tffljgfY

EARTH

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

AN

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

OF

FOSSIL ORGANIC REMAINS.

LEICESTER :
Printed by T. Combe and Son, Gallowtree-gate.

OUTLINES OF ORYCTOLOGY.

AN INTRODUCTION

TO

THE STUDY OF

FOSSIL ORGANIC REMAINS;

ESPECIALLY OF THOSE

jpountr m tje iMfsf) gbtrata:

INTENDED TO AID THE STUDENT IN HIS INQUIRIES
RESPECTING THE NATURE OF FOSSILS,

AND THEIR

CONNECTION WITH THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH.

mill) Blustratibc pates.

SECOND EDITION.
WITH THE AUTHOR'S LATEST CORRECTIONS.

BY JAMES PARKINSON,
ii

Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, Member of the Geological Society of London, the
Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, and of the Caesarian Society of Moscow.

LONDON :

M. A. NATTALI, 24, TAVISTOCK-STREET, CO VENT- GARDEN;
AND COMBE AND SON, LEICESTER.

M.DCCC.XXX.

PALEQ,
LIBRARY

T33

J* ^

PREFACE.

Xxt-V^-^w-W^

THE following pages are dedicated to the service
of those Admirers of Fossils who have not yet
entered into a strict examination of the distinc-
tive characters of these interesting substances.

An attempt is made, in this slight but com-
prehensive sketch, to show the difference of
forms and structure in the numerous organized
beings with which the earth was peopled before
the creation of man ; to mark the several cir-
cumstances in which they agreed with, or dif-
fered from, the inhabitants of the present world ;
and to point out, from the strata in which they
exist, the order in which they probably were
formed. The limits of this publication will not
always allow a full statement of those minute
distinctions which are the objects of research of

M375133

vi PREFACE.

the more advanced inquirer ; but sufficient, it is
hoped, will be introduced to enable the student
to detect the more decided and more important
characters of these substances, and to place them
under their appropriate genera.

It may, it is hoped, thus become a useful
vade-mecum for the intelligent traveller who may
not yet have attended to these inquiries. At
present, disappointment frequently occurs, from
the too limited accounts of the fossil remains
which offer themselves for examination in dif-
ferent parts of the world. The observer is
perhaps satisfied, for instance, with stating that
the rocks were found to contain the remains of
shells, and that these remains were chiefly o^
bivalves or of univalves ; when, by a little
farther investigation of even the fragments of
these fossils, aided by reference to a manual of
this kind, their genera might have been ascer-
tained. Such marks might also be noted, as,
by subsequent comparison with the more cor-
rect and elaborate labours of Lamarck, Sowerby,
&c. would admit of their species being deter-

PREFACE. Vll

mined, and of important information being
yielded on points which, at present, are the
subjects of controversy.

The student, already delighted with the con-
templation of surrounding creation, will be here-
by led into another field of observation, where
he will perceive decided traces of the vast
changes which this planet has sustained ; and
will see the remains of those beings with which
it was inhabited previous to the creation of
man. Circumstances will be observed, appa-
rently contradictory to the Mosaic account, but
which, it is presumed, serve to establish it as
the revealed history of creation.

The discordance appears to be removed by
the assumption of indefinite periods for the days
of creation: an interpretation adopted by many
learned and pious men, and which derives con-
firmation from innumerable circumstances agree-
ing with the important fact of certain fossils
being found to be peculiar to particular strata ;
and especially from the remains of widely dif-

Vlii PREFACE.

fering races of animals being found in such
situations as evince their creation to have taken
place at very distant periods.

For the several imperfections in this work,
which may have escaped the author's attention,
he craves indulgence ; hoping that they will not
be found of such importance as to render the
wish too presumptuous of having it considered
as a humble subsidiary to that scientific and
most valuable comprehensive work, "Outlines
of the Geology of England and Wales," by the
Rev. W. D. CONYBEARE and W. PHILLIPS.

LONDON, 1830.

OUTLINES

OF

ORYCTOLOGY.

ORYCTOLOGY is the science which inquires into the nature,
origin, and formation of those bodies which possess the
figures, markings, or structure of vegetables or animals,
whilst their substance evinces their having been preserved
through many ages, by certain changes effected in sub-
aqueous or subterranean situations.*

The substances of which these bodies are formed being
generally of a mineral nature, the term FOSSILS is applied
to them, as declaratory of their having been dug from sub-
terranean situations. They have also been termed adven-
titious^ extraneous^ or secondary fossils, to distinguish them
from those fossils or original mineral substances which are

* The term Oryctology is liable to the objection of not being
sufficiently confined, it including, in fact, every substance dug out of
the earth ; the term Fossil, also, is exposed to the same objection :
in excuse for their employment, it must be observed, that this lan-
guage was formed, and these terms were adopted and had received
the stamp of authority from usage, whilst utter ignorance prevailed
respecting the nature of the substances to which they were applied.
Either, then, the best of these terms must be admitted, a new vo-
cabulary be formed, or perpetual periphrasis be had recourse to : the
first has been preferred.

B.

found in their native state and situations. But as the term
fossil, alone, declares these bodies, bearing the obvious and
characteristic marks of vegetable or animal organization, to
have been obtained from the mineral kingdom, the employ-
ment of any of these epithets appears to be unnecessary.

By whatever mode organic remains, in subterranean or
subaqueous situations, may be preserved from resolution
of their substance for a considerable time, it is obvious that
they must be liable to be impregnated with whatever
matters may be held in solution in the fluids with which
they may be thus imbued. From this source mineral
matters may be deposited, by intromission, into the original
interstices and cavities of the organic body ; or may, by
substitution, fill the spaces which have been produced by
the partial removal of the original organic substance ; or
lastly, may, by impregnation and consolidation of the che-
mically altered organic matter itself, produce the several
earthy or metallic fossils.

The earthy substances which enter into the composition
of fossils, or, as in these cases they may be termed petri-
factions, are chiefly of the calcareous, siliceous, and argil-
laceous kinds, in different states, and in various mixtures.
The most common of the calcareous genus are the several
species and varieties of carbonates; limestone, marble,
stinkstone, chalk, spar, oolite, &c. Fluate of lime some-
times occurs as the matrix, and, rarely, it forms the sub-
stance of fossils. Sulphate of lime, though sometimes found
crystallized in their cavities, has not been mentioned as
forming the substance of fossils. Sulphate of barytes, or
baroselenite, is said sometimes to form the substance of
fossils, but the instances are very rare. Silex enters, in
different combinations, into the composition of fossils:
quartz, chert, agate, calcedony, jasper, flint, pitchstone, and
semiopal, have all been found forming their substance or
constituting the masses in which they have been contained.

Alumine frequently also enters into the composition of
fossils, as well as of their containing matrices ; clay fre-
quently fills their cavities, and forms the beds in which they
are found. Bituminous shale, slate, and argillaceous iron
stone, often contain fossils, Fullers'-earth has sometimes,
though rarely, been found to contain some particular fossils.
The nuclei of fossil shells have been formed of hornblende,
and both vegetable and animal fossils have been found in
substances designated as basalt, wacke, and trap.

The metals which most commonly contribute to the for-
mation of fossils are iron and copper, rarely lead or zinc, and
still more rarely silver ; they generally exist in the form of
carbonates or sulphurets. The carbonates as well as the
sulphurets of iron are chiefly found in vegetable remains.
Ligneous fossils of this species present a very curious fact :
although the texture of the wood appears to be nearly un-
altered, its substance has been so intersected by the chrys-
tallizations, that by spontaneous decomposition it is resolved
into an impalpable efflorescence. The specimens of wood
which have been mineralized by copper sometimes possess a
considerable degree of beauty, from the brilliant colours of
the malachite which enters into their composition. The
sulphuret of lead, galena, has been found in fossil wood ; and
blende, the sulphuret of zinc, has been found, with quartz
crystals, investing fossil shells. Silver is said to exist in a
fossil somewhat resembling the ears of corn, found in the
mines of Frankenberg, in Hesse.

Casts or nuclei of organic remains are formed by different
mineral substances filling their cavities, and thus taking the
impressions of their internal forms and markings. Impres-
sions of the external surface are formed by investment by
the surrounding matrix and by its subsequent induration,
After this is accomplished, and the original substance re-
moved, a cavity -or mould is left in the matrix corresponding
in its figure and markings with the removed substance.

Any mineral matter being introduced into this mould, ac-
quires, as it hardens, a renewal or redintegration of the ex-
ternal form of the original substance. This cast is some-
times hollow, having been formed by crystallizations which
have only invested the inner surface, but have not been suf-
ficient to fill the cavity of the mould.

The casts or nuclei of shells, fruits, reeds, &c. require
to be examined to ascertain whether the substance of the
fossil is similar or not to that of the matrix in which it is
found. If it is similar, the cast may be considered as having
been simultaneous in its formation with the bed in which it
exists : if not, its substance may have been yielded by per-
colation and subsequent crystallization in the mould ; or it
may have been formed in some former bed, on the breaking
up of which it may have been deposited among the materials
of the succeeding rock in which it is now found.

Vegetable or animal substances deprived of life, and ex-
posed to the action of the air, in combination with moisture,
are rapidly decomposed; the softer and more volatile of
their constituent principles are dispersed under new forms,
and their more solid parts, such as wood and bone, are some-
times left cohering and displaying the form of the original
skeleton. When in this state, deprived of those principles
which conduce to chemical changes, these substances
become capable of continuing unaltered in their forms, in
different situations, for comparatively very long periods.
But either vegetable or animal substances, when placed,
under the influence of moisture, in situations excluding the
access of atmospheric air, undergo certain peculiar chemical
changes.

VEGETABLE FOSSILS.

WHEN vegetable matter, grass for instance, is accumulated
in so large a quantity that the compactness of the mass
may in a great degree exclude the atmospheric air from the
internal parts of the mass, a considerable and peculiar
change is effected : the vegetable matter soon loses its
green and acquires a brownish colour ; its flavour and odour
are changed, and heat is produced, terminating, unless air
is freely admitted, in combustion. The vegetable matter,
thus changed into Hay, acquires, among its other new
properties, that of powerfully resisting any further change
upon exposure to the atmosphere.

