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MY bie ats fee ce T 7 nt ae me! a in ie 7 wt ; Boa - v rf, 2 ; ‘ 7 i No WORE: S ah ok 0) tenn ba _ _ - ate le phen ‘aie wt Saar ens, Ye ae, Pies ty ae ate . a b ‘ mi ae “i i hy fi : + y be am oe i “ be ee a . ne oy ao a t F a ; e ae A eae <0 : eae V4 par ee ‘sie? ie : vy 7 Pay. . Sets, Aue thy - Be, o. " ‘ah ou an ae Ne a Bee Saylt ST > anata x A e i 4 | wa he a a hs es en ae “v ~ on i> we a oe “ta rae os s ca oh co ) iw ie PUP ta ee Ay a =f oie hy? ‘hh ut i a Tah is - o 7 4 F ‘nm 7 an me ye ey. a. ue, hy Oe ae regi ; ae AAL a0 phe Wea m} a ag a Pte PhS iJ aa vie Ae Ad Nal ee ae ie sah i rf eevee ie ena t Ry a: Fab? ey ‘ ae og ee a ane) 1 eae “t @ a “a Te y" a a my of . Mie ia , me ae > iG , + re a co wi et beng i ie ce 7 y 7 a 7 be ro \¥ i ‘pr i e - ry \ Lr Pa ¥ ; H om 2 mk Philo seed re OUTLINES © Se —————— OF GENERAL ZOOLOGY. MAMMALS, By CHARLES GIRARD. BIRDS, «“ JOHN CASSIN, REPTILES, “« SPENCEP. F. BATRD, FISHES, « SPENCER F. ‘(/AiRD. INVERTEBRATES, “ 8S. 8. HALDEMAN. A —e> Ses Nise NSO ——S—S——- A s, REPRINTED FROM THE ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPEDIA aw OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART. “Deposit of 8. F. BAIRD. NEW YORK: RUDOLPH GARRIGUE, PUBLISHER, 2 BAROLAY ST., ASTOR HOUSE. 1851. ee” NOTICE. The present extract constitutes the Zoological portion of the work entitled— “‘Tconographic Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art. 8S, .tematically arranged by J. G. Heck, translated from the German with additions, and edited by Spencer F. Baird, A. M., M. D., Professor of Natural Sciences in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. Illustrated by five hundred steel plates, containing upwards of twelve thousand engravings. In four vols. 8vo. of text, and two vols. oblong quarto of plates. New York, 1851. Published by Rudolph Garrigue, 2 Barclay st., Astor House.” Much of the Encyclopedia, instead of being translated, has been entirely re- written, with special reference to adaptation to this country. The part on Zoology, among others, has been compiled entirely anew by its authors, and will be found to contain much original matter never before published. The references to the plates are retained in this extract, though the plates themselves are not supplied. SPENCER F. BAIRD. CON iene SO 4.00 L0G Y.. {The numbers refer to the bottom paging of the text.] GENERAL InTRODUCTION, Descriptive Zoology, . : 4 3 5 A. Evertebrata, . 5 5 : Class Porifera, . t A C C Class Infusoria, . : F : . Division I. Radiata, 4 ‘ : A Class 1. Colenterata, . . 6 5 «<2. Zoophyta, . : ° : « 3. Echinodermata, ‘ : Class Helminthes, : : ; 5 Division II. Mollusca, . E ‘ Cc Class 1. Acephala, . : A ; « 2. Gastropoda, . : : : «« 3. Cephalopoda, Fe - 6 Division III. Articulata, , : é Class 1. Annelida, : ; - “ «« 2. Cirrhopoda, . : . . 248 120. Baccinum undatuin, . 3 - 290 “ 62. Ophiolepis scolopendrina, : «| ats 121. Cassidoria echinophora, . . 291} “ 683. Astrophyton caput meduse, . 248 122. Oliva ispidula, . 3 : . 292] “ 64. Ophiurus asterias, : : . 24¢ 123. Mitra episcopalis, : ; . 292] “ 65. Stellonia rubens, , ope 243 124. Mitra papalis, . i : » 299, “ 66. Solaster papposa, F 3 . 243 125. Oliva porphyria, __. . . 292] “ 67. Spatangus purpureus, . : . 245 126: Oliva maura, ~ ae £ 2) 292 “ 68. Clypeaster rosacea, . ; . 245 PLATE 76. “ 69. Echinus cidaris, ; ‘ ; £245 é : _ |“ ‘70. Cidaris diadema, . 5 ; 3 245 1, Auricula mide, . : : - 295] « 11, Cidaris esculentus, : : ¥ 245 2. Ovula volva, : : : » 292) « 4. Lucernaria quadricornis, —. . 2389 3, Bulla physis, : c ; » 284) « 43. Thaumantias eymbaloidea, . . 284 4, Ovula ovum, < : c - 292) « 44, Aurelia aurita, . 2 ; 59384 5, Cyprea moneta, - : . . 292 “ 75. Octopus octopodius, 296 6. Cypreea mauritiana, 292 “ 76. Loligo loligo, ; ; . 298 7. Cyprea arabica, : 292 OM Ie Sepia officinalis, . : : . 298 8. Conus aurantiacus, é : . 2911 « 48 Clio borealis, : : , . 981 9. Conus summus, . : : - 291 “ 49. Scyllxa pelagica (Tritoniide), . 278 10, Conus cedo nulli, : : . 291 « §0. Lernea branchialis, ’ . 3808 11. Conus textillis, . : ; - 291) « g]. Lernaa eyprinacea, ; _ 808 12. Conus marmoreus, : : 5 291 “ §9. Terebella conchliega, . ; 5° Bil 13, Spirula spirula, . . =... 298 | « g3° Porpita nuda Ba vel aN Sere 14. Nautilus beccari, . ; j a 200 “ §4 Velella spirans } j , . 934 15. Nautilus calear, . . =. —- 299] « 5. Cucumaria frondosa, . V1 BD 286 16. Nautilus pompilius, . é » 298 i 17. Argonauta argo, . 3 ; oI PLATE 471. 18. Pinna obeliscus, . : ‘ a BG 19. Pinna rudis, ; : ; . 271) Fig. 1. Physalia physalis, : : . 284 20. Avicula margaritifera, . ; y 26TH S 28 Thetis imbriay |. . : . 283 21. Mytilus cygneus, . - : . 270) “ 3. Salpa maxima, . : é - . 259 22. Mytilus bidens, . j : - 270} “ 4. Pedicellaria, . . , - 22] 23. Terebrata caput serpentis, . . 259} “ 5. Actinia undata, . F ; , 2388 24, Crania craniolaris, F : DOM aoe a6. CN China Seniign a. ; ; . 238 25. Ostrea cristigalli, 3 P . 265} “ 1%. Ascidia lepadiformis, . ; . 258 26. Malleus malleus, . : 5 . 267) “ 8. Ascidia venosa, . ; . + 258 27. Pecten corallinus, : : . 260} “ 9. Nais serpentina, . 4 4 - 9802 28. Pecten pallium ducale, : . 266 | “ 10, Nais proboscidea, : é . 301 29. Pecten maximus, . ; : . 266] “ 11. Phyllodoce stellifera, . : . 303 30. Perna ephippium, . é . 267 | “ 12. Nereis tubicola, ... . : . 3803 31. Arca senilis, : : f . 271 | “ 18. Amphitrite reniformis, : . 3805 32. Arca now, . - ; : 2s 4. Spio filicornis; | aa. : . 803 33. Tridacna gigas, . : 3 . 276] “ 15. Aphrodite aculeata, . é . 803 34. Isocardia corallina, —. : . 277 | “ 16. Doris papillosa, . ° : -. 283 35. Spondylus geederopus, . ; se 2Oun itieas Aria DOTS ATS Oy ; - : . 283 36. Venus mercenaria, ; : . 278] “ 18, Aplysia depilans, ; : . 284 37. Cytherea dione, . ; , . 279; * 19. Limax agrestis, . : ; . 295 38. Donax rugosa, . 2 : . 278) “ 90. Limax empiricorum, . : . 295 39. Donax scripta, . : : SU ee ele eimaxatusens, F ; ; . 295 40. Mactra solidissima, . : . 262° “ 929, Malacobdella grossa, . c me OU XIV 23. Nephelis CONTENTS. pLatE 77—( Continued.) octoculata (Hirudi- nidz), : : . Clepsina complanata, . Heemopis vorax, . Hirudo officinalis, Sipunculus saceatus, : Sipuneulus nudus, . Echinococcus veterinorum suis, Cysticercus cellulose, 31. Teenia cateniformis, 56. . Bothriocephalus latus, . Tenia solium, Ligula cingulum, . Planaria cornuta, . Distoma hepaticum, . Lumbricus variegatus, . . Lumbricus terrestris, 9, Echinorhynchus gigas, . Trichocephalus dispar, . . Ascaris lumbricoides, . Oxyuris vermicolaris, . Filaria medinensis, . Lumbricus aquaticus, . . Filaria papillosa, ft : . Argas fischeri, —. fs . Argas savignil, Chelifer beauvoisii, . Galeodes phalangium, Galeodes araneoides, . . . Scorpio europeeus, Buthus afer, Epeira imperialis, Tetragnatha argyra, . Theridion denticulatum, Argyroneta aquatica, 57a. Uloborus waleneerius, 576. Gasteracantha armata, 58. 59. 60. Mygale avicularia, Epeira diadema, Pallene brevirostris nide), (Pyenogo- . Chelifer cancroides, . Phalangium opilio, Phalangium egyptiacum, . ; . Hydrachna abstergens, . Hydrachna despiciens, . Ixodes annulatus, . Ixodes americanus, . Sarcoptes scabiei. . Gamasus coleopterorum, . Acarus siro, 3 . Txodes orbiculatus, . Pulex penetrans, . Pulex irritans, 75. Nirmide, ; : < . Phthirius pubis, . Pediculus capitis, . Podura nivicola, . Podura villosa, . Smynthurus fimetarius, 84. Machilus polypoda, 83. Lepisma saccharina, . See 81. . Melophagus ovis, . Hippobosea equina, . Bombylius major, . Dioctria ater, . Asilus cabroniformis, . Conops macrocephala, . Stomoxis calcitrans, . PAGE { Fig. a PLATE 7 aut 92, 93. Empidee 94, Anopheles bifuneabasss 95. Culex nemorosus, 96. Culex pipiens, 97. Tabanus tropicus, 98. Tabanus bovinus, 99—109. Muscide, : 110. Clitellaria ephippium, . Volucella pellucens, . Sceeva pyrastri, 3. Crysotoxum vespiformis, . Eristalis tenax, 5 . Helophilus pendulus, . é Leptis vermileo, . Stratiomys chameleon, . Chironomus plumosus, . Anisomera nigra, . Ctenophora elegans, . Psychoda phalenoides, 122. Mycetophila cericea, . Bibio marci, . My cetophila mirabilis! . Cephalemyia ovis, 127. Gasterophilus equi, . (Estrus tarandi, 129. Cistrus bovis, PLATE 78. 1, 2. Cancerine, 3. Thalamita natator, 4, Gecarcinus lateralis, 5. Gelasimus annulipes, . 6. Ocypoda arenaria, 7. Philyra scabriuscula, . 8. Dorippe sima, 9. Ranina serrata, 10. Pagurus diogenes, 11. Palinurus guttatus, 12. Seyllarus zequinoctialis, 13. Stenopus hispidus, 14. Callianassa uncinata, . 15. Squilla maculata, 16. Gonodactylus stylifer, 17. Phyllosoma stylicornis, 18. Orchestia fischeri, 19. Ancylomera hunteri, . Cymadocea armata, 21. Sphxroma serratum, . 2. Porcellio granulatus, 23. Caprella acuminifera, . Cyamus ovalis, 25. Aprus cancriformis, . Branchipus piseiformis, 27. Cyclops communis, 28. Phyllophora cornuta, 29. Ergasilus sieboldi, _ Lerneea polycolpus, 31, Achtheres percarum, . 32. Pyenogonum litterale, 33. Nymphon gracile, 34. Limullus moluceanus, 35. Nemesia cellicola, 36. Segestria perfida, 27. Lycosa tarentula, 38. Lycosa melanogaster, 39. Hersilia caudata, : 40. Chersis savinii, 41. Salticus formicarius, 42. Eripus heterogaster, . 43, Arcys lanceolarius, PAGE 397 397 397 397 397 397 398 897 398 398 398 398 398 398 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 399 399 399 399 822 322 321 321 321 321 821 321 321 320 320 320 320 333 9. 3— 10. . Bombus muscorum, . Megachile sementaria, . . Bombus terrestris, . Xylocopa violacea, . Nomada variegata, . Eucera longicornis, . Megachile centuncularis, . Apis mellifica, . Vespa maculata, . . Polistes paritum, . . . Vespa vulgaris, . : . Vespa crabro, : . Leucospis dorsigera, . Chrysis cyanea, . Chrysis aurata, : : . Chrysisignita, . - - . . Pompilus ceeruleus, . Pompilus viaticus, . Crabro.cribrarius, . Pelopzeus spirifex, . Ammophila sabulosa, . Latrodectus malmignatus, . Nyssa timida, . Tegenaria domestica, . Lachesis perversa, . Uloborus walenerius, . ; . Argyroneta aquatica, . . CONTENTS. pate 78—( Continued ). 333, PLATE 79. . Mutilla europea, . . Apterogyna occidentalis, 9. Formicidae, : Bombus lapidarius, 32, 33, 86—89. Ichneumonide, 34, 85. Chalcidide, 36—39. See 32. 40. Rhyssa_ persuasoria (Ichneumo- nid), : . Urocerus spectrum, . Urocerus gigas, . Lophyrus juniperi, 4. Nematus capree, . Cimbex americana, . Tenthredinide, . Cimbex variabilis, 48—53, 3. Cinipide, . : Mantispa pagana, Raphidia ophiopsis, . Termes fatalis, . Bittacus tipularia, . Panorpa communis, . Ascalaphus barbarus, - Myrmeleon libelluloides, . Myrmeleon formicarius, 62—64, Hermerobiide, 65. oe “ 69. Hydropsyche plumosa, > Phryganea striata, . . Perla bicaudata, : : Limnophilus rhombica, 3 Phryganea grandis, —. 5 70—72. Ephemeride, 43. 74, 5. 16. ae 18. 79, 80. 81. Agrion puella) . . Calepteryx virgo, . Libellula depressa, aes 3 AXschna grandis, A i Pterophorus pentadactyla, aA yer Coccyx resinosa, . ; : Carpoeapsa pomonella, Hercyna paliotalis, Tinea granella, TAGE 333 384 333 384 334 333 378 378 378 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 379 380 380 380 376 376 376 376 377 877 376 377 377 375 376 375 375 575 375 375 375 374 375 375 372 372 370 372 372 372 372 372 372 273 373 371 373 373 371 372 372 372 372 383 384 384 384 383 | PLATE 79—(Continued ). . Plutella xylostella, : - . Gallerea cereana, ; . Tinea pellionella, aiiedg's . Lemmatophila salicella, . Hyponomeuta evonymella, . . Hyponemeuta Ape . Hypena rostralis, : . Botys verticalis, . Seiaphila literata, . Tortrix viridana, 92. Halias prasinana, . 98—102. Geometride, : 103—123, 129, 136. Noctuide, 124, Callimorpha jacobzez, 125. Arctia fuliginosa, 126, Arctia matronula, 127. Arctia dominula, 128, Pygeera bucephala, 129. See 1038. 130—135, 137—151. Bombycide, 186. See 103. PLATE 80. 1, Lasiocampa quercus, 2. Dendrolimus pini, 3. Odonestis potatoria, 4—7. Bombycide, 8. Zygena filipendula, 9. Sesia fuciformis, . - : 10—21. Sphingidee, 22. Hesperia malvarum, 23—50. Papilionide, 51. Thrips phisapus, . an 52. Lecanium illicis, . . Lecanium hesperidum, . . Coccus cacti, . Psylla alni, . Dorthesia urticea, 59. Aphide, . Chermes ulmi, . See 57. . Pyrrhocoris apterus, . Coryzus hyoscyami, . Cydnus biguttatus, . Pentatoma juniperinus, . Pentatoma baccarum, . Acanthosoma hemorrhoidalis, Cimex rufipes, . Acanthia lectularia, . Ranatra linearis, . Nepa cinerea, . Neucoris cimicoides, . Belostoma grandis, . Corixa striata, 3. Notonecta glauca, . Aphrophora spumaria, . Cicada fraxini, . Fulgora candelaria, . Fulgoria laternaria, . Gidipoda stridula, . CGidipoda czxrulescens, . 80. CEdipoda migratoria, 81. Acridium cristatum, 82—85. Locustide, 86—S88. Gryllide, 89. Phylum siccifolium, 90. Mantis religiosa, 91. Empusa gongylodes, 92. Cyphocrana gigas, 93. Blatta orientalis, 384, CONTENTS. PAGE PLATE 81. Upper Division. Fig. tp 1—-3. Forficulide, 367 : 4—-6. Brachelytra, 359 i 7. Meloé proscarabeeus, 363 be BS 8. Lytta vesicatoria, 3638 a 23 9. Blaps mortisaga, - 364 “ O4 10. Tenebrio molitor, 364 : 11—16. Carabide, 357 “95 17. Dyticus marginalis, 807 | we 96 18. Hydrophilus piceus, 358 A 19—21. Mordellidee, 3638 “« OF 22. Buprestis mariana, 362 Ke 28 23. Euchroma gigas, 362 ae 9 24. Buprestis chrysostigma, . 362 . 25. Elaphrus riparius Coie 357 « 39 26—29. Cicindela, ? 357 * 31. 30—83. Elateride, . 362 “ 39 84, Malachius eeneus, 362 « 93 35—388. Cantharis, 363 « 234 39. Lycus sanguineus. « 3 5, 40. Pyrochroa coccinea, 363 « 36 41,42, Lampyride, 362M. 4, 3h 43. Necydalis cerulea. 44—61. Longicornia, 365 Paes 62—64. Clerida, . -“ 362 - 39 65—76. Rhincophora, 364 “« 40 4“7—19. Bruchus. “« 4) 80—101. Trimera, 366 102, 103. Nitidulide, . 3859 « 49 104, Silpha thoracica, 359 « 43 105, 106. Necrophorus, 3509 107, 108. Anthrenus, 359 109. Byrrhus pilula (Byrthide), 360 | iio 1 110, Gyrinus natator, - 111 = 111. Ptinus fur. meee 112. Anobium pertinax, S62" nes ‘113. Apate capucinus. : vi 114. Hylesinus piniperda. Be “ 115, 116. Bostrichus, . 345 Fe 117, 118. Dermestes, 359 6 119—123. Hister, 360 > ee 124. Lucanus, S601 pe, Jc * 125—127. Cetoniadee, 360 “ . 128—131. Melolonthide, 360 kee 132—136—144. Scarabside, BaOd ee aa 1338--135. Aphodiide, 360) 6 jo 186—144. See 132. ri 145—148. Dynastide, 560 ? Lower Division. Big. yt 1. Alosa vulgaris, shad, 413 “ 9 2. Clupea harengus, herring, . 413 CARS 3. Engraulis encrasicholus, anchovy, 412 4, Harengula sprattus, sprat, 413 dl 5, Thymallus vulgaris, greyking, 416 cacy 6. Cobitis fossilis, mudfish, 420 “ 6. 7, Exoglossum barbatula, ground- oe ling, 420 ets 8. Rhombus vulgari is, br ill, 424 I 9} 9. Platessa flesns, fluke, 423 “« 10 10. Zeus faber, dory, 431 hl 11. Lota vulgaris, burbot, 423 “« 419 12. Trachinus draco, sea cat, 426 18. Xiphias gladius, swordfish, 430 14. Amodytes tobianus, sand-eel. 15. Syngnathus ophidion, sea-serpent, 486) Fig. 1 16. Syngnathus acus, sea-needle, 436 || pve 12 17. Pegasus draco, sea-dragon, 437 Gy 3} 18. Lumpus anglorum, lump sucker, 483) “ 4 PLATE 81—( Continued). . Diodon punctatus, sticklebag, 20. Tetraodon lagocephalus, “star belly, 21. Centriscus scolopax, trumpet ach 292. Aluteres monoceros, unicorn fish, . Aspidophorus 23. Lophius piscatorius, widegap, . Acipenser ruthenus, caviar stur- geon, 25. Acipenser sturlo, sturgeon, . Sphyrna malleus, hammer-head- ed shark, . Spinax acanthias, thorn- hound, . Petromyzon fluviatilis , lamprey, . Seps chalcides, bronze colored lizard, : Scincus cyanurus, scink, . Plestiodon aldrovandii, 2. Triton cristatum, eft, . Draco dandini, flying dragon, Rana temporaria, yellow frog, . Hyla viridis, tree or green frog, . Bufo calamita, toad, . Bombinator igneus, glistering toad, . Pelobatus fuscus, yatee toad, . Testudo geometrica, tortoise, . Testudo greca, mosaic tortoise, . . Cistudo europea, prea tor- toise, 2. Emys picta, terrapin, . Sphargis coriacea, leather turtle, PLATE 82, miele ge pogge, . Pristis antiquor um, saw fish, Esox lucius, pike, Perea fluviatilis, perch, . Anguilla vulgaris, eel, 3 : Gasterosteus aculeatus, stickle- back, ’ . Salmo fario, salmon trout, Holocanthus tricolor, tricolor, . Synanceia horrida, dragon’s head, Labrax lupus, bass, . Solea vulgaris, sole, . Platessa limanda, dab, PLATE 83. . Holocentrum lengipinns, red perch, . Acanthurus gemmatus, gem fish, Amphacanthus corallinus, coral perch, . Sphyrzena spet, barracuda pike, . Scorpzena scropha, dragon’s head, Naucrates ductor, pilot fish, . Trigla lyra, piper, E Thynnus vulgaris, tunny, . Scomber vulgaris, mackerel, . Acerina cornua, ruffe, . Cepola rubescens, band fish, . Dactylopterus volitans, fying fish, PLATE 84. . Carcharius verus, shark, . Coryphzna hippuris, dolphin, . Echineis remora, sucking fish, . Chondrostoma nasus, br oad snout PAGE 436 436 433 435 434 442 442 445 446 411 4717 477 477 460 485 462 463 464 463 483 491 491 492 492 493 427 446 417 424 411 427 415 432 427 425 424. 423 426 432 433 426 427 431 426 430 430 426 132 426 445 431 4.24 418 CONTENTS. PAGE | PLATE 84—( Continued). PLATE 90—( Continued). Fig. 5. Cottus gobio, bullhead, . . 427] Fig. 4. Pipa americana, Guiana toad, “6. Gobio fluviatilis, gresling, a 49 «5. Rana esculenta, frog, . « —, Alburnus lucidus, bleak, 418 “« 6. Hyla viridis, tree or green frog, “8. Acanthurus chirurgus, _ lancet- « —", Achrochordus javanica, Java tail, ; 432 snake, “9. Chetodon auriga, angel, 432 « 8, Platurus laticaudis, India water “ 10. Barbus vulgaris, barbel, : 419 snake, i “11. Ciprinus carpio, carp, 419 “9. Elaps corallinus, coral snake, “« 12. Tinca vulgaris, tench, 419 * 10. Typhline ecuvierii, blind scink, “ 138. Anabas scandens, climbing perch, 429 “ 11. Chelonia mydas, green turtle, ELATHeR “ 12. Cistudo europea, land tortoise, ; : “ 13, Testudo geometrica, India tor- Fig. 1. Morrhua vulgaris, codfish, . 429 toise, } «2. Merlangus vulgaris, whiting, 423 « 3. Raia batis, skate, : 447 PLATE 91. « 4, Trachinus vividus, weever, 426 | Fig. 1. Podicepscristatus, crested grebe, “5. Blennius viviparus, guffer, 434 «2. Podiceps minor, little grebe, « 6, Ophiocephalus striatus, ophidion, 429 « 3. Colymbus glacialis, loon, « 7, Mullus barbatus, mullet, » 426 “ 4, Sterna nigra, sooty tern, « 8. Dipterodon capensis, Cape-dipter- «5. Larus eburneus, ivory gull, odon, 432| “ 6. Pelecanus crispus, hairy pelican, we 9 Amphiprion bifasciatus, amphi- « 4, Cygnus olor, mute swan, prion, 432 “ 8. Cygnus ferus, hooper swan, “ 10. Scolopsides vosmari. « 9, Oidemia americana, scoter, “11. Trachypterus spinole, in “ 10. Anas crecca, teal, terus, 432 “11. Procellaria capensis, Cape pigeon, “ 12. Cyprinus auratus, gold- fish, 4] “12. Diomedia exulans, white alba- tross, PLATE 86; oo 13; Aptenody tes patagonica, Patago- Fig. 1. Deirodon nasutus, green snake, 475 nian penguin, «9. Tropidonotus natrix, ringed snake, 474 “ 14, Fratercula arctica, puffin, . « 3. Trigonocephalus lanceolatus, oe “ 15, Alea torda, razor-billed auk, perhead, 471 « 4. Naia tripudians, cobra di capello, 471 PLATE 92, “ 5, Boa constrictor, . . 473] Fig, 1. Carbo cormoranus, cormorant, “ 6. Pbrynosoma cornuta, horned frog, 482 «9. Eudytes cristatus, crested pen- PLATE 87. ‘ guin, . Fig. 1. Anguis fragilis, slow worm, 476 e Tachy) a os aquilus, frigate peli “9. Vipera berus, viper oe ATL HA ; CHR Cait ents horned viper, a4 3 ae ie tropic a « 4, Xiphosoma caninum, dog boa, 473 rar S 1 ae ie mee a a sae “ 5. Crotalus horridus, rattlesnake, 470 eon eee ste re 4 Boake “ idaa ariniz . Ss ses ; c ’ G: eps, chaleides, acini, lll “« 8, Anas boschas, mallard, 2 PLATE 88. “9, Anas galericulata, mandarin Fig. 1. Siren lacertina, siren, é » 456 duck, «9. Necturus lateralis, water-puppy, 456 “ 10. Merges cucullatus, hooded mer- «“ 3. Chameleo vulgaris, chameleon, 483 ganser, « 4. Platydactylus guttatus, gecko, . 