives as improving man's ability to u-ork- in the sea. In this Cdpcriment, a small rodent lires normally in a tank completely submerged in water, receiving its oxygen from the water through a synthetic tank membrane that acts like a fl^h gill. Tlie scope of the task, the cost, and the risks in marine science and technology are so great that industry and the i-esearch communities face a truly formidable task which cannot be accomplished unless Government lends a lielping hand. The Commission concludes that public investment in building the na- tional capability is warranted by the prospect of substantial economic gains from the devel- opment of new resources to meet expanding human needs, by the emergence of new busi- nesses and industries and revitalization of old ones, by the improvement of marine and at- mospheric prediction, and by the protection and development of the Nation's coastal zone. The Commission believes it would be diffi- cult to overstate the importance of basic sci- ence and fundamental technology to a na- tional effort in the sea. Applied science and engineering are vital, but they must be devel- oped on a broad base of fundamental knowl- edge and skill. The rapid expansion of that base is a first requirement. Tlie growth of scientific understanding of the world oceans will not be accomplished quickly or easily even with the greatly ex- 23 paneled effort recommended. The seas are vast, complex, subtle, and often hostile to man and his works. They will not yield their secrets in a decade or a generation. But, with deter- mination and imagination, understanding of ocean processes will increase continually, stimulating corresponding growth in the Na- tion's capability to use and harvest the seas. The development of basic science and fun- damental technology requires a proper in- stitutional framework, establishment of pro- grams, creation of facilities, supply of man- power, strong communications channels among the many segments of the scientific and engineering communities, and adequate funds. Advancing Marine Science Importance and Objectives of Marine Science Scientific research and analysis must be supported to overcome inadequacies in our understanding which limit the Nation's use of the seas. The quest for basic knowledge has for many years received Federal sup- port, because our people share the curiosity of scientists about the nature of man, his planet, and his universe and because they share the scientists' conviction that over the long term the quest will yield knowledge that can better man's condition. The Commission notes with misgiving the recent tendency to condition Federal support of science on a prosfject of imminent, tan- gible results of economic value. Certainly a large body of research directed to such results is necessary, but it would be contrary to the national interest to overemphasize applied research at the expense of fundamental un- derstanding. Researcli motivated solel}' by the curiosity of scientists has produced, with compelling regularity, unanticipated applica- tions which have improved man's lot and lit- erally changed the face of the earth. There is much to be learned about the planet earth, and many keys to learning are in and under the sea. The total body of oceanic knowledge is advanced best by the pursuit of fundamental understanding of the biological, physical, geological, and chemical characteristics of the planetary oceans with- out regard to immediate applications. Con- tinuing and substantial support of basic ma- rine science is a national investment which will provide an underpinning for all future activities in tlie sea. The Commission recommends that the advancement of understanding of the planetary oceans be established as a ma- jor goal of the national ocean program. Marine Science in the United States Today Marine science in the United States today is vigorous, diversified, competent, and at least the equal of marine science anywhere in tlie world. It grew rapidly in the first half of this decade, and if growth continues, will soon attain a productive maturity capable of serving the interests of the Nation and the world. Scientists throughout the country are ac- tivelj' engaged in marine scientific research. They are concentrated in a few major institu- tions, but smaller groups and individual re- searchers are found in laboratories and uni- versities in all the 50 States. The Federal Government spent some $117 million on marine research in Fiscal Year 1968. The U.S. Department of Defense— primarily the U.S. Navy — accounted for about one-third the total. Other major fund- ing agencies are the National Science Foun- dation (NSF) and the many marine-related bureaus and agencies of the U.S. Department of the Interior. Smaller but still substantial Unique oceanic research tools like the manned floating instrument platform FLIP and the unmanned, Soli-foot seagoing platform for acoustics research SPAR have been built to help find ansivers to such vital problems as determining the propagation characteristics of sound in water. investors in marine science include the U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. Depart- ment of Transportation, the Atomic Energj' Commission, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The U.S. Na^'y and the National Science Foundation have substantial programs in basic marine scientific research, though most naval research supports operational missions. The research funded by the other Federal agencies is almost exclusively mission-ori- ented. Except for NSF, all Federal agencies supporting marine science maintain their own laboratories in addition to funding ma- rine research at universities and in industry. Currently, 85 U.S. Government laboratories exist along the coasts and Great Lakes — some of them understaffed and underutilized, some involved in research somewhat removed from their agency's primary interests, but es most with programs of high quality. These laboratories form a valuable component of the national capability in marine science. A new and potentially very important program in support of marine science and technology is that sponsored under the Na- tional Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966 and currently administered by the National Science Foundation. The Sea Grant Program provides continuing support for broad-based multidisciplinary programs in training and research in a variety of areas not covered by the Navy or other NSF pro- grams. Sea Grant can provide support for training, from the technician to the post- doctoral level, in all areas related to marine activities including the social sciences. It provides for information transfer programs of the kind pioneered a half century ago by the land grant college program of coopera- tive extension work, and it provides support for research on problems of resource devel- opment and other areas of applied research. Although the general situation of marine science is good, there is ample room for im- provement. Many researchers, particularly at smaller institutions, lack adequate facili- ties. Some ships of the U.S. oceanographic research fleet are or soon will be obsolete. Ex- celleTit cooperation between academic institu- tions and Government laboratories in some places is offset by poor cooperation in others. Cooperation between marine scientists and marine engineers is completely inadequate. In recent years, the marine science activ- ities of the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research, the two major funding agencies in this field, have not con- tinued to grow as rapidly as they should. Since 1968, the annual rate of growth in sup- port for academic marine science from these two agencies decreased from 7.3 per cent (1063-1966) to 2.2 per cent (1966-1968) — a growth rate insufficient to meet even the Trends in Funding for National Science Foundation and Office of Naval Research increasing costs of doing research and com- pletely inadequate to the needs and oppor- tunities of this priority field of scientific interest. The Commission concludes that it is essen- tial to regain the high level of interest and momentum that basic marine science attained during the past decade. Centers for Marine Science: University- National Laboratories The Commission finds that the U.S. posi- tion of world leadership in marine science depends mainly on the work of a small num- ber of major oceanographic institutions. These few large, well-staffed, and relatively well-financed centers of oceanographic re- search have had a profound influence on sci- entists and programs at other institutions and have established criteria of excellence for the efforts of others. Such institutions as Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and Lamont Geological Observatory represent a major na- tional investment around which the Nation's marine science program must be built. The need for such major centers is the re- sult of the verv nature of the seas. One of 26 the most demanding tasks of marine science is to conduct large, multidisciplinary efforts far from bases of logistic support and often in hostile environments. The growing sophis- tication of research tecliniques under such difficult conditions requires large complex facilities, well-equipped ships, large stable platforms, deep-drilling vessels, deep submer- sibles, underwater laboratories, large arrays of buoys, exijerimental structures of several kinds, extensive shore facilities, and open areas where experiments in environmental modification and control may be conducted. In brief, marine science has became big sci- ence even though its facilities' requirements still may be modest compared to those for the space, nuclear energy, and national health programs. Creation of big science capability in a few efficient centers is more economical than pur- suing the major scientific tasks on a scattered project-by-proj-ect and facility-by-facility basis. Yet the nature of funding by the Fed- eral Government often has hampered the de- velopment of such centers. In general, funds have been furnished to support specific proj- ects or facilities rather than institutions. Sometimes capital grants have been provided without following up with sufficient operat- ing funds to support the facilities' use. Fund- ing limitations often have made it impossible to take advantage of unexpected develop- ments or to support a scientist with an in- terest outside the specified scope of the funded project. To ensure the availability of money and the ability to plan ahead, the laboratories must be assured of an adequate level of in- stitutional support for broad program pur- poses. Individual research projects could be funded separately, as at present. Large facilities and guaranteed support are not needed by all institutions or scientists engaged in marine research. However, the Marine scievcc in the United States hat undergone a natural growth in faciUtiex requirements. Introduetion of the School of Fisheries at the I'nivcrsity of Rhode Island in 1967, for example, required an additional rexeareh I'cssel and her gear. Commission concludes that the Nation does need a small group of geographically dis- tributed laboratories that will be given such facilities and support to develop a high capability for ocean research. The labora- tories should be located to cover different parts of the ocean efficiently and to be readily available to other scientists and institutions. The direct management of these labora- tories, which might be designated as Univer- 27 sity-National Laboratories, should be as- signed to universities with a strong interest and demonstrated comijetence in marine affairs. Under guidelines established by the Federal Government, the University-Na- tional Laboratories would have fonnal pro- visions for making their facilities available to outside investigators and for exchange of advice and assistance with other nearby institutions. The relationship between tlie Federal Gov- ernment and each iniiversity could vary from laboratory to laboratory, and the facilities and programs of the LTniversity-National Laboratories need not be identical either in size or form. The number, size, and scope of such major centers depend on the priori- ties ultimately assigned to various elements of the national ocean effort, the availability of funds in competition with other needs, the willingness of major universities to com- mit themselves to such programs, and other factors. The laboratories would include, but not be restricted to, the presently acknowl- edged leadere. Certainly, University-National Laboratories will be needed on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, the Great Lakes, in the Arctic, and in the mid-Pacific. The Commission recommends that Uni- versity-National Laboratories be estab- lished at appropriate locations, equipped with the facilities necessary to undertake global and regional programs in ocean science, and assured of adequate institu- tional funding for continuity and main- tenance of both programs and facilities. Centers for Marine Science : Coastal Zone Laboratories Tlie major marine research institutions have focused tlieir work in the oceans beyond the coastal zone. Tliere are exceptions, of course, and excellent research in beach proc- esses, marine biology, and coastal geology has produced results of national value. But the Nation lacks well-established and well- equipped research centers to investigate the problems of the estuaries and the coastal zone. Though some problems are common to all estuaries and coastal zones, most are pri- marily of a regional or local nature and vary greatly. It is necessary only to compare the Hudson River estuary, the Mississippi Delta the Columbia River estuary. Lake Erie, the Maine shoreline, the beaches of North Caro- lina, and Alaska's Cook Inlet to appreciate the vast differences. Even in the same part of the country, regional and local population concentrations and geographical variations create quite different problems. The Dela- ware Bay and Chesapeake Bay are close together — even connected by a canal; yet they pose many different problems. Multiple-use problems involving valuable living resources are almo.st entirely regional and local. The relationship of oil, gas, and sulphur recoveiy to the shrimp and oyster fisheries off Louisiana presents quite differ- ent problems than the relationship of the pulp and paper industry with its effluents to the salmon fisheries of Washington. The Commission concludes that the serious nature of tlie problems of the estuaries and coastal zones, discussed in Chapter 3, calls for the development of local and regional research centers specializing in their solution. Fortunately, a number of universities already are moving in the direction of research to meet local marine problems; Federal support will serve to accelerate and enlarge this trend. The direct involvement of the States is of great imix)rtance in solving coastal problems. Tlie States will have to operate and maintain their own local environmental monitoring systems; management and some aspects of 28 Principal Marine Science Laboratories and Institutions University • 1 Peninsula College. 2 University of Washington. 3 Clatsop Community College. 4 Walla Walla College. 5 Oregon State University. 6 Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, 7 Hum- boldt State College. 8 California Maritime Academy. 9 University of California. 10 California State College of Hayward. 11 San Jo-^e State College. 12 U.S. Naval Post- graduate School. 13 Stanford University. 14 University of Southern California. 15 Pomona College. 16 Fullerton Jun- ior College. 17 California Institute of Technology. 18 Seripps Institution of Oceanography. 19 San Diego State College. 20 University of the Pacitic. 21 University of Wis- consin. 22 University of Michigan. 23 Illinos State College. 24 University of Chicago. 25 University of Illinois. 26 Uni- versity of Southern Mississippi. 27 Unversity of Georgia. 28 Texas A&M University. 29 University of Texas Institute of Marine Science. 30 Texas Maritime Academy. 31 Uni- versity of West Florida. 32 University of Alabama. 33 Uni- versity of South Florida. 34 Florida Presbyterian College. 35 University of Miami. 36 Nova University. 37 Florida Atlantic University. 38 Florida Institute of Technology. 39 University of Florida. 40 Florida State University. 41 Cape Fear Technical Institute. 42 University of North Carolina. 43 North Carolina State University. 44 Duke University. 45 Old Dominion College. 46 Virginia Institute of Marine Science. 47 U.S. Naval Academy. 48 Graduate School, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 49 Stevens In- stitute of Technology. 50 Catholic Tiniversity of America. 51 Suffolk County Community College. 52 Johns Hopkins University. 53 City College of the City University of New York. 54 University of Delaware. 55 New York University. 56 Lehigh University. 57 Long Island University. 58 State University of New York Maritime College. 59 Columbia University. 60 University of Bridgeport. 61 Webb Institute of Naval Architecture. 62 University of Connecticut. 63 Cornell I'niversity. 64 Yale University. 65 University of Rhode Island. 66 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 67 Southeaslern Massachusetts Technology Institute. 68 Har- vard University. 09 University of New Hampshire. 70 Southern Maine Vocational Technical Institute. 71 Univer- sity of Maine. 72 Maine Maritime Academy. 73 University of Massachusetts. 74 Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. 73 Northeastern University. 76 U.S. Coast Guard Academy. 77 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Federal Government □ 1 Biological Laboratory. 2 Exploratory Fishing and Gear Research Base. 3 Naval Underwater Weapons Research and Engineering Station. 4 Navy Underwater Sound Labora- tory. 5 Biological Laboratory. 6 Biological Laboratory. 7 Naval Applied Science Laboratory. 8 Naval Air Develop- ment Center. 9 Naval Air Engineering Center. 10 Naval Ship Research and Development Center. 11 Naval Weapons Laboratory. 12 C.E.R.C. 13 Naval Research Laboratory. 14 Naval Ordnance Laboratory. 15 Naval Ship Research and Development Laboratory, Annapolis. 16 Ichthyological Laboratory. 17 Oceanographic Unit. 18 National Oceano- graphic Data Center. 19 Biological Laboratory. 20 Biol- ogical Laboratory. 21 Exploratory Fishing and Gear Re- search. 22 Biological Laboratory. 23 Biological Laboratory. 24 Ka \- \ Management of the Coastal Zone 49 The coast of the United States is, in many respects, the Nation's most vakiable geo- graphic feature. It is at the jiincture of the land and sea that the greater part of this Nation's trade and industry takes place. The waters off the shore are among the most bio- logically productive regions of the Nation. The uses of valuable coastal areas generate issues of intense State and local interest, but the effectiveness with which the resources of the coastal zone are used and protected often is a matter of national importance. Na\'i- gation and military uses of the coasts and waters offshore clearly are direct Federal responsibilities; economic development, rec- reation, and conservation interests are sliared by the Federal Government and the States. Rapidly intensifying use of coastal areas already has outrun the capabilities of local governments to plan their orderly develop- ment and to resolve conflicts. The division of responsibilities among the several levels of government is unclear, and the knowledge and procedures for formulating sound deci- sions are lacking. The key to more effex'tive use of our coast- land is the introduction of a management system ijermitting conscious and informed choices among development alternatives, pro- viding for proper planning, aiul encouraging recognition of tlie long-tenn importance of maintaining the quality of this productive region in order to ensure both its enjoyment and the sound utilization of its resources. The benefits and the problems of achieving ra- tional management are apparent. The present Federal, State, and local macliinery is inade- quate. Something must be done. The Nature of the Coastal Zone The U.S. Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic coastlines total SS^fi.S.S miles, and there are 10,980 miles of U.S. coast bordering the Great Lakes. There are wide physical diversities — The Nation must recnpnizr thr long- term importance of maintaininfj the qunlit]! of its roastlands, like the Cape Cnti Xational fieashore. in order to insure ioth their enjoy- rugged shorelines with many indentations, offshore islands and rocks, and smooth coast- lines with few offshore features. Sandy teaches, rocky headlands, or marshlands may be found along the shore, and water depths may slope gently from the shoreline or de- cline precipitously. The zone is a region of transition between the land and the sea. Such activities as urban development, pollution of streams, and main- tenance of recreation areas may affect the coastal area. Similarly, commercial fishing, shipping, and ocean pollution also may in- fluence the coastal zone's usage. Finally, there are numerous activities within the zone itself such as .ghellfishing, pleasure boating, offshore oil production, and sand and gravel dredging. Tlie coastal zone management system must, therefore, grapple with a great diversity of related and other conflicting activities. Oceanic Zones under International Law The Commission in this report distin- guishes between the internal waters and ter- ritorial sea of a nation, the high seas, the con- tiguous zone, the continental shelf, and the bed and subsoil of the deep seas — that is, the high seas beyond the continental shelf. These global areas are prescribed by existing inter- national law of the sea and have no precise geographic references. It is important also to differentiate between the rights of the United States in each of these areas ris-a-ris all other nations of the world and the division of au- thority between the Federal Government and the coastal States of the United States in areas acknowledged to be within the Nation's jurisdiction. Internal Waters and the Territorial Sea Under the International Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, each nation's sovereignty extends beyond its land territory "to a belt of sea adjacent to its coast, described as the territorial sea" and "to 50 the air space over the territorial sea as well as to its bed and subsoil." Although the Con- vention does not specify the breadth of the territorial sea, and claims vai-y from 3 nau- tical miles to 200 miles or more, the United States lias maintained that no claim to a breadth greater than 3 nautical miles is sanc- tioned by international law. The rivers, lakes, and canals within its land area; the waters on the landward side of the baseline of the territorial sea (normally the low water line along the coast) ; and the waters landward of closing lines across bays constitute the coastal nation's "internal waters." Except as limited by treaty, each coastal nation may prescribe and enforce its law in its internal and territorial waters and lias permanent, exclusive access to the living and nonliving resources in these waters, on their beds, or in their subsoil. The High Seas The International Convention on the High Seas defines the "high seas"' to include "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters" of a nation. It proclaims that they are "open to all nations" and no nation "may validly pur- port to subject any part of them to its sov- ereignty." Both coastal and noncoastal na- tions may exercise the freedoms of the high seas. According to the Convention, they com- prise freedom of navigation, freedom of fish- ing, freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines, freedom to fly over the high seas, and other freedoms "recognized by the gen- eral principles of international law." How- ever, some of these freedoms are restricted or regulated pursuant to international trea- ties and otlier international agreements. The Contiguous Zone The Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone specifies that within a zone of the high seas "which may not extend beyond twelve miles from the baseline from which the breadth of tlie territorial sea is measured," each coastal nation may exercise the control necessaiy to prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sani- tary regulations and may punish any such in- fringement committed within its territory or territorial sea. Although the Convention seems to restrict the purposes for whicli national control may be exercised in the contiguous zone, the coast- al nation's authority is not, in fact, so limited. This is true, because one way or another, coastal nations claim permanent, exclusive access to the living resources of the sea up to 12 miles and more from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Thus, the United States has passed laws and regulations prohibiting foreign ves- sels from fishing in its 12-mile "exclusive fisheries zone" without its permission. The Continental Shelf The International Convention on the Con- tinental Shelf recognizes the sovei-eign rights of the coastal nation to explore the shelf and exploit its natural resources. These rights are declared to be exclusive in the sense that, even if the coastal nation does not undertake these activities or make a claim to the continental shelf, no one else may do so without its ex- press consent. The Convention defines the continental shelf as "the seabed and subsoil of the sub- marine areas adjacent to the coast but outside the area of the territorial sea, to a depth of 200 meters (656 feet) , or, beyond that limit, to wliere the depth of the superjacent waters admits of the exploitation of the natural re- sources of the said areas" and "the seabed and subsoil of similar submarine areas ad- jacent to the coasts of islands." It defines the natural resources to which the coastal nation SI INTERNAL WATERS CONTINENTAL SHELF - EDGE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF (on lh» average, about 200 meter depth, 50 miles from baseline) DEPTHS IN METERS Relationship of Internal Waters, the Territorial Sea, the Contiguous Zone, and the Continental Shelf is g^iven permanent, exclusive access as in- cluding "the mineral and other nonliving resources of the seabed and subsoil together with living organisms * * * which, at the harvestable stage either are immobile on or under the seabed or are unable to move ex- cept in constant physical contact with the sea- bed or subsoil." Geographic Scope of the Coastal Zone and Division of Authority in the Zone In discussing the problems of the coastal zone, the Commission has avoided precise def- initions, but for purposes of the proposed coastal management system, the Commission inews the coastal zone as including (1) sea- ward, the territorial sea of the Ignited States and (2) landward, the tidal waters on the landward side of the low water mark along the coast, the Great Lakes, port and harbor facilities, marine recreational areas, and in- dustrial and commercial sites dependent upon the seas or the Great Lakes. Each coastal State, however, should be authorized to define the landward extent of its coastal zone for itself. Subject to the constitutional powers of the Congress (principally in this case, the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including navigation) , the States have prime responsibility and authority for managing the landward areas of the coastal zone. Sea- ward, the situation is more complicated. By virtue of the Submerged Lands Act of 1953, the coastal States, except for Texas and Flor- ida, own the living and nonliving resources of the seabed and subsoil of the sea out to 3 nautical miles from their coastlines. Texas 52 owns the resources out to 9 nautical miles from its coast; and Florida, out to 9 nautical miles from its Gulf coast. Intensification of Coastal Zone Usage The most intensive uses of the coastal zone occur at the water's edge. Seaward the prob- lems become fewer if not simpler, and at the edge of the continental shelf, problems of conflicting uses are the exception today. But — and this is a point the Commission must stress — problems of multiple uses of the coastal zone are moving seaward. The Panel Reijort on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone identifies inany areas where the uses of the coastal zone are increasing. As use of offshore lands is intensified, the need for better management practices will become more urgent. Shoreline Development Patterns of shoreline development vaiy widely from area to area depending upon local topography and economic interests. Across the Nation and throughout the de- veloped countries of the world, the pressures on shoreline space have mounted dramatically over the past 20 years and are certain to in- crease. The reasons are clear: the shift of the population from rural areas to the cities (the Nation's seven largest metropolitan areas are on the Great Lakes or the sea coast), the spread of suburban development into coastal areas, and the increased affluence and leisure time of a large part of our population. Theoretically, the Nation's shoreline could be increased almost without limit, and the construction of aHificial islands and new har- bors and the use of similar teclmiques to create shoreline will continue in those areas where demand warrants these actions. In San Diego harbor, for example, pressures for additional shoreline space have been partially Theoretioally the Nation's shoreline could he increased almost witliout limit. For example, a study by the Deparlmcnt of Housing and Urban Dcicloi>iiH nt liax cstuhlishcd the engineering feasibility of multilevel, floating coastal cities. satisfied by construction of two artificial is- lands from channel-dredging spoil. Private housing has exercised and will con- tinue to exercise the greatest demand for shore property ; for example, the Boca Ciega Bay area off the west coast of Florida has been completely transformed by housing de- velopments in the past 20 years. But there are other needs that must be met; heavy in- dustry, traditionally located on the water's edge, seeks a cheap source of industrial water, a simple solution to waste disposal problems, and I'eady access to raw material. Pollution abatement requirements have lessened some- what tlie desirability of a waterfront indus- trial location, but rec«nt trends in shipping have increased the demand for deep water frontage. Deep water access will be essen- tial to the future competitiveness of steel and other U.S. industries which process large 5S volumes of hea'\'j' raw materials. Any plan for the use of the coastal zone must seek to ac- commodate heavy industry. F'uture shoreline development also must provide for additional transportation and power orenerating facilities. Fi'om tlie Civil War through World War II, a vast network of piers, warehouses, and railroads was con- structed about the perimeters of tlie Nation's ports. Today, these facilities are being re- placed slowly by freeways, airports, special- ized bulk cargo and container loading facilities, and housing. The transition is extraordinarily difficult and will require planning and coordination of public and private activities on a wholly new scale. Electrical power production has doubled during every decade of this century. An in- creasing percentage of new power plants will use nuclear fuel, and the disposition of waste heat is an increasing problem. It is estimated that by 1980 the power industry will use for cooling one-fifth of the total fresh water run- oti' of the United States. An increasing num- ber of plants will be located along the shore- line, competing for valuable land, warming the local waters, and posing major threats to the regional ecological balance. A decent concern for preserving life's amenities as well as economic considerations demands that more adequate provisions be made for recreational use along the Nation's crowded shoreline. Today, marine recreation ranks high in economic importance (Table 3-1) ; according to the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, by the year 2000, marine recrea- tion in terms of user-days will quadruple. Access to the shoreline for the populations that increasingly are concentrated in urban areas along the coasts and the Great Lakes will present a major coastal zone problem. Of all the uses of the costal zone, recreation uses are the most diversified and pose some of the greatest challenges to any coastal man- agement system. Offshore Activities Fisheries Seventy per cent of the present U.S. com- mercial fishing eifort takes place in coastal waters. Coastal and estuarine waters and marshlands provide the nutrients, nursing areas, or spawning grounds for two-thirds of the world's entire fisheries harvest. Seven Table 3-1 A Comparative Summary of Recreational Activity in Coastal and Offshore Areas Type of recreation Swimming 3.3 Surfing Skin Diving Pleasure Boating Sport Fishing Total 52. 8 Participants, millions Annual expenditures, millions of dollars 1964 1975 1964 1975 . 3.3. 0 40. 0 $1, .500 $2, 000 1.0 4.0 ,50 200 1.0 3. 0 300 900 9.6 14. 0 6.50 1,000 S. 2 16. 0 760 1,300 77. 0 $3, 260 $5, 400 Sot;RrE ; Battelle Memorial Institute. A Study of the U.S. Coa»t and Geodetic Survey's Products and Services as Related to Economic Actiiity in the L'.S. Continental-Shelf Regions, April 1966. 5i of the 10 most valuable species in American commercial fisheries spend all or important periods of their lives in estuarine waters, and at least 80 other commercially important spe- cies are dependent upon estuarine areas. The high productivity of estuarine areas is illustrated by the following example. The maximum yield of Georgia estuarine waters has been estimated at 10 tons of dry organic matter per acre per year, nearly twice that of the best agricultural lands and seven times that of continental shelf fishing banks. But the estuaries are in danger. Pollution is an ever increasing thi-eat. Land fillings, dredg- ing, dumping, and marsh draining reduce their areas. For example, 80 per cent of the 300 square miles of tidal wetlands that origi- nally surrounded San Francisco Bay have been filled. In the past 20 years, dredging and filling have destroyed 7 per cent Table 3-2 Estuarine Habitat Areas Lost to Filling Operations Acres ot Esluaries | Area of Basic Basic Area Habitat Lost of Important by Dredging Total Area Habitat and Fil'inq Percent of State (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) Habitat Lost Alabama 530 133 2 1.5 A'aska 11,023 574 1 .2 Calilornia 552 382 256 67.0 Connecticut 32 20 2 10,3 Delaware 396 152 9 5.6 Florida 1.051 796 60 7.5 Georgia 171 125 1 .6 Louisiana 3.545 2.077 65 3.1 Maine 39 15 1 6.5 MarylancJ 1,406 376 1 .3 Massachusetts 207 31 2 6.5 Michigana 152 152 4 23 Mississippi 251 76 2 2.2 New Hampshire 12 10 1 10.0 New Jersey 778 411 54 13.1 New York 377 133 20 15.0 New York State (Great Lakes) 49 49 1 1.2 North Carolina 2,207 794 8 1.0 Ohio' 37 37 b .3 Oregon 58 20 1 3.5 Pennsylvania* 5 5 b 2.0 Rhode Island 95 15 1 6.1 South Carolina 428 269 4 1.6 Texas 1.344 828 68 82 Virginia 1.670 428 2 .6 Washington 194 96 4 4.5 Wisconsin* 11 11 b .0 Total 26.618= 7.988= 569t 7.1 a. In Great Lakes only shoals (areas less t^ an 6 (eet dee p) were con- sidered as estuaries b. Less than 500. c. Discrepancy caused by rounding. Source : Estuarine Areas, H.R. Rep. No. 989 to aooompamy H.R. 25, 90th CoDig., 1st Sess., p. S. (more than a half million acres) of the Na- tion's important fish and wildlife estuarine habitats. Aquaculture Aquaculture today is of relatively minor importance, but its future role in the coastal zone will grow. As it grows, the problems of conflicting use will increase. Estuarine areas leased for aquaculture may be closed to sport fishermen and, in some cases, may be closed to navigation. A State attempting to develop a major program in aquaculture may be compelled to limit its shoreside industrial development. Oil and Mineral Exploration The offshore oil industry is growing rap- idly. Several thousand offshore platforms have l)een built in the Gulf of Mexico alone. New developments are expected off Alaska and the Atlantic seaboard. Stiiictures for 600- foot water depths are being designed. Pipe- lines for oil and gas have been laid more than 70 miles offshore. Offshore petroleum development has not been witliout conflict. Explosives used in ex- ploring for oil on the Grand Banks have caused considerable conceni among fishermen. The probability that oil will be produced generates additional concern about possible oil spills, pipelines, and other hazards to fishing. Although mineral development of the continental shelf is subject to U.S. con- trol, the fisheries beyond the 12-mile limit are an international resource, causing the ix)ten- tial oil-versus-fish confrontation to have still more serious overtones. Tlie density of oil drilling platforms in the Gulf of Mexico is so great that the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, working coojjeratively with the industry, have been compelled to establish fairways for shipping in and out of Gulf 55 ports. Oil companies on the west coast fre- quently have placed their wells below the sur- face when aesthetic values were important. Subsurface structures, however, create differ- ent kinds of navigation hazards, particularly to fishing trawls. Uses of Offshore Waters In addition to resource exploitation in coastal areas, there is much use of the waters themselves. The U.S. Navy operates on and under the coastal sea jjerforming various military operations; certain waters are re- served for this purpose. Merchant shipping, particularly with the growing use of very large supertankers, soon will require the des- ignation of reserved fairways. The introduc- With the advent of container ahipn ha» come the requirement for new port facilitieting interests and pro- tects long-term values. Effective management to date lias been thwarted by the variety of government jurisdictions involved, the low priority afforded marine matters by State governments, the diffusion of responsibilities among State agencies, and the failure of State agencies to develop and implement long-range plans. Until recently, naviga- tion— over which Federal authority is pre- eminent— has tended to dominate other uses of the coastal zone, and, perhaps for this rea- son. States have been slow to assume their resix)nsibilities. The Federal role in the coastal zones has grown haphazardly. Closely related func- tions are discharged by the U.S. Coast Guard, Army Corps of Engineers,' Department of Housing and Urban Development, a number of bureaus of the Department of the Interior, and several other Federal agencies. The Fed- eral Government sponsors planning activities in certain coastal areas through river basin commissions, established pursuant to Title II of the Water Resources Plamiing Act of 1965, and in certain others through regional com- missions established under Title V of the Public Works and Economic Development Act. At the Federal level, the Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone of the Ma- rine Council considers the broad aspects of coastal management and se<^ks effective and consistent Federal policies. The Water Re- sources Council, a cabinet-level coordinating and planning group analogous to the Marine Council but chaired by the Secretary of the Interior, also has an interest in the coastal zone, although its work is primarily directed to inland waters. But, of course, neither com- mittee can be concei-ned with the detailed management of particular coastal areas. The diffusion of resiwnsibility has been re- flected' within State governments, within which individual agencies deal directly with their counterparts at the Federal level. Too often States lack plans of their own based on an appraisal of all State interests in their coastal resources. In these cases. States have tended only to react to Federal plans. The States are subject to intense pressures from the county and municipal levels, bec-ause coastal management directly affects local re- sponsibilities and interests. Local knowledge frequently is necessary to reach rational man- agement decisions at the State level, and it is necessary to reflect the interests of local gov- ernments in accommodating comi^etitive needs. After reviewing the various alternatives (see the Panel Re^wrt on INIanagement and Development of the Coastal Zone) , the Com- mission finds that the States must be the focus for responsibility and action in the coastal zone. The State is the central link joining the many participants, but in most cases, the States now lack adequate machinery for that task. An agency of the State is needed with sufficient planning and regula- tory authority to manage coastal areas ef- fectively and to resolve problems of compet- ing uses. Such agencies should be strong enough to deal with the host of overlapping and often competing jurisdictions of the various Federal agencies. Finally, strong State organization is essential to surmount special local interests, to assist local agencies 57 in solving common problems, and to effect strong interstate cooperation. In varying degrees, the States possess the resources, administrative machinery, enforce- ment powers, and constitutional authority on wliich to build. However, they will need Fed- eral assistance and support, and the Federal (lovernment must assure the protection of na- tional interests in the coastal zone. The Federal Government cannot and, of course, should not compel a State to develop a special organization to deal with its coastal management problems. However, it can en- courage such actions, provide guidelines for tlie functions of such organizations, facilitate Federal cooperation with State authorities, and provide appropriate assistance. The Commission recommends that a Coastal Management Act be enacted which will provide policy objectives for the coastal zone and authorize Federal grants-in-aid to facilitate the establish- ment of State Coastal Zone Authorities empowered to manage the coastal waters and adjacent land. To assist the States in developing coastal zone management programs, the Commission profxises that the Federal Government meet one-half of the operating costs of the new State Authorities during the first 2 years of their operation. Matching grants should l)e provided for planning studies, either through funds such as appropriated pursuant to Section 701 of the Housing Act of 1954 for State planning. Title III of the Water Re- sources Planning Act, or through new legis- lation. Substantial technical assistance can he provided by Federal personnel. Oppor- tunities for other Federal assistance, dis- cussed later in this chapter, also exist under the Land and AVater Conservation Fund Act, the fish and wildlife restoration acts, the Clean Water Kestoration Act of 1966, and urban renewal and economic development legislation. Functions and Powers of the State Coastal Zone Authorities The key functions of the State Coastal Zone Authorities would be to coordinate plans and uses of coastal waters and adjacent lands and to regulate and develop these areas. The Coastal Zone Authorities shovdd draw upon all available knowledge of the physical, bio- logical, and economic characteristics of the State coasts and estuaries. The Coastal Zone Laboratories recommended in Chapter 2 would support the Coastal Authorities by conducting research and special studies and by helping to develop necessary technology. The gi-eat diversity of resources, scope, and activities of coastal State governments will prevent adoption of a unifonn administra- ti\e approach to State Coastal Zone Author- ities. In some States a single Authority might appropriately be given jurisdiction over the State's entire coast ; in others, several groups might be established under a single Authority within a State to deal with separate estuarine areas. The management of interstate estua- ries will require agreements to be developed among adjacent States to delegate at least limited management authority to an inter- state body. The form of the State Authority may vary from a volunteer commission with a small staff to an agency like the New York Port Authority with major development au- thority buttressed by the power to issue bonds. The guiding principles for the Authorities should include the concept of fostering the widest possible variety of beneficial uses so as to maximize net social return. When neces- sary, public hearings should be held to allow- all interested parties to express views before 58 The form of a State Coastal Zone Authority might range from a volunteer commission with a small staff to a major agency like the Port of New York Authority. actions are taken or decisions are made chang- ing or modifying the coastal zone. All infor- mation and actions should be a matter of public record. The Coastal Zone Authority should be or- ganized to prevent domination by State agen- cies charged with narrower i-esponsibilities. However, the Authority will have to work closely with other State agencies to achieve the objectives of its plan, because the activ- ities of these other agencies in promulgating conservation and fishing regulations and wa- ter quality standards, for example, signifi- cantly affect coastline and offshore water use. Procedures must be established within each State to ensure that the actions of other State agencies are consistent witJi Authority-ap- proved plans. To strengtli the Authority, the Federal Government should consider with- holding grant-in-aid assistance from any project which contravenes plans of the Coast- al Zone Authority. 59 The channel and harbor improvements fi- nanced by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers are important components of the local coastal zone plan. Such improvements currently are approved by State Governors, who would benefit in making these decisions from expert advice of the proposed State Coastal Zone Authorities. The Commission recommends that Fed- eral legislation to aid the States in estab- lishing Coastal Zone Authorities not im- pose any particular form of organization but should require that approval of each grant be contingent on a showing that the proposed organization has the necessary powers to accomplish its purposes, has broad representation, and provides ade- quate opportunities for hearing all view- points before adopting or modifying its coastal development plans. The magnitude. of coastal problems varies with the nature of the area ; therefore, so will the powers necessary to carry out the plans. In certain relatively undeveloped areas, only planning will be required, but in others the entire range of State powers will be needed to preserve resources of statewide and na- tional importance. The following powers should be available to the typical Coastal Zone Authority : • Planning — to make comprehensive plans for the coastal waters and adjacent lands and to conduct the necessary studies and investigations • Regulatiori — to zone; to grant easements, licenses, or permits; and to exercise other necessary controls for ensuring that use of waters and adjacent lands is in conform- ance witii the plan for the area • .\cquisition and eminent domain — to iic- quire lands when public ownership is nec- essary to control their use (Condemnation procedures should be used if necessary.) • Development — to provide, either directly or by arrangement with other govern- ment agencies, such public facilities as beaches, marinas, and other waterfront de- velopments and to lease lands in its juris- diction, including offshore lands. Zoning, easements, and licensing are effec- tive instruments by which local government and private activity can be regulated in ac- cordance wnth the approved plan. (The Panel Report on Management and Development of the C/oastal Zone discusses a variety of regulatory mechanisms.) In most places zoning powers have been yielded by the States to local jurisdictions. In such cases, the States may have to act to regain the zon- ing power for coastal areas. Water use zon- ing repi'esents a practical and effective management tool for managing potentially conflicting uses. However, procedures by which shoreline and water zoning is coordi- nated present sensitive problems for each State. States also may require that permits be granted for coastal land and water use. Per- mit systems are employed now by many States to govern the construction of fish weirs, culture of oysters, excavation of gravel, and similar activities. Permits might be required for docking facilities, marinas, housing developments, and other construc- tion. Additionally, it may be desirable to dele- gate to the State Coastal Zone Authorities certain regulatory functions of Federal agen- cies, such as reviewing proposals for con- struction in navigable waterways and advis- ing Federal construction agencies. Regulation will not alwaj'S suffice to pre- .serve the benefits of access to the coast for all the people within the State. For this pur- pose, the States should acquire outright own- 60 ership of lands, using condemnation proce- dures if necessary. If the coastal area in question can meet only the needs of the local Ix)pulation, the local government should ac- quire the land if regulatory and other means prove inadequate. Federal assistance for coastland acquisi- tion is available through several existmg pro- grams, and the State Authorities should work through established channels to utilize this assistance insofar as possible. The enhanced opportunities provided by recent legislation augmenting land acquisition funds with rev- enues from outer continental shelf leases should be exploited fully. Current legisla- tion, however, makes limited provision for acquiring wetlands having no recreation benefit. To increase the availability of funds to acquire and set aside wetlands for future use, The Commission recommends that the Land and 'Water Conservation Fund be more fully utilized for acquisition of wet- lands and potential coastal recreation lands. Legislation should be enacted au- thorizing Federal guarantees of State bonds for wetland acquisition when necessary to implement the coastal man- agement plan. In the Commission's view. States will re- spond vigorously to a Federal initiative to as- sist in the establishment of State Coastal Zone Authorities. There is growing evidence that the States are ready to act. In the San Fran- cisco Bay area and in Nassau and Suffolk Counties of Long Island, New York, local planning commissions have recommended the formation of State authorities similar to those recommended by the Commission. Measures taken by California, Oregon, Wis- consin, and Florida exemplify the public concern for planned management of coastal waters: Management in Interstate Estuaries Estuaries or coastal watei-s of concern to more than one State — for example, the Dela- ware and Chesapeake Bays or Lake Michi- gan— can jjose special problems. Without im- derestimating the potential difficulties, the Commission is persuaded that in most cases sound planning and management undertaken by one State probably will not differ greatly from that undertaken by an adjacent State. Wlien differences do arise, they may be set- tled by direct negotiations between the parties concerned or by the establishment of ad hoc interstate committees or an interstate com- mission or compact. Strong Coastal Zone Au- thorities representing the variety of State interests will facilitate such agreements. The Commission believes that such interstate agreements are preferable to coordination through river basin commissions in which the Federal Government is a member. Not hav- ing management or enforcement authority, such commissions can only plan and advise. The Federal Role in the Coastal Management System The Federal Government has strong in- terests in the effective management of a State's coastal waters. First, a number of Federal agencies operate in the coastal waters and sometimes profoundly affect their use. As a contributor to the problem, the Federal Government has to share in the responsibility of coastal management. Second, the Federal Government must ensure that such vital Fed- eral interests as navigation and military secu- rity are not endangered by State actions and that the general national interest in effective coastal planning is protected. It is in the Na- tion's interest to understand the natural proc- esses occurring in the nearshore environment 61 A tourist enjoys the Xationul Park Sfrvirr'n iindcricntcr trail at Buck Island, the Virgin Islands. Pro- vision of such recreational facilities is part of the Nation's broad- ranging interests in the coastal zone. in order to predict and to control man's effects on tliis environment. A related objective is to protect and even to restore the environ- ment. The multiplicity of Federal interests calls for Federal review of proposed State plans and their implementation and for Federal intercession if a Coa.stal Zone Authority fails to safeguard national interests. The Federal Govermnent should not make decisions for the State Authority, but it should oversee the Authority and withdraw fuiuling support and delegation of sjjecilic Federal functions if the Authority performs inadequately. Federal review is possible at several stages — when the State first proposes a par- ticular type of management autliority ; when the comprehensive coastal plan is submitted by the Authority; and, if the plan is ap- proved, when further grants, contracts for acquisition and development, or bond guar- antees are proposed. Federal responsibilities for dealing with State Authorities should be centralized to as- sure that the Federal Government speaks with a single voice on coastal zone matters. The Commission concludes that the new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) would offer a broader and more balanced perspective in meeting competing use problems than an alternative agency. In addition, the new agency could assist the State Authorities in research, environmental monitoring, safety, and enforcement func- tions. NOAA's commitment to more effective use of the seas would be fully compatible with the mission of the Coastal Zone Au- thorities. Coordination of Federal and State roles must be especially close in relating the navi- gation and flood control programs of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the resource management programs of the Department of the Interior to the plans of the State Coastal Zone Authorities. For example, the Authori- ties' land and water use plans must be con- sistent with coastal water quality standards established by State pollution agencies under the cognizance of the Department of the In- terior. The Dejiartment of the Interior's continuing recreation, wildlife, and minerals development plans in coastal areas must be accommodated by State Authorities in their planning, regulatory, land acquisition, and development functions. 62 The Commission believes it important that the Congress assign planning, coordina- tion, and management for coastal zone l)eyond State jurisdiction to a single Federal agency. The Federal planning and manage- ment role would be analogous to that exer- cised within the limits of Stat© jurisdiction by the Coastal Zone Authorities. This as- signment shoidd complement the specialized responsibilities of the Bureau of Land Man- agement, the Federal Water Pollution Con- trol Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and should not modify in any way the overall responsibility of the De- partment of Stat© for the Nation's foreign affairs. The Commission recommends that: • The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency administer the grants in sup- port of planning and enforcement activities of the State Coastal Zone Authorities. It should be empowered to revoke or withhold the grants if the Authorities are not acting in compli- ance with plans NOAA has approved. • All Federal agencies providing grants- in-aid to States or engaging in coastal activities review their projects for con- sistency with plans of the State Coastal Zone Authorities. • NOAA assist the States in an effort to resolve problems resulting from the divergent objectives of other Federal agencies. • NOAA develop and continually update its plans for the development and use of coastal areas not within State juris- diction and coordinate the activities of other Federal agencies in these areas. Information Needed for Coastal Zone Management The coastal zone's many uses, occurring within a complex and delicately balanced biophysical system, will challenge the Na- tion's capacity for effective planning and management. To establish an adequate basis for decision making, there is a need for broad surveys to establish basic national inventory information, there is a need for continuous and detailed studies of specific local condi- tions, there is a need for trained personnel, and there is a need for determining precise jurisdictional boundaries. State Boundaries Controversy persists regarding the loca- tion of the baselines from which to measure the territorial sea and areas covered by the Submerged Lands Act of 1953. Fixing these lines will be difficult and contentious, because valuable rights are at stake. The Supreme Court of the United States now has before it a dispute between the United States and Lou- isiana involving $1.1 billion in mineral lease payments. In California, the oil rights to ap- proximately 500 acres of offshore land were leased at $10,000 an acre; the rights are in contention because of disagreement about whether a low-lying reef some yards offshore is sufficiently high to be considered part of the coastline. It has been estimated that of the 18 seaward lateral boundaries between the States, only 4 are substantially defined. It is important, too, that the boundaries be fixed once and for all in terms of geographic coordinates that can be portrayed on maps, ratlier than in terms of distances from the coasts. This would avoid the problem of base- lines changing due to tidal effects, floating is- lands, migrating sandbars, and the deposit of riverborn© sediments. 6S The Commission recommends that the Congress establish a National Seashore Boundary Commission to fix the baselines from which to measure the territorial sea and areas covered by the Submerged Lands Act of 1953 and to determine the seaward lateral boundaries between the States. The boundary lines should be de- scribed in terms of geographic or plane coordinates for each State. The determi- nations of the Boundary Commission should be subject to appropriate judicial review. Surveys and Inventories Acquisition of better information about the phj'sical, economic, and biological character- istics and potentials of the coastal zone is a first step toward more rational management. Survey information is needed nationally so planning for local development may sup- port national objectives and be related real- istically to national priorities. These data will provide the basic framework for more de- tailed State plans. Because the many uses of the coastal zone are interdependent, thei'e should be a single inventory embracing all aspects of coastal development. Port improvements and dredg- ing plans then could be developetl with due regard for their effects on fisheries and rec- reation. The physical attributes of the coastal zone would be considered in the relation to economic and ecological implications. However, a totally comprehensive analysis of national coa.stal jwtentials appears beyond present capabilities: the task is simply too large and complex for a total approach. In- stead, it is more realistic to pursue studies of port development, recreation, shoreline ero- sion, pollution, and estuarine ecological char- acteristics separately but in coordination with one another. Three broad survej'S are either underway or Iiave been proposed: an estua- rine inventory, a coastal erosion study, and a ports and harbors study. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency participate in major coastal sur- veys, identify areas of common interest, and coordinate plans to avoid overlap and incompatibilities. Estuarine Inventory A survey of estuaries was authorized by the Congress in the Clean "Water Restoration Act of 1966. This broad survey is being conducted by the Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- ministration of the Department of the Inte- rior. Public Law 90-454, passed by the Congress in 1968, further extended the scope of the Department of the Interior's estuarine study to include a complete inventory of the Nation's estuaries (including the Great Lakes), their present uses, their ecological characteristics, and their potential in order to determine the desirability of acquiring estuarine wetlands for public use. This study is to be made by the Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice. The 1966 Act requires that the Secretary of the Interior submit to the Congress no later than Jan. 30, 1970, a report of his study and recommendations for legislative action. The report is to include recommendations regarding the feasibility and desirability of establishing a "nationwide system of estua- rine areas, and the terms, conditions and au- thorities to govern such a system." The two estuarine surveys under the Secre- tary' of the Interior should be complementary. For the surveys to be fully useful, their eval- uation of conservation, land acquisition, and pollution problems should take account of commercial, industrial, recreational, and resi- dential uses. 64 The Army Corps of Engineers is engaged in both beach restoration projects and shoreline erosion studies: the icave experimentation tank permits testing types 0/ groins; a dredge (upper right of top photograph) pumps sand via pipeline to an eroded beach. 6S The studies provide an opportimity to iden- tify areas that slioukl be reserved in an undis- turbed state for studyin- almost e\erv aspect of our national life. The problem of pollution must be viewed and combatted in the context of a total waste management system — a task which extends beyond the Commission man- date and tlie Commission urges that this broader task be assumed by others. The Com- ty of Cleveland c Eric. mission, however, has sought to identify the principal characteristics of the problem as it affects the marine environment and to ad- vance recommendations to deal with those asi)ects of pollution unique to the coastal zone and tlie sea. Characteristics of Coastal Zone Pollution The Great Lakes and oceans are the final receptacle for most of tlie Nation's wastes. Pollutants carried down the rivers or de- ix)sited directly from the shores may be trapped permanently within the estuarine 7-) sj'stem and may work damage that cannot be repaired. Estuarine pollution has a more far- reaching, although perhaps less visible im- pact on our national life than the pollution of streams and rivers. Action to abate oceanic and lake pollution has lagged behind the abatement of river pollution, because marine problems are more comjilex. Marine pollution takes many forms. Munic- ipal sewage, a notorious source, still is one of the simplest to treat, although the waste treatment problem is becoming increasingly complicated. Industrial wastes are difficult to treat. In many cases, sewage treatment plants are of no use, because certain industrial wastes neutralize the chemicals used in the treatment process. However, industrial wastes are generated at known and fixed locations, and at least they cp„n be identified by source. The most difficult pollution control prob- lem is posed by wastes which do not come from a point source : chemicals spread on icj' roads; pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers sprayed in fields; lead oxide in the exhaust of automobiles. These also find their way to streams, to rivers, and eventually to the ocean in ever larger amounts. Some experts think that such pollutants are even more danger- ous than the more readily identified munici- ])al and industrial wastes, but data to evalu- ate this view are grossly inadequate. Physical modifications also may lie classed as pollutants. Physical changes may lie benefi- cial or deleterious. The heating of coastal wa- tei'S by the electric power industry provides an example. "Warmer water may improve an area's recreation ix)tential, and it also may stimulate aquaculture programs. However, increased temperature decreases the oxygen- carrying capacity of the water and may change the ecology of the area. Quito often marine acti^nties pollute the marine environment. A dredging operation pollutes the water as it stirs up the bottom silts. Oil spillages and boat toilets are two of the most publicized sources of marine pol- lution. There are more than 12,000 oil wells oif the U.S. coasts, and the number is increas- ing by more than 1,400 per year. Despite the careful safety measures of the industry, well blowouts, pipeline leaks, operator careless- ness, and storm damage still can cause serious damage. The total number of boats with toilets in the United States is estimated by the Department of the Interior to be 1.3 million. One of the least understood processes of pollution is the manner in which organisms concentrate pollutants. In a natural environ- ment, oysters accumulate zinc and copper in concentrations several million times greater than found in sea water. Marine animals also may concentrate manmade chemicals. Con- centrations of DDT have been found in com- mercially important fish. Excessive levels of radioactive phosphorous have been found in seagulls off the mouth of the Columbia River ; the jDhosphorous was traced to nuclear plants at Hanford, Wash., 300 miles upstream. Sig- nificant quantities of a known cancer-causing petroleum derivate have been found in mus- sels in France. To many the oceans are the ultimate re- pository of all pollutants. The oceans' ability to assimilate waste material is immense; for every i?erson on earth there is the equivalent ocean volume of one square mile, 500 feet thick. But the oceans are not infinite, and they must not be considered the ultimate solu- tion for waste disposal problems. Objectives for Pollution Control The first signs of pollution in a body of water are rather subtle, and a strong public reaction usually does not set in until pollu- tion becomes intolerable. By this time, it is very difficult to slow down the process, let 75 alone revei"se it. This is the situation today in some of our Great Lakes and some estuaries. The level of acceptable water quality is determined partially by the use society wishes to make of the water. If the water is to be used only for commerical transporta- tion, perhaps people can even tolerate its eu- trophication.