But should vegetable matter be thus accumulated in a
situation in which moisture has almost constant access to
it, a very different result ensues. Another process takes
place, by which the vegetable matter, as the process goes
on, loses its original forms, and becomes a soft magma, of a
dark colour and peculiar appearance; no traces of its
former mode of existence being discoverable, except in the
accidental presence of such vegetable matter as shall not
have undergone a complete conversion. When dried, it
forms a readily combustible substance, of a reddish brown
colour, readily absorbing and tenaciously retaining water,
and yielding, whilst burning, a strong bituminous odour.
This is the substance termed peat, immense accumulations
of which are formed in various parts, favourable to the col-
lection of water and the growth of the sphagnum palustre,
a plant, by the conversion of which the supply of this
substance is chiefly supported. In the peat-bogs or mosses,
as the natural magazines of this substance are called, trunks
of trees are often found imbedded, and partaking of the
nature of the surrounding bituminous mass. This change is
effected in different degrees : the deeper in the mass, and

6

consequently the longer exposed to the process of bitumi-
nization, the more perfect is the conversion. Some pieces
are found to have nearly lost their ligneous appearance,
their respective lines and markings having been molten
down in different degrees during their bituminization ;
whilst others, in which the nature of the substance is also
entirely altered, are found still to retain almost all their
characteristic markings. This substance has long been
known by the designation of bituminous wood.

Wood of a very different character, called Moss Fir, is
also frequently found in the peat mosses or bogs. It much
resembles, in its colour and general external appearance,
ordinary decayed fir-wood ; but on examination it appears
that the fibre of the wood is strongly imbued with resin,
and that all its interstices are filled with resinous matter.
It is so highly inflammable, as to be employed, by the poor
of the districts in which it is found, not only as fuel, but
as torches.

As the real nature of this substance is not perhaps
known, it would be very desirable that further inquiries
might be made respecting it : it might then be determined
whether the opinion which is here offered be correct or not.
From its retaining the colour and appearance of decayed
wood, it is conjectured to be fir-wood which, by exposure to
the atmosphere, had sustained the abstraction of all its con-
stituent parts, except the resin and ligneous fibre impreg-
nated therewith; and from its having been thus rendered
almost an entirely resinous mass, it has not been affected by
the bituminizating process.

Subterranean collections of bituminized wood and other
vegetable matter are found at various depths in different
parts of the world. The substance thus found is generally
a compact, light, glossy, combustible substance ; of a dark
brown colour, and frequently almost black ; splitting longi-
tudinally into plates of various thicknesses, breaking trans-

versely with an imperfect conchoidal fracture, with a shining
resinous lustre, and sometimes yielding the appearance of
the markings of wood. This is the suturbrand of Iceland,
the Bovey coal of this country, and the common brown coal
of Thomson.

The fossil wood, now described, may be said to pass
into Jet, which is found, especially in the neighbourhood of
Whitby, in Yorkshire, in a state very nearly approximating
to that of Bovey coal. It exists in plates, generally from
half an inch to about an inch in thickness, between which a
film of carbonate of lime, with pyrites, is disposed: ex-
cepting that it more frequently shows marks of ligneous
texture, its characters may be said to be those of jet: its
colour, velvet black; internal lustre, shining, resinous;
fracture perfect, large, conchoidal ; fragments, sharp edged,
soft, rather brittle ; easily frangible ; very light. Jet is
found in other situations, in a different form ; resembling, in
its shape, and the markings of its surface, parts of the
branches or trunks of trees, but rarely possessing, internally,
any marks of vegetable origin; a circumstance easily ac-
counted for, if its previous softening be admitted.

Cannell Coal, of which some of the finest specimens are
found in Lancashire, differs from jet chiefly, perhaps, in its
holding a greater portion of earth in intimate mixture
with it. It never manifests internally any traces of vege-
table structure, but sometimes bears on its surface evident
marks of impressions formed on it whilst in a soft state.

Common Coal is composed of a similar bituminous
matter, divided by films of calcareous spar mingled with
pyrites, intersecting each other nearly at right angles : its
fracture is thus rendered small grained, and uneven, and its
fragments mostly cubical or trapezoidal. By this division
and enclosure of the inflammable and bituminous matter in
incombustible septa, the accension and combustion of this
substance are rendered more slow, and better adapted to

8

the purposes for which it is destined. Traces of vegetable
structure are rarely discoverable in coal, except in the
impressions of cactuses and of various dorsiferous and suc-
culent plants.

Impartiality here requires that the opinion of Professor
Jameson on this subject should be noticed. The Professor,
speaking of the coal found in the neighbourhood of Edin-
burgh, says, " the coal, which is black coal, occurs in beds,
seldom more than a few inches in thickness, and is generally
contained in the bituminous shale or slate clay, rarely in the
sandstone. By the gradually increasing mixture of clayey
matter, it passes into bituminous shale. The accompanying
bituminous shale and slate clay contain impressions of ferns,
a fact which has been adduced in support of the opinion
which maintains the vegetable origin of black coal. We
are inclined to call in question the supposed vegetable origin
of this kind of coal, and are rather disposed to consider it as
an original chemical formation ; and that the occurrence of
vegetable impressions in the adjacent rocks no more proves
its vegetable origin, than the existence of fossil quadrupeds
in the gypsum of Paris proves that rock to have been formed
from the debris of animals of the class mammalia." *

To these opinions it appears to be sufficient to oppose
the following deductions of Dr. Macculloch, from his expe-
riments on certain products obtained from the distillation of
wood, &c. The Doctor considers himself as authorised to
state, that, " Examining the alteration produced by water
on common turf, or submerged wood, we have all the evi-
dence of demonstration that its action is sufficient to convert
them into substances capable of yielding bitumen on dis-
tillation. That the same action having operated through a
longer period has produced the change in the brown coal of

* Geognostical Description of the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh.
— Edinburgh Journal, vol. i. p. 354.

9

Bovey is rendered extremely probable by the geognostic
relations of that coal. From this to the harder lignites,
suturbrand and jet, the transition is so gradual, that there
seems no reason to limit the power of water to produce the
effect of bituminization in all these varieties ; nor is there
aught in this change so dissonant from other chemical
actions, as to make us hesitate in adopting this cause."
Satisfied that jet, the bituminous lignite which approaches
the nearest to coal in its chemical characters, is the result of
the action of water on vegetable matter, Dr. Macculloch was
induced to try if this substance could, by heat under pres-
sure, be converted into coal : the result of his experiment
was, that the produce exhibited the true characters of coal,
having not merely the colour and inflammability, but the
fracture of coal and its odour on burning.* These expe-
riments and observations, taken with those of Mr. Hatchett,
appear to be sufficient to set the question, as to the vege-
table origin of coal, at rest,

The vegetable origin of naphtha, petroleum, and as-
phaltum, is not yet positively ascertained. Amber, from its
being found generally in beds of fossil wood ; the blue clay
resin found at Highgate and at Sheppey among the pytrified
wood ; and the retinasphaltum of Mr. Hatchett, discovered
among the Bovey coal, may either owe their origin to the
changes effected in vegetable matter during its subterraneous
deposition, or may be vegetable resins, the original product
of the trees which they accompany, and which, from their
resinous nature, may have resisted the bituminizating
process.

The argillaceous ironstone nodules which accompany
coal, contain, with the remains of many other unknown
vegetables, parts of various cryptogamous plants, the recent
analogues of a very few of which have been said to be found

* Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. i. p. 2.
c.

10

in some of the tropical regions. On these nodules being
broken, the preserved remains are generally discovered on
each of the broken sides of the nodule ; not, as might be
expected, displaying different sides of the vegetable, but
the same side of the leaf, for instance, on each broken
surface ; in one, in alto — in the other, in basso relievo. The
explanation of this curious circumstance, which long puzzled
the oryctologists, is found in the vegetable matter, during
its passing through the bituminous change, having become
softened, and having filled its own mould with its melted
and subsequently hardened substance ; the nodule, on being
broken, showing on one side the surface of the adherent
bituminous cast, and, on the other, the corresponding mould.

In the argillaceous and bituminous slate forming the
floors and roofs of coal mines are vast collections of the
black bituminized remains of gramina, junci, cryptogami,
and of numerous other plants, agreeing in their general
characters with those of succulent plants, but differing
from the recent ones known in Europe by their vast mag-
nitude, and by the richness of the ornamental markings
which appear on their trunks.

Description cannot succeed in an attempt to give an
idea of the beauty and varieties of the figures which are dis-
played on the surface of many of those fossils ; and which
have been supposed to owe their markings to the bark of
different trees of supposed antediluvian existence. Some
are ornamented by regularly disposed straight plain ribs,
arranged longitudinally or transversely over their whole
surface ; some by the decussation of nearly straight lines
obliquely disposed ; and many, by the alternate contact and
receding of gently waving lines, forming areas regularly,
but most singularly varying in their forms, and having in
their centres tubercles and depressions from which spines,
or setae, have in all probability proceeded. In others, lines
obliquely disposed intersect each other at angles, varying

11

in their acuteness in different specimens, in, it would seem,
an almost endless variety ; forming surfaces apparently co-
vered with squamae disposed in an imbricated manner, and
frequently in quincunx order.

Among the fossils of this description, the one which
claims our first attention, is, I. Pltytoliihus verrucosus of
Martin; Petrificata Derbienfia, PL 11, 12, 13, and 13*;
Organic Remains, vol. i. PI. III. Jig. 1 ; and on a very
small scale, PI. I. fig. 1 and 2 of the present work. This
fossil appears to have foiled every one who has attempted
to explain its original nature and mode of existence. It is,
according to Mr. Martin's correct account, a subscylindrical,
subramose, tuberculated trunk, PI. \.fig. 1, with suppressed
tubercles in quincunx order, (a) having linear lanceolated
leaves horizontally disposed, fig. 2 (b). In some parts of
it is a deep longitudinal sulcus, fig. 1 (c), beneath which is
a rough imbricated body of a slender cylindrical form,
fig. 2 (d). This, Mr. Martin observes, after a certain dis-
tance, appears to strike out laterally, and form a branch;
the trunk is then continued for some length, without the
furrow or the imbricated body ; after which it again appears,
and another branch is put out in another direction.