484] “ 11. Larus argentatus, herring gull, “ 5. Uroplatus fimbriatus, flat headed «19, Sterna hir undo, sea swallow, salamander, : . 485 sane o8 “ 6. Lophyrus fureata, lophyrus, 482 F F iat “ 4 Crocodilus lucius, alligator, 497 | Fig. 1. Charadius auratus, plover, “ 8. Crocodilus vulgaris, crocodile, 487 ‘ee Vanellus cristatus, lapwing, bs 8. Grus cinerea, crane, F ; PLATE 89. « 4, Platalea leucorrhodia, roseate Fig. 1. Salamandra maculata, salaman- spoon-bill, der, 460 « 5. Ardea purpurea, ‘purple heron, “ 9. Triton teeniatum, ‘brook salaman- « 6. Egretta candidissima, snowy der, . : 460 heron, « 3. Draco dandini, flying dragon, 483| “ 1, Ciconia alba, white stork, “4, Scincus officinalis, scink, 477 «8. Gallinago major, snipe, “ 5. Basiliscus mitratus, basilisk, 482 « 9, Limosa “rufa, rufous godwit, “ 6. Iguana tuberculata, guana, 489 “ 10, Recurvirostra monet ea avocet, « 4, Lacerta viridis, lizard, . 48] canals Pheenicopter us ruber, scarlet flamingo, PLATE 90. « 19, Ardea ralloides, pigmy heron, Fig. 1. Bufo viridis, green toad, 464 “9, Engystoma ovale, S. Amer. toad, 464 PLATE 94. « 3. Dactelythra capensis, Cape toad, 464! Fig. 1. Struthio camelus, ostrich, abe XVill 2. 3. nme ee 5. 6. il 8. 9: 0 10—11. Gallus domesticus, 2: 13. 14, 15. . Balearica . ‘Lringa PLATE 94—( Continued ). Otis tarda, great bustard, Otis tetrax, smaller bustard, bavonims crowned - crane, . Botaurus Stellunia, bittern, Ibis alba, white ibis, 4 Numenius arcuatus, ‘curlew, ; . Totanus calidris, sandpiper, . . Parra indica, Indian jacana, . . Fulica americana, coot, . Porphyrio hyacinthinus, hyacinth gallinule, Flelignnis surinamensis, sun birds . Totanus ochropus, green sand- piper, . PLATE 95, . Casuarius galeatus, cassowary, . Palamedea cornuta, horned screamer, This cristatus, crested ibis, rufescens, rufous piper, é Glareola torquata, pratincole, Himantopus albicollis, stilt, Cinclus interpras, turnstone, ‘ Rallus aquaticus, dusky rail, Rallus crex, corn crake, sand- common fowl, Meleagris gallopavo, turkey, Numida meleagris, guinea fowl, Pterocles alchata, desert grouse, Turnix dactylisonans, quail, . PLATE 96. 1, Tetrao urogallus, cock of the woods, . 2. Tetrao tetrix, moor cock, 3. Perdix cinerea, grey partridge, 4, Perdix rubra, red partridge, 5. Pavo cristatus, peacock, 6. Phasianus colchicus, pheasant, 7. Phasianus pictus, golden pheasant, 8. Argus giganteus, argus pheasant, $) Tragopan hastingsii, golden breasted horned pheasant, . 10. Crax rubra, red curassow, 11. Lophortyx californicus, California partridge, : 12. Columba livia, rock pigeon, . 5 13. Columba cenas, blue-backed dove, 14, Goura cruenta, ground pigeon, 15, Columba turtur, turtle dove, PLATE 97. . Cacatua sulphurea, yellow-crested cockatoo, 2. Psittacus erythacus, grey African parrot, 8. Palzornis malaccensis, Malacca parrot, 5 4 4. Paleornis alexandri, ‘redheaded parrot, 5. Psittacus melanocephalus, black- headed parrot, 6. Trogon curucui, curucui, 7, Trogon viridis, green curucui, 8. Bucco macrorhynchus, puff-bird, 9. Monasa_ tranquilla, 5. American puftbird, . CONTENTS. PAGE PLATE 97—( Continued ). Fig. 10. Capito viridiauranthius, green and “ 6 Du 12. 13. orange barbet, Pogonias _ sulcirostris, bill barbet, . Pteroglossus aracari, aracarl, Ramphastus tucanus, largebilled toucan, PLATE 98, grooved- long-tailed 1. Platycercus viridis, green parrot, DO oo 8. 9a. Trochilus . Gecinus . Nucifraga 2. Ara ararauna, blue and See maccaw, . Ara militaris, military. maccaw, ¢ . Lorius domicellus, lory, . Picus villosus, hairy woodpecker, Picus cayennensis, Cayenne wood- pecker, viridis, pecker, green wood- . Picus major, large woodpecker, . Yunx torquilla, wry neck, . Pica caudata, magpie, . . Corvus monedula, Jacked, . . Corvus corax, raven, . Corvus cornix, hooded! crow, PLATE 99, 3. Garrulus glandarius, jay, . 6 caryocatactus, nut- cracker, . See Fig. i. . Paradisea minor, bird of paradise, . Paradisea regia, king ape bird, . Paradisea superba, superb para- dise bird, . Paradisea sexsetacea, six ehaited paradise bird, Trochilus moschitus, ruby ‘topaz humming bird, ornatus, humming bird, magnificent 96. Trochilus colubris, humming bird, 10, hile 12. 13. oe 3. . Icterus Trochilus delalandii, De- La- lande’s humming bird, Trochilus minimus, — smallest humming bird, Trochilus cristatus, crested ‘hum: ming bird, . Trochilus macrourus, swallow tailed humming bird, . Buphaga africana, beefeater, 5. Sturnella ludoviciana, American lark, 5‘ ; ; F baltimore, Baltimore oriole, . PLATE 100. . Sturnus vulgaris, starling, . Loxia pityopsittacus, parrot cross- bill, Coccothraustes finch, vulgaris, haw- 4ab. Fringilla canaria, canary bird, 5. 6. fis 8. 9. 10. Fringilla cannabina, red poll, Fringilla domestica, ce Saag row, . Sylvia hippol ais, willow wren, Oriolus galbula, ‘oriole, : Merula vulgaris, blackbird, . Merula saxatilis, rock thrush, . PAGE CONTENTS. xix PLATE 100—( Continued). Fig. 11. Pastor roseus, rose colored star- “ “ “ ling, 12. Merula viselvorne: missel thrush, 13. Merula iliaca, redwing, 14. Merula musica, song thrush, PLATE 101. 1. Trochilus _ granatinus, eenet humming bird, . 2. Pyrrhula europea, bullfinch, 3. Spermophila crassirostris, thick- billed finch, 4. Coccothraustes chloris, green finch, : 5. Fringilla senegala, Senegal ‘finch, 6. Fr ingilla amaduva, amaduvat, q. Vidua regia, king widow jogo 8. Vidua er ythrorhynchus, red-billed widow bird, : 9. Carduelis spinus, siskin, 10. Carduelis elegans, goldtinch, 11. Calliste tatao, seven-colored tana- ger, . : : 12. Fringilla coelebs, chaftinch, 13. Emberiza hortulana, ortolan, 14. Emberiza schceniculus, reed bun- ting, . : : c é 15. Emberiza __citrinella, yellow- hammer, 16. Rupicola aurantia, cock of the rock, ie Muscicapa grisola, grey fly- catcher, 18. Muscicapa albicollis, white- necked flycatcher, 19. Muscicapa regia, king of the fly- catchers, 20. Ampelis carnifex, scarlet-crested chatterer, 21. Ampelis Cee: banded chat- terer, . : PLATE 102. 1. Trochilus albicollis, white-necked humming bird, 2. Certhia familiaris, brown creeper, 3. Parus cristatus, crested tit, 4. Parus major, titmouse, 5. Alauda ealandria, field lark, 6. Alauda cristata, crested lark, 7. Alauda arvensis, skylark, ; 8. Acanthiza campestris, hedge war- bler, . 9. Cxreba cyanea, blue creeper, 10, 11. Phcenicura, redstarts, 12. Phenicura suecica, blue throated Swedish redstart, 13. Erythaca rubecula, robin, 14. Menura superba, lyre bird, 15. Dicrurus forficatus, fork- tailed drongo, 3 16. Cracticus varius, black and white shrike, : 5 17. Vauga curvirostris, hooked-bill shrike, 18. Laniarius barbarus, Barbary shrike, , 4 A : 19. Laniarius collurio, red-backed shrike, 20. Laniarius exubitor butcher birdh. PAGE PAGE PLATE 103. Fig. 1. Buceros erythrorhynchus, red- ; billed hornbill, —. 2 . 564 «9. Buceros rhinoceros, rhinoceros hornbill, 564 « 3. Halcyon atricapilla, black capped “kingfisher, . 528 « 4. Ceryle javanicus, Java kingfisher, 529 « 5, Aleido ispida, commom king- fisher, . ; 528 « 6. Caprimulgus europeus, ‘goat- sucker, : : . 524 «4. Hirundo rustica, swallow, : . 522 « 8. Cypselus melba, black martin, . 528 « 9. Tyrannus severus, Cayenne ay catcher, 6 549 “ 10. Milvulus forficatus, South Armen. flycatcher, . : ; . 549 “11. Parus ater, pine tit, . 545 “ 12. Regulus auricapillus, golden crested wren, . 541 “ 18. Philomela luscinia, nightingale, . 539 “ 14. Curruca hortensis, garden war- bler, . ¢ : : . 54] « 15, Curruca atricapilla, blackcap warbler, . ‘ : py a “ 16, Pheenicura ruticilla, common redstart, . 541 “ 17. Motacilla boarula, er ey wagtail, . 545 “ 18. Saxicola cenanthe, wheatear, . 541 PLATE 104. Fig. 1. Strix flammea, European barn Owl, ... 515 2. Otus brachyotus, ehore. cared aa 515 «8. Otus wilsonianus, — long- eared owl, . : 515 « 4. Bubo maximus, grand duke, A ally “« 6. Falco peregrinus, © wandering falcon, . ‘ F : ~ 505 « 6. Falco cesalon, merlin, . , . 506 « 7. Milvus regalis, kite, . 510 “« 8. Buteo vulgaris, common buzzard, 507 «9. Gyps fulvus, griffin vulture, we 5OL “ 10, Sarcoramphus papa, king vulture, 505 « 11. Sarcoramphus gryphus, condor, . 502 PLATE 105. Fig. 1. Aquila chrysaétos, golden eagle, . 507 «9. Archibuteo niger, black buzzard, . 507 “ 3. Pandion ossifracus, osprey, . . 609 “ 4, Haliaétus albicilla, sea eagle, . 508 « 5, Astur palumbarius, goshawk, 5) lil “ 6, Accipiter nisus, sparrow hawk, . 511 « 4, Falco subutes, hobby, . ‘i . 506 “ 8. Falco alaudarius, kestril, ; . 506 PLATE 105, 6. Chart of the migrations of fishes and birds (Weltkarte in Mercator’s Projection zur Uebersicht der jahrlichen Wanderungen der hauptsachlichsten Gattungen der Fische und Végel), a 3 fos aOE GLOSSARY. Aleuten In., Aleutian Islands. Amazonenstrom, Amazon River. Arabien, Arabia. Arabisches M., Arabian Sea. Asien, Asia. Atlantischer Ocean, Atlantic Ocean. XK CONTENTS. PAGE GLossary—( Continued). Behringsstrasse, Behring’s Straits. Baffins Meer, Baftin’s Bay. Celifornien, California, Canarische In., Canary Islands. Cap der guten ‘Hoffnung, Cape of Good Hope. Capstadt, Capetown. Cup Verds In., Cape Verde Islands. Caspisches Meer, Caspian Sea. Donau, Danube. Felsen Geb., Rocky Mountains. Fensterschwalben, Domestic swallows. Feuerland, Terra del Fuego. Freundschafts In, Friendly Islands. Gesellschafts In., Society Islands. Gr. Baren See, Great Bear Lake. Grénland, Greenland. Grossbritannien, Great Britain. Grosser Ocean, Pacitic. /Tiringe, Herrings Hudsons Meer, Hudson's Bay. J. Melville, Melville Island. Indisches Meer, Indian Ocean. Lissabon, Lisbon. Makrelen, Mackerel. Meerb. v. Bengalen, Bay of Bengal. Meerb. v. Mexico, Bay of Mexico Mongolei, Mongolia, Neusceland, New Zealand. Neu Sibirien, New Siberia. Nord Aierika, North America. Nordliches Hismeer, Arctic Sea. Patagonien, Patagonia. Raben u. Kraken, Ravens and crows. Rauchschwalben, Barn swallows. Liussisch Amerika, Russian America. Schiffer In., Navigators’ Islands. Schleiereulen, Barn owls. Schwarzes Meer, Black Sea. Sibirien, Siberia. Sklavensce, Slave Lake. Staare u. Amseln, Starlings and blackbirds. Sid Amerika, South America. Uferschwalben, Bank swallows. Vereinigte Staaten, United States. Versammlungs- u. Abzugspunkt, Place of meet- ing and departure. Wachteln, Quails. Warschau, Warsaw. West Indien, West Indies. Wien, Vienna, Wiste Sahara, Desert of Sahara. Geichenerklarung, Explanation of the marks. PLATE 106, Fig. 1. Baleena mysticetus, Greenland whale, : 625 ap, 0) enyseter macrocephalus, sperm whale, . : . 627 « 4, Delphinus delphis, dolphin, : - 629 PLATE 107. Fig. 1, 2. Cervus elaphus, stag, . . 654 « 3. Cervus dama, fallow deer . . .655 « 4, Cervus capreolus, roebuck, . 653 «5. Lepus timidus, hare, . : . 661 « 6. Lepus cuniculus, rabbit, . . 661 « 17, 8. Bos taurus, common ox, . - 658 “9. Ovis aries, sheep, ; s SG “ 10. Capra hireus, goat, . ; . 656 “11. Sciurus vulgaris, squirrel, . - 6761 “ “ “ « PAGE PLATE 108. ig. 1. Camelus bactrianus, two-humped camel, 651 2. Camelus dromedarius, dromedary, 651 3. Camelopardalis girafa, giraffe, . 651 4, Moschus mioschiferus, musk, : 5 iy 5. Antilope dorcas, gazelle, . EO DD 6. Antilope redunca, antilope of Senegal, . ; 5 - 655 PLATE 109. 1. Bison americanus, buffalo, . Saar 2. Bos bubalus, Indian buffalo, . 658 3. Rupicapra tragus, chamois, . 656 4, Antilope scripta, Cape- elk, . 655 5. Auchenia alpaca, paco, —. . 651 6. Auchenia lama, lama, ? . 651 4. Auchenia vicunna, vicunna, . 651 8, 9. Tarandus furcifer, reindeer, . 654 10. Cervus alces, eland, . : . 654 11. Siberian horse, . A 4 . 648 PLATE 110. 1. Equus zebra, zebra, . : . 648 2. Equus asinus, ass, é s . 648 3. Equus mulus, mule, . : . 648 4. Equus caballus, horse, . ; . O47 5. Norman team horse, . : . 648 6. Arabian mare and colt, ; ~~ ba 7, Arabian stallion, . : 6 . 647 PLATE 111. . 1. Tapir indicus, tapir, —. ; . 642 2. Hyrax syriacus, daman, é . 644 3. Dicotyle labiatus, peccary, . . 645 4. Porcus babyrussa, Asiatic hog, . 646 5. Sus domesticus, domestic hog, . 645 6. Sus scropha, wild hog, P . 645 7. Phacocherus “Tn a general point of view, we may, however, compare further, all radiated animals, when we shall find that they really constitute a natural, well circumscribed group in the animal kingdom, agreeing in all important points of their structure, being strictly constructed upon the same plan, although the three classes which we refer to this great department differ in the manner in which the plan is carried out.”—Agassiz’s Lectures on Embryology, Boston, 1849. P. 43. The Radiata are distributed into three classes, Colenterata, Zoophyta, and Echinodermata. The first includes the Acalephee or Medusze, to which the Hydroida are added; the second the Zoophyta, excluding the Hydroida; and the third the Echinodermata. The Hydroida kave been usually placed in the class Zoophyta, although in the development of some of the families in which it has been observed, they present characters indicating a great affinity with the Acalephee, which in their turn have been regarded as an individual class. In dismembering the Zoophyta to unite the Hydroida and Acalephze, we may either apply the name of the latter to the united group, or choose a distinct one. The latter course is preferable, being least likely to cause confusion, and we have accordingly adopted the name proposed by Fry and Leuckart. The necessity of this union is insisted upon by Forbes in his British Naked-eyed Meduse, p- 82; and in Agassiz’s Lectures on Embryology, p. 44. 229 26 ZOOLOGY. Class 1. Colenterata. This class contains the orders Hydroida, Pulmonigrada, Ciliograda, Cirrigrada, Physograda, and Diphyida, all of which (excepting the first) constitute the Acalephe of Cuvier. For the sake of uniformity in the nomenclature, we here propose the name Systoligrada, instead of Diphyida, the locomotion being similar to that of the Pulmonigrada. Orper 1. Hyproma. The order Hydroida contains animals, some of which have, and some have not a corallum, or the stony material named coral. This does not constitute an essential distinction here, or among the Zoophyta, because the condition of the hard material is different in different genera, being sometimes merely indicated by the presence of calcareous granules scattered through the body. In the Hydroida the internal cavity is tubular and simple, and the order includes the four families, Hydride, Sertularide, Campanularidxe, and Tubularidee. The Hydrida, of which the fresh water polypus is a familiar example, occur in America as well as in Europe. It forms the genus //ydra, and is a soft naked polyp (pl. 75, jigs. 21-23) found attached to plants in stagnant water, and increasing by lateral buds, as represented in jigs. 22, 23; but unlike some Zoophyta, the young thus produced become detached when they attain a certain size. The internal cavity of the young is for some time continuous with that of the parent, so that the nourishment taken by the lattéy can be digested by both. Finally the young gets arms of its own, the cavity closes below, and the new animal becomes detached and commences an independent life. This mode of increase takes place in summer. Trembley, by watching an individual, found that it produced forty-five young in two months. ; This genus was discovered in Europe by Trembley, in the year 1739, and we have observed it here. It attaches itself by the base to plants, rubbish, or even aquatie insects. These animals move somewhat in the manner of a leech, by stretching out the body and attaching the arms to an object, then drawing up and attaching the base, and so on in succession. When placed in a glass of water, they are said to pass from the shade into the light. The figures represent them about the natural size, so that they can be pretty readily detected with the naked eye. When disturbed, the arms and body are contracted into a small compass. The arms are used to catch their prey, which consists of minute Crustacea, and other animal food. The body is usually sufficiently translucent to allow the contents of the internal cavity to be seen. The structure of the Hydra is of the simplest kind, being limited to the tubular body and its single aperture for the admission and exclusion of food ; and the margin of this opening is fringed with from six to eighteen very elastic, flexible, and thread-like arms. Under a high magnifying power, the arms of Hydra are seen to be studded with hemispherical projections, which resemble a bunch of grapes when 230 RADIATA. 27 they are drawn together by the contraction of the arms. Most of these projections support a short hair, some are armed with a thorn, and others support a very long hair ending with a spur composed of several thorns around a pear-shaped mass. See the last edition of the Regne Animal, Zoophy tes, pl. 64. It is evident that the Hydre, like the Meduse or sea nettles, have a stinging power, judging from the manner in which their prey is paralyzed when seized. Worms which will live and move for some time when cut into fragments, die instantly when seized by a hydra: and if a worm which has been seized is taken from the animal before it is swallowed, it does not revive. When a minute animal comes within reach of one of the arms, it is seized and swallowed, and this sometimes happens to young ishes. They sometimes even swallow each other, but the swallowed individual is east out again unhurt. The uniformity of structure is proved by the fact that if the animal is turned inside out, the food can be digested by what was once the outside. . The genus Hydra has been named after the fabulous monster of antiquity bearing the same name, because parts cut away will be reproduced; and under favorable circumstances, when an individual is divided into several parts, each part will become a perfect animal. It is probable that /Zydra ‘grisea (pl. 15, fig. 21), H. fusca (fig. 22), and H. viridis (jig. 23), are varieties of but a single species. The order Hydroida, according to Mr. Dana, contains the following families : 1. Hydride. Not coralligenous. 2. Sertularidw. Coralla corneous. Sertularia abietina (pl. 75, fig. 38). S. polyzonalis (fig. 80). S. operculata (jig. 84). Planularia falcata (jig. 31). Thuiaria thura (fig. 82), all European. “Tn a single specimen of Plumularia angulosa collected by the author in the East Indies, there are about 12,000 polyps to each plumose branch ; and, as the whole zoophyte, three feet long, bears these plumes on an average every half inch, on opposite sides, the whole number of polyps is not short of eight millions; all the offspring of a single germ, and produced by successive budding.”— Dana. 3. Campanularide. Coralla corneous, calicles pedicillate. 