^ However, accelerated eutro- phication, as exhibited in Lake Erie, must be avoided if residential and certain recreational use is to be made of the shoreline. For the waters tliemselves to be suitable for swim- ming, the standards must be even higher. To be useful as a nursery for marine life, the water must be still purer. Finally, if selected marine preserves are to be safeguarded for future ecological studies, at least the major etfects of man must be eliminated from these areas. The requirement in the Water Quality Act of 1965 that each State must prepare water quality standards ior its rivers and coastal waters recognizes the need to consider prac- tical trade-offs in establishing objectives for pollution control. Standards, adopted to water use in the 1970's, have been prepared by the 50 States, and the Department of the Interior is completing its review of them. The State Coastal Zone Authorities and Coastal Zone Laboratories can be of great assistance to governments in maintaining estuarine water quality. The Commission en- visages that some States might make their Coastal Zone Authorities responsible for pre- paring standards and perhaps even initiating enforcement actions in the estuarine areas. * Entrophlcatlon Is the process of the aplnp of a lake which can be accelerated by man through the overenrich- raent of waters hy excessive concentrations of nutrients which Induce prolific growths of aquatic organisms (espe- cially obnoxious weeds and algal scums), depletion of dissolved oxygen, and extensive decay. This is the last stage in the geological life cycle of a lake In which the lake is transformed Into a marsh and eventually into a meadow. Major oil spills, like that from the tanker Ocean Eagle off Puerto Rico in 1968, have focused interna- tional attention on the serious problem of oil pollution of the seas. In other States these functions might be shared, or the Coastal Zone Authority might operate in an advisory role to the State pol- lution control agency. In every case the existence of an agency exclusively concerned with the effective planning and managing of the State's coastal zone should help to focus attention on the difficult problems of estu- arine pollution and water quality and water and land use planning. Beyond the limits of State jurisdiction there are now no water quality standards and few programs for pollution control. The dra- matic oil spills of the past year focused inter- national attention on the problem of oil pollution of the high seas. This problem is being con.sidered by the U.N. International Maritime Consultative Organization. The elements of a comprehensive program for protecting U.S. coastal regions from the ef- fects of high seas spills of oil and other hazardous materials have been detailed in the National Multi-Agency Oil and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plan of September 1968. In summary, water quality objectives nec- essarily represent a balancing of many fac- 76 tors. Improved understanding of estuarine processes and the economic values of alterna- tive uses of the coastal zone will assist in developing more sophisticated standards and long-term plans for bringing them into being. The Commission recommends increased emphasis, particularly by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, on research into the identification of spe- cific pollutants and their effects and im- mediate action by FWPCA with the assist- ance of the National Oceanic and Atmos- pheric Agency to develop and to deploy instrumentation to detect and record pol- lution loads as part of an overall estuarine monitoring network. Action Programs for Achieving Water Quality Objectives Estimates of the funds required for the present backlog of water pollution control projects and for keeping pace with popula- tion growth through the year 2000 run as high as $40 billion. By any account, a national ef- fort is required, guided by a firm set of prior- ities. It must embi-ace Federal, State, and local governments and the private sector, and it must be tailored to reflect growing knowl- edge and experience. Systems for detecting pollution and violations of water quality standards must be improved. Existing legal authorities must be tested and clarified. Existing water pollution control legislation is inadequate in dealing with spillage of hazardous materials. Financial responsibility should be assigned to owners and operators of offending vessels and shore installations. Legislation must define the extent to which pollutors shall bear the cost of abatement. However, although there is still much to be done, the Commission concludes that the pres- ent legislation, coupling Federal and State enforcement authorities, provides a powerful instrument for controlling pollution. If ex- perience should prove that the States lack the will to achieve their water quality objectives or that the present legislation is inadequate, the Congress would have a responsibility to take the necessary action to protect the na- tional interest. So that the public can be kept aware of the state of water pollution in the Nation, The Commission recommends that bien- nial reports to the Congress be made by the Secretary of the Interior regarding the progress of each of the States in their pollution abatement programs. Action by the Congress is required now to clarify two specific aspects of the Federal authority to prevent unwanted pollution of coastal waters. The first concerns the authority of the Corps of Engineers to consider the environ- mental effects of construction activities in the Nation's waterways. The Corps' regulations now require that it evaluate "all relevant fac- tors, including the effect of the proposed work on navigation, fish, and wildlife conserva- tion, pollution and the general public inter- est" in determining whether to grant a con- struction permit. But its statutory authority to deny construction permits for reasons other than obstructions to navigation is un- certain and should be extended to include such reasons. It is now contended thait statu- tory authority does not exist. If this con- tention should be upheld, The Commission recommends that the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 be amended to empower the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to deny a permit in order to 77 preserve important recreation, conserva- tion, or aesthetic values or to prevent water pollution. The second concerns the authority of the Atomic Energy Commission to consider the thermal effects of nuclear power plants. The AEC, supported by the Depaitment of Jus- tice, has held that it lacks authority to con- sider the potentially deleterious effects of thermal pollution in deciding whether to grant applications for private power plant construction. Power to consider such effects should be granted to the AEC. The Commission recommends that leg- islation be enacted to enable the AEC to consider the environmental effects of projects under its licensing authority. More aggressive action by all Federal agencies is needed to enforce the provisions of Executive Order 11288, which empowers agencies to require' their grantees, borrowers, and contractors to conform with State water quality standards. There is obvious precedent for effective provisions to be included in Fed- eral loan and contract instruments to achieve important national goals, and pollution abatement is such a goal. More funds will also be needed for ap- proved programs. One such program, initi- ated in Executive Order 11288, requires con- struction of adequate waste treatment facil- ities at Federal installations to bring them within State standards. Implementation has lagged for lack of funds. A second fund- ing deficiency hampers the program of grants-in-aid to States and localities to assist in construction of municipal waste treatment plants. Legislation has been proposed (S. 3206 of the 90th Congress) to provide new financing arrangements for this program, which the Commission hopes will overcome the difficulties. The Commission recommends (1) a re- view of enforcement procedures by Federal agencies with the objective of strengthening enforcement of existing law and Presidential Orders concerning pollution abatement and (2) Federal assistance to States and localities ade- quate to permit the construction of waste treatment facilities at the rate already authorized by law. New Technology New engineering approaches to the treat- ment and disposal of wastes should be ex- plored. It has been suggested, for example, that useful products might be developed from processed wastes. New excavation and tim- neling techniques may permit construction of more economic systems for larger regions to collect and convey wastes to practical dis- posal sites. The 1968 Federal Water Pollution Contrpl Administration research and devel- opment program of $66 million is inadequate to permit exploration of bold new ap- proaches, which may hold the key to far more efficient waste management than present methods. Water Quality Restoration in the Great Lakes Although first priority must be given to curbing the inflow of pollutants, it is impor- tant to begin now to explore the feasibility of restoring the quality of some of the Na- tion's most seriously damaged waters. Tliis will be an extraordinarily difficult and ex- pensive task — underlining the importance of preventing the spread of pollution before ac- celerated eutrophication occurs. Although careful analysis must precede fi- nancial commitment of such great magnitude, the Commission concludes that the national importance of the Great Lakes warrants test- ing the feasibility of restoration techniques. The knowledge obtained from a pilot pro- 78 gram would be applicable to many fresh wa- ter bodies and to seriously polluted estuaries. The Commission proposes a National Proj- ect to assess the feasibility of restoring the Great Lakes. There is evidence that restora- tion is possible, but it must be further ampli- fied through scientific research and through development and testing of new technology. Although several invastigations are now underway, they are not coordinated, and no common goal has been established. A Na- tional Project would reinforce current inves- tigations and bring additional competence from industry, academic institutions, and Federal laboratories. The Commission's Panel on Marine Engi- neering and Technology has developed the concept of a fresh water restoration project to be pursued on a lake of manageable size as a feasibility test. Scientific research into the ecology of the lake would be followed by technological development of pollution meas- uring devices, inflow and outflow design and control, aeration techniques, large-scale mix- ing techniques, thermal pollution control and enrichment, artificial bottom coating, meth- ods of artificial destratification, thermal up- welling techniques, filtering, mass harvest- ing of living plants and annuals, restocking, and ecological manipulation. It is probable that new industries for con- tinuing lake restoration and control opera- tions would result if the preliminary pro- grams show promise. The results from such a pilot study should permit evaluation of the feasibility of attempting restoration of dam- aged portions of the Great Lakes. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agen- cy launch a National Project to explore the techniques of water quality restora- tion for the Great Lakes. Once feasibility has been established, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration should assume responsibility for implementation. In the case of the Great Lakes restoration, procedures would be coordinated with the International Joint Commission for the Great Lakes. Waste Management: A Total View An attack upon pollution in the coastal zone cannot be entirely separated from our efforts to reduce pollution in the entire en- vironment. Prevention is more efficient than treatment, and treatment better than seek- ing to correct the effects of pollution after it has occurred. The magnitude of our waste management problem is a measure of the affluence and of the economic incentives of our society. Our economy is geared for producing goods for consumption, and we have developed an elab- orate marketing and transportation system to get these goods to the consmner. LTnfor- tunately, the consumer consumes very little; at most he transforms the product. New means must be found to encourage producers to place into distribution more truly con- sumable products and to develop incentives for completing the cycle by retrieving the unconsmned remains from the consumers. A fragmentary approach to pollution abatement will not be effective. Burning or burying wastes rather than dumping them in streams does not solve the problem ; it only changes the jurisdiction. A farmer who sprays his fields with pesticides is not held re- sponsible for the material that drains into the streams, nor does he have any economic incentive for looking for alternative solu- tions to the problem. Vigorous enforcement in some areas and weak enforcement in others will not help to meet the Nation's waste dis- posal crisis. Such haphazard action will en- courage only relocation of industry. 79 Untreated wastes from meatpacking plants are among the many pollutant.i nf the Xiition's waters. In contrast, foUoicing eliemical treatment and filtration, waste water from Santee, Calif., homes is used for recreational purposes. The Commission recommends that there be a total, integrated approach to the prob- lems of air, land, and water pollution and that there be established a national com- mission to study and deal with the total waste management problem. Program Costs Tlie Commission estimates that implemen- tation of its recommendations for coastal zone management would cost the Federal (lovernment approximately $1 billion over the decade of the 1970's. Table 3-3 shows the categories of expenditure, as described in Table 3-3 MANAGING THE COASTAL ZONE' [Incremental costs In millions of dollars] Average annual costs 1971-76 Total 10-year 1976-80 costs Management and Planning $10 $10 $100 Land Acquisition 11 n HO Scientific and Engineering Studies 50 80 650 Operation of Coastal Laboratories 10 20 150 Estuarine Monitoring Equipment 6 4 50 Pollution Research 4 2 30 Coastal Engineering and Technology 20 40 300 Ecological Studies 10 14 120 National Project — Lake Restoration Project 15 20 175 Total, Managing the Coastal Zone 86 121 1,035 ' For explanation of amounts shown In this table, see accompanying text and Chapter 8. this chapter, which are covered by that esti- mate. The funding necessary for management and planning per se need not be large. The Federal contribution, which by the Commis- sion's estimate would remain at about $10 million annually, would include NOAA's participation in inventories and studies, the Department of Transportation port study, the expenses of the proposed Boundary Com- mission, Federal management of the outer continental shelf, and the Federal contri- bution to the initial operating expenses of the Coastal Zone Authorities and continu- ing assistance for their enforcement and planning activities. There are, of course, a wide variety of additional planning activi- ties related to the coastal zone currently un- derway or planned by the Departments of the Interior, Housing and Urban Develop- ment, and Commerce; the Army Corps of Engineers; the Water Resources Council; and others. The Commission has not ad- dressed itself to the future funding of those programs. Working closely with such programs will, however, be a major respon- sibility of the National Oceanic and Atmos- pheric Agency. The additional land acquisition programs proposed by the Commission are estimated to require some $110 million of Federal funds over the next 10 years. The estimates are geared to acquisition of 1 million acres of wetlands, about 15 per cent of the Nation's total, plus selected urban waterfront areas suitable for recreational use. The Commis- sion has advanced two methods for assisting Stat«s in acquiring these lands: matching grants through the Land and Water Conser- vation Fund and guarantees of State bonds, coupled with assistance in meeting interest and amortization charges during the first 5 years. The Commission's estimates assume approximately equal use of both programs. Additional appropriations of $9 to $10 mil- lion per year will be required to the Land 81 and Water Ck)nservation Fund. Federal ex- penditures to assist States in their bonding programs, patterned on tl^e proposal ad- vanced in 1968 for financing waste treat- ment facilities, are estimated at $2 million annually. Funds for scientific and engineering studies should average approximately $65 million per year over current levels. The Coastal Zone Laboratories will be the centers for much of the research ; the Federal contribution to their operating expenses, to be provided through the National Sea Grant Program, will aver- age $15 million annually. Development and deployment of estuarine monitoring equip- ment will require the expenditure of $50 mil- lion over the decade of the 1970's. The ex- penditures for research into special marine pollution problems, such as that posed by oil spillages, will decline slowly from an mitial $5 or $6 million annually, and will be spent primarily by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Finally, there will have to be considerable funding, aroimd $40 million annually, de- voted to coastal engineering and ecological studies. The coastal engineering funding is an estimated total for projects to be carried out by the Corps of Engineers and NOAA and their contractors and grantees. The esti- mate for ecological studies covers primarily the scientific research projects in the estuaries to be supported by NOAA. The estimate an- ticipates that other agencies, such as the Smithsonian Institution, NSF, and AEC, also will continue and expand their sponsor- ship of research in the coastal zone. The Commission has advanced a number of recommendations for action to curb coastal and estuarine pollution but, except insofar as they relate to marine science and tech- nology, has not attempted to estimate their implementation costs. Funding for pollu- tion programs needs to be appraised in rela- tion to the totality of air, land, and fresh and salt water problems, which extend beyond the charge to this Commission. Funding require- ments for waste treatment facilities depend importantly on whether the new financing arrangements provided in S. 3206 of the 90th Congress are adopted. Restoration of the water quality of the Great Lakes is a major challenge to the Na- tion. Existing technojogy is not adequate im- mediately to achieve this objective; methods now known must be tested on smaller bodies of water and new methods developed to estab- lish the most practical means for proceeding with the major task. The Commission has proposed a National Lake Restoration Proj- ect for this purpose. Funding for the project is estimated at $175 million over the 10-year period, with most of the costs concentrated in the mid-1970's. The funding estimate antici- pates that during the period actual restora- tion operations will be undertaken in limited areas — small lakes and bays and coves of the Great Lakes. However, the Commission is unable to foresee at what point it may become practical to attempt a program to restore one of the Great Lakes as a whole and therefore has not provided for such a program in its estimates. Chapter 4 S DIXILYN' t^m ^^^ \ r^ ^^js*'-p51 ^^SS^?1 M^^^^-*^^B'3T?Bi«.£^^'0^ B V^^*--;^ ^^>^ s ^ tL?^^^Tm »^ i:??l4i^ I -ll^SSP^^ 0 ^ •^.▼.^ Itf*!^ ^^^■■■■■B «^ 1 ss ss ^'^^^^^^^^^p 4 1 ss ss 1 Si Sa^^. - Marine Resources 8S The hope that new scientific Icnowledge and technical capability will open the way for the United States and the nations of the world to gain new wealth from the sea has fired much of the heightened interest in marine affairs. The Commission's enabling statute specifies one of its major tasks as the review of "known and contemplated needs for natural resources from the marine en- vironment in order to maintain this Nation's expanding economy." The objectives of the statute include "the accelerated development of the resources of the marine environment" and "the encouragement of private invest- ment enterprise in exploration, technological development, marine commerce and the ec- onomic utilization" of the sea's resources. The Commission has approached its assess- ment of marine resources with two overrid- ing concerns: (1) that the United States not he confronted with a critical shortage of any raw material and (2) that both marine and nonmarine resources be developed through a policy which will advance economic effi- ciency. Further, the Commission recognizes that the I^.S. interest in marine resource de- velopment must be viewed in terms of world needs and capabilities. The sea is a global source of goods and services for all mankind. Not all resource needs have the same ur- gency. The Nation and the world face a few truly critical problems, a number of signifi- cant opportunities to advance both national and international interests, and other situa- tions which can currently be accepted as rel- atively satisfactory. It is impossible to deal with development and management issues in terms of marine resources as a whole, although general policy considerations must be accommodated. The (\)nunission, therefore, has considered sep- arately the economic and legal problems as- sociated with such areas as fisheries, oil, gas, and hard minerals and has made numerous The hope that new knowledge and technology nwy lead to inereased wealth from the tea hn.H heightened global interest in. marine affairs. Offshore oil production is second only to fish as a source of marine resource recommendations (in Parts II and III of this chapter) for change in national and inter- national policies and law. In our society, the economic uses of the sea are primarily within the province of the pri- vate sector. The Commission recognizes the need for Government to strengthen indus- try's role in expanding the scope and scale of marine operations. The character of the Government-industry relationship will have an important bearing on the Nation's effective use of the sea. The Commission's views on Government and in- dustry roles and the steps to encourage pri- vate investment in marine enterprises are outlined at the end of this chapter. I. National Resource Policy There is no .single national policy uni- formly applicaljle to all resources, just as there is no single defense, economic, or for- eign policy. Rather, there is only a body of exiJerience and general objectives which guide decisions on specific issues at specific times. Policy decisions on natural resources require evaluation of long-term estimates of supply and demand, opportunities to develop substitutes, access to foreign sources, and the adequacy of data for long-term planning and resource management. The rate at which the world's natural re- sources are being used poses impressive chal- lenges to human ingenuity to find and de- velop new sources. Accelerating resource use emphasizes the dire need to halt the pro- fligate waste of many resources. Consuni])- tion of metals in the next 35 years is expected to exceed that of the last 2,000 years. Energy use in the next 20 years is estimated at three times that of the last 100 years. Even more sobering, world food production must in- crease by 50 per cent over the next 20 years to keep pace with growing poi)ulations; food 8i «« IT 4^- A netful of fish is swung aioard a trawler at sea. Smc/i food resources must be brought to fuller use to meet protein deficiencies in certain regions; for all nations fish offer promise of a richer, more varied diet. needs will double in India, Pakistan, and cer- tain Latin American nations. Experts are optimistic that we will meet these resource needs, as we have met them in the past. The prices of most basic com- modities in the United States actually have declined slightly relative to overall price levels — indicating confidence in the future as well as present abundance. But this should not be taken as a signal to relax efforts to develop new sources. Though on a. global basis the estimated supply of most hard min- erals from land sources appears adequate to meet estimatied requirements at least until the year 2000, such estimates are fraught with much uncertainty. Appropriate action now will jiermit us to prepare in an orderly way to meet needs in the coming decades and to enlarge the options for furnishing new .streams of raw materials to sustain our grow- ing economy. Marine sources already contribute impor- tantly to our supplies of oil and gas; our dependence on the sea for these materials is certain to grow. The sea's food resources must be used more fully to overcome protein de- ficiencies in certain regions of the world ; they offer all nations the promise of a richer, more varied diet. The availability to the United States of specific resources often is threatened by mis- management, natural disasters, and political developments. Therefore, the United States must have alternative sources of supply. Prudence demands continuing exploration of new regions ; improvement of new extrac- tion, harvesting, and processing technology ; and proving of new reserves. It must be re- membered, too, that accurate assessment of resource potentials requires some experience in their production. The Commission, in evaluating marine re- source potentials, has considered the duality of U.S. interests reflected by its national and international roles. Accordingly, the Com- mission rejects the idea that self-sufficiency in natural resources is a desirable goal for American policy. U.S. national policy clearly recognizes the benefit to the international community of expanding commerce in raw materials. U.S. national policy recognizes this fact in aiming to reduce progressively the restrictions on international trade. Meas- ures to assure some minimum level of domes- tic production may be needed in certain cases to protect the United States from politically motivated actions that could curtail supplies of petroleum or other key minerals. But it is incumbent on tiie opponents of a policy favoring a reasonable degree of freedom in international trade to weigh the alternatives and justify their costs to the American con- sumer. Efforts to favor certain domestic in- dustries are not in the national interest if they raise production costs to levels which Projected Demand for Given Minerals to 1985 and 2000 — U.S. --REST OF WORLD as z 35 -| 1- . . / a. ?ft' n T / / W 15 - _ J / O y^^ -1 5 - -5^ ■s 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 YEAR 1970 1985 2000 ALUMINUM 1970 1985 2000 COBALT O 14. a. O 10 X en ^ 6 1970 1985 2000 MAGNESIUM 1970 1985 2000 BARIUM 1970 1985 2000 BROMINE 1970 1985 2000 COPPER ^ 1970 1985 2000 MANGANESE 1970 1985 2000 IRON ^ — \ — V 1970 1985 2000 NICKEL 1970 1985 2000 CHROMIUM 1970 1985 2000 LEAD 1970 1985 2000 PHOSPHORUS 1970 1985 2000 POTASSIUM - 5 - 3 - 1 - 1 fl 1 1 1970 1985 2000 SILICON 105 - / 75 - / / 45 - 15 - • II 1 1 II 1 1 1970 1985 2000 SULFUR 2 .003 1970 1985 2000 THORIUM 1970 1965 2000 TIN 1970 1985 2000 TUNGSTEN 1970 1985 2000 URANIUM +H — \ V- 1970 1985 2000 ZINC Data soubce : Department of the Interior. 86 hiirden other segments of the domestic econ- omy 01- provoke retaliatory action by other nations. In the long run, actions that strengthen the Nation's industrial base and productivity will also strengthen its defense capacity. Nor is the need to improve the U.S. balance of payments a proper guide for long-range programs affecting marine resources. That need must be viewed in terms of the overall pattern of commodity and service trade, financial transactions, and international commitments. Piecemeal substitution of do- mestic production for imports simply reverts to the costly jDolicy of self-sufficiency. The Federal Government bears respon- sibility for negotiating international legal frameworks within which all nations may share equitably in using the sea's resources. Such arrangements may also have critical unpact on efficiency of resource use. The United States has much to offer other nations in providing more effective techniques for tapping the sea's resources and will need their help in implementing international programs to permit all nations to use the sea to their benefit. Government also bears a responsibility for establishing a framework of domestic law to undergird our private enterprise system. Currently many marine resources are treated as common property, available to all for the taking but exclusively available to no one. The common property system is no obstacle to economic development if resources are abundant, technology simple, and invest- ment minimal. But it is not appropriate for large-scale industrial activities in a highly technological, mobile, and capital intensive economy, and it is slowly yielding to arrange- ments to assign resource development rights. In sum, the national interest in resources and their development place a premium on having a range of sources to which the Nation may turn. The leadtime to appraise and define resources for future use and to develop the necessary industrial organization and technology demands forward planning. A global perspective and a high measure of reliance on private enterprise are necessary to assure flexibility and efficiency in meeting resource demands within the discipline of the market system. II. Development of the Sea's Living Resources The living creatures of the sea have served man since the dawn of history. Today's re- newed thrust seaward for food, for raw mate- rials, and for drugs is an extension of ancient practices which today assumes new impor- tance with the growth in population and improvements in ships and gear that bring the world oceans within the reach of all major fishing nations. The extension of na- tional fisheries beyond traditional grounds, made necessary by demands for food, have brought new problems to the international community. Among the harvests of the sea, those of liv- ing resources must have a primary place in a plan for marine development. Marine Fisheries Our Nation has a strong interest in ad- vancing development of the sea's food re- sources. The race between population and food supply has potentially explosive conse- quences; every avenue must be employed to control this race. The living resources of the sea are relatively cheap in many parts of the world; they frequently are marketable with very little expensive processing and market- ing equipment, and the development of local fishing industries can, in many cases, be achieved at low cost. The Increasing Gap Between World Food Needs and Food Supply 87 (indices 1960 100) Population ■X- Nutritional Targets 250 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 250 200 150 100 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 e. ALL LESS-DEVELOPED REGIONS ■ 600 (excluding mainland China) M - 500 ^ M y ^^W' /, / / */ ^ //r^. - 300 ^ ^^ A -200 100 /^ . 100 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Food demand Food production 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 d. FAR EAST 300 (exclud ng mai land China) ~y ■ 600 V / • 500 / / /. 400 / /^ r\r\r\ /. y // «/ // // f y 1'^n > ¥ ^^ /' - 200 100 A . 100 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 -f. OECDAREA, AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND - 600 A ^ ^ ^ -200 - 100 100 ^ -;:::S> 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Sot-RLE : -Tlie World FuchI Population : Its Implications for OKCD Countries" Thv OKCU ObKerier, June liififi. pp. 29-30. 88 Expansion of world fisheries production is a matter of advancing on several fronts at once, for example, greater efficiency in harvesting knoicn stocks. Here schools of thread herring are spotted hy aircraft i the west coast of Florida. Fishing is important to our Nation in terms both of providing Americans with a more varied diet and of providing the basis for profitable industrial activity. The Ocean's Food Potential The ultimate potential for food from the sea remains unknown. The total annual world harvest from the oceans is over 50 million metric tons. Fish provide about 3 per cent of man's direct protein consumption, but be- cause fishmeal is fed to land animals, fish are the basis of about 10 per cent of all animal- protein food production. Expansion of world fisheries production is a matter of advancing on several fronts at once — improving the technical efficiency of harvesting known stocks, locating and de- fining new stocks, recasting the institutional setting for fisheries management, developing new end products from presently unused or underutilized species, and opening up the new field of aquaculture. If man's fishing activities continue to be confined to the species now utilized, to the locations now regarded as exploitable, and to the equipment now available, it is unlikely that production could be expanded much be- yond 150 to 200 million metric tons — three to four times present levels. But if man's activ- ities were not so confined, far greater quan- tities of useful, marketable products could be harvested to meet the increasingly urgent world demand for protein foods. It is, therefore, more realistic to expect total annual production of marine food products (exclusive of aquaculture) to grow to 400 to 500 million metric tons before expansion costs become excessive. Even this estimate may be too conservative if significant technologi- cal breakthroughs are achieved in the ability to detect, concentrate, and harvest fish on the high seas and in the deep ocean. It is important to recognize that there are biological limits on the productivity of indi- 89 vidual stocks of fish and shellfish. Wise use of living marine resources is not only a mat- ter of expanding output from underutilized or unused species and areas but also of effec- tive management of those subject to over- fishing. The management system must be structured to preserve the productivity of heavily fished populations witliout discour- aging the technological and marketing prog- ress required to push productive activity into new areas and into the use of new species. As demand grows, it will become increas- ingly important for the United States, alone and in coojDeration with other nations, to establish more accurately the dimensions of the many living resources usable to man and to estimate the production that can be taken from them without impairing future yields. The Commission recommends that the United States continue its own research programs aimed at improving stock and yield estimates, cooperate with other na- tions in programs for this purpose, and explore new techniques for preliminary assessment of stock size and potential yield where new fisheries are contem- plated. World Production and Demand Dramatic changes have marked the world's fisheries in recent years. With fleets ranging across the globe and developing stocks here- tofore not economically accessible, the ex- ploitation of fisheries has assumed new di- mensions as an activity of international interest and concern. Aggregate figures conceal the changes oc- curring within the industry. Total output has been growing at a rate of more than 6 per rent per year since the end of World War II, the sliarpest growth occurring in recent years. The gro\vth has not been evenly distributed among the various fisheries. There have been tremendous increases in some areas, like the Peiiivian anchovy and the South African sardine fisheries, and actual declines in others as a result of overexploitation, deterioration of spawning areas, and natural causes. If expansion in the use of living resources of the sea is to continue, improvements in tech- nology, market development, and processing must keep pace with the needs to move far- ther afield and to utilize lower-valued species. The rapid increase in fishmeal use for live- stock feeds and the potential development of fish protein concentrates from heretofore unmarketable fish foreshadow both the needs and the opportunities to utilize lower valued species. Rapid growth in tlie harvest of living re- sources of the sea reflects the strong world de- mand for animal protein foods. Although per capita consumption of sea foods tends to level off at the income levels attained in highly de- veloped nations, population growth and in- Trends in the U.S. and World Catch of Fish ^including catch from freah water) 60 0 56.0 52 0 48.0 44.0 40.0 % 36.0 605 /*H / _v ^ / J / / / 1 '" _. y o 240 ' ^ 1 16.0 1 12.0 10.0 60 40 3.0 20 10 __ — — ^^ -^^ - 2.4 UfitW 1836 YEAR 1940 1950 1952 19M I9S6 IBM I960 1962 1064 1966 Source : United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza- tion, Yearbook. 1967. 90 creased use of fishmeal in livestock feeds con- tinue to expand demand for a broad range of fish and shellfish products. Demand for these products has grown even more spectacularly in the less developed areas, where protein deficiencies are chronic. These are precisely the areas in which population growth is greatest. There can be little doubt that the world demand for food from the sea will continue to press production capacity for the foreseeable future. Moreover, as modem technology provides the means for altering the form, texture, and keeping qualities of fish, the increased diversity of food products from the sea should lead to even stronger demand. Although revolutionary developments in high seas fishing technology have greatly ex- panded the range and efficiency of modem fishing equipment, harvesting techniques in many parts of the world are still extremely primitive. The processing and marketing sec- tors of the industry are considerably more advanced, but they still have far to go before they reach the technical level of other seg- ments of the food industry. Full utilization of the potential for food from the sea requires full attention to the research and develop- ment that will convert the worldwide fishing industry into a 7nodem segment of a modern food industry. The spectre of himger and malnutrition, haunting mankind from the beginning of time, threatens to become more acute over wider areas of the world. Considerable at- tention and publicity have been given to the use of the ocean's resources to combat world food problems. Although marine food sources will never be sufficient to solve these prob- lems, they should play an important role in the solution. The nuti-itional qualities of marine food products, their worldwide dis- tribution, and the relative ease with which they can be produced in areas of critical need make it vitally important that the world use them efficiently. Only a handful of highly de- veloped nations are capable of providing ade- quate diets for the bulk of their populations. Until world population growth is brought under control, all possible sources of food from land and sea must be exploited. For the foreseeable future, overall calorie requirements of the human diet can be met from land production. But ocean food pro- duction is important in world nutrition as a source of edible oils and proteins with a well- balanced amino acid structure. These needs of themselves are sufficiently large and urgent to compel a greatly accelerated effort at both national and international levels, and within both government and industry to overcome scientific, technologic, and institutional bar- riers to a more efficient and expanded harvest- ing of the ocean's food resources. The United States can give strength and momentum to this effort through the example of its own policies and programs and through vigorous support of multilateral fisheries de- velopment programs of the Food and Agri- culture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Development Program, the World Bank, and other international agencies. Action by the United States to up- grade the teclmical capability of its own fish- eries will develop new techniques and prod- ucts, such as fish protein concentrates, that will benefit the entire world industry. Fur- thermore, U.S. firms can expect both to par- ticipate in the expanding markets of the developing nations and to contribute to their programs to overcome deficiencies in j^rotein foods. Principles of Fisheries Management Sensible fisheries management must pre- vent overexploitation of heavily utilized species and, at the same time, provide incen- 91 —A rr I-'itll utilization of the sea's food potential irill mean conversion of the ftshin;/ indiistru. tvorldicifle, into a xei/nient of n modern food industry. Through programs of the Food and Ai/riciilturc Orfianixation. Daliomeii fishermen (upper plioto/jrapli } u-ill receive »rir vessels enuhling tlieni to staij at sea for lonni^r periods, and tlic aged market at Xew Amsterdam, (lugana. irill be replaced hy a modern center. tives to cxiKUui ('atches of underutilized species. Most existin2, 000 >800 Japan carp 1,000-4,000 400-1,600 Japan shrimp 6.0 2.4 18, 000 •Raft-culture calculations based on an area 25 per cent covered by rafts. To obtain yields for area actually involved in production, multi- ply by 4. "1,000 Kg. =2,204.6 lbs. 1 hectare = 10,000m>=2.471 acres Source: John B. Rytber and John E. Bardacb, Status and Potential of Aquaculture, American Institute of Biological Sciences, Washing- ton, D.C., May 1968, vol. I, p. 14. 118 phasis will be on high value species for the quality market m the United States. How- ever, as knowledge and technique improve, it should be possible to develop means for high volume production of lower valued spe- cies, suitable both for table use and for processing into new food forms in which pro- tein content is the dominant element. Fish protein concentrate is only one of several possibilities. To cultivate marine organisms, brackish or saline water is needed. This means that a major aquaculture program must have avail- able estuarine and shore areas to a greater ex- tent than is possible under most present State laws and regulations. States vary widely in their sea-bottom leasing or rental practices, and in many States exclusive use of water areas is not permitted. To many qualified ob- servers, it is these legal and institutional problems which are the greatest barrier to a viable commercial aquaculture program in the United States today. When decisions are made on how the coastal zone is to be used, aquaculture must be given appropriate weight as a contributor to the economy. The Commission recognizes the high po- tential for user conflict. Established interests, including commercial and sport fishing, rec- reation, conservation, and navigation, tend to regard aquaculture as an interloper that may interfere with traditional activities. Often the conflict is based more on emotion than on reason. The Commission has noted several cases in which aquacultural invest- ment was thwarted on legal or political grounds, although the conflicts of use were minimal, and only an infinitesimal fraction of the available water area was involved. Aquaculture in the open ocean appears pos- sible for the future and raises the problem of how exclusive commercial rights may be obtained. The Federal Government should examine the various considerations involved. The Commission recommends that : • The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (BCF) be given the explicit mission to advance aquaculture • NOAA (BCF) assist and encourage States through the Coastal Zone Au- thorities to remove the legal and insti- tutional barriers that may exist in individual States and that inhibit aquaculture • NOAA (BCF and Sea Grant) support more research on all aspects of aqua- culture, economic and social as well as technical. Sea Plants Sea plants already have proven of value as a source of chemicals. Potash and iodine were extracted from seaweed for many years before other sources were developed. In re- cent years, hydrocolloids known as cara- geenans and algins have made possible many convenience foods and have served as homogenizing and smoothing agents in toothpastes, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Industrial applications include ink, paint, and tire production. In fact, the use of ma- rine colloids is so widespread that the supply of raw material has become a problem and the artificial culture of highly productive seaweeds is indicated. Research has shown that marine plants also contain useful fractions of many other chemicals, including vegetable oils, chelating agents, and vegetable proteins. It is highly probable that, as marine biological research continues, unanticipated uses of marine plant organisms will be found. Agencies funding such research should be alert to new possi- bilities and make every effort to ensure that results are communicated fully and quickly. 119 The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, presently engaged in such work as experimental oyster farming, should he given more explicit Federal responsibility for investigating aguaculture potentials. Extracting Drugs from the Sea Groups concerned with the health sciences must carefully evaluate the sea as a source of new and useful medicinal raw materials. The medical history of people bordering the seas is replete with evidence that prod- ucts witli pliarniaceiitical applications can be obtained from the plants and animals of the sea. However, the present use of these products is small compared with similar products obtained from land organisms. With some exceptions, most of the marine drugs are used in rather crude dosage forms by peoples of some developing nations, just as the majority of crude botanical and zoologi- cal drugs were used in this coimtry more than 40 years ago. Practically no research is presently being conducted by government or industry on ma- rine bioactive substances as possible sources 120 of new commercial pharmaceutical products. Most active substances from the sea now under study may be divided into two broad classes : • Antibiotics, which are used to control and destroy the organisms that cause diseases • Systemic drugs, which act directly on parts of the body to alleviate pain, stimulate or relax, promote healing, vary the speed of such biochemical reactions as blood clot- ting, influence the operation of certain organs, or act as antidotes to poisons. Nearly all of these drugs are poisons at certain concentrations, including the anti- biotics which, presumably, kill only patho- genic bacteria. There are more kinds of animals in the sea than on land, and a greater proportion of them use poisons as part of their equipment for survival. So far, less than one per qent of all the sea organisms known to contain biologically active mate- rials have been studied. Antibiotics from the marine world will become more important as the older drugs upon which medical practice has relied for the past 20 years become less effective against new generations of resistant germs. Contemporary experimental marine biol- ogy has indicated that other pharmacologi- cally active substances, categorized as toxins or poisons, also can be obtained from marine organisms. Study of poisonous marine or- ganisms is required also to understand marine ecology, to protect against the illnesses caused by eating poison-laden fish foods, and to help develop new protein foods from the ocean. A poison is merely an intense inhibitor or stimulator of critical biological processes. Diluted, a poison is highly useful and often a very effective therapeutic agent. Research among toxins for antitoxins has unearthed a host of fascinating pharmacological properties variously described as anti- viral, antibiotic, antitumor, hemolytic, anal- gesic, psychopharmacological, cardioinhibi- tory, fungicidal, and growth inhibitory. Indications are that some marine toxins rank among the most toxic substances known. Chemicals isolated from certain toxic marine fishes are 200,000 times more powerful in blocking nervous activity than drugs cur- rently used in laboratories for nerve and brain research. A substance extracted from the primitive hagfish has been used experi- mentally to slow down the heart during open- heart surgery making it easier to operate. Antitumor and antimicrobial agents are present in such common organisms as clams and oysters. Attempts to find useful, active substances in the sea by searching folklore, studying biological activities of marine plants and animals, and studying or interviewing native witch doctors produce little and are costly. It costs even more to use traditional methods to screen natural products at random. Drug companies have many more research op- portunities than they possibly can under- take because of limited manpower and capital. Yet there is a vast array of marine biochemical agents having potent biological activity, and many of them may be useful therapeutic agents. The Commission recommends establish- ment of a National Institute of Marine Medicine and Pharmacology in the Na- tional Institutes of Health to effect a methodical evaluation of the sea as a source of new and useful active sub- stances. The new Institute should : • Inventory presently known bioactive substances • Examine those factors which relate to the ecology of marine organisms and their pharmacology 121 ^t^- The tidtionnl ocrnn program requires a systematic, Govemmeiit- miliporteil iiroi/raiii of yeolor/ical .tKrreiix irliirli ntif/lit drair. in part, upon tlic exploratorij finds of the National Sediment Coring Program being i-ondiirted aboard tlir drilling ship Gloinar Challenger. • Determine present pharmacological evaluation problems • Develop inexpensive screening methods • Institute a national system of informa- tion storage and retrieval • Provide regional facilities for collect- ing, storing, and distributing bioactive material to universities, research insti- tutes, and industry. III. Development of Nonliving Marine Resources Oil, natiuiil <;:;i>. aiul iiiiiuTuls in \:u'ious forms— dissolved, plat-er, nodule, and lode — and tlie water itself constitute the inventory of nonliving resources in and under the sea. The energies of the oceans at some future time also may gain economic importance if commercial means to harness them are found. Although each of the industries engaged in tlie recovery of nonliving marine resources presents unique problems, they share certain needs. Of particular importance are improved (lata on the hatiiynietry, geophysical char- acteristics, and geology of the ocean floor. Ortain of tlie National Projects recom- mended by the Commission will assist the resource industries to develop the specific systems whicli they will need as operations grow in scale and com})]exity in the years ahead (see Part IV) . 122 The resource industries have a common in- terest in the clarification of marine bounda- ries and jurisdictions. Although there is no question of U.S. control over minerals pro- duction within the 200-meter isobath, the areas beyond are subject to much uncertainty and controversy. The Commission deems it essential that the present ambiguities which becloud investment in marine-based mineral exploitation be resolved at the international level. Specific recommendations are advanced in subsequent pages. Petroleum Twenty years from now, it is estimated, world petroleum consumption will be three times present levels. This estimate, with the growing concern about the political stability of some of the Middle East countries which furnish the major supplies of this mineral, has resulted in a mammoth worldwide searcli for oil and gas. Twenty-two countries now produce or are about to produce oil and gas from offshore sources. Investments of the Number of Successful New Offshore Wells, by Year 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 406 413 626 618 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1968 (lirst (est. %) total) domestic offshore oil industry, now running more than $1 billion annually, are expected to grow an average of nearly 18 per cent per year over the coming decade. Current free world offshore oil production is about 5 mil- lion barrels per day or about 16 per cent of the free world's total output. Although the devel- opment of alternative energy sources, par- ticularly oil shale and tar sand, may place a limit on its growth, the offshore oil industry generally is expected to continue to grow and to account for at least 33 per cent of total world oil production in 10 years. All commercial quantities of offshore pe- troleum to date liave been produced from wells in waters 340 feet deep or less. Explora- tory wells have been drilled in water depths of 1,300 feet and leases have been taken to 1,800 feet. But petroleum may occur wherever sedimentary sequences are found. Within the continents and their shelves and slopes, these sedimentary strata accumulate to thicknesses of at least 5 to 6 miles. Conversely, the deeper ocean basins generally have thinner layers of Record Water Depths for Producing and Exploratory Weils 1300 1200 1100 ^ 1000 a 900 1 800 H 700 g 600 £ 500 < 400 300 100 0 CALIF. EXPLORATORY WELLS-' — CALIF. LA. KNA -CA LIF 3RN ^Aj±i LOUISI 1 1 CALIFORNI/ ^^LA. 1 1 LOUISIANA 1 1 PRpDUCING WELLS- ■58 'SQ '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 'eS '67 '68 YEARS SoHRCE : American Petroleum Institute. Source : Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.), "Petroleum Operations in the Sea — 1980 and Beyond." Ocean Industry^ August 1968. 12S sediment averaging perhaps one-half mile thick. There is no reason to expect that oil and gas are not formed within these thin deep ocean sediment layers, but it is unlikely that they could be present in the same quantities that they occur in the thick sedimentary basins of the continents and their shelves and slopes. Obviously, there are exceptions to these generalizations. Some deeper ocean areas — the Gulf of Mexico is an example — are sur- rounded largely by exposed continental rocks. Consequently, they receive a much greater proportion of continental debris than the large open ocean regions. Thus, it is not startling that oil and gas were discovered re- cently in nearly 12,000 feet of water in the Gulf during the JOIDES deep sea drilling project. But since the Gulf of Mexico con- tains an unusually thick accumulation of sed- iments and the discovery was associated with unique intrusions of salt, it is not reason- able to assume without further study that these same conditions exist in the larger oceanic areas nor even in other confined oceanic areas. Technical Considerations In proceeding onto the continental shelf, the petroleum industry has surmounted one obstacle after another and has succeeded in developing exploration and exploitation technologies for working at sea. Explora- tory drilling has begun in water depths of 1,300 feet ; the feasibility of core drilling in 20,000 feet of water will be tested shortly. Within 10 years, undersea core drilling may be accomplished by remote control, and an increasing number of production wells will be completed beneath the water's surface. Recovery of oil offshore is necessarily more expensive than on land, even though certain exploratory tasks can be accomplished at lower cost. Nevertheless, many companies anticipate that new oil fields in the compara- tively virgin marine areas will be sufficiently large and productive to be competitive with oil fields on land. With continued improve- ment in technology, such as the building of platforms to service multiple wells, offshore production costs can become increasingly competitive with onshore costs. Table 4-2 Domestic Offshore Expenditures (Billions of dollars) 1968 Cumulative (Estimate) (through 1968) Lease bonus and rental payments Royalty payments Seismic, gravity, and magnetic surveys Drilling and completing wells Platforms, production facilities, and pipelines - Operating costs Total 2.35 $1. 25 $4.00 .25 1.85 . 10 1. 10 .35 3. 10 .25 1. 85 . 15 .85 12.75 Source: Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.), "Petroleum Operations in the Sea— 1980 and Beyond." Octan Industn, August 1968, p. 28. 12i OtTsliore oil in'oduction has lienefited many other users of the oceans. The oil industry's technology overlaps tliat required by the U.S. Navy, scientific institutions, and other marine enterprises. Its mapping of tlie ocean tloor and development of materials and equiimient for use at sea also will benefit those outside the oil industry. The relation- ship is reciprocal, of course; the petroleum producers benefit from the skills and knowl- edge produced by universities and other re- search organizations and from military technical developments. It is extremely im- portant, therefore, that the arrangements for information interchange among Govern- ment agencies, academic institutions, and the petroleum industry be strengthened and expanded. The Commission recommends that ap- propriate mechanisms be established to assure timely exchange of scientific and technological information among the Federal Government, the petroleum in- dustry, and the scientific community consistent with security and proprietary considerations. Legal and Regulatory Considerations The competitive leasing system established under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act has worked Avell for the petroleum in- dustry and the Government. However, the .') year term allowed by the Act for explora- tion and development may be too short for profitable dc\ clopment as the industry moves farther otl'shore into deeper waters and more hostile environments. The pressures to maximize short-run Fed- eral income from continental shelf lands may lead to exploitation that is too rapid from the standpoint of the industry's welfare and the national interest. Line Profiles of the Continental Shelf off Different Points on the U.S. Coast West of Florida Sea leveH I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I South of Mississippi 0 1^ Sea level- 6000 - 12000 - I I' I' I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I South of Aleutians Sea leveH I I I I i 1^1 I Ill' South of Louisiana a 0 6000 12000 -Sea level- I ' ' I ' West of Southern California OfK=^^-^ .^^fc^ .»■ Sea level n 6000 12000 I I I I I I I I I I I 0 East of Florida 1 1 1 1 1 J. 6000 2000 1 1 1 1 II II 11 IJ-U- 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Miles SOURCE ; U.S. Navy, Center for Naval Analyses (Project Blue Water). 125 In pushing oiitirard onto the continental xhcif, the U.S. petroleum inituHtry ha-i surmounted one oh-ttaclc after another in developing required technology like at-sea crude oil storage structures ( top photograph} and harges laging Ifinch pipelines from reels. I2fi Comparing the height of this large rig with a modem office building indicates the tremendous depths in which the offshore platforms are nmc operating. The uncertainty that surrounds the leasing schedules of the Federal Government makes it difficult for the industry to plan ahead. Earlier notice of lease sales would help the industry to plan its exploration and develop- ment programs in a more orderly and effec- tive fashion. Determination of the proper rate of domes- tic offshore oil development requires con- sideration of highly complex factors affecting national defense and conservation programs designed to prevent too rapid exploitation. At present, import quotas are used on the grounds that they are necessary to encourage the exploration and development of domestic supplies in order to prevent undue reliance on foreign supplies that might be cut off at any time. Conservation considerations and the desire to balance supply and demand have led to the prorationing of production in some States. Similar systems have been used by the Fed- eral Government with respect to oil produc- tion from offshore areas in the Gulf beyond State jurisdiction. To eliminate prorationing of production on such offshore lands would add an incentive to explore and develop these sources. However, it would also pose difficult adjustment problems for the industry and the oil producing States and might result in an unsound depletion of reserves. By the same toi^en, there are longer range and complex implications for the national security of a program that stimulates rapid development and production from domestic sources. It may be wise to consider new methods for em- phasizing incentives for exploration that do not concurrently produce pressures for un- duly rapid, short-term exploitation. The petroleum industry operates within a complex framework of law and regulation which compels thorough analysis of all as- pects of the national interest — economic, political, and military — in projecting long- term programs for development and leasing of subsea oil and gas bearing lands on the continental margins. In particular, very care- ful attention must be given to the broader public interest in maintaining a national reserve. The Commission has not been equipped to make such an analysis. Recognizing that en- ergy policy is an object of continuing public concern, the Commission, nonetheless, urges a thorough new assessment of the adequacy of the Nation's offshore and land oil reserves. Only such an assessment can provide the foundation for shaping the incentives to ex- plore and develop subsea oil reserves and for establishing an orderly, rational leasing pol- icy pacing development at a rate that is in the public interest. 