Various opinions have been entertained respecting this
interesting fossil, so unlike any of the vegetable substances
of the present day, by Da Costa, Woodward, Whitehurst,
and others. The author of these pages had conjectured
that it belonged to some body resembling the strobilus or
cone of some vegetable, while the ingenious Mr. Martin
describes it as above. The examination of this fossil has
been since very assiduously prosecuted by the Rev. Henry
Steinhauer. This gentleman is satisfied that " those bodies
which were supposed by Mr. Martin to be leaves pro-
ceeding from the trunk, were cylindrical fibres which shot
out from the trunk of this vegetable, whilst growing in a
horizontal position. He supposes this fossil to have been a

12

cylindrical root or trunk, growing in this direction, in the
soft mud at the bottom of fresh water lakes or seas, without
branches, but sending out fibres from all sides : that it was
furnished in the centre with a pith of a structure different
from the surrounding wood or cellular substance, more dense
and distinct at the older end of the plant, and more similar
to the external substance towards the termination which
continued to shoot." *

These points being assumed, Mr. Steinhauer says, " the
manner in which the reliquiae were formed is easily explained.
Annual decay, or an accumulation of incumbent mud, having
deprived the trunk of the vegetative principle, the clay
would be condensed by superior pressure around the dead
plant, so as to form a species of matrix : if this took place
so rapidly, that the mould had obtained a considerable de-
gree of consistency before the texture of the vegetable was
destroyed by putrefaction, the reliquium was cylindrical ; if,
on the contrary, the new formed stratum continued to
subside, while the decomposition was going on, it became
flattened, and the inferior part might even be raised up
towards the yielding substance in the inside, so as to pro-
duce the groove, or creesh, as Woodward calls it, on the
under side, in the same manner as the floor in coal works is
apt to rise where the measures are soft and the roofs and
sides have been secured. While the principal mass of the
plant was reduced to a soft state, and gradually carried away
or assimilated with mineral infiltrated matter, the central
pith being unsupported would sink towards the underside,
and this the more sensibly where its texture was most dis-
tinct; whilst its anterior extremity would go into putre-
faction with, and be lost in the most tender part of the
plant. The mineral matter introduced would now form an
envelope round the pith, when this resisted decomposition

* Trans, of the American Philos. Society, New Series, vol. i.

13

for a sufficient length of time ; and when it was ultimately
removed, if the surrounding mass was still sufficiently per-
vious, would be also filled with argillaceous matter, or, if it
was too much indurated, be left empty, which is the case
occasionally." *

But the ingenious author of these observations has
omitted to notice the imbricated or reticulated surface of
the central substance which has been already noticed, and
which, it is presumed, will furnish us with some of the re-
quired information : since these configurations doubtlessly
depended on the attachment of some parts of the vegetable,
and probably were the bases on which were placed those
delicately formed tubular processes, which, in the repre-
sentation of another fossil, from Organic Remains, Vol. i.
PL IX, Jig. 1, an assumed fossil strobilus or cone (PL I,
Jig. 3, aj, are seen to pass from the internal substance to the
surface of the vegetable body. From all the information
that has been obtained, it appears that this fossil, Phyt.
verrucosus, was a plant of the succulent tribe, differing from
vegetables of the present world, by its containing a more
solid part within its succulent substance, from which pro-
ceeded a delicate organization by which a communication
was preserved with the external surface. It also appears
that the species of this genus, distinguished by their cha-
racteristic markings, may have been numerous : that the
different situations in which the internal part is found in
different fossils are attributable to the resolution of the ten-
derly organized intermediate part connecting the included
substance with the surface, and to the other accidents de-
pendent on partial and irregular decomposition, pressure and
distortion, occurring during its passage from the vegetable
to the mineral kingdom, and very probably in the manner in
which it is represented by Mr. Steinhauer.

* Trans, of the American Philos. Society, New Series, vol. i.

14

II. Sulciculmis and Striaticulmis of Luid, PL V, 184, 6;
Scheuchzer, PL IV, 1.; Volkmanni Sites. Subter. VII, 7 ;
VIII, 6; Martin, 8, 25, 26; Organic Remains, I, PL 111,3,
with a reeded, jointed trunk, is said to resemble the young
shoots of the Surinam bamboo.

III. Phytoliihus Cancellatus. Volkman. Siles. Subt.
VIII, 10, 11, 12, 13; Martin, 13, 50; Organic Remains,
vol. i, PL I, 6, II, 4. Mr. Steinhauer has taken consider-
able pains to detect and explain the different appearances
under which the fossil remains of this plant are seen. He
has ascertained that there are three distinct kinds of con-
figurations proceeding from it, originating in the epidermis,
the bark, and that which may be considered as holding the
situation of the wood of the plant. The first, the epidermal,
is formed of rhombs, divided by lines forming a network in a
manner difficult to express by drawing or description, which
leaves the rhombs still approximate. The impression of
this part is represented PL I, Jig. 4. In the second, the
cortical, the lines between the rhombs are of more breadth,
the ridge is broader and less defined, and forms with the
contracted superior elevation a protuberance, and the cen-
tral part assumes the figure of a squamula. PL I, fig. 5,
represents the matrix or cast of this part. The third, the
ligneous, configuration differs extremely from the two
former, and only close observation determines that it ori-
ginates from the same plant. The cancellated appearance
is here entirely lost; the surface is slightly striated with
a scarcely perceptible rising under the central ridge, and
a minute but distinct raised dot in the place of the de-
pression in the epidermis. It has all the appearance of a
peeled plant, which has been furnished with- small branches
or spines in quincuncial order (PL I, fig. 6J. From the
various modifications of these forms, the different aspects
of this protean fossil, Mr. Steinhauer thinks, may be
explained.

15

IV. Phytolithus parmatus. This fossil is figured by
Scheuchzer, Herbar. Diluv. p. 1 1 9 : it is distinguishable
by a singular organization observable on its surface ; a
series of circular or oval scutellae, or shields, are placed
close to each other in a right line across the surface.
There are three distinct appearances ; two of these, the
epidermal and ligneous, somewhat resemble each other, but
the latter is seldom met with. "In the epidermal," Mr.
Steinhauer observes, "the parmae are surrounded by a
raised margin, the included disk swells towards the central
umbo or boss in curiously disposed rugae, and the boss is
generally more or less excavated in the centre. These
configurations on the surface of the shields vary in almost
every specimen ; yet so that it is not difficult to trace their
analogy and the identity of their different marks. The
raised margin is constant, and there is always a tendency of
the other lines and protuberances towards the centre ; not
in the direction of the radii, but in a manner slightly re-
sembling the figures on the back of an engine-turned watch,
produced by describing several circles whose centres are
situate in the circumference of another circle round the
middle of the plate.

V. Phytolithus imbricatus, Organic Remains, Pl.\,fig.§.
This .is the fossil figured by Mr. Martin, PI. Ill, fig. 4,
and to which Mr. Steinhauer has given the name of Phy-
tolithus Martini. The trunk is round and tapering, some-
times branched, leafy and covered with scales. Leaves
crowded, seemingly one from each scale ; subulate, marked
with a strong rib : scales rhomboidal, sharp pointed, slightly
carinated or keeled, close, imbricate, covering each other in
such a manner that the whole surface of the stem appears
regularly divided into rhombs.

VI. Phytolithus transversus of Steinhauer appears to be
the fossil already referred to, page 13, and figured (PL I,

Jig. 3,f'J, in illustration of Phytolithus verrucosus.

16

VII. Phytolithus notatus and Dawsoni of Steinhauer
appears to belong to the same vegetable. Perhaps the
former, Phyt. notatus, bearing longitudinal series of cica-
trices of a rounded pentagonal form, with a central marking,
and the series separated by very distinct sulci, bears the
marks of the epidermal character, whilst the latter, Phyt.
Dawsoni) shews the marking of the ligneous part.

VIII. Phytolithus tesselatus. Surface tesselated with
rhomboidal plates, formed by the transverse separations of
longitudinal costae ; or of longitudinal sulci, if in the im-
pressions of the matrix.

Although much is still left for investigation respecting
these fossils, there is very little doubt that the ingenious
observations of Mr. Steinhauer may lead the industrious
inquirer to the making of still more definite and important
distinctions. These observations may be interesting, not
only as yielding collateral evidence of the vegetable origin
of coal, but as leading to a probable conjecture of the par-
ticular plants which have been the chief source, from which
the vast stores of that beneficent provision for man has been
derived. These remains, in common with all others when
found in slate, are almost always in a flattened state, from
which some deception has arisen with respect to their
original forms. But the examination of the vegetable fossils
contained in the accompanying beds of limestone and sand-
stone, where compression has not taken place, yields the
important information that these vast substances which have
been here found imbedded, and which have been hitherto
considered as fossil trees, are the remains of similar vege-
tables with those found in the beds of slate, but here
existing in their original forms, and agreeing in their size
with those succulent plants which are known to be now
growing within the tropics.

Many accounts have been given of the trunks of trees,
whose cortical markings were entirely unknown, having

17

been found in the sandstones of Staffordshire, Derbyshire,
Lancashire, and, indeed, in all those parts in which the coal
formations have been explored. Having been favoured
with the opportunity of examining several specimens of this
nature, through the kindness of Thomas Botfield, Esq. of
Bewdley in Worcestershire, I am enabled to say, that these
are not generally the remains of trees, but of succulent
plants, the firm cortical parts of which having been con-
verted by the bituminizating process into jet, have formed
that firm tube which is often found, in these instances, filled
with sandstone, agreeing with that of the general matrix,
and possessing the space left by the waste of the internal
succulent part of the plant. The description of the last
announced fossil of this kind, found in the neighbourhood
of Glasgow, agrees exactly with the general account of
these supposed fossil trees, and will it is presumed, corro-
borate the opinion which has been just advanced.

In a quarry of sandstone belonging to the coal formation
on which Glasgow is built, and in the neighbourhood of that
city, it is stated, that " the quarrymen came upon the cast
of a tree in situ just as it had been growing. The trunk is
about twenty-six inches in diameter, not quite round but
somewhat oval, so that the north and south diameter is
several inches longer than the east and west diameter. The
body of the tree itself is composed of sandstone precisely
similar to £he rest of the quarry; but the bark has been
converted into perfect cherry coal, which adheres firmly to
the tree, and renders it easy to remove the rock with which
it is incrusted. About three feet of the bottom part of the
tree has been uncovered ; this portion is situated about
forty feet below the surface of the earth in a solid quarry of
sandstone. The upper part of the trunk and branches has
not been discovered : indeed, it is some time since the
upper portion of the quarry was removed. The roots may
be seen dipping down into the earth precisely as the roots

D.

IS

of living trees do. Four very large roots may be seen
issuing from the trunks, and extending, some of them, about
a foot before they are lost in the surrounding stone. There
is nothing to indicate the species of tree of which the mould
has been here preserved. From the appearance of the roots
it is obvious that it was not a fir ; it had more resemblance
to a beech : the bark has been so completely bituminized,
that its usual characters are effaced. The petrifaction,
however, is not without its value ; it demonstrates that the
sandstone has been formed at a period posterior to the
existence of large trees, and that the water-worn appearance
of the quartz pebbles of which the sandstone is composed is
not a deceitful indication." Hence the ingenious observer
is led to remark, that " if the sandstone, which constitutes
so great a proportion of the coal beds, be a formation pos-
terior to the earth being covered with wood, we can entertain
no doubt that this is the case also with the slate clay and
the coal which alternate with this sandstone. Indeed, if
the coal formation exists as a portion of the old red sand-
stone, we can entertain no reasonable doubt that the old red
sandstone itself has been formed after the earth was covered
with wood." — Annals of Philosophy, Nov. 1820.