4. Tabularide. Coralla tubular and corneous. Zubularia indivisa (pl. 75, jig. 42) (Atlantic and Mediterranean), attached to stones in deep water, T. coronata ( pl. 75, fig. 29) (Northern seas). Stem one third of a line in diameter. In this genus the tentacles are not retractile. The remaining orders of the class Colenterata were called Acalephe vy Cuvier, from the Greek word axadnpq a nettle, from the stinging quality which many of these animals possess. Blainville gave them the expressive name of Arachnoderma, from agaxwov a cobweb, and depya the skin, from the extreme tenuity of the tissues. They are also termed Medusze, sea-nettles, stang-fishes, sea-jellies, and jelly-fish. They are found floating in all seas, particularly those of the tropics; their size varies from one sixth of a line to 231 98 ZOOLOGY. two feet, and the weight of large ones reaches fifty or sixty pounds. Yet this great mass is composed almost entirely of water, which pervades the tissues, and these are of such extreme tenuity that the weight of one of these masses is reduced by desiccation to grains instead of pounds. The more familiar forms belong to the Pulmonigrada, also termed Disco- phora, which may be compared to an expanded untbrella, or toa mushroom, the alternate contraction and expansion of which ‘enable the body to move through the water with the convex or upper surface foremost ; a mode of progression which has afforded a name to the order, from its resemblance to the action of lungs. The beauty of many of these animals equals anything in organic nature ; the colors are prismatic or entirely wanting, and in the latter case, the gelatinous transparent body resembles a mass of colorless liquid gum, which can only be distinguished by its motions from the water which surrounds it. “When in a jar or basin they are often very difficult to distinguish, but by placing the vessel in the sun, we see their shadows floating over the sides and bottom like the shadows of flitting clouds on a landseape. These soon guide us to the creatures themselves, and before long we distinguish their ocelli and colored reproductive organs.”— Forbes. The disk forming the greater part of the body varies from hemispherical to flattened discoidal, and is sometimes le ngthened into a conical or sub- cylindrical form. The central portion is thickest, and the inferior surface is concave. The margin is either entire or fringed with tentacles, which vary greatly in length, number, and form. Some of these tentacles have a colored spot at their base called an ocellus, and upon this Forbes has divided the Discophora into two groups; namely, the Steganophthalmata (covered eyes), in which the ocelli are protected by membranous lobes, and the CO SG (naked eyes), in which the ocelli are not protected. The former are more highly organized than the latter, and in most of the genera the sexes are not united in the same individual. Agassiz has discovered a nervous ring around the mouth, with branches eet andine to the ocelli; an arrangement which resembles that | in the Echinodermata: Ehrenberg had made a less distinct announcement, and Dr. Grant announced the disdoen? of a nervous system in Beroe, in the year 1833. From the centre of the concavity of the disk arises the peduncle, which varies much in size and shape, in some genera forming a considerable portion of the animal, and in others being reduced to a slender extensile and contractile tube, at the extremity of which the mouth is situated. The cavity of the peduncle, orits base, is the stomach, whence branches are sent towards the disk, around the margin of which there is a canal connecting with them. These radiating gastro-vascular branches vary in number from four to twelve or more. In the naked-eyed genera they are seldom branched; and when they are, the branches run to the marginal canal, as in the genus Wilsia* (Forbes, Monog. of the British Naked-eyed Meduse * Named after Dr. Will, who wrote on this subject. RADIATA, 99 London, 1848, pl. 1, fig. 1). The same structure oceurs i1 Berenice (Cuv. Régne An. Zooph., pl. 53, fig. 1"). In the covered-eyed group, the branches after extending about two thirds the distance towards the edge anasto- mose around the margin in a broad and close vascular net work (beautifully exhibited in Milne Edwards’ figure of Rhizostoma, R. An. pl. 50). The position of the generative system is variable in this class. In general both sexes seem to be united in the same individual. When the ocelli are present, the sense of sight is probably suflicient to enable the animal to distinguish between light and darkness, and the sense of hearing may also be present. Their food is furnished by small marine animals, among which the crustacea fill a prominent place. The sense of feeling is probably most developed in the palpi, the tentacles, and the arins, arising from the centre, and surrounding the mouth or pedicle. The stinging quality is not universal in the Medusze, being apparently contined to a few of the higher forms. Bathers sometimes suffer severely by coming in contact with the larger species, whose long tentacles and arms are sometimes entangled around the limbs, and cast off by the animal, leaving the sufferer to disengage himself from these unwelcome appendages at his leisure. The dinethe property is supposed to be confined to an external coat of mucus, which the animal can cast off. The luminousness of the sea is due chiefly to multitudes of acalephe. “At one time, the evening serene and delightful, a pleasant breeze just filling the sails, and the bow of the vessel throwing the water to each side, as it gracefully parts the yielding waves, all round the ship, far as the eye can reach, may be seen innumerable bright spots of light rising to the surtace, and again dis ad aes like a host of small stars dancing and sparkling on the bosom of the sea. At another time, the night dark and lowering, a fresh breeze urging “Ne ship rapidly onwards through her pathless track, upon looking over the stern, in addition to the smaller ‘specks just now mentioned, large ‘globes of living fire may be seen dancing in the smooth water in the wake of the rudder; now, at a great depth, ‘shining through the water, then rising rapidly to ‘the surface, they may be seen, as they reach the top of the wave, flashing a bright spark of light, sufficient almost to dazzle the eyes of the beholder ; and now, again, ‘they may be traced floating majestically along, till they gradually “disappear in the darkness of the water in the distance. At other times, again, When light rain is falling, or, perhaps, previously to the rain coming on, when a light nimbose cloud is overspreading the sky, upon the water being agitated by the ship passing through it, a beautiful ceneral Juminousness is diffused all to) round, bright enough to illuminate the whole ship’s side, and the lower large sails ; and it is no unusual occurrence to have the appearance so bright, that a person with little difficulty, and near the surface of the water, might be enabled to read a book by its aid. . . It is in warmer regions and more southerly latitudes that this phenomenon attains its gre eatest (legree of brilliancy and beauty.,.— W. Baird, On the Luminousness of the Sea, with figures. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1830, vol. 3, p. 808; vol. 4, p. 500. See also vol. 6, pp. 314-319. Luminous acalephee occur upon the coast of the United States, and they may be observed on a night passage in a steamboat in Long Island Sound. 233 30 ZOOLOGY. The light is usually produced under exciting circumstances, or when the animal is disturbed, and all parts do not produce light. Spallanzani found that in cutting off the margin for about half an inch, the latter remained phosphorescent, which was not the case with the disk. Orper 2. Purmonicrapa. The following species of this order are figured ; Thaumantias cymbaloidea (pl. 76, jig. 73), Northern Seas. Aurelia aurita, Linn. (fig. 74), Northern Seas; six to ten or eleven inches in diameter. In this genus the mouth is surrounded with four arms, and the central peduncle is wanting. This species has a bluish disk, fringed with slender tentacles, and having eight marginal ocelli, which are black, with a red point above. Beneath there are four long fringed central arms, with the mouth between. them. Sometimes the margin of the arms contains eggs. The ovaries, however, have their openings between the base of each pair of arms; there are four of them shaped like a horse-shoe, and of a purple color, which renders them visible from above, as seen in the figure. Orprer 3. Crrtograpa. This order (also named Ctenophora by Eschscholtz) is named from its organs of motion, which consist of a series of flat phosphorescent vibrillze, arranged longitudinally upon the surface of the body, along the eight ribs, and by the action of which progression is effected. These vibrille are arranged with their flat surfaces nearly in contact, and they are raised slowly and struck rapidly. Some authors suppose them to subserve the purpose of gills as well as organs of locomotion. The genus Beroe, which is a good example, varies in form from globular to cylindrical, but a little compressed. The cayity beneath is very large, and the animal moves with the mouth foremost. In addition to the mouth there is an excretory orifice. Cestwm veneris has a ribbon-shaped body, the two margins of which are fringed with beautifully colored phosphorescent vibrillae, which at night give the animal the appearance of a band of flame, as it moves through the water. It attains the length of three or four feet. Orpver 4. Crrricrapa. The form is discoidal, and there is an internal subeartilaginous discoidal skeleton, which distinguishes them from the Pulmonigrada. In Porpita (pl. 76, fig. 83) the margin is fringed ‘with stout claviform tentacles, provided with three ranges of pedunculated glands or suckers. The stomachal pedicle is large, and surrounded by numerous tentaculiform cirri, by means of which locomotion is effected. These bear some resemblance to the tentacles of the Actiniz, to which Blainville thinks the order has some affinities. In Velella (V. spirans; Forsk., pl. 76, jig. 84), besides an oval cartilaginous skeleton, there is a vertical process arising from it which supports a crest-like membrane. Orver 5. Puysograpa. This order was called Hydrostatic Acalephee by Cuvier, a designation which, like the proper name, points to a peculiarity of structure, namely, the support of the body by one or more air-vessels, which cause the animal to float. Physalia physalis, Linn. (pl. 77, fig. 1), possesses stinging qualities ; it inhabits the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic, and is known to sailors as the Portuguese man-of-war. The air-vessel is very large, and has a small aperture at each end, from which the air can be 204 ~ a" RADIATA. 31 expelled when the animal wishes to sink. It is probable that this may be accomplished to a certain extent by the muscular power of the air-vessel. Plainville thinks that this order (which wants the radiated character), with Beroe and Diphyes, may be allied to the Mollusca, and in the year 1836 he proposed for them the name MJalactinozoaria, wider the impression that they constitute an intermediate division. Orper 6. Sysrorigrapa. The name Diphyida is derived from that of the genus Diphyes, in allusion to its double nature, each animal being composed of two somewhat conical pieces, the point of one being inserted a short distance into the larger end of the other, and retained by a very slight attachment. See the Penny Cyclopwdia for an extended account, illustrated with figures of this and the preceding orders. Sars, a distinguished naturalist of Norway, discovered in 1836 that some of the Acalephe resemble the Zoophyta, in having a gemmiparons reproduction. He observed certain projections from the base of the pedicle (or exterior of the stomach), which proved to be budding young, attached by the upper or outside portion of their disk. These young resemble the adult in all essential particulars, and, like the Hydrx, they have an independent action previous to their separation from the parent. This is represented at-a, in the annexed figure of Lizia octopunctata of Sars (an animal about one fourth of an inch long), as given by Forbes. The species is named from the eight black ocelli, four of which are large, and towards these the gastric vessels are directed. In Sarsia prolifera, Forbes, the gemmation takes place at the base of the exterior tentacles. We come now to describe a mode of generation which has no parallel in the higher animal forms, and to which the Medusze and some other animals are subject. This mode is termed Alternation of generations by the Danish naturalist, Steenstrup, who has the credit of generalizing the facts upon which the theory is founded, and of which he is in part the discoverer. An English translation of his work on the subject, by George Busk, was published by the Ray Society in 1845, entitled, “* On the Alternation of Generations; or the Propagation and Development of Animals through Alternate Generations : a peculiar form of fostering the young in the lower classes of animals.” Besides this author, the chief observers in this curious branch of science are Chamisso, who published observations on the Salpze in 1819; Sars, on the Medusze, between 1828 and 1841; Siebold and Loven in 1837; and Van Beneden in 1844-7. (See the Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys., Art. Polypifera.) This phenomenon is described by Steenstrup as that of “ abwanimal producing an offspring, which at no time resembles its parent, but which, 235 32 ZOOLOGY. on the other hand, itself brings forth a progeny, which returns in its form and nature to the parent animal, so that the maternal animal does not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in its descendants of the second, third, or fourth degree or generation; and this always takes place in the different animals which exhibit the phenomenon in a determinate generation, or with the intervention of a determinate number of generations. This remarkable precedence of one or more generations, whose function it is, as it were, to prepare the way for the later succeeding generation of animals, destined to attain a higher degree of perfection, and which are developed into the form of the mother, and propagate the species by means of ova, ean, I believe, be demonstrated in not a few instances in the animal kingdom.” 3 + 5 6 When a medusa, as Aurelia aurita (pl. 76, fig 74), produces an ege, the progeny resembles an animalcule (Diagram, jig. 1), which moves in the direction of the arrow by means of vibrilla. The anterior extremity has a round sucker (but not a mouth), by means of which, after several changes of form, it attaches itself to some extraneous object (Diagram, jig. 2). The changes still continue, the two projections at the free end are extended, a mouth is formed in the centre, and a second pair of projections arises between the first. About the fifth or sixth day the four tentacles have become longer, and the body quadrate, and the animal now constitutes the supposed perfect genus, Scyphistoma (Diagram, jig. 3), of Sars. In the next place, four additional tentacles arise between the four earlier ones, and this production continues until the number equals twenty-eight or thirty, and by this time the animal resembles a polyp. In the subsequent changes an entirely new phenomenon is observable. The free extremity of the body begins to show indications of a division into segments, of which one is shown in Diagram, jig. 4; the length and number of segments increase, the body becomes cylindrical, and is now about a line in diameter (its original size being that of a grain of sand), the upper margin of the segments becomes free and divided into lobes (Diagram, fig. 5), capable of independent motion, when the form constitutes the supposed genus, Strobila, of Sars, named from its resemblance to the cones of a pine tree. 236 RADIATA. 33 Finally, the union between the segments is more and more reduced, until they separate like a pile of hemispherical cups, as in Diagram, jig. 6, when they are seen to be separate animals in an inverted position; in fact, the young or larvee of Aurelia (pl. 76, fig. T4). These larvee (constituting the supposed genus Hphyra) are about a line in width, and continue growing and passing through such a change as to give it the structure of the adult, which it acquires when about an inch in size. It is not precisely known what becomes of the polypiform head of the Strobila (Diagram, jig. 5), but the base is said to produce a new set. It appears from these facts that the animal (Diagram, jig. 1) hatched from the egg of a medusa, does not become a free medusa, but a kind of polyp, Scaphistoma strobila, which does not produce its like, but from which medusz are developed. The polypoid nurse, as it has been termed, is uniformly an undeveloped female, whilst of the resulting meduse, some are male and some female. The nurse, like the adult medusa, has the power of increase by budding. The annexed jig. 1 represents an individual of the presumptive genus Coryne, placed in the family Tubu- laridee (p. 27). The head is a six- 3 armed hydroid, beneath which are four quadrate, bell-shaped bodies, which are not organs, but distinct 1 8 individuals of an Tanteraly different form from the hy droid. In the concavity of each is suspended a quadrate stomach, as shown in jig. 2. These bodies have an independent motion, sucking the water in, and throwing it out like the Medusee. They finally detach themselves, and swim freely like medusie, to which they bear a close resemblance. Steenstrup, who observed this species in Iceland, found larger individuals (fg. 3), which he considers the adult medusatorm of the former, in which one of the angles bears a lobed organ and two threads, which he regards as female generative organs. eae up regards Coryne as “‘a previous generation of preparative nurses, which are so far asexual, inasmuch as that their generative organs are not developed.” Forbes describes two minute British species allied to jg. 8, under the generic name of Steenstrupia, suggesting that they may be a stage in the history of some hydroid form. Class 2. Zoophyta. “ The Zoophyta are chiefly marine ; some species are sedentary and others free, some live as single independent animals, and others are collected together in large colonies, the base of the stems being united. Some are without a hard support, others secrete a stony skeleton, which is named coral (CORALLUM, CORALLA in the plural). The corallum is not usually external like the shell in the Mollusca, as is popularly supposed, but an internal secretion “ entirely concealed,” in the 237 34 ZOOLOGY. words of Dana, “ within the polyp, as completely as the skull of an animal beneath its fleshy covering. All corals are more or less cellular, and through these cellules the animal tissues extend.” In some, however, the coral is exposed, as when the increase takes place by a terminal secretion ‘upon a separate stem, when the apex alone is living, and as the stem ‘increases in length the part below dies. This increase above and death below are common in most corals, and to this the great masses of coral are attributable. According to Dana, a solid dome of Astrea, twelve feet in diameter, has a living exterior of only a half or three fourths of an inch in thickness. The classification adopted here is chiefly that of James D. Dana, as given in his magnificent work on Zoophytes, the result of his labors in the United States Exploring Expedition. The characters of the families are in most cases condensed from the same work. The Order Actinoma includes not only the flower-shaped genera, like Actinia (pl. 77, figs. 5, 6), which do not secrete a coral, but also numerous coralligenous genera. The name of this order, from the Greek axw, a ray, is in allusion to the radiated arrangement of the tentacles, which, when expanded, in many cases resemble the petals of a flower. When contracted this resemblance disappears, and the mass may be compared to alemon in shape. Lesueur has described a species (A. marginata) from Massachusetts Bay. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. i. 172.) The Actinize are found in the sea, attached to stones, submerged timber, &c. They have the power of detaching themselves and floating, and of creeping slowly upon their flat base, at the rate of about two inches in an hour. The texture of the exterior is either fleshy or coriaceous, the — surface slimy, smooth, or tuberculous, and very sensitive. The mouth is simple, and fringed by the tentacles. These organs being tubular, they are expanded by having water forced into them, and when they contract, the water is ejected through a minute terminal perforation. The tentacles of some species resemble the Acalephe in having a stinging power. The interior of the Actinize is taken up with the stomach, which is a simple sac, of which the mouth is the opening, and extending nearly to the base of the animal, where it communicates with the visceral cavity, occupying the space between the stomach and the exterior wall. The cavity is provided with a series of vertical muscular partitions, more or less perfect, which extend from the exterior wall to the stomach, so that a transverse section of the animal would resemble a wheel, of which the nave would represent the stomach, and the spokes the visceral partitions. The Actiniz,feed upon fish, crabs, shell-fish, &c., the shells and other indigestible parts being ejected from the mouth after a period of ten or twelve hours. A large individual sometimes accidentally swallows a smaller one, but the latter is usually cast out unharmed, as in the case of the Hydra. The objects swallowed are sometimes as large as the Actinia itself in a state of repose. The following account is given in G. Johnston’s excellent History of British Zoophytes. “T had once brought me a specimen of Act. gemmacea, that might have 238 RADIATA. 35 been originally two inches in diameter, and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of Pecten maximus of the size of an ordinary saucer. The shell, fixed within the stomach, was so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened like a pancake. All communication between the inferior portion of the stomach and the mouth was, of course, prevented; yet, instead of emaciating and dying of an atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with two rows of numerous tentacula, was opened upon what had been the base, and led to the under stomach ; the individual had, indeed, become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater intimacy and extent in its unions!” The Actinize are hermaphrodite ; the reproduction is both by division and by eggs; and the eggs or young (as the case may be) are ejected through the mouth, or rarely, by a kind of abortion, through the tentacles, according to Contarini. The young do not differ essentially from the adult, the chief difference being in the small number of their tentacles. The Actinize reproduce lost parts, especially the tentacles, with great facility ; and when the body is cut into two, three, or even four parts, each may survive and become a complete animal. If the section is horizontal, the lower part acquires a new mouth and tentacles, and the upper part a new base, although in one instance the latter produced a second mouth, so that food was taken at both extremities of the new animal. These experiments indicate that the base has the greatest vital power. (See Contarini, 7vat. delle Attinie, &c., Agassiz’s Lectures, and Johnston’s Zooph.) Actiniz will survive after being placed in water hot enough to blister the skin, and they may be frozen and thawed with impunity, but immersion for a few minutes in fresh water kills them. The order Actinoida contains the sub-orders Actinaria and Alcyonaria, and the families, according to Dana, are as follows: Sus-oRDER 1. AcTINARIA. Often coralligenous, cells lamelliradiate. Tribe 1. Astreacea. Many tentacles in imperfect series ; coralla calcareous, with multiradiate cells, with the lamellze extending beyond the cells. Fam.1. Actinidw. Not coralligenous, usually attached, but sometimes floating in the sea. Actinia (pl. 77, jigs. 5,8). Lucernaria (pl. 76, fig. 72). (Johnst. Zooph., p. 228. R. An. pl. 63, with anatomical details.) Fam. 2. Astreide. Coralla calcareous, tentacles marginal, coralla with excavate cells, stars cireumscribed. Astrea astroites (pl. 15, jig. 62). Meandrina labyrinthica, Linn. (pl. 75, jig. 64); hemispherical, with long winding lines: American seas. Fam. 3. Fungide. Disks not circumscribed, tentacles scattered, short, or obsolete; simple or aggregate-gemmate; when aggregate the disks are confluent; surface of the coralla stellate, without proper cells. Lwngia Sungites, Linn. (pl. 75, fig. 65), has a circular coral, with radiating lamellee, like the under surface of some mushrooms ; beneath granulated. 239 36 ZOOLOGY. A common species from the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. In this genus the corallum is formed by a single polyp, which covers it beneath as well as above. The tentacles are scattered, and when touched, are withdrawn between the lamelle. Tribe 2. Caryophyllacea. Tentacles numerous, in two series; coralla calcareous, cells multiradiate, interstitial surface not lamello-striate. The fourth family is not coralligenous. Fam. 1. Cyathophyllide. Tnterior middle of each corallum usually transversely or obliquely cellular. Fam. 2. Caryophyllide. Tentacles crowded and long, mouths far exserted ; interior of thé corallum not transversely cellular, rays of the cells more than twelve. Oculina virginea, Linn. (pl. 75, jig. 58). White, eighteen inches high, East and West Indies and the Mediterranean. 0. gemmascens (pl. 75, jig. 59). White, eight inches high. Lam. 3. Gemmiporide. Tentacles short and marginal, in two or three series; disk broad, somewhat convex; coralla porous, calicles with a thick margin. ? Hxplanaria ananas (pl. 75, fig. 68). Fam. 4. Zoanthide. Exterior subcoriaceous, tentacles short and marginal, in two or three series. Tribe 3. Madreporacea. Tentacles in a single series, seldom more than twelve, sometimes obsolete ; coralla calcareous, cells small, six- to twelve-rayed, or obsolete ; interstitial surface not lamello-striate. Fam. 1. Madreporide. ‘Tentacles twelve; cells deep, extending to the centre of the corallum. Jladrepora prolifera (pl. 75, jig. 60). fram. 2. Favositide. Tentacles twelve; lime secreted periodically at base, so that the interior of the corallum is septate, rarely solid. Pocéllopora polymorpha (pl. 75, fig. 55). (Lamarck, 2, 311.) - Red Sea. tam. 8. Poritide. Tentacles rarely more than twelve; base forming porous calcareous secretions beneath; coralla finely porous, cells shallow, rays indistinct. Porites porites, Linn. (2. clavaria, Blainv.) (pl. 75, jig. 61). American and Indian seas. Tribe 4. Antipathacea. Animals six-tentaculate, base forming corneous secretions. Fam. 1. Antipathide. Animals fleshy, enveloping a corneous spinulous axis. Antipathes spiralis (pl. 75, fig. 51); stem entire, long, and spiral, about as thick as a quill, and attaining a length of sixteen feet. Indian Ocean. : Sus-orperR 2. ALCYONARTA. Eight-tentaculate; tentacles papillose, apex of the papillz perforate ; often coralligenous. Tribe 1. Alcyonacea. Fam. 1. Pennatulide. Free, or with the base sunk in the mud. Pennatula phosphorea, Linn. (pl. 75, jig. 26). Bears some resemblance to a quill. It is found in the European seas, and emits a pale-blue phosphorescent light when disturbed. P. granulosa, Lam. (jig. 25), and 240 ‘ RADIATA. 37 P. grisea, Esper (fig. 27), inhabit the Mediterranean ; Virgularia juncea, Esper (jig. 24), Europe. Fam. 2. Aleyonide. Fleshy, with calcareous granules. Aleyoniwm ficiforme (pl. 75, fig. 46), size and shape of a fig, and of a yellowish- brown color; and A. palmatum (fig. 47), stem divided irregularly, some- what like a hand; pale-red. Mediterranean. Fam. 3. Cornularide. With corneous tubular coralla. Fam. 4. Tubiporide. With calcareous tubular coralla. Tubipora musica (pl. 75, fig. 66) is of a fine red color, the body green. Indian seas, Fam. 5. Gorgonide. With basal epidermic secretions. Gorgonia flabellum* (pl. 75, jig. 48). Reticulate, branches inwardly compressed ; three feet long. Warm seas of India and America. G. verrucosa, Linn. (pl. 75, fig. 49). Atlantic, six to twelve inches. G. ceratophyta (fig. 50), Mediterranean. Js’s hippuris, Linn. (fig. 53); stem jointed and strong, branches dichotomous. East Indies. Coralium nobile, Linn. (pl. 75, Jig. 52), is branched, one foot high, varies from a fine deep-red to a rose color, or white with a reddish tinge. It admits of a fine polish, and is much. used for light ornamental work. When fresh, thegxterior is fleshy and polypiferous, which, in drying, forms a crust with scattered cellules. The forms of the corals which most of the zoophyta secrete, are extremely varied ; representing various plants and mosses, variously shaped vessels, domes, obelisks, radiated disks, leaves, &c.; and the size of the coral mass varies from a few lines to twelve or even twenty feet. The large masses have commenced in a single animal, from the successive budding of which, the whole has resulted. “ Calculating the number of polyps that are united in a single Astrea dome of twelve feet diameter, each covering a square half inch, we find it exceeding 100,000; and in a Porites of the same dimensions, in which the animals are under a line in breadth, the number exceeds five and a half millions. There are here, consequently, five and a half millions of mouths and stomachs to a single zoophyte, contributing together to the growth of the mass, by eating, and growing, and budding, and connected with one another by their lateral tissues and an imperfect cellular or lacunal com- munication.” — Dana, p. 60. In those eases where single polyps occupy the extremity of dead branching stems, there is no union of the soft parts of different individuals. Class 3. Echinodermata. The Echinodermata, which are all marine, and include what are popularly termed star-fish, sea eggs, &c., are the most highly organized class in the radiated division of the animal kingdom. The bodies of some are raised upon a pedicle, the base of which is fixed to a single place; others are without a pedicle, and move freely and slowly along the bottom. Some of the latter are provided with a multitude of sucker-like feet, which, in Asterzas aurantiaca, amount to 840, according to Tiedemann. Some are provided with eye dots, which, in Asterias, &c., are situated at the extremity of the rays; and where the nervous system has been detected, it forms a circle ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP#DIA.—VOL. II. 16 241 38 ZOOLOGY. around the oesophagus, with branches to the rays, &c. The mouth is armed with hard bony teeth, enabling the animal to live upon crustacea and shell fish. Some live at the bottom of the sea on the surface of the rock, and others burrow in the sand. The integument of some of the members of this class is sustained by a calcareous skeleton, which incloses the viscera and supports movable spines varying much in size and shape. The skeleton is composed of pieces which are often joined together like polygonal stones in a pavement. These plates, the spines, and the entire skeletons, are very abundant in various geological formations, in which they are preserved in great perfection. ~The class contains the orders Crinoidea, Asteridea, Echinidea, Molothuri- dea, to which some add another for the reception of Siponculus, Echiurus, &e., constituting the apodous Echinodermata of Cuvier. Orper 1. Crrvorpea. This order is almost extinct, but is found plentifully in a fossil state in the older rocks. These remains consist of the solid calcareous skeleton, of which the chief parts are the stem, the body, and the arms. The body is oval or cup-shaped, protecting the internal soft parts, and made wp of numerous plates, of which the variations in number and form afford generic characters. The arms are five or more in number, simple or branched, fringed with lateral articulated appendages, and placed around the upper margin of the body, the mouth being situated between them. When the arms are closed, some species resemble a lily, whence the trivial name of Enerinus liliiformis. The vent is distinct and lateral. The central solid part of the stem has been compared to the bones in a lizard’s tail, being made up of a column of disks, which are either circular, polygonal, or star-shaped. The stem is often provided with articulated simple lateral branches, which, like the arms, are filled with calcareous joints, many thousand of which are contained in the remains of a single animal. The disks of the stem have a perforation through them, which admits of their being strung like beads; and, according to Dr. Buckland, they were used for rosaries in ancient times. In northern England they are called St. Cuthbert’s beads ; and before their nature was known, they were named Entrochites in books. Pentacrinus asteria, Linn. (P. caputmeduse, Miller) (pl. 76, fig. 58), is a recent species from the West Indies, of which a specimen is in the British Museum, the Paris Museum, that of the Geological Society of London, and that of the London College of Surgeons. (This and other species of the order are figured in the Penny Cyc. ix. 390, and in the new edition of the Reégne Animal.) Znecrinus radiatus (fig. 57). Pentacrinus europeus, Thompson, a minute animal found on the coast of Treland, is now considered by this author to be the pedunculated young of Comatula, a starfish somewhat like pl. 76, fig. 62. This confirms one of the views of Agassiz (Lectures, p. 13), that the earlier fossil animals often resemble the embryonic or immature forms of the more recent periods. Flolopus rangi, Orbigny (pl. 76, fig. 56) (Mag. de Zool. 1837, pl. 3) is a. recent genus from Martinique. Orper 2, Asrermea. In this order the supporting stem is wanting, and 242 RADIATA. 39 the animal has the power of locomotion, sometimes by means of the arms, and sometimes with the aid of the sucker-like feet. The arms in some genera are provided with numerous lateral filaments, and in some cases they divide into branches. The genus Astrophyton (named also Euryale and Gorgonocephalus) (pl. 76, fig. 63), is remarkable for its five dichotomizing arms sending off branches, and terminating in a multi- tude of curled filaments, which, it is said, may amount to eight thousand in a single individual. The genus Ophiura (pl. 76, Fs: g. 64) is named from the resemblance which its long and slender arms bear to the tail of a serpent, not only in form, but in the numerous bony pieces of which they are composed, and which are not unlike the scales of a serpent. The arms are very flexible; and by giving them an undulating motion, the animal can swim to a certain degree. On each side of the base of the arms is an opening which is the outlet of the ovaries, of which there are ten. Several species inhabit the coast of the United States. In Ophiolepis (jig. 62), a genus allied to Ophiura, the disk is entire, with smooth plates. In both genera the arms have movable spines, which in some species are appressed, and in others projecting. The species figured, 0. scolopendrina, is found near the Isle of France. In these genera the mouth is in the centre of the ventral surface, and from it are continued five grooves, through which a few sucker-like feet are projected. The mouth is armed with a strong osseous apparatus for masticating food. The arms, when broken off, can be reproduced. PJ. 76, fig. 61, represents Astrogoniun granulare of the seas of northern Europe: In this genus the rays are not so well developed as in Asterias (fig. 60), which gives it a pentagonal figure. Oreast:r turritus (pl. 76, fig. 59) attains a length of ten inches, and inhabits the Indian Ocean. Solaster is distinguished by an increased number of rays; S. papposus (pl. 76, fig. 66) is a foot in diameter. Stellonia rubens (fig. 65) attains a foot in size, and is so abundant in the seas of Europe as to be spread over the soil as a manure. Asterias (fig. 60) has the rays so much enlarged that there is room in the coneavity of each for two extensions or appendages of the stomach, with an ovary between them, and a liver; which is not the case in the slender rayed genera like Ophiwrus. Moreover, the size of the rays renders them less flexible, and badly fitted for locomotion; but as a compensation, they are pierced along their inferior surface (between short transverse bones arranged in series on each side of a deep central groove) with a multitude of ambulacral perforations, through which the feet already mentioned project, and which enable the animal to crawl up a surface as smooth as glass, and also assist in holding its prey. The suckerlike feet are connected within the aperture through which they project, with a globular vesicle filled with water, by the hydrostatic action of which the suckers are extended or withdrawn. Each vesicle is connected by a small tube with a canal which traverses each ray, starting from a circular canal around the cesophagus. 243 40 ZOOLOGY. \ “This apparatus communicates with another tube which penetrates from the dorsal surface downwards, having its opening shut by a perforated plate called the madreporic body, which in starfishes is always seen in the angle between two of the rays; so that we have here an hydraulic apparatus of a very complicated nature.” (Agassiz.) Through this series of vessels the water flows in both directions, either downwards through the upper aper ture, or upwards through the tubular feet; subserving in ifS course the functions of locomotion and respiration, The water which fills the general cavity is admitted through the numerous minute perforations of the exterior. “The heart is placed along the calcareous tube which arises from the madreporic body, and the blood-vessels form circular rings around the entrance of the stomach, from which and to which the radiating arteries and veins move.” (Agassiz’s Lectures, and his Letter to Humboldt in 1847.) There are also movable spines upon the lower surface which assist in locomotion. When food is taken, the animal bends its rays towards the mouth, so as to form a cup-shaped cavity, when the food is gradually moved to the mouth. There is no vent distinct from the mouth. The rays, when lost by accident, can be reproduced, and it is asserted that if a ray with part of the mouth be detached, it will form a new animal. The stomach is central and sends off two branching divisions or czeca in each ray. There is an English law which imposes a fine upon fishermen who do not kill a species of Asterias which is said to destroy oysters. Agassiz has discovered that starfish, after their eggs are laid, take them up and retain them below the mouth between their.suckers ; and when they are forcibly removed to some distance, the animal will approach and take them up again, showing a remarkable instinct in so low an animal. We pass from Asterias (pl. 76, fig. 60), through the pentagonal form Astrogonium (fig. 61) to Agassiz genus Culcita, which resembles the last somewhat in shape, except that the five sides are convex instead of concave, so that the outline is more nearly circular, approximating the circular and oval forms of the next family. Orper 38. Ecnutntpea. This order includes the oval or circular bodies known as sea-eggs, sea-urchins (owrs?n in French), the skeleton of which is a calcareous crust composed of twenty equal or unequal rows of polygonal plates pierced by various pores. The mouth is beneath, and armed or unarmed, central or sub-terminal ; the vent is distinct, and varies in position, being formed beneath and above, and when beneath, marginal or towards the centre. The generative pores are four or five, placed around the summit. When the animal dies, the integument (including the spines with which it is covered, and which present much variety in form and size) is soon lost, leaving the calcareous shell which protects the interior soft parts. The integument of the calcareous portion not only secretes the shell, but extends in a thin layer over the solid spines, which are thus formed layer by layer as the animal increases in size. The circular form of these animals might at first induce an observer to doubt their affinity with the more star-shaped Asterzdea, but if the rays of 244 : RADIATA. 