127 Because petroleum production from off- shore wells in shallow waters has a long his- tory, its operational, legal,, and economic problems are well understood and, for the most part, have been resolved. However, as industry moves into deeper, more hostile waters, the Government should become in- creasingly aware of the importance of regu- latory and fiscal policies which will ensure industry's continued investment and ability to meet exploration and production require- ments. The Commission recommends that leasing and regulatory policies for offshore oil be geared to a rate of development reflect- ing all aspects of national interests. Strong support should be given to accom- plishing the analysis necessary to provide a basis for decisions on development rates. In scheduling its Federal lease sales, the Government should give adequate consid- eration to industry's need to plan its ex- ploration and development programs in an orderly and effective fashion. For ex- ample, it is recommended that longer periods of advance notice be provided for Federal lease sales. Natural Gas Bringing natural gas to the consumer in- volves three sequential functions: produc- tion, transmission, and distribution. Petro- leum companies normally explore for and produce the gas. Transportation in interstate commerce is handled by companies regulated by the Federal Power Commission (FPC). Distribution to consumers involves a separate group of companies regulated at the State or municipal level. Although the three functions commonly are accomplished by independent companies, a combination may be performed by one company through subsidiaries. Taken together, the gas transmission and distribu- tion industry is among the 10 largest U.S. in- dustries in terms of capital investment. Sales of natural gas in the next decade are expected to increase about 4 per cent per year. In fact, the percentage of total energy con- sumption represented by natural gas is ex- pected to increase slightly, in spite of the growth of nuclear and other new competitive primary energy sources. As for oil, the off- shore areas offer great potential for new gas reserves; gas producers and transmission companies are making heavy commitments there. In 1967, about $300 million was paid to petroleum companies for natural gas pro- duced offshore. Offshore oil and natural gas operations share many technical and regulatory prob- lems. Unlike the situation in the petroleum industry, however, the maximum prices that the producer and wholesale distributor of natural gas may charge are subject to regula- tion by the FPC, and FPC permission must be obtained before new interstate gas pipe- lines can be laid. Reserves The national reserve-to-production (R/P) ratio of natural gas has been declining stead- ily, falling from a reserve adequate to cover nearly 27 years of production in 1950 to slightly less than 16 years in 1968. The op- timum level of reserves cannot be authorita- tively stated. Some companies believe that the national R/P ratio can continue to de- cline for an additional period without caus- ing undue concern. However, individual companies have already felt the pressure of declining reserves, and it is doubtful that it would be in the national interest to allow much further reduction. Although the R/P ratio for oil is about 10 years, valid reasons exist for maintaining natural gas reserves at a higher level. "With growinix demand for natural gas, it is important to encourage a greater rate of exploration and development than presently exist. Altliough conventional and perliaps comiDletely new types of land sources will provide some reserves, it appears that the offshore areas will be of vital importance for several decades. Two categories of FPC regulatory policy should be modified to lielp encourage addi- tional exploration and development of gas reserves: pipeline construction and well- head price. New Pipeline Construction Under current procedures, a gas transmis- sion company will not receive permission to construct a new pipeline unless it can prove to the FPC that, among other things, suffi- cient reserves will be available to satisfy the consumers who will come to rely on the new pipeline. However, transmission companies sometimes find it difficult to furnish such proof to the FPC because they are unwill- ing to connnit themselves firmly to purchase gas from undeveloped reserves, and produc- ers are reluctant to make the consideral^le expenditures necessary to develop the new reserves unless they are assured of custom- ers. Tliey camiot be assured of customers until tlie FPC apjiroves construction of the new pipeline. Further, producers are unwill- ing to reveal tlieir proven reserves to the FPC because public disclosure may hurt tliem in bidding for offshore leases. Tliis problem does not lend itself to simple resolution. Tlie Commi.ssion urges that the FPC study every possible solution, including the acceptance of contracts between gas pro- ducers and gas transmission companies in substitution for geological evidence of re- serves. The FPC also should examine its policies to determine the extent to which ef- forts to establish proven reserves result in disclosure adverse to a company and devise methods by which such impact, if any, can be legitimately minimized. Wellhead Price Regulation The maximum price a transmission com- pany can pay for gas at the wellhead is regulated by the FPC. The FPC recognized the importance of encouraging the search for supplies by adopting a two-price system in the Permian Basin rate case and a multi- price system in southern Louisiana that fixes higher prices for all new gas-well gas. Differ- ences between offshore and onshore opera- tions were mentioned in the case involving south Louisiana, an area of great potential for offshore reserves. But the rates fixed, ac- cording to the petroleum companies, do not reflect adequately the increased costs asso- ciated with offshore operations. Con- sequently, the petroleinn companies say that they have little financial incentive to search for offshore gas, except when they are certain of finding large quantities. The Commission recommends that the Federal Power Commission reexamine its differential price policies for natural gas and make such adjustments as it deems advisable to reflect adequately the in- creased cost of offshore production. Technology The increasing costs of natural gas should furnish a strong incentive to the transmis- sion companies to reduce pipeline costs through improved technology. In spite of this incentive, however, the transmission in- dustry has had a very low level of research and development expenditures. The gas transmission companies have been discour- 129 aged from undertaking researcli by the regu- latory accounting treatment of research ex- penditures prescribed by the. Federal Power Commission. Wlien research is successful, resulting in useful plant or equipment as a part of a specific pipeline project, it is clear that trans- mission companies can capitalize the cost. However, if the research is not successful or is of a general nature, the accounting treatment of the cost is not as clearly de- fined. In some cases the expenditure can be capitalized, or in many other cases, allowed as an expense. But several transmission com- panies have indicated that the uncertainty as to which treatment will prevail inhibits research expenditures. These companies also have indicated concern that certain large, general research activities not resulting in clearly identifiable improvements might be disallowed in determining the maximum permitted return on investment. This con- cern makes such expenditures difficult to justify, as the risk cannot be equated with a potential for increased profit because the benefits of successful projects now are passed largely to the customer or, in some cases, to the producer. The net result is an extremely low research and development expenditure in the industry and a reluctance to under- take the large, uncertain expenditures neces- sary for technological advance. To account for research and development expenditures after the fact in terms of success or failure appears to be an accounting prac- tice inconsistent with the basic premise of re- search itself. Even if initially anticipated results are not achieved, the research has eliminated one option and provided much use- ful information in the process. Consideration of this principle could resolve the lack of agreement between the gas transmission in- dustry and the FPC concerning accounting treatment for research expenditures. The Commission recommends that in order to encourage innovative research and development activities, the Federal Power Commission review its accounting regulations relating to research and de- velopment to determine whether such regulations are consistent with the legiti- mate need of the gas transmission indus- try for clear and realistic guidelines. With appropriate encouragement, the gas transmission industry could foster new tech- nology tiiat would increase the economic feasibility of gas production and transmis- sion farther offshore and in deeper waters and contribute to the overall ability to work in the ocean. For example, improved tech- niques for laying large-diameter pipelines in deeper waters may well dejsart from the con- cept of the traditional pipelaying barge and introduce totally new seafloor construction techniques. Planning Recognizing the vital role of the offshore areas as a soui'ce of natural gas, the FPC has recently undertaken to encourage industry planning to achieve greater efficiency in the construction and use of facilities to transport natural gas from offshore areas. Although in 1967 a major proposal submitted by an in- dustry consortium for sliaring offshore pipe- lines was turned down by the FPC, recent FPC policy statements indicate that FPC will require joint industry planning of off- shore pipelines. It is hoped that cooperation of producers, pipeline companies, and the FPC will : • Expedite tlie planning and processing of joint-use proposals • Contribute to the more orderly develop- ment of offshore areas • Encourage exploration ISO • Provide economies benefiting both the in- dustry and its customers. Other Marine Minerals The hard mineral resources of the shelf and deep sea have assumed public prominence only recently, unlike oil and gas, which have been taken from the continental sheh'es for more than 30 years. Ocean minerals have been hailed by some as a nearly inexhaustible treasure trove. To others, the inaccessibility of most marine minerals and the expensive technology required for their recovery place them on the far horizon of the future in comparison with minerals from more con- ventional sources. The Commission finds that the truth lies somewhere between these extremes. There is no urgent necessity to develop subsea hard minerals with maximum speed regardless of cost. Nevertlieless, an early start in offshore exploration and development of the required teclmology is warranted to determine re- serves and to establish a basis for future ex- ploration. The lead time required to delineate the resources and to develop the necessary technology, the very great costs involved, and the diverse character of the benefits resulting make it proper for Government to play a large role in this exploratory and develop- mental phase. The Present Resource Picture World demand for many key minerals is expected to double by 1985 and triple by the year 2000; comiJetition for the available sup- ply will become severe as industrialization of the developing countries progresses. It is essentia] that the Nation ensure an adequate and dependable supply of minerals by in- creasing the rate of discovery. Despite the tone of urgency that permeates many discussions of future U.S. demands for minerals, the present supply outlook is not foreboding. In a research-oriented and tech- nically progressive nation, advancing tech- nology finds ways continually to replenish depleted reserves. Year by year, it becomes possible to mine minerals of lower and lower grades, to develop less expensive operating techniques, and to improve processes for re- claiming scrap metals. For example, it is possible that ores having one-half or one- third the copper content of the grades pres- ently required for commercial operation could be mined profitably in the future. Similarly, substantial amounts of aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc are already being re- claimed, thus cutting the demand for new supplies. The United States is almost totally de- pendent on foreign sources for such minerals as chromium, manganese, nickel, cobalt, in- dustrial diamonds, and tin. Forty of 72 stra- tegic commodities come from politically un- stable areas. In addition, domestic sources supply only a small part of other important minerals, including aluminum, zinc, and tungsten. Hence it is important to assess the sea as a potential source of these materials. Resources to meet our mineral demands may come from several basic elements of the marine environment. The chemical constitu- ents of sea water make an impressive total, but they are generally found in concentra- tions so low that only a few are presently or prospectively exploitable. Salt, bromine, and magnesium metal and compounds are already being obtained profitably from sea water. For all practical purposes, the source is in- exhaustible, and production is limited only by demand and the competition of land-based sources. But for the foreseeable future, the elconomics of extracting other metals and chemical compounds from the sea water are such tliat at present or prospective prices there is litele commercial opportunity for production. ISl ffalt, bromine, and magnesium are prcKcnfli/ being taken from seawater c,t\ (I profltahlc baxix. Oi/xter shells arc culeiiied to produce the lime used to precipitate magnesium from seawater. Huge tanks are used in the process. Shown also are tlic niolt/n magnesium and the east ingots of primary magnesium. 1S2 Submerged placer deposits may be a more promising source of minerals. These deposits, accumulated in the past ages by the effects of bottom topography, offshore currents, and beach and alluvial processes, are confined mainly to the inner edge of the continental shelf. It is unlikely that significant placer deposits will lie found on the continental slope or beyond. Sand and gravel deposits are now being utilized for commercial pro- duction in the T'^^nited States. Serious inves- tigation is warranted of the prospects for commercial utilization of the placers, par- ticularly gold, platinum, and chromite on the west coast (including Alaska) and phos- phorite, ilmenite, and zircon on the east coast. Another source of minerals is the subbot- tom, including the substrata of the conti- nental shelves and slopes from which oil, gas, and sulfur are recovered. The seabed also may yield coal, potash, phosphatic rock, iron ore, bauxite, and possibly metallic vein deposits. Coal has been mined (working from on- shore shafts or artificial islands) off the coasts of Canada, the Ignited Kingdom, Japan, and Taiwan. Commercial grades of iron ore have been mined to a much lesser extent off New- foundland and Finland. Onshore lode or bed- rock deposits are sufficiently abundant near the shoreline in Alaska, the west coast, and New England to suggest the presence of oft'- shore deposits of similar character in rock formations of the continental shelf. Very little is known about the potential of buried consolidated rock deposits in the seabed. TTn- less accessible from onshore sites or artificial islands, exploitation of these deposits pre- sents formidable problems and thus lies well into the future. Beyond the continental slopes, the only de- posits currently seeming to have potential economic importance are nodules, crusts, and oozes. The nodules have stirred active com- mercial interest, not only because of the manganese content but also because they con- tain significant amounts of copper, cobalt, and nickel. The rocks beneath the abyssal ocean floor remain far beyond our present technical capacity to explore. They are thought to contain minerals associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks of igneous origin, such as chromite and nickel. The discovery of rich brines in depressions on the floor of the Red Sea may indicate another source of exploitable minerals. It has been speculated that similar brines may occur elsewhere. The State of Ocean Mining The marine mining industry is in its in- fancy. Exclusive of oil and gas, the total 1967 value of offshore world mineral produc- tion was estimated at nearly $1 billion, of which about 20 per cent came from U.S. waters. However, about 35 per cent of the world total was accounted for by coal re- covered through tunnels from the shore, and about 40 per cent was chemicals recovered from the sea water column. Worldwide, less than $200 million worth of mineral products was mined directly from the ocean floor an- nually. If common sand, gravel, oyster shells, and sulfur are excluded, this figure reduces to $50 million, which is the present annual world value of tin, iron, heavy minerals, and diamond production from offshore sources. "Worldwide, there were in 1967 approxi- mately oOO marine mining operations of all types. All of these operations were nearshore, and almost all such operations involving pro- duction of hard minerals from tlie ocean floor are based abroad. Although the record of actual exploitation is relatively modest. Government agencies and a fairly large number of private firms are engaged increasingly in exploration and 133 technological development aimed at recov- ery of mai'ine hard minerals. Obstacles to Industry Action The Commission finds that the obstacles to greater commercial development of subsea hard minerals are economic, technical, and institutional. The basic differences between the fossil fuels industry and the hard minerals in- dustry have important implications for Government policy. The fossil fuels in- dustry lias been fortunate in that the geolog- ical structures conti-olling the distribution of deposits generally extend without interrup- tion seaward fi-om the land. This permits easier identification of promising areas for exploration and will facilitate the gradual seaward extension of existmg production technology'. However, only a few types of hard mineral deposits extend from the land offshore, making the projection of favorable target areas mucli more difficult. Further, the exploratory techniques are more expensive because the liorizontal dimensions of most hard mineral deposits are smaller. The steps from discovery to production of hard min- erals also involve considerably more effort and, except for nearshore operations, involve new, costly technology. Technological Considerations The lack of operating experience increases the risks of ocean mining ventures. Ocean mining recovery presently can be accom- plished from a number of ore deposits at depths as great as 150 feet in calm weather. However, dredging operations, even in rela- tively shallow waters, cost more than twice as much as similar operations on land. The difficulties of locating, proving, and developing reserves in deeper, unprotected waters are formidable. Indeed, despite in- tense interest in ocean mining, most recent activities have been conceptual and explora- With increasing depths the tech- nological difficulties involved in locating, proving, and developing marine mineral reserves icill he formidable; submarine crawlers, bottom-hovering vchieles, and flej-ible deep icater pipes are among the equipment that will be required. toi-y. Consequently, it is unlikely that with present technology major private capital outlays will be forthcoming unless spectac- ularly rich deposits become available or un- less the prices or lack of availability of land- based sources dictate unusual measures. The technology' for future ocean mining, as in deep water, will require such equipment as: • Submarine crawlers and bottom-hovering vehicles for exploration and recover}' of deposits • Stationary or neutrally buoyant platforms • Drilling rigs on the ocean floor • Submarine dredges }Si Basic Dredge Types for Marine Mining BUCKET SURFACE PUMP LADDER HYDRAULIC DREDGE DREDGE WIRE LINE DREDGE AIR LIFT DREDGE 'TMHb ' ^~^^ >^^fllH^|^^~'-^--'>^H^^^^^^^^^K^>^ 200 ft. ^^/ ERATING \ LOW \ EL \ t 500 ft. \, PRACTICAL OP DEPTH BE SEA LEV 1000 ft. Source : G. T. Coene, "Recovery of Ocean Resources," Ocean Industry, November 1968, p. 55. • High-capacity, low-cost vertical transport systems • High capacity equipment for horizontal transfer between sea surface platforms. Such technological developments will be very costly. Nevertheless, it is anticipated that industry will wish to develop mineral recovery systems in situations where the risks of achieving an acceptable rate of returns are not excessive. The Commission's recommen- dations will not preclude industry from un- dertaking this task; on the contrary, they will encourage industry to do so. Just as reconnaissance scale mapping by the Government will encourage industry to follow with more detailed delineation of de- posits, so also Government support of basic marine engineering knowledge will encour- age industry to follow with investment of its own in developing operational mining hardware to recover the resources. Examples of typical basic engineering needs of deep ocean mining include : • Sufficient power to lift thousands of tons of minerals from great depths • Ultrahigh-strength, corrosion-resistant hoisting cables capable of withstanding cyclic stresses • Long, flexible pipes for deep water that can withstand the bending and sliearing stresses • The ability to provide for the simulta- neous flow of solids, liquids, and gases through long pipes. Development of tools for more rapid geo- physical exploration and improved deposit 1S5 sampling equipment will be of cruciul im- portance to the success both of Government geophysical and geologic survey activities and of tlie mining intlustrys investigations of the economic potential of specific deposits. Pi-esent technology for such activities is now wholly inadequate in cost and performance. New sensors and platforms are needed for di- rect and infei-red observations of sediment structure, rock types, outcrops, and faults. Seismic, electric, magnetic, and optical sen- sors are now in use or under development to sui)i)lempnt the older metliods of mapping, laiving samples, and coring. Computer tech- niques are coming into use to analyze data and to project the most likely targets for investigation. The potential for developing less costly exploration teclniology, however, is quite promising, and in tlie Commission's view, the value of the resources potentially available justifies tiie etl'ort to develop the technology. As in the case of , the reconnaissance survey work and for the same reason, the Govern- ment nuist help develop the new technology. Identification of fundamental technology proi)lems meriting investigation and develop- ment of tools and instrumentation required for exploration should be undertaken jointly iietween the private sector and the Federal Government in a properly coordinated program. The Commission recommends that strong Federal support be provided for a pro- gram to advance the fundamental tech- nology relevant to marine minerals exploration and recovery. Government and industry should work in close cooperation to develop more rapid geophysical explo- ration tools and improved marine sam- pling equipment. The Government should have the function of testing new tools and equipment developed mainly by private industry and in cooperation with industry should be responsible for setting stand- ards for the mining industry. Legal and Regulatory Considerations The geographic areas of greatest immedi- ate concern to tlie F.S. mining interests fall clearly within either State or Federal juris- diction. The industry's contention, vigorously presented to the Commission, is that the com- petitive procedures of the 1953 Outer Con- tinental Shelf Lands Act are inappropriate and tliat the Act is not attuned to the unique problems likely to be encountered in develop- ing marine minerals, which will require major investments .in exploration and I'e- covery under conditions of very high risk. Specifically, industry urges that a firm which discovers connnercially exploitable deposits should have the privilege of developing these deposits, subject to stipulated terms and con- ditions, without bidding for the privilege. The ratio of exploration costs to potential profit, the industry points out, looms much larger with most hard minerals than with oil. Althovigh statistical data are woefully in- adequate, the ratio of targets explored to de- posits discovered ashore may be as great as 1,000: 1, and the ratio may be higher in the offshore environment. Exploration of the shelf for hard mineral deposits will be a very high risk speculation for tlie foreseeable fu- ture, and mineral explorers will need strong incentives to apply their energy and skills in an activity in which good fortune is also required. Most important mineral commodi- ties are products of world trade, and a min- eral develoi)er must evaluate any exploration venture in the light of the world market. The developer nuist weed out prospects with low geologic or ecoiK)mic potential and concen- trate on the most promising. Favorable land and ocean mining laws of other countries 136 compete directly with the U.S. offshore ex- ploration dollars. Our continental shelf will not be explored by private industry, if it ap- pears that ore deposits can be discovered and more profitably recovered elsewhere. The Conmiission recognizes the validity of these arguments, given the present state of our knowledge of subsea minerals and cur- rent means for their discovery and recovery. At the present level of risk, it is unlikely that sufficient interest could be generated on Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act mining leases (except perhaps for known deposits) to sup- port competitive bidding. On the other hand, the present situation will not continue for- ever. The survey and technology programs recommejided by the Commission are de- signed to open opportunities for profitable exploitation attractive to many firms. The procedures established under the Outer Con- tinental Shelf Lands Act have worked well under these threshold conditions and should not be lightly, abandoned. Furthermore, the entire subject of mineral development rights on public lands and the outer continental shelf is currently under in- tensive review. The Public Land Law Review Commission (PLLRC) will report to the President and the Congress in June 1970. Im- portant questions have been raised before the PLLRC as to the desirability of continuing claim-staking on public lands ashore. We would hesitate in this situation to rec- ommend the system's extension into a new environment. As illustrative guidelines for an improved system to assign exploration and develop- ment rights for hard minerals on the U.S. continental shelf, the Commission oifers the following: • The system should seek to encourage exploration. • The system's primary objective should not The Federal Government should continue its role in the assessment of marine mineral resource potentials. As an example of such tvorl:. the Bureau of Mine's research ressel Virginia City has recently been surveying seafloor mineral deposits off Alaska. be to maximize near-term Federal income from rents, royalties, or bonuses but rather the aggregate net economic return to the nation from ocean mining activity. This objective can be accomplished only by building a healthy ocean mining industry. • The system should take into account the fact that the United States faces competi- tion from other nations that may offer to lease their offshore mineral rights on terms more attractive to U.S. capital. The Government will face diversified situ- ations with respect to the development of hard minerals on the outer continental shelf for which it will need a variety of policies. For example. Government-sponsored scien- 137 tific expeditions may discover deposits of sufficient commercial interest to warrant early competitive bidding. In other cases, the Government's survey activities may identify areas of sufficient mineral potential to cause a number of firms to plan followup investi- gations. Tlie terms for acquiring exploitation rights in such situations must be established in advance to protect all the parties involved, including the United States. In still other instances, the Department of the Interior may determine that the national interest compels it to sponsor further in- vestigations because of the lack of private interest or some other reason. Rights to minerals discovered in this manner clearly should be awarded on the basis of competi- tive bidding. Yet by far the most common circumstance, at least for the immediate future, will be one in which private industry undertakes the detailed exploration and in- vestigation. Such initiative ordinarily should be rewarded with exclusive rights to develop the deposits discovered under an appropriate concession S3'stem. The key factor is that the Secretary of the Interior should have sufficient flexibility to respond to this variety of situations. The Commission recommends that when deemed necessary to stimulate explora- tion, the Secretary of the Interior be granted the flexibility to award rights to develop hard minerals on the outer con- tinental shelf without requiring competi- tive bidding. The Federal rule in this matter also would provide a suitable model for the States. The Commission emphasizes strongly the need for orderly action now to establish the basis for future mining of ocean minerals, not becau.se the mineral situation is critical but. because it will take a long time to pre- pare for widespread use of the sea's mineral resources. To define and appraise the re- sources and to develop the necessary tech- nology to recover them may well take two decades or more. A beginning can be made by proper definition of the information re- quired and by rescheduling existing opera- tions to initiate the necessary programs. An expansion of Government efl'ort to delineate potentials should be accompanied by private industry action to assess them economically. The combined eff'orts of both will establish a strong foundation for U.S. participation in ocean mining. Fresh Water Resources One of man's oldest dreams is to "han^est" fresh water from the sea to reclaim arid lands and to supplement existing water sup- plies to meet expanding needs. But as with other resources, the potential for fresh water from the sea must be appraised in light of the supply available on land. The outlook, then, has been mixed. On the one hand, there are many areas of the world — some of them in the United States — in which economic growth is inhib- ited by the high cost of water from conven- tional sources. "\Miile the situation is not critical in the United States, it is critical in many developing countries. The Nation's in- terest in these countries makes water tech- nology, including desalination, a matter of legitimate national concern. Brackish and salt water are being converted to fresh water in many parts of the world. In humid or moderately humid areas, the cost of such water is higher than that of surface and ground water. Several lines of research are being pursued to reduce cost and to pro- vide greater flexibility in the use of brackish and salt water. We are by no means at the end of the search for cheaper and better tech- niques. Efforts of the Federal Government, States, and universities must be continued. 1S8 Fresh water is becoming an increasingly more valuable natural resource. The world's largest experimental desalting unit, producing some 2.5 million gallons of fresh water per day at the Offlce of Saline Water's San Diego Test Facility, is designed to provide data for desalting plants of the future. The significance of desalination lies not in the average cost of producing water, but in the incremental costs. Even in the semiarid western States, ground and surface sources provide water at lower average cost than now appears likely for any type of desalination. But as increasing numliers of people move to the Pacific coast, the problem of providing additional increments of water will become acute. One of the major advantages of de- salination is the ability to locate plants in the areas of greatest need and to produce water and electricity in dual-purpose power plant-sea water conversion complexes. Other types of desalination plants, particularly those processing brackish water, can provide modest supplements to the water supplies of small and medium-sized urban areas in volumes adjusted to population growth. Desalination, therefore, may prove to be a more flexible way of adding water supplies in the Southwest and one requiring less capital investment than the only other known alternative — massive interregional water transfer projects. Desalination also can be used to purify 2>olluted as well as brackish water. Con- versely, the consequences of discliarging the effluent of desalination into coastal waters must be studied carefully by the Coastal Zone Authorities before large desalination plants are installed. The Commission finds that the desalina- tion program is being conducted in a satis- factory manner. Research and development now underway reflect a close, effective part- nership among Federal, State, and local gov- ernments and the academic community. More useful attention covild be given to such sec- ondary applications of desalting processes as extracting chemicals through concentration of brines. Although progress in achieving eco- nomic teclmology for large plants having capacities above 25 million gallons per day 139 would be accelerated by an expanded effort, the need for desalted water is not so critical as to require a crash program. The Commission concludes that a balanced desalination program should direct addi- tional attention to three key areas: • Techniques for meeting large-scale re- gional water needs, especially those of metropolitan coastal populations • More reliable and efficient smaller plants for isolated shorefront sites and islands and for inland communities which must depend upon brackish or polluted water sources • Systems for industrial and municipal re- use of waste water. The Commission recommends that the Department of the Interior continue an aggressive and diversified desalination re- search and development program with increased emphasis on very large-scale applications, smaller plants for such pur- poses as tapping brackish water supplies for inland communities, and systems per- mitting re-use of waste water. Although desalination is the most signifi- cant way to produce fresh water from the sea, there are other possibilities. In particular, the potential of geological formations i)ro- ducing fresh water in .strata underlying coastal waters needs further investigation. Conceivably, such sources of fresh water could supplement local water supplies con- tinuously in verj' dry areas at relatively low capital costs. Pre-lnvestment Surveys A Government-supported program is nec- essary to delineate the gross geological con- figuration of the continental shelves and slopes adjacent to the United States and to identify in general terms their resource potential and areas of greatest commercial promise. This is of particular importance to the mining industry, but it also would be lielpful to the jjetroleum industry as oil and gas exploration and exploitation proceed into deeper waters and remote areas where even general geological characteristics re- main unknown. In such cases industry can- not reasonably be expected to undertake the necessai-y studies. Geological reconnaissance surveys would be tremendously expensive for any individual firm to undertake, and it could hope to realize only a small fraction of the total benefit from this type of exploratory invest- ment. Furthermore, the survey costs will be much lower if made in the course of a broad, systematic. Government-sponsored mapping and coring program than if made by in- dividual firms. The reconnaissance surveys will uncover a variety of new industrial ojiportunities and provide the foundation for more de- tailed investigation and commerical evalua- tion of the marine resources by industry. The Federal Government conducts similar geological surveys on land. As on land, the recommended geological surveys should be preceded by preparing general purpose maps of topography and geophysical characteris- tics. Specific recommendations for conduct- ing such bathy metric and geophysical sur- veys, which also will serve needs other than those of the nonliving resource industries, are discussed in Chapter 6. The Department of the Interior has pro- posed a marine geological survey involving extensive dredging, coring, heat probes, ex- amination of outcrops, and shallow and deep core drilling into tlie seal)ottom. The Com- mission endorses this program but urges that it be coordinated closely with the marine geo- I)hysical surveys planned by the Environ- mental Science Services Administration and liO Profile of the Continents and Oceans SEDIMENT LAYER ABYSSAL PLAIN CONTINENTAL SLOPE CONTINENT CONTINENT SHELF KM SCALE \ VOLCANIC ISLAND MID-OCEAN RIDGE TRENCH SEAMOUNT the current National Sediment Coring Pro- gram sponsored by the National Science Foundation. These activities will yield basic informa- tion for scientific understanding of our conti- nents and ocean basins and for future min- erals development. Since coring is expensive, it is important that the cores be analyzed not only for mineralogical and geological data but also for information regarding past cli- mates, sedimentation, and aquifers. Provi- sions must be made for prompt and complete analysis of cores, a process that now takes too long. The objective of the marine geological and coring programs should be a complete geo- logic analysis of the structure of the conti- nental shelves and slopes on a mapping scale of 1 : 250,000, refined to 1 : 62,500 in areas of high interest. These scales are adequate to identify mineral potentials in gross terms. Completion of the surveys within 15 to 20 years should keep pace with an overall program for marine mineral resources development. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency provide the reconnaissance sur- veys and analyses necessary to prepare three-dimensional maps at a 1 : 250,000 re- connaissance scale of the geological con- figuration of the continental shelf and slopes adjacent to the United States. This program should be geared to achieving a comprehensive analysis at reconnaissance scale within 15 to 20 years. These surveys should be conducted by the Government and by industry and universities under contract with the Government. Nonpro- prietary information available from pri- vate industry should be utilized to the maximum extent to supplement informa- tion gathered. Kesearch on geologic processes that form and modify the earth's crust should be carried out in critical areas concurrently with the geologic mapping to develop new criteria and methods of searching marine and terres- trial resources. The geological mapijing and analysis pro- gram is keyed to a 15- to 20-year completion goal, while liasic bathymetric and geophysi- cal mapping, which should precede geologic analyses, is j^roposed for completion within m 10 years (see Chapter 6) . It is important that tlie planning of these two programs be closely coordinated and the geologic .program con- centrate first in: • Offshore areas having highest potential for minerals • Areas of scientific significance (deter- mined initially by knowledge of the ge- ology on land) to enhance our understand- ing of the geologic history of the continental shelves and slopes • Coastal areas where the population is ex- panding rapidly and where planning and management groups will need sound basic information on which to make judgments on the best use of marine areas. Roles of the Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency in Marine Minerals Development The Department of the Interior is respon- sible for fostering the development and utili- zation of the Nation's minerals, including those of the outer continental shelf. The De- partment analyzes mineral needs and rates of use, identifies resources, evaluates their po- tential for exploitation, and assists States and industries in exploiting mineral re- sources. The hard minerals underlying the high seas are virtually untapped. The Depart- ment's Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines spend only $7 million annually on problems of discovering and recovering ma- rine minerals. The responsibility for funding and con- ducting the recommended geological surveys of the bed of the high seas and its subsoil should be assigned to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency. However, the new agency should work closely with the Geologi- cal Survey in carrying out this function. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency also should develop the basic tech- nology to assess the feasibility of seabed min- ing and should secure the assistance of the Bureau of Mines in this task. The Depart- ment of the Interior should continue to assess the national interest in ocean minerals and decide whether the results of mineral investi- gations and technological developments war- rant specific action to provide further en- couragement to industry to mine the seabed. An International Legal-Political Frame- work for Exploring and Exploiting the Mineral Resources Underlying the High Seas Exploration and exploitation of the min- eral resources of the deep seas offer signifi- cant opportunities to benefit all nations and to promote international peace and order. For in these vast areas of untold riches, few, if any, national economic interests have been vested. Nor, as yet, have the nations of the world any fixed political positions or atti- tudes on the legal-political arrangements that should be made for such exploration and exploitation. To realize these opportunities. President Johnson has warned : Under no circumstances must toe ever Mow the prospect of nek harvest and mineral wealth to create a new form of colonial com- petition among the maritime nations. We must he careful to avoid a race to grab and to hold the lands xmder the high seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the ocean hot- toms are, and remain, the legacy of all human beings. Any international framework for the con- duct of minerals exploration and exploitation must be judged by the extent to which it achieves the following additional objectives: • It must encourage scientific and technolog- 11,2 ^^1 5^ .. n Under em sting international law, each coastal nation has "sovereign rights" over its continental shelf for the purpose of explori/iig it and exploiting its natural resources. A drilling vessel and jack-up platform are seen on location- in the Gulf of Mexico, wh ich for decades has been the principal offshore source of U.S.-produced oil. us ical efforts and the other major capital in- vestments needed for such exploration and exploitation by making it possible to con- duct these activities in an orderly and economic manner. • It must give the United States and all other nations a fair chance to engage in minerals exploration and exploitation. • It must minimize the creation of vested in- terests that will inliibit changes in the framework deemed desirable in tiie light of unfolding experience with actual explora- tion and exploitation. • It must seek to avoid and not to provoke international conflict. To achieve these objectives, the framework must provide means to recognize exclusive claims to explore and exploit the mineral re- sources of large enough subsea areas for long enough periods of time to furnish the incen- tive to undertake this activity. It must pro- te<-t recognized claims and at the same time require the relinquishment of claims that are not properly explored or developed within fixed reasonable jieriods of time. It also must provide for the peaceful settlement of dis- putes that arise. The Commission concludes that the exist- ing international framework does not pro- vide the necessary means to acliieve these objectives. Existing Framework Each coastal nation, as indicated in Chap- ter 3, has the right of permanent, exclusive access to the nonliving resources found in its territorial waters, on their beds, or in their subsoil. In addition, the International Con- vention on the Continental Shelf grants to eiich coastal nation ''sovereign rights" over the continental shelf "for the purpose of ex- ploring it and exploiting its natural resources." The Convention contains provisions to as- sure that the exercise of these sovereign rights will not interfere unduly with other uses of the seas. Chief among them is the pro- vision that the exercise of these rights shall not "affect the legal status of the superjacent waters as high seas, or that of the air space above those water's." Only general principles of international law govern exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources of the bed and subsoil of the subsea areas beyond the outer limits of the continental shelf as defined by the Con- vention on the Continental Shelf. These gen- eral principles abound with uncertainty. Uncertainties in Existing Definition of the "Continental Shelf'^ and a Recommended Redefinition Private enterprise will be deterred from exploring and exploiting the mineral re- sources of the bed and subsoil underlying the high seas unless it is assured of exclusive ac- cess to such resources in a large enough area for a long enough time to make the activity profitable. Yet no one can reasonably say that the existing framework assures such se- curity much beyond the 200-meter isobath. The principal uncertainty derives from the Convention's definition of the continental shelf, which extends the shelf "to the seabed and the subsoil of the submarine areas adja- cent to the coast but outside the area of the territorial sea, to a depth of 200 meters or, l)eyond that limit, to where the depth of the superjacent waters admits of the exploita- tion of the natural resources of the said areas * * *." It should be noted that this legal definition of the shelf does not corre- spond to its geological definition. P^ven the coastal nation's right of perma- nent, exclusive access to the natural resources of the continental shelf up to the 200-meter isobath is not entirely free of doubt, because in some parts of the world the geological lU continental shelf (at depths less than 200 meters) extends so far from the coast that at some point, it may reasonably be aro^ied, it is no longer "adjacent" to it and, therefore, not within the Convention's definition. At the other extreme, it has been argued that the adjacency criterion is not a limita- tion even upon the exploitability criterion, but that as soon as it becomes technologically possible to exploit mineral resources to any ocean depth, the seabed of all the submarine areas of the world — totaling more than 128 million square miles beyond the 200-meter isobath — will belong to the coastal nations. They would then divide these areas among themselves in accordance with Article 6 of the Convention on the Continental Shelf; in effect, it would give each coastal nation sov- ereign rights to the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil from its coasts to the median line, that is, the line every point of which is equidistant from the coasts of the nearest nations. Other suggested interpretations of the con- tinental shelf definition are presented in the Report of the Commission's International Panel. We think it important to consider here only the view presented in the Interim Ee- port of the National Petroleum Council's (NPC) Committee on Petroleum Resources Under the Ocean Floor, which was adopted on July 0, 1968. The NPC Interim Report maintains that the exploitability and adja- cency criteria, taken together, give coastal nations "sovereign rights" over the natural resources of the continental land mass sea- ward to where the submerged portion of that land mass meets the abyssal ocean floor, that is, over the natural resources of the geological continental shelves, continental borderlands, continental slopes, and at least the landward portions of the geological continental rises. Wliere the continent drops off sharply from near the present coastline to the abyssal ocean floor, the NPC Interim Report would add to the legal "continental shelf" an area of that floor contiguous to the continent. On the basis of the studies of its Interna- tional Panel, the Commission concludes that the NPC position is not warranted either by the language of the definition of the "conti- nental shelf" or its history. We do not think that there is any reasonable way to interpret the Convention's definition that would place a precise outer limit on the existing legal "continental shelf." To eliminate the uncertainty, the NPC In- terim Report proposes that the United States declare to the world that it will exercise sovereign rights over the "continental shelf" as defined by the NPC and invite all other coastal nations to issue similar declarations. This proposal, at first, may seem attrac- tive. The United States has the power to ef- fectuate it and acquire permanent, exclusive access to the mineral resources of an addi- tional 479,000 square statute miles of seabed and subsoil. It already has approximately 8.50,000 square statute miles of continental shelf up to the 200-meter isobath. Very rich oil and gas deposits are expected to be found in this additional vast area, and the United States would make itself the sole beneficiary of their exploitation. Furthermore, some U.S. oil companies seemingly would prefer to con- tinue to face the known perils of the exercise of exclusive authority by coastal nations around the world rather than the unknown perils of international legal-political ar- rangements yet to be negotiated. Nevertheless, the Commission rejects this proposal as contrary to the best interests of the United States. It would benefit other coastal nations of the world proportionately more than the United States and give them U5 exclusive authority over the natural resources of immense subsea areas. In light of recent history, it is shortsighted to assume that U.S. private enterprise would be better off to deal with these coastal nations for permits to develop these resources in the absence of any recognition of the interest of the inter- national community in them. At the same time, the NPC proposal would create the danger that some coastal nations without important mineral deposits on or under their continental slopes and rises will feel justitied in claiming exclusive access to the superjacent waters, the living resources in them, and the air above them. The danger that rights of exclusive access for one purpose may expand to claims of ter- ritorial sovereignty or exclusive access for all purposes materialized as an unforeseen and undesirable consequence of the Truman Proclamation of 1945. Reacting to this uni- lateral U.S. claim to sovereign rights over the natural resources of its geological conti- nental shelf, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru each proclaimed its "sole sovereignty and juris- diction over the areas of the sea adjacent to the coast of its own country and extending not less than two hundred nautical miles from the said coast." Earlier in this chapter, we examined the consequences of this policy for the U.S. distant water fishing fleet and the general relations between the United States and these Latin American countries. Recently, too, Ecuador issued a decree that appears to attach restrictions upon the right of foreign naval vessels and aircraft to tran- sit or fly over its claimed 200-mile territorial sea. Such developments are obviously contrary to traditional U.S. policy to limit national claims to the sea in the interest of the maxi- mum freedom essential to the multiple uses, including military uses, which the United States makes of the ocean.s. National securitv and world peace are best served by the nar- rowest possible definition of the continental shelf for purposes of mineral resources development. The NPC proposal is also unfair to the inland nations of the world which will not comprehend why the rich mineral deposits on and under the continental slopes and rises should belong only to the coastal nations. U.S. action to effectuate the NPC proposal would be regarded as a "grab," even if all the coastal nations followed suit. The Commission recommends that the United States take the initiative to secure international agreement on a redefinition of the "continental shelf" for purposes of the Convention on the Continental Shelf. The seaward limit of each coastal nation's "continental shelf" should be fixed at the 200-meter isobath, or 50 nautical miles from the baseline for measuring the breadth of its territorial sea, whichever alternative gives it the greater area for purposes of the Convention, If the same continental shelf, as rede- fined, is claimed by two or more nations whose coasts are opposite each other or by two or more adjacent nations, the boundaries should be determined by ap- plying the "median-line" principles set forth in Article 6 of the Convention. With the use of the best available bathy- metric surveys, the recommended defini- tion should be translated into geographi- cal coordinates for each coastal nation and not be subject to change because of subsequent alterations in the coastline or revelations of more detailed surveys. The redefined "continental shelf" would be a "narrow" shelf with precise outer limits, thus serving the interests of the United States as previously delineated. Two hundred ne meters is the average depth of the outer edges of the world's geological continental shelves; 50 nautical miles is the average widtii of the shelves. By providing tiie 200- meter/50-mile alternative, the inequity of a definition in terms of the 200-meter isobath alone will be avoided for those coastal na- tions which either are not on a geological continental shelf, as in the Persian Gulf, or have coasts that drop to great depths almost immediately, as off the west coast of South America. Uncertainties Concerning Subsea Areas Beyond the Continental Shelf and Recom- mended Legal-Political Arrangements for Such Areas Assuming there are limits to the legal "continental slielf as presently defined, un- certainty also characterizes the general prin- ciples of international law governing ex- ploration and exploitation of the mineral resources of the subsea areas beyond these limits. The difl'erent positions that have been taken regarding these principles are set forth in the Report of the Commission's Inter- national Panel. International lawyers seem to agre« that any nation may explore the seabed and sub- soil beyond the limits of the continental shelf and keep any minerals it may find and ex- tract. However, there is no agreement tliat such a nation may also exclude "poachere," that is, operators of other nations who wait until a discovery has been made and then, having avoided the costs of exploration, move in and work the deposit. The NPC Interim Rejwrt argues that adop- tion of its proposal would remove any urgency in the foreseeable future to create a new international framework for exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources be- yond the "continental shelf" defined in ac- cordance with its proposal. It may be true, if the NPC proposal is adopted, that some coastal nations may not feel this urgency. But this is not sufficient reason to adopt an otherwise unacceptable proposal. ^Moreover, it also may be true that if the coastal nations are satisfied with the legal-}X)litical f ramewoi'k for the exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources beyond the continental shelves, as redefined in accordance with the Commission's recom- mendation, they may readily accept the rec- ommended redefinition. As a practical matter, therefore, the question of fixing the outer limits of the continental shelf is insepa- rable from tliat of the framework applicable beyond these limits. The two questions will be intertwined in international negotiations. Just as it takes time — and planning — to prepare the scientific, technological, and eco- nomic bases for exploring and exploiting the mineral resources lying deep under water, it it also takes time — and planning — to make hospitable international arrangements for such exploration and exploitation. Conscious and appropriate lawmaking will encour- age the steps necessary to build the scientific, technological, and economic foundations for the desired activity. The nations of the world must not underestimate tlie pace of techno- logical advance in the face of such encourage- ment and increasing human needs. I'nless a new international framework is devised which removes legal uncertainty from mineral resources exploration and exploita- tion in every area of the seabed and its subsoil, some venturesome governments and private entrepreneurs will act to create faits ao- complis that will be difficult to undo, even though they adversely affect the interests of the United States and the international community. The Ignited Nations also is immersed deeply in oceanic matters and has taken sig- nificant steps toward the creation of a new HI framework. The U.N. Ad Hoc Committee to Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and tlie Ocean Floor Beyond the .Limits of Na- tional Jurisdiction has reported to the twenty -third (1968) Session of the U.N. Gen- eral Assembly. It should be recalled, too, that Article 13 of the Convention on the Con- tinental Shelf permits any nation adhering to it to request its revision at any time after June 10, 1969. The U.N. General Assembly must then decide what to do about the request. The Commission recommends that the United States seize the opportunity for leadership which the present situation de- mands and propose a new international legal-political framework for exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources underlying the deep seas, that is, the high seas beyond the outer limits of the con- tinental shelf as redefined in accordance with the Commission's recommendations. The Commission recognizes that any pro- posed changes in the existing international framework will be subject to international negotiations, and this makes it hazardous to venture specific proposals. Nevertheless, we do so. Our particular recommendations may not sui-\ive the process of negotiation nor perhaps even the test of debate, but only by being specific is it possible to subject to criti- cal examination the kind of framework we have concluded the present situation requires. We also should like to stress that our major recommendations are interrelated. Rejection of any one of tliese recommendations would raise serious questions in the minds of the Commission as to the advisability of continu- ing with the others. The Commission has considered and re- jected a number of alternatives that have been suggested to govern mineral resources ex- ploration and exploitation beyond the conti- nental shelf. These include proposals to grant sovereign rights over any area to the nation which is the first to discover and exploit its mineral resources and to give title to tJie mineral resources beyond the continental shelf to the Ignited Nations in the name of the international community. These alternatives, which are considered in detail in the Report of the Commission's International Panel, were rejected because no one of them attains the objectives that must be accomplished in the immediate future. Nevertheless, the following recommended framework incorporates particular elements of some of these alternatives and others which have not hitherto been pi'oposed. The Commission recommends that new international agreements be negotiated embodying the following provisions: • An International Registry Authority • An International Fund • Certain powers and duties of register- ing nations • Limited policing functions for Registry Authority • Dispute settlement provisions • Creation of an intermediate zone. The several elements of this recommenda- tion are discussed in the pages that follow. An International Authority To Register National Claims Beyond the Redefined Continental Shelf All claims to explore or exploit particular mineral resources in particular areas of the deep seas should be registered with an In- ternational Registry Authority. Every na- tion adhering to the agreements should undertake not to engage in, or authorize, ex- 148 \ Manganese nodules photographed at 2,7J8 meters. Tlie Commission proposes negotiation 0/ an inter- national agreement to estubli^sh an international authority to register elaims to explore or exploit such deep sea mineral resources. ploitatioii except under a registered claim. Nations thus will be free to engage in or au- thorize preliminary investigation to deter- mine whether it is worthwhile registering a claim to explore. However, as will become clear later, every nation will have a great in- centive to register a claim to explore as quickly as possible. Only a nation, or an association of nations, should be eligible to register a claim. If the claim pertains to an area within some coastal nation's "intermediate zone," as defined below, only that nation should be authorized to register it. The International Registry Authority should be required to register claims with respect to specified mineral resources, e.g., oil and gas, or all minerals other than oil and gas, or all mineral resources, in a speci- fied area of the deep .seas on a "first-come, first-registered" basis, subject only to the following condition: The nation register- ing the claim must satisfy the Authority that the individual, association, corporation, or national organization that will undertake the exi)loration or exploitation is technicallj' and financially competent and willing to per- form the task. The entity undertaking the task may or may not be a national of the registering nation; that should be a matter for each nation to decide for itself. But for the condition mentioned, which is neces- sary to prevent claim registration from being used to "sit on" the rights derived there- from, the Authority should be given no dis- cretion to deny registration of any claim. Registration of a claim to explore for par- ticular mineral resources in a particular area of the deep seas should confer upon the regis- tering nation the exclusive right to engage in or authorize such exploration. Upon proof of discovery, the International Registry Authority should be required to convert the registered claim to explore into a registered claim to exploit. Registration of a claim to exploit particu- lar mineral resources in a particular area of the deep seas should confer upon the regis- tering nation the exclusive right to engage in or authorize such exploitation in a large enough area and for a long enough time to enable the producer to operate economically and not wastefully and to recover its original investment as well as an adequate return thereon. The size of the area covered by the claim and the term of years for which it is registered should be fixed by the Authority. A registered claim to explore or exploit should be subject to conditions specified by the International Registry Authority to as- Ii9 sure that claims are not registered solely for the purpose of "sitting on"' rights derived therefrom but actually will be worked. Fail- ure to comply with these conditions should subject the registration to revocation. A registering nation should be authorized to transfer any registered claim to any other nation which adheres to the agreements em- bodying the new framework. No unregistered claim should be entitled to any of the benefits derived from registra- tion, and in any conflict between a registered claim and an uiu-egistered claim, the former should prevail. These provisions should furnish all na- tions with incentives to adhere to the recom- mended agreements and to register claims with the International Registry Authority. Upon expiration of the period of registra- tion of a claim to explore or to exploit, fur- ther exploration or exploitation of the re- sources covered by the claim should be subject to whatever, international legal-poli- tical framework is in effect at that time. The nation which registered the expired claim should not acquire, by virtue thereof, a vested right to continue to explore or exploit the particular resources covered by that claim, or even a preference over any other nation with respect to such exploration or exploitation. The membership of the International Reg- istry Authority and the manner of choosing its goveri^ing body sliould be specified in the agreements embotlying the new framework. The Authority should find its place in the family of the Ignited Nations but should be as autonomous as the World Bank. We pro- pose tliat it be organized on a "multiple prin- ciple" representation, based on the technologi- cal capacity of its meml)ers as well as on tlieir geographic distribution. To cover the costs of the International Registry Authority, every nation should be required to pay to the Authority a fee for each claim to explore which it registers and an additional fee if and when that claim is converted into a claim to exploit. The Au- thority should be empowered to fix the fees. An International Fund Every nation registering a claim to exploit shoidd be required to pay a portion of the value of the production, if any, into an In- ternational Fund to be expended for such purposes as financing marine scientific activity and resources exploration and de- velopment, particularly food-from-the-sea programs, and aiding the developing coun- tries tluough the World Bank I".N. Develop- ment Program and other international de- velopment agencies. The proceeds from these payments should not be expended for general purposes of the United Nations. The International Registry Authority should receive the payments from the reg- istering nations and turn the proceeds over to the International Fund but should have nothing to do with the Fund's management. The membership of tlie International Fund and the manner of chosing its govern- ing body should be determined by the U.N. (reneral Assembly. The Commission's proposals for an Inter- national Fund do not constitute just another way foi- the rich nations to aid the poor na- tions. They are intended to compensate the common owners of the mineral resources of the deep seas by using the "economic rent" for purposes that the international com- munity agrees will jjromote the common welfare. However, the Commission must caution against any optimistic assumption that the sums at the disposal of the International Fund will be so huge as to make it unneces- sary in the coming decades for rich nations to aid tlie development of poor nations in any 150 other way. The International Registry Au- thority will also have to keep in mind that its purposes will be defeated if it fixes the rates of payment so high as to discourage exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources of the deep seas. Powers and Duties of Registering Nations Each Xation registering a claim should agree to enact domestic legislation to assure that : • The business entity on whose behalf the claim is registered complies with the con- ditions imposed by the International Reg- istry Authority and reasonably accom- modates other uses of the subsea area covered by the registered claim, the super- jacent and surface waters, and the air above them along the lines specified in the Convention on the Continental Shelf. • The specified fees and payments are sub- mitted to the International Registry Authority. • Its civil and criminal laws are applied to protect exploration and exploitation ac- tivities under its registered claims, includ- ing the personnel involved, and the neces- sary installations and other devices against piracy, theft, violence, and other unlawful interference. The registering nation's failure to dis- charge these obligations effectively should suliject its registered claims to revocation by the International Registry Authority. The registering nation, of course, will be able to apply any other of its domestic laws not inconsistent with the recommended framework to the exploration and exploita- tion activities under its registered claims, such as laws concerning working conditions ; the production and marketing of the ex- tracted minerals; and the taxation of the income from sucli activities. Limited Policing Functions for the Registry Authority The Commission does not recommend that the International Registry Authority be given initial policing functions. However, be- cause we recommend that the Authority be empowered to cancel a registered claim if the registering nation fails to discharge its ob- ligations properly, the Authority must have the means to perform this function fairly and with full knowledge of the facts. Accord- ingly, the Authority should be empowered to inspect all stations, installations, equipment, and otlier devices used in operations under a registered claim and to conduct appropriate hearings. Dispute Settlement The International Registry Authority ini- tially should settle disputes arising under the recommended framework. At the request of any party to the dispute, however, the Au- thority's initial decision, including a decision to revoke a registered claim, should be subject to review by an independent arbitration agency possessing expertise in resolving the kinds of issues likely to be presented. The Commission's recommendations set forth above are intended to create interna- tional machinery for the international recog- nition of claims to exclusive access to subsea minerals in large enough areas for long enough periods of time to make operations profitable. In this way, nations and private entrepreneurs will be encouraged to make the scientific and technological efforts and the other major capital investments needed to develop the mineral resources of the deep seas. The recommendations will minimize inter- national conflict. While the "first-come, first- registered" principle governing the Interna- tional Registry Authority may stimulate a 151 "race" among nations to register claims, the rec'oinini'iulations gi-eatly temper the nature of this race. Most impoi-tant of all, registered claims are limited in time; when they expire, furtlier exploration or exploitation of the mineral resources in the area covered by tlie expired claim will l>e subject to whatever Icfral-political framework nu\y then be in ert'ect. The recommended framework can be ciianged at any time in the light of experience with mineral resources exploration and ex- ploitation in the deep seas. Only the claims already registered will be immune from such change and tlien only until they expire by tlieir own terms. Stability is achieved without unduly inhibiting change. Tlirough the recommended International Fund, the poor and developing nations of the world will share the benefits of subsea min- erals exploitation. Creation of an Intermediate Zone The uncertainties surrounding the present definition of the continental shelf may have raised tlie expectations of some coastal na- tions to the