The size which these fossil plants have attained, com-
pared with that of the cactuses known in Europe, must, as
in the fossil last mentioned, lead to a doubt as to this opinion
of their agreement with the recent cactus. 4 But to be
enabled to form a correct judgment on this point, it is
necessary to know the state in which these plants exist
where the soil and climate are such as to allow them to
develope themselves in their native luxuriance. The re-
searches of the celebrated Humboldt, in the equinoctial
regions, supply us on this head with the most appropriate
and satisfactory information. The following detached ob-
servations of that philosopher will show not only the size to
which these plants may arrive, but the vast tracts which.

19

under favourable circumstances, they may overrun, as well
as the great probability of their having been the first
vegetable clothing of the earth. " The hill of calcareous
breccia, which we have just regarded as an island in the
ancient gulph, is covered with a thick forest of columnar
cactus and opuntia, some thirty or forty feet high, covered
with lichens, and divided into several branches in the form
of candelabras, wearing a singular appearance. Near Ma-
niquarez, at Punta Araya, we measured a cactus, the trunk
of which was four feet nine inches in circumference. The
European, acquainted only with the opuntia in our hot-
houses, is surprised to see the wood of this plant become so
hard from age, that it resists for centuries both air and
water, and that the Indians of Cumana employ it in pre-
ference for hords and doorposts. Cumana, Coro, the island
of Margaretta, and Curacao, are the places in South America
that abound most in the plants of the family of the nopals.
There, only, a botanist can compose a monography of the
genus cactus, the species of which vary not only in their
flowers and fruits, but in the form of their articulated stem,
the number of costae, and the disposition of the thorns : the
divisions of property are marked by hedges formed of the
agave and cactus. At San Fernando, S. A., the soil abounds
in aquatic plants with sagittate leaves, and he remarks that
some of these succulent plants are from eight to ten feet
high. In Europe their assemblage would be considered a
little wood." He also mentions a kind of bamboo which
the Indians call jagua, which is found near San Fernando,
more than forty feet in height. These, he observes, cannot
but remind the admirer of fossils of the vast fossil bamboos
which are found in the sandstones accompanying coal.
Speaking of a rock of considerable height and magnitude,
he observes, " Euphorbium, cacalia, kleinia, and cactus,
which are become wild in the Canary Islands, as well as in
the south of Europe and the whole continent of Africa, are

•2O

the only plants we see on this arid rock, being plants which
draw their nourishment rather from the air than from the
soil in which they grow." He also remarks, " It is not, in
general, by mosses and lichens that vegetation in the coun-
tries near the tropics begins. In the Canary Islands, as
well as in Guinea and in the rocky coasts of Peru, the first
vegetables that prepare the mould for others are the suc-
culent plants."

These interesting observations, taken into consideration,
with the appearances yielded by the fossils accompanying
coal, lead to the further consideration of the formation of
that substance. From its chemical characters, its bearing
the impressions of vegetables, and being surrounded with
vegetable remains in the roofs and floors of the mines and
the accompanying coal-measures, its vegetable origin, it is
presumed, may be fairly inferred. The examination of the
various fossil vegetables which accompany it has deter-
mined that they chiefly belong to the grasses, reeds, the
cryptogamous and the succulent plants ; and point out the
kind of vegetables which most abounded, and, perhaps, to
the exclusion of trees and arborescent plants, at that period
when the land first escaped from the dominion of the
waters. It is true, that an exact agreement between the
forms and markings of these fossil remains, and of those
of the succulent plants which are offered to our observation
in the present day, is not often observable ; but it should
be considered that analogy will not authorise the ex-
pectation of an exact agreement, since it is rarely to be
found between the fossil remains and the animals now
existing, owing to the extinction of whole tribes from which
those fossil remains have proceeded. Besides, considerable
differences must result from the greater size observable in
the fossil vegetables, especially in those of the succulent
tribe, than in those of more modern creation. Nor should
the differences be unnoticed which depend on situation and

Si

climate: the succulent plants of Italy differ materially in
size from those of South America and of other regions in
the warmer climates.

Proceeding now to the examination of vegetable fossils,
in which the introduction of earthy or metallic particles
has taken place, it may be necessary again to observe, that
wood or other vegetable matter is not likely to undergo
this kind of impregnation whilst in a state of soundness
and integrity ; but that the states most favourable for this
kind of change are that spongeous state which accompanies
bituminization, and that kind of decay which has been pro-
duced by the abstraction of almost all the constituents
except the ligneous fibre, leaving that substance to which
is generally applied the term rotten wood. The admission
of water in the former state, strongly impregnated with
earths or metals, must, as the deposition and consequent
earthy or metallic change proceeds, stay the further pro-
gress of the bituminizating process, and, giving solidity to
the mass, secure the conservation of the form and even
structure which the mass possessed at the period when
this impregnation commenced: and here it may be ob-
served, that specimens of silicified wood exist, in which it
may be seen that petrifaction has arrested the bituminizating
process in almost all its stages. Specimens are frequently
found which seem to prove the wood to have existed in a
decayed state, as rotten wood, previous to its mineralization.
I. CALCAREOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS. — Lime is not very
frequently the mineralizing matter of vegetable fossils ; it
is however sometimes found introduced into the remains of
wood in the form of spar ; and sometimes it becomes, in the
form of limestone, the internal substance of fossil reeds
and of various succulent plants.

1. Calcareous spathose wood, previously decayed. — Colour
light brown, surface rough and dull, but susceptible of
polish ; fracture dull, uneven, and rather spicular ; inter-

22

slices filled with nearly colourless spar. The lime being
removed from this fossil by muriatic acid, a considerable
portion of light-coloured flocculent substance is deposited.
Found in alluvia and in the oolite formation.

2. Calcareous spathose wood, previously bituminized. —
Colour darkish red brown ; surface commonly rough, but
partially glossy ; fracture dull, uneven, and rather spicular,
veined with spar of a lightish brown colour. Found in the
clay of bituminous slate accompanying the lyas.

The lime being removed by the muriatic acid, a con-
siderable volume of dark brown powder remains, which,
when dried, is remarkably combustible, burning with a
flame resembling that of some of the pyrophori. On the
brown spar being subjected to the action of diluted muriatic
acid, the bituminous matter with which it is coloured rises
in a film to the surface of the solution.

The polished surface of both these fossils being examined
with a lens, the spathose substance is seen to have per-
meated the minutest woody fibres in all their directions.
The powder deposited during the solution of both these
fossils is undoubtedly the woody fibre reduced to this state
of minute division, in consequence of its penetration in
every direction by the spathose crystallization.

II. SILICEOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS. — The mineral-
izatiori of vegetable substances is most frequently effected
by those impregnations in which silex is the principal con-
stituent ; and the fossils thus formed are remarkable for
the correctness with which their forms and markings have
been preserved.

1. Siliceous wood. — Its colour is generally greyish and
yellowish white, thence passing into ash grey, greyish black,
and different shades of brown. Its internal lustre is glis-
tening, its fracture more or less perfect conchoidal, showing
the ligneous texture. The fragments sharp-edged and
translucent. It is harder than opal, and easily frangible.

23

It is found in many parts of the world ; but some of
the finest specimens are obtained in the neighbourhood of
Schemnitz and at Telkabanya in Hungary.

It is frequently found in this island in the diluvian
detritus, and in almost the whole of the green sand form-
ation. Very large fragments are found in the Portland
stones, the interstices of which are often beautifully
sprinkled with quartz crystals. Interesting specimens are
also discovered in the gritstone of the same formation, in
the Blackdown-pits of Devonshire, and are frequently ren-
dered very interesting by the delicate amianthine form in
which the silex is disposed. Specimens are also found in
the sands of Bedfordshire. It is but rarely found in chalk ;
it however forms the nucleus of a flint nodule which is said
to have been obtained in Berkshire.

Besides the general characters of siliceous wood, the
peculiar resinous glistening lustre which it often possesses
demands particular notice. It exists in so many degrees,
and under such distinct modifications, as to divide it into
several species. This peculiar lustre, so nearly resembling
that of wax or rather of resin, giving such an appearance as
might be expected from a mixture of fluid silex and bi-
tumen, and existing in specimens in which strong and
indisputable markings of the woody fibre were to be seen,
gave rise to the opinion offered in a former work, that these
specimens were the result of the siliceous impregnation of
wood in different degrees of bituminization ; the gently
contorted and softened lines of the ligneous texture pre-
senting the appearance of their having been in a softened
state previous to their petrifaction.

With the hope of determining whether bituminous or
even carbonaceous matter existed in these specimens or
not, several experiments have been employed; but when
the fugacious nature of bitumen and the refractory nature
of silex, yielding only to the most destructive processes, are

24

considered, the difficulty of the necessary separation and
analysis must be obvious ; and the following results must
only be admitted to show the propriety of still further
extending the inquiry. By the exposure of opaline wood
in a retort to the heat of a furnace, the presence of carbon
was determined ; a strong empyreumatic smell, and an oily
sublimated matter possessing the same odour, was pro-
duced: the same results have proceeded from a similar
treatment of pitchstone, bearing a ligneous appearance.
Mr. Klaproth, on igniting the brown red semiopal of
Telkabanya in an open crucible, found that the iron con-
tained in the fossil was reduced to a reguline state, although
there had been no admixture of any charcoal, or of any
other substance with a nearer affinity with oxygen, showing
that the carbonaceous principle existed in the fossil itself.
The same celebrated chemist analyzing the hydrophanous
opal of Saxony, obtained, as Mr. Pepys had done from
opaline wood, a water having an empyreumatic smell, and
covered with a thin greasy pellicle: he also determined
afterwards the actual presence of bitumen in the semiopal
of Mahren.