41 the latter are supposed to be shortened, and the concavity between them filled up, the approximation will appear when the correspondence of the organs is considered. The plates of an Echinus (pl. 76, jig. 69) run in vertical rows, two of which are wide and two narrow alternately; the wide pair have tubercles which support the larger spines; and the narrow ones have vertical rows of minute perforations which form the ambulacra, and allow the passage of the sucker-like feet which, in addition to the spines, are concerned in locomo- tion, and perhaps in passing water to the respiratory organs which lie beneath. The mouth of the Hchinz is armed with five jaws working together by means of a complicated piece of mechanism, and which have been com- pared by Aristotle to a lantern, hence called the lantern of Aristotle. Among the chief authorities upon this department are Lamarck, Blain- ville, Delle Chiaje, Goldfuss, Desmoulins, J. Miller, Sars, Milne Edwards, Dufossé, Duvernoy, Klein, Gray, and especially Agassiz. The forms in this order are very various, from the flat and discoidal Scutella, which is flat beneath and but slightly convex above, to the sub- globular Hehinus and elevated Galerites, which is considerably higher than wide. Some have the ambulacra disposed in oval or elliptic lines upon the upper surface, resembling the four or five petals of a spreading flower. According to Duvernoy, in the Echinidze in which the rosette is formed, a series of branchie (instead of feet) are passed through these perforations, in addition to the internal branchize; and in consonance with this view, he divides the Echinidz into two sections: the Exobranchia, with external branchiz (including forms like Clypeaster, Cassidulus, and Spatangus); and the Homopoda for the remainder (including forms like Cidaris and Galerites). Echinus, and other genera with large spines, are found on the bottom of the sea, whilst the Scwtellw, which have short bristly spines, burrow in sand. Spatangus (pl. 76, fig. 67) and its allies have the mouth armed and placed towards the anterior end; the vent posterior, and placed upon the upper or lower surface; the shell ee in texture, lengthened, and gibbous ; ovarian pores four. Clypeaster (jig. 68), and the allied genera, have the mouth central, or nearly so, and the vent near the posterior margin, and upon the upper or lower surface, according to the genus. Echinus (pl. 76, jig. 69), and Cidaris (figs. 70, 71), have a subglobular shell and two kinds of spines, the larger of which are supported upon large tubercles. The mouth is central beneath, and the vent in the apex. The tendency to take an oblong form in Spatangus and Ananchytes, and the mouth being placed near the opposite extremities of the body, indicate an approach to She next order. Orver 4. Hotornurtpea. The animals composing this order have an elongated worm-like form, and the shell has disappeared, although some earthy matter is deposited around the mouth. In Holothuria and the allied genera the body is very contractile; the skin is irritable and has numerous mucous-secreting pores, and perforations for the passage of the sucker-like feet, which are either generally distributed, or arranged in five rows repre- 245 42 ZOOLOGY. senting the ambulacra, or confined to the middle portion of the ventral surface. The mouth is fringed with branching tentacles capable of being withdrawn ; the vent is at the opposite extremity of the body; and the entire animal bears a striking resemblance to a cucumber, whence it is called by, sailors the sea-cowcumber, and one of‘ the genera bears the name of Cucumaria (C. frondosa, pl. 76, fig. 85). They are extensively collected about the islands and reets of the Eastern oceans as a culinary delicacy for the Chinese markets. Captain Flinders mentions a Malay fleet of sixty vessels and one thousand men, as forming an expedition to fish for these animals. “The object was a certain marine animal called trepang; of this they gave me two dried specimens, and it proved to be the beche-de-mer or sea- cucumber, which we had first seen on the reefs of the east coast, and had afterwards hauled on shore so plentifully with the seine, especially in Caledon Bay. They got the trepang by diving, in from three to eight fathoms water; and where it is abundant, a man will bring up eight or ten at a time. The animal is split down one side, boiled, and pressed with a weight of stones; then stretched open with slips of bamboo, dried in the sun, and afterwards in smoke, when it is fit to be put away in bags, but requires frequent exposure to the sun. A thousand trepangs make a pecol, of about 125 Dutch pounds; and one hundred picols is a cargo for a prow.” Orver 5. SrecncunmeA. These are sometimes included in the order Holothuridea, with which they agree in the tentacles, the intestinal canal, and circulatory system, although they want the tubular feet. Szpunculus (pl. TA, tig. 7, and pl. 77, jigs. 27, 28). According to Quatrefages the anatomy of Echiurus indicates an affinity both to the cheetopodous annelida and to Holothuria, giving it characteristics of distinct types. Some authors, as Blainville and Gervais, place these animals among the Annelida. Crass Hretmintues. The classification of the various forms of worms has been attended with difficulties, some of which still remain, notwithstanding the efforts of distinguished naturalists to ascertain their characteristics. The worms, whose body is composed of a series of rings, as in the leech and earth-worm, and whose nervous system is composed of a line of ganglia, united by a double nervous cord, as in insects, form with these the division Articulata, of which they constitute the class Annelida. After excluding the Annelida from the class of worms, there still remain many forms, both aquatic, and living in the interior of other animals, to which the term IHelminthes is restricted. Here the annulate structure has disappeared, and the median nervous system has been separated into two distinct branches, usually arising from a large ganglion anteriorly, or two ganglia united by a transverse branch. From the characteristics which these animals afford, it is difficult to decide whether they belong to the radiate or articulate division of the animal scale, or, as is probable, form an 246 HELMINTHES. 43 inter-class with characters common to both. Milne Edwards, Gervais, and Agassiz, think they form a common type with the Articulata, thus uniting all the worms in one division. The latter disposes of the differences in the nervous system, by considering them essentially the same, the two distinct or bilateral threads (and sets of ganglia, where they exist) being approximated to form a single series. The genus Malacobdella has certain intermediate characters, which render it difficult to place, the nerves being separated, the intestine simple, and the sexes separate. It is about an inch long, white, translucent like Planaria, and has a posterior sucker. It is marine, and lives as a parasite in the mantle of the molluscous genera JZya and Venus. Blanchard thinks it forms a distinct type of worms, as the generative organs alone have an ‘affinity with those of the Annelida; and Duvernoy places it among the Trematoda. On the other hand, the Helminthes may be regarded as a two-rayed animal -(a view taken in part by Duvernoy), allied to the Radiata by this very nervous system, which, in Zristoma (R. An. pl. 36), forms a complete circle, which may be compared with that of the Radiata. The digestive . system of this animal and of Planaria, bears an analogy to that of the Radiata, even the more typical forms, for in the Echinidea it has already departed from the radiated type. In some Planarie (R. An. pl. 37, fig. 1°) the gastro-vascular ramification forms a complete net-work, which has its counterpart in Rhizostoma (R. An. pl. 50). We lay no stress upon the absence of the articulate structure in most Helminthes, because it is wanting in some of the Epizoa, which, although sometimes arranged with the Radiata, belong to the Crustacea. The articulate appearance of Tyenia arises from the fact, that each joint is to a certain extent a single individual, affording an analogy with the Radiata, which is strengthened by the transverse nutrient tubes. Cuvier, Duvernoy, and others, place the Helminthes among the Radiata. The classification of the latter, in 1848, is as follows, the vernacular names (which have no authority in science) being replaced by systematic ones. Class Helminthes, comprising the three sub-classes, Helminthophyta, Parenchymata, and Cavitaria. Sus-ciass I. Hetmryruopryra. Animals simple or compound; form ribbon-shaped, a double alimentary canal, no vent. Including the two orders Cystica (from A’ystis, a bladder) and Cestoidea (from /estos,.a band). a. Oystica, with one family : 1. Hydatidee. b. Cestoidea, with three families : 1. Cysticercidee. 2. Ligulidee. 3. Teeniide. Sun-oiass IT. Parencuymara. Form flattened, rarely cylindrical, nervous system bi-radiate ; a bifurcated or branched alimentary sac. It includes the two orders and families: 247 44 ZOOLOGY. 1. Trematoda. 2. Planariidee. Sus-ciass III. Cavirartia. Having a visceral cavity, the nervous system bi-radiated. Composed of four orders, the first having a visceral cavity instead of an intestine, the remaining three with two openings at the alimentary canal, at opposite extremities. a. Enterodela,* with one family : 1. Acanthocephala. b. Enterodela cylindrica |Nematoidea, Rudolphi], two families : 1. Ascaride. 2. Gordiide. c. Enterodela plicata {Acanthotheca, Diesing], a single family and parasitic genus : 1. Linguatulidee. d. Enterodela tenioida, one family: 1. Nemertide. The greater part of the Helminthes live in various parts of other animals, deprived of light, with little occasion for locomotive powers, and governed by circumstances of great uniformity, so that we need not be surprised at the simplicity of structure in individual genera, althongh they present a considerable amount of variation in the aggregate. From the mode of their occurrence within other animals, they have been termed Entozoa, in which certain external species are included. In some cases the same species is found in waters as well as in the interior of animals. There is scarcely an animal, whether terrestrial or aquatic, which does not nourish some of these parasites, and but few of the latter infest several distinct species. They have been found in beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, mollusca, and even in the acalephe. These entozoa are found, according to the species, in various parts of the bodies they infest, as the intestines, brain, bronchi, liver, kidneys, muscles, blood, and bones. I, Herminrnopnyra. a. Oystica. These are named from the resemblance of the posterior part of the body to a bladder, a part which is filled with fluid (pl. 77, fig. 29). This is fibrous and sensitive, at times as large as an egg, and it sometimes forms part of several individuals. In Ccnurus the head or heads are each attached to a short neck; they are sub-globular, crowned with hooks, and have suckers arranged around the convexity, to enable it to attach itself to the substance whence it derives its nourishment. It lives in the brain and spinal nerve of sheep, and more rarely in the brain of oxen, destroying parts of it, and giving rise to a fatal disease, called by the expressive name of “staggers,” from its chief symptom. In Echinococcus (called Acephalocyste by the French) there is no head * This name is inadmissible, having been previously used by Ehrenberg in the Infusoria, p: 24. 248 HELMINTHES. 45 outside of the kyst, the animals being restricted to its inside. It occurs in the liver, spleen, and other parts, and is not exclusively confined to man. b. Cestoidea. Cysticercus is found in man as well as in animals, between the tissues of the muscles, sometimes penetrating to the eye-ball, the heart, and the brain. The form is that of the Cystica (with which it is usually and perhaps cor- rectly placed), whilst in some other respects it approaches the Cestoidea. What is called “ measles” in hogs arises from an abundance of enkysted worms (Cysticercus cellulose, pl. 77, fig. 80), which have been found occu- pying as much space as the brain in these animals, and causing convulsions and death. The intestinal worms of the genus Ligula (LZ. cingulum, pl. 77, jig. 34) are flat, ribbon-shaped, without articulations, marked with a longitudinal stria, and also transversely striate. They live in birds, and especially in fishes. The species figured is from one to five feet long, and is found in the Cyprinus brama of Europe. This worm is said to be eaten in some parts of Italy. Bothrimonus sturionis infests the American Acipenser oxyrhyn- chus. It is not articulated, it has a longitudinal impressed line above and below, with numerous raised points along it, those beneath having a pore. The head is sub-globular, with a double sucker. The genus Bothriocephalus (named from bothros, a groove, and kephale, the head) is a long, flat, jointed worm, with a longitudinal groove upon each side of the sub-quadrate head, distinguishing it from Zenda, or the true tape-worm. It is also distinguished by having the segments much wider than long, and the openings from the ovaries are beneath, and not lateral. The genus infests birds, fishes, and reptiles; and one species, 2. latus (pl. T7, fig. 32), infests man in Russia, Switzerland, and some other parts of Europe. The common tape-worm, Zwnia solium (pl. 77, fig. 33), is composed of flat, sub-quadrate articulations, which are very small and fragile for some distance from the head, so much so that this part is rarely obtained perfect, and the small head was for a long period unknown. The head is globular and provided with four terminal suckers, arranged in a square around the mouth. The alimentary canal is double, being composed of an intestine running along each side of the body, with a transverse canal connecting the opposite sides at the beginning of each segment, giving the interstices the appearance of a ladder. The centre of each segment is occupied by distinct generative organs of both sexes, which have their outlet in a lateral pore, alternately upon the right and left side of the segments. As each segment is capable of producing a large number of eggs, it is difficult to conceive why the animals should be comparatively so few in number. This species attains a length of twenty feet or more, and a single one is usually confined to a single individual, although as many as twenty have been found together. Zwnia cateniformis (fig. 31) is about an inch long, and infests the cat. IU. Parencuymara. These are soft contractile bodies, without any appearance of division 249 46 ZOOLOGY. into rings, and bearing some resemblance to a leech, but sometimes so short as to be circular. 1. The Zremateda are internal monoicous parasites, having an anterior, suctorial opening, and one or more suctorial disks of attachment, which afford generic characters. Distoma (or Masciola) hepaticum (pl. TT, fig. 36), which is a good example, is about an inch long, infests the gall-bladder, liver, and rarely the neighboring veins in man, sheep, oxen, deer, gazelles, camels, goats, horses, and hares. In sheep it is the cause of the fatal disease named rot. The severe winter of 1841-2 in Germany, was fol- lowed by the death of many deer, which were found to be much infested with Distoma. Fresh-water snails of the genera Planorbis and Limnea are infested by a minute animal, with a globular body and slender tail, resembling a tadpole, and forming the supposed genus Cercaria, of which two American species were published in 1840, the motions of which are similar to those of their European analogues, the tail being rapidly thrown into the shape of an 5, and easily detached.* Steenstrup has in some measure cleared up the his- tory of the Cereariz, which are the larvee of Trematoda. After swimming about freely for some time, they attach themselves to the outside of the snail, and settle in the mucus of the exterior, maintaining themselves by an abdominal sucker, and in the course of their movements losing the tail, a loss which gives them somewhat the appearance of a Distoma. They now enter the pupa state, in which they remain for some months without appar- ent change. They afterwards acquire spines anteriorly, and such individu- als were found within the snail.- C. Th. Siebold thinks the Distoma is finally developed in the water-fowls which swallow the snails, an analogous fact having been observed by Creplin, who found a species in a stickleback fish, and also in water-fowls. 2. The Planariide contain a number of small leech-like animals, found both in fresh and salt water, which glide along like a snail over solid objects, or, passing up an object to the surface, they creep along this with the back downwards, and the belly attached to a thin film of water. The single opening to the ramifications of the stomach is usually about the centre of the inferior surface; and whatever is taken through this that is indigestible, is subsequently rejected by sucking in a quantity of water, and ejecting the whole together. Planaria (Planocera) cornuta (pl. 77, fig. 35) has two horn-like extensions anteriorly. .P. (Dendrocelum) gracilis, Hald. 1840, is three fourths of an inch long, and one tenth broad, fuliginous, veined with black ; * ©. hyalocauda, Hald, Body dark brown, or blackish, about as long as the tail; tail trans- parent, tapering, and suddenly diminished at its junction with the body. Just visible to the naked eye. Parasitic upon Physa heterostropha. Susquehanna. C. bilineata. Perfectly white. Microscopic characters : Head and tail translucent ; body with two dark longitudinal lines, which have a tendency to connect, so as to form a circle when the animal contracts; there is a light posterior circular spot occasionally visible, the tail is shorter than the extended body, and is not contracted at the base. Exceedingly numerous upon speci- mens of Limnca catascopium, collected at Camden on the Delaware. 