point at which they may refuse to accept the Commission's recommended re- definition of the shelf without the preferen- tial rights of access to the mineral resources of a reasonable subsea area lying beyond the shelf. It is also recognized that, in the lan- guage of the Tnnnan Proclamation of 1945, "self-protection" may comjjel "the coastal na- tion to keep close watch over activities off its shores which are of the nature necessary for the utilization of" tlie mineral resources lying reasonably beyond the shelf. At the same time, however, tlie Commission remains of the view that the mineral resources of the deep seas cannot, in fairness or law, be said to belong to the coastal nations so that all other nations sliould be entirely excluded from the benefits of their exploitation. These considerations lead the Commission to recommend that intermediate zones be created encompassing the betl and subsoil of tlie deep seas, but only to tiie 2,500-meter isobath, or 100 nautical miles from the base- line for measuring the breadth of each coastal nation's territorial sea, whichever al- ternative gives the coastal nation the greater area for the pui'poses for which intermediate zones are created. Only the coastal nation or its licensees, wliioh may or may not be its nationals, should be authorized to explore or exploit the min- eral resources of the intermediate zone. In all otlier respects, exploration and exploita- tion in the intermediate zone should be gov- erned by the framework recommended above for the areas of the deep seas beyond the intermediate zone. If the same intermediate zone is claimed by two or more nations whose coasts are op- posite each other, or by two or more adjacent nations, the boundaries should be deter- mined by applying the "median-line" princi- ples set forth in Article 6 of the Convention on the Continental 8helf. The 2,500-meter isobath is considered by authorities to be the average depth of the basis of the world's geological continental slopes; 100 nautical miles is the average width of the continental shelves and slopes. The Commission proposes that the boun- daries of each coa.stal nation's intermediate zone be fixed in terms of geographical co- ordinates for each nation and not subject to change because of subsequent altera- tions in the coastline or revelations by more detailed surveys. The coordinates should be recorded with the International Registrj' Authority. The Commission's recommendations re- garding an intermediate zone embody a com- promise between the position that the conti- 152 Approximate Delineation of Con- tinental Shelves and intermediate Zones as Proposed TlicKC rhdrts arc illustrative and do not linrport to xhoir actual natimial lines of jitrisditcion. Vo effort lias hci-n made to ■ilioir lateral boundaries bctireeu Mitions or midpoint lines. The seaward hoiindanj of the continental shelf is drawn at the .i1)()-ntcU r isobath or .'lO miles from the baseline for measuring the territorial sea. whichever is farther from shore. The seaward boundary of the intermediate zone is drawn at the 2.o00-nietcr isobath or 100 miles, whichever is farther from shore. nental shelf sliould be redefined to include the intermediate zone and the position that the intermediate zone should be treated in every respect like the areas of the deep seas beyond it. T'f^nder these recommendations, only the coastal nation will have access to the mineral resources of the intermediate zone. It may decide not to register any claim to explore or exploit mineral resources in the zone, in which case every other nation and business entity will be barred from engaging in such activities in the zone. But claims to explore and exploit in the intermediate zone must be registered with the International Registry Authority under the terms and conditions applicable to areas of tlie deep seas beyond the intermediate zone. TJie creation of the intermediate zone will not raise the dangers the Commission saw in the proposal to redefine the continental shelf to include the zone. It will not encour- age claims of exclusive access to the zone for purposes other than general resources development. A nation which registers a claim in the intermediate zone (or beyond) will not thereby acquire the "sovereign rights" of a coastal nation over its continental shelf. It will have only the rights accorded it under the new framework. Thus, for example, its right of exclusive access will be limited in time. It will pay a portion of the value of production into the International Fund. The international community will thereby ac- quire a significant interest in the zone. Scien- tific inquiry concerning the bed of the inter- mediate zone and undertaken there will not require the coastal nation's prior consent. Under no other alternative framework suggested will the exploring or exploiting 15S nation, or the international agencies given a significant but limited role in these activi- ties, have less justification to, interfere with otlier uses of the bed of the deep seas, its sub- soil, its superjacent or surface waters, or the air above them. Relations Between the United States as a Registering Nation and the Business En- tities on Whose Behalf It Will Register Claims These relations are the domestic concern of each nation. New legislation will be necessary in the United States to fix these relations and to implement the recommended framework. The Commission recommends that the new legislation fixing these relations be based on the policies the United States follows in leas- ing mineral resources on its outer continental shelf, with some important modifications. Policies Applicable to All Registered Claims Business entities, domestic, or for- eign, which seek to have the United States register claims on their behalf with the Inter- national Kegistry Authority should apply to the Department of the Interior, which should be designated the U.S. agency for this purpose. The business entity on whose behalf a claim is registered should pay to tlie United States the specified fees to cover the costs of Approximate Delineation of Con- tinental Shelves and Intermediate Zones as Proposed LEGEND CONTINENTAL SHELF I [J INTERMEDIATE ZONE 15i Approximate Delineation of Con- tinental Shelves and Intermediate Zones as Proposed the International Registry Authority which the United States is obligated to pay to the Authority. The business entity on whose be- half a claim to exploit is registered should pay to tlie Ignited States the portion of the value of tlie extracted minerals which the United States is obligated to pay to the Inter- national Registry Authority on behalf of the International Fund. This latter payment should take the place of both the fixed annual rent per acre or square mile and the royalty on the value of production which must now be paid under mineral leases on the outer continental shelf. In this way, the rights of the international community to the mineral resources of the deep seas will be recognized without unduly burdening U.S. private enterprise. The payments for the International Fund, which the U.S. representative on the Inter- national Registry Authority will participate in fixing, may be greater or less than the combined rents and royalties paid for the same mineral value extracted from the out«r continental shelf. In the intermediate zone, such differences probably would be reflected in different levels of competitive bidding. Additional Policies Concerning Claims in the Intermediate Zone If competitive bid- ding is employed by the Secretary of the Interior, as would be generally equitable be- cause the United States is disposing of its valuable right of exclusive access, the claim to explore should be registered on behalf of the first resix)nsible qualified business entity that applies therefor. Upon discovery, the registered claim to explore should be con- verted into a claim to exploit on behalf of the resix)nsible qualified business entity that bids the highest cash bonus, or percentage of profits, therefor. If competitive bidding is not employed, as will sometimes be the case upon adoption of our prior recommendations to encourage min- eral resources exploration (see page 137), the claim to explore should be registered on be- half of the first responsible qualified busi- ness entity that applies therefor. Upon dis- covery, the registered claim to explore should be converted into a claim to exploit on behalf of that same entity. ISS Additional Policies Concerning Claims in Areas of the Deep Seas Beyond the Inter- mediate Zone For claims in these areas, the United States should not use competitive bid- ding, but should adopt the same policy of "first-come, first-registered'" that will guide the International Registry Authority. It should register a claim to explore on behalf of the first i-esponsible qualified business en- tity that applies therefor. Upon discovery, the claim to explore should be converted into a claim to exploit on l)ehalf of that same entity. The Commission seeks to prevent a "flag- of-convenience" problem from arising. No such problem can arise in the intermediate zone because the coastal nation will have ex- clusive access to its mineral resources. But this problem could arise if the United States used competitive bidding in deep sea areas beyond the intermediate zone. All nations have equal access to these areas. Explorers and exploiters would then have an incentive to request nations .which charged less or noth- ing therefor, to register claims on their be- half. The United States could forbid its nationals, or foreign business entities con- trolled by them, from having any other na- tion register claims on their behalf. But this would establish a most undesirable precedent. The Commission prefers to await experience with the recommended alternative of no competitive bidding. A Proposed Course of Interim Action It will take years to arrive at a new frame- work ; therefore, it is important to secure the earliest possible agreement on the principles by which the nations of the world will be guided in conducting interim mineral re- sources exploration and exploitation in the deep seas. The principles should not foreclose the opi)ortunity to build the reconnuended framework. The Commission supports the principles which the United States has proi)osed for adoption by the U.N. General Assembly. These principles, which are set forth ver- batim in the Report of the International Panel, are consistent with the framework which the Commission proposes. Essentially, they: • Call for redefinition of the outer limits of the continental shelf • Exclude any claim or exercise of sover- eignty or sovereign rights over any part of the seabed or subsoil beyond the redefined limits • Recognize the interest of the international community in the development of mineral resources beyond the redefined shelf through the "dedication as feasible and practicable of a portion of the value" of these resources to "international com- munity purposes" • Call for a new framework to be established "as soon as practicable" which will be con- ducive "to the making of investments necesary for the exploration and exploita- tion of resources" beyond the redefined continental shelf. Another important principle proposed by the United States is that exploitation "of the natural resources of the ocean floor that oc- curs prior to establishment of the boundary [of the continental shelf] shall be understood not to prejudice its location, regardless of whether the coastal [nation] considers the exploitation to have occurred on its 'conti- nental shelf.' " Tliis principle quite properly seeks to reserve the areas beyond the 200- meter isobath for future international deci- sion. But it gives no indication of what the coastal nations should reasonably consider to be the limits of their "continental shelf" un- til such time as the shelf's boundary is fixed. 156 In the absence of such an indication, coastal nations may claim wider continental shelves than would be consistent with U.S. interests and thereby influence the ultimate location of the shelf's boundary. The Commission recommends, therefore, that the United States propose the prin- ciple that no nation, in the interim, should claim or exercise sovereignty or sovereign rights over any part of the seabed or sub- soil beyond the 200-meter isobath. However, the Commission recommends also that the United States continue to authorize exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources of the seabed and subsoil underlying the high seas beyond the 200-meter isobath, provided such au- thorization explicitly states that any such exploration or exploitation shall be sub- ject to the new international framework agreed upon. No other policy will achieve the objective of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act to preserve "the role of the United States as a leader in marine science and resource development." The Commission recognizes the apparent dilemma in the recommendation just made. To proceed with exploration and exploita- tion beyond the 200-meter isobath is to run the risk that the operation may ulti- mately find itself in an area beyond the rede- fined continental shelf and perhaps gov- erned by a less favorable framework than now applies on the outer continental shelf. But if private enterprise should avoid the risk by failing to explore and exploit beyond the 200-meter isobath, U.S. objectives would not be met. If the framework the Commission recom- mends is eventually adopted, private enter- prise would actually run little risk by pro- ceeding with sucJi exploration and exploita- tion. But there is no guarantee that the Com- mission's recommendations will be adopted, and a means of protecting private enterprise against undue loss is therefore necessary. The Commission recommends that the Congress enact legislation to compensate private enterprise for loss of investment or expenses occasioned by any new inter- national framework that redefines the continental shelf so as to put the area in which it is engaged in mineral resources development beyond the shelFs outer limits. The scope of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act is as uncertain as the existing de- finition of the continental shelf. It is impor- tant, however, that entrepreneurs should Imow when they must seek the Government's permission to engage in exploration and ex- ploitation of subsea minerals. It is equally important that the United States have ade- quate control over the evolving situation un- til a new framework is adopted. The Commission recommends that the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act be amended to require permission from the Secretary of the Interior to engage in mineral resource exploration or exploita- tion in any subsea area beyond the 200- meter isobath upon such terms and condi- tions as the Secretary deems appropriate. The amendment should make clear that this requirement is not intended to con- stitute a U.S. claim to exercise sovereignty or sovereign rights over any subsea area beyond the 200-meter isobath. 137 In deciding whether to grant permission, the Secretary of the Interior should be guided by the Secretary of State's judg- ment as to the foreign policy implications of the particular situation in question. The recommended international legal- political framework for the exploration and exploitation of the mineral resonrces of the bed of the high seas and its subsoil is intended to meet the needs of the immediate future, not to suffice for all time. It does necome an end in itself. It is hoped that the National Ad- visory Committee for the Oceans will foster the required interchange of information to ensure that the technologj- programs are channeled where the needs are most pressing. Afany recent studies demonstrate the great importance to the Nation of ensuring an ade- ([uatc le\el of technology transfer and em- ])hasix,e tlie enormity and complexity of the task. Tiiere are several important factors wiiich bear on the transfer process : • Training programs can help interested firms, but actual participation in technical jtrograms is more effective. Awarding sur- vey and development contracts to industry fosters the gi'owth of more companies capable of using the new knowledge in commercial markets. • Patent policy has strong effects on the pi'ocess of transferring some forms of knowledge to commercial applications. The policies of Federal agencies wnth respect to the patental)ility of developments achieved under Government research and development contracts are of particular interest and importance. It is vital that the patent aspects of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency's technology programs be administered in a manner to stimulate commercial applications of new developments and cause participation in the program to be attractive to industrial contractors. • Access to unpublicized or restricted De- partment of Defense information at the eai'liest possible time consistent with na- tional security is also important. Such access is most readily achieved by large firms that have a continuing contractual relationship with the military services. Procedures have been developed in the atomic energy field for industry-Govern- ment collaboration in assuring the maxi- nnnn dissemination of information con- sistent with security requirements. The Commission believes that similar pro- cedures might be adopted appropriately to facilitate transfer of marine technology. • Active and continuing connnunication mvist be maintained between the producers and users of technology. Suggestions for stimulating such communication have been advanced in Chapter 2. Supporting Services -Vn adequate background of supporting teciniical services, as outlined in Chapter 6, also is necessary to industi'y's entry into the sea. The Commission found particularly strong industry interest in improved marine weathei' services and severe storm warnings. 166 Collaboration In Planning Finally, collaboration by the Federal and State governments and industry in planning marine programs and projects will help to protect and increase the efficiency of indus- try in\'estments. Such planning is needed to minimize conflicts among potentially in- compatible coastal zone uses. For example, stable and uniform water quality standards will prevent unnecessary costs in acting to prevent pollution ; shoreline zoning will help to stabilize the setting for recreation devel- opment, and agreement on shijjping fairways will jjermit recovery of oil and gas in areas which otherwise would not be available. The existence of a Government agency specifically charged with aiding the devel- opment of marine resources can do much to assure that continued attention is given to maintaining the best climate for private enterprise and permit the accelerated devel- opment of marine resources. V. Program Costs The expenditures which will be necessary to implement the recommendations made in this chapter are summarized in Table 4-4. Substantial increases have been proposed for the management and development of marine fisheries, reflecting the importance which the Commission jjlaces on improved utilization of the ocean's food resources. The estimates for management and technical as- sistance include payments to international fisheries commissions, administration of the Table 4-4 Marine Resource Development ' [Incremental costs in millions of dollars] Average annual costs 1971-75 1976-80 Living Resources $62 $88 Fisheries: Management and Technical Assistance 10 16 Harvesting and Processing Technology 20 30 Research and Surveys 13 17 Aquaculture Research and Development 15 20 Marine Medical and Pharmacology Program 4 5 Nonliving Resources 39 66 Continental Shelf Geological Survey 12 18 Development of Survey Equipment 15 25 Basic Mining Technology 10 20 Special Desalination Technology Programs 2 3 National Projects Continental Shelf Laboratories Pilot Continental Shelf Nuclear Plant Fundamental Technology — Underwater Operating Capabilities, 2,000 feet. Total, Resource Development 191 290 1 For explanation of amounts shown in this table, see accompanying test and chapter 8. Total 10-year costs $750 130 250 150 175 45 525 150 200 150 25 60 86 ;30 40 60 26 500 20 230 30 50 400 2,405 167 proposed domestic fisheries inanajiement pro- gram, extension services, and improved statistics. Tiie estimate for -harvestinjr and processing teciinology is intended to cover the entire spectrum of possible improvements in the technological capabilities of the fish- ing industry. It includes search and detec- tion, development of FPC technology, and techniques for more rapid assessment of fish stocivs. The estimate for research and surveys is based principally on data furnished the Commission by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The amount proposed for aqua- culture programs, although much more than has been spent on the subject to date, may be modest in terms of what later might prove worthwhile. Funding for these programs would be principally by NOAA; their ex- ecution will,, involve the States, universities, industry, and international groups. The Connnission has recommended that American fishermen be pei'mitted to use foreign-built ships in U.S. domestic fisheries. If this recommendation is adopted, the figures shown here would be partially offset by the resulting $6 million per year savings in the present vessel subsidy program. If not, the subsidj' program should be expanded, and the figures would be higher. Cost pro- jections include a total of $45 million over the decade for establishing institutional ar- rangements and for conducting the necessary research on the potential of drugs from the sea. The geological mapping program, to be funded by NOAA, is estimated to involve a total cost of between $.300 and $400 mil- lion spread over 15 to 20 years. NOAA also will be the principal sponsor of tech- nological programs related to nonliving re- source development, particularly in the im- provement of resource survey equipment and basic mining technology. The estimate for development of survey equipment will jjermit echo sounders, heat probes, samplers, corers, and other exploration tools to be improved in sensitivity, efHciency, and depth capability. Federal support of basic raining technology will provide the basic engineering informa- tion which industry needs for minerals recovery. The continental shelf is, of course, the area of most interest to our resource industries, and in this chapter, the Commission has pro- posed two National Projects to improve our operating capabilities at shelf depths. The Commission believes that the Continental Shelf Laboratories Project and the Pilot Con- tinental Shelf Nuclear Plant merit funding by NOAA in the range of $700 to $750 million during the 1970's. This estimate is geared to the construction of one fixed and three port- able laboratories during tlie 10-year period; it also assumes that the Navy will share in the development and use of the continental shelf laboratory facilities and will supple- ment the proposed NOAA funding to pro- vide capabilities unique to Navy needs. The estimate for the underwater nuclear plant covers NOAA development of technology necessary to underwater siting, construction, and logistic support; it assumes additional Atomic Energy Commission funding for development of the necessary nuclear tech- nology. These National Projects are designed to provide a focus for advancing underwater operating capabilities. To be fully effective, they must be supplemented by a broadly based program of fundamental teclmology to in- vestigate a variety of possible power, pro- pulsion, life support, anchoring, mooring, and related systems for use at depths to 2,000 feet. Mastery of this fundamental technol- ogy will enable industry to conduct its re- source operations on or within the seabed, away from the difficulties which characterize -surface operations. Chapter ^ The Global Environment ir,f) The Nation's interest in the seas, the land beneatli, and tiie atmospliere. above recjuire that it attain tlie capability to observe, de- scribe, understand, and predict oceanic proc- esses on a global basis. The Nation is engaged or must be prepared to engage in operations in all of tlie world's oceans at increasing depths and in increasingly hostile environ- ments. It has a vital stake in the living and nonliving resources of the global seas. Its industry, commerce, and agriculture are cri- tically dependent on the weather controlled in large measure by global ocean conditions. The safety and well-being of its people and their property must be protected against the hazards of air and ocean. The environmental information the Na- tion requires for these purposes ranges from descriptions of the topography, geophysics, and geological structure of the deep sea floor to the understanding of the normal condi- tions of the oceans' chemistry, biology, thermal structure, and motions, and the pre- diction of the rapidly changing ocean and atmospheric phenomena recognized as our daily weather and sea state. Major etforts already are underway to ac- complish these formidable tasks. Men have journeyed briefly to the deepest parts of the ocean. Scientists routinely obtain photo- graphs of the world's cloud cover from satel- lites. The United States participates with other nations in such international or- ganizations as the World Meteorological Organization and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Conmiission for the study of the oceans and the atmosphere. Some of these international activities have been organized for almost a century to provide real-time data describing weather and sea conditions in many i)arts of the world. Otliers of more recent origin have been organized to explore and.undci-stand the processes of the global Waterspouts off the Bahamas prolific a stark cramplc of the i/lobal interaction hclwccn atmosphere and sea. seas. Efforts to date, although extensive, are but a token of what needs to be done. Tlie Commission concurs in the views ex- pressed by the President's Science Advisory Committee Panel on Oceanography that the need to consider the environment as a whole is a scientific imperative, for the oceans and atmosphere and solid earth are interacting parts of a single geophysical continuum. Eventually, man must undei-stand the sea, the air, and the land as a single, incredibly complex system. The currents of the oceans and the roughness of the sea's surface are principally the result of the winds in the lower atmosphere and of the shape of the ocean floor and its coastlines. Large ocean swells breaking on the Pacific coast of the United States may be generated by winds Ijlowing over the southern Atlantic Ocean. The tsunami — a series of long-period, energ^'- packed waves which can wreak ha^'oc along a coast — is generated by shifts of the earth's solid crust. A hurricane receives much of its destructive energy by absorbing heat directly from the ocean and by condensing the water vapor supplied by the sea. On a longer time scale, the oceans play a lai'ge role in the global circulation of the atmosphere, and shifts in large-scale weather conditions and climate are related to clianges in the ocean conditions. The size of the oceans makes it difficult to acquire the observations needed to under- stand the global environment. Expanding present programs will help, but existing sys- tems, even if expanded, cannot provide all the types of data needed. Fortunately, radically new technology are available to help us ac- quire, communicate, and analyze data. Satel- lites, data buoys, deep submersibles, modern ocean research and survey vessels, and an array of sensing equipment and te<'hniques to accompany them promise that eventually no we. may explore every aspect of the global en- vironment and monitor its characteristics and motions in real time. The Commission's recommendation to ob- serve and describe the global environment adequately will require a balanced effort in research, exploration, technology, and by the latter part of the coming decade, the devel- opment of a global environmental monitor- ing and prediction system. New institutional arrangements and improved international co- operative arrangements will be required. Near-tenn improvements based on rapid ex- pansion of particular programs using avail- able technology also are possible and are recommended. The need for improved environmental knowledge and forecasts reaches deep into The temperature, salinity, and tiological patterns of the oceans must be understood if modern sonar, like that housed in the rubber bow dome of the destroyer leader Willis A. Lee, is to be effective in antisubmarine warfare operations. the fiber of our national life. National se- curity requires that those who deploy and operate naval vessels have detailed data de- scribing the state of the oceans' surface, the currents at different depths, and the topog- raphy of the ocean floor. Use of sonar re- quires detailed understanding of the temper- ature, salinity, and biological patterns in the oceans and forecasts of their changes. For amphibious landings, naval forces require forecasts of tide, tidal currents, and surf conditions. Tlie national economy will be served in many ways by an improved capability to forecast changes in the oceans and the atmos- phere as well as by a comprehensive knowl- edge of the geology, geophysics, ecology', and chemistry of the ocean areas of the world. The fishing industry will be served by knowledge of ocean currents and tempei'a- tures, the topography of the ocean floor, and the patterns of life in the oceans, as well as by forecasts of hazardous ocean and weather conditions. The petroleum, gas, and mineral industries will be served by a knowledge of tlie broad geological and geophysical char- acteristics of the deep ocean floor as well as by real-time forecasts of wind and wave con- ditions. Ocean transportation will be served by improved marine weather and sea state prediction and by improved techniques of routing ships safely and efficiently. Improved forecasts of weather and climate liave tremendous implications for protection of life and property and for the national economy. Land and air transportation also will benefit from improved predictions of weather and ocean conditions. Agricultural interests will be served by better weather forecasts. The ability to track hurricanes and issue warning has improved over the years, but an increased capability to forecast hurricane motion and changes of intensitv ni would serve to protect life and property. The data feathered for these various purposes also will be available to the scientific community for research purposes. Better environmental data will yield im- portant dividends in the efficiency and reli- ability of the materials and structures we use in the sea, and in the engineering of marine and atmospheric systems, including the sys- tem to observe the sea itself. Determining the feasibility of such intriguing long-term pos- sibilities as generating power from the sea, creating upwellings for fish farming, and using underwater currents to dissipate pollut- ants similarly requires detailed knowledge which is not yet in our hands. Much evidence summarized in recent re- ports of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation Com- mission on Weather Modification indicates that man is on the verge of being able to alter the behavior of the atmosphere. In addition to the likelihood in the near future of signifi- cantly changing natural patterns of rain, hypotheses have been advanced for altering the intensity of a hurricane, reducing hail, and redistributing snowfalls. To test these hypotheses, greatly expanded data collection networks are required. The need to understand man's effects on his environment also is great. Pollutants affect the photosynthetic life in the sea and thereby may influence the oxygen balance in the at- mosphere. Carbon dioxide generated by fos- sil fuel consumption may lead to a warming of the earth. These global processes must be understood, for they govern man's existence. Thus, the problems of environmental modi- fication, both conscious and inadvertent, are inseparable from the problems of under- standing and predicting the state of oceans and atmosphere. Finally, the oceans and the atmosphere provide a unique stage for international co- operation. Continued participation in these international efforts will advance the com- mon interests of mankind in mastering its environment. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency initiate and lead an intensive na- tional program to explore the global en- vironment, monitor its motions and physical and biological characteristics, and investigate the feasibility and conse- quences of its modification. The programs should be focused on: • Exploration of the biology, geology, geophysics, anJ geochemistry of the deep seas • Development of a comprehensive na- tional system to monitor and predict the changes of the sea, the air, andi cer- tain aspects of the solid earth, inte- grated with the systems maintained by other nations • Conduct of a systematic program of theoretical and experimental research into problems of environmental modifi- cation • Advancement of international coopera- tion in oceanic and atmospheric ac- tivities • Encouragement of the maximum free- dom of scientific research Exploring and Understanding the Global Oceans The Nation seeks to explore and under- stand the deep ocean to advance knowledge and to "bring closer the day when the people of the world can develop and use the re- sources of the seas." This is easily stated, but difficult of at- tainment. The oceans are vast and highly in- accessible. No single scientific discipline can m liope to unravel their complexity. No one approach will suffice. Marine science is no respecter of semantic boundaries; basic studies merge indistinguishably into the ap- plied; exploration blends into research, oceanography into a bewildering variety of disciplines. Research and Survey Programs Effective exploration of the oceans can best be achieved tlirough a balanced program of research and surveys. Programs to solve specific scientific problems as well as pro- grams for systematic collection of data on a world-ocean basis have yielded results of re- markable scientific and material import in the past and will do so in the future. Marine Geology and Geophysics Our views on the structure of the ocean crust and its origin are modified constantly as new data accumulate. Sediments of un- precedented thickness have been found to exist in unsuspected areas along the conti- nental margins. New information about geo- magnetic and gravity patterns has revised opinions about the origins and formation of the continents. Research programs sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and by the U.S. Navy and the systematic SEAMAP surveys of the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA), have advanced our knowledge of the earth's structure and history. In the course of the NSF-sponsored pro- gram JOIDES to drill deeply into the earth's crust under the sea, oil has been dis- covered in the seabed at water deptiis of ap- proximately 11,000 feet, although not in ex- ploitable quantities. As noted in Chapter 4, there are indications that tlie thin sedimen- tary layer underlying parts of the deep oceans may contain other minerals as valu- able as the nodules known to lie on the ocean The Theory of Continental Drift Source : A. Wegener, The Origins of Continents and Oceans (trans, from 3d German ed., E.P. Button and Co., 1922). bottoms. The value of these resources is at this time entirely speculative because of the lack of any systematic knowledge of their lo- cation or composition. But their value to man in the 21st century will depend upon the de- velopment now of systems to survey their extent and to bring them to shore. Marine Biology The problems to be solved by global oceanic exploration are many and diverse. Man's in- creasing dependence upon food resources from the sea and his growing ability to mod- ify his environment make it imperative to understand better the ecology of the global oceans. Life in abundance has been discov- ns ered in regions where life was heretofore thought impossible. Without better under- standing of tlie ocean's ecology, man shall be unable to increase in a rational way the yield of food from the oceans. Tlie ocean presents a host of unsolved bio- logical problems, many of which may be linked with the goal of increasing the produc- tion of food. The core emphasis of marine biological research must be placed on under- standing the dynamics of oceanic ecosystems. It is necessary to understand the flow of en- ergy and of matter through them, the utiliza- tion of nutrients, the efficiencies of conversion between various trophic levels, and a host of related matters. A comprehensive under- standing of ecosystem dynamics would be a major advance toward prediction and ulti- mate control of biological events. This under- standing is closely related to ph^^sical, chemi- cal, and meteorological investigations of the mechanisms of environmental change. This understanding is -required for constnictive management of the living resources of the sea. Concern with the living creatures of the .sea, however, must extend beyond the supply of edible species. The phytoplankton in the sea supply by photosynthesis much of the oxygen in the atmosphere. Plankton scatter the light necessary to photosynthesis. Mol- lusks, bacteria, and other organisms foul un- derwater machinery' and destroy submerged materials. Schools of fish complicate sonar transmission on which we are so reliant. Shellfish and seaweed consume much of the waste material diunped into the sea. In the deep ocean, living matter is found in an environment of remarkable stability and homogeneity under high hydrostatic pressure without light and with unchanging physical and chemical characteristics. Food supplj- to the deep (K-ean floor amounts to a mere trickle. Little is known about the fauna of this unique environment and even less about the effects of the environment on the ecology and physiology of the animals living there. Physical Oceanography And what of the sea itself, its phenomena, its current systems, its temperature structure, and its long- period changes? Here the con- cern is with a fluid in motion whose varia- tions range the full spectrum of time and space scales. The work of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution on the structure of the Gulf Stream has revealed the complex nature of this important ocean current sys- tem. The South Atlantic sediment studies of the Lamont Geological Obsen-atory have in- dicated the possibility of strong deep ocean currents which have hitherto been unsus- pected. Later in this chapter, we advance a pro- posal for a global environmental monitoring system that will yield much of the infor- mation required, and propose research pro- grams essential to its implementation. But there are problems of the deep ocean circula- tion about which little is known — the mecha- nisms and rate of exchange of the deep waters, the interaction of the deep oceans with the surface layers and its implication for primary production and fisheries, as well as its relation to changes in surface conditions affecting the weather. Polar Seas The polar seas present special problems. The processes of the polar oceans are closely linked with the global ocean and atmos- pheric processes. Tlie polar seas are the source of the bottom waters of the oceans. Exploration of the polar oceans, while less prominent than other national marine efforts, is nevertheless a present national concern. The need for prediction of ice conditions has long l>een recognized for ocean trade, but ■»74 understanding remains limited as to the be- havior of sea ice under stress. Without this understanding, ice breakup cannot be pre- dicted. Studies of the effects of ice and the polar seas on developing air mass character- istics are essential to understanding the global weather. Decade of Ocean Exploration The Nation should make a strong commit- ment to a well-balanced program of deep ocean exploration during the 1970's. Such a program should be international, if only be- cause the problem is so vast that its technolog- ical and scientific demands tax the means of any single nation. The investigation of the global oceans long has been built upon the cooperative efforrs The National Science Foundation ha^ responsibility for the V.8. Antarctic research program, while the Navy and Coast Guard provide logistic support. An NSF-sponsored biologist observes 8ei whales; crew members from the icebreaker Glacier obtain Antarctic water samples; and the icebreaker Eastwind breaks a channel to the U.S. Antarctic base at McMurdo Sound. of scientists of many nations. Indeed, com- mon interests have developed in widening circles to embrace industries and governments as well. To give substance to the position that the world community should join to identify the resources of the oceans, the United States recently has proposed an International Dec- ade of Ocean Exploration. The objectives, as stated by President Johnson, would be : To probe the my.iteives of the sea * * * to assist in meeting loorld threats of malnutri- tion and disease, and to bring closer the dag iiyhen the j)eople of the world can exploit new sources of minerals and fossil fuels. The United States so far has deliberately refrained from presenting its detailed views on what should be done so that all nations will be encouraged to participate in deter- mining the tasks which the Decade should undertake and the means of performing them. Many questions remain to be answered. Should some central international group or organization be charged with the planning and coordination of the Decade? Or should planning and management take place through nation-to-nation negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations? Or through direct cooperation among scientists 175 under tlie aegis of the International Council of Scientific Unions? Or by some combina- tion of the two ? What kind 'of work should the Decade emjiliasize? The Commission is in- clined to the view that the United States should strive for a program oriented largely to exploratory, survey, and research work rather than to detailed studies aimed directly at resource exploitation. Wliat should be the nature and magnitude of the U.S. contribution? On the one hand, a contribution consisting only of activities the United States would undertake, even if there wei"e no Decade, may not spur the inter- national coo^jeration which is the program's aim. On the other hand, international coop- eration in activities which would have little other \alue to the United States may not attract sufficient support at home. The activi- ties embraced within the Decade should fall between these extremes. The Commission concludes that the mech- anism for coordination and planning on the international level exists in the International Oceanographic Commission, working with other international organizations, particu- larly with the achnce and participation of constituent groups of the International Council of Scientific Unions. Planning and coordination of U.S. activ- ities in the Decade of Ocean Exploration should be accomplislied under the lead of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) witli the assistance of other Fed- eral agencies, the appropriate bodies of the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering, and industrial groups. Tlie execution of the U.S. Decade program should be focused in NOAA and the University-National Laboratories with as- sistance by industry. Each nation must decide what its own con- tributions to the Decade will be. The^? deci- sions, or antici])ati(>n of tlieni, will pl;iy an important part in determining tlie objectives and management of the Decade. The Commission strongly endorses the concept of an International Decade of Ocean Exploration. We commend the decision to refrain from taking unilateral action before attempting to specify a plan for the Decade activities. We caution particularly against raising expectations beyond the commit- ments actually made or forthcoming. We are in fact concerned about the ability of the ITnited States to meet present connnitments to such ongoing international scientific pro- grams as the International Hydrologic Decade and the International Biological Program. In any case, the Nation's program to ex- l)lore the seas must not be conditioned on in- ternational acceptance of the Decade. Our own national interests dictate that we con- tinue and expand significantly our present ocean exploration efforts, many of which are already being conducted with extensive in- ternational cooperation. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency take the lead in organizing a program to explore and understand the deep oceans to meet the national needs; it strongly endorses the proposal for an International Decade of Ocean Explora- tion as an excellent vehicle to bring about international collaboration in this effort. The Technology The key to the study of the deep ocean lies in the ability to deploy present tech- nological capabilities etfectively and to focus on a number of critical technological de- velopments which will provide the capaliil- ity to do in the future what cannot be done today. It is tiie view of the Commission that tliere is no single device or system, manned ne Ocean depths arc measured and the shape of buttorit structures recorded by a precision ffraphic recorder aboard a surface vessel. 1^ or unmanned, that can do the job. What is needed is a selected mix of technological systems that will give the nation the neces- sary capability. Among these are man-in-the- sea techniques, manned submersibles, and un- manned instrumentation systems. Major advances in modern technology and engineering have greatly increased our abil- ity to conduct research in the oceans, to an- swer scientific problems, and to utilize and manage ocean resources. Scientists are now al)le to observe, measure, and understand marine phenomena on a scale and scope never before possible. They can be placed into the oceans with deep vehicles and diving equip- ment and make measurements in surface layers as well as deep within the oceans. Im- proved geophysical tools provide the capa- bility to "see" geological features at greater depth and in more detail ; improved drilling techniques provide the capability to examine sedimentary columns in the deep oceans for the first time. Continuous recordmg devices make possible the automatic determination of nutrients in the oceans. Satellites, more and better ships, aircraft, more and better buoys, improved navigation systems, and computers have greatly increased the ability to collect and analyze data from the oceans. In the view of the Commission, probing the deep oceans from the surface must be supplemented by capabilities for direct manned and mimanned probing. The presence of man in the oceans' depths is necessai-y be- cause present knowledge does not indicate what to observe, and the versatility and com- prehension that man alone can bring to the task of exploration is indispensable. Operations in the deep ocean present many difficult and uniciue technological problems. Commercial, high-strength steels, likely to be the principal material for construction of continental shelf systems, are no longer ade- quate at great depths. All experience so far indicates that no vehicle with a metallic pres- sure hull will be able to penetrate the extreme depths of the ocean without supplementai-y buoyancy. Special problems are encountered in achieving bouyancy, in designing highly reliable, free-flooding external machinery and in developing compact power sources suitable for closed-system operation. The fimdamental technology needed to provide the solutions today is largely lacking. Similarly, special design characteristics are required for vehicles to conduct explora- tion missions at very great depths. Ideally, m they should have endurance and should be able to mate with manned habitats or other submci-sibles. They should be 'independent of surface support and have sufficient instru- mentation to make their missions useful. We are not without promising avenues of ap- proach to these problems. Some of these are discussed in the sections that follow. Man-in-the-Sea Techniques In a consideration of the need for global exploration and monitoring, the use of manned habitats and diver transport systems must be mentioned. Recently, small proto- type manned habitats have been developed and put into operation. Their success gives immediate promise to a dream. Scientists soon can work routinely to 600 feet. Gas- breathing divers have been exposed to depths in excess of 1,000 feet with complete success, and operations to 2,000 feet appear to be a reasonable projection of future capa- bility. Even at shallow depths, diver-investiga- tors can be largely free of surface weather effects. Towed, transported, or self-propelled habitats or sealabs can be taken to any place in the oceans using a surface or submerged route. At the desired location, they can be stationed on the bottom or suspended in the water column to provide an instrumented laboratory capability. If saturation diving techniques are used, there is no presently known physiological limit to their length of stay. The sealab gives the scientist deeper access and removes most weather contin- gencies. Habitats allow investigators to enter and return from the environment they wish to study. While using such pioneer equipment, these inve.stigators can anticipate early and extensive improvements to their working con- ditions. Personnel in sealabs today must be skilled divers able to cope with a variety of sometimes hostile conditions whenever they venture outside. In aviation terms, they are working at an "open-cockpit" stage of devel- opment. In time it should be possible to have more control over the environment immedi- ately outside the habitat, for example, by pro- viding low, spacious undersea tents, possibly insulated to contain warm and filtered fresh water. While restricting freedom of move- ment to some extent, such facilities could be occupied in the same sense that Antarctic snow tunnels are manned, providing corri- dors and chambers that protect, house, and store instruments and equipment. Insulation from the environment will tend to free the trained divers, decompression technicians, and medical physiologists to supervise the operation of whole systems and to train the nondiver scientists and technicians to work within these systems. One-atmosphere habitats with occasional or no access to the open environment also should be considered, ranging from surface to bot- tom and subbottom facilities. The liighly suc- cessful design of the U.S. Navy's FLIP allows a siirface craft to be towed to a site, to lie upended, and to remain on station with facilities both above and well below the sur- face. Variations on this surface platform should be encouraged, as many possibilities for utilization can be envisioned. Similarly, 2,000-foot and 20,000-foot one-atmosphere habitats should be developed for long-term routine occupancy by nondiver personnel. An imaginative proposal, Project Rocksite, is being considered by the IT.S. Navy. This project calls for drilling tunnels into the sea- bed, combining the existing capability of forming mine tunnels and shafts beneath the sea floor with a new technology' for mating submersibles to a seafloor shaft entrance, thus providing a completely independent sub- seafloor installation. 178 Because of the need for access to the envi- ronment, deep sea one-atmosphere habitats may be further in the future than ambient pressure sea labs or continental shelf depth facilities like Rocksite. Mating a deep sub- mersible to a one-atmosphere chamber at 10,000 or 20,000 feet still is difficult to contem- plate. Of course, as submereiblc engineering progresses, this technique will emerge; so too will other tecliniques for deep ocean access. Possibly no more exotic than a man exiting from an orbiting capsule, the development of liquid breathing by divers would offer similar advantages to the ocean investigator. The occasional foray for high priority missions would permit the full manipulative-adaptive capabilities of man to be employed to depths possibly as great as 10,000 feet. When it is possible to employ much more extensive systems, they will require the whole panoply of logistics support, including per- sonnel transfer vehicles, rescue capabilities, and the like. Although requirements for such civil or militai-y systems still are speculative, efforts must be made to anticipate future needs by conducting feasibility studies con- currently with the exploration and develop- ment of basic technology. Initial experience in staging diversified operations in the deep ocean environment may be gained concur- rently through construction of an ocean sta- tion on a seamount for ease of access to the deep ocean. This program would be a realiz- able sequel to the Commission's National Project for fixed and portable continental shelf laboratories. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency and the U.S. Navy join in con- ducting studies of the feasibility of ad- vanced deep ocean stations, initially on seamounts but later on the continental slope, ocean ridges, and finally in the abyssal deep. These studies should also include the feasibility of mobile undersea laboratories and large stable ocean plat- forms which could be used in conjunction with the fixed ocean stations. Submersibles The art of STibmersible design is in a state of rapid change and sophistication ; it has a long way to go. Present submersibles — ex- pensive; difficult to transport, handle, and control; and short on visibility, endurance, and depth — have seen limited use in marine science. The immense effort already under- taken with such well-known designs as Aluminaut, Alvin, Trieste, and Deepstar has shown both the problem and the promise. The promise is that the incon\enience of pioneer equipment can be eliminated, that submersible transport systems will give the investigator the freedom to go deep without restraint, and that once there he will ha^e the option of traveling as far as he wishes. New designs will enhance greatly this capa- bility. A two-phase development of a manned submersible using a plexiglass capsule to provide nearly total visibility soon will be launched. Operated in clear water, it will give the occupants the effect of being in an underwater helicopter. Operated in murky water, it will allow the pilot to stabilize and orient to an object easily, as ahead-scanning and peripheral vision will be unrestrained by the dimensions of viewing ports. When technology allows glass with its higli strength-to-weight ratio to be substi- tuted for plexiglass, this same vehicle design may offer the capability of operating from 2,000 to 20,000 feet while retaining its char- acteristic of visibility. Such glass vehicles may not be as far in the future nor as ex- pensive as generally estimated. One design now approaching prototype 179 construction avoids the need for continuous power and achieves long range by simply diving to and ascending from great depths, covering 50 miles in each glide cycle, by using a liquid chemical to blow the ballast tanks at the base of the dive. Fifty such cycles cover 2,500 miles, a complete ocean transit with 50 passages from surface to 20,000 feet through all of the physical and biological strata en route, and with 50 visits to parts of the seafloor never before visited. Allowing three men aboard and 20 days' endurance, the submersible apparently can be built and operated for reasonable costs at least com- parable to those for surface oceanographic The research siihmersiile Deep Quest goes to sea aboard her surface support ship Trans Quest and, once in the water, receii-es an external inspection prior to making a dive. vessels. The combination of depth and visi- bility inherent in such a vehicle covdd be invaluable in ocean transits for exploration of the oceans. Information from expert observers is not enough. Elaborate photographic exjuipment and lighting complete with pressure hous- ings have been developed for deep sea work. Such equipment can be operated remotely from the surface in conjunction with acous- tical listening devices for describing the forms and strata of life. Submersibles also can be fitted with therm- istor probes to record temperature profiles continuously. This information then can be correlated with the photographic observa- tions. Ultimately instruments to monitor the gross chemistry of the passing sea water can be fitted to the hull. Thus, a deep diving, long traveling submersible becomes a complete oceanographic vessel. Although there are constraints on the size and weight of these data collection attachments, the task is con- siderably less demanding than the task scien- tists face when instrumenting satellites. Free- flooding equipment can be carried relatively inexpensively if made neutrally buoyant. Fully instrumented, such a vessel with verti- cal and horizontal freedom in the water col- umn should provide capabilities surpassing those of some larger surface vessels. Perhaps more than anything, the oceanographic sub- mersible would enjoy 24-hour data collection capability on a stable keel in a tran- quil environment uninterrupted by weather considerations. How deep? A 20,000-foot depth capability will permit operations in more than 99 per cent of the world's ocean volume with access to 98 per cent of the ocean's floor, excepting only the deep trenches. Nearly 10 years ago, the bathyscaphe Tnente went to one of the deepest parts of the ocean, approximately 180 36,000 feet below sea level. Restricted in ma- neuverability, it carried 34,000 gallons of aviation gasoline to provide buoyancy for the pressure capsule and other equipment. Tlie deepest dive for a maneuverable submersible was 8,310 feet in early 1968. The Navy presently is building or develop- ing, among others, four types of manned vehicles with operating depths as noted: rescue at 3,500 to 5,000 feet, research at 6,500 feet, search at 20,000 feet, and ocean survey with depth characteristics still undeter- mined. The desirable operating depth of a rescue vehicle is established bj' the depth of a possible rescue mission. The best depth limitation for commercial vehicles is the most economical depth to do the job, prob- ably to 2,000 feet for foreseeable continental shelf and nearshore work. Successful operations for oceanographic purposes below 2,000 feet require new tech- nical principles which are expected to be valid all the way to 20,000-foot depths. Al- though the initial investment may be slightly higher, no immediate improvements in early program schedule or near-term costs would occur if these vehicles were designed for depths less than 20,000 feet. The same types of problems must be solved. By going di- rectly to these problems, overall costs would be less than for a program having depth goals set in progressive increments. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency sponsor an explicit program to advance deep ocean fundamental tech- nology and proceed with a National Proj- ect to develop and construct exploration submersibles with ocean transit capa- bility for civil missions to 20,000-foot depths. Ideally, several such submersibles should be completed in time for useful assignments in the forthcoming Decade of Ocean Explor- ation. These vehicles should have hovering, maneuvering, sample-taking, and small ob- ject recovery capabilities as well as improved sensing capability. A National Project for a long endurance 20,000-foot exploration submersible will be not only a major U.S. contribution to the Decade, it would be a milestone in the history of exploration and in oceanography. Instruments While man-in-the-sea and manned submer- sible techniques are essential to true oceanic exploration, by far the largest and most inex- pensive source of data will be from unmanned systems. Placement, maintenance, and recov- ery of such systems will depend on the access that men have to the environment. Otherwise, their effectiveness depends only on their relia- bility; quality of sensors; and capability to record, store, and occasionally transmit information. No deep-placed, reliable, accessible instru- ment platform is available today. However, such equipment, monitoring oxygen and many other physical and chemical param- eters, is both possible and essential. Even- tually, many thousands of such units may be needed. They must be able to sense a wide range of physical and chemical characteris- tics. In order to achieve increasing effective- ness, there also must be a concerted effort to improve the quality and range of the sensors and the reliability and variety of packaging and handling techniques. Important to such a system will be a whole class of free-fall devices independent of a wire, anchor line, or stationed vessel. These devices could be dropped by passing ships or aircraft. They then may serve their useful life just during the fall to the bottom or remain active on the bottom until picked up 181 or I'eleased to float again, or they may stop at some pre-set level and drift witli the current until retrieved or expended. . Another class of devices could be self-pro- pelled and automatically or remotely guided along programmed courses. Diesel-driven semisubmersibles could cruise the surface in transocean patterns. Deep-diving torpedo hulls with battery power could dive from surface \-essels, run a search course, and re- turn for recovery. Helicopters, aircraft, drones, and rockets could cover great dis- tances, carrying sensors with or without the option of water entry. Other classes of recording devices are not truly instruments, but they are equally im- portant. Unmanned coring and rock sam- pling techniques ultimately may be useful, for it may not be possible to take good core samples from a deep submersible. More continuous sampling and data re- cording certainly are needed, and their tech- nical development is sufHciently advanced to be promising. The Tffardy plankton sampler takes a continuous sample of plankton while Xeto occanographic insinimoits, like thif: KuUnity-tempcraturc-ficpth recorder and sound velocity sensor, are permittiii;/ more rapid, better observations of the physical characteristics of the ocean. being towed, giving, in effect, a geographic and chronological record of the sample over a given distance. A few oceanographic vessels are measuring properties of the sea surface continuously, and some pump water through their laboratories while underway for chemi- cal analysis and for temperature and con- ductivity measurements at short intervals. Still another recent development that en- hances the capability of a ship to collect vital data at sea is the salinity-temperature-dej;th recorder; one self-contained, battery-powered version records data on a graphic plotter. While progress is being made, it should be classified as pioneer work not adequate for today's rapidly escalating needs for global ocean measurements. The measurement of many parameters in many places by many methods must be accomplished. The task will not be easy. Although it will require a long time and a large investment, good engineer- ing in ocean instruments must be achieved. Besides retarding progress in field experi- mentation, the present deficiencies are very costly. In the fields of space or communica- tions, it would be considered unthinkable to initiate expensive operations without prop- erly engineered equipment having reasonably assured dependability. However, in marine science today, it is not unusual to experience a high failure rate of equipment. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency take the lead in fostering a wide variety of instrumentation development programs required for ocean exploration. The Global Monitoring and Prediction System The development of a system for monitor- ing and predicting the state of the oceans and the atmosphere is critical to all that the Nation would do in the seas. Monitoring the 182 state of tlie oceans and the atmosphere is presently limited by the technological capa- bilities to observe the global environment. But even if one could now observe the en- vironment everywhere, the ability to predict the future state of the oceans and the atmos- pliere is seriously limited by incomplete understanding. In particular, the ability to predict the state of the oceans is limited by the lack of knowledge of the motions of the oceans, of their scale and of the cause of their fluctuations. System Operations and Management Arrangements In considering systems for environmental monitoring and prediction, the basic com- ponents required to meet multiple needs must be distinguished from components required to meet the needs of special classes of users. The basic system is composed of facilities for observation of air and oceanic data and the data's communication, processing, and dissemination. The historical evolution of environmental monitoring and prediction activities, both in the Nation and abroad, has brouglit the de- velopment of separate organizations and monitoring systems to deal with each major class of phenomena. Thus, weather data are collected and exchanged internationally through one system ; some data on ice condi- tions are exchanged through a second; and so forth. Within the United States, the facilities making up the basic system are operated chiefly by agencies of the U.S. Departments of Commerce, Defense, and Transportation. These same departments also are responsible for meeting the needs of most special users. They are helped in this function by bureaus of tlie Department of the Interior; the De- partment of Health, Education, and Wel- fare; the Atomic Energy Commission; and others. A detailed description of the func- tions and programs of all the Federal agen- cies is given in the Report of the Commis- sion's Panel on Environmental Monitoring. The formation of the Environmental Sci- ence Services Administration (ESSA) in the Department of Commerce in 1965 was an important step toward the integration of en- vironmental monitoring and prediction ac- tivities in the United States. In proposing the reorganization which brought the U.S. Weather Bureau, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards un- der single management. President Johnson stated that it would provide "a single nation- al focus for our efforts to describe, under- stand, and predict the state of the oceans, the state of the lower and upper atmosphere, and the size and shape of the earth." Within ESSA, steps are underway to in- tegrate the systems under its management. However, these constitute only a part of the efforts within the Federal Government to monitor the global air-sea envelope. The Navy now has a coordinated system through the Oceanographer of the Navy and the Naval Weather Service Command, and the Department of Defense coordinates all mil- itary departments' environmental prediction services through the Office of the Special As- sistant for Environmental Services of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Coordination of the overall Federal program is effected, insofar as possible, through the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Applied Meteorological Research within the Department of Commerce and the Inter- agency Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services of the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer- ing Development. 