Specimens exist which show the union of silex with
bituminous wood in all its different stages of bituminization.
In one specimen of black siliceous wood, pieces of coal
exist in its internal part: in one silicified specimen with
evident characters of previous bituminization, patches are
seen on its surface of a jet black, and possessing the re-
sinous lustre : in another are spread drusy crystals of
quartz, of a dark black, from the union of black bitumen
with silex ; whilst the black bitumen may also be seen
thus intimately combined with silex in the quartz crystals,
and imbedded, unaltered, in the interstices of the same spe-
cimen. But whether it be admitted or not, that the re-
sinous lustre proves the previous bituminization of the fossil
wood, the different degrees, and the presence or absence of

25

this character, may be had recourse to in marking its
different varieties, and their approximation to other mineral
substances.

The varieties of siliceous wood depend not only on the
nature of the combinations forming the lapideous matter of
which it is chiefly constituted, but also, as has been already
observed, on the state of the wood previous to its petri-
faction. When the fossil is light coloured and of a shivery
texture, the wood may be presumed to have been previously
in a decayed state, or, as it is termed, rotten wood ; and
when close, compact, and dark coloured, it may be sup-
posed to have suffered previous bituminization.

A. Chalcedonic wood. — In the most common form in
which this variety appears, the colour is of a yellowish
white, the substance resembling that of withered wood.
The surface rough and splintery, the splinters frequently
so minute as to be wafted with the slightest breath. The
internal part solid, chiefly formed of the translucent
siliceous matter, which fills the interstices and such ca-
vities as may have been formed by the teredines and other
insects, and also sometimes invests the ends of the spe-
cimen in a mammillated or stalagmitic form. Specimens
occur in which previous bituminization also appears to have
taken place, and in which the clear siliceous substance
appears as if it had transuded into the cavities, and had
exuded at the ends of the specimens.

Here must be referred those amorphous specimens which
possess a rough surface, scarcely any lustre, with patches
of apple green colour and of a quartzose hardness, inter-
mixed with others of a light or light grey colour, con-
siderably softer. When cut and polished, the white parts
display evident marks of vegetable texture ; either that of
very fine-grained woods, or of some of the palms or reeds,
the spaces between being filled with siliceous matter, either
translucent, or of an apple green colour.

B.

26

B. Jasperine wood displays all the colours and appear-
ances belonging to common jasper, so disposed as to mark
the existence of ligneous texture, and frequently so varied
as to give the resemblance of different woods. It is usually
opaque, but sometimes translucent at the edges, and some-
times in patches, where it appears as jasper-agate. Its
fracture passes from conchoidal to flat and earthy : its in-
ternal lustre is generally dull, but sometimes approaching
to resinous ; its interstices are frequently set with minute
crystals. The texture of the wood is discoverable in some
very rare specimens of Heliotrope, or bloodstone.

C. Opaline wood occurs in pieces of a yellowish or
yellowish-white colour, passing into different shades of
brown : surface generally marked by the ligneous structure,
and possessing a resinous lustre. The fracture more or less
approaching to perfect conchoidal, showing the ligneous
marking and a glistening lustre. Fragments -sharp-edged,
and somewhat translucent: the surface sometimes dull,
like wood, and the internal substance transparent.

It is considered by Dr. Thompson as consisting of wood
penetrated by opal, and as being so intimately connected
with opal, that it would perhaps be better to unite them.

D. Pitchstone wood. — Specimens of fossil wood, evi-
dently showing its original texture, and answering to the
characters of pitchstone, are frequently seen : its colours
are yellow, brown, reddish brown, red, black, white, and
grey, with various intermediate shades ; fracture is flattish,
imperfectly large conchoidal ; lustre varying between dull,
vitreous and resinous.

The woody texture is to be traced also in numerous la-
pideous substances bearing the intermingled characters of
pitchstone, opal, jasper, chalcedony, jasper-agate, &c.

III. ALUMINOUS VEGETABLE FOSSILS.

1. Bituminous slate, schistus, and shale, containing ve-
getable remains, are frequently met with in the neigh-

27

bourhood of coal. These remains, as have been already
mentioned, are of various gramina, cryptogami and suc-
culent plants. On allowing some of these bodies to re-
main in water, their substance becomes softened down, and
is resolved into a mass in which the vegetable matter is
obvious.

2. Aluminous wood. — The wood which has been thus
named by different authors, by its proneness to combustion,
and by the other properties which they describe it to
possess, should be considered as pyritous wood, having ob-
tained its change in the ferruginous clay in which it has
been imbedded.

The mineralizing matter of metallic fossil vegetables is
most commonly the pyrites or sulphurets and carbonates of
iron, copper, zinc, or lead.

I. FERRUGINOUS FOSSIL WOOD.

1. Pyritical. — In this fossil the sulphuret of iron per-
vades the charcoal into which the vegetable matter has
been converted. When first found, it generally possesses
metallic brilliancy, is sufficiently hard to scratch glass,
emits sparks on collision with steel, and displays the
forms and markings pointing out its vegetable origin ; but
it soon begins to suffer from decomposition, when its cha-
racters change, and it finally resolves into a saline flocculent
substance.

2. Carbonated. — In these specimens, which are of dif-
ferent shades of brown colour, and generally of an uniform
substance, the marks of the vegetable origin are easily
observable, although not so distinct as in the specimens of
the preceding species before the commencement of de-
composition.

II. FERRUGINOUS FOSSIL SEEDS, &c.

Innumerable seeds, seed-vessels, &c. have been found,
by Mr. Crow and others, in the blue clay of Sheppey, in
the state of pyrites. Most of these belong to plants

28

unknown to our botanists ; the existing plants, to which
the others seem to approximate, are some of those of the
warmer climates.

III. CUPREOUS FOSSIL WOOD.

1. PyriticaL — This fossil is distinguishable from the
ferruginous pyritical wood, by the pyrites being of rather
a darker colour, but chiefly by the blue or green colour
which partially pervades the fossil.

In some specimens, in which the general appearance is
that of bituminous wood, the metallic impregnation can
only be detected by the weight of the fossil and the blue or
green hue on its surface.

2. Wood converted into carbonate and hydrate of copper.
— Cupreous wood in this state forms very beautiful spe-
cimens, displaying, not only on its surface, but in its sub-
stance, mingled with the charred wood, the most vivid
blue and green colours, with patches of the carbonate in the
state of malachite.

The finest specimens of cupreous wood are obtained
from the copper mines of Siberia.

3. Wood mineralized by lead. — Specimens of wood con-
taining galena, the sulphuret of lead, have been chiefly
discovered in Derbyshire.

The leaves of plants, except those of gramina, junci, and
of the cryptogamia, are seldom found in a mineralized state.
The lobes and pinnulae of ferns, as has been before men-
tioned, are frequently found in a bituminized state in
nodules of ironstone, and in immense quantities with the
remains of gramina and succulent plants in the schistose
and slaty coverings of coal.

Among the numerous remains of plants very few are
found which agree in their specific characters with any
known species, and many indeed differ so much as to render
it difficult to determine even the genus under which they
should be placed.

29

The leaves of trees are only found in substances which
appear to be of modern formation. Among these are said
to have been found those of the willow, the pear-tree, mul-
berry-tree, and of several others. These have been found
in fossil calcareous stone, chiefly in that of Oeningen, and
in the calcareous tufa bordering those lakes and rivers
which abound in calcareous matter. Leaves are sometimes
found in the old red sandstone, somewhat resembling those
of trees, but which most probably have belonged to aquatic
plants.

In the grey chalk, small white ramose forms are found,
which pervade the chalk, and have the appearance of being
of vegetable origin. My attention was first drawn to these
remains by Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, who has illustrated
this subject in his excellent work on the Fossils of the
South Downs.

Wood, and other vegetable substances, are frequently
found in clay and limestone, in the state of charcoal. It
cannot always be ascertained by what means this change
has been effected ; but in that which is found in the blue
clay, and in other situations in which pyrites prevail, the
change may safely be attributed to the decomposition of the
pyrites with which those substances had been impregnated.

Mosses, Confervce, fyc. — Rounded pebbles, called moss
agates, are frequently found on the coast of the North
Riding of Yorkshire : and Dr. Macculloch describes them
as having been found on the shore at Dunglas, in Scot-
land, containing substances which have the appearance of
vegetables.

Daubenton and Blumenbach had expressed their con-
viction of the vegetable origin of these substances; still
many considered them as entirely mineral : but Dr. Mac-
culloch, pursuing this inquiry with his usual zeal and acute-
ness, observes, that deception is very likely to arise in
these specimens, from the well known metallic arborizations

30

emulating the vegetable forms, becoming blended with the
real vegetable ; and from the actual investment of the whole
plant with carbonate of iron ; but the most common source
of deception and obscurity, in the Doctor's opinion, " will be
found in the whimsical and fibrous disposition occasionally
assumed by chlorite, its colour often imitating the natural
hue of a plant as perfectly as its fibrous and ramified
appearance does the disposition and form of one." All the
plants that have been discovered in this state of envelope-
ment in quartz appear to belong to certain species of the
cryptogamia class, chiefly byssi, confervae, jungermanniae,
and the mosses. The stones found at Dunglas, Dr. Mac-
culloch observes, " contain remains of organized substances
of an epocha at least equally ancient with that in which the
vegetable remains found in thefloetz strata existed. As the
species ascertained by Daubenton have, in all probability,
been preserved in recent formations of chalcedony," so the
Doctor thinks that " those which he describes have been
preserved in the chalcedonies of former days*."

The moss agates of the Yorkshire coast appear to be of
the ancient, whilst other specimens which I possess from
Iceland prove the correctness of Dr. Macculloch's opinion,
that some of these fossils are of recent formation.

The remarks of Dr. Macculloch on the mode in which
these curious investments were accomplished, deserve
particular attention. " The remains are, in fact, (if I may
use such an expression) embalmed alive. To produce this
effect, we can only conceive a solution of silex in water,
so dense as to support the weight of the substance in-
volved, a solution capable of solidifying in a short space
of time, or capable at least of suddenly gelatinizing pre-
viously to the ultimate change by which it became solidified
into stonef."

* Geological Transactions, vol. ii. p. 511, 518.
t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 522.

31

Dr. Macculloch describes and figures a congeries of
tubuli contained in an oriental agate : similar substances
are found in the pebbles on the Yorkshire coast ; and in
one which I possess, the tubules are disposed in a con-
fusedly radiated form, giving more of the idea of a zoophyte
than of a vegetable substance.

A knowledge of the vegetable fossils peculiar to the
different strata will, in all probability, open to us con-
siderable stores of instruction. We may thereby learn, not
only the nature of the several vegetable beings of the
earlier ages of this planet, but may ascertain the order in
which the several tribes were created : and, reckoning upon
the considerable advance which has been made in our know-
ledge of the structure of the earth, and upon the eagerness
with which inquiries respecting the organic remains ot
former periods are pursued, the attainment of such know-
ledge, it may be presumed, is not far distant.