250 HELMINTHES. 47 oblong, suddenly tapering to.a point posteriorly ; sides nearly parallel ; head truncate in front; neck narrowed, eye dots two, on the narrow part, oblong and white, with a black dot upon the internal margin; ventral opening less than one third the entire length from the posterior extremity. It inhabits springs in eastern Pennsylvania, and feeds upon animal matter. When cut in two, each part becomes an entire animal. Il. Cavirrarta. a. Enterodela. 1. The Acanthocephala, which are placed with the Parenchymata by Cuvier, are composed of round worms represented by the genus Echinorhynchus, the chief character of which is a straight, round, retractile trunk, armed with rows of recurved tooth-like hooks, which retain it in place when thrust into the intestines. A small pore is sometimes observable at the end of this trunk, but it is probable that nourishment is absorbed by its entire surface. A vascular tube runs longitudinally on each side, and is lost towards the posterior extremity. These noxious animals seem not to have been found in man, although numerous species infest vertebrate animals. They sometimes bore through the intestines, and pass into the cavity of the abdomen, and into other parts .of the body. Echinorhynchus gigas (pl. 77, fig. 39) is from three to fifteen inches long, and infests hogs, especially such as are confined to be fattened. b. Enterodela cylindrica. 1. The Ascaride include various genera of internal parasites, of which the genus Ascaris is among the best known, and contains slender, round worms, tapering towards both ends. The head is provided with three little valves, between which the mouth is placed. The intestine is straight. the vent terminal, and the nervous system bilateral. Ascaris lumbricoides (pl. 77, fig. 41) takes its trivial name from its general resemblance to a lumbricus, or earth-worm. It is white, from six to twelve or fifteen inches long, and the female is larger and more abundant than the male. It infests the small intestines of man, and is frequently fatal to children, in which it sometimes penetrates to the stomach, and even to the mouth. As many as five hundred have been ejected by a child in the course of eight days. It is sometimes discharged from abscesses in the abdomen, and it has rarely been passed from the bladder. This species infests the hog and the ox, and an allied one (once considered the same) is found in the horse. Owen, some years ago, calculated the number of eggs in a female of this species to exceed sixty millions. Gluge and Mand] found eggs of an Ascaris, without the animal, in the lungs of frogs, supposed to be introduced with the air. Oxyuris vermicularis, Linn. (pl. 7%, jig. 42), is half an inch long, cylindrical, with the posterior portion subulate. It infests the large intestines of children. Trichocephalus dispar (fig. 40) is found with the preceding species, and differs in having the anterior extremity attenuated like a thread, and resembling the lash of a whip, of which the posterior end would be the stock. It is one or two inches long, of which the thick part occupies about a third. 231 48 ZOOLOGY, 2. Gordiidew. The genus Filaria is long, slender, thread-like, and smooth, with a somewhat rigid texture, and many species are found in various animals, including insects and mollusca. /’ilaria medinensis (pl. 77, fig. 48), the guinea worm, infests the muscles and subcutaneous tissues, chiefly of the lower limbs, in Arabia, Upper Egypt, West Africa, and the West Indies. It is sometimes located about the eye, and beneath the tongue; and occasionally it makes its way to the surface of the body, causing a sore, from which it may be extracted if a little is withdrawn daily, care being taken not to break it, as in that case the inclosed part remains and causes inflammation, which may render amputation necessary. A sailor, who frequently met Africans on shipboard with sores caused by the worm, had been on shore in West Africa for three hours barefoot, having himself a small sore on the thigh at the time. He arrived in England in October, 1843 ; and in the middle of the subsequent May a sore appeared on the left instep, which finally opened and disclosed part of a white worm, about the size of a violin string, of which five inches were cut off. This was succeeded by violent inflammation and suppuration upon the foot and leg, until the remaining two feet and a half of the worm came away. On the 23d of May another sore. appeared upon the left fore-arm, disclosing a second filaria, which was gradually and carefully removed in fourteen days, and found to be thirty-two inches long. A third could then be felt under the integument of the right foot. This species attains a length of six feet, and is said to be sometimes seen swimming in the water of the countries it inhabits. Filaria papillosa (fig. 45) is found in the abdomen, chest, and eyes of the horse. Dr. Charles A. Lee gives a figure of it in the Am. J. Scz., 1840, vol. xxxiv. p. 279. Ue states that it is from one to seven inches long, and one third of a line in diameter. The specimen seen by him seems to have grown from half an inch to about four inches in four months. Filaria phalangit (pl. T7, fig. 62) has been found in Phalangium cornutum. Filaria lycose, Wald. Pale-reddish when recent ; flavous when dried by heat ; rigid, smooth, and shining, slightly tapering towards one end ; about five inches long, and one millimetre in diameter at the largest end. Found in Eastern Pennsylvania, in a specimen apparently of Lycosa scutulata, Hentz, ten lines long, and, when the size of the spider is considered, a remarkably large species. The specimen being much contorted, and one end still within the spider, the precise length could not be determined. Fig. 43 might pass for a representation of it, and the spider is a little larger than fig. 37° in pl. 78. The genus Gordius is found free in water, or as an internal parasite. Gordius aquaticus is found under all these circumstances, as it has been ascertained to infest insects. These worms resemble a thin thread or stout hair, and being seen in running water, or in puddles along roads, particularly after rain (see Mag. Wat. Hist., 1836, pp. 9, 241-2, 355), they are popularly supposed to be metamorphosed horse-hairs. They are male and female, oviparous, and have a more complicated organization than their external simplicity might be supposed to indicate. 252 MOLLUSCA. 49 c. Enterodela plicata. 1. The Linguatulide are internal parasites infesting various organs; they are flattened and tapering posteriorly, and rugose transversely. In Linguatula the interior extremity is armed with a few recurved spines. d. Enterodela taenioida. 1. Nemertide. The principal genus is Vemertes, Cuvier (pl. 74, fig. 10), an extremely long and soft marine worm, of a flattened form, the anterior extremity slender, and the posterior one ending with a broad attaching disk. It approaches Hirudo in its mouth and vascular system. It lives buried in the sand, and is said to feed on shell-fish. : Drviston II. Morxusca. The Mottvsca, or Matacozoa (soft animals), constitute one of the great Divisions of the animal kingdom. Except the shell, which is not always present, these animals have nothing in the nature of bones; and they want the ringed structure and jointed members of the Articulata. The body is soft, the integument slimy, and generally without epidermis, and in the testaceous species capable of secreting a shell. The alimentary canal has an opening at each end, and the circulating system is more or less complete. The eyes of univalve mollusca are generally situated upon or near the tentacles; those of bivalves upon the edge of the mantle, as in Pecten (pl. 76, figs. 27, 29); or on the posterior portion which forms the siphons, as in Unio (pl. 76, fig. 47). From the great number, variety, and beauty of the shells of so large a portion of the Mollusca, the study of these, under the name of Conchology, attracted attention at an early period, when a cabinet of shells was often regarded in the same light as a casket of i;ewels, and great sums were paid for rare and handsome species; and, indeed, this interest still maintains its ground, there being shells, the price of which is one or two hundred dollars at the present day. It was at length discovered that little of natural classification and the habits of this class could be known, without a study of the entire animal; so that Conchology finally became merged into Malacology. There is, however, no impropriety in the use of the former term in an enlarged sense, if it be considered to include the study of those animals which are usually provided with a calcareous shell. Some of the older conchologists, guided by the shell alone, included radiated forms, like Echinus, in this division; and even at the present day, the currhopoda (pl. 76, figs. 51-54) and some of the annelida, which have a hard exterior tube, are sometimes described in books avowedly devoted to mollusca. On the other hand, whilst all “shells,” whether secreted by the mollusea or the articulata, were classed together, true mollusca, when unprovided with a shell, were often placed among worms and annelida. The term (Vermes) Mollusca was used by Linneeus in 1758, in a wide 253 od 50 ZOOLOGY. sense, as it included radiata, like Actinia, Medusa, and Echinus; crustacea like Lernea, as well as Ascidia, Limax, and the Cephalopoda, and even some annelida; whilst his order (Vermes) Testacea included most of the univalve and bivalve shell-fish. The “class Mollusca” of Lamarck, follows his class Conchifera, and includes the five “ orders,” as he terms them, of Pteropoda, Gastropoda (excluding the spiral univalves), Trachelipoda (including the spiral univalves), Cephalopoda, and Heteropoda. Pallas and Cuvier were the first to use the term Mollusca in its modern sense; and the latter, in 1798, recognised three sections, subsequently provided with the systematic names of Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Acephala. The term Mollusca having by these means acquired a somewhat indefinite meaning, Blainville proposed that of Malacozoa, which is the preferable term, if the term Malacology supersedes that of Conchology. The shell of the Malacozoa can have one, two, or more pieces; it may be external or internal, and it varies much in size, being in some cases capable of containing all the soft parts, with room to spare, and in others a mere excrescence upon some part of the animal. It is secreted by the mantle, a fold of the integument which appears as a flap, lining the shell in bivalves, and a continuation of it appears as a collar around the neck, and lining the aperture of the shell in the spiral univalves. In the order Tunicata the body is inclosed in a kind of coriaceous purse instead of a shell. The mantle usually secretes two kinds of material, the nacre, or pearly portion of the shell, and the epidermis, or periostraca ; but in some genera the latter is absent, as in Oliva (pl. 75, figs. 122, 125, 126) and Cyprea (pl. 76, figs. 5-7), in which the wide mantle is tuned up on each side, so as to inclose the shell. When the shell is broken by accident, the crevice is closed by layers of nacre; and if a pebble gets into the shell by accident, and cannot be got rid of, it is covered in like manner. When the nacre or “mother-of-pearl” is of a fine quality, the tubercular masses which arise from injuries have a peculiar lustre, which causes them to be admired under the name of pearls. Shells are often found repaired, which had been crushed and distorted to such an extent as to lead one to believe it scarcely possible for an animal to survive after so much mutilation. The varied spots and lines which ornament so many marine shells, are distributed by the periodical action and inaction of the secreting process. | The species of the genus Conus, although covered by a thick epidermis, are usually marked with bands, spots, and reticulations of brilliant colors, which make them a favorite ornament to collections. The epidermis, however, should not be removed, or it should at least be preserved upon a specimen of each species, as it varies considerably according to the species. The former unscientific custom of polishing such shells as have a homely exterior is now discontinued. The microscopic structure of shells presents many curious features, which have been thoroughly studied by Carpenter, who has illustrated the subject with figures. In some shells the structure resembles that of minerals, and seems to be formed of minute crystals of carbonate of lime, or of fibres resembling arragonite. 254 MOLLUSCA. 51 In the genus Argonauta (p/. 76, fig. 17) the ends of two of the arms are greatly dilated, and these dilations clasp the shell upon each side, which seems to be formed by a secretion from their inner surface. In some of the naked land-snails, like p/. 77, fig. 21, a small thin shell may be taken out of the back, and the cuttle-fish has a corresponding internal shell, known as cuttle-bone, which is more complex, having a hard, rough surface above, and a series of close-set, thin, parallel plates bereath. The lower end terminates in a point which corresponds to those fossil organic remains of cephalopoda, named Belemnites. In bivalve shells the mantle is slightly attached to the shell, in some degree parallel with its margin, and at a little distance from it; but this line of attachment, which is named the pallial impression, varies considerably in its course in different families, and through this variation affords distinctive characters. The mantle, or projections from it, secretes the spines, rugosities, and other appendages, by which the shell is varied. Sometimes the deposition of the shell goes on smoothly, when a thickening of the margin, a varix, or a row of spines will be secreted, to be followed by a smooth space, and this alternation takes place as long as the animal grows. See pl. 75, figs. 101-104, 111,119. Univalve shells are usually strengthened by having the margin of the aperture thickened, and as this is added from time to time, the shell may acquire a ribbed appearance, as in figs. 101, 102. In other cases, as in fig. 91, the old lip is absorbed before a new growth is started, so that the shell remains smooth. Sometimes the margin is not, formed until the animal attains its full growth. The oblique deposition of calcareous matter in spiral univalves gives them an elongated form, as in pl. 75, fig. 117, and when less oblique, the shell is more robust (fig. 98). In forms like Patella (fig. 77) the calcareous deposit extends in equal degrees; but if the increase is more abundant upon one side, the spine is curved, as in fig. 81. When the aperture is eget: and the shell has little or no obliquity, the forms seen in pl. 76, fi oe 2, 7, 11, are the result. In Rpiavares shells the solid axis is named the columella, and a muscle is attached to it which connects the animal with the shell, and enables it to retire within it. The columella is often marked with prominent folds and tooth-like projections, which afford generic characters. The anterior extremity of the mantle is elongated in some genera, and the edges brought in contact, so as to form a slender tube, through which water passes to the gills; and as this siphon secretes calcareous matter, the shell takes the rostrated form, as in pl. 75, figs. 109-112. Spiral shells are usually dextral, increasing towards the right, in which they resemble an ordinary screw; but there are a few genera, exceptional species, and varieties of dextral species, which are sinistral (pl. 75, fig. 100). A bivalve shell is considered sinistral when the projecting points at the hinge, named teeth (which present a certain degree of uniformity in each species), are changed so that the modification which belongs to the one side normally is Te upon the other. Some of the spirivalves, when the animal retires into the shell, as in fig. 255 4, 52 ZOOLOGY. 88, close the aperture by an operculum attached to the posterior and upper part of the foot. It is sometimes smaller than the aperture, and can be drawn in some distance; in other cases it fits the aperture exactly. In texture it is either thin and horny, or thick and shelly, sometimes increasing obliquely or spirally, by deposition upon one side, and at other times enlarging concentrically, but always taking the shape of the aperture. In the genus Hipponyx the anomaly is presented of the operenlum being attached to the rocks upon which the animal is found. In dry seasons the land-snails protect themselves by a temporary operculum, formed by a slimy secretion, which hardens, and thus closes the aperture. Most bivalves, as the name implies, are composed of two valves (pl. 76, figs. 82-34), united by a ligament upon the back; but some of these have accessory pieces (fig. 49), which are not of sufficient importance to remove them from their class. Even the anomalous form, Aspergillum (pl. 75, fig. 71), belongs to the Bivalves or Conchifera; for, although it is a shelly tube, pierced at the anterior extremity like a pepper-box, an examination will disclose a small open bivalve shell, solidly imbedded in the shelly material of the tube. This is roughly represented near the upper end of the figure, although the artist probably did not recognise its true character. The nervous system of the Malacozoa is not symmetrical, as in the Articulata, nor radiated, as in the iadiata, but the ganglia are distributed unsymmetrically from the brain, or chief ganglion, situated above the cesophagus. The Malacozoa are divisible into three sub-divisions or classes, the lowest containing the Acephala (pl. 76, fig. 84, &c.), named Acephalophora by Blainville; the next the Gastropoda (fig. 1, &c.), named Paracephalophora by Blainville, and including the Pteropoda, according to this author; and the highest the Cephalopoda (pl. 76, figs. 16, 17, 75-77). Class 1. Acephala. This class contains the four orders Bryozoa, Tunicata, Brachiopoda, and Conchifera. The sections, here named orders, are by some naturalists considered to be classes, which they sub-divide into orders of a different value. Indeed, it is extremely difficult to construct groups which shall have the same value under the same name, in different departments of Zoology ; and there is no special rule which can be followed in all cases. Milne Edwards, observing that the Bryozoa, which had previously been confounded with the Zoophyta, bear certain near relations to the Tunicata, united the two in a sub-division of the true mollusca, and Cuvier had previously shown that the Tunicata are related to the Conchifera. Dujardin gives to the group of Bryozoa the same value among the Mollusca that he assigns to the Conchifera and Brachiopoda. Agassiz also unites them to the Acephala, of which he considers them to be the lowest order, corresponding to the Foraminifera, to which he assigns the lowest place among the Gastropoda. In fact, the Bryozoa have much resemblance to the Mollusca in their alimentary canal, which is quite different from that of the Zoophyta. 256 MOLLUSCA. 