183 Tlie Office of the Federal Coordinator coordinates meteorological programs only. It is not authorized to coordinate all environ- mental programs. It has no authority to di- rect the actions of other Government agen- cies. It has been able to inaugurate a policy of sharing facilities and to forestall the es- tablishment of duplicate facilities in many cases. It also has formulated comprehensive Federal plans in many critical weather oper- ating services. In addition, an Interdepart- mental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences coordinates basic research in meteorology, re- porting to the Federal Council for Science and Technology. The Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services is charged with de- veloping a Federal Plan for Marine Envi- ronmental Prediction and to see that the plan is carried out. The Committee is not in a posi- tion to propose any changes in statutory responsibilities but will seek to coordinate projects and plan programs. The Commission finds that the scattering of responsibilities among many Federal agencies continues to cause funding and man- agement difficulties. There are three overall categories of Fed- eral funding for the marine environmental monitoring and prediction services : • For the collection, processing, and dis- semination of ocean measurements that are not collected in connection with meteoro- logical services • For associated meteorological and ocean- ographic data collection and processing that are essential for ocean observations and forecasts, but that are also collected to meet more general, nonmarine needs of the national civil and militai-y weather services • For specialized marine weather data col- lection and processing that are to meet the exclusive need for support of marine activities. Approximately $175 million is spent an- nually to provide these services. The most important products of the system at this time are weather analyses and fore- casts, warnings of severe storms and tsu- namis, tidal predictions, and sea state reports. Operationally useful forecasts are provided A sinf/le, national environmental )iionitoriiiff and prediction system irould provide data and predietions dcserihinp large area cliaracteristics of the ocean, and atmospherie environments. ESSA meteorologists prepare to release a Kytoon ( top photograph ), and teehnicians service a Navy Nomad bnoy. ^Vf{ 184 by the U.S. Navy of ocean temperature struc- ture, sound propagation tactical indices, sea state, and shifts in the location and flow of certain major currents. Generally, the Commission concludes that because of the magnitude of the effort to monitor and predict changes in the oceans and the atmosphere and because of the com- monality of much of the science and tech- nology, there must be a single system to ob- serve the oceans and atmosphere and to pro- vide data and forecasts to meet common needs. Tliere is good precedent for combining the oceanic and the atmospheric monitoring elements. For instance, the Navy conducts many of its weather and ocean forecasting functions jointly at the Fleet Numerical Weather Central, Monterey, California. Also, ESSA provides both weather and marine information on storm surges and sea state through a single system and plans to use weather satellites to observe oceanographic parameters. The single system would provide data and predictions describing large area character- istics of the ocean and atmospheric environ- ments. However, the Department of Defense will continue to require a system to j^rovide specialized outputs fully responsive to rapid- ly changing militaiy requirements. Some environmental service requirements are common to both civil and military users. As the planned services to civil users are im- plemented, some of the products of the civil agency may meet these common needs. This will free some military resources to concen- trate on requirements unique to military operations. Products designed for military users, if they are appropriate and can be made avail- able, will be used to meet requirements of civil ixsers until services to civil users have been expanded. This use of military prod- ucts will be ad interim except in those cases in which common requirements can be met most effectively and economically by their continued use. Special consideration also must be given to the relations between local detailed en- vironmental activities and large area global services. One example of special interest con- cerns the myriad of activities in the Nation's estuaries. Many local public agencies conduct monitoring programs that include measure- ments of physical, chemical, and biological parameters to aid in controlling pollution levels; in examining the effects of such pol- lution on marine life; or in identifying fish stock. These data should continue to be col- lected by local agencies. The data collected in these local programs will be on a scale considerably more detailed, and often will be taken with greater fre- quency, than is required to support the major environmental prediction services considered in this chapter. The behavior of an estuary, however, is strongly influenced by the larger motions of the oceans and the atmosphere. For this reason, the local agencies conducting estuarine-oriented programs must be ensured rapid access to appropriate data collected by the global network. The data collected and forecasts issued by the single system would serve as major in- puts to the more detailed forecasts and re- sulting regulatory actions of the estuarine agencies. On the other hand, the special data collected (typically on a relatively fine grid) witlain the estuary would not be required for the operation of the single sy.stem. In some cases, a single data collection station might serve both a local estuary activity as well as the single system. The Commission recommends that the Nation's civil oceanographic monitoring and prediction activities be integrated with the existing national weather sys- 185 tem (as well as certain aspects of the systems for monitoring the solid earth) to provide a single comprehensive system designated as the National Environ- mental Monitoring and Prediction System (NEMPS). Activities in NEMPS serving civil inter- ests should be consolidated in the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA); specialized activities in support of military operations should be retained in the Department of Defense. NEMPS should be closely coordinated with the sys- tems of the Department of Defense. The civil and military monitoring and predic- tion activities should develop along the following guidelines: • A common, shared data acquisition net- work • A common, shared communications net- work, except where national security requires separate systems • Independent but parallel data process- ing and forecasting facilities • Independent, specialized data and fore- cast dissemination subsystems The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) should take responsi- bility for overall systems analysis and planning for NEMPS, with the assistance of other agencies as appropriate. Thus, the Commission has concluded that it is not practical to achieve total consolida- tion of environmental prediction either in NOAA or the Department of Defense. The former alternative would ignore both vital defense interests and the substantial econo- mies possible througli using in-place military facilities. The latter would either weaken support of military missions or result in inadequate attention to civil needs. A division of operational responsibilities with NEMPS operation and management vested in NOAA is necessary. Thus, delinea- tion of the basic data collection network to satisfy civil needs would be the new civil agency's responsibility. Both the new agency and the military services would contribute to tlie total data net. The responsibility for de- lineation of military data needs, apart from those required for civil needs, would rest with the Department of Defense. A single civil communications system would be estab- lished for the collection and transmission of data by the civil agency, but for purposes of decreasing vulnerability and military secu- rity, portions of the network would be paralleled by the Department of Defense. It is essential that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency and the Depart- ment of Defense maintain their separate fa- cilities for processing data and issuing forecasts to users. The necessity of providing the military with capabilities to respond im- mediately to threats is important. Moreover, military and civil services must tailor their forecasts to particular classes of users. The civil agency would provide broad forecasts for the general public, broad seg- ments of the economy, and other Federal agencies. If these forecasts must be refined to meet the needs of special industrial inter- ests, the refinement would be the responsibil- ity of the private sector, and agencies with special needs would act to refine the forecasts as necessary. The military will prepare forecasts to meet all national security requirements. Sharing of data and products is imperative and pos- sible through high-speed electronic com- puters and associated equipment. In order for major environmental data processing centers to operate in parallel, the data processing and transmission equipment should be made compatible. We propose that the management princi- 186 pies that have evolved for gathering and proc- essing meteorological data also be applied to the ocean environment. Admittedly, the principles are not followed always in mete- orological activities, but they have worked well, and tlie proposed reorganization would do much to improve their implementation in both fields. It is particularly necessary to be consistent on arrangements for handling me- teorological and oceanographic data, because the system being proposed would deal con- currently with both kinds of data. It is desirable to obtain oceanographic and meteorological data from the same area si- Satellites, buoys, and ships will be linked in a global monitoring and prediction system, to observe the oecans and atmosphere and to provide data and forecasts for their many users. J87 multaneously ; for tliis reason ocean and at- mosphere sensors should be aboard the same platforms. However, the National Aero- nautics and Space Administration (NASA) treats the development of ocean sensors as part of its earth resources program ; further developments may lead to ocean sensors being coupled with sensors developed to map spe- cific resources. Conceptually, there is much attraction to arrangements which would permit all aspects of the environment, including the solid earth, to be monitored through a single system. But the Commission has con- cluded that the time is not appropriate. In the absence of overriding engineering or cost considerations, the Commission does, how- ever, believe that ocean-atmosphere observa- tions should be coupled. Currently NASA and the Navy are working together in a research and development program in space- craft oceanography, and Navy is separately pursuing a progranl in aircraft remote sen- sors. NASA is also working closely with other Federal agencies in environmental re- search and development programs involving use of spacecraft. The development and use of satellites for environmental monitoring requires close co- operation between NASA and the user agency. The relationship of the National Weather Satellite Program to NASA pro- vides an example of a successful working arrangement. NASA now has the responsibil- ity for the development of new sensors to be carried aboard meteorological satellites; the performance specifications are prepared by ESSA. NASA launches the satellite and places it in the prescribed orbit. Wlien certi- fied as fully operational, ESSA takes over and maintains operational control, receives data through its own read-out stations, and transmits appropriate raw and analyzed satellite data over standard meteorological Manned spacecraft and satellites have already demonstrated their usefiilucss for ocean-atmosphere ohscrrations, lihe tlie view of Hurricane Gladys as seen from Apollo 7 in IfJGS. Bclotc, an ESSA weather satellite receives a prclaunching checkout. communications and circuits. These ar- rangements have yielded excellent system performance. The Commission recommends that the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) make arrangements with the Na- X88 tional Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion (NASA) for satellite oceanographic sensor development and operation along lines similar to those established for the national weather satellite system. A Program for Immediate Improvement Important advances have been made in the past decade in data collection equipment and platforms, and several second generation systems are under development which prom- ise dramatic improvements in our ability to observe the total environment and to process and transmit the resulting data. It is not yet possible, however, to envision the complete composition of a total system. The proper mix of platforms and instru- ments must be evaluated on the basis of performance and cost. However, opportunities exist for immedi- ate improvement in the Nation's environ- mental monitoring and prediction systems at relatively modest cost. The present ability to analyze and predict sea surface conditions is limited by the scarcity of surface ocean and weather observations. The vast majority of these reports are made by merchant ships cooperating in the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) in- ternational weather observing program. It is estimated that for a given day there are seven ships at sea for each ship's observation received. Clearly, more data could be received by increasing the number of ships in the WMO cooperative program. This program can be expanded at low cost. The Navy's program in the analysis and prediction of ocean thermal structure is also data-limited. Of the 125 bathythermographic recordings taken daily, the majority are pro- vided by naval vessels, with some from ships- of-opportunity in a cooperative Navy-Bureau of Commercial Fisheries program. Addi- tional ocean temperature data could be col- lected by expanding these programs quite inexpensively; this effort should be tailored to overcome at least some of the omissions in data coverage. In addition to the temperature data in the oceans' near-surface layers, broader coverage is required of the lower layers of the atmos- phere, now limited by the relatively few ra- diosondes launched by ships. The radiosonde observations are taken from numerous U.S. Navy commissioned ships; from the U.S. Coast Guard ocean station vessels; and by about 15 ESSA teams aboard a limited num- ber of Military Sea Transport Service, ESSA, and merchant ships in the Pacific. Additional ships could be outfitted with rela- tively inexpensive shipboard equipment to expand this upper air sounding capability. There are great areas of the world's oceans that are not covered, or at best, are sparsely covered, by merchant ships. The WMO is investigating the possibility of obtaining reports from world fishing fleets in these areas. One direction for expansion of this program, therefore, should be the inclusion of ships not now participating — particularly such fishing fleets as those of Japan, Taiwan, and Korea. In certain coastal areas and the Gulf of Mexico, platforms have been erected for the extraction of oil and natural gas ; at present a limited number of offshore platforms are instrumented to provide environmental data for major forecasting programs. The Commission recommends that the ship-of-opportunity program be expanded immediately to provide more surface ocean and weather reports, additional ocean temperature structure data, and more wind soundings. In particular, ves- sels operating in regions not covered by major merchant vessel trade routes should 189 be included in the ship-of-opportunity pro- gram. Additional instrumentation should be placed on offshore platforms. Another iiiea for immediate improvement is in tlie Tsnnami "Warning System. The present ability to forecast tsunami arrival times at Pacific Ocean locations appeare to be adequate, but run-up forecasts often are grossly in error. The Tsunami Warning Sys- tem performance is limited by lack of suffi- cient nearshore, deep ocean tidal, and seismic information as well as inadequate theoretical understanding of energy- focusing processes. Additional instrumentation is required in the Pacific, possibly at island stations, and fur-, ther development of deep ocean tidal instru- mentation is needed. World Merchant Ship Density, June 12, 1964 The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) expand the tide and seis- mic monitoring network in the Pacific basin. International communications from South America and the Southwest Pacific should be improved. Additional research on tsunami generation and run-up prob- lems should be instituted. Improvements in our capability to fore- cast hurricane development and motion and the storm surge are urgently required. Xavy, Air Force, and ESSA aircraft should be augmented by additional high per- formance aircraft with up-to-date instrumen- tation. In addition, there is a continuing oper- ___ __ /l«-J^ ■"'-ip^- 4-^' 'i'i^ a - .X...-...a^:Sg^;Nj^___J__.____:;.: \I_(|^Lj;:::^::::..,,.. ^^^ >'--\m{ A^. -{,:^P^~% /■ ,^. ;' ' rhA^ --•■- tt:^ :;::i y- ,\ K.L^.j \ -TT7.s,s3,,,.%>*ff ,r^^/; ,/ e7<113B79l0 1^\^ "^ M ^15 1? H 21 98 n 7 10 i^QjIj?^'" ^^2 f i ^ i 2 13 9 12 59744973(* 'f?'^ '*^g'»-il2l0 213t34 37 39l9I3:i^ ^Jj, ^ '^ , ,3, 4yf«2 12l2IOOll 1 2 6 5 6 5 niG 11 7 2 Op "^ $^H 23 27 2< 42 38 2< IB IT 15 9 12 [« 16 J? ^ ^ ^ / 2S a ) \ ^ !?■ n £ P J2 21 11 1 1 2 6 T 6 6 T 6' iB 6U'3aX 1 1 ' 78 S^«.^e ;r« 17 l\ ;4l6|2l;iei3 gl^n fiWp" wWj. 3 / -^ ^'7fl\ni/M?0 1176676 433 ',137ll63fca, ' «,'Af,2hii2'> IS 7- IS 13 10 789 13 3(« T--5«9{^^ 5 '9 jlil 59511454 9 2 1 > ' \ 6 5 -^ V'5f31 1^« 31 2915 9 B 18'13 ia 6 ^ 7 28 .» ?*" ^BB il3M 13 789799989 1121 \ 1 3|2«fe.a t /. 18|a HS 6 8 I0;i ;3.i3 1 1 6 li ^ 4.f7l3I5l\ / B / J V 2' ar> > 3 3 21 11 >14(3M3:2;*|Bl5?n96 382^^1^* 13 -> 44 1 It 111 S 42 16t2 2:>nW 15Bit1ii558>! ^ «l3 23l9^C^3«l6 34-^J»l5^0^i^1^ 1 111 13454 11 21 5 ;jl4 51391115T5l0 8 lS63>3 72e?7 111l6^i65fT-^ 1 1 1 111 133135 11 ■fr52'5239 17 3 V '.^ 4^ » 4 2352272(12 '6 «'?*• S(K* Be ^ "^ "n J, 113 3 4 1^ II 3 5 2 3 14 4 J 4 B 3 2 3 4 4 10 22 S * a]^] 3^7 ^ 5- K 7 1 1 1 147 13 i 6 4 2 2 2 17 f BJl 33 155 15 1 14 3 [7 jl^ W % 9 3 2 154 I110>'. iB3 112M17ta ^iai*l 55 3 4 \^ \ ^ ^ 2 2-* 1343131 13 7 J«12 23316 16 5 'l/' 13247643J ^ 13 1 1 11 48 211 II : ^4111 1 S14I6 0346123453234513^ |l ■ 1 1 13 1161 .fcZ*' ' ' 15 13 g^JS IB 412321 *^^-''^ae i^' 1111 111 iij(-f43i i9ii'54i 13 1 lisaiVi-s-sisii^ 333212333 13''?4 1 i lS?215l,Jr4 21II32II1 22^32 1111 'yiz' . _._.•. f,k , «3: .a=_ ._ ^^.--'■-----^.j ^ SocKCE : M. Hanzana and T. H. Tourler. S.V8tem for the Collection of Ships' Weather Reports, World Weather Watch Planning Rep. No. 25. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Swlt., 1968. 190 ational requirement for more detailed mete- orological data over tlie Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. The data collected should be used both to support day-to-day forecast ac- tivities and to test mathematical models and hurricane modification hypotheses. The Commission recommends that the data networks that support the Hurricane Warning Service be expanded. This service should be accorded high priority to take advantage of the latest technical and operational developments. In reviewing the Federal programs, we find that iceberg observation services are useful and effective with regard to ship routing in the North Atlantic, but capabilities for pre- dicting iceberg motion and sea ice distribu- tion still are very limited. A fundamental lack of understanding exists in regard to the transfer of heat and stress from the air above and the water below to the ice interface. Pre- dictions of the subsequent motions and de- formation of sea ice require an improved capability to forecast the wind near the ocean surface. Since it is important to study ice during the long polar nights and under ad- verse cloud conditions, sensor imagery inde- pendent of these restrictions acquired by air and satellite remote sensors is a requirement for rapid advances in the understanding of sea ice dynamics. The Commission recommends expansion of research efforts to improve sea ice fore- casting and remote sensing of glacial and sea ice to yield improved models of the formation, growth, drift, deformation, and disintegration of different ice types. A Government-wide plan for systematic impi-ovement of marine weather services, pre- pared by the Office of the Federal Coordina- tor for Meteorological Services and Support- ing Research, has been reviewed by the Commission. It proposes steps to bring our marine weather services in line with national needs by : • Establishing marine forecast centers and systems for radio facsimile and radio tele- phone broadcasts of marine forecasts • Instrumenting additional ships-of-oppor- tunity and installing automatic stations and telemetering equipment along the coast to obtain weather, tide, and ocean data from locations where it is not feasible to use cooperative observers • Installing additional weather radars • Providing specialized support to military users • Extending the range of broadcast facilities for transmitting environmental informa- tion to ships on the high seas. The Commission endorses the existing Federal Plan for Marine Meteorologi- cal Services and urges its early imple- mentation. Improvements in our capability to predict hurricanes are urgently required if the United States is to defend itself better against destructive forces of storms like Hurricane Betsy, tvhich left tumbled homes along the Rhode Island coast in 1965. 191 The Technology for NEMPS In recent j-ears, sipniKcant advances have been made in data collection' devices and their associated platforms. Operational ap- plication of these advances and of technology now under development promises dramatic improvements in our ability to observe the total environment and to process and trans- mit the resulting data. Extrapolations of present technology make it appear feasible that the future environment monitoring and prediction system will provide automatic processing of data communicated from over the entire globe in real-time. Some environ- mental sensors would be in nearly continuous operation, permitting computer systems to operate in a continuously updating mode. At regidar intervals the system would produce required forecast charts and other processed data which would be disseminated to users. Although one cannot stipulate yet the complete and detailed composition of the anticipated system, the key elements will in- volve buoys, satellites, aircraft, computers, and high speed communications. Buoys Although buoys have been used widely in research and survey work, they do not yet possess the reliability and service character- istics required of operational buoys. Expe- rience has demonstrated that further test and evaluation are needed to assure reliable trans- mission of the data and that extensive efforts still are required in the development of re- liable anchors, moorings, power supplies, and hulls. Buoy instruments to sense pressure, temperature, salinity, sound velocity, current speed, and direction now are available. Op- erational buoys also can provide platforms for sensors to collect biological and chemical data at very small additional expense. It is possible also to use drifting buoys and balloons to collect data to be relayed via satellite to central collection points. How- ever, a number of problems still must be overcome to assure system reliability. Im- proved estimates are needed for the number of free-floating buoys and balloons required to obtain worldwide observations of sufficient density. After examining the many fragmented ocean data buoy programs being conducted by the Federal Government, the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer- ing Development secured the initiation of the National Data Buoy System program under the leadership of the U.S. Coast Guard. The deployment of. an operational coastal and deep ocean system of moored buoys has been estimated to cost between $200 and $500 million, plus $15 to $45 million an- nually for systems operation. To design an efficient system will necessitate extensive re- search, development, test, and evaluation. A decision was reached by the Marine Coun- cil that the system's potential warranted preliminary development. A $5 million budget to initiate such development was requested for FY 1969 by the Coast Guard, but action on the request was de- ferred by the Congress pending a better un- derstanding of its relationship to the U.S. Coast Guard's mission and other elements of a national monitoring and prediction system. The Commission concludes that the inves- tigation of buoy technology should be strongly supported. The objective should be to deploy a pilot network in a limited section of the sea by 1975. The development and test of such a pilot network should draw upon the skills of industry and the universities as well as the responsible Federal agencies. There- fore it might be appropriately designated and managed as a National Project. Several buoy configurations might be included within the network in order to test alternative 192 designs and to obtain data which will de- scribe the spectrum of motions in the ocean. Any special requirements of military buoys must also be considered. Based on experience gained through the proposed project, the Nation will be in a po- sition to determine the role which moored buoys should play in the global system, the types of buoys which should be used, and the system's optimum configuration. The Commission recommends that the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (CG) launch a National Project to develop a pilot buoy network. It should provide for tests of alternative buoy configurations, advanced sensors and equipment, different network spacings, and logistic support methods. The pilot network should be tested and evaluated fully before a com- mitment is made to a major operational system; many of these tests could be con- ducted in coordination with other oceano- graphic research efforts. Aircraft The instrumented aircraft, operated as a test bed for satellite instruments and in sup- port of specific research and development projects, has demonstrated its usefulness as an oceanographic data collection platform and in the reconnaissance programs of the U.S. Department of Defense and other agen- cies. Field accuracies of approximately one- half degree centigrade have been reported in sensing sea surface temperatures under ideal conditions. Devices are being developed or are available that can be placed on air- Initial Data Requirements for Forecasts of Given Lengths Estimated initial data requirements to forecast for a point at the 500-millihar surface (about 6 kilometers} at lati- tude i5°N. For a forecast period of up to SO hours, initial data are re- quired from a strip at the same altitude over the Northern Hemisphere ; 30 hours-2 days, a thin layer of atmos- phere over part of the Northern Hemis- phere; ]f—5 days, a deep layer of atmosphere over the entire Northern and part of the Southern Hemisphere plus sea-surface data; 5—10 days, same part of atomshpere as for J,-S days plus the ocean to i meters; and 10 days-2 months, atmosphere over entire globe plus the ocean to 100 meters. lOOKM tOKM .^/^"""""-^ ^ "* " ~~~~~--r^"^\^\ ALTITUDE IMM ~~-C*\v^\^\ 10M — cr""\^^\ \ \ Ocean Surtace,,— — i r~— -.^^\ \ \ \ \ v-"'''^ IM -~^^>s\\\\\ / 10M --oWWW / lOOM ^m\^\ 90 s TO 30 HOURS 100KM )OKM ALTITUDE 100M lOM Ocean Surlaco,...— / 10M fc 90 UP TO S 2 DAYS lOOKM 10KM IKM ALTITUDE 100 M 10M Ocean Surtace,...,— y' 10M / lOOM fcl\ 90 UP TO S 5 DAYS UP TO 10 DAYS lOOKM 10KM tKM ALTITUDE lOOM lOM 0»Bn Surfacfl^—- / 100'.' fc UP TO 2 s MONTHS SODRCE : Adapted from R. E. Hallgren, "World Weather Program," TRW Space Log, spring-summer 1968. 193 craft. Several ag:encies are proceeding with studies of the use of aircraft for collecting oc«anographic data. It appears desirable to examine the feasibility of an aircraft-of- opportunity program as part of an overall obser\at ional system. The Commission recommends that the role of aircraft in collecting oceanographic data be reviewed with the aim of estab- lishing an aircraft-of-opportunity pro- gram. Satellites Among the most dramatic recent develop- ments is the ability to collect useful ocean data from remote platforms in space. Earth orbiting satellites long liave demonstrated an operational capability to provide global weather photographs; they now have dem- onstrated a capability to collect and trans- mit oceanographic data and act as a data communications relay. The TIROS, NIMBUS, and ESSA series of satellites have demonstrated amply the operational capability to provide useful global photographs showing clouds and lim- ited indications of sea ice ; other applications are under development. The Application Technology Satellite series in earth-syn- chronous orbits has shown the ability to keep major parts of the atmosphere and ocean un- der constant surveillance. Progress is being made in development of advanced satellite instrumentation. Sea sur- face temperature discontinuities have been detected from aircraft using sensors in the visible, infrared, and microwave regions of the spectrum. Infrared instruments have been used to map and measure areas of strong thermal contrast. Under nighttime, cloud- free conditions, such areas of sharp tempera- ture contrast as currents and upwellings have been detected by NIMBUS imagery. Most sea state infonnation is inferred f roin wind data. Possible methods for deter- mining sea state from orbital altitudes are based on changes in the reflective properties of the ocean surface. Photographs of sun glitter or sun glint have been made from air- craft and satellites. The cloud cover con- straints on optical techniques have stimulated study of passive microwave radiation and radar reflectance for determining sea state. Both of these measurements can be made in the presence of storms and clouds with no appreciable attenuation. Several developments are underway to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellites to locate, interrogate, and relay data from meteorological and oceanographic buoys, stream gauges, drifting balloons, ice islands, and other environmental data platforms. One of these programs is Omega Position Locating Equipment (OPLE), a prototype of which has flown on the synchronous satel- lite, ATS-3. This equipment is capable of in- terrogating thousands of separate surface units deployed at random, of accurately fix- ing their position, and of recording their data twice daily. This system would provide a means of obtaining data from instrumented buoys. Another related program is the Inter- rogation, Recording, and Location System (IRLS), planned for flight testing aboard a future polar-orbiting NIMBUS satellite. Other approaches to satellite interrogation of free-floating platforms are being exam- ined by France. A distinction must be maintained between the responsibilities of the National Aeronau- tics and Space Administration for research and development of new satellite systems and of user agencies for the finiding and man- agement of operational satellite systems. Such arrangements have worked effectively 19Jf for the National Weather Satellite Program. Similarly, the agency responsible for NEMPS should fund and manage civil oper- ational satellite systems for oceanographic monitoring. This review has identified only a fraction of the useful improvements in present ob- servational systems which can be achieved through an expanded and sustained develop- ment effort. Other opportunities are pres- ent in the communications and processing segments of the system. These opportunities need to be pursued fully before making com- mitments to develop major new systems of less established reliability. The Commission recommends early im- plementation of plans to place oceano- graphic sensors on board operational satellites and continued rapid develop- ment of advanced sensors and techniques for the satellite interrogation and location of remote platforms, and transmission of data from them. The techniques of systems analysis must be widely applied to the examination of alter- natives in expanding the Nation's environ- mental monitoring and prediction programs. These techniques are particularly relevant to this area of marine science, because the costs of installing and operating a global system are large. Analyses should proceed with ad- vances in technology to provide a suitable decision-making framework when advanced major elements of the system are ready for deployment. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) undertake extensive analyses of alternative system designs of NEMPS and the resulting benefits of im- proved predictions. Such analyses are re- quired before decisions are made regard- ing operational deployment of major new system components. Research The Commission finds that the Nation is at an early stage in the development of a true scientific capability for predicting the state of the oceans. It is important that a number of limitations stemming from our lack of basic understanding of certain phys- ical processes be removed by a well-formu- lated progi'am of basic research into key problems in physical oceanography. Earlier reviews by the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography and the Presi- dent's Science Advisoi-y Committee have in- dicated similar needs. Dynamics of Ocean Currents Ocean currents may be compared superfi- cially to the winds of the atmosphere but, except for the trade winds, they are signifi- cantly different in their persistence and be- havior. In the temperate and polar regions of the earth, storms tend to drift, from west to east around the earth, bringing with them weather patterns that commonly persist only for a few days. Ocean current systems, at least on the largest scale, persist for much longer periods in the same geographical areas. The meridional transfer of heat by these persist- ent ocean currents has far-reaching eflFects on climate, and fluctuations in the transport, of these current systems probably are one of the causes of major shifts in the world's weather. Oceanographic cruises have been the tradi- tional means by which the marine scientist has sought to obser\e physical oceanographic phenomena, but the methodology and instiii- mentation used are inadequate to define small-scale motions. ( 195 The general positions of the oceans' major current systems liave been fairly well estab- lished for more than 50 years'. As more de- tailed observations are made of the current systems, however, scientists are increasingly impressed by their ditferences. Recent obser- vations have shown, for example, that the pattern of pennanent ocean currents near the equator in all the oceans is highly complex. The broad equatorial currents flow westward Wave Analysis Diagrams SouBcE : Wlllard J. Pierson. Jr., et al., Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting Ocean Waves, U.S. Navy Oceanographlc Office Pub. No. 603, 1955, p. 24. in a manner that would be expected as a re- sponse to the westward component of the trade winds on both sides of the equator. But, in addition, an intricate system of powerful countercurrents exists at the surface and at relatively shallow depths below the surface. Although various mathematical models have been proposed to account for these current systems, they are at best only approximate steady state models. An attack on the prob- lem of predicting the fluctuations of major ocean currents will require more detailed data, improved understanding of the air-sea energy exchange, and insight into the effects of bottom topography on ocean movements and of the interrelationships among the cur- rents themselves. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency take the lead in organizing a series of systematic studies of the ocean's cur- rent systems through cooperative field investigations, employing ship, buoy, and aircraft arrays. Sea-Air Interaction Research on the interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans is necessary for progress in weather forecasting and in pre- dicting conditions in the upper layers of the ocean. A theoretical upper limit for predicting the behavior of individual midlatitude weather details is estimated to be about two weeks in winter and somewhat longer in summer. A rough estimate for the practical limit in the foreseeable future seems to be about one week with an indication that trends could be ex- tended for longer periods. The fluxes of en- ergy, momentum, and water vapor to and from the atmosphere for these time inter\'als (normally neglected for short-range fore- casting) become important. Many aspects of 196 sea-air interaction are under continuing re- search. However, in the view of the Commis- sion, mucli more remains to be done. The most obvious interchanges between the sea and the atmosphere are those of heat, water vapor, and momentum. There are, however, many other types of exchange; to- gether they form exceedingly complex subtle patterns. Although progress has been re- ported, the development of theoretical solu- tions is difficult. A major limitation in this field is the lack of adequate instrumentation to measure di- rectly the ocean-atmosphere exchanges. Be- cause these fluxes occur on scales of motion very much smaller than the scale of any ex- isting or economically feasible observing system, it is very difficult to relate them to data collected on a much larger scale. In a laboratory flask, this would not matter; the exchanges could be directly inferred from the more familiar measurements such as temperature and humidity. On the open sea, the problem is far more complicated. Observations of air-sea interactions will require large-scale field experiments in which a variety of observation platforms are marshaled to provide a comprehensive pic- ture of phenomena within the test area. The Federal agencies and research institutions al- ready have planned the Barbados Ocean- ographic and Meteorological Experiment (BOMEX) to be conducted later this year. However, more extensive efforts of this kind (as now planned in conjunction with the World Weather Program) will be needed. The Commission believes that the consoli- dated planning and operating capabilities for such field programs, which should be centered in the National Oceanic and At- mospheric Agency, constitute major advan- tages to be gained from the formation of this agency. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) place continued high pri- During her first mission in 1969, tlic rcxiarcJi siiimarhic Ben Franklin will drift northivard from- Florida to New England while her crew eonducts a detailed investigation of the Gulf Stream. Hot meals during the nnderseas voyage xcill he prepared from dehydrated food^ reconstituted from near-hoiling water carried, in the galley in insulated vacuum tanks. 197 ority on improving the understanding of sea-air interaction processes and use its extensive capabilities in cooperation with other Federal agencies, universities, and foreign scientists to mount the needed major field experiments. Scales of Motion As iidditional data describing near-sur- face and deep ocean currents become avail- able, it is found that the observed currents have only a weak relation to the mean cur- I'ents. Studies of the characteristics of these motions have revealed that appreciable en- ergy is involved on every space or time scale that has been investigated. The problem is fundamental to the ability, not only to un- derstand oceanic processes in order to simu- late these processes, but also to determine the sampling interval required for ocean obser- vation networks. Given the decision of the Government to move forward with a major ocean buoy development program, technol- ogy will permit a major assault on the problem. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency as rapidly as possible organize a well-defined program to study oceanic scales of motion. Such a study should be one of the early foci for the test of the ele- ments of the National Pilot Buoy Network Project. Man's increasing dependence on food re- sources from the sea and his growing ca- pacity to modify the environment lend urgency to the requirement for improved bi- ological prediction. Accurate forecasts of the abundance and distribution of major marine biota must be made. Rates of production and mortality and the interactions with the envi- ronment must be predictable for development of new food resources, for evaluation of the effects of man's modification of the environ- ment, and as possible indicators for monitoring and predicting the dynamics of ocean interaction. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (BCF) mount intensive research efforts to provide the understanding of oceanic processes and biological-physical environmental relationships needed to de- velop prediction capabilities. Environmental Modification Modification of weather and ocean condi- tions by interference with natural environ- mental processes is a growing reality which the Nation is only beginning to confront. Such modification can be inadvertent, result- ing from such activities as the burning of fossil fuels with its consequent effects on at- mospheric temperatures and atmospheric pollution, or it can be the result of man's con- Marine researchers and their instruments must operate in an cxtrctnely harsh environment, as evidenced by this storm-damaged surface float of a deep-anchored current meter system. 198 scions interference, for example, by silver iodide seeding to change rainfall. The scientific community is increasingly confident that it is now possible, rationally and systematically, to investigate a wide range of environmental modification possi- bilities. Environmental modification problems are inseparable from those of environmental monitoring and predicting. Several recent reports on weather modification, issued by a special Commission on Weather Modification of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and by the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, have suggested the need for the Federal Govern- ment to undertake the research, development, and experimentation required to explore the broad spectrum of weather modification pos- sibilities. More recently, in amending the enabling legislation of the National Science Foundation, the Congress eliminated NSF's statutory responsibilities in the field of weather modification, apparently because of the view that these responsibilities should be assumed by ESSA. Man is already in the process of modifying his ocean environment, both consciously and inadvertently. By the construction of break- waters he has modified the flow of nearshore ocean current systems. As a result of the introduction of pollution into estuaries and the near coastal zones, he has modified the quality of the water. There have been nu- merous proposals for the creation of artificial upwellings to enhance the productivity of certain ocean areas. Studies of the biological consequences of man's major manipulations of the environment by thermal additions, con- struction of sea level canals, dredging of waterways through marsh areas, and con- struction of major highways on the seashores have become essential. Recent analjiiical re- finements have established beyond doubt that manmade pollution already has affected the entire ocean. Prime examples of this are the finding of DDT and products of DDT de- gradation (probably distributed by air into the oceans) in the organs of animals through- out the oceans and the identification of lead from lead-treated gasoline burned by internal combustion engines in the surface layers of the ocean. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) undertake a comprehen- sive program of research and development to explore the feasibility of beneficial modification of environmental conditions and the effects of inadvertent interference with natural environmental processes. An International Framework: Organizational and Legal The case for deploying an operational sys- tem for global environmental monitoring re.sts basically on the proposition that only through such a system is there any possibility of being able to advance substantially our ability to provide reliable forecasts of tran- sient oceanic and atmospheric phenomena. It must be global, because the physical systems under observation are linked around the globe. It must provide for frequent synoptic observations to establish the initial state from which future states can be predicted. It must be integrated from sensor to finished forecast, because the vast amount of data permit no other approach, and it must oper- ate in real time, for there are real-time needs for its products. Because of the high cost of such a global system, the building of which would be pro- hibitive for even the United States to imder- take alone, it is essential that the system be multilaterally planned and supported. Many 199 elements of such a system arc already in place, having evolved over many years. The international exchange of real-time data through the World Meteorological Or- ganization is an important part of the sys- tem. Almost all nations support air and sea surface observing and forecast systems, and without access to their data U.S. services wotdd l)e seriously impaired. Because obser- \-ations must be obtained over tlie continents as well as the sea, the global system involves all nonmaritime nations as well. Integration of planning activities at the international level has not advanced as rapidly as at the national level. But years of cooperation in oceanic and atmospheric ac- tivities have yielded a legacy of common in- terests among the world's scientists and a large network of international organizations. The United States and its citizens are active in most of them. International Organizations At the Goverriment level, the principal marine science organization is the Inter- governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UN- ESCO), founded in 1961. UNESCO also operates an Office of Oceanography, which provides staff support to the IOC and con- ducts some activities of its own. Such activi- ties as the recent Indian Ocean and Tropical Atlantic expeditions were sponsored by IOC. The International Hydrographic Bureau as- sists in the standardization and disseminat ion of ocean survey data. The World Meteorolog- ical Organization (WMO) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) are involved in the sciences related to the prob- lems of meteorology and fisheries. The principal nongovernment interna- tional body which provides a forum for all sciences is the International Council of The Intergovernmental Oceano- graphic Commission, at present the principal intergovernmental marine science organization, is assisting nations in planning for an Integrated Global Ocean Station System to monitor and predict the state of the oceans. Scientific Unions (ICSU). The constituent groups of ICSU which are of particular importance to the marine sciences are the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. In general, the Commission finds that the present government and nongovernment international organizations have served well in facilitating collaboration on marine science problems. However, as the pace of research and exploration intensifies and their scope broadens and becomes increasingly entwined with related scientific interests, the strength- ening and perhaps restructuring of both gov- ernment and nongovernment organizations will be needed. This need is particularly pressing if development of worldwide sys- tems for earth, air, and ocean monitoring are to be coordinated. It is clear to the Commission that IOC's ioo present strength is inadequate to the task of planning and coordinating a program of the scope of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration. This has been recognized both by the IOC and UNESCO, and steps now are being considered to strengthen it. To the Commission, this is essential. The IOC re- quires additional staff, budget, and expertise. Because IOC is a part of UNESCO, it is difficult for it to obtain the necessary budget- ary support ; the IOC is in competition with all other educational and cultural programs of UNESCO. Its subsidiary position also makes it difficult for it to deal effectively with other treaty-level organizations of the United Nations system, such as the FAO and the AVMO. The diversity of international organiza- tions participating in some manner in marine science and engineering, and in particular the parallel interests of the WMO and the IOC in environmental monitoring and prediction, have been matters of concern to the Commission. The World Weather Program, a plan to improve the global system for monitoring and predicting the state of the atmosphere, is being developed under WMO's sponsor- ship. The Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) is being planned by IOC to monitor and predict the state of the oceans. The latter plan includes many elements also included in the World Weather Program, and coordination procedures have been estab- lished between IOC and WMO. IOC also has international coordinating responsibility for the Pacific Tsunami Warning System. Other international organizations are responsible for such additional activities as the Ocean Station Vessel Program and the Interna- tional Ice Patrol. There is general recogni- tion that present arrangements for coordina- tion of the activities of these international organizations, though conmiendable as far as they go, are inadequate. The Secretary Gen- eral of the U.N., in fact, has noted the unique character of the job to be done and the lack of experience among international organiza- tions in taking joint action on matters of such complexity. However, because there are a va- riety of alternative approaches and no clear solution to the problem, he refrained from recommending a specific course of action. It is a perplexing problem. The WMO has gained the most experience with operational systems and has established a systems plan- ning staff and precedent-breaking financing arrangements to develop the World Weather Progi-am. The IOC's orientation in the past has been more toward education and re- seai'ch, but it has successfully organized a variety of field programs, some of substan- tial scale. It also has midertaken impoi'tant tasks for the Fisheries Department of the FAO, which is heavily involved in marine biology, and for other smaller organizations. The Commission concludes that the inte- gration of NEMPS into a global system would be facilitated if all international ocean and atmospheric monitoring activities were under tlie purview of a single interna- tional organization at the treaty level. This step, however, is not immediately critical to the successful development of the proposed monitoring and prediction program because of the existing measures of coordination. The nations of the world ultimately must establish an intergovernmental organization dealing with ocean matters at the treaty level and having adequate authoi'ity, personnel, and financial resources. It is not clear wheth- er it would be better ( 1 ) to establish an addi- tional intergovernmental body dealing with the oceans in parallel with the other special- ized agencies of the U.N. system (such as WMO and FAO) by raising IOC to the sta- tus of another specialized agency or (2) to form a new body incorporating the functions 201 Marine Science Organizations in or Related to the United Nations ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION INTERGOVERNMENTAL MARITIME CONSULT- ATIVE ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE FAR EAST — UNESCO INTERGOVERNMENTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC COMMISSION i FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION COMMISSION ON MARITIME METEOROLOGY GENERAL ASSEMBLY INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION U,N, CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT U.N. SECRETARIAT SODRCE : Marine Science Affairs, The Second Report of the President to the Congress on Marine Resources and En- gineering Development. March 1968, p. 24. of existing international bodies to deal with a great range of enTironmental problems. The formation of the new National Oceanic and Atmosphei'e Agency would lend impetus to the latter solution. The Commission recommends that NEMPS be planned and developed on a global basis in concert with the World Weather Program to assure a well-coordi- nated and nonduplicating global ocean- atmosphere monitoring and prediction system. The National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Agency (ESSA) should coordi- nate the U.S. participation in the planning and deployment of such a global system. A Legal Framework for the Conduct of Marine Research To observe, describe, and understand the physical, geological, chemical, and biologi- cal phenomena of the marine environment, the marine scientist must conduct investiga- tions on a global basis. But the existing in- ternational legal framework does not facili- tate these investigations. The prior consent of the coastal nation is required to conduct scientific investigations in its internal or territorial waters, to em- place installations for research purposes on the beds undei'lying these watei-s, to conduct fishery research in its exclusive fisheries zone, or to conduct research concerning its con- tinental shelf. Coastal nations also claim territorial seas of breadths varying from 3 nautical miles to 200 miles or more, and they define their in- ternal and territorial waters in ways that serve to extend them. The seaward limit of the continental shelf is uncertain. All these factors tend to enlarge the areas of the oceans in which scientific inquirj- cannot iOi be conducted without tlie coastal nation's permission. Although most nations have been liberal in the courtesies accorded scientific parties, some have viewed scientists with suspicion and have refused tliem permission or imposetl hampering restrictions. Some scientists are deterred from seeking tlie necessary permis- sion because of the length of time it takes to obtain permission and because the uncer- tainty of a favorable outcome makes it im- possible for them to plan their expeditions. To prevent the existing legal framework from becoming a serious obstacle to world- wide scientific inquiry, tlie Commission urges the United States to join with other nations to effectuate the principle of maximum free- dom for scientific inquiry. To this end, a new international legal framework is required. However, recognizing that it will take time to negotiate a new framework, the Commis- sion also proposes a policy of easy access for scientific inquiry even within the existing framework. Recommendations for a New Interna- tional Convention The freedom to conduct scientific investi- gations in the high seas, including inquiries concerning the bed of the high seas and its subsoil, is a freedom recognized by general principles of international law. Nevertheless, this freedom is limited in the exclusive fish- eries zone and by the requirements of the Convention on the Continental Shelf. Coastal nations, including the United States, prohibit fisheries research in the ex- clusive fisheries zone without their consent. Because the coastal nation has authority to do so only to the extent necessary to protect its fishing rights in its exclusive fisheries zone, the definition of such fisheries research pre- sents a difficult but crucial question. To avoid the possibility of unpleasant in- ternational incidents, scientists are well ad- vised to seek permission from the coastal nation to conduct almost any study of living resources in the exclusive fisheries zone. This restriction on research can become particularly serious if the coastal nation bars the researcher from studying marine animals which inhabit tlie exclusive fisheries zone as well as the high seas beyond that zone. The Convention on the Continental Shelf provides also that the prior consent of the coastal nation must be obtained for "any re- search concerning the continental shelf and To oiservc, desoribe, and understand the physieal, geological, chemical, and biological phenomena of the marine environment, the marine scientist must conduct investigations on a worldioide haMs. A core sampler is launched during the recent global cruise of the Oceanographer. i 20S undertaken there." But the coastal nation is enjoined not to "norniully withhold its con- sent if the request is submitted by a qualified institution witli a view to purely scientific re- search into the phj'sical or biological charac- teristics of the continental shelf, subject to the proviso that the coastal nation shall have the right, if it so desires, to participate or to be represented in the research, and that in any event the results shall be jiublished." There are many ambiguities in this admoni- tion which coastal nations may interpret to enlarge the restrictions on scientific inquiry. What is research "concerning" the continen- tal shelf? When is such research "undertaken there"? When are conditions "not nonnal"? What is "purely" scientific research ? What is the line between "exploring" the continental shelf, for the purpose of which the coastal nation exercises "sovereign rights" under Article 2 of the Convention, and "funda- mental oceanographic or other scientific re- search" with which, according to Article 5(1) of the Convention, neither the exploitation of the continental shelf nor the exploitation of its natural resources may interfere ? A new international convention is needed to elimi- nate these ambiguities and provide a solid foundation for the freedom of scientists to explore the world's oceans. The Commission recommends that the United States take the initiative to pro- pose a new convention embodying the fol- lowing essential provisions: (1) Scientific research in the territorial waters or on and concerning the continen- tal shelf of a coastal nation may be con- ducted without its prior consent, provided that it is notified of the objectives and methods of the research and the period or periods of time during which it will be conducted, in sufficient time to enable the coastal nation to decide whether it wishes to participate or be represented in all or part of the research; and provided that the investigators agree to publish the results of the research. (2) Fisheries research (including the limited taking of fish specimens) may be conducted in the exclusive fisheries zone of any coastal nation under the same conditions. (3) Research submersibles may be used in the conduct of authorized scientific re- search in territorial waters, even if they do not navigate on the surface as the Con- vention on the Territorial Sea and Con- tiguous Zone now requires them to do, provided that the coastal nation is also notified of the time, place, and manner of their use sufficiently in advance to assure safety of navigation. (4) Research buoys may be placed in any coastal nation's territorial waters. Buoys so placed, as well as those placed in the superjacent waters of the continental shelves or in the high seas beyond the con- tinental shelves, shall be protected against unwarranted interference from any source. The coastal nation, however, may specify reasonable requirements for loca- tion, lighting, marking, and communica- tions with respect to buoys placed in its territorial waters. It will not be difficult to prevent abuse of the recommended new convention. From its vessels or aircraft, the coastal nation can ob- serve all acti\ities carried on in the name of scientific inquiry. It also has the practical power to inspect buoys and other unmanned devices used for research purposes. AVhether a vessel or installation is engaged in mineral resources exploitation or in scien- tific research can readily be ascertained by observing the gear or equipment it carries and the overboard operations in which it is 204 A ncxc intentatiO)Ml convention on the conduct of marine research should include the provision that research buoys may be placed in any coastal nation's territorial waters, in the superadjacent waters of the continental shelves, or in the high seas beyond the contirwntal shelves. engaged. It may not be so easy to determine by such an examination whether a vessel is engaged in commercial fishing or scientific research, although the quantity of fish taken in the former activity should be significantly greater than in the latter. However, the coastal nation has an additional safeguard. It always may decide to participate or to be represented in the research itself. Taken to- gether, these safeguards also assure that scientific inquiry will not become a cover for espionage. The Commission has not recommended that the new convention apply generally to the internal waters of nations. Security con- cerns in internal waters generally are too sensitive to be allayed by the safeguards provided in the case of other waters. How- ever, the territorial waters of a coastal nation should be taken to include waters which were once part of the territorial sea but are now internal waters because of the use of a system of straight baselines to measure the breadth of the territorial sea or the closing of bays in accordance with Article 7 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. Interim Policies Pending the negotiation of the new convention. The Commission recommends that the United States seek to enter into bilateral and regional agreements embodying the provisions recommended above for the new convention and take other initiatives to encourage freedom of scientific research and international scientific cooperation. Such initiatives might include the follow- ing: • The United States might interpret broadly the terms, "qualified institution"' and "purely scientific research," and so, for example, consent to scientifically valuable exploration for mineral resources while still retaining its sovereign right to exploit the natural resources of the continental shelves and exclude others from exploiting them. • The United States might state that it will grant applications by foreign scientists for permission to conduct broad categories of research without requiring them to make repeated requests for consent to engage in individual projects falling within an ap- proved category, stating that its prior consent is required only for research concerning the continental shelf which in- volves physical contact with it. Even if physical contact occurs, as when an in- stallation for scientific research is placed on the continental shelf, it could stress that its prior consent is not required if the research concerns the superjacent waters and not the continental shelf. Of coui-se, the United States would re- tain its right under the Convention to par- ticipate or be represented in the research, I 205 and the results of tlie investigiition would still have to be i)ublished. • The United States could state that it will consent to the conduct of any pi-oposed foreign scientific investigation certified by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) as meeting the require- ments of the Convention on the Continen- tal Shelf. In performing this task, IOC should be guided by the criteria set forth in the Convention. • The United States might announce uni- laterally that, upon proper notice, it will consent to the conduct in its territorial waters and exclusive fisheries zone of scien- tific research (including the limited taking of fish specimens) which is part of an in- ternational cooperative project sponsored or endorsed by the IOC, provided that it may participate or be represented in the research and that the scientists involved agree to publish the results of the research' and to make available upon request the basic data acquired. The Commission also endorses the prin- ciples which tlie United States has presented for adoption by the United Nations General Assembly to encourage international coop- eration in the scientific investigation of the bed and subsoil of the high seas beyond the outer limits of the continental shelf. These principles would call upon all na- tions to disseminate plans for and results of such national scientific programs in a timely fashion, to encourage their nationals to follow similar practices concerning dis- semination of such information, and to en- courage personnel of different nations to co- operate in such scientific activities. Program Costs Exploring and monitoring our global en- vironment is an enormous task. Table 5-1 presents the incremental expenditures esti- mated by the Commission as necessary for the programs recommended in this chapter. Estimates for research and exploration ac- tivities have been built on a growth assump- tion of 15 per cent per year over the first 5 years, and 10 per cent per year in the second 5-year period. The Commission believes that Federal sup- port of the Nation's major oceanographic in- .stitutions will need to be sharply increased during the next several years