At present we know of no vegetable remains of earlier
existence than those which belong to the coal formation ;
and these appear to be chiefly derived from various grasses
and reeds, and plants of the cryptogamous and succulent
tribes, many of which are not known to exist on the surface
of the earth at present. From the latter of these the coal
itself appears to have chiefly proceeded. In the mountain
limestone above the coal, and in the different members of
this formation existing between this and the blue lyas,
vegetable remains appear to be of but rare occurrence ; so
that particulars of such as have been discovered in these
situations may furnish much useful information ; and espe-
cially with respect to those fossils which have hitherto been
supposed to have derived their origin from wood.

It has been assumed that wood, or parts of trees, have
been found in coal and in the accompanying coal-measures,
but some confirmation of these accounts seems to be re-
quired. The description of these fossils has seldom been

32

so particular and exact as to yield positive evidence of their
original nature ; and, as has been already shown, the in-
stances are by no means infrequent in which the traces,
and even the remains of cactuses and other succulent plants,
had given rise to the belief of the existence of fossil trees
in these strata. This opinion may therefore have obtained
seeming confirmation from the ligneous hardness which
large plants of this kind might have acquired, and which,
perhaps, might be traced in their mineralized remains.

The earliest stratification in which fossil wood exists
is not perhaps at present determined ; but it seems that the
earliest appearance in this island of fossil wood, which by
its uniformity of character appears to belong to a particular
bed, is the spathose bituminous wood of the blue lyas, as
found at Lyme in Dorsetshire, and in the neighbourhood of
Bath (p. 22). In the next formation, and particularly in
that of the green sand, siliceous fossil wood occurs fre-
quently. Very delicate specimens are found in the sand-
stone, the whet-stone of the Blackdown hills of Devonshire.
The specimens of fossil wood found in the Portland stone
are frequently of very considerable size, and bear all the
characteristic marks of wood : these are also siliceous, and
are often beautifully sprinkled on their interior surfaces
with quartz crystals. Siliceous fossil wood is also found in
other situations, as in the sands of Wooburn in Bedford-
shire : it also occurs at Folkstone in Kent, in that part of
the green sand where it approximates to the superincumbent
marl, in which it is also found. Traces of wood are hardly
ever discovered in the chalk itself, and so rarely in the
accompanying flint nodules, that the knowledge of but one
specimen, an instance of this occurrence, is known to the
writer of these pages. But in the blue clay, incumbent
upon this immense accumulation of chalk, fossil wood,
pierced with teredines, and impregnated with calcareous
spar, is exceedingly abundant : and in almost every sunken

33

part of this bed, and even of the whole surface of this island,
the remains are discoverable of vast forests which have
suffered little other change than that of having undergone
different degrees of bituminization.

By these facts we learn that, at some very remote and
early period of the existence of this planet, it must have
abounded with plants of the succulent kind, and, as it
appears from their remains, in great variety of forms and
luxuriance of size. These, from what is discoverable of
their structure, beset with setts and spines, were not formed
for the food of animals ; nor, from the nature of the sub-
stances of which they were composed, were they fitted to
be applied to the various purposes to which wood, the
product of the earth at a subsequent period, has been found
to be so excellently adapted, by man. Their remains, it
must also be remarked, are now found in conjunction with
that substance which nature has, in all probability, formed
from them; and which, by the peculiar economical modi-
fication of its combustibility, is rendered an invaluable
article of fuel. If this be admitted to be the origin of coal,
a satisfactory cause will appear for the vast abundance of
vegetable matter with which the earth must have been
stored in its early ages : this vast, and in any other view
useless, creation, will thus be ascertained to have proceeded
from a beneficent arrangement by Providence for man, the
being of a creation of a later period.

ANIMAL FOSSILS.

THE mineralized remains of animals are found in subter-
ranean situations, in almost every part of the globe which
has been explored. The immense number, the high an-
tiquity, and the general disagreement of these remains with
those animals which now exist, give rise to the most in-

F.

34

teresting and important conjectures. Correct investigation
is therefore demanded : a careful comparison of the re-
spective characters of these substances must be made, and
the various circumstances belonging to their present ex-
traneous situations be endeavoured to be ascertained.

Zoophytes. — These substances, possessing an animal na-
ture under forms approaching to those of vegetables, fre-
quently occur in a mineralized state. The inquiries re-
specting them will, for obvious reasons, be first directed to
those which are of the simplest forms and structure.

Sponge is, in its recent state, a polymorphous, soft,
porous, flexible and elastic body, manifesting a small portion
of irritability and vitality. It is composed of fibres of a
peculiar substance disposed rather in a membranaceous
form, blended with minute spiculae of various figures ; the
whole connected in a variously formed network, and in-
vested by a light gelatinous matter.

Count Marsilli, who had the most favourable oppor-
tunities of examining into the nature of this substance, was
satisfied, although led to the belief of its being a vegetable,
that he had many times observed a regular systole and
diastole taking place in some of its more circular apertures.
But neither M. Peron nor M. Bosc have been able to con-
firm these obervations*.

* The following remarks on the nature of this substance merit
attention : — Although the animal nature of sponge is generally ad-
mitted, no circumstance which may serve to illustrate its history,
and tend to dispose of it in its proper place in the system of nature,
should be unnoticed: The following observations of Dr. Fyfe may
indeed be considered as adducing very important evidence on this
subject. Sir Humphrey Davy had procured iodine from several of
the fuci and ulvae, but not from the alkaline matter manufactured
at Sicily, Spain, and the Roman states, nor did he find that the
ashes of coral or of sponge appeared to contain it. From various
experiments Dr. Fyfe was enabled to conclude that iodine was
confined not only to the class cryptogamia, but to the marine pro-

35

With the hope of facilitating the distinction and ar-
rangement of those sponges which may be discovered in a
mineralized state, it has been thought advisable to give the
following table of the divisions of sponges which have been
adopted, and of the species which have been noticed, by
M. Lamourouxf ; adding those specific characters which
appear to be most distinctive and most likely to be dis-
coverable in the fossil specimens.

I. Sessile masses, simple or lobated, either covering or
enveloping.

1. S. communis Large flattish masses, rather

convex ; pores large ; crevices
and grooves chiefly beneath.

2. — lacittulosa Surface finely porous, downy

and jagged ; edges ciliated.

3. — sinuosa Tissue fibrous and stiff; holes and

crevices numerous and deep.

ductions of this class. Sponge being however considered to belong
to the animal world, forms an apparent objection to this conclusion.
But it must be remembered that Linnaeus was inclined to regard
sponge as a vegetable substance, and to place it in the class crypto -
gamia, subdivision algae aquaticae ; but was doubtful of the cor-
rectness of this arrangement. "May not the fact," Dr. Fyfe
observes, " that sponge contains iodine, be an argument in favour
of the opinion of Linnaeus, that this substance properly belongs to
the vegetable world, class cryptogamia, from the plants of which
iodine is obtained ?" — Account of some Experiments, made with the
view of ascertaining the different Substances from which Iodine can
be procured. By Andrew Fyfe, M. D. The Edinburgh Philoso-
phical Journal, vol. 1, p. 254.

t Histoire des Poly piers Coralligenes flexibles, &c. par J. V. F.
Lamouroux, D. E. S. Caen, 1816.

36

Species.

4. S. cavernosa Stiff and hard; very cavernous;

mammillated, and irregularly
porous.

5. — cariosa Rudely shaped, and irregularly

lobed; cavernous, and jagged
as if eroded.

6. — licheniformis. ...Rather glomerated, and a little

branchy ; fibres very lax.

7. — barba Fibres shaggy and rather straight,

resembling the beard of a goat.

8. — fasciculata Fibres in fasciculi, terminating in

pencils at the surface.

9. — lacera Terminating in jagged, branchy

lobes.

10. — filamentosa Formed of numerous bundles of

distinct filaments.

11. — favosa Surface membranaceous ; nearly

covered with subangular, irre-
gular cells.

12. — cellulosa Beset with subangular cells; in-

terstial membranes full of pores.

13. — septosa With nearly erect lamellae, de-

cussating and forming irre-
gular cells.

14. — fenestrata With reticulated fibres, in unequal

and winding divisions.

15. — crassiloba Encrusting; deeply lobed; thick,

erect, flattish, conoidal lobes.

16. — tabula Flat, oblong, nearly undivided;

full of pores.

17. — placenta Obliquely circular; plano-con-

vex ; rigid ; full of pores ; ra-
diated, in grooves, at the edges.

18. — byssoides Flat; formed of distinct fibres,

and loosely cancellated.

37

Species.

19. S. pulvinata Smooth, like a cushion; rarely

lobed.

20. — carbonaria Black and misshapen.

21. — incrustans Investing, with a thin crust.

22. — agaracina Compressed, lobed, reticulated;

and externally covered with a
downy substance.

23. — cristata Flat, with erect and delicate ridges

growing in the shape of cocks'
combs.

24. — domuncula Convex, smooth, slightly papil-

lary, and very cellular.

25. — globosa Rounded, firm, and very caver-

nous ; surface sprinkled with
smooth papillae.

26. — macida With white, crustaceous fibres,

terminating in points.

27. — panicea Resembling, in its form, crum of

bread ; and composed of bun-
dles of fine needle-like fibres,
crossing each other.

28. — papillaris Crustaceous, tender, and soft,

with perforated papillae.

29. — urens Very brittle and soft, and inter-

woven with very minute spines.

30. — acicularis White, solid, porous and scabrous

externally; with fibres in fas-
ciculae converging to the centre.

II. Subpediculated masses, contracted toward their base ;
simple or lobated.

31. S. angulosa Sides angular ; various, unequal,

and numerous foramina on the
edges of the angles.

38

Species.

32. S. pluriloba Lobes erect and fissured ; nume-

rous small pores with inter-
spersed round ones.

33. — rimosa Lobes erect, fibrous and rather

woolly ; surface hollowed out
with longitudinal grooves.

34. — penicillosa Surface bristled with brushes of

straight and hard fibres.

35. — turgida Substance fibrous ; fibres loosely

interwoven, and forming a ter-
minating foramen.

36. — bombycina Ventricose ; many lobes on the

upper surface ; fibres naked and
lax ; harsh and hispid at the
surface.

37. — flammula Lobes erect, of an ovato-lan-

ceolated form ; fibres loose.

38. — myrobolans Mass oval, rather flat.

39. — pes leonis Pedicle short, sustaining a round-

ish, oval, soft and compressed
mass ; texture very porous.