53 Orver 1. Bryozoa. This name was imposed by Ehrenberg, who was one of the first to demonstrate the true nature of them. They are small animals, aggregated in great numbers, like coralligenous zoophytes, having a distinct stomach and an intestine curved upon itself, with an outlet near the mouth. An analogy with the Cephalopoda is apparent in the tentacles which surround the mouth, and which are covered with vibrille. These vibrillee cause currents of water which bring the animalcula within reach, which serve as food. The tube into which the animal withdraws varies in texture, being membranous, horny, fibro-gelatinous, or calcareous. ‘This tube corresponds to the outer tunic of the Tunicata, in being in organic connexion with the interior parts, even the caleareous matter of the harder kinds being deposited throughout the membranous tissnes. Each tube is in contact with its neighbors, sometimes to the number of many thousands. Dr. Farre thus describes the tube or cell in the Vesicularide: “The transparent horny cell which closely embraces the body of the animal, is nearly unyielding in its lower two thirds, but terminates above by a flexible portion, which serves to protect the upper part of the body when the whole is expanded, in which state it is of the same diameter as the rest of the cell, but, when the animal retracts, is folded up, and drawn in after it, and completely closes the mouth of the cell. The flexible part consists of two portions, the lower half being a simple continuation of the rest of the cell, the upper consisting of a row of delicate bristle-shaped processes or sete, which are arranged parallel with each other around the top of the cell, and are prevented separating beyond a certain distance by a membrane of excessive tenuity, which surrounds and connects the whole. This mode of termination of the cell is one of constant occurrence, as will be described in other species, and is evidently a provision for allowing of the freest possible motion of the upper part of the body in its expanded state, to which it affords at the same time support and protection.”—PAd. Trans., 1837, p- 393. Johnston thus describes the habits of some of these animals: ‘ Let us now suppose that the polypes are in a state of extrusion, and fully expanded, all the cilia in play, and the water whirling in rapid streams up and down the opposite sides of the tentacula, carrying with them nutriment and the breath of life. All is quietness and security around, and the little creatures are evidently in a state of happiness and enjoyment; no one who has witnessed the microscope scene (the myriads of the little flosculous heads that pullulate and blossom over the entire polypidom, as thickly peopled as the swarming hive) can have any doubt of this, especially when he remarks the acuteness and vivacities of their sensibilities and actions ; for, under his eye, one will ever and anon suddenly sink out of view, hide itself within the cell, again on a sudden emerge and expand, or, it may be, lay itself down in repose and concealment, until digestion has freed it from a state of repletion, or forgetfulness has removed the alarm of an enemy. These positions are assumed with such rapidity, that the eye cannot trace the steps of the process, and large glasses and minute skill are required to reveal to us its mechanism.”— Brit. Zooph., p. 241. ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£DIA.—VOL. II. 17 257 5 ZOOLOGY. Excellent figures of this group are given by Milne Edwards, in the illustrated edition of the Régne Animal, and by Johnston. The following genera of Escharidee are figured on pl. 75: I*lustra (jig. 54), Retepora (fig. 56), and Eschara (jig. 57). The following classification is that of Johnston : *Natives or THE Sea. Tentacula forming a perfect circle. Polypiaria infundibulati, P. Gervais. Sams. 1 to 6. **Dacusrrine. Tentacula in the form of a horseshoe. Polypiaria hippocrepia, P. Gervais. Lam. 7. Fam.1. Vesicularide. Corneous, fistular, confervoid; cells vesicular, deciduous, not operculate. Vesicularia, Serialaria, Valkeria, Baverbancia. Fam. 2. Crisiade. Caleareous, branched, confervoid, jointed; cells linked together in series, distinct, tubular, or elliptical, with a terminal or subterminal aperturé; no. operculum. Crisia, Notamia, Hippothoa, Anguinaria. Fam. 3. Tubuliporide.» Calcareous, variable in shape, never confervoid ; cells tubular, round, rising from a base and projecting, aperture terminal and non-operculate. Tubulipora, Discopora. Fam. 4. Celleporide. Calcareous, lobed, ramous, or crustaceous; cells in quincunx, utricular, in juxta-position, with a contracted terminal aperture. Cellepora, Lepralia, Membranipora. Fam. 5. Escharidw. Calcareous or membranous, variable ; cells usually in quincunx, oblong, pentagonal, or hexagonal, conjunct, immersed, or horizontal to the plane of axis, with a subterminal or lateral, and commonly operculate aperture. Flustra, Cellularia, Acamarchis, Farcimia, Retepora, Eschara. Fam. 6. Alcyonidule. Polypidoms sponge-like, polymorphous; cells irregular in disposition, immersed and concealed, with a contractile non- operculate aperture. Aleyonidium, Cliona. Fam. 7. Limniades. Polypidoms fleshy, spongy or corneous, polymor- phous ; animals in tubes with angular or round orifices, closed when they recede. Cristatella, Plumatella. Orver 2. Tunicata. These animals, especially Ascidia (pl. 77, figs. 7, 8) and its allied forms, may be compared to bivalve mollusca or conchifera, in which the margins of the mantle are united so as to form a sac, in which two openings are left, one for alimentation and respiration, and the other for excretion. The mantle is cf a tough coriaceous or cartilaginous texture, and is endowed with contractility. Cellulose, which is almost exclusively found in plants, has been ascertained to enter into the composition of the Tunicata. A current is made to flow over the branchize by the action of the vibrille, and the contractions and expansions of the body remove the water. The Tunicata have no external organs of locomotion, so that they float about at random, or are fixed to rocks, sea-weed, or other extraneous bodies. Some species are agglutinated together in masses, or in long chains, but there is no organic connexion between them. This order includes three families represented by the genera Salpa, 258 MOLLUSC. ps Ascidia, and Pyrosoma. Salpa (pl. 77, jig. 3) forms long lines of aggre- gated individuals. These animals were first distinctly noticed in 1756, and named Thalia in Brown’s History of Jamaica, and in 1775 Forskal applied the name of Salpa. The mantle is transparent, and is provided with tubercular suckers, by means of which the bodies adhere together. The ageregated individuals produce young which are free, and which are unlike the parent; and these free individuals produce a brood of aggregated individuals, thus presenting an example of alternate generation. This discovery was published by Chamisso in 1830. These animals abound in the warm seas, swimming at various depths, commonly with the back downwards, and coming to the surface in calm weather. Their power of locomotion is slight, the only means being the ejection of water which has been used in respiration. (See Agassiz’s Lect. Linbryol., p. 91.) Pyrosoma includes compound, gelatinous, and nearly transparent animals, remarkable for their brilliant phosphorescence. Orper 3. Bracutopopa. “The Brachiopoda ought to be combined with Lamellibranchia, having the same structure, and differing only in secondary modifications.” (Agassiz.) This order includes bivalve mollusca, named from having a long, spiral, fleshy, arm-like, fringed organ on each side of the mouth, used in securing food, and generally capable of being extended and withdrawn into the shell, and when large it is rolled into a spiral. In the genus Spirifer, which is scarcely inore than a Productus, these organs are preserved in a mineralized state. The mouth is provided with fleshy lips, and is situated between the arms. The mantle itself subserves the purposes of respiration, a peculiarity which is recorded inthe name Palliobranchiata, given to them by Blainville. The shell is often adhering, either directly, as in Cranza (pl. 76, fig. 24), or by means of muscles, as in Zerebratula (fig. 23), in which the muscles pass through a perforation in the beak of the left valve. This genus has a curious framework within the shell. The species figured, 7. caput- serpentis, Linn., and 7. psittacea, Gmelin, are found upon both sides of the North Atlantic. (See Gould, Znvertebrata of Massachusetts, pp. 141, 142.) It has been maintained that in this order, the valves, instead of being right and left, are dorsal and ventral, the large or perforated one being dorsal. Professor Agassiz (Moules de Mollusques, p. 14) thinks this view is founded upon a false interpretation of the anatomy, and that the Brachiopoda do not present this anomaly. He considers the larger valve as that of the left side, as in Ostrea and Anomia, but whilst the left valve is perforated in Terebratyla, Anomia has the perforation in the right. The descriptions of some conchologists being founded upon the opinion that there is an absence of orientation in the valves of this order, must be read with care or they will not be understood. ‘In the genus Lingula the two valves are so much alike that it is difficult to decide upon their mutual relations. In this genus there is a long pedicle, but probably not for attachment to extraneous bodies, as the species live buried in the sand. Oxprr 4. Concutrera. This order contains most of the bivalve shells, 259 56 * §700T0CK: including some with accessory pieces. From the laminated form of the gills, two of which usually hang like a curtain on each side, between the mantle and the body, they are named Lamellibranchia by Blainville. In the Conchifera the back of the animal is under the hinge of the shell ; and when the shell is removed, the heart may be observed in some families beating at the anterior part of the back. Beneath this, at the anterior extremity, is a simple opening constituting the appendages named labial palpt, the vibrillee of which cause currents, which bring nourishment within reach. Upon comparing the shell of an oyster with that of a freshwater mussel, a discolored impression will be found near the centre of the former, and two impressions in the latter, situated towards each end. These are the muscular impressions, serving for the attachment of the adductor muscles, which draw the valves together ; and when they are relaxed the shell is opened by the elasticity of the dorsal ligament, which may be either external or internal. Some conchifera remain permanently fixed, like the oyster, which is attached by its left valve. Others, as Pinna (pl. 76, fig. 18), are attached by a buneh of fibres, named the byssus, which is secreted by the foot. Some can swim by alternately opening and closing the valves, of which Pecten (figs. 27-9) affords an example; whilst others move by means of a foot, which enables them to burrow in the mud, or move along in the sand. The foot is situated below the mouth; and when present, the mantle must be open to allow it to pass. See pl. 76, fig. 50, left-hand end. Posteriorly the mantle has two openings, one above the other, forming siphons for respiration and excretion. "These are sometimes made merely by the partial contact of the ends of the mantle, which may project but little, although at other times it extends and forms long perfect tubes (jig. 50). The inferior tube is named the branchial siphon, and is used in breathing; the upper one is the anal siphon, and serves for the excretions. The curve in the pallial impression is caused by the displacement of the mantle, to afford room for the retracted siphons when their size is considerable. The hinge is usually provided with projections of calcareous matter, named teeth from their shape; and those of one valve are fitted into corresponding vacancies or depressions in the other. These present so many modifications that they have been made a principal character in the construction of genera. Those situated under the beak of the shell are termed cardinal teeth ; and those anterior and posterior to these the lateral teeth, a badly selected term, all the teeth being equally lateral. Indeed, the hump of a dromedary, or the dorsal fin of a fish, might as well be termed “lateral.” This misapplication arose when the length of a bivalve molluse from the mouth towards the vent was named its breadth, and Lamarck, Say, and others, named that end ‘ posterior” at which the mouth is situated, and which precedes in locomotion. A few minutes devoted to observation and dissection of the animal would have prevented this error, which must be borne in mind in reading the descriptions of these authors, or they cannot 260 MOLLUSCA. 57 be understood. In some genera, as Arca (pl. 76, jig. 32), the teeth are alike, and form a crenulated line along the dorsal margin of the shell. In the seventh volume of the Nouv. Mém. de la Soc. Helvét. des Se. Nat., Professor Agassiz has proposed an improved nomenclature for the armature of the hinge in Venus and the allied forms, but which may be extended to other families. The annexed diagram represents the relative positions and Accessory. - | Lunular. . . Lunular. Certinal Cardinal. Ligamentary. Ligamentary. names of the teeth, the upper part representing the anterior part of the shell, its back being towards the observer, and the right valve upon the right hand. The presence of the accessory tooth in the left valve distinguishes the genus Cytherea from Venus. The same name is applied to a tooth and its corresponding cavity in tlre opposite valve. Most of the Conchifera are marine, living attached, half buried, or entirely buried in the sand or mud, some at the bottom of a perforation from a few inches to several feet deep. Others perforate wood, and some rocks; and as they increase in size, enlarge the prison which they are never to quit, receiving their nourishment through the opening by which they entered. The Conchifera ‘tnay be divided into several tribes, named Ludista, Inclusa, and Elatobranchia. The first of these, Rudista, is doubtful as a separate section, being composed of bivalve shells, the lower one of which is adherent, and the upper raised in a conical form; but their true nature and position in the animal scale have not been determined, and they occur only in a fossil state. Some authors place them near Chama in the Elatobranchia; others think them Brachiopoda, and even Tunicata; and others elevate them to the rank of a distinct order. Some of these bivalves were at one time believed to present the chambered structure of Orthoceras, and they have on this account been incorrectly referred to the Cephalopoda by some authors. This was the case with //ippurites, one of the principal genera, which was placed near Belemnites. In Hippurites there is, indeed, an imitation of a chambered structure, but it has an analogy to that observed in certain species of Ostrea, when the shell is sawed in two across the foliated layers, the siphon of the Cephalopoda having no existence. Tribe Inclusa. The members of this tribe, although inclosed in bivalve shells, resemble the Tunicata in having the margins of the mantle closed for about three fourths of its circumference. The more typical forms have the shell gaping, and a long double siphon posteriorly, which cannot be entirely withdrawn. ’ 261 58 ZOOLOGY. Fam. 1. Mactride. Hinge with an erect V-shaped tooth, lhgament internal. The genus JJactra, Linn. (pl. 76, fig. 40), includes sub-trigonal shells which are slightly gaping; hinge with a concave tooth to receive the ligament; two additional striated teeth near the hinge. This genus contains shells which sometimes attain a considerable size. MZ. solidissima, Chemnitz (Gould, Jnvertebrata of Massachusetts, p. 51), of the United States coast, is sometimes found six inches long and four in height. In this family the foot passes through an opening in the mantle, and the two siphons, although distinct, are inclosed in a common integument. Some authors place this family among the Elatobranchia. Lutraria lineata, Say, American Conchology (pl. 9). LZ. plicatella, Lamarck, vol. vi. p. 98. Fam. 2. Myide. This family is differently divided by different authors, some including the two groups of which Osteodesma and Solemya are the types, whilst others believe that these should form distinct families. In Mya the shell is gaping, and there is a broad spoon-shaped tooth projecting from the hinge to the opposite valve, where there is a cavity to receive it. The labial palpi are long, stout, and pointed. The mantle is closed, except a small anterior opening for the passage of a slender foot, and the ordinary openings for the siphons, which are very long, and inclosed in a common envelope. This genus buries itself in the*sand, with the exception of the end of the siphons. Jya arenaria, which has a shell three or four inches long, inhabits both sides of the Atlantic, between high and low water-mark. It is extensively used in New England as food, under the name of clam, a name which is applied to Venus mercenaria in the middle States. The genus Corbula forms part of the restricted family of Myade. In the opinion of some authors, Osteodesma and the allied genera Lyonsia, Periploma, Thracia, and Anatina, form a family, although the aggregate of these genera seems to have no higher rank than that of a sub-family. Some of the shells are of an extremely delicate texture; these have no cardinal teeth, and there is an ossiculum or accessory bone forming part of the mechanism of the hinge, upon which Deshayes has founded the family name Osteodesmacea. Mya norvegica was at first the type both of Lyonsia, Turton, 1822, and Osteodesma, Deshayes, 1835, but the latter author subsequently admitted Lyonsia, and applied his own term to a different group. Couthouy’s paper in the third volume of the Boston Journal of Natural History, and Gould’s Invertebrata of Massachusetts, may be consulted upon these genera. Fam. 3. Solemyide. The genus Solemya is by some considered as forming a distinct family, whilst by others it is placed in the family of the Solenidee. Some of its characters are very distinct; the branchie are thick, and single upon each side, and they are divided so'as to resemble those of Crustacea. The foot is-truncated and shaped like a sucking disk; the posterior half of the mantle is closed, the siphons are short, and the periostraca of the shell projects in a flap, far beyond the calcareous portion. Fam. 4. Saxicavide. This family includes Saxicava and Byssomia. The first contains small species and secretes a byssus. The cardinal teeth 262 MOLLUSCA. 