to enable their full participation in the recommended pro- grams. A basic need is to provide adequate institutional suppoi-t to meet basic operating expenses of the proposed University-Na- tional Laboratories, which will have a key role in research and exploration. The Com- mission has not attempted to specify how many laboratories should be brought within this system ; for purposes of the funding esti- mate, a dozen such laboratories have been assumed. The capital costs for these labora- tories are shown in Chapter 2. In this chapter we have provided estimates for costs of op- eration and maintenance and the laborator- ies' research and exploration programs, as shown under the a^jpropriate entries in Table 1. Tlie institutional support for these labora- tories, to be provided by NOAA, would be supplemented by funds for specific research projects and programs provided by other agencies as well. The new agency will assume responsibility for a large number of existing Federal lab- oratories which, as the Commission has pointed out in Chapter 2, are inadequately staffed and funded. To bring such laborato- ries, as well as those of other Federal agen- cies, to a level adequate to meet their role in the total global exploration, monitoring, and prediction program, increased funding is re- quired as indicated in the table. The Commission has noted that the pres- ent diversity of scientific institutions is good 206 and should be nurtured. Support for the wide variety of participants in the programs outlined in this chapter will require in- creased Federal fundinfj. Such funding will be provided chiefly by the National Science Foundation, Navy, and NOAA, but also by such organizations as the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Aeronautical and Space Administration. The estimates shown in Table 5-1 do not include Navy- sponsored research to meet military needs but assume that the Navy will continue and strengthen its present basic research support. Technological development is crucial to the success of future research and exploration programs. At present, support for such pro- grams is provided almost exclusively by the Navy ; the Commission believes that the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency should provide major additional funding. Table 5-1 anticipates three categories of de- velopmental expenditures by NOAA : man- in-the-sea techniques, scientific instrumenta- tion, and a National Project for development and construction of long-endurance, 20,000- foot exploration submersibles. In addition, the table includes an estimate for support of the broad base of fundamental technology needed to design systems for operation at great depths. Funds for feasibility studies of such possible future National Projects as deep sea habitats and mobile submerged lab- oratories were included in Chapter 2. For the work envisioned by the Commis- sion for development of man-in-sea tech- niques and research instrumentation, ap- proximately $250 million (in addition to the funds for study of the feasibility of future projects) will be required over the next decade. The Deep Exploration Submersible Systems National Project will require a major effort estimated to cost $285 million for the 10-year period. Fundamental technology which must be developed to support deep ocean operations includes buoyant materials, power systems, and free-flooding machinery suitable for 20,000- foot operations, life support systems, anchoring and mooring devices, and tech- niques for underwater viewing. This tech- nology has many potential applications, and the Commission has reflected a portion of its estimated cost in Chapter 4. The $400 million estimate included in this chapter reflects the need for pressing undersea operating capa- bilities to great depths in order to explore and understand the deep ocean environment. The Commission has not attempted to as- sign specific projects and costs to the Decade of Ocean Exploration. This task remains to be accomplished by those responsible for planning the U.S. contributions to the Dec- ade. It feels, however, that expenditures provided in these estimates will be adequate to carry out the proba;ble U.S. commitment to this program. The expenditures recommended by the Commission to advance a system for global environmental monitoring and prediction are assigned to three categories: immediate im- provements, buoy development, and system component development and test. The funds to carry out the research required to support this program have been included in the re- search and exploration entries of Table 5-1. The Commission has stated that it is pos- sible to achieve immediate improvements in environmental monitoring and prediction with existing technology and at relatively modest costs. The estimated costs of such im- provements, dra^vn largely from existing agency plans, would be $115 million ; most of this amount should be expended during the first half of the coming decade. Costs have not been included in the table for the general development and improvement of national 207 wenther services not specifically addressed in the Commission recommendations. The $85 million estimate shown in Table 5-1 for the National Pilot Buoy Net:'.ork Project is based on data prepared by the Coast Guard. The estimate covers only the costs of carryinj; the buoy program throup;h its operational test phase and does not in- clude the lurire e.xpenditures which will be Table 5-1 Global Environmental Programs [Incremental costs in millions of dollars] required later for procurement, deployment, and maintenance of an oj^erational buoy network. A wide variety of other component de- velopment and systems studies for the Na- tional Environmental Monitoring and Pre- diction System are estimated by the Conxmission to require an additional $115 million over the next 10 years. Average annual costs 1971-75 Total 10-year 1976-80 costs Research and Exploration I $81 Laboratory Operations and Programs University-National Laboratories 20 Federal Laboratories 9 Research Grants and Contracts 12 Technology Development: Man-in-the-Sea Techniques 5 Instrumentation 15 National Project — Deep Exploration Submersible Systems 20 Global Monitoring System Near-Term Improvements National Project — Pilot Buoy Network Other Component Development Environmental Modification Program Fundamental Technology — Underwater Operating Capabilities, 20,000' Total, Global Environment Programs 179 ' For explanation of amounts shown in this table, see accompanying test and chapter 8. $162 $1,215 45 325 22 155 28 200 10 75 20 175 37 285 48 15 315 15 8 2 5 115 15 18 85 115 20 30 45 50 325 400 272 2,255 Chapter ^ S,^^ ■^V*-" * ^ j^ '^^r- r^i^" Technical and Operating Services 209 Operations in the seas for any purpose require certain indispensable, teclinical and operating services, chiefly provided by the Government. To move from one phice in the oceans to another requires nautical charts and aids to navigation. Safe operation on, under, and over the oceans calls for search and rescue facilities as well as adequate law enforcement. Other critical services, such as monitoring and prediction of atmospheric and oceanic conditions, were discussed in Chapter 5; needs for resource sur\'eys and geological analysis were outlined in Chap- ter 4. As the Nation moves to implement the ma- rine programs proposed by the Commission, the Government also must pro\ade improved general purpose maps of the oceans' topog- raphy and geophysics ; data storage, retrieval, and dissemination services; and instrument calibration and standardization services. The major users of these technical and op- erating services include the marine trans- portation and fishing industries, the offshore oil and mineral producers, recreational boat- ers, the U.S. Department of Defense, and the scientific community. The principal agencies currently providing them are the Department of Transportation (U.S. Coast Guard), the Department of Commerce (Environmental Science Sennces Administration), and the Department of Defense (U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Each of these agencies, in turn, is dependent upon the services pro- vided by the others. They also share in the use of certain facilities and coordinate their operations and plans informally. Coordina- tion of routine operations has been effective, but the agencies have been less successful in efforts to coordinate new programs, to use each other's dsita, and to make maximum use of their ships and facilities. A line is Kent from bow to bow as a Coast Guard cutter prepares to rescue the creic o/ a sinking merchant ship in heavy north Atlantic seas. Mapping and Charting the Oceans Mapping and charting provide graphic descriptions of the marine environment in terms of the various properties of paramount interest to users. A map is a graphical repre- sentation of certain features or properties; a chart is a specialized map intended primarily for navigational use. Nautical charts provide information about bottom depth and shape, shoreline configuration, and the location of dangers, manmade features, and naviga- tional aids. Marine maps proWde information about such features as bathymetry, magnetics, gravity, and sediment type and thickness. The National Academy of Sciences Com- mittee on Oceanography has observed, "Maps are basic tools for all the sciences that deal with the earth. To understand and use the oceans, we first, must map them." Yet if the existing mapping and charting programs of the Federal Government are continued at present levels, the national marine objectives set by the Commission will not be met for another 30 to 50 years. Agency Responsibilities and Industry Role Both the Environmental Science Ser\-ices Administration (ESSA) and the Navy are responsible for acquiring and mapping basic geophysical and tojwgraphical data, includ- ing subbottom profiling. Although the Navy has statutory- responsibility to conduct sur- veys in support of civil marine activities, it is concerned primarily with its own defense re- quirements and concentrates on the deep ocean. ESSA is primarily ci%al-oriented and concentrates most of its activities on U.S. con- tinental shelves. ESSA and the Department of the Interior's U.S. Geological Sur\ey (USGS) depend in part on the Coast Guard and the Navy for position-fixing and naviga- 210 tion assistance. Satellites furnished by the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion (NASA) and the Navy, already in use to establish the basic geodesy of the planet, promise to have wider application. The National Science Foundation and the Navy share in the support of university ships. ESSA's Coast and Geodetic Survey is re- sponsible for publishing the nautical charts, sailing directions, and related navigational publications. Coast Pilots, and tide and cur- rent tables for U.S. waters. The Navy's Oceanographic Office publishes a wide va- riety of nautical charts, mostly for the world oceans. The U.S. Army Corps of Engmeers and its Lake Survey provide charts for the Great Lakes and certain inland waters. The private sector also has many ships use- ful for survey work and available for char- ter. Contracting many of the survey tasks to the private sector will facilitate rapid com- pletion of the surveys and, perhaps more important, will help build the industrial capability required for further resource delineation and exploitation. Basic Bathymetry and Geophysics Strategy for mapping involves difficult choices for which there is no unequivocal basis for decision, since one deals largely with unknowns. To date, neither the Government nor the private marine science community has come to grips with the problem of civil priorities. Divergent views have been ex- pressed by the National Academy of Sciences and the President's Science Advisory Com- mittee on the importance of systematic sur- veys. Consequently, a succession of proposed mapping and survey programs have yielded only sporadic and inadequate results. Ultimately, maps will be required to depict all properties of the world's oceans which may be of economic or scientific importance. The Commission concludes that this require- To understand and use the oceans, ice must first map them. Here oceanographers aboard a university research vessel examine a Coast and Geodetic Survey chart in selecting the xite for an offshore experiment. ment is sufficiently urgent to justify the im- mediate beginning of a systematic general ocean mapping program. The Commission's proposals for deep ocean surveys were pre- sented in the preceding chapter. This chapter is concerned with the mapping of coastal waters and the continental shelf. Mapping the bathymetry and the geophys- ical characteristics of the continental shelves and slopes is a top-priority task. The Com- mission estimates that it could be accom- plished over the next 10 years by seven properly equipped and supported ships devoted exclusively to the task and aug- mented by a fully responsive vessel data l^rocessing and map compilation system. Tlie ships obtaining bathymetric data should conduct concurrent gravimetric, magnetic, and subbottom surveys, all keyed to the same navigational control in order to carry out an 211 efficient integrated survey program. Supple- mental activities could be conducted con- currently to obtain limited biological data, sediment samples, and shallow cores to help illuminate resource potentials. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has pro- posed a 70 ship-year program to provide the initial topographic and geophysical maps of tiie U.S. continental shelves and adjacent slopes to a depth of 2,500 meters, compiled at a scale of 1 : 250,000. This scale will satisfy the needs of the Federal agencies charged with management of marine resources and of industries engaged in resource development. It also will portray adequately the essential descriptive information required by the scientific community. A considerable volume of bathymetric and geophysical data already exists for the con- tinental shelf. Unfortunately, much of the data having measurement and position accu- racies that meet mapping standards cannot be made public, because they are either pro- prietary or classified for national security reasons. Every effort should be made to ob- tain these data and thus avoid unnecessary resurveys. New surveys should be restricted to areas which are economically and scien- tifically important and have not been pre- viously surveyed with the requisite density and precision. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) undertake the systematic mapping of the bathymetry and geo- physics of IT.S. nearshore waters and continental shelves and slopes to a depth of 2,500 meters. The program should be funded at a level to provide 1 : 250,000 scale continental shelf and slope maps of bathymetry, magnetics, gravity, and sedi- ment depth and type within 10 years. Every effort should be made to declassify existing data which are of mapping accu- racy and thereby avoid the need for resurveys* Nautical Charts Nautical charts have not always been avail- able. In the earliest days of this coimtry, mariners were left to learn from the ship- wrecks of others. To correct this condition and to advance the economic potential of a young country, an early Congress established and funded a Federal program of nautical charting. This program retains its impor- tance today, because charting is not a job that can be done once and then forgotten. Not only must manmade and natural changes be continually resurveyed and recharted, but chart format, level of detail, and scale of por- trayal must be modified constantly to reflect changing user needs in the light of changing technology. Any survey made more than 50 years ago was done by leadline or sounding wire; it has been only during the last 10 years that surveys have been required to meet the particular needs of submersibles and deep-draft supertankers. Nautical charting surveys must be ex- panded substantially if present and future needs for accurate and up-to-date charts are to be satisfied. Only about 10 per cent of the total requirement for nautical charting bathymetry can come from the continental shelf and slope mapping program described in the previous sections. Requirements, priori- ties, and procedures for the two programs are sufficiently different that in large part they must be carried out separately. ESSA, which is responsible for domestic civil nautical charting, has proposed that resurs'eys be performed on a 50-year cycle in 80 per cent of the areas for which charts are maintained and on a 5-, 10-, or 25-year cycle 212 in the less stable areas which comprise the remaining 20 per cent. Such a program would require a capability equivalent to 16 medium- sized survey vessels, a capability substan- tially in excess of ESSA's present hydro- gi-aphic survey fleet. The processing, com- pilation, and reproduction functions would have to be correspondingly augmented, since existing shore facilities cannot process all data even at the present rate of acquisition. Although nautical charting has been con- ducted in U.S. coastal waters for more than 100 years, there still remain many areas which have not been surv^eyed and very substantial areas whicli have been surveyed to obsolete standards. The existing chart survey capa- bility for nautical charting is so limited that contemporaiy survey projects must be con- centrated largely on resui-veys of critical areas which have undergone rapid manmade and natural changes. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (ESSA) accelerate nautical chart- ing activities in U.S. coastal waters to ensure up-to-date charts of all areas of moderate to heavy marine activity. The civil nautical charting capability should be expanded within 15 years to a level which will sustain a basic resurvey cycle of 50 years with more frequent surveys in im- portant areas of rapid change. The capa- bility of the private sector should be utilized whenever possible. Survey Technology A historic problem of mapping and chart- ing organizations is that they offer a rela- tively small and specialized market for equipment and instrumentation. Much of today's hydrographic surveying equipment was developed within Federal organizations because it was not available commercially. DATA COMPIITAHON PIOITER MUinCOlOR PRtSS nNISHED MtP Project Hystirch — a new system for improving the speed and, accuracy of mapping activities, relics on small sea- and aircraft, operating from a mother ship, to generate survey data. This situation has improved since the entry of scientific institutions and petroleum com- panies into ocean operations; however, many problems remain to be solved if survey qual- ity is to be improved and cost reduced. A few examples of needed items are: • Digital output echo sounders which com- pensate for effects of sea and swell • Inexpensive telemetering or recording tide gauges and magnetometers • Gravity meters which function properly on small ships in high sea states • Seismic profiling hydrophone arrays ef- fective at survey speeds of 15 knots or more • Improved systems to acquire shallow cores and dredge samples while imderway • Inexpensive inert ial navigation systems to monitor position between satellite fixes and SIS to provide accurate ship's motion correc- tions for underway gravity measurements in midocean areas. Submersibles and helicopters liave unique jidvantages over surface vessels for numy ap- plications, but their operational costs must be reduced and significant advances made in positioning technology before they may be used routinely for mapping and charting surveys. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency take the lead in accelerating de- velopment of survey equipment for high resolution measurement of bathymetric and geophysical features. Funds should be provided for present and projected Fed- erally operated or funded ocean research and survey vessels to equip them fully with the most advanced sensor and data processing systems relevant to their missions. Navigation The past 30 years have brought enormous improvements in the convenience and accu- racy of marine navigation systems. The U.S. Coast (ruiird has the major resiwnsibility to provide and maintain navigational aids in U.S. waters and to establish the rules of the road. Its systems include LORAN A, LORAN C, and a network of about 4-1,000 local visual, electronic, and audio aids. Addi- tioiutlly, the Coast Guard issues permits for and monitors some 23,000 private aids which mark privately maintained channels, offshore oil rigs, and piei-s. The Xavy has been the major force in navigation systems develop- ment, usually turning the systems over to the Coast Guard for operation, and has pioneered satellite navigation. Navy's TRANSIT sys- tem now permits fixes to be obtained over most of the earth's surface at no more than NASA satellites, like the Applica- tions Technology Satellite from )chich this vieic of the earth was taken, may contribute to the Nation's navigation services by offering a means for the provision of continuous positioning information. 90-minute intervals to an accuracy better than ±0.2 nautical mile. TRANSIT is being made available for general use, and the Navy is stimulating development of low-cost receivers and devices to interpolate between fixes. The Navy also has developed OMEGA, a highly accurate, very low-frequency, continuous wave system, and is establishing it on an operational basis. Thus, the Navy has devel- oped systems adequate to most global naviga- tional requirements, although precise sur- veys will require other systems as well. The Commission has found, as did the Na- tional Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography and the President's Science Advisory Committee before it, that the most urgent needs for improved positioning sys- tems are in the zone lying within 200 miles of the I".S. coast but beyond the range of visual navigation. A fully reliable, convenient, and low-cost system which permits fixes within 214 api:)roximately 50 feet is urgently required in this zone for sucli activities as surveys, traffic control, mineral resource development, sal- vage, and scientific research. Such a system is within tlie state-of-tlie-art ; however, the best design for meeting cost, reliability, and accuracy criteria is not known. Navigation for subsurface vehicles pre- sents an even more difficult problem which must be solved 'as submersibles are brought into wider scientific and commercial use. Sub- mersible navigation needs appear unlikely to be met by use of electromagnetic transmis- sions. The Navy's inertial navigation system, which has proved so effective under polar ice, shows the way to systems for civil submer- sible use, if cost can be reduced. The Navy also is developing navigation systems for its deep submergence rescue vehicles, the nuclear powered research vehicle NR-1, and others. New techniques probably will be required as civil undersea activity increases. The pro- posed Continental Shelf Laboratories Na- tional Project should include test facilities for new undersea navigation technology. The Coast Guard is assigned the respon- sibility for integration of all marine naviga- tion services into a national navigation sys- tem. This system still is in the developmental stage, and the Commission urges that its planning be expedited. Development of the system should permit identification of obso- lete elements which might be phased out or replaced by more advanced technology. Further, as integration of various plan ele- ments is accomplished, determination of priorities will become easier and funding levels for improvement and maintenance can be established on a realistic basis. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (CG) give priority attention to providing a system yielding navigation The Coast Guard is responsible for integration of all marine navigational services into a national navigation system. From left to right, the Ambrose Lightship after commissioning of the permanent Ambrose Offshore Light Tower outside Ncic York harbor in 1967; the interior of Coast Guard LORAN transmitting station; and a buoy being hoisted aboard the coastal buoy tender Hed Wood for overhaul and repair ashore. ns accuracies on the order of 50 feet in the zone within approximately 200 miles of the U.S. coast. Development' work should be focused on low-cost systems to permit undersea navigation of civilian submer- sibles. The Coast Guard's efforts to de- velop a national navigation plan are strongly endorsed. Systems studies should be initiated immediately to define an op- timum system to meet needs for offshore precision positioning in the late 1970's. Safety at Sea During- 1967, 1,500 commercial vessels suf- fered collisions and otlier accidents in U.S. waters. In addition, there were some 5,274 accidents involving recreational boats wliich resulted in 1,452 fatalities. As more pei-sons go to and under the sea, the problem of as- suring tlieir safety becomes more difficult. Control of Offshore Traffic Tlie great size of merchant vessels, their transport of cargoes which create a hazard to the environment, and the intensified use of the coastal zone combine to present an in- creasing danger. Proposals have been ad- vanced for traffic control systems analogous to those used in the U.S. airways. In addi- tion, plans are being developed to set aside shipping lanes wliicli will separate inbound and outbound traffic and provide a fairway clear of obstructions to navigation. The Com- mission strongly endorses these steps. Ad- vance planning will avert a crasli program following a disaster at some future date. Coastal waters already are .sufficiently con- gested to suggest that the Coast Guard should subject to traffic control all ships car- rying liazardous cargo near U.S. coasts and in congested areas. Certification The Coast Guard is tlie major Government agency for certifying tlie safety of marine vessels and equipment and for licensing its personnel. It is assisted by such private or- ganizations as tlie American Bureau of Ship- ping and by tlie States in tlie recreational boating field. Federal laws regidating vessel safety stand- ards are badly outdated and often unclear or conflicting. The prospect of larger and more numerous vessels carrying even greater quantities of hazardous cargoes emphasizes the urgent need to reconsider these laws. Tlie American Bureau of Shipping and the Coast Guard cooperatively should review and up- date construction standards. The large number of accidents to fishing vessels, which now -are generally exempt from Coast Guard regulation, suggests that safety standards should be framed for them also. The industry should participate in this task. Standards also are needed for the con- struction of civilian submersibles. Legisla- tion has been introduced by the Coast Guard to authorize extension of its certification pro- gram to include such undersea vessels. The Commission endorses the Coast Guard pro- posal, but urges that a distinction be made between standards for experimental and re- search submersibles and those for all other submersibles. Advances in the technology of civil submersibles could be unnecessarily handicapped by requiring research and ex- perimental models to meet the stringent standards necessary for general public safety. Expanding marine technologj' will result in new experimental surface craft and other devices. This will necessitate reevalua- tion of present Coast Guard certification pro- cedures to promote public safety without posing undue restrictions in research and technology. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 216 The number of civil submer.nbles, like the Star II and Star III seen at their simultaneous launching in 1S66, is growing, and the Coast Chiard's certification program, aceordingly, should be extended to include commercial underseas vehicles. Agency (CG) undertake to reexamine and update existing laws relating to vessel safety standards and extend its certifica- tion program to include civil submer- sibles. Safety standards should also be framed for commercial fishing vessels in cooperation with the fishing industry. Search and Rescue Although the Navy and other Federal agencies may assist in major disasters, the Coast Guard is responsible for providing rescue services to merchant ships, fishing ves- sels, offsliore structures, pleasure boats, non- military submersibles, and transoceanic aircraft. In 1967, the Coast Guard responded to more than 42,000 requests for assistance, rescued more than 3,000 persons, gave medi- cal aid to more than 2,500 persons, provided some form of help or information to almost 124,000, and assisted in matters involving property valued at almost $3 billion. Because no one can predict when or where disaster will strike, the Coast Guard must maintain a large organization in a constant state of alert. Its own resources are impor- tantly supplemented by the private sector. The Automated Merchant Vessel Eeporting System (AMVER) provides an example of effective public-private collaboration. Coop- erating ships report their courses, speed, cur- rent positions, and other operational details to AMVER, which stores the information in a computer for rapid recall when an emer- gency situation requires coordination of assistance efforts. The AMVER system is voluntary, not all ships participate, and it is not global. But on a given day, the AMVER computer may have the positions of several himdred ships of 60 nations in the North Atlantic alone. Eventually, the Commission believes that an international system should be developed in which reporting of ship position data will be compulsory. Recreational Boating The safety of recreational boating is a joint Federal-State responsibility. In most States, anyone can buy a boat and operate it. A li- cense for the boat usually is required, but the operator does not need to demonstrate com- petence or even familiarity with the rules of the road. The Coast Guard has sought to assist the States in advancing recreational Iwating safety, principally through educational pro- grams and inspection services by the Coast Guard's highly effective Auxiliary. In some areas, the Auxiliary assists local authorities in offshore patrols. Members also are qualified to inspect pleasure boats and equipment. Many boaters take advantage of the service, but many do not. In addition, the U.S. Power Squadron, a private organization of dedi- 2/7 cated yachtsmen, conducts similar acti\aties, but tliey are more aligned to education than inspection. Its educational pFograms are an important part of the Nation's recreational boating safety program. The Commission recommends that the States adopt and enforce the Model State Boat Act prepared by the National Asso- ciation of State Boating Law Administra- tors and that the Congress enact legisla- tion recently proposed by the Coast Guard to establish minimum safety standards in the manufacture of pleasure boats. Underwater Safety The number of sport divers is rapidly ap- proaching two million and may be expected to increase rapidly as equipment becomes less expensive and as persons become aware of the pleasures of safe diving. Sport diving should be recognized as a permanent and growing part of American recreation, and suitable provision should be made for safety by assuring that the diver has the option to select Federally certified equipment. Safety in sport, diving is primarily the responsibility of the individual. The Com- mission notes that such organizations as the Underwater Society of America, the Profes- sional Association of Diving Instructors, the YMCA, many sport diving clubs, and many stores selling divnng equipment have made a strenuous effort to ensure proper training for sport divers. However, these commendable voluntary activities would be strengthened by some minimum Government oversight to monitor the quality of diving equipment and to a,s.sure that the users of this equipment have appropriate training. p]ven with these precautions, the mimber of scuba accidents is likely to increase with the growth in the popularity of the sport and in the work of commercial divers. In order to minimize fatalities, specialized equipment and medical care will be needed. Currently, only the Navy is equipped to deal with diver emergencies. Tlie (^onunission urges that the Coast Guard and Public Health Service co- operate with private groups to assure the availability of eciuipnient for emergency de- compression and treatment. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (CG) provide for certification of sport diving equipment at the option of the manufacturer and cooperate with the various diving associations to ensure adequate diver training and emergency medical facilities and services. Policing and Enforcement The Coast (ruard originated as an agency to enforce customs and immigration laws. It remains the Federal Government's principal marine enforcement agency, but its mission has been expanded to include enforcement of marine safety regulations, pollution and sanitation measures, procedures governing dangerous cargoes, and provisions of inter- national fisheries agreements. The Army Corps of Engineers promul- gates and enforces regulations i)ertaining to new construction in navigable waterways. The Department of the Interior oversees the industrial safety aspects of offshore drilling and also has the lead role in Federal pollu- tion control. The T'.S. Navy polices militarj- sea areas. The Public Health Service and the Food and Drug Administration have im- portant but limited enforcement functions concerning food and drugs from the sea. Many of the enforcement activities in tide- water areas are in the hands of the States. Most have fisheries and wildlife agencies with 218 The. Coast Guard, which originated as an agermy to enforce customs and immigration laws, is the Government's marine enforcement agency. Here the cutter Storis is seen overtaking and seizing a Soviet shrimp trawler operating within the U.S. fishery contiguous zone off the Aleutian Islands in 1967. enforcement functions. The States also en- force regulations pertaining to the use of State waters for boating, diving, and other aquatic activities. Some do a good job ; others leave much to be desired. As ocean activities intensify and the regula- tions to govern them become more elaborate, law enforcement may be expected to become a major problem. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (CG) have primary responsibility for Federal marine law enforcement. The States should review the effectiveness of their marine law enforcement and take necessary steps to ensure adequately staffed and equipped professional enforce- ment organizations. Data Services Oceanographic data are collected at great e.xpense and with great difficulty by the Federal Government, i:)rivate institutions, and foreign governments. All users of the seas and the scientific community look to the Federal Government to establish and main- tain appropriate data centers for the storage retrieval, and dissemination of such data, in- cluding measurements of the physical and chemical states of the oceans and atmosphei-e, as well as geological and biological samples not readily amenable to numerical storage in computer systems. There is no coordinated system of data centers for storing and retrieving oceano- graphic data. Unless such a system can be established quickly, the agencies literally may be overwhelmed by the volumes of new data generated by expanded research pro- grams and the increased use of continuous; sensing and recording devices on research and survey vessels, buoys, submersibles, and satellites. A major study is underway to determine the needs for marine data, to appraise cur- rent data handling, and to propose action to process more efficiently the data to be gener- ated in the future. This study, initiated by the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, is scheduled for completion in 1969. In view of this study, the Commission has not undertaken to pre- pare a detailed proposal for national marine data service activities. At present, a number of centers handle en- vironmental data and specimens, including the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), the National "Weather Records Center (NWRC), and the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC). In addition, there are a number of geophysical data repositories for information such as magnetic, gravity, and geodetic information and bathymetry which provide essential in- formation for marine activities. In the sec- tions that follow, the Commission has dis- 219 cussed only those data services presently beine needed to fulfill some of the functions which the Commission pro- poses be discharged by the new agency ; oth- ers are being performed today by existing agencies. Their transfer to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency will per- mit NOAA to make a strong beginning in discharging the functions assigned to it. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency initially be composed of the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Science Services Administration, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (augmented by the marine and anadromous fisheries func- tions of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife), the National Sea Grant Pro- gram, the U.S. Lake Survey, and the National Oceanographic Data Center. Each of these proposed transfers is dis- cussed in greater detail later in this chapter. In addition to the recommended organiza- tional transfers, The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency assume immediate responsibility for: • Institutional support for University- National Laboratories and Coastal Zone Laboratories • Development of fundamental marine technology • Formulation and implementation of National Projects and grants to States for coastal zone management • Development and coordination of weather modification activities. Once established, NOAA could appropri- ately assume responsibility also for funding the National Center for Atmospheric Re- search and the Antarctic research program of the National Science Foundation, for leading a {program of Arctic research, and for providing logistic support for polar programs. In considering the composition of the pro- posed National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency, the Commission rejected the idea of consolidating all Federal marine and atmos- pheric functions into a single, massive or- ganization. Some such functions which will remain outside NOAA are integral to the agency which performs them. Although they should be strengthened and should be fully utilized by NOAA, they are best left where they are. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) oceanog- raphy-f rom-space program and the Atomic Energy Commission's (AEO) various ma- rine-related nuclear energy programs are ex- amples, as are the strong marine programs of the Navy, the Corps of Engineers, the Na- tional Science Foundation, and the marine- related water management programs of the Department of the Interior. Nonetheless, the size and scope of the program recommended by the Commission to be conducted by NOAA are such as to re- quire that NOAA, at least initially, be an independent agency reporting directly to the President, rather than an agency of one of the existing departments. Especially in getting a major and diverse efl'ort underway, Proposed Make-Up of the National Oceanic and Atmosplieric Agency PRESENT AGENCIES PRESENT PROGRAMS NEW PROGRAMS Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Coast Guard Environmental Science Services Administration U.S. Lake Survey Antarctic Research, NSF* Bureau of Sport Fisheries Marine and Anadromous Programs National Center for Atmospheric Research, NSF (Institutional Support)" National Oceanographic Data Center Environmental Modification Fundamental Technology Grants to States for Coastal Management Institutional Support- Coastal Laboratories National Sea Grant Program, NSF Institutional Support- National Laboratories National Projects National Oceanic and - Atmospheric Agency 'Not Immediate Prioritv the case for independent status is compelling. An indej)endent agency can bring a freshness of outlook and freedom of action difficult to achieve within an existing department. Its greater public visibility would draw stronger public interest and support. The head of an independent agency would be better able to organize the agency's activities to achieve the inultii)le pfirposes of a national ocean pro- gram than would an officer of a larger orga- nization in which other interests are repre- sented iuid perhaps dominant. He also would be favorably jiositioned to assist the Presi- dent in the coordination of those teclvnical and operatiomil activities of other Federal agencies which relate directly to the marine mission. Furthemiore. no existing depart- ment now has sufficiently broad responsibili- ties to embrace the full scope of fimctions proposed for XOAA or to accommodate all of the organizations which the Commission believes should be brought into the new agency. The Commission recommends that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency be established as an independent agency reporting directly to the President. A basic consideration in any current re- organization is to regard the formation of a new agency as a step in a building process. The action must Ije adequate to the job that needs to be done in the oceans and the at- mosphere. However, it need not be regarded as the ultimate answer but rather as a step in an orderly progression of actions to achieve more effective organization of the Executive Branch. At such time as the de- partmental structure of the Federal Govern- ment may be changed, it may then be de- The Nation's ocean program requires adequate seagoing capability, and the new agency will bring together the ships of Coast Guard, ESSA, and BCP into a fleet of some 320 seu{}oinff vessels, including the high endurance Coast Guard cutter Dallas and ESSA's research v/u/) Oceaiiographer, fitted tcith a well extending from her maindeck laboratorg down through the hull. sirable to bring NOAA into some larger grouping of administrative functions. Capabilities of the New Agency Combining the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA), the U.S. Coast Cxuard (USCG), and the Bureau of Commercial Fislieries (BCF) in the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency will bring together in the new agency about 55,000 employees. About one-fifth will be highly trained professionals and two-fifths will be specially trained technicians. This total com- plement will constitute the base for a major, viable Government agency. The skills rep- resented will ensure an appropriate response to the demands of the Nation's marine objec- tives, bringing to bear the scientific disci- plines and other specialized knowledge re- quired to initiate a diverse, broad-gauged effort. The new agency also will combine the fleets now operated by ESSA, USCG, and BCF, a total of 320 seagoing vessels. It will be able to merge the systems for collection of marine and atmospheric data, thereby reducing the costs of collection. It will be able to facilitate the application of satellite monitoring tech- 2S5 nology to environmental and marine re- sources problems. However, going down to the'sea in ships is not enough. The United States must be able to operate in the ocean's third dimension. The very impressi\-e surface fleet must be comple- mented with the new undersea capability that is being developed. Combining the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Lake Survey, and ESSA aircraft will pro- vide air capability to measure oceanographic changes and conduct large-scale weather modification experiments. It will also result in more efficient operational employment of aircraft. Environmental monitoring activities of ESSA, the Coast Guard, and BCF can be merged into a imified system. ESSA's na- tional weather records, geophysical data, and aeronomy data centers, and the National Oceanographic Data Center will be consoli- dated in one network of environmental data, storage and retrieval facilities. All XOAA marine and atmospheric activi- ties will benefit from the Coast Guard's logis- tic capabilities and its worldwide network of supply depots, shipyards, marine inspec- tion, and LORAX facilities. NOAA's research arm will be a major scientific establishment comprising BCF's 15 marine biology laboratories and 6 technology laboratories, BSFW's 5 coastal laboratories, and ESSA's 12 pliysical environmental sci- ence laboratories. NOAA's resulting research capabilities and facilities will be global and applicable to any environment alx)ve, on, and below the planet's oceans. The potential qual- ity of its research will lie enhanced by the improved communications between the pro- fessionals trained in the marine and atmos- pheric s<'ieiice disciplines. The new agency will Ije equipped to pro- vide a broad range of important environ- mental, technological, safety, and other services to marine industry. It will draw on industry by contracting with industry for the development of technology. The contract system has proved to be a most effective way to bring new technology into practical use. The new agency will have a base on which to build sufficient in-house capability to give proper guidance to teclinological develop- ment. It will be in a position to utilize eft'ectively the NASA, AEC, and Navy laboratories through various cooj^erative arrangements. Transfer of the National Sea Grant Pro- gram to NOAA will bring the new agency into immediate touch with a variety of multi- disciplinary marine j-esearch programs and educational activities, several of which in- volve partnerships between industry and aca- demic institutions. This transfer will facili- tate NOAA's task in helping to build the needed Coastal Zone Laboratories. It will give NOAA access to the academic community. NOAA will be in a strong position to as- sist the States in managing their coastal waters. It will be able to provide scientific and technical sujjport for this purpose as well as financial assistance to State Coastal Zone Authorities. Additionally. NOAA will be a focal point for marshaling all the re- sources of the Federal Government in aid of coastal zone objectives. NOAA will have the ability to participate in planning U.S. participation in interna- tional marine and atmospheric affairs. It will be a central point on which the Depart- ment of State can draw for the scientific and technical advice it needs in this international area. In sum, NOAA will have the competence, the facilities, and the size to carry out and develop further the national ocean program. The Commission has not suggested how the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency 2S6 should be organized internally. If its full potential is to be realized, its head will need to weld the constituent units brought into the new structure into a single, functioning whole. This task will l)e accomplished only by a superb manager who knows the myriad problems and interrelationships of sea pro- grams and who appreciates NOAA's potential to advance man's mastery of the seas. Considerations Relevant to the Recom- mended Agency Transfers A proposal to reorganize the Federal Gov- ernment should not be made lightly. Inevi- tably for a time, it will upset existing programs and personnel. And it is difficult to be certain that any particular proposal will provide the best way to accomplish de- sired ends. Proponents of such proposals, therefore, should carry a burden of justifica- tion. The Commission sets forth below cer- tain considerations which led to its principal conclusions. Coast Guard The most difficult question faced by the Commission in design of a plan of organiza- tion was whether to recommend the transfer of the Coast Guard from the newly formed Department of Transportation to NOAA. The Coast Guard Today The Coast Guard now has the duty • To enforce or assist in the enforcement of all applicable Federal laws upon the high seas and waters subject to the jurisdiction of the United States • To administer all Federal laws regarding safety of life and property on the high seas and on waters subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, except those laws spe- cifically entrusted to some other Federal agency • To develop, establish, maintain, operate, and conduct, with due regard for the re- Witliin NOAA, the Coast Guard — irhich presently is engaged in such diversified work as the interna- tional ice patrol, polar research, search and rescue, law enforcement, and military assignments abroad — would contribute to a civil sea service of a size, stature, and professional competence worthy of the world's leading sea nation. 237 quireraents of national defense, aids to maritime navigation, ocean stations, ice- breaking facilities, oceanographic research, and rescue facilities for the promotion of safety on and over the high seas and waters subject to the jurisdiction of the Unit«d States • To maintain a state of readiness to func- tion as a specialized service in the Navy in time of war. An analysis of Coast Guard activity pre- pared for the Commission indicates that of its program funding 70 per cent is related to multipurpose search and rescue, navigational, port security, and enforcement activities; 13 per cent to oceanography, meteorologj', ice- breaking, and other marine sciences; 13 per cent to military preparedness activities; and 4 per cent to merchant marine inspection and safety. Thus, although most Coast Guard activities relate to transportation, they are similarly related to other uses of the seas. Search and rescue functions, which require 35 per cent of total Coast Guard funding, are required most commonly in support of recre- ational boating. Provision of aids to navi- gation, which requires 28 per cent of the agency's budget, is critical to the whole span of marine activities. The law enforcement activities, 7 per cent of the budget, include enforcement of fisheries and recreational boating laws as well as port security. Only in merchant marine safety and inspection are tasks solely related to transportation. The Coast Guard's tremendous physical and manpower resources — a complement of approximately 5,400 officers and 31,000 en- listed men supported by 5,900 civil service personnel — are at the disposal of many kinds of users, responding to routine needs and grave emergencies with a high and admir- able professionalism. In the broad and often dangerous reaches of the sea, the Coast Guard does just about everything but guard the coast in the military sense. In a wider sense, the Coast Guard is indeed the Nation's guardian against the hazards of marine oper- ations, serving the entire marine community, from swimmers to petroleum explorers, in so many ways that it often is impossible to de- fine the proportion of Coast Guard effort attributable to any one category of needs. In fact, a principal characteristic of the Coast Guard's vessel and shore station operations is their multipurpose nature. A single Coast Guard vessel may tend buoys, enforce fish- cries and pollution laws, search for lost pleasure boaters, rescue endangered fisher- men and their vessels, conduct oceanographic investigations, or perform other services, all within a single year. 238 At present, the Coast Guard is considered one of the armed services and would be placed under the U.S. Navy in case of major armed conflict. Certain Coast Guard ships are today attached to the Navy in Vietnam. There are indications tliat tlie role of the Coast Guard in national defense is changing, accelerated by the growing sophistication of military op- erations and wea25ons technology. The Viet- nam experience has shown that Coast Guard elements can be detached for special service without placing the entire agency in full war- time status. Careful study is needed, because the changing relationship of the Coast Guard to national defense requirements should be reflected in its internal organization and mission. The character of the Coast Guard itself is changing under the pressure of growing uses of the sea. The needs of marine users in addi- tion to those of the merchant marine often strain facilities. Offshore mineral operations pose new requirements and new hazards. The tremendous growth of marine recreation has created safety and enforcement problems for the Coast Guard of a magnitude unforeseen a decade ago. Increased oceanogi-aphic respon- sibilities from the Arctic Ocean to the shores of Antarctica are adding still a new dimension. The Coast Guard Role in a National Ocean Program The Commission believes that changes in the Coast Guard and its mission should be encouraged and accelerated by bringing it within the framework of the na- tional ocean program to be led by NOAA. In our vdew, the Coast Guard represents an enonnously valuable national marine re- source that is at present underutilized be- cause of traditional constraints on its mission and lack of a proper milieu for its operations. Although it is a uniformed service, the Coast Guard's services are preponderantly civil in character, and it provides an established national sea service of great potential value for a major national ocean program. The Coast Guard is moving in the direction of increasing its oceanogi-aphic competence; this would be accelerated greatly by placing the agency in an organization devoted to ma- i-ine science, teclinology, and service. Within NOAA, the Coast Guard would be directly supported by a broadly based scientific and technical program which would be of great assistance to the Coast Guard in modernizing its own technical services. The basic point is that within NOAA the Coast Guard can be used to a much greater degree in a more broadly gauged role than is possible within a solely transportation context and that this can be achieved without curtailing its im- portant transport-related functions. The transfer of the Coast Guard to NOAA would also benefit NOAA greatly. Large- scale scientific investigations could be sup- ported by the ships, planes, and other facili- ties of the Coast Guard. Location of marine resources could be assisted by instrumenta- tion on board its ships and by precise naviga- tional aids. Tests of ocean technology and marine and atmospheric monitoring and pre- diction programs could utilize the Coast Guard capabilities. There could be better utilization of ship facilities in mapping, charting, and other technical services. NOAA must have education and training facilities for orientation programs, multi- disciplinary courses, and seminars for agency executive personnel, contractoi*s, and grant- ees. Under NOAA, Coast Guard Academy functions could be expanded to serve the need for the professional orientation and training of those Avith critical roles in managing the national ocean program. Conduct of such ac- tivities on the Academy's campus would also offer many opportunities for broadening and enriching its basic program of training career officers. The advantages of placing the Coast 239 Guard within XOAA could be fully realized only by a real merger. The fact that the Coast Guard is a uniformed corps -does not pose unsurmountable difficulties. The Coast Guard's uniformed officers would benefit from the expanded opportunities that opera- tions under NOAA would offer. Fisheries Programs, Department of the Interior The Federal Government's support of ma- rine living resource development is at present concentrated mostly in the Bureaus of Com- mercial Fisheries (BCF) and Sport Fish- eries and Wildlife (BSFW) of the Depart- ment of the Interior. The National Sea Grant Program sponsors some applied fisheries re.search. BCF's programs can be broadly categorized as: • Financial and technical assistance to industry • Biological research on individual species of fish. Its industry assistance activities include financial aid, technical assistance, harvesting studies and tecluiiques, and economic anal- ysis. Its biological research includes studies of marine finfish and shellfish and habitat investigations. The Bureau's annual budget of approximately §50 million is divided about equally between industry assistance and bio- logical research. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild- life is a larger organization responsible for laboratory and field investigations to develop, manage, and maintain a national system of fish hatciieries and wildlife refuges; regulate the taking of migratory birds and game; and develop a national program to provide pub- lic opportunities to understand, appreciate, and use fish and wildlife resources. The emphasis on wildlife conservation is partic- ularly pronounced in the programs of assist- ance to the States, which include a small pro- gram of matching grants to the States for approved anadromous fishery projects. There is an annual expenditure of only about $900,000 for in-house biological research re- lated to marine sport fish species. The marine components of other Depart- ment of the Interior programs are relatively minor extensions of activities oriented to the Nation's interior. In contrast, BCF's interior interests are concentrated upon a handful of fresh water species and are minor adjuncts to its essential salt water orientation. The rehabilitation of U.S. fisheries, which is a major Congressional objective, depends upon good sea science and new, improved marine technology to define, locate, manage, and harvest the living resources of the sea. Fisheries research involves physical and chemical oceanography and marine geology and biology. Modern marine technology, including advanced instrumentation, deep submersibles, and underwater habitats must be used to advance fisheries research. In Chapter 4, the Commission proposed a number of important actions to rehabilitate A BCF tagging team collects menhaden samples in waters off Xortli Carolina. The proposed transfer of commercial and related marine fishing functions from the Department of the Interior to NOAA recognizes the need for extensive ocean capabilities in developing the living resources of the sea. ^r^ ZiO the U.S. fisheries. The many-sided aspects of these pi'oposals require that they be concen- trated within NOAA. The Commission concludes that the Fed- eral programs relating to marine and anad- romous fisheries should be managed within a single administrative structure, as was the situation prior to the creation of the separate bureaus for commercial and sport fish in 1956. The separation has created more prob- lems than it has solved. Integrated plans are now necessai-y to save some species threatened with decline. Both sport and commercial fish- ing interests should participate in research and management plans. The combination of marine commercial and sport fishing func- tions in NOAA will best accomplish these objectives. Commercial fishing sometimes conflicts with sport fishing. Some species are valued by both groups, but other species are of either sport or commercial interest. Sport fishermen become commercial fishermen when they ESSA is much like the Coast Ouard in providing a great variety of services — like tide measurements, mapping and charting, ocean- ographic data collection, and weather forecasts — to the general public and specialized users. At lower right, a weather balloon is inflated at sea; second from right, a large-volume water sampler is re- covered, aboard ship. sell some or all of a catch to dealers or restaurants. BSFW laboratories for study of marine and anadromous fisheries are separate from its other facilities and conduct much valuable research. An excellent program conducted by BSFWs Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory charts the location of species by monthly temperature variations along the Atlantic coast, relying on the Coast Guard to provide temperature monitoring and photography aircraft. Such research has obvious value to all aspects of living resources development. Aquacultural research for both plant and animal species now is conducted or sponsored by BCF and the National Sea Grant Pro- gram. Close cooperation has prevented du- plication, but with the two programs imder single management in NOAA, coordinated planning can take place to develop the full potential aquaculture offers. r i\ 2il Environmental Science Services Administration Tlie formation of ESSA brought under single management tlie U.S. Weatlier Bureau, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. In this way, a consolidation was effected of the U.S. Department of Commerce's programs con- cerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of the state of the oceans and atmosphere and the size and shape of the earth. Like the Coast Guard, ESSA provides a great variety of services to the general public and specialized users. ESSA conducts both research and technical service programs to provide : • Weather and marine forecasts and warnings • River and flood forecasts and warnings • Earth description, mapping, and charting • Marine description, mapping, and charting • Telecommunications and space services • A national environmental satellite system. ESSA also {>erforms work for other agen- cies and non-Federal organizations on a re- imbursable basis and has well-established relationships with NASA, the Department of Defense, and other agencies. It has im- portant land responsibilities stemming from its role as the central weather, flood, seismo- logical, geodetic, and geomagnetic agency. ESSA would provide NOAA with a broad capability in atmospheric, oceanic, and other geophysical activities. The agency maintains a close working relationship with its counter- part organizations in other nations of the world and represents the United States in the World Meteorological Organization, which coordinates all of the atmospheric and many of the marine forecasting services for the entire world. Under the Commission's proposed orga- nization, ESSA would provide the base for conducting ocean surveys to map and chart the sea. By consolidation of several existing fleets of ships and aircraft, NOAA could ex- pand its essential charting and mapping serv- ices with great efficiency in use of facilities and manpower. NOAA's obligation to sur- vey the geology of the seabed, as outlined in Chapter 4, would fit very well with ESSA's present responsibilities in geodesy, seismol- ogy, geomagnetics, and geophysics. Joining ESSA's monitoring and predic- tion capabilities with those of the U.S. Coast Guard and the Bureau of Commercial Fish- eries would enable the Nation to develop and manage rationally the National Environ- mental Monitoring and Prediction System, as recommended by the Commission. U.S. Lake Survey The U.S. Lake Survey of the U.S. Corps of Engineers is concerned with charting and studying the waters of the Great Lakes. It undertakes: • To prepare and publish navigational charts and related materials • To study elements affecting lake levels and river flow • To advise international bodies charged with managing the use of border waters • To conduct scientific investigations of the physical aspects of fresh water • To compile maps for the Army Map Service. All these activities, except the last, are con- fined to the Great Lakes and nearby navi- gable waters. In brief, the Lake Survey does in the Great Lakes about what ESSA, in part, does in the salt waters. It is a small or- ganization with a large mission. The Great Lakes need more concentrated attention than the Lake Survey alone can provide. The U.S. Coast Guard is active in the Great Lakes, and its resources in the region are much greater than those of the Lake Survey. ESSA and BCF have strong capabilities which should be brought to bear on Great Lakes problems. Combining the capability of all four under NOAA would permit efficient and expeditious accomplish- ment of the intensified work warranted by the importance of the Great Lakes as a national resource. Sea Grant Program Under its broad legislative mandate, the National Sea Grant Program has already launched a number of valuable programs in a variety of marine areas. The Commission has recommended that the Sea Grant Pro- gram be the vehicle to support the Coastal Zone Laboratories. It could be the means of support of the recommended University- National Laboratories. The full role of the Sea Grant Program will have to be evalu- ated by the new agency. The transfer of the Sea Grant Program to NOAA would not impair the National Science Foundation's (NSF) capabilities to perform its normal functions of research and science education support. However, it would enable NOAA in conjunction with its other functions to sponsor a wide range of highly useful applied marine science and training activities in cooperation with uni- versities and industry. Institutional Funding for University- National Laboratories At the present time, no system exists to assure the continuity of institutional support for the Nation's major marine science labora- tories. Informally, NSF and the Navy's Of- fice of Naval Research (ONE) have assumed a commitment to assist in providing the funds necessary for their operation. In Chapter 2 the Commission has recommended adoption of a more systematic way to sup- port university laboratories at levels appro- priate to the needs of big science and to accelerate research on the problems of the coastal zone. Proposals for University- National Laboratories and Coastal Zone Laboratories call upon NOAA to support the acquisition and maintenance of major facili- ties and a core staff. Such institutional fund- ing would be augmented by supplemental grants and contracts for specific projects from any Federal agency or private source. The National Science Foundation bears principal responsibility for university sup- port and should continue to so do through strengthened programs and increased fund- ing. NSF now also provides block funding for oceanographic vessels but, except under the Sea Grant Program, has not otherwise given institutional support for broad marine programs. The Commission would place re- sponsibility for institutional support of University-National Laboratories in NOAA. This should free NSF to use its limited funds to support project research activities. The Office of Naval Research has also been a major source of support for marine science, and particularly for the large ocean labora- tories. Like NSF, ONR has supported ships and operations (though not with block fund- ing) and has assisted universities to acquire