40. — anatipes Entirely fibrous; longitudinal

fibres stronger than the trans-
verse ones ; the meshes of the
net-work elongated ; pedicle
hard and porous.

41. — rubra Reddish, depressed, subrotund,

with elevated tubercles ; pores
of equal size.

42. — peziza .....Yellow and ramose; branches re-

sembling the peziza.

43. — nigra Globose, smooth; black exter-

nally, internally of an ash co-
lour.

39

III. Pediculated masses; flat, flabelliform; simple or
lobated.

Species.

44. S. plancella Truncated oval form, flat; not

thick; curved on one of its
edges ; tissue lightly encrusted,
and finely porous.

45. — pala Spatuliform, openings round, on

its upper margin.

46. — flabelliformis . . .Fan - formed ; elegantly reticu-

lated, with superficial undu-
lating stripes, decussating on
the disk.

47. — pluma Finely fibrous; spread fan-like.

48. — carduus Open, like a fan ; with lamellated

wrinkles on both sides, and
echinated with spines.

49. — panned Flabelliform; with a cloth-like

texture.

50. — fissurata Fan -formed ; more or less lobated,

and covered with small irre-
gular crevices.

51. — cancellaria Low, flabelliform, and compres-

sed; ramifications coalescent,
disposed in a trellised form, and
bristled on the edges.

52. — lyrata Erect, compressed, fan -formed

lobes, with connected tubes;
upper margin rounded and set
with foramina.

53. — deltoidea Erect; truncated in the upper

part; (frequently encrusted
with vermiculae on both sides.)

40

Species .

54. S. sartaginula Circular and smoothish ; concave

on one and convex on the other
» side ; with small round foramina
disposed nearly in rows.

55. — appendiculata...Subpedicu\a.ted, oblong, spatuli-

form, with finger-formed ap-
pendices.

IV. Concave expanded masses ; cup or funnel-formed.

56. S. usitatissima Turbinated; soft, tomentous,very

jagged and porous.

57. — tubulifera With tubuliferous lobes.

58. — stellifera Cup-formed; with thickly set stel-

liform pores in the hollow part.

59. — striata Funnel-formed; with rough lon-

gitudinal striae on the sides.

60. — campana Bell-formed; with lamelloso-re-

ticulated sides.

61. — turbinata. Turbinated; narrow and long;

cavity echinated.

62. — vasculum Turbinated; surface smooth;

edge woolly.

63. — brassicaria Expanded; subfoliaceous ; lobes

large ; surface smooth.

64. — cyathina Cyathiform ; with small, scatter-

ed, round openings.

65. — Otaheitica Cyathiform; slightly lobed, with

longitudinal crevices.

66. — costifera Turbinated; with longitudinal

ribs on the sides.

67. — labellum Labelliform, like slips of paper;

striatedwith longitudinal thread-
like risings.

41

Species.

68. S. pocillum Caliciform ; with fine pores and

clefts.

69. — venosa Open cyathiform ; reticulated

with vein-like white, distinct
fibres.

70. — sportella Basket-formed; reticulated.

71. — bursaria Wedge-shaped; purse-like; con-

nected in a fan-form.

72. — bilamellata Flabelliform ; terminating in two

ample straight, parallel lamellae.

73. — calix Turbinated, stipitated; the sub-

stance thick and lax, internally
rather gibbous.

74. — jiciformis Turbinated, apex open.

75. — compressa Forming a compressed cone, with

longitudinal fissures internally.

V. Tubulous or fistulous masses, not expanding*

76. S. laeunosa Cylindrical; externally excava-

ted by irregular and winding
lacunae.

77. — tubtzformis Long simple tubes, tuberculated

externally.

78. — fistularis Long, aggregated, simple tubes,

gradually enlarging.

79. — plicifera Approaching to the infundibili-

form; with external, tortuous
anastamosing plicae.

80. — scrobiculata Oblong top^form ; with unequal

furrows and roundish cells.

81. — vaginalis Oblong and tubular ; the outer

surface with rough, flattish tu-
bercles.

G.

42

Species.

82. #. digitalis With longish processes, slightly

connected ; the surface muri-
cated and ragged.

83. — bullata Branched, tubulous ; with inflated

nodes,and terminating in points.

84. — syphono'ides Tubes elongated in the form of a

syphon.

85. — coins Erect, clavelliform, and tubular.

86. — tubulosa Full of tubes; branched, erect

and slender at the end.

87. — muricina With subramose tubes, every

where muricated with acute
tubercles.

88. — confederata Formed of many connected tubes.

89. — intestinalis With many hollow, unequal lobes.

90. — coronata Minute, a tube crowned with ra-

diating little spines.

91. — tubularia Sessile, compressed, porous ; with

longitudinal tubules.

92. — ciliata Conical, bending tube, becoming

smaller upwards, and ciliated
at the apex.

VI. Foliaceous masses ; divided in flat, leaf-formed lobes.

93. S. perfoliata Plain stalk, with round foliaceous

lobes, disposed spirally on the
stalk.

94. — pennatula With erect, rounded, wedge-

formed, foliaceous lobes, very
porous.

95. — cactiformis Ramose; with flat, flabellated ex-

pansions, rounded or muriated
at the summit, and small dis-
persed excavations on one face.

43

Species.

96. S. crispata With contorted, bubbly, suppel-

lucid, curled, coalescent, ex-
pansions, of very fine fibrous
texture.

97. — basta. (panache noir). — Black, fibrous, frondose-

cristated ; with separating con-
voluted folds of loosely con-
nected fibres.

98. — lamellaris Sessile, frondose, with many soft,

erect, and nearly parallel la-
mellae, broadest in the upper
part.

99. — endivia In soft spatuliform thin plates,

wrinkled on their edges and
surface.

100. — urceolus Green, obovate, narrow and rag-

ged at the top.

101. — mamifferis Of different forms; cavernous,

with conical bending tubes,
with elevated tubular pores.

102. — polyphilla With pediculated fronds; with

convoluted plaited lobes and
longitudinal fibres.

103. — pavonia With sub-proliferous, roundish

fronds; with foramina on one
side.

104. — scariola WTith foraminated expansions, di-

viding in a multitude of plates,
lobated, turned, and as it were
crimped, in various directions.

105. — heterogona \Vith expansions, so turned as to

form imperfect tubes.

106. — thiaroides Many narrow erect lobes, emu-

lating a muricated crown.

44

Species.

107. S. xerampelina . ... Ramose ; with ovate incised fronds,

with a tow-like incrustation.

108. — juniperina Ramose; fronds with the fibres

arranged like a lattice work.

109. — raphanus Substance like tow, and porous;

with ovate frond-like lobes,
with longitudinal grooves and
wrinkles on both sides

110. — mesenterina With broad lamellae, plaited in

winding forms.

111. — leporina Frondose ; deeply fringed; di-

lating and sublobated towards
the apex.

112. — laciniata Frondose; with many erect, ag-

gregated, jagged, lyre-formed
lamella?.

113. — frondifera Slightly ramifying, with roundish,

proliferous lobes, the limb fim-
briated with curled fibres.

114. — Jimbriata Slightly ramifying, with ovato-

subrotund fronds, the limb fim-
briated with curled fibres.

VII. Branched masses, phytoidal or dendroidal ; the rami-
fications distinct.

115. S. arborescens Ramose; branches subcompres-

sed ; apex palmated ; digitiform.

116. — virgultosa Branches roundish; with erect

twigs, rather pointed.

117. — longicuspis Base, a trellisse formed of five or

six meshes ; whence rise from six
to nine straight long branches,
sometimes coalescing, forming
thin digitations or long points.

45

Species.

118. S. asparagus Ramose, erect, many stems.

1U). _~ dicJiotoma With erect, round, subulated di-

chotomous branches.
120. — echidnea With erect, rigid branches, all

over muricated.
1-21. — muricata Thinly branched ; substance like

cork ; branches cylindrical,

and beset with obtuse shaggy

tufts.

122. — vulpina With ramose lobes, rather latticed,

with compressed papillae.

123. — spicalifera Branches erect; with sub-cylin-

drical tubercles, muricated with
spiculae.

124. — carlinoides Thickly branched; angulated

branches, with subspinous and
membranaceous expansions.

125. — amaranthina. ...With compressed, divided and lo-

bated branches, dilated upwards,
and longitudinally striated.

126. — strigillata Flabelliform, flat branches, with

echinated papillae.

127. — nervosa Branched fan-like; nervous sub-

reticulated branches.

128. — rubispina Branched fan-like; with divided

branches, rather coalescent ;
echinated with pointed tu-
bercles.

129. — abietina With stipitated, flat, incrusted

branches, with acute papillae
terminating in threads.

130. — elongata Sub-ramose, with a few rather

cylindrical branches; with very
long naked and sub-reticulated
fibres.

46

Species.

131. S. selaginea Compressed, ill-formed branches ;

with frequent spinous keel-like
ridges.

132. — aspericornis . ...Rather round, elongated, and acu-

leated branches.

133. — hispida Ramose, ill-formed, hispid, with

subulated jags.

134. — serpentina Round branches, the smaller con-

torted in various directions.

135. — oculata Compressed, roundish, with bifid

and trifid ascending branches,
with eye-like openings.

136. — botellifera With erect, tuberculated, grooved

and ill-formed branches.

137. — palmata Branched and palmated ; digiti-

form smaller branches, with
forked terminations.

138. — lanuginosa Dichotomously branched, rather

compressed previously to being
divided ; woolly, and formed of
very fine naked fibres.

139. — typhina Ramose; with round, erect,

woolly branches.

140. — tupha Ramose; with cylindrical obtuse

omentiform branches.

141. — fornicifera With flat, small villous ramifi-

cations coalescing in a vaulted
lattice.

142. — semitubulosa....With numerous cylindrical and

tortuously divaricating branch-
es, some tubular and pierced.

143. — alicornis With many stems ; branches com-

pressed and subdichotomous ;
the apices attenuated ; the fi-
bres minute.

47

Species.

144. S. damcecornis . ...With compressed porous branch-

es, with clefts on one side ;
apices palmated.

145. — caudigera With forked lobes ; the last being

very long and caudiform.

146. — loricaris Loose branches, like narrow straps;

a little compressed, divided
and irregularly curved.

147. — cancettata Ramose, flabellated, and incrusted;

with round flexuous branches,
forming, by coalescing, can-
cellae ; the surface finely reti-
culated.

148. — stuposa Ramose, round; towey and vil-

lous; short and obtuse branches.