59 are obsolete, the ligament is external, and the shell gaping. The shell presents many distorted varieties, and some species excavate cavities in rocks. Some authors unite this family to the Lithophaga, among the Elatobranchia. Fam.5. Pandoride. A small family formed of the single genus Pandora, which has only a single branchia on each side. The shells are small, pearly within, the valves unequal, the ligament interior, the siphons short, the hinge with two diverging teeth in the right or flat valve, and two corresponding impressions in the left, which is convex. LP. trilineata, Say (American Conchology, pl. 2), inhabits the American coast from Maine to Florida. This genus is by some placed with the Solenids, and by others with the Myide. Fam. 6. Solenide. This family is composed of the genera Solen (pl. 76, figs. 45-6), Solecurtus, Glycimeris, Panopea, and. Pholadomya. The ligament is external, the shell gaping at both ends, and the foot is long and fleshy, and is passed out of the anterior extremity. The genus Solen lives in holes several feet deep, in which it passes up and down by means of its foot, and with such rapidity that it is difficult to take. Fishermen take them for bait by suddenly thrusting a barbed spear into their retreat, but if they are not struck at once they descend beyond reach. The genus Glycimeris is remarkable for having the body so large in proportion to the shell, that the latter is unable to inclose it. G. siliqua, the only species of the genus, as now restricted, inhabits the banks of Newfoundland; and the shell is usually got from the stomachs of cod-fish. Panopzea is a genus including species mostly of a large size, few in number, and occurring recent and fossil. P. arctica inhabits the banks of Newfoundland, and about eight fossil species have been named from the tertiary formations of the United States. Fam. 7. Pholadide. This family contains various genera, which live in perforations which they make in rocks, wood, or clay, each being a prisoner for life in a cell of its own construction. In Pholas (pl. 76, figs. 49, 50) the shell is widely gaping, and provided with accessory pieces at the hinge (fig. 49), and the foot is shaped like a sucker. Pholas dactylus (fig. 50) is used as food. A few fossil species are found in the tertiary formations of Europe and America. The genus Teredo is placed by some authors in the next family, Zubicola, on account of its form; but Deshayes thinks the characters of the animal require that it should be placed here. Zeredo navalis (pl. 75, fig. 67), which is so destructive to timber and shipping when not protected, appears as a long, sinuous, calcareous tube, lining perforations in wood, and if one of these be followed to its lower end, the valves of the shell will be found. The shell is thick, and so short as to be annular, having a single adductor muséle, and the posterior extremity of the tube is open. According to Laurent, when the young Teredo escapes from the egg, it swims about by means of vibrille. At first the body is inclosed in the shell proper, and the little animal can move about with the aid of a long linguiform foot. After spending about twenty-four hours in swimming and moving about upon submarine objects, it attaches itself to wood, making a depression in which it locates itself, and excretes a mucous mass which covers it, but allowing a passage for the siphons. The young animal 263 60 ZOOLOGY. is soon after able to commence perforating. The transparent shell of the embryo soon disappears, and is replaced by the permanent one. In boring, the wood is generally entered across the grain, but afterwards the animals turn in the direction of the fibres, though they are subject to be continually turned from their course by each other, the wood being perfectly honey- combed by their number, and often in the course of a year. Fam. 8. Tubicola. The name indicates the tubular form of the external protection in this family. The tube is secreted by the mantle, and its continuation covering the siphons. In Aspergillum (pl. 75, jig. T1) both valves form part of the tube; in Clavagella the valves are placed within a short tube, one of them being attached; and in Gastrochena the shell is not attached, but inclosed in a tube. The mantle is open in front for the passage of a little foot, the Siphon and branchize are usually long, and the palpi are small. These shell-fish inhabit clay, sand, or cavities in stone or wood, pierced by themselves. The genus Aspergillum was first correctly figured in 1685, by Lister, one of the fathers of conchology; but it was many years before its true approximate place was known, since it required much sagacity to detect a bivalve shell under the form of a tube. We accordingly find it placed at one time among univalve genera, and at another with the Annelida which form tubes, and Linneus placed it with Dentalium. The happy idea of Aspergillum being a true bivalve is due to De Roissy, and is a remarkable example of the detection of natural affinities. A parallel example appears in the Planorbis cornuarietis which, to all appearance, was referred to its proper genus, but which Sowerby referred to Ampullaria, with none of which did it seem to be allied ; but the subsequent discovery of the animal proved his reasoning to be correct, although strongly opposed at the time. The structure of Clavagella is quite anomalous, the valve of the right side forming part of the inside of the tube, and the left valve being free. The anatomy is essentially that of a bivalve mollusc, and shows an aflinity with Aspergillum. It is provided with a small foot. The genus Gastrochena, Spengler, 1783 (or Listulana, Lam., 1801), is a boring shell, sometimes found in calcareous rocks, and sometimes in sand, secreting, besides its proper shell, a separate exterior tube; and, as the shell may be accidentally found without the tube, after the death of the animal, an error was committed in describing the shell alone as one genus, and the tube and shell together as another, namely, Fistulana; an error which Deshayes was the first to correct, and he accordingly suppresses the latter name. Shell symmetrical, and widely gaping anteriorly, without cardinal teeth, a ligament posteriorly, pallial Impression deeply sinuated, foot small, and secreting a byssus. The following species are found in the tertiary strata of the United States. Gastrochana ligula, 1. OC. Lea, Am. Phil. Trans., vol. ix. G. larva, Conrad (Fistulana), Am. J. Sct. 1846, p. 218. G. elongata, Desh., Conrad, Vat. Inst. Washington. Tribe Elatobranchia. This tribe includes the great mass of Conchifera, after separating the preceding one. With very few exceptions, the Inclusa have two adductor 264 MOLLUSCA. 61 muscles, and although the same character is possessed by most of the Elatobranchia, a large portion of them have but one, so that the whole are divided by this character into two sections, thus: S$ Monomyaria, with one adductor muscle. S$ Dimyaria, with two adductor muscles. This character, although of much importance, is not applicable in every case, because a classification that would adhere to it strictly, would sometimes unite dissimilar groups and separate allied ones, as far as the other characters are concerned. The first section includes the five families: 1. Anomiidee; 2. Placunidee; 3. Ostreide; 4. Pectinide; 5. Aviculidee. Fam.1. Anomiide. The genus Anomia has a principal central adductor muscle, but besides this it has two approximate, one passing towards the perforation at the apex of the smaller (and in position the lower) valve, where it is attached to a shelly plug, shaped like a short, flat-headed rivet, and inserted in the aperture, its exterior flattened surface being attached to extraneous bodies. The ovary terminates between the membranes of the mantle upon the right side, where the eggs are stored before they are ejected, an anomaly presented by no other conchifer, but whieh, with some other characters, indicates an affinity with Brachiopoda. On this account Deshayes thinks that this family forms a distinct group, which should stand between the Brachiopoda and the Conchifera. In Anomia the margins of the mantle are entirely disunited ; the shell is very irregular, orbicular, the free or larger valve convex, and the lower one concave or flat, and taking the form of extraneous bodies, to which it is attached. This causes the shell to offer many varieties, and the species to be of difficult determination. The aperture in the perforated valve is only a deep sinus, narrowed at the margin, with the shell projecting upon one side, and forming an ossiculum with a flattened surface of articulation, which enters and is attached to the concavity of the opposite valve by an internal ligament. This family is allied to the next by Broderip’s genus, Placunanomia, which has a notch in the side of the lower valve, presenting an analogy with that in Pedum, a genus of Pectinide. Fam. 2. Placunide. This family is represented by the genus Placuna, the shell of which (the only part known) is allied to Anomia and Ostrea. It is imperforate, free, inclined to circular, thin, and foliaceous in texture, tranglucent, and the valves are so flat that but little room is left for the animal, which must consequently be very thin. In one valve there is a V- shaped tooth, and in the other a corresponding depression ; ligament marginal. This and the preceding family are by some included in the Ostreide. Fam. 3. Ostreide. The genus Ostrea (pl. 76, fig. 25, O. cristigaili), well known as an article of food, is widely distributed in various parts of the world, and has been in request from a remote period. The shell is inequivalve and irregular, the ligament pa¥tly internal and partly external, and the left and larger valve is usually attached to extraneous bodies. On the western coast of Africa, where the branches of certain aquatic trees hang in the water at high tide, the oysters affix themselves to these 265 62 ZOOLOGY. branches, where they may be seen suspended at low tide. There are four lanceolate labial palpi; and the branchiz, two upon each side, are conspicuous objects when the shell is opened. The very large liver is recognised by its dark color, which causes it to be indistinetly seen through the translucent integuments. There is no appearance of a rudimentary foot, but eyes have been detected. The ancient Romans were very fond of oysters, and soon discovered those of Britain to be superior to their own, and imported them in winter packed in snow, and in such a manner as to prevent the valves from opening, a mode still practised when oysters are to be transported a considerable distance. Previous to this period Sergius Aurata had invented and practised the art of breeding oysters in artificial beds, turning his art to great profit. This is still practised in the Mediterranean, where ponds are used, into which the sea enters at high tide. About Naples oysters attach themselves to sticks, and here numerous poles are stuck into the bottom, and when the oysters which become affixed to them have acquired a sufficient size to be taken, they are collected by withdrawing the poles. Oysters attain a marketable size in four or five years, although not yet fully grown, large individuals being considered less delicate than those of a medium size. Those are most highly esteemed which have grown in the mouths of rivers, where the water is less saline, and it is probable that their food varies according to the locality. Oysters feed upon infusoria; and .when certain green kinds are abundant, they impart a green color to the animal, a color which is often incorrectly attributed to some mineral substanee. The extent to which oysters are consumed would exterminate them in accessible localities were they not prolific. A single oyster may eject 50,000 or 60,000 eggs in a year, commencing in the spring and continuing through the summer. Deshayes does not think the genera Gryphwa, Lamarck, and Ezogyra, Say, are sufficiently distinct from Ostrea; whilst: Von Buch, the celebrated geologist, insists that they are founded upon good characters. The former author is inclined to look for variations in the soft parts of allied genera, although in such the shell usually presents the more prominent generic and specific characters. Variations in the shell are as important among the Mollusca as in the teeth and horns of the Mammalia, or the bill and feathers of birds ; and, although a species may be found which associates it with two genera, this is not sufficient evidence that the two should be united. According to Deshayes, Ostrea passes by insensible gradations into Exogyra, and this, by equally gradual steps, returns to Ostrea, so that in his opinion the species of the three form but one natural genus. Fam. 4. Pectinide. In Pecten (pl. 76, figs. 27 to 29), the chief genus of the family, the shell is regular, toothless, inequivalve, eared at the hinge margin; ligament entirely internal, and placed in a triangular depression ; surface often covered with ribs.” Mouth with deeply cut lips and a pair of palpi on each side; mantle disunited, margin with numerous cilia, having eyes between them ; branchize sub-divided into separate parallel filaments ; foot small and dilated, a byssus sometimes present. The genus Pecten is 266 MOLLUSCA. 63 widely distributed in a recent and fossil state, and is not confined to any particular country or climate. These shells are free, and live upon a surface of mud or sand, from a trifling depth to twenty fathoms, and they are fished up as an article of food. They present several distinct forms, and many of them possess great beauty. Pecten pleuronectes is named after the generic name of the Hounder, because one side is dark colored, and the other white. P. jacobeus was formerly worn by pilgrims who had visited the Holy Land. P. quinque- costatus occurs fossil in the cretaceous deposits of Europe and America, and there are numerous species belonging to the tertiary formations of the United States. Lima, a genus of free shells, is allied to Pecten. Spondylus (pl. 76, fig. 35) is a genus of attached, rough or spiny, and usually heavy and finely colored shells, allied to Pecten and Ostrea. There are two strong teeth in each valve, and a depression for the ligament. FHinnites is allied to Pecten and Spondylus, and possesses the peculiarity of being free until it attains a certain size, when it becomes permanently affixed. Fam. 5. Aviculide. This family includes the shells from which most of the pearls of commerce are obtained. They are allied to the two preceding families, and most of the genera are byssiferous, with pearly shells. The large well known shell (pl. 76, fig. 20), which sometimes attains a size of ten inches, produces the finest oriental pearls, as well as most of the mother-of- pearl which is used in the arts. It forms the genus Afeleagrina, Lamarck, although it is now considered not to be distinct from Avicula, and it is there- forenamed Avicula margaritifera, Linn. It inhabits the Indianseas. Avicula, according to the celebrated anatomist Poli, has the mantle unclosed, and fringed with tentacular appendages. The foot,is small and secretes a byssus. The genus Malleus (Af. malleus, Linn., pl. 76, fig. 26) is remarkable for having the hinge margin extended in some species in the antero-posterior direction. The shell is very irregular, the foot secretes a byssus, and the mantle has a fringe of small tentacles. Perna (fig. 80) has an irregular shell, hinge straight, with a row of transverse furrows for the insertion of the ligament. The byssus passes through a gaping vacancy in the front of the shell. The genera Malleus, Perna, Vulsella, Crenatula, Catillus Inoceramus, and some others, are placed by some authors in a distinet family, Jlalleide. Pearls are secreted upon the inside of the shell, or in folds of the mantle, the latter being the most regular; and as their quality depends upon that of the nacre, those shells which have this of a fine quality produce the best pearls. The pearls of common oysters are rough concretions of no commercial value, and similar concretions are sometimes formed by univalve species, the mantle of which has, of course, the power of secreting the calcareous matter of the shell. Although pearls are formed out of the same material as the shell, a bead turned out of the latter has not their peculiar lustre, because the arrangement of the material is different, the successive ayers being plane in the shell and spherical in the pearl. On this account shaping an irregular pearl does not alter its lustre. Irregular pearls are sometimes worn without being shaped, when the form is agreeable. Pear- 267 64. ZOOLOGY. shaped ones have a proper form for ear-jewels, and are highly esteemed. Being composed of carbonate of lime and albumen, pearls are subject to be soiled by the acid in sweat. Artificial pearls, with a perfect lustre, are made by lining bubbles of very thin glass with the silvery material which lines the scales of freshwater fish, of the genus Leuciscus. This is introduced in suspension, in a liquid, and when dry, wax is introduced to give strength and solidity. Pearl fisheries ave conducted at many places in various parts of the world, but the chief are in the east. Among the most important are those of the Persian Gulf, and the coasts of Coromandel, Ceylon, and Japan. The Persian Gulf has been a favorite locality from a remote period. Panama and the coast of Columbia were good localities formerly. A round and perfect pearl, as large as a pigeon’s egg, belonging to Philip I. of Spain, and worth $150,000, was taken at the Island of St. Margarita, on the north coast of South America; and Tavernier bought one from Catifa, in Arabia (an ancient locality), for £110,000. About $450,000 are annually produced by the fisheries at the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf, which are fished in June and July. At Ceylon the fishing extends from February to the beginning of April, but the fishing days rarely exceed thirty, from many causes. There are various holidays kept by the members of different castes and religions among the divers. A black race from the coast of India profess the Catholic faith, and do not fish on Sunday ; and other days are kept as holidays by the heterogeneous population. Storms also interfere with the fishing. The beds of pearl shells lie at a depth of six or eight fathoms, and the fishing is done by divers who are able to remain under water from a minute to a minute and a half, or even longer. Indeed, the earlier writers upon the subject assert that a diver might remain submerged one fourth or half an hour, but this is an exaggeration. Pearls from freshwater mussels were sent from Perth to London between the years 1761 and 1764, to the amount of £10,000, but the fisheries were soon exhausted. A pearl weighing thirty-three grains was taken at this locality. The price of these pearls varied from ten to thirty-six shillings an ounce. The pearl fisheries of Ceylon formerly employed 50,000 or 60,000 men at sea or on shore. Captain Percival, in his account of the island, describes the mode of proceeding. The shore, deserted at other times, presents during the fishing season a busy scene made up of people of various colors and countries ; fishers, merchants, brokers, jewellers, speculators in shells before they are opened, and conjurors who are well paid to perform incan- tations to prevent the sharks from attacking the divers. The chief locality is off the coast of Condatchy, twenty miles at sea. The right of fishing is sold every season by the government to the highest bidder for each of the localities into’ which the bank is divided, and the purchaser is generally a black merchant. The same spot is not allowed to be fished again for three or four years, and the shell is supposed to arrive at maturity im seven years. At the firing of a signal gun at ten o’clock at night, the fleet of boats 268 * MOLLUSCA. 65 sets out with the land-breeze, reaching the banks in time to commence fishing at sunrise, and starting on its return with the sea-breeze about noon.