research submersibles and special research platforms. With institutional support of the University-National Laboratories provided by NOAA, ONR could achieve an even greater diversity in its marine sciences pro- gram. NSF and ONR support of individual investigators and specific projects would, of course, continue, and the Commission urges that there be increased funding for such support. The Commission is of the view that NOAA also should be assigned Federal responsi- 2iS bility to plan and coordinate large-scale oceanic scientific investigations, such as past international programs involving U.S. par- ticijiation in the Tropical Atlantic and Indian Ocean expeditions and U.S. participation in the proposed International Decade of Ocean Exploration. National Center for Atmospheric Research The National Center for Atmospheric Re- search (NCAR) is a major laboratory oper- ated under a contract with the NSF by a nonprofit corporation representing member imiversities. The Center has interdisciplinary programs in the atmospheric sciences and pro- vides extensive facilities to support scientific Prcxent National Science Foun- dation responKibility for Antarctic re-search includes support for the research vessel Eltanin and for specific projects like this submerged, under-ice obseri^atory for the study of weddcll seals. investigators. NCAR is an atmospheric science analogy to the University-National Laboratories proposed by the Commission, and transfer of funding responsibility for NCAR from NSF to NOAA would" be a logical step once NOAA is firmly established. Polar Activities Programs supported by NSF, Navy, ESSA, and the Coast Guard range literally from pole to pole. Most of the polar scien- tific programs are directed to marine and atmospheric investigations. At present, only the Antarctic program is formally coordi- nated within the Federal structure, but steps are underway to establish a somewhat com- parable national effort in the Arctic region. NSF now has responsibility for the sup- port and coordination of Antarctic research. It supports two oceanographic research ves- sels in Antarctic waters as part of this program. The Navy handles logistics for Antarctic operations, with some assistance ^5~'' iU from the Coast Guard. Federal scientific per- sonnel for Antarctic programs are drawn principally from ESSA, Navy, and the Geo- logical Survey, although many other agen- cies are also involved. Arctic programs are chiefly the responsi- bility of the Coast Guard and the Depart- ment of Defense. The Coast Guard supports Arctic investigations and has international responsibility for the Iceberg Patrol in the North Atlantic; Navy submarines and sur- face craft liave also conducted extensive Arctic investigations. Additionally, ESSA operates weatlier and geopliysical observing programs, as well as extensive ocean map- ping and charting activities. The Commission believes that the civil as- pects of polar scientific research and support would benefit from consolidation in a single agency. To achieve the consolidation within NOAA would free NSF from concern with logistic matters and release the Navy from the burden of supporting a civil program. However, it would take time for the Coast Guard to develop the logistic support capa- bility now provided by the Navy in Antarc- tica, and the Commission does not believe that the consolidation of polar research activ- ities is an immediate need of the same urgency as the other elements of its recommended organization plan. Overseeing the National Program The national effort to open up the marine frontier requires informed and firm leader- ship at the top levels of the Executive Branch to accomplish the following objectives: • Planning — Articulate objectives and de- velop plans for their orderly attainment, including the delineation of responsibility among the various participants • Advocacy — Promote action to advance the national ocean program • Evaluation — Assess the progress of the Nation in meeting objectives and inform the Nation thereof • Coordination — Coordinate policies and basic procedures to assure consistent actions in meeting common objectives • Communication — Facilitate cooperation among the various marine interests, in- cluding groups within the Federal Gov- ernment, by ensuring effective communi- cation. It would not be sound to place all the above functions in any single organization. Some may be handled best by an operating agency which is directly involved in the marine pro- gram and can draw on its technical staff. Others need to be carried out through ad- visory machinery, drawing upon broad ele- ments of the marine community. Still others require the broad perspective that can best be provided by staff agencies within the Execu- tive Office of the President. Operational Planning and Coordination A principal result of establishing a strong operating agency concerned with marine ac- tivities would be to permit the head of that agency to assume responsibility for inter- agency planning and coordination, at the di- rection of the President, in areas closely related to the agency's mission. There is ample precedent for the heads of agencies with broad operating missions to exercise such a lead role within the areas of their agencies' technical competence. The fields of health services and reactor technology pro- vide examples. In addition, the head of NOAA would naturally assume responsibil- ity for several existing mechanisms for inter- agency coordination which relate to functions proposed for consolidation into the new agency. One such mechanism is the system for meteorological coordination now lodged by Bureau of the Budget directive with the Sec- retary of Commerce but delegated to the iiS Administrator of ESSA. A second relates to planning the U.S. participation in the World Weather Watch, which also is an ESSA function. Cooi'dinution of Federal coastal activities, now liandlcd through a committee of the Na- tional Council on Marine Resources and En- gineering Development, would be a responsi- bility of the head of NOAA. He also would coordinate the use of watei"s outside the States' jurisdictions. Such activities would complement those of Stat« Coastal Zone Authorities. Coordination in matters of this sort re- quires a strong base of technical expertise and extensive staff supfwrt. The pi'oblems to be resolved, by and large, relate to bureau-level interests. To the extent that more vital agency interests are involved, procedures can be pro- vided to identify selected issues and bring them to higher levels for attention. The pre- rogati\e of heads of agencies to seek the President's counsel and support would be pre- served intact. The Commission recommends that the President vest the head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency with re- sponsibility for coordinating the planning and execution of Federal civil marine and atmospheric programs closely related to its central functions. Continuing coordination will be needed also between the civil and military aspects of the Nation's total marine activity. In selected fields, formal provision for coordination of civil-military activities along the lines of those applicable in meteorology also may be appropriate. National Advisory Committee for the Oceans A truly national effort in the oceans re- quires organizational arrangements for ob- taining information and advice from the broad marine community. Participation by principal elements of the community should be part of the process for formulating major programs and evaluating progress in achiev- ing national objectives in the oceans and at- mosphere. All overall assessment of the state of the Nation's marine and atmospheric ef- fort should be furnished biennially to the President and the Congress and should be made public. The Commission recommends the estab- lishment of a committee, which might be designated the National Advisory Com- mittee for the Oceaps (NACO) : • To advise the head of NOAA in carry- ing out his functions and coordinating responsibilities • To report to the President and the Con- gress on the progress of government and private programs in achieving the objectives of the national ocean pro- gram. The Committee should be composed of in- dividuals drawn from outside the Federal Government and should be broadly rep- resentative of the Nation's marine and atmospheric interests. The members of NACO, approximating 15 in number, should be appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Chairman should be designated by the President. Members would serve for fixed overlapping terms and be drawn from States, industry, science, and other appropriate areas. Each of the principal agencies concerned with marine and atmospheric matters should designate a senior policy official to participate as observer in the work of the Committee. This designation would permit the Committee 246 to draw on the expert information and views of the agencies without surrendering the in- dejDendence that an outside committee can provide. In view of the broad mission and coordinat- ing responsibilities proposed for NOAA, the Committee should be administratively at- tached to that agency. The Committee should have a small, full- time staff under a director selected by the chairman with the concurrence of the Com- mittee. In addition to comprehensive biennial reports, the Committee could from time to time submit other reports on specific matters. A principal function of NACO would be to provide two-way commimication between Federal and non- Federal interests. The es- tablishment of the National Advisory Com- mittee for Aeronautics in 1915 was responsive to a similar need to bring together govern- ment, industry, and academic experts as the Vniversity marine science programs would be among the many activities that icould 'benefit by improved co-mmunieation between Federal and non-Federal ocean interests through a National Advisory Committee on the Oceans. United States entered the aeronautical age. Similarly, the creation of NACO will help assure participation by the entire marine community in a national effort, in the oceans. The Committee would respond to requests for advice from the President, the head of the new marine agency, and others within and outside government. The Committee would be expected to assess the performance of the new agency as well as all of other parties par- ticipating in the national ocean effort. The Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol- ogy has suggested a number of specific activ- ities wliich might be assigned to the com- mittee in Chapter 4 of its report. Executive Office of the President Establishment of a central marine and at- mospheric agency and of a broadly repre- sentative advisory committee would go far toward providing the organizational ar- rangements needed to oversee a national pro- gram. However, functions of leadership and control remain that can be exercised only within the President's own office. Presiden- tial staff groups will, of course, intercede as necessary on the President's behalf to iden- 5RINF G ^ o m 247 tify problems not being addressed, to medi- ate issues, and to exercise leverage in getting agencies to work together on matters of com- mon concern. The marine programs need to be related to other program activities at the Presidential level. The Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966 vested continuing responsibility in the President for planning and coordinating Federal marine activities and reporting annually to the Congress on their progress and proposed budgets for the coming year. The Act also created the Na- tional (^ouncil on Marine Resources and En- gineering Development to assist him in these tasks. The National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development and its staff have responded with vigor and imagination to the cliallenge of giving coordination and direction to the present fragmented marine activities. Issues have been raised and actions set in motion which "would have been delayed or overlooked in the absence of the Council and its capable and dedicated staff. The Commission recommends that the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development be con- tinued until decisions are reached on the Commission's organization plan. Upon its formation, NOAA, with the Na- tional Advisory Committee on the Oceans, would be assuming many of the Councirs present policy initiative, reporting, and co- ordinating activities. The principal marine agencies would be participating as observers in NACO, and the new marine agency could administratively establish interagency mech- anisms to facilitate coordination in matters related to its central functions. The prepara- tion of an annual report on marine affairs, as required by Public Law 89-454, might either be terminated or delegated by the President to the liead of NOAA. Con- sequently, w-hen NOAA and NACO are es- tablished, there should be no further need for an interagency body concerned with marine matters within the Executive Office. Congressional Oversight The dispersion of marine activities within the Executive Branch is reflected in the com- mittee structure of the Congress. Reorga- nization of Federal agencies to provide co- herent focus for marine activities can be successful only if adjustments are made in the jurisdiction of Congressional committees. This was not achieved in the creation of ESSA, and the resulting necessity for the agency to report to three separate legislative committees of the House of Representatives has complicated development of a balanced program. Establishment of the proposed marine agency with broad scientific, technological, resource, and service functions should lead to adjustments in the jurisdiction of existing Congressional committees. Activities of the new agency now under the cognizance of several committees should, if possible, be the responsibility of a single legislative and appropriation committee in each house. The delegation of responsibility from the President to the head of the new agency to provide leadership in undertaking a national effort and achieving Govenimentwide co- ordination would be very helpful to the Congress. The head of the agency could be available to testify on marine and atmos- pheric matters that extend beyond his own agency's activities. In addition, the periodic report to the Nation by the advisory commit- tee would provide a vehicle for broad re- view by the Congress of progress in achiev- ing national objectives. The hearings at- Congressional Committee Jurisdiction over Executive Agencies in Marine Science HOUSE SUBSTANTIVE EXECUTIVE AGENCY SENATE SUBSTANTIVE COMMITTEES AND COMMITTEES AND SUBCOMMITTEES • Coast Guard • SUBCOMMITTEES Armed Services ^ Research & Development »— • Public Works a / Rivers & Harbors f\/ '^^^.^ Army Corps of Engineers •■~~-\ .Bureau of Commercial , A Public Works r~~-.,__. Flood Control — Rivers & \ Harbors Merchant Marine and Fisheries AA /Fisheries n. \ » Air 4 Water Pollution Coast Guard, Coast & Geodetic^ \ / \ V/ Survey, & Navigation \\ y ^ Bureau of Sport Fisheries \X/a Commerce Merchant Marine XyC^ .^-^and Wildlife * --^isL Merchant Marine 4 Fish and Wildlife Conservation '^C^ \^ / jJ7 Fisheries Oceanography •VT \ ^Bureau of Land Management » / MA Interior 4 Insular Affairs Interior and Insular Affairs 4 \\^ \ • Bureau of Mines / ^-x/// Irrigation 4 Reclamation Mines and Mining %\v\ \ / [{/^ Public Lands Public Lands ^^W\ Irrigation & Reclamation ^ii^w \ Federal Water Pollution / \ "Control Administration /, /JlV^ Mining, Materials, 4 Fuels ^jff P Parks and Recreation National Parks and Recreation "kV^ ^V ^ Interior and Foreign Commerce A P^ A ^ Geological Survey '^ , Jj A Rules and Administration Commerce and Finance ^ \ \W y/n y • Smithsonian Public Health and Safety •X \ \\^ National Park Service •/// ' / Science and Astronautics A \ \ \ /// / /- Aeronautics 4 Science, Research, & i K \ \\ Office of Saline Water / /// J Space Sciences Development Ti I \\ \ // / / / \| \ Coast 4 Geodetic /// / /a Labor and Public Welfare Education and Labor A\ \ V^ Survey */// Jm Education Education • \ 1 \\ • Weather Bureau ill ///• Health Foreign Affairs AN^ \ \V Maritime // \ \ Administration "/ , \\ • Public Health Service i / / \\\\ / ^ \\ \ Office of / / I Y Education /l 1 \ \\ Agency for Inter- /// / \l national Development */// \ \V National Science J uf A Foreign Relations A Standing Committee \ \ Foundation / / * Subcommittee \ \ Smithsonian / / \* Institution * / \ National Aeronautics / i and Space i Administration Atomic Energy Commission I Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 2i9 teiidant to such reviews would be expected to develop iiiforniiition and expert views for a number of interested committees of the Cong^ress, botli lejiislative and appropriation. The Commission suggests that Congress review jurisdictions of the legislative and ap- propriation committees in tlie liglit of such division of responsibilities for marine activi- ties as may result from reorganization within the Executive Branch. Conclusion The difficulties confronting the Commis- sion in arriving at its organizational recom- mendations are not unique to marine affairs. Government machinery at all levels is under critical examination. "We have examined ex- isting Federal machinery in the marine area and have proposed an organization that would, in our judgment, prove adequate to the national ocean task as the Commission has conceived it. The Commission has been aware that the recommendation for creation of an inde- pendent Federal agency poses problems, but our judgment is that this is the best choice among alternatives. The alternative route of proposing a grouping within an existing de- partment or agency was carefully con- sidered, but none could accommodate the range and dimensions of programs needed for a concerted attack on the oceans. Piece- meal adjustments are not sufficient. It is necessary to place together the central civilian functions under single management in order to have a coherent effort. The Commission cannot appropriately recommend or even foresee the nature of future basic reorganizations of the Executive Branch. However, we can perceive the prin- cipal alternatives that face the President and the Congress in considering reorganizations affecting marine activities. The recommenda- tions contained in this chapter are believed to be consistent with any of the several fundamental reorganizations that might evolve over the next several years. The overriding consideration is that only through creation of a major marine agency with attendant atmospheric responsibilities can a national effort be launched. Even if fiscal constraints require that this effort begin on a modest scale, action to establish the necessary reorganization is warranted to provide the basis for future expansion. Re- organization cannot be a substitute for new programs, but neither can programs be launched with maximum effectiveness through our existing machinery of Govern- ment. Because of the importance of the seas to this Nation and the world, our Federal organization of marine affairs must be put in order. Chapter 8 A Financial Plan for Marine Science 251 The Commission has not been asked and has not undertaken to judge where a marine program should stand on the list of national spending priorities. This is for the Congress and the President to decide. However, the Congress requested the Commission to pro- pose "an overall plan for an adequate nation- al oceanographic program * * * with esti- mated cost." Although we found it difficult to comply with this mandate, we recognized its importance and have done our best. Cost estimates have been provided throughout our report ; this chapter brings the estimates from the previous chapters together into an overall financial plan. The Commission recognizes the difficulty of planning programs or assuring proper fund- ing levels under a system of annual program justifications and appropriation. In exam- ining the history of Federal support for ma- rine activities, the Commission has been re- minded many times of the difficulties caused by substantial changes in appropriations from year to year. In some cases, severe bud- get cuts for a single year have effectively nullified the value of years of work and expenditure. To mount the national effort recommended by the Commission will require a buildup over the years of qualified personnel and suitable facilities. The Commission feels strongly that the buildup should take place at a rate which can be sustained. Attempting too ambitious a start could cause the program to face erratic support in later years. The Commission's Approacii to Cost Estimates The cost estimates presented by the Com- mission are necessarily subject to a number of definitions, assumptions, and limitations; these should be made explicit. The methods of costing the individual parts of the recommended program differed widely one from the other. In some cases we have simply identified a desired level of ef- fort. In other cases we have relied on our knowledge of similar projects in Government or industry. Estimates for research support are geared to a large extent to estimates of the scientific manpower likely to be available. Tliere is therefore an inevitable uncertainty surrounding the Commission's cost estimates. The figures prepared by the Commission are presented in terms of constant 1969 dol- lars and represent the incremental amounts over existing budget levels which appear likely to be required over the next 10 years to carry out the Commission's recommenda- tions. The Nation is already spending large sums for marine and atmospheric scientific inves- tigations and services and will continue to spend large amounts regardless of the action taken on our report. The Commission has recommended expansion of several programs and initiation of others, but its recommenda- tions also are designed to assure the most efficient use of whatever amounts may become available in the future. The funding problem for the marine pro- gram is quite different from that which ac- companied the launching of the space pro- gram. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was entrusted with the or- ganization of a new program which had very few antecedents and which was placed on a timetable requiring a very rapid buildup of scientific and engineering effort. The ob- jective of the Commission's proposal, in con- trast, is to emphasize and rationalize pro- grams which, for the most part, are already in existence and which are already returning benefits to our people. Furthermore, the programs which would be brought within NOAA already are ptow- 252 ing at a rate of roughly 6 per cent per year. During the past 5 years the budget for Coast Guard operations has increased an average of 6 per cent annually, excluding funds to meet rising cost and pay levels; ESSA's operating budget has increased an average of 8 per cent ; BCF, an average of 5 per cent. The expan- sion in funding proposed by the Commission is not greatly in excess of these recent growth rates. Also, changing conditions permit some shifting in the internal programming of agency funds. To some extent the new pro- grams recommended by the Commission may be able to be financed through curtailment of activities which are no longer necessary. The Commission wishes to emphasize that its estimates are keyed only to the costs of implementing the specific recommendations advanced in its report. It should be under- stood that there are funding needs for essen- tial parts of a total national effort in oceanic, atmospheric, and related activities for which estimates have not been included in the Commission's totals. For example, the Com- mission is aware that many agencies of the Federal Government have serious require- ments for funding to maintain such ongoing programs as for replacement of obsolete ships, facilities, and equipment of the Coast Guard, ESSA, and BCF, but we have not felt that in this area we could improve upon the projections included in existing agency plans. As further examples, there are such pro- grams as the water pollution control activi- ties of FWPCA, the dredging activities of the Corps of Engineers, and the weather serv- ice programs of ESSA which are well estab- lished, of reasonable magnitude, and respond to a variety of needs. Although we have not attempted to provide estimates for strength- ening such activities, we recognize that there will be substantial additional funding re- quirements. The fact that such costs have not been included must not be taken to imply that these needs are regarded by the Commis- sion as having a lesser priority. In particular, it should be noted that the estimates for Department of Defense pro- grams have been provided only for selected activities which relate intimately to civil functions. The Commission has assumed that Defense support for marine science and tech- nology will continue to expand in response to military needs and has not attempted to pro- ject the costs which may be incurred in carry- ing forward their marine-related military programs. Funds for such other special-pur- pose activities as the shellfish sanitation pro- gram of the Public Health Service and the Atomic Energy Commission's studies of the use of nuclear technology for harbor exca- vations have also been excluded from the estimates. Finally, the Commission notes that it has addressed only Federal expenditures. Com- mensurate investment will be required of in- dustry to build the systems needed to harvest the sea's resources, and State and local gov- ernments will need to commit additional funds to meet their responsibilities under the Commission's recommended plan. The Commission expects that action at the Fed- eral level to implement its recommendations will, however, stimulate additional private investment and tlie necessary State and local government efforts. Present Funding Levels The Commission encountered considerable difficulty in determining the present level of effort in marine science, engineering, and re- source development. One problem is that the definitions of these terms vary from person to person and agency to agency. Another is that the budget information from the agencies often does not show the distinction between iss marine and nonmarine activities, let alone the distinctions among fields of marine en- deavor. Worse still, the situation is unstable — definitions and budget classifications change somewhat each year. No one description of the field could be comprehensive or agreed to by all parties. The National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, through its annual reports and its efforts at coordination, has made an admirable effort to bring order to the situation. In determining the budget figures for the present level of effort, the Commission turned first to the Council for up-to-date information. To comply with its separate statutory man- date, however, the Commission adopted its own definitions and categorizations, and they differed somewhat from those used by the Council. A detailed rendering of the differ- ences would serve more to confuse than illu- minate, but in general, the Commission has given less consideration to matters relating to national security and ocean transportation, and it has given much broader consideration to matters relating to environmental monitor- ing and prediction, activities in the coastal zone, and marine technical services. On net, the level of Federal spending for programs now in existence which fall within the Commission's frame of reference is sub- stantially larger than the $516 million pro- gram estimated by the National Council in its 1968 report. The Council's figures covered a narrower base; whereas over half of the expenditures reported by the Council are made by the Department of Defense, the activities which provide the base for the Commission's projections are almost wholly civil in nature. Comparison of Present and Recommended Programs Global Monitoring & Prediction Capability Coastal Development & Protection Resources Present Programs approx. $900 million Use and Development of Marine Resources Anticipated 1980 Program approx. $1,800 million S54 The Commission's Estimates: An Overview Programs recommended by the Commis- sion are estimated to involve an annual ex- I^enditure growing by 1980 to roughly $1 billion per year over and above current pro- gram levels. This approximate doubling of present efforts could be achieved by maintain- ing a 7 to 10 per cent rate of growth over the 10-year period, depending upon the size of the expenditure base upon which the pro- posed program may be considered to be built. However, the Commission's estimates assume a more rapid growth early in the coming dec- ade and a leveling off of expenditure in later years as the program reaches maturity and overcomes the current backlog of unmet needs. Tables 8-1 and 8-2 show two different per- spectives on the estimated costs of the Com- mission's recommendations. Table 8-1 shows the expenditures classified by major program area; it is simply a condensation of the five tables presented in the earlier chapters. Table 8-2 presents the same expenditures re- categorized by the type of activity or func- tion which must be performed in carrying out the national program. Each estimate must be viewed in the con- text of the entire marine program, for there are many interrelationships among its several elements. Land acquisition unguided by a rational management system will not yield full benefits; expanded research pro- grams must be accompanied by expanded systems for processing and disseminating information; major projects will proceed more smoothly if deliberate provision is made for fundamental technological ad- vances. The Commission has considered this problem of internal balance quite care- fully; it is one reason why many of the estimates are projected as "levels of effort" rather than as itemized cost calculations. Thus, although the figures shown in this re- port are not individually definitive, we believe they are appropriately related to one another. The early phases of the program advanced by the Commission will concentrate on meet- ing immediate needs and on providing the capital facilities and basic data needed to provide a sound foundation for future ex- pansion. Thus, expenses for such activities as the coastal and estuarine inventories, the National Test Facilities Project, equipping marine laboratories, and the near-term im- provements in envii'onmental monitoring systems are needed early in the program and should terminate or decline after the first few years, while the funds for research and exploration projects, manpower develop- ment, and data services will have to keep expanding as our involvement with the sea increases. A few programs, like the mapping of the continental shelves and the acquisition of land in the coastal zone, represent a con- scious decision now to spread a large expendi- ture evenly over an extended time period. The nature of the Conmiission's cost esti- mates has not permitted a fully accurate dif- ferentiation between capital and operating expenses, and indeed, for many programs this distinction is very difficult to draw. On an overall basis, capital outlays represent about one-fourth of the total estimated expenditure and include funds for assisting States to ac- quire coastal wetlands as well as for acquisi- tion of laboratory facilities, ship construc- tion, and the capital component of recom- mended National Projects. Capital outlays constitute a larger portion of the overall pro- gram in the early years, whereas funds for research and exploration, fundamental and applied technology, surveys, and laboratory and facility operations grow progressively throughout the decade. iSS All Other (management, planning, surveys, and training) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Projected Costs of the Commission's Recommended Programs Although the timing of some capital in- vestments can be adjusted to reflect availa- bility of funds, it is impoi-tant to recognize the need for a proper sequencing of expendi- ture. The productivity of marine science de- pends on properly equipped facilities draw- ing on the most up-to-date technology. Progress in technology, in turn, requires ade- quate test facilities and ranges. In another field, marine geological surveys must be sequenced to follow basic bathymetric and geophysical mapping. Both depend on ade- quate navigational control. Some of the expenditures proposed by the Commission are for pilot projects and studies designed to establish the feasibility of a larger, future undertaking. Examples include the Xational Pilot Buoy Project and the Na- tional Lake Restoration Project. Feasibility studies of possible future National Projects have also been recommended. Although the Conmiission has not attempted to estimate the cost of the programs and projects which might be developed through such studies, it does wish to point out that large new require- ments for expenditure will in all likelihood emerge in future years as our knowledge and use of the oceans enlarge. Expanding expenditures for civil marine programs will need to be accompanied by increasing support for military programs. Because the Navy now has an active program and extensive capital facilities, funding for such activities may not need to increase in percentage terms as rapidlj' as on the civil side, where the current level of activity is lower in reference to current needs. But it is obvious that the requirements of the Depart- ment of Defense for marine and atmospheric science, technology, and services will have to keep pace with the increasing sophistication of military systems operating on, under, and over the seas. iS6 Table 8-1 Cost for Commission Recommendations by Program Area (Incremental costs In millions of dollars] Average annual costs Total Program area — 10-year 1971-75 1976-80 costs Total, All Commission Recommendations $652 $948 $8, 000 Improving the National Capability 152 191 1,715 Laboratory Facilities 32 14 230 National Projects 50 70 600 Fundamental Technology 60 90 750 Education and Training 7 11 90 Scientific and Technical Information 3 6 45 Managing the Coastal Zone 86 121 1,035 Management and Planning 10 10 100 Land Acquisition 11 11 110 Scientific and Engineering Studies 50 80 650 National Project 15 20 175 Resources 191 290 2,405 Living Resources Programs 62 88 750 Nonliving Resources Programs 39 66 525 National Projects 60 86 730 Fundamental Technology 30 50 400 Global Environment 179 272 2,255 Research and Exploration 81 162 1,215 Global Monitoring System 48 15 315 Environmental Modification Program 20 45 325 Fundamental Technology 30 50 400 Supporting Services 44 74 590 Mapping and Charting 16 20 180 Marine Safety and Enforcement 8 12 100 Data Services 5 7 60 Development of Service Systems 15 35 250 es7 Table 8-2 Costs for Commission Recommendations by Activity (Incremental costs in millions of dollars] * Activity Average annual costs Total 10-year 1971-76 1976-80 costs Total, All Commission Recommendations $652 $948 $8,000 Management and Operations Services Land Acquisition Planning Research and Education Laboratory Facilities and Operations Research Programs Education and Training Specific Technology Programs Coastal Engineering Resource Development Research and Monitoring Equipment Service Systems- Development National Projects Test Facilities and Ocean Ranges Lake Restoration Project Continental Shelf Laboratories Pilot Continental Shelf Nuclear Plant Deep Exploration Submersible Systems Pilot Buoy Network Feasibility Studies of Future Projects Fundamental Technology Capability Resources Global Environment Mapping, Charting, and Surveying 34 45 62 70 660 36 41 385 11 11 110 15 18 165 142 226 1,840 71 101 860 . " 64 114 890 7 11 90 124 182 1,530 20 40 300 45 68 565 44 39 415 15 35 250 160 215 1,875 43 57 500 15 20 175 40 60 500 20 26 230 20 37 2 13 285 15 85 7 100 130 210 1,700 60 90 70 750 40 550 30 50 400 395 258 A Budget for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency Although the main burden of achieving the goals proposed by the Commission for a na- tional ocean program will be assumed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency, NOAA will not be responsible for all of the expenditure estimated by the Commission, nor do these estimates embrace the totality of NOAA's responsibilities. Such other agencies as the National Science Foundation, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Navy, and the Departments of the Interior and of Health, Education, and Welfare will continue to have fiscal responsibility for portions of the recom- mended program. The 1969 budgets fpr the agencies and pro- grams which would be immediately trans- ferred to NOAA under the Commission's or- ganization plan total $773 million. Other activities which might be transferred to the agency at a later date would add an addi- tional $36 million. The Commission projects that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency might have an operating budget of approximately $2 billion annually by 1980. The projection is necessarily a combination of both recommended increments (approximate- ly $850 million) and an arbitrarily projected 7 per cent growth rate for programs not reviewed by the Commission. However, the estimate is useful in providing a tangible prospect of the likely scope of the new agency. Conclusion Arriving at these cost estimates was among the most difficult aspects of the Commission's analysis. In spite of the uncertainties attend- ant on these estimates, they nevertheless are a measure of the kind of commitment which the Commission feels the Nation must make. Yet they do not tell the full story. There are some stakes, such as a livable environment or the security of the Nation, which are price- less. Some of the least expensive recommen- dations, like the establishment of the State Coastal Zone Authorities and the new inter- national convention on the seabed, are among the most important ones. Benefits to the Nation will come not only from additional programs but also from the redirection of some current expenditures into more produc- tive uses. The Commission's cost estimates must be viewed in this light. They simply represent, as do the other parts of this report, our best judgment of how to respond to the needs and opportunities which relate our Nation to the sea. 259 Epilogue It is worth remembering that America be- gan, or rather almost didn't begin, with a commission on marine science. In 1484, King John II of Portugal, intrigued by a project to sail west to the Indies and Japan proposed by a Genoese navigator named Christopher Columbus, appointed a commission of dis- tinguished scientists to hear him and report on the worthiness of his proposal. One year later, this commission turned tliumbs down on the whole idea; it considered a western route to the Indies to be too long and too hazardous to merit support. The king ac- cepted this report. Columbus, of course, went to Spain where Ferdinand and Isabella appointed the Tala- vera Commission to consider the project. A number of hearings were held but no report was made until 1491 ; it expressed this conclusion : This Committee fudged his promises and of- fers ivere impossible and vain and worthy of rejection; that it ivas not a proper object for their royal authority to favor an affair that rested on such weak foundations and which appeared uncertain and impossible to any educated person, however little learning he might have.^ The sovereigns neither approved nor re- jected this report and told Columbus that his proposals might again be brought to their attention when the war with Granada had come to an end. In the meantime, a second committee of experts was appointed. Colum- bus appeared before it and, in January 1492, was told that his project was "absolutely and definitely rejected." Columbus was persistent, however, and through sources close to the queen he managed to convince her that his project was a good risk. The voyage "to The Indies'' began, and here we are. In reference to the stated aims of the Indies project, the Talavera Commission's appraisal was correct. But even the most learned and enlightened men can seldom anticipate great discoveries in new fields of endeavor. Like that earlier marine commission, we have tried to give full weight to realistic appraisals and practicality. Because we know of the impact of the unexpected, from Columbus to com- putere, we have also tried to balance practi- cality with an optimistic and wide-open \dew of the future and allow room for the unfore- seen. If we have erred, we hope we have erred on the side of optimism, for ultimately that may prove to be no error at all. ' Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Samuel Eliot Morlson (Boston : Little, Brown & Co., 1942). Appendix 1 Public Law 89-454 89th Congress, S. 944 June 17, 1966 3in act To provide for a comprehensive, long-range, and coordinated national program in marine science, to establish a National Council on Marine Resources and Engi- neering Development, and a Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, and for other purposes. Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of A^nerica in Congress assembled, That this Act may be cited as the "Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of DECLARATION OF POLICY AND OBJECTIVES Marine Re- sources and Engineering Development Act of 1966. Sec. 2. (a) It is hereby declared to be the policy of the United States to develop, encourage, and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine science for the benefit of man- kind to assist in protection of health and property, enhancement of commerce, transportation, and national security, rehabilitation of our commercial fisheries, and increased utilization of these and other resources. 8o stat. 203. (b) The marine science activities of the United States should be so stat. 204. conducted so as to contribute to the following objectives : (1) The accelerated development of the resources of the marine environment. (2) The expansion of human knowledge of the marine environ- ment. (3) The encouragement of private investment enterprise in ex- ploration, technological development, marine commerce, and eco- nomic utilization of the resources of the marine environment. (4) The preservation of the role of the United States as a leader in marine science and resource development. (5) The advancement of educational and training in marine science. (6) The development and improvement of the capabilities, per- formance, use, and efficiency of vehicles, equipment, and instru- ments for use in exploration, research, surveys, the recovery of resources, and the transmission of energy in the marine environ- ment. (7) The effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources of the Nation, with close cooperation among all inter- ested agencies, public and private, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, facilities, and equipment, or waste. 862 (8) The cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups of nations and international organizations in marine science activities when such cooperation is in the national interest. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON MARINE RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT Sec. 3. (a) There is hereby established, in the Executive Office of the President, the National Council on ]SIarine Resources and Engineering Development (hereinafter called the "Council") which shall be com- posed of — ( 1 ) The Vice President, who shall be Chairman of the Council. (2) The Secretary of State. (3) The Secretary of the Navy. (4) The Secretary of the Interior. (5) The Secretary of Commerce. (6) The Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. (7) The Director of the National Science Foundation. (8) The Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. (9) The Secretary of the Treasury. (b) The President may name to the Council such other officers and officials as he deems advisable. (c) The President shall from time to time designate one of the mem- bers of the Council to preside over meetings of the Council during the absence, disability, or unavailability of the Chairman. (d) Each member of the Council, except those designated pursuant to subsection (b) , may designate any officer of his department or agency appointed with the advice and consent of the Senate to serve on the Council as his alternate in his unavoidable absence. (e) The Council may employ a staff to be headed by a civilian execu- tive secretary who shall be appointed by the President and shall receive 78 Stat. 416. compensation at a rate established by the President at not to exceed 5 DSC 2211. that of level II of the Federal Executive Salary Schedule. The execu- 80 STAT. 204. ^j.^,g secretary, subject to the direction of the Council, is authorized to 80 STAT. 205. appoint and fix the compensation of such personnel, including not more 63 Stat. 954. ^-^^^^ seven persons who may be appointed without regard to civil serv- 5 use 1071 .^^ j^^g ^^ ^^^ Classification Act of 1949 and compensated at not to 79 Stat. nil. exceed the highest rate of grade 18 of the General Schedule of the 5 use 1113. Classification Act of 1949, as amended, as may be necessary to perform such duties as may be prescribed by the President. (f ) The provisions of this Act with respect to the Council shall ex- pire one hundred and twenty days after the submission of the final report of the Commission pursuant to section 5(h). RESPONSIBILITIES Sec. 4. (a) In conformity with the provisions of section 2 of this Act, it shall be the duty of "the President with the advice and assist- ance of the Council to — (1) survey all significant marine science activities, including the policies, plans, programs, and accomplishments of all depart- 26S ments and agencies of the United States engaged in such activities; (2) develop a comprehensive program of marine science activi- ties, inchiding, but not limited to, exploration, description and prediction of the marine environment, exploitation and conser- vation of the resources of the marine environment, marine en- gineering, studies of air-sea interaction, transmission of energy, and communications, to be conducted by departments and agen- cies of the United States, independently or in cooperation with such non-Federal organizations as States, institutions and industry ; (3) designate and fix responsibility for tlie conduct of the fore- going marine science activities by departments and agencies of the United States ; (4) insure cooperation and resolve differences arising among departments and agencies of the United States witli respect to marine science activities under this Act, including differences as to whetlier a particular project is a marine science activity; (5) undertake a comprehensive study, by contract or otlier- wise, of tlie legal problems arising out of the management, use, development, recovery, and control of tlie resources of the marine environment ; (6) establish long-range studies of the potential benefits to the United States economy, security, health, and welfare to be gained from marine resources, engineering, and science, and the costs involved in obtaining such benefits ; and (7) review annually all marine science activities conducted by departments and agencies of the United States in light of the policies, plans, programs, and priorities developed pursuant to this Act. (b) In the planning and conduct of a coordinated Federal pro- gram the President and the Council shall utilize such staff, inter- agency, and non-Government advisory arrangements as they may find necessary and appropriate and shall consult with departments and agencies concerned with marine science activities and solicit the views of non-Federal organizations and individuals with capabilities in marine sciences. COMMISSION ON MARINE SCIENCE, ENGINEERING, AND RESOURCES Sec. 5. (a) The President shall establish a Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources (in this Act referred to as the "Commission"). The Commission shall be composed of fifteen mem- so stat. 205. bers appointed by the President, including individuals drawn from so stat. 208. Federal and State governments, industry, universities, laboratories and other institutions engaged in marine scientific or technological pursuits, but not more than five members shall be from the Federal Government. In addition the Commission shall have four advisory members appointed by the President from among the Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Such advisory mem- bers shall not participate, except in an advisory capacity, in the fonniilation of the findings and recommendations of the Commis- sion. The President shall select a Chairman and Vice Chairman from among such fifteen members. The Vice Chairman shall act as Chairman in the latter's absence. (b) The Commission shall make a comprehensive investigation and study of all aspects of marine science in order to recommend an over- all plan for an adequate national oceanographic program that will meet the present and future national needs. The Commission shall undertake a review of existing and planned marine science activities of the T^nited States in order to assess their adequacy in meeting the objectives set forth under section 2(b), including but not limited to the following : (1) Review the known and contemplated needs for natural re- sources from the marine environment to maintain our expanding national economy. (2) Review the surveys, applied research programs, and ocean engineering projects required to obtain the needed resources from the marine environment. (3) Review the existing national research programs to insure realistic and adequate support for basic oceanographic research that will enhance human Avelfare and scientific knowledge. (4) Review the existing oceanographic and ocean engineering programs, including education and technical training, to deter- mine which programs are required to advance our national oceano- graphic competence and stature and which are not adequately supported. (5) Analyze the findings of the above reviews, including the economic factors involved, and recommend an adequate national marine science program that will meet the present and future national needs without unnecessary duplication of effort. (6) Recommend a Grovemmental organizational plan with esti- mated cost. (c) Members of the Commission appointed from outside the Gov- ernment shall each receive $100 per diem when engaged in the actual performance of duties of the Commission and reimbursement of travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, as authorized in section 5 of the Administrative Expenses Act of 1946, as amended 60 Stat. 808; (5 U.S.C. 73b-2), for persons employed intermittently. Members of 75 Stat. 339, the Commissiou appointed from within the Government shall serve 340. without additional compensation to that received for their services to the Government but shall be reimbursed for travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, as authorized in the Act of June 9, 63 Stat. 166. 1949, as amended (5 U.S.C. 835-842). (d) The Commission shall appoint and fix the compensation of such pei-sonnel as it deems advisable in accordance with the civil serv- 63 Stat. 954. ice laws and the Classification Act of 1949, as amended. In addition, 5 use 1071 note, the Commissiou may secure temporary and intermittent services to the same extent as is authorized for the departments by section 15 of 5 use 55a. the Administrative Expenses Act of 1946 (60 Stat. 810) but at rates not to exceed $100 per diem for individuals. I 265 (e) The Chairman of the Commission shall be responsible for (1) so stat. 206. the assignment of dnties and responsibilities among such personnel *•* stat. 207. and their continuing supervision, and (2) the use and expenditures of funds available to the Commission. In carrying out the provisions of this subsection, the Chairman shall be governed by the general policies of the Conunission with respect to the work to be accomplished by it and the timing thereof. (f) Financial and administrative services (including those related to budgeting, accounting, financial reporting, personnel, and procure- ment) may be provided the Commission by the General Services Ad- ministration, for which payment shall be made in advance, or by reim- bursement from funds of the Commission in such amounts as may be agreed upon by the Chairman of the Commission and the Adminis- trator of General Services : Pravkled, That the regulations of the Gen- eral Sendees Administration for the collection of indebtedness of per- sonnel resulting from eiToneous payments (5 U.S.C. 46d) shall apply to es stat. 482. the collection of erroneous payments made to or on behalf of a Com- mission employee, and regulations of said Administrator for the ad- ministrative control of funds (31 U.S.C. 665(g)) shall apply to 64 stat. 767. appropriations of the Commission: And provided further, That the Commission shall not be required to prescribe such regulations. (g) The Commission is authorized to secure directly from any execu- tive department, agency, or independent instrumentality of the Govern- ment any information it deems necessary to carry out its functions under this Act ; and each such department, agency, and instriunentality is authorized to cooperate with the Commission and, to the extent per- mitted by law, to furnish such information to the Commission, upon request made by the Chairman. (h) The Commission shall submit to the President, via the Council, Report to and to the Congress not later than eighteen months after the establish- anrcoTgress. ment of the Commission as provided in subsection (a) of this section, a final report of its findings and recommendations. The Commission shall cease to exist thirty days after it has submitted its final report. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Sec. 6. The Council, under the foreign policy guidance of the Presi- dent and as he may request, shall coordinate a program of international cooperation in work done pursuant to this Act, pursuant to agree- ments made by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. REPORTS Sec. 7. (a) The President shall transmit to the Congress in January of each year a report, which shall include (1) a comprehensive descrip- tion of the activities and the accomplishments of all agencies and de- partments of the United States in the field of marine science during the preceding fiscal year, and (2) an evaluation of such activities and accomplisliments in terms of the objectives set forth pursuant to this Act. see 80 STAT. 207. 80 STAT. 208. (b) Eeports made under this section shall contain such recommenda- tions for legislation as the President may consider necessary or desir- able for the attainment of the objectives of this Act, and shall contain an estimate of funding requirements of each agency and department of the United States for marine science activities during the succeeding fiscal year. DEFINITIONS Sec. 8. For the purposes of this Act the term "marine science" shall be deemed to apply to oceanographic and scientific endeavors and disci- plines, and engineering and technology in and with relation to the marine environment; and the term "marine environment" shall be deemed to include (a) the oceans, (b) the Continental Shelf of the United States, (c) the Great Lakes, (d) seabed and subsoil of the sub- marine areas adjacent to the coasts of the United States to the depth of two hundred meters, or beyond that limit, to where the depths of the superjacent waters admit of the exploitation of the natural resources of such areas, (e) the seabed and subsoil of similar submarine areas adjacent to the coasts of islands which comprise United States terri- tory, and (f) the resources thereof. AUTHORIZATION Sec. 9. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary to carry out this Act, but sums appropriated for any one fiscal year shall not exceed $1,500,000. Approved June 17, 1966. LEGISLATIVE HISTORY: HOUSE REPORTS : No. 1025 (Comm. on Merchant Marine & Fisheries) anhy 1966. Additional studies were initiated by committees of the newly formed National Academy of Engi- neering and the National Security Industrial Association. Congressional concern about the adequacy of the Federal organization in providing leadership and managing marine-related ac- tivities was reflected in a number of bills in- troduced during this period. Some would have consolidated activities within an operat- ing agency. Others were directed to strength- ening the Executive Office of the President. In 1962, Congress passed a bill, H.R. 12601, designed to vest the new Office of Science and Technology with specific responsibilities in oceanography matters. President Kennedy pocket-vetoed this bill as an encroachment on Presidential authority. By 1965 it had become evident that lack of agreement within Government as to prior- ities among programs and the preferred form of Federal organization was leading to an impasse. New bills were introduced in both the House of Representatives and the Senate in an effort to provide a means for achieving more intensive and coordinated Government attention to the Nation's marine interests. The Marine Resources and Engineering Develop- ment Act, as agreed to in conference between the two Houses in June 1966, established over-all goals for a natif)nal ocean progi-am and provided botli for a Council comprised of (^abinet-level officials to assist the President in phmning and coordinating Federal pro- grams and for an advisorv Commission to make a comprehensive study that would de- velop the background information and rec- ommendations needed to achieve consensus for moving ahead. The Commission was required in this legis- lation to submit its final report to the Presi- dent, via the Council, and to the Congress within 18 months — later extended to 2 yeai-s — of its establishment. Although estab- lishing in the National Council an interim mechanism to get action underway, the Con- gress explicitly directed the Commission to recommend Ixith a national oceanographic program and a plan of Government organiza- tion, with estimated costs, for its implemen- tation. To give emphasis to its intent and freedom to the Commission to advance a plan representing its best judgment unconstrained by any prior action, the Congress provided that the authority for the Council should ex- pire 120 days after submission of the Com- mission's report, later extended to June 30, 1969. The Commission ceases to exist 30 days after its rejiort is filed. Organizing tlie Study No precedent existed for the comiDrehen- sive review of marine matters which was re- quested of the Commission ; previous reports had concentrated largely on scientific and technical aspects. Unlike the space and nu- clear energ}' programs, marine programs are characterized bj' private investment far ex- ceeding Federal effort, and State and local activities, though difficult to (luantify, are obviously vast. Further, some marine activi- ties are inseparable from land institutions and problems and for the foreseeable future cannot be treated simply as marine matters. In view of its \ery broad charter, the Com- mission's attention was necessarily focused first on organizing to get on with the job. The Commission's approach was to form seven working panels, with two to four Commis- sioners and an Executive Secretary assigned to each. The panels were as follows : Panel on Basic Science Robert M. White, Chairman John A. Knauss Panel on Environmental Monitoring and on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone John A. Knauss, Chairman Frank C. DiLuzio Leon Jaworski Robert M. White Panel on Manpower, Education, and Training Julius A. Stratton, Chairman Richard A. Geyer David A. Adams Panel on Industry and Private Investment Richard A. Geyer, Chairman Charles F. Baird Taylor A. Pryor George H. Sullivan Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology John H. Perry, Jr., Chairman Charles F. Baird Taylor A. Pryor George H. Sullivan Panel on Marine Resources James A. Crutchfield, Chairman David A. Adams International Panel Carl A. Auerbach, Chairman Jacob Blaustein Leon Jaworski The panels became the principal mechanism for assessing the status of marine matters in their respective areas, for identifying the opportunities and prdblems, and for propos- ing measures that need to be taken. The Work of the Commission It is difficult to describe adequately the magnitude of the effort by the panels and the full Commission in the preparation of this report. Each of the panels conducted its work in its own manner; however, the activities of the Panel on Environmental Monitoring and on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone provide a typical example. Working with the Panel on Basic Science, it held hearings in various parts of the country, during which it heard a total of 126 witnesses from Federal and State governments, re- search institutions, and industry. Addition- ally, over 600 individuals were interviewed or contacted through correspondence by that panel. Consultants advised the panel throughout its investigations, preparing papers, reviewing draft materials, and re- sponding to queries on particular matters. The panel conducted visits to gain firsthand knowledge of activities related to its mission. The panel finally distilled an enormous mass of material into the 291 pages of its two re- ports, one on the coastal zone and the other on environmental monitoring. After fact-gathering and initial evalua- tion, the panels prepared material for consideration at meetings of the full Commis- sion. This process aided the panels in iden- tifying the need for additional information, for clarification, or for reassessing tentative views and provided a means for coordinat- ing efforts among the panels to assure cov- erage in the overall study. Moreover, panel use of the full Commission as a soimding board sei-ved as an educative process that prepared members for the drafting and final approval of its report. 281 In addition to reviewing materials pre- pared by the panels, the Commission utilized reports and papers prepared by contractors. A nimiber of consultants also prepared papei's esjiecially for the use of the Commis- sion and made available other relevant un- published material. Staff prepared reports and other materials for the use of panels and the full Commission. A number of these mate- rials are cited in Appendix 4. In every sense of the word this has been a working Commission. The full Commis- sion usually met monthly and in total held 19 meetings of 2 to 4 days each. Com- mission members were diligent in their at- tendance, all or almost all members attend- ing each meeting. They traveled to meet with experts in their areas of interest. Much of their time has been consumed in assessing voluminous materials and in preparing mat-e- rials for the panel reports and the Commis- sion report. Members have been immersed in the work of the Commission since their appointment. The Commission operated with a mini- mal staff until the panels were organized and qualified individuals became available to serve. In addition to staff for the seven panels, a small central staff served the full Commission. Tlie total full-time staff even- tually grew to number some 15 professional and 10 secretarial and other supporting per- sonnel. In addition, a few part-time staff members were utilized as their expertise was needed. Like the Commission itself, staff were drawn from all parts of the country and from industry, universities, and Federal agencies: they included scientists, engineers, lawyers, administrators, editors, and other specialists. Throughout the Commission's work, there was close and cordial cooperation with the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development and its staff. Yet each body has maintained its se|Darate role. The Commission has been free from the in- fluence of the Council, enabling it to provide its own assessment of Federal activities and organizations, including the effectiveness of the Council arrangement itself. The Council has preserved its separate identity because it is charged with advising the President on the report of the Commission. Independence has been maintained at the same time each body has informed the other of its work. The Commission has benefited particularly from views expressed by an ad hoc committee of the Council convened on two separate occasions to review drafts of Commission material. The Commission has been free to deal directly with the Federal agencies and has done so often, while keep- ing Council staff informed of such contacts. One of the most rewarding aspects of the Commission's work has been the interaction with groups and individuals from within and outside the marine community. In the con- duct of its study, the Commission has sought to involve the principal organizations and leaders in all sectors of the country con- cerned with the oceans and has invited com- ment through hearings, informal meetings and seminars, correspondence, and a general invitation for comments pWed in the trade j^ress. Helpful assistance has been received from agencies and individuals at all levels of government; from industrial associations and officials of individual companies; from scientific organizations, the heads of labora- tories, and working scientists; and from uni- versity administrators and individual jiro- fessors. In all, more than 1,000 individuals were personally contacted by the Commis- sion. Most of these persons are listed and their contributions gratefully acknowledged in appendices to the reports of the Commission's panels. Assistance rendered the Commission by private and professional groups often ex- tended well beyond the normal statement of views or prejjaration of documentary mate- rial. The Oceanic Foundation, a nonprofit foundation dedicated to the advancement of marine science, organized a special Marine Commission Support Group to provide an additional means for drawing upon persons from the universities and industiy to assist the Commission and its panels. The National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanog- raphy prepared a complete revision and up- dating of its 1966 report and responded at length to a series of questions posed by the Commission in order to inform it fully of the views and needs of the scientific community. The National Academy of Engineering volunteered the continuing consulting assist- ance of its Committee on Ocean Engineer- ing. Resources for the Future, Inc., a non- profit research organization, sponsored two intensive seminars to develop methodologies for appraising national interests in ocean resources. The National Security Industrie;! Association's Ocean Science and Technology Committee submitted a series of reports on the activities and needs of ocean user indus- tries, on Government-private sector roles, and on means for providing continuing liai- son and arranged a series of meetings with in- dustry groups so that the Commission might have the benefit of their views. Large region- al meetings, tapping other industry groups, were organized by both the University of Texas and the University of Southern Cali- fornia to appraise investment opportunities. Certain local sections of the Marine Tech- nology Society, at the suggestion of its Presi- dent, prepared analyses of the particular ma- rine resources and needs of specific regions of the Nation. These contributions, all provided as a public service at little or no cost to the Government, were of enormous benefit to the Commission. The final products of the Commission's work are this report, the I'eports of the panels published separately, and other papers cited in Appendix 4. Commission Studies and Reports Appendix Tlie major products of tlie. Commission are this report and tlie panel reports, pub- lished separately smd available as a set from the I".S. Government Printing Office. In ad- dition, the Commission sponsored several studies and report which are or will shortly be available upon request. It should be noted that the \-iews expressed in these supjile- mentary materials do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission. These studies and reports are being pub- lished through the Clearinghouse for Fed- eral Scientific and Technical Information or through other channels. Materials available through the Clearinghouse should be ordered by number from : Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Infomiation, TT.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Va. 22151 ; almost all documents are priced at $3 for paper copies and $0.65 for copies in microfiche. Contract Studies and Reports Federal Authority for Conduct of Marine Activities^ law firm of Elliott and Naftalin, March 13, 1968, available as a Committee Print from the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, U.S. House of Repre- sentatives. A comprehensive, indexed survey of authorities of Federal agencies for con- duct of marine activities by function and by agency. A Perspective of Regional and State Marine Enmronmental Activities: A Questionnaire Survey, Statistics and Ohservations, John I. Thompson & Company, Washington, D.C.. Feb. 28, 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 177765. Report of a survey of regional and State government activities and organizational arrangements for dealing with marine problems. State and Local Government Activities and Roles in Marine Science, Engineering and Develojyrnent, John I. Thompson & Com- pany, Washington, D.C., Feb. 14, 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 177764. A briefly an- notated catalogue of published studies and reports on organizational arrangements and activities in marine science, engineering, and resource development in the coastal States and States bordering the Great Lakes. The following three studies were prepared under the aegis of the Program of Policy Studies in Science and Technology, the George Washington University, Washington, D.C. : Highlights from the Literature on Organization for Federal Programs in Sci- ence and Technology. Fred R. Brown and Stephen R. Chitwood, Jan. 15, 1968, Clear- inghouse No. PB 182603. Report of a survey of literature on organization and administra- tion under four major headings: organiza- tional structure as a determinant of program eifectiveness, contemporary organizational theory and practice, structuring of organiza- tions generally in the Federal Government, and perspectives on organization of Federal programs for science and technology. Interdependencies Between Public and Private Lntei'ests in the Advancement of New Technologies, Clarence H. Danhof, Oct. 20, 1967, Clearinghouse No. PB 182600. Report on the processes by which new technologies have been generated by the Federal Gov- ernment and disseminated through transfer mechanisms, based upon an interpretation of the Government's experience over the last quarter century. Civilian-Military Interests in New Tech- nologies. Enid Curtis Bok Schoettle, Sep- tember 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 182601. Report of problems and experiences in handling civilian-military interdependen- cies in programs of marine science, engineer- ing, and i-esources and analogous experiences in other areas, accompanied by a sliort paf)er by Clarence H. Danhof commenting upon basic policy considerations in structuring such relationsliips. Environmental Qwality mvd Natural Re- Hources Management. Robert D. Teeters, June 13, 1968, Clearingliouse No. PB 180903. An analytic paper discussing considera- tions in trying to organize Federal activi- ties around the concept of "environment," particularly the difficulties in relating pro- tection of environmental quality to the man- agement of natural resources. Great Lakes Restoration — Review of Po- tentials and Recommendations for Im.plemen- tatian^ Battelle Memorial Institute, Rich- land, AVashington, June 17, 1968, Clearing- house No. PB 180904. A review of factors which have led to deterioration of water quality in the Great Lakes, technologies pres- ently available to overcome such deteriora- tion, and institutional arrangements re- quired to implement large-scale restoration measures. Planning and Coordinating Oceanograph- ic Programs. Cornelius W. Vahle, Jr., April 17, 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 182602. A study of the creation, organization, function, and effectiveness of the interagency machin- ery used to plan and coordinate oceano- graphic programs from 1959 to 1966, focus- ing on the Federal Council for Science and Technolog}', the Interagency Committee on Oceanography, and the Office of Science and Technology. Several papers relating to Government organization were prepared for tlie Commis- sion through contract for use in a seminar jointly sponsored by the Commission and the Institute for the Studv of Science in Hu- man Affairs of Columbia University. The Institute is considering 2:)ublication of cer- tain of these papers. Papers Submitted to the Commission for Its Use Selecting Policies for the Decelopment of Marine Resources. Resources for the Future, Inc., March 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 180905. An analytic paper, prepared follow- ing discussion in two seminars, to identify and test concepts and procedures for making choices among alternative policies in shap- ing a national ocean program. The Preparatian of Article 1 of the Con- vention on. the Continental Shelf. Bernard H. Oxman, October 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 182100. An exhaustive description of the \iews of participants in international meet- ings on the Convention, reflecting a compre- hensive review of primai-y source materials. Goals. New Emplmsis, Laboratory Rela- tionships^ Education and Training Needs, and Scientific Achievements in Marine Science, informal papers submitted to the Commission by the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Com- mittee on Oceanography, Clearinghouse No. PB 182606. The papers include an updating of the NASCO report. Oceanography. 1966, an informal I'eport on scientific achievements resulting from Government support over the past decade, and other comments. Industry and the Continental Shelf, Na- tional Security Industrial Association, Ocean Science and Technology Advisory Com- mittee, Nov. 15, 196", Clearinghouse No. PB 182607. An informal summary report, includ- ing a discussion of activities, problem areas, and recommendations concerning industry's interest in the continental shelf. 285 t » Staff Papers Defense Interests and the National Ocean- ographic Program. A. Denis Clift, Februai-y 1969, Clearingliouse Xo. PB 182604:. An ana- lytic paper, drawing on materials pi'epared by William J. Euhe and others, that high- lights current and future militaiy implica- tions of technological and other develop- ments affecting use of the oceans. TecJmical Supporting Services for the Na- tional Ocean Progr^am. William J. Ruhe, June 1968, Clearinghouse No. PB 180902. A study of present and planned technical supporting services and implications for the future, witli findings and recommendations for making these services adequate to chang- ing needs. Marine Regions of tlie United States. Lewis M. Alexander, Sept. 9, 1968, Clear- inghouse Xo. PB 182605. A description of the geographic characteristics of nine marine regions, attendant socioeconomic factors, and certain management implications of the variations. Credits Photo Credits cover — M. Woodbridge Williams, National Park Service, Department of the Interior opposite page 1 — National Park Service, De- partment of the Interior page 3 — Navy page 5 — (top) The Johns Hopkins University (bottom) Glasheen Graphics, La Jolla, Calif, page 9 — left to right (top) National Petroleum Council, American Airlines (center) Coast Guard, National Park Service, Department of the Interior (bottom) National Park Service, De- partment of the Interior page 13 — Ocean Science and Engineering, Inc., Washington, D.C. page 15 — General Dynamics page 16 — Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation page 20 — Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- tution page 22 — General Electric page 24 — Navy page 26 — University of Rhode Island page 34 — (top) Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (bottom) Navy page 36 — Westinghouse Electric Corporation page 39 — The British Petroleum Company- page 40 — Westinghouse Electric Corpora- tion page 41 — University of Miami page 45 — Coast Guard page 48 — National Park Service, Department of the Interior page 52 — Department of Housing and ITrban Development page 55 — (top) Maritime Administration (bottom) Committee of American Steamship Lines, Washington, D.C. page 58 — Port of New York Authority page 61 — National Park Service, Department of the Interior page 64 — Army Corps of Engineers page 69 — Southern California Edison Com- pany page 73 — City of Cleveland page 75 — Coast Guard page 79 — Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Department of the In- terior page 82 — Shell Oil Company page 84 — Fish and Wildlife Service, Depart- ment of the Interior page 88 — Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior page 91 — United Nations Food and Agricul- ture Organization page 94 — (top) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior (bottom) Richard's Studio, Tacoma, Wash, page 96 — Fish and Wildlife Service, Depart- ment of the Interior page 99 — Maritime Administration page 100 — (top) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of the Interior (bottom) Bureau of Commercial Fish- eries, Department of the Interior page 103— (left and center) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior (right) Alpine Geophysical Associates, Inc., Norwood, N.J. page 106 — Coast Guard page 109 — World Health Organization 287 page 112 — Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of tlie Interior page 115 — Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior page 119 — Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior page 121 — National Science Foundation page 125 — Xational Petroleum Council page 126 — Mobil Oil Corporation page 131 — Dow Chemical Company page 133 — General Dynamics page 136 — Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior page 138 — Office of Saline Water, Depart- ment of the Interior page 142 — National Petroleum Council page 148 — National Science Foundation page 163— (top) Navy (bottom) Westjnghouse Electric Cor- poration page 168 — Environmental Science Servic&s Administration page 170 — Navy page 174 — (top left) Coast Guard (bottom left) National Science Founda- tion (right) Coast Guard page 176 — Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- tution page 179 — Lockheed Missiles and Space Company page 181 — Environmental Science Services Administrat ion page 183— (top) Environmental Science Services Administration (bottom) Navy page 186 — Environmental Science Services Administration page 187— (top) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (bottom) Environmental Science Serv- ices Administration page 190 — Environmental Science Services Administration page 195 — U.S. Naval Institute page 196 — Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation page 197 — Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- tution page 199 — United Nations Education, Scien- tific and Cultural Organization page 202 — Environmental Science Services Administration page 204 — Environmental Science Services Administration page 208 — Coast Guard page 210 — University of Rhode Island page 212 — Navy page 213 — National Aeronautics and Space Administration page 214 — Coast Guard page 216 — General Dynamics page 218 — Coast Guard page 221 — Smithsonian Institution page 222— (top) Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- tution (bottom) Environmental Science Serv- ices Administration page 223 — Navy page 226 — Coast Guard page 226 — Westinghouse Electric Corpora- tion page 228 — Navy page 230 — Environmental Science Services Administration page 234 — (top) Coast Guard (bottom) Environmental Science Ser\'- ices Administration 288 page 236 — Coast Guard page 237 — ^Coast Guard page 239 — Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior page 240 — Enviromnental Science Services Administration page 243 — (top) National Science Foundation (bottom) Navy page 246 — University of Rhode Island page 250 — Navy page 258 — ^M. Woodbridge Williams, Na- tional Park Service, Department of the Interior Design and Layout Jack Lefkowitz, Graphics Index 289 Ad Hoc Committee To Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Fhior Heyoiid the I^im- its of National Jurisdiction, U.N., 146, 147 AEO (see Atomic Energy Commission). Air Force. Department of, Aircraft meteorological instrumentation. 180 Aircraft : Commission recommendation : Aircraft-of-oppor- tunity program, 193 Oceanographic data collection, 192, 193 American Bureau of Shipping, Ves.sel certifica- tion, 215 AMVER (see Automated Merchant Vessel Reiwrting System ) . Applications Technology Satellites (ATS) : ATS-3 omega position locating equipment, 193 Oceanographic research capabilities, 193 Aquaculture : Coastal zone activity, 54 Commission recommendation : advancement, en- couragement, support, 118 Definition. 115-117 Future possibilities, 12, 116, 118 Government support, 240 Present status in United States, 115, 116 Summary of yields, chart, 116, 117 Army Corps of Engineers (see also Coastal Engi- neering Research Center) . Channel and harbor improvement financing, 65 Chesapeake Bay research program, 67 Coastal engineering methods, 33, 81 Coastal erosion study authorization, 65 Coastal zones : Management role, 56. 61. 62 Monitoring role, 68 Research role, 67 Commission recommendations : Coastal erosion study reexamination, 65 Offshore development, 70 Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 amendment, 76,77 Dredging activities, 252 Gulf of Mexico fairways establishment, 54, 55 Lake Survey charts. 210 Navigable waterways construction regulations enforcement, 217 Pollution control, construction activities effects. 76 Port and harbor modernization role, 66 Relation to Coastal Zone Authorities, 59 Resi>onsibilities in marine activity, 228, 232 Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, 96 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) : Coastal zone monitoring role, 68 Coastal zone research expansion, 81 Commission recommendations : Offshore development, 70 Pilot continental .shelf nuclear plant, 10, 70, 161 Pollution control authority, 77 Federal oceanography laboratories funding, 205, 206 Marine research funding, 24 NODC establishment agreement, 219 Nuclear technology for harbor evacuation studies, 252 Pollution control, nuclear power plant effects. 77 Power sources for marine resources development, 1(11, 107 Role in Federal marine program, 232, 235 ATS (see Application Technology Satellites). Automated Merchant \'essel Reporting System (AMVER), de.-^crii)tion, 216 B Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorological Ex- periment (BOMEX), 196 BCF (see Bureau of Commercial Fisheries). Biological research : Extracting drugs from the sea, 119, 120 Fishery yields, 9,8-100 Oceanic ecosystems dynamics. 172, 173 Sea plants sources, 118 BOMEX (see Barbados Oceanographic and Meteor- ological Experiment). Budget for marine .science program, proposed : Activities not included, 252 Cost estimates, 2.54-257 Efficiency considerations, 251 Funding considerations, 251, 252 Levels of funding for recommendes-(>f-iii(|N)rt\uiity pro- grani. l.KS 290 Marine fisheries: Equipment development, 101 Survey program, 99 NODC establishment agreement, 219 Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 234, 23.5 Proposed responsibilities under NOAA, 239, 240 Research expenditures, 98 Technology development, 33 Bureau of Land Management, coastal zone manage- ment role, 62 Bureau of Mines, ocean mining responsibilities, 141 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, establishment, 70 Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife : Estuarine study, 63 Proposed responsibilities under NOAA, 239, 340 Sandy Hook Marine Laluinitory program, 240 Research program, 67 C Canada: Cooperation with United States in international fisheries management, 104, 107-100 Offshore coal mining, 132 Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, consolida- tion under ESSA, 241 Chexnieail research, sea plant sources, 118 Chile, continental shelf definition, 145 Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 : Coastal zones management aid, 57 f>stuaries study authorization and requirements, 63 Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information (CFSTI). availability of materials, 283 Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. : Consolidation imder ESSA, 241 Continental shelves mapping program, 211 Maps and charts publication responsibility, 210 NODC establishment agreement, 219 Coast Guard, U.S. : Auxiliary assistance to States in recreational boating safety. 216 Average budget increases, 252 Coastal zone : Management, 56 Monitoring role, 68 Cooperation with Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 240 Cooijeration with Geological Survey and Navy. mapping and charting, 210 Gulf of Mexico fairways establishment, 54. .55 Marine law enforcement authority, 217 National Data Buoy System program, 191 National navigation system riesponsibility, 213-214 Polar exploration responsibilities. 244 Port and harbor modernization role, 67 Present status and function, 236-238 Proposelo, 50, 60-62 Federal/State coordination, 61, 62 Local authority, 56 Personnel needs, 68, 6!> Planning needs, 62 Program costs, 7!)-81 Reorganization needs, 49 Responsibility, 8, 9, 56 State authority, 56, 57 State l)Oundarj' determination, 62, 63 Monitoring and research : Monitoring needs, 68 Research needs, 67, 68 Significance, 67 Oceanic zones (see also Zones under international law). Offshore water use, 55, 56 Oil and mineral exploitation, 55, 56 Percentage of population living In coastal coun- tries, chart, 2 Pollution : Action programs, 76, 77 Characteristics, 73, 74 Control objectives, 74-76 Problem, 10, 72, 73 Recreational activity summary, chart, 52 Relationship of internal waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, and the continental shelf, chart, 51 Research needs, 27, 67 Resource activities, 54, 55 Resource surveys, 13, 139-141 Science and technology, 9, 10 "Seasteads," 70, 71 Shoreline development, 52, 53 Significance, 49 Surveys and inventories : Coastal erosion, 65 Estuarine inventory, 63, 65 Ports and harbors, 65, 66 Usage intensification, 52 Columbia, marine fishery dispute, 108, 109 Commerce, Department of (see also Environmental Science Services Administration ; Ofiice of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Serv- ices and Aprplied Meteor'ological Research). Marine industry development assistance, 159, 160 Marine research funding, 24 National Weather Records Center funding, 220 State Technical Services Program, 101 Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources : Activities of the members, 281 Administrative organization, 279, 280 Assistance from private and professional groups, 282 Contract studies and reports, 283, 284 Establishment, 266, 278 Interaction with other groups and individuals, 281, 282 International Panel, membership, 280 Legislative authority, 279 Material utilized, 281 Membership, 278 Panel on Basic Science, membership, 280 Panel on Environmental Monitoring and on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone: Activity, 280 r^inctions and programs of Federal agencies, 182 Identification of increase in coastal zone usage, 52 membership, 280 Panel on Industry and Private Investment, mem- l)ership, 280 Panel on Manpower, Education, and Training, membership, 280 Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology : Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratories, 162-164 Fresh water restoration project, 78 Industrial technology in ocean resources de- velopment, 161 Membership, 280 Panel on Marine Resources : Fishermen's net economic return improve- ment, 94 Membership, 280 Papers submitted, 284,285 Relationship with National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, 281 Reports, 283 Staff makeup, 281 Commission on Weather Modification, NSF. atmos- phere behavior alteration by man, 171 Commissions : Atlantic States Marine Fi.sheries Commission, 96 Commission on Weather Modifications. NSF. 171 Federal Power Commission, 127-130 Gnat Lakes Fisheries Commission. 1 13 Gulf States JIarine Fisheries Commission, SKi Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. 169, 17.">, 190.200, 20.-. International Joint Commission for the (Jreat Lakes. 78 292 National Seashore Boundary Commission, 63 Pacific Halibut Commission, 92, 93 Pacitic Marine Fisheries Commission, 96 Public Land Law Review Commission, 136 Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, NAS, weather modification report, 198 Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone : Coastal zones management, .56 Port modernization study, 66 Committee on Ocean Engineering, NAE, assistance to Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, 66 Committee on Oceanography, NAS: Assistance to the Commission, 282 Ocean maps, 209 Ocean research review, 194 "Oceanography, 1960-1970," 278 "Oceanography 1966," 279 Committees and boards : Ad Hoc Committee To Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction (U.N.), 146, 147 Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, NAS, 198 Committee on Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone, 56,66 Committee on Ocean Engineering, NAE, 282 Committee on Oceanography, NAS, 194, 209, 278. 279, 282 Committee on Petroleum Resources Under the Ocean Floor, 144-146 Disarmament Committee, U.N,, 3, 4 Interagency Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services, 182, 183 Interagency Committee on Oceanography, 17, 278 Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences, 183 National Advisory Committee for the Oceans (NACO) , 19, 39, 40, 165, 245-247 Ocean Science and Technology Committee, NSIA, 282 President's Science Advisory Committee, 157, 169, 194, 210, 278, 279 Public Land Law Review Commission, 136 Congress, U.S. : Bill H.R. 12601, Presidential veto, 279 Commis.sion recommendation : pollution control status reports from Interior Dept., 76 Couuniftee jurisdiction over executive agencies in marine science, chart, 248 Oversight of marine activities. 247-249 Conservation (see also Land and Water Conserva- tion Fund) : Coastal zone recreation areas, 60 Fisheries, 12,90-95 Great Lakes restoration, 10, 77-78 International fisheries management, 104 Marine resources, 10 Natural preserves for study, 10 Oonshelf project, French, 162 Continental Shelf (see also Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953) : Approximate delineation of continental shelves and intermediate zones as propo.sed, maps, 152, 153, 154 Commission recommendations : Amendment of Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 1.56, 157 Guaranteeing private Investment, 1.56 Leasing beyond the 200-meter i.sobath, 1.56 New definition, 145, 146 Existing definition, 143 Fixed continental .shelf laboratories, 162-1(54 International Registry Authority : Creation of an intermediate zone, 1.51-154 Dispute settlement, 150, 151 Policies on all industry registered claims, 154, 155 Policing functions, 150 Powers and duties of registering nations, 150 Proposed claims registration procedure, 147-149 Proposed funding procedure, 149, 1.50 Proposed interim action, 155-157 Line profiles of different jwints off the U.S. coast, chart, 124 Mapping, 210, 211 Portable continental shelf laboratories, 164 Subsea areas beyond the shelf and recommended legal-political arrangements, 146, 147 Truman Proclamation of 1945, 145 Uncertainties and recommended redefinition. 143-145 U.S./industry cooperation on registry claims, 154, 155 Continental Shelf Laboratories Project : Capabilities and functions. 162-1(>4 Estimated cost, 167 Objec-tives, 10, 11 Test facilities for under.sea navigation technology. 214 Convention on the Continental Shelf : Definition, 143 "Median line" principle, 151 National sovereignty. .50. .51, 143 Z9S Research restrictions, 202, 203 Scientific iiivestiKation requirements', 205 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Liv- ing Resources of the High Seas ; Adoption, 109 Need for international compliance, 112-114 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Con- tiguous Zone : Natiional sovereignty, 49, 50 Submersible requirements in territorial waters, 203 Territorial sea clarilication. 111, 204 D Data acquisition, processing, and dissemination : Commission recommendations : Coordinated system of data centers, 221 Cost estimate, 224 Data centers' restrictions, 2*20 Data services availalile, 218, 219 Workings of the data system, chart. 219 Deep Exploration Submersible Systems Project : Capabilities and function, 180 Cost estimate, 206 Deep ocean exploration : Commission recommendations : Manner and unmanned probing, 176 National needs considerations, 175 Navy/NOAA deep ocean stations. 178 International cooperation, 174. 175 Landmarks in the development of ocean technol- ogy, chart, 6 Technological requirements, 16, 17, 176, 177 Deep Sea Stations Project. Commission recommen- dation, 178 Defense, Department of (DOD) (see also Air Force; Army Corps of Engineers; Military Sea Transport Services ; Navy ; OflSce of the Special Assistant for Environmental Services of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). Marine-related military programs, 252 Marine resources development, technology trans- fer, 165 Marine science research. 5. 30 NEMPS data processing and forecasts issuance. 185 Polar exploration responsibilities, 244 Specialized marine environmental monitoring needs. 184 Department of the Air Force (.see Air Force, De- partment of). Department of C5ommercte (see Commerce, Depart- ment of). Department of Defense (see Defense, Department of). Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (see Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of). Department of Housing and Urban Development (.see Housing and I'rban Development, Depart- ment of). Department of the Interior (see Interior, Depart- ment of). Department of the Navy (see Navy, Department of). Department of State (see State, Department of). Department of Transportation (see Transportation, Department of). Desalination programs, 137-139 Disarmament Committee, U.N., ocean floor arms limitation, 3, 4 Drugs from the sea, 12, 119 " E Economic Development Administration : Marine resources capital investment, 1.59, 160 Port and harbor modernization role, 66 Ecuador: Continental shelf definition, 145 Marine fi.shery dispute. 108, 109 Education : Commission recommendations : Expansion of support, 43 NOAA responsibility for .statistics and coordin- ation, 43, 44 Postdoctoral and midcareer orientation, 43, 44 Funding sources for principal marine science institutions, map, 31 Graduates and enrollees in marine science programs, chart, 42 National Sea Grant Program support, 43, 44 NSF support. 43 Principal marine .science laboratorie,s and institu- tions, map, 28 Elliott and Naftalin, "Federal Authority for (Con- duct of JIarine Activities." 283 Environmental Data Service, ESSA. 219 Environmental re.search (see also Marine ecology). Commission recommendations : Balanced effort in research, exploration, and technology, 170 Environmental modification study, 198 National monitoring program, 171 Table, 274, 275 Damage by man, 1 Deep sea exploration, 16-17, 174-178 Environmental modification, 17. 197-198 m Global environmental programs : Cost estimates, chart, 207 Fundamental technology programs, 206 Global monitoring systems, 206 Research and exploration programs, 205, 206 Military /civilian roles, 16, 183-185 Monitoring and prediction system, 15, 16, 206, 207 Oceanographie effects, 2, 3, 169-171 Environmental Science Sen-ices Administration (ESSA) (see also Coast and Geodetic Survey; Environmental Data Services ; ESSA meteoro- logical satellites, SEAMAP: Weather Bureau). Aircraft meteorology instrumentation, 189 Average budget increases, 252 Coastal zone monitoring role, 68 Cooperation with Coast Guard, Geological Survey, and Navy in mapping and charting, 210 Cooperation with NASA in weather satellite program, 187 Establishment and purpose, 182 Mapping and charting responsibilities, 209-212 Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 234, 235 Planned geophysical sun'ey, 139, 140 Polar exploration responsibilities, 244 Present responsibilities, 241 Proposed responsibilities under NOAA, 241 Radiosonde observations, 188 Weather and marine information system, 184 Weather modification responsibilities, 198 Weather service program, 252 ESSA (see Environmental Science Services Ad- mlnLstration ) . ESSA meteorological satellites, oceanographie capa- bilities, 193 Executive Office of the President : Establishment of NOAA, 246, 247 Legislative requirements, reports on marine science accomplishments, 265, 266 Executive Order 11288, 77 F FDA (see Food and Drug Administration). Federal Council for Science and Technolc^y (see also Interagency Committee on Oceanography ; Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences ) . Federal Laboratories : Commission recommendation : strengthening. 29 Consolidation of civil agencies in-house labs, 29 Financial .supi>ort, 44 Federal Power Commission (FPC), natural gas regulatory powers, 127-130 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (FWPCA) : Coastal zone: Management role, 62, 252 Research, 67 Commission recommendations : Pollutant and pollution loads research, 76 Role in Great I^kes restoration, 78 Costs, 81 Estuary survey, 63 Research and development program, 77 River inflow monitoring, 68 Statutory requirement, 29 Fish and Wildlife Service (see Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife). Fish Protein Concentrate Program Commission recommendation : expanded support, 103 Technology development, 102-104 Fisheries (see also Bureau of Commercial Fisheries; Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife) : Commission recommendations : Excess fishing curtailment, 93 Extension services establishment, 101 Fishery analysis and exploitation, 98 Fishing technology program, 101 International agreement on catch limit for cod and haddock fisheries of North Atlantic, 105, 106 International fishery commission financing, 114 International provisions, enforcement and regu- lations, 114 Management aims, 92 National catch quotas for high seas fisheries of North Pacific, 108 National priorities, policies, and regulation, 96, 97 Preferential treatment of coastal nations, 110, 111 Rationalize U.S. fishing effort in North Atlantic. 108 Removal of restriction of foreign built vessels and equipment, 98 Settlement of disjiutes and problems arbitration, 114, 115 Stock assessment, surve.vs, and exploratory fishing, 100, 101 Stock improvement research programs, 89 Strengthening international fishery organiza- tions, 111-113 Territorial seas agreement. 111 Domestic fisheries management and rehabilita- tion : 295 Federal and State roles, 95, 96 Pishing industry decline, 94. 95 . Estuarine habitat areas lost to filling oiwration, chart, 54 Estuarine habitats, 53, .54 Extension serriees, 101-104 Food potential, 88, 89 Increasing gap between world food needs and food supply, chart, 87 International cooperation, 93 International fisheries management : Administrative organization, 113, 114 Commission evaluation, 105 Dispute settlement procedure, 114, 115 Existing framework, 104, IC^ National catch quotas, 105-109 Objectives, 104 Regulation enforcement, 114 Total expenditures and U.S. funding, 113 Management : Need for regulating fisheries, 11, 12, 90-92 Objectives. 93, M Proposed rehabilitation by NCAA, 239, 24« Research, technology, and survey programs, 12, 98-101 Trends in the U.S. and world catch of fish, chart, 89 U.S. economic improvement, 11 Vessel subsidy programs, 97, 98 World production and demand, 89, 90 Fisherman's Protective Act of 1954, 109, 110 Fleet Numerical Weather Central, Monterey, Calif., 184 FLIP surface platform. 177 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 90, 111, 199 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) : Fish protein concentrate program, 102 Marine law enforcement functions, 217 PPC (see Federal Power Commission). Prance (see aLso Conshelf project), satellite inter- rogation of free-floating platforms, 193 FWPCA (see Federal Water Pollution Control Administration ) . G (Jeneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea (see Convention on the Continental Shelf; Conven- tion on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zcme ; Convention on FMshing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas). Geological mapping and analysis programs : Commission recommendation : reconnaissance surveys and analysis, 140 Coordination of programs need, 140, 141 Cost estimate, 167 Pre-investment surveys need, 139-141 Geological Survey, U.S. : Capabilities and responsibilities, 141, 228 Cooperation with Coast Guard, ESSA, and Navy in mapping and charting, 17 River inflow monitoring, 68 George Washington University, program of policy studies in science and technology reports, 283, 284 Great Britain, offshore coal mining, 132 Great Lakes Fisheries Commission, funding, 113 Great Lakes Restoration Feasibility Test Project : Commission recommendation : establishment and FWPCA responsibility, 78 Funding requirements,.81 Gulf of Mexico : Fairways establishment, 54, 55 JOIDBS deep sea drilling project, 123 Offshore platforms, environmental observation in- struments, 188 Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, 96 H Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of ( HEW) (see also Food and Drug Administration : Institute of Marine Medicine and Pharmacology : Public Health Service), marine drugs screen- ing, 12, 119 HEW (see Health, Education, and Welfare, De- partment of ). Homestead Act of 1862, influence on seastead con- cept, 72 Honduras, marine fishery dispute, 108, 109 Housing Act of 1954, 57 Housing and Urban Development, Department of (HUD) , role in coastal zones management, 56 HUD (see Housing and Urban Development, De- partment of). Hurricane AVarning Service, Commission recom- mendation : data networks expansion. 190 I Icebergs : Commission recommendation : forecasting and remote sensing of sea ice, 190 Motion and deformation of sea ice prediction capability, 190 ICNAF (see International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries). ICSU (see International Council of Scientific Unions). 296 IGOSS (see Integrated Global Ocean Station System). Industry : Capital investment and I'equirements, 159, 160 Federal and State regulations and support, 13. 14 Fishing vessels' exemption from Coast Guard certification regulation, 215 Fresh water resources, 137-139 Fundamental technology support, 5, 6, 35-37, 134, 161 Geological and geophysical surveys, 13, 139-141 Government/industry relationship in developing marine resources, 13, 14, 83, 157-166 Mapping and charting role, 210 Marine fisheries development, 10, 89-101, 239, 240 Merchant ship instrumentation for environmental observations, 188 Minerals development, 13, 130-137 Natural gas development, 127-130 Oceanographic research effects, 170 Oil, gas, and mineral exploitation, 10, 13, 54, 55 Petroleum development, 122-127 Transfer of technology, 164, 165 United States/industry cooperation on continen- tal shelf claims, 154, 155 INPEC (see International Convention on the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific). Instrument testing and calibration, 221-223 Institute of Marine Medicine and Pharmacology, HEW, Commission recommendation, 12, 120, 121 Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) : Description, 200 U.S. participation, 16 Interagency Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services : Coordination of Federal environmental monitoring programs, 182 Responsibilities, 183 Interagency Committee on Oceanography, 17, 278 Interagency cooperation : AEC/Army Corps of Engineers/DOT/NOAA in offshore development feasibility study, recom- mendation, 70 Army Corps of Engineers/Fish and Wildlife Service/FWPCA/XOAA in coastal zone re- search, 10, 67 Army Corps of Engineers/Interior Dept./State Coastal Zone Authority/NOAA in coastal zone management, 61 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries/Navy/ESSA in ships-of-opportunity program, 188 Coast Guard/Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild- life in fish species charting, 240 ESSA/NASA in national weather satellite pro- gram, 187 ESSA/NASA/DOD in environmental monitoring and prediction, 24.1 FWPCA/Geological Survey in river infiow moni- toring, 68 .Maiipingand charting, 210 Marine technology, Navy and others, 7, 38-40, 235 Meteorological coordination, 244, 245 NASA/Navy in spacecraft oceanography, 187 Navy /Coast Guard in military preparedness, 238 NODC establishment and funding, 219, 220 Polar exploration, 243, 244 Port and waterway study, recommendation, 66 Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences, 183 Intergovernmental Cooperation Act of 1968, 101, 102 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) (see also Integrated Ocean Station System ) . Capabilities, 199, 200 Deep ocean exploration coordination and plan- ning, 175 Establishment and activities, 199 IGOSS planning, 200 Scientific investigation certification, 205 Tsunami Warning System coordinating responsi- bility, 200 U.S. participation, 169 Interior, Department of (see also Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries : Bureau of Land Manage- ment ; Bureau of Mines : Bureau of Outdoor Recreation ; Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife ; Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- ministration ; Fish and Wildlife Service ; Ge- ological Survey; National Park Service). Coastal zones management, 56, 61, 62 Commission recommendations : Bstuarine studies, 65 Fresh water desalination program, 137-139 Pollution control status report to Congress, 76 Federal regulations enforcement authority, 127 Marine geological survey program, 139, 140 Marine research funding, 23 Ocean mining : Funding, 141 Guidelines, 136 Pollution control, State regulatory standards, 75 Responsibility in marine activities, 228, 239, 240 Role in marine minerals development, 141 Water pollution from boats, estimates, 74 International Agreement for Regulation of Whaling. 104 297 International Biological Program, 175 International Convention for the, Conservation of Atlantic Tuna, 104 International Convention for the Xorthwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) : Commission recommendations : National catch quotiis. 10."., 107-109 National catch quotas establishment, 105, 106 U.S. participation, 104 Working Group on Joint Biological and Eco- nomic Assessment of Conservation Actions, 109 International Convention on Inter-American Tropi- cal Tuna, 104 International Convention on the Conservation and Protection of North Pacific Fur Seals, 104 International Convention on the Great Lakes Fish- eries, 104 International Convention on the High Seas, 50 InternationalConvention on the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific (INPFC) : National catch quot-as. lOH. 100 U.S. participation, 104 International Convention on the Preservation of the Halibut Fishery of the Northern Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, 104 International Convention on the Protection, Preser- vation, and Extension of the Salmon Fishery of the Fraser River Sy.stem, 104 International cooperation (see also Intergovern- mental Cooperation Act of 1968 ; Intergovern- mental Oceanographic Commission ; United Nations; World Meteorological Organization). Agreement for Regulation of Whaling, 104 Canada/United States, fisheries management. 104. 107-109 Columbia/United States, marine fishery dispute, 108, 109 Commission recommendations : Intergovernmental organization on oceanog- raphy, 200, 201 National catch quotas, 10.5-107 Principle of maximum freedom for scientific inquiry, 202 U.S. action to encourage freedom of scientific research. 204, 205 Communications improvement, 189 Continental shelf : Creation of an intermediate zone, 151-1.54 Dispute settlement, 1.50, 151 Policing functions for the registry authority, 1.50 Powers and duties of registering nations, IflO Proposed claims regl.stration procwlure. 147-149 Proposed funding for International Registry Authority, 149, 1.50 Deep ocean exploration, 174, 175 Difficulties arising from Truman Proclamation of 1945, 145 Ecuador/United States, marine fishery dispute. 108, 109 Environmental monitoring and prediction, 16 Fish protein concentrate program, 102 Global environmental monitoring .system, 198-201 Honduras/United States, marine fishery dispute. 108, 109 International fisheries management, 15, 93. 104, 105 International Registry Authority, 155-157 Japan/United States in fisheries management, 104, 107-109 Mexico/United States in fisheries management, 104, 108-109 NOAA participation in international programs, 235 Ocean mining legal-political framework, 141-143 Panama/United States marine fishery dispute, 108, 109 Peru/United States marine fishery dispute, 108. 109 Preferential treatment of the coastal nation, 108- 111 Research restrictions under existing legal frame- work, 201-203 U.N. arms limitations, 3, 4 U.N. role in international fisheries management, 90,104 United States/foreign industry cooperation on registry claims, 154, 155 U.S.S.R./United States in fisheries management, 104, 107 World Weather Program, 3, 16, 200 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) : Constituent groups related to marine sciences, 199 Ocean exploration advice, 175 International Decade of Ocean Exploration : Commission recommendation, 175 Propo.sed NO.\A participation. 242, 243 Submersibles contribution. ISO U.S. expenditures, 206 U.S. proposal, 3, 174, 175 International Hydrograi)hic Bureau : Ocean survey data standardization and dissemi- nation, 199 I'.S. commitments. 175 International .Joint Conuuission for the Great Lakes. 7S 298 Interrogation, Recording, and Location System (IRLS) 193 IOC (see Intergovernmental Oceanographie Com- mission). IRLS (see Interrogation. Recording, and Location System ) . J Japan : Cooperation with U.S. in fislieries management, 104, 107-109 Offshore coal mining, 132 JOIDES deep sea drilling project, 123, 172 L Lakes Survey, United States : Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 235 Present responsibilities, 241 Proposed responsibilities. 241, 242 Lamont Geological Obser\-atory ; South Atlantic .sediment studies, 173 Status, 25 Land and Water Conser\-ation Fund : Commission recommendation : utilization for wet- land acquisition, 60 Land acquisition funds, 80, 81 Large Stable Ocean Platform Project, 38 Latin America marine fi.shery disputes, 109-111, 144 M Manned ocean habitats : Commission recommendation : advanced deep ocean stations, 178 Cost estimates, 206 Future capabilities, 177, 178 Mapping and charting : Agency responsibilities and industry role, 209, 210 Bathymetric and geophysical characteristics of the continental .shelf, 210, 211 Commission recommendations : General ocean mapping program, 210 Mapping of bathymetry and geophysics of U.S. waters and continental shelves, 211 Nautical charting activities acceleration, 212 Survey equipment development, 213 Cost estimates, 224 Nautical charting surveys, 211, 212 Survey technology needs, 212, 213 Terminology, 209 Marine activities : Commission recommendation : Federal organiza- tion, 227-230 Congressional oversight, 247, 249 Federal agencies currently associated with marine science, chart, 228 National program need, 1, 4, 17 National significance, 19 Need for reorganization, 17-19, 247, 249 Overseeing the national program, 244, 245 Proposed operational planning and coordination of a Federal program, 244, 245 Marine Council (.see National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development). Marine ecology : Aquaculture contributions, 115 Beneficial and detrimental modifications, 198 Commission recommendation : prediction capabili- ties development, 197 Definition, 266 Poisonous marine organisms, 120 Prediction capabilities, 197 Marine environmental monitoring and prediction sen'ices ( see also National Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System). Federal funding catagories, 183 Limiting factors, 181, 182 Products of the present system, 183, 184 Systems operations, 182, 183 Marine geology : Areas of concentration, 141 Earth's crust research and ocean resources survey, 172 Need for geological survey programs, 139-141 Profile of the continents and oceans, 140 Theory of the continental drift, map, 172 Marine instruments : Commission recommendation : calibration and testing program, 223 Testing and calibration standards, 221, 223 Marine resources (see also Aquaculture; Fisheries; Fresh water resources ; Industry ; Natural gas ; Ocean mining ; Petroleum ) . Commission recommendations : Defining areas lieyond continental .shelf. 147 Goverrunent role in support of resource develop- ment, 157 Industrial capital sources and requirements. I.'i9. 160 Industry role in support of resource develop- ment, 157, 158 Legal and regulatory framework for safeguard- ing industrial investment, 160 Offshore oil leasing and regulation, 124-127 I'rogram costs, 166, 167 Dock-side value of resources, 158 Domestic marine resource-based industry, present status, chart, 159 Drugs. 12. 119-121 S99 Fresh water resources and desalination, 137-139 Hard minenU resources : Current state of (x«an mining, 132, 133 Delegation of Government responsibility, 141 Exploration and development guidelines, 136 International legal-political framework, 141- 157 Legal and regulatory considerations, 135-137 Necessaty for development, 130 Present world resource status, 130-132 Technological considerations and obstacles, 133- 135 Industrial activities and needs, 13, 158, 159 National resource pwlicy, 10, 83-86 Need for government/industry cooperation, 85, 166 Need for international cooperation, 85 Power source technology for resource develop- ment, 161, 162 Proposed 10-year cost breaidown, chart, 166 Research, technology, and survey programs, 12 Resource activities in coastal zone, 54, 55 Resource surveys, 13, 139-141 Sea plants, research and uses, 11, 118 Technology services to support industry activities. Government responsibility, 161 Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966: Annual report requirement, 347 Content summary, 279 Executive responsibility, 247 International cooperation, 3 Text, 261-266 Marine science and technology : Commission recommendations : Fundamental technology, 36, 37 National ocean program objectives, 23, 32 National projects, 37 Navy/NOAA liaison on fundamental technology, 40 Scientific and technical information and exten- sion program, 44 Costs, 44-47 Definition, 266 Federal agencies currently associated with marine science, chart, 228 Federal agencies' laboratories, 29 Fundamental technology : Comparison with applied technology, 35, 36 Government/industry/university coojieration, .36.38-40 Instrumentation need, 36 Support needs. 36 Government role, 21, 22, 33, 157 Industry role, 33, 158, 161 Information dissemination, 44, 164, 165 International apparatus, 199 Materials and instrumentation needs, 5, 7, 35, 36, 221-223 National capability, 21, 33 National projects, 7, 37, 38 Navy role. 7, 8, 40 Objectives, 5, 23, 31, 32, 37 Research facilities, 4, 5, 25, 26 Re.search support diversity, 30 Significance, 3, 4, 22, 23, 30, 31 Marine Technology Society, 282 Marine tran.?iportation : Commission recommendation : study of port and waterway systems, 66 Growth and change, 65. Ports and harbors : Fact-finding study, 66 Waterway deepening, 65, 66 Traffic congestion and control, 66, 215 Maritime Administration, port and harbor moderni- zation role, 66 Medical research : Drugs developed from the sea, estimated cost, 167 Extracting drugs from the sea, 12, 119, 120 Meteorology : Hurricane development forecasting, 189, 190 Research programs coordination, 182, 183 Mexico : Cooperation with United States, 104 Marine flsherj- dispute, 108, 109 Military Sea Transport Service, radiosonde obser- vations, 188 Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory Project, 178 N XACO (see National Advisory Committee for the Oceans). NAE(see National Academy of Engineering). XAS (see National Academy of Sciences). NASA (see National Aeronautics and Space Administration ) . National Academy of Engineers (NAE) (see also Committee on Ocean Engineering). .N'ational Academy of Sciences (NAS) (see also Committee on Atmospheric Sciences ; Commit- tee on Oceanography). Atmospheric behavior alteration by man. 171 Deep ocean exploration, 175 Mapping and survey i)rograms importance. 210 Statement on marine science needs and accom- plishments, 284 300 National Advisory Committee for the Oceans (NACO) : Commission recommendations : Administrative malie-up, 245, 246 Establislinient and functions. 19. 245, 246 Government/industry/iiniversity participation, 39, 40 Teclinology transfer role, 165 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) : Commission recommendation : cooperation witli NOAA on satellite oceanography, 187, 188 Cooperation with ESSA in national weather satellite program, 187 Cooperation with Navy in spacecraft oceano- graphy, 187 Earth resources program, sensor development, 187 Marine program funding problems comparison, 251 Marine research funding, 24 Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 235 Satellites, oceanographic applications, 210 Spacecraft use in environmental monitoring, 187 National Association of State Boating Law Adminis- trators, 217 National Bureau of Standards, reference standards and test procedures for marine instruments, 222 National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) , transfer of funding responsibility to NOAA, 243 National Council on Marine Resources and Engi- neering Development (see also Committee on Multiple U.se of the Coastal Zone ; Interagency Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environ- mental Services). Commission recommendations : continuance, 18, 247 Coordination of Federal coastal activities, 56, 245 Establishment, 247, 262 International cooperation authority, 265 Marine activities planning and coordination, 229 Marine data needs study, 232 National Data Buoy System Program initiation, 166 Present Federal funding level estimation, 253 Relationship with the Commission, 281 Responsibilities, 17, 247, 262, 263 National Data Buoy Sy.stem Program, 191 National economy and marine program, effect, 170, 171 National Environmental Jlonitoring and Predic- tion System (NEMPS) (.see also Marine en- vironmental monitoring and prediction serv- ices). Commission recommendations: Development on a global basis, 201 Establishment and activities, 16, 184, 185, 231 Organization and management, 185, 186 Systems analysis, IfH Cost estimate, 207 Data collection devices, 191-194 Formation, 241 Immediate improvements possibility, 188-190 Initial data requirements for forecasts of given lengths, chart, 192 System operations, 184 Systems analysis, 194 National Institutes of Health (NIH), 120, 121 National Multi-Agency Oil and Hazardous Ma- terial.s Contingency Plan of September 1968, 75 National Oceanic and Atmo.spheric Agency (NOAA) : Capabilities, 234-236 Commission recommendations : Establishment, 230 Independent status, 233 Responsibilities, 245 Considerations dealing with proposed agency transfers, 236-244 Objectives and responsibilities, 4, 18, 246, 247 Operational planning and coordination of Fed- eral marine activities, 244, 245 Organization and function, 230-234 Proposed budget, 258 Proposed make-up, chart, 233 National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) : Commission recommendations : Administration and financing, 220 Federal support, 221 Functions, 220 Functions, funding, and organization, 219, 220 Oceanographic data indexes establishment, 219 Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 235 National Park Service, shoreline management, 70 National Petroleum Council, Committee on Petro- leum Resources Under the Ocean Floor : Continental shelf redefinition. 144, 146 Evaluation of continental shelf redefinition, 144-146 National Projects (see also Continental Shelf Lab- oratories Project ; Deep Exploration Submers- ible Systems Project ; Deep Sea Stations Proj- ect ; Great Lakes Restoration Feasibility Project; Large Stable Ocean Platform Project Mobile I'ndersea Support Laboratory Project Pilot ("(intinental Shelf Nuclear Plant Project Seamount Station Project ; Test Facilities and Ocean Ranges Project ) . SOI Commission recommendations : Establishment, 37 Government/industry cooperation, 39 Costs, 47 Definition and objectives, 37 Feasibility studies, 37, 38 List, 38 Management and support, 37 National Science Foundation (NSF) (see also Commission on Weather Alodification ; JOIDES deep sea drilling project ; National Center for Atmospheric Research). Coastal zone research expansion, 81 Commission recommendation : expansion of uni- versity supiK)rt, 43 Cooperation with Navy, 210 Growth slowdown, 25 Marine research : Funding, 23, 30, 205, 206 Program, 24 Support activities, 227, 228 NCAR operation, 243 NODO establishment agreement, 219 Ocean crust structure and origin research pro- gram, 172 Polar exploration responsibilities, 243 Trends in funding, chart, 25 University-National Laboratory support, 5, 342 Weather modification research : Elimination of responsibility, 198 Report, 198 National Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966, proposed amendment, 29 National Sea Grant Program : Aquaculture research, 240 Educational support, 43, 44 Marine science support, 25 Multidisciplinary cooperation stimulation, 40 Participation in NOAA organization, 232, 235, 242 Public uses of the sea, 17 Research laboratory financial support, 81 Technical ser\-ices, 101 National Seashore Boundary Commission, Com- mission recommendation, 63 National security : Oceanographic requirements, 170 Undersea operations, 3, 4 National Security Industrial Association, Ocean Science and Technology Committee: Coojieration with Commission, 282 Report submitted, 2S4 National Sediment Coring Prc^ram, 139, 140 National Weather Records Center : Commission recommendation, 221 Marine functions, 220 National Weather Satellite Program, 187 National AVeather Service, recommended integra- tion into NEMPS, 10 Natural Gas : Current status, 127 FPC planning policy recommendation. 129, 130 National reserve-to-production ratio, 127, 128 New pipeline construction, 128 Re.search and technology accounting regulations, 128. 129 Wellhead price regulation, 128 Natural re.sources : Need to develop new sources, 84 I'rojected demand for given minerals to 1985 and 2000, chart, 85 Naval Oceanographic Instrument Center: FuncUons, 223 Nautical charts publication, 210 Navigation : Commission recommendations : Cost estimate, 224 Development work, 214, 215 Current capabilities, 213 National navigation system, 214 Positioning system needs, 213, 214 Submerslbles, 214 Navy, Department of (.see also FLIP surface platform ; Office of Naval Research ; Project Rocksite; Sealab project; TRANSIT navigation satellites ) . Aircraft : ileteorology instrumentation, 189 Remote oceanographic sensors, 187 Civilian technology contributions, 40 Coastal waters use, military operations, 55 Commission recftmmendation : coojieration with NOAA, 7, 163, 178 Cooperation with Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in ships-of -opportunity program, 188 Cooperation with Coast Guard, ESSA, and Geological Survey in mapiiing and charting. 210 Cooperation with NASA in spacecraft oceanog- raphy, 187 Cooperation with NSF in university shii>s supiKirt. 210 Environuieiital prediction .--ervices coDrdination, 182 Fcdenil (iceanography laboratories funding. 20."i. 20ord wat*r depths for producing and explora- tory weUs, chart, 122 Physical oceanography : Basic research, 194 Conmiission recommendations : Ocean current systems study, 195 Oceanic scales of motion study, 197 Sea-air interaction processes study, 196 Research areas, 173, 194-197 Sea-air interaction, 195, 196 Wave analysis diagrams, 195 Pilot Buoy Network Project : CJommission recommendation, 192 Cost estimate, 207 Need, 16, 191 Pilot Continental Shelf Nuclear Power Plant Project : Capabilities and fuhctions, 70, 161 BJstimated cost, 167 Objectives, 11 Pilot Harbor Redevelopment Project, 66 Polar exploration, 173, 174, 243, 244 Pollution (see also Federal Water Pollution Control Administration ; Great Lakes Restoration Feasibility Test Project: Water Quality Act of 1965). Action programs : AEC authority, 77 Army Corps of Engineers authority, 76 Legislation and financing, 76 Characteristics, 73, 74 Coastal research, 10 Commission recommendations : AEC consideration of environmental effects of projects, 77 Enforcement review and funding, 77 FWI'CA detwtion and analysis of ivoUutants. 76 National Commission establishment, 79 Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, amendment, 76,77 Status reiwrts to Congress on State pollution abatement programs, 76 Control objectives : International regulations, 75 Quality acceptability level determination, 75 Recognition, 74, 75 State quality standards, 75 Federal legislation compliance, 10 Funding requirements, 81 Hazards to marine resources, 2 Problem analysis, 72, 73 Technology status, 77 Waste management, 78 Population explosion : Economic expansion, 1 Food supply impact, 1, 84, 90 Increasing gap between world food needs and food supply, chart, 87 Recreational needs, 1, 2 Port of New York Authority, 57 Power Squadron, U.S., recreational boating educa- tional programs, 216, 2J7 President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) : Mapping and survey programs importance, 210 Ocean research review, 194 Panel on Oceanography : Ecology considerations, 169 "Effective U.se of the Sea", 278, 279 Government role in support of marine resource development, 157 Project Rocksite, Navy, 177 PSAC (see President's Science Advisory Commit- tee). Public Health Service : Coastal zone monitoring role, 68 Marine law enforcement functions, 217 Shellfish sanitation program, 252 Public Land Law Review Commission, 136 Public Law 89^.54 (see Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966). Public Works and Economic Development Act, regional commissions, .56 Publications (.see Apijendix 4 for list of materials published by the Commission) . Puget Sound salmon fishery conservation program, 92 R Recreation Boating : Certification authority, 215 Safety program, 216, 217 Commission recommendations ; Public provisions in marine plans, 71 Safety regulations for boats, 217 Growth, status, and government support, 70 Marine parks in the I'nited States, map, 71 T'rbaii waterfronts, 70, 71 SOi Regulatory procedures : Commission recommendations ; Enforcement functions cost estimate, 224 Marine law enforcement, 218 Updating safety standards, 215, 216 Federal and State enforcement activities, 217, 218 Vessel certification standards, 215 Resources for the Future, Inc. : Oceanographic seminars sponsorship, 282 "Selecting Policies for the Development of Marine Resources," 284 Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, recommended amendment, 76, 77 S Safety : Accident rate, 1967, 215 Commission recommendations : Cost estimates, 224 Diving equipment certification, 217 Recreational boating regulation, 217 Updating safety standards, 215, 216 Recreational boating, 216, 217 Search and rescue services, 216 Traffic control system, 215 Underwater safety : Emergency equipment, 217 Equipment certification, 217 Vessel certification, 215 Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 240 Satellite oceanography : Capabilities, 193, 194 Commission recommendations : NASA/NOAA cooperation, 187, 188 Sensors development, 194 Mapping and charting, 210 NASA/Navy cooperation, 187 Satellites (see Application Technology Satellites; ESSA meteorological satellites; NIMBUS meteor- ological satellites ; Tiros meteorological satellites ; TRANSIT navigation satellites). SBA (see Small Business Administration). Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 25 Sealab project, Navy, 162 SEAMAP, 172 Seamount Station Project, 178 "Seasteads," 70, 71 Ship-of -opportunity program : Commi-ssion recommendation, 188, 189 Navy /Bureau of Commercial Fisheries coopera- tion, 188 World coverage, map, 189 Small Business Admini.stration (SBA) industry aid, 159, 160 Smithsonian Institution : Coastal zone research expansion, 81 Oceanographic Sorting Center : Biological and geological samples storage, 221 Commission recommendation, 221 Fimctions and funding, 220 Legislative re^iuirements, 220, 221 Responsibility in marine activities, 228 Southern California University, assistance to the Commission, 282 State Coastal Zone Authorities : Commission recommendations: Administration of Federal grants, 62 Establishment, 8. 57 Federal grants coordination, 62 Federal legislation aid, .59 Coordination with Federal agencies, 61, 62 Federal financial support, 79 Functions and powers. 57-60 Interstate estuaries management, 60 Pollution control, 75 State response to proposal, 60 State, Department of : Marine fishery disputes, 109 Relation to NOAA, 235 State Technical Services Program, 101 Submerged Lands Act of 1953 : State boundary controversy, 62, f>3 State ownership of seabed and subsoil. 51 Submersibles : Commis.sion recommendation, 180 Construction standards, 215 Depth capabilities, 179, 180 Elquipment, 179 Navigation needs, 214 Vehicle design, 178, 179 T Taiwan, off.shore coal mining. 132 Technical and operating .services, program costs, 225 Test facilities and ocean ranges project, 38, 47 Texas University, assistance to the Commission, 282 Thompson and Co., J. I., Washington. D.C., "A Per- spective of Regional and State Marine Environ- mental Activities ; A Questionnaire Survey, Statis- tics and Observations," 283 Tiros satellite, oceanographic research capabilities, 193 TRANSIT navigation satellites. Navy, 213 Transix>rtation. Dei>artnient of (DOT) : Commission recommendation : ix)rt and waterway study initiation, 66 Marine research funding. 24 SOS Offshore development role, 70 Trieste, U.S. 8.. depth record, 179, 180 Truiniin Proclamation of 1945, 145 Tsunami Warning System : Commission recommendation, 189 Coordinating responsibility, 200 Instrumentation needs, 189 U U.N. (see United Nations). U.N. International Maritime Consultative Orga- nization, 75 United Nations (U.N.) (see also Ad hoe Committee To Study the IVaeeful I'ses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction ; Di.ssarmament Committee ; Inter- governmental Oceanographic Organization ; Of- fice of Oceanography ) . Arms limitations, 3, 4 International fisheries management, 104-106 Marine science organizations in or related to the U.N., chart, 201 Proposed Declaration of Principles for continen- tal shelf registration, 155, 156 Proposed International registry authority, 149 U.S. proposal to encourage cooperation in the sci- entific investigation of the bed and subsoil of the high seas, 205 University affairs ( see also Education ) . Coastal Zone Laboratories, establishment, 9, 10 University-National Laboratories, 5 University-National Laboratories : Commission recommendations : Establishment, 27 Institutional funding, 242, 243 Establishment and role, 5, 27 Funding, 40, 44 International Decade of Ocean Exploration re- search, 175 Location, 27 Management, 26, 27 Need, 26 Research and exploration program, cost esti- mates, 205 Unmanned instrumentation system : Commission recommendation, 181 Cost estimates, 206 Future capabilities, 180, 181 U.S.S.R., cooperation with United States in interna- tional fisheries management, 104, 107 V Vessel subsidy program : Estimated savings, 167 Recommended repeal, 98 W Water Quality Act of 1965, 75 Water Resources Council, coastal zone interest, 56 Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 : Coastal zones management aid, 57 River basin commissions, 56 Weather, oceanographic effects, 169 Weather Bureau, U.S. : Consolidation under ESSA, 241 NODC establishment agreement, 219 WMO (see World Meteorological Organization). Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution : Gulf Stream structure research, 173 Status, 25 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (see also World Weather Program) . Capabilities, 200 ESSA membership, 241 International weather observing program, 188 Meteorology and fisheries studies, 199 Real-time data exchange, 199 U.S. participation, 16, 169 World Weather Program sponsorship, 200 World AVeather Program : Description, 200 U.S. participation, 16, 244, 245 U.S. support, 3 Z Zones under international law : Contiguous zone, 50 Continental shelf. .50, .51 High seas, 50 Internal waters and territorial sea, 49, 50 us, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968 O — 329-307 ."^'~. t ■;■■'. :*•': :Mt. tif^- -r\ . .;v • i^ '?\: iiM-^^^i. ■■^'-. M>*«^ :'^:- mi