149. — linteiformis In a rounded bush-like form ; the

branches rather narrow, jag-
gedly fringed, rough and sharp
to the touch.

150. — clathrus Many branches, crowded toge-

ther, and by coalescing forming
cancellae ; the apices obtuse,
and rather turgid.

151. — coalita Dilated base, inclosing other bo-

dies ; numerous roundish, com-
pressed branches; fibres closely
applied at the surface.

152. — faveolaria With elongated, sub-cylindrical,

coalescent branches ; the apices
conical ; the surface unequal ;
having little pits on the sur-
face, and being rough on the
edges.

153. — macrodactyla ...With long round compressed

finger-like processes.

48

Species.

154. S. botryoides With oblong, ovate lobules, apices

hollow and open.

155. — radiciformis . ...With tortuous, dichotonrous

branches, compressed at the
apex.

156. — prolifera Palmated, with frequent divisions,

and distinct finger-formed pro-
cesses.

157. — ossiformis White, subramose; apex thick-

ened and jagged.

158. — membranosa ....With cellular membranes, exter-

nally muricated.

159. — fulva Amorphous and subramose.

160. — floribwida Confluent, with ramose fasciculi ;

having a chaffy flosculent down,
and being obtuse and thicker at
the apex.

161. — baccillaris Erect, caulescent; with porous

branches, applied to each other.

The existence of fossil sponge in the transition or in the
mountain limestone has not been ascertained, or in the dif-
ferent beds of the lia« formation ; but the tenuity, in ge-
neral, of its substance, and the nature of the matrices in
which it has been sought, may perhaps occasion its con-
cealment* Of its presence in the several oolitic beds, I
have not been able to acquire any satisfactory information,
except that in the Portland freestone I have seen semi-
sphaeroidal masses, about eighteen inches in diameter, di-
vided into flattish, foliaceous, laciniated, erect lobes, and
which appear to possess a spongeous structure. Specimens
are sometimes found in the green sand formation, but not so
frequently as may ' have been expected : the specimens
which are most frequently found, are, I suspect, those which
are adherent to the accompanying fossil shells.

49

The richest collection which is known of these fossils is, I
believe, that of the gravel pits of the iron sand at Farringdon,
where they are found mingled with the fossils of some of
the early formations. Some of these specimens are of con-
siderable size, and are in such excellent preservation as to
allow, at least, of their arrangement under the more compre-
hensive divisions of the genus. Among the specimens are
round and cavernous, resembling sp. globosa ; pediculated,
sub-pediculated, lobated and flabelliform, ramose, foliaceous,
cyathiform, funnel and ficiform. In most of the specimens
the structure and form of the substance are so obvious, as to
raise the hope that the determining of their specific cha-
racters, and of their consequent arrangement by some
zealous investigator of these interesting relics, may be
expected.

Fossil remains of this substance are frequently found
in the chalk, and most numerously perhaps in the lower
series of this formation ; but from the delicate texture of
the membrane of the sponge, and from its cavities being
filled by the chalk itself, there are no known means by
which the fossil can be extricated from its matrix. Indeed,
it frequently happens that these substances, agreeing as to
colour with the chalk, would exist there undetected, but
by the greater degree of hardness which it possesses, and
by the asperities which it presents at the surface. They
are sometimes pointed out by the strong tint which they
derive from having sustained a ferruginous impregnation ;
and in these instances, although a sufficient separation from
the surrounding chalk to allow the developement of the
form cannot be obtained, yet, by their being carefully
rubbed down to a smooth surface, something of this may
be discovered, with, generally, a tolerable display of the
internal structure.

The nodules of chalk flint frequently contain the sili-
cified remains of sponge, and in a state which will allow

H.

50

their form and structure to be much more easily traced
than in the chalk itself. The most common forms in which
these occur are oblong or nearly globular : and they are
either imbedded in the chalk, or scattered on its surface,
or in the neighbouring declivities. These may be frequently
found on the Sussex Downs, the Gogmagog Hills of Cam-
bridgeshire, and, indeed, on or about most of the chalk
hills. These nodules appear to have been formed round
fragments of sponge of different forms and structure, and to
be more or less filled, according to the degree of decom-
position and subsequent removal which the included sub-
stance had sustained after its inclusion. In some spe-
cimens, particularly among those of Wiltshire, which have
been collected by the liberal encouragement of Miss Benett,
a tuberous or ramified body, and, in some instances, two
such bodies, are extended across the cavity of the flint, and
covered over with a fine white powder of chalk and silex
blended. These bodies appear to be casts in the cavities
of sponge, the substance of which has passed away. In
others the substance which had been included appears to
have been broken down and removed, and its place occupied
by chalk which has intruded in a pulverulent state ; whilst
in others the cavity alone remains. Oblong nodules, found
on Stokenchurch Hill, and for some distance on the Oxford-
shire side, very frequently exhibit specimens, which, on
being broken, display the structure of the Zoophyte in great
distinctness. In the chalk marl at the foot of the cliff at
Beechey Head, are botryoidal and lamelliform masses,
which, not only from their external forms, but the appear-
ances yielded on their fracture, lead us to the recollection
of the masses of fossil sponge at Farringdon, and which, in
all probability, have been yielded by the chalk marl.

Fossil sponge of a very fine texture, and in a pulvinated
form, is sometimes found investing the shells accumulated
in the cliffs at Walton and Harwich.

51

A flint stone, found on the shore at Dawlish in Devon-
shire, bears decided marks of having derived its form from
the siliceous impregnation of sp. mammillaris.

Several fossils of the tribe of Zoophytes having been
noticed in a former work, which, although not possessing
the decided characters of the genus, were still, with ex-
pressed doubt, placed among the Alcyonia; an attempt
at a better classification of some of these bodies is here
attempted.

The first of these, are those bodies which are distinguish-
able by bundles of tubuli passing through a spongeous sub-
stance, and which may be thus characterised.

Siphonia. — A fossil animal, with a polymorphous body,
supported by a stem proceeding from a fusiform- or ramose
root-like pedicle ; the original substance spongeous, and
pierced by a bundle of tubes derived from the pedicle,
passing through the stem, then ramifying and terminating
on the surface of the body.

The various spongeoid fossils, bearing the forms of cups,
funnels, fruits, &c. described by M. Guettard, as obtained
from Verest, near Tours and Saumur, and at Montrichard,
in Touraine, and by the Rev. J. Townsend, as found in the
green sand of the Vale of Pewsey*, as well as those which
are figured, PI. ix. fig. 1, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 13; PI. x. fig. 6
and 13, of the second volume of Organic Remains, &c. are
of the same genus.

Since the publication of the last mentioned work, Mr.
Webster made the discovery of those interesting fossils in
the Isle of Wight, which from their long seeming stalks,
and from their tulip-formed superior terminations, obtained

* The Character of Moses, &c. PI. 1, fig. 1. PL 2, fig. 1, 2, 3.
PI. 3, fig. 1, 2, 3.

52

the name of tulip alcyonia*. These fossils decidedly agree
in the characters which have been here assumed for this
genus.

Soon after the discovery of these fossils, Miss Benett,
whose exertions have much aided this department of natural
history, favoured the Geological Society with a suite of
drawings, and of fossil specimens of various forms, but
decidedly of this genus, which had been found in the sand,
chiefly in the neighbourhood of Warminster. This valuable
collection is rendered extremely interesting, by the great
variety of forms which these fossils have assumed ; cylin-
drical, straight, ramified, round, oblong, ovoid, wide and
narrow, short and long, cup or funnel-formed; elongated
like a cucumber, as in Organic Remains, vol ii. PL 10.
fig. 6 ; tulip-formed, exactly agreeing with those discovered
by Mr. Webster, and assuming also the forms of spongia
turgida, sp. alcicornis et damicornis, and indeed many other
of those forms which sponge offers to our observation.
Among the most interesting specimens are those which are
lobated, and in which from two to five or six lobes, closely
united together, are found upon one stem ; and in one spe-
cimen, two stems arise from the same base, one of which
terminates with three and the other with four lobes.

Flints are sometimes found of a roundish form, pierced
internally with numerous tubules passing in every direction,
and giving the idea of the flint having invested a small
hispid leafless shrub. It is extremely probable that these
fossils may have originated in a species of this genus,
bearing this form, and having the tubuli thus radiating

* Geological Transactions, vol. ii. The importance of this
discovery of Mr. Webster will be observed, when it is considered
that the remains of this animal, known perhaps only in this for-
mation, are found in considerable numbers in the Leith Hill of
Surrey, in the green sand of Wiltshire, Devonshire, &c. and in the
freestone of Portland.

53

through the spongeous part; the siliceous impregnation
having solidified this part, and left the tubules unfilled,

It is not to be doubted that, when the specific dis-
tinctions of the several specimens belonging to this genus*
have been ascertained, the number of its species will be
found to be very considerable*.

At PL 1, fig. 8; is represented a transverse section of
one of the stems of a tulip-formed specimen, in which the
bundle of tubules are shown ; and at fig. 7, the superior
extremity of the same fossil is given, with the numerous
terminations of the tubuli. These may be also generally
discovered on the sides of the depression or cavity which
sometimes exists in the superior termination.

The existence of these animals appears to have been
confined to that sea from whose waters the green sand for-
mation was deposited ; no traces of their remains being
mentioned as found in the strata of any of the preceding
or subsequent formations.

Animalisation has, in this genus, proceeded a degree be-
yond that in which it exists in sponge ; since, added to the
spongeous texture, is the bundle of tubes which has been
here considered as yielding its generic distinction.

* From the account given by Miss Benett to the Geological
Society, respecting these fossils, it appears, that they are found in
the Valley or Common of Warminster, in the reddish yellow sand,
at a depth seldom exceeding two feet, on the sides of the hills. At
Whitburn, near Claythill, in the same neighbourhood, the green
sand comes to the surface, and these fossils are found in it. At
Boreham, on the east side of Warminster, the grey sand is upper-
most, and there, but most rarely, are found fossils of the same
kind. " These fossils," it is observed by Miss Benett, " appear to
belong to the top of the sand formation, without regard to the sort
of sand. The yellow sand appears to be the grand depot of them :
in the green sand, large specimens predominate ; but those of the
grey sand are in a higher state of preservation." These fossils
were discovered by Mr. George Warren, of Warminster, to whom
Miss Benett states herself to be indebted for them.

54

In the fossils next to be examined, a different and more
distinct kind of organisation is discoverable: tubes here
exist also in considerable number, and are connected by
transverse intercurrent tubules. The organisation existing
in these animals seems to authorise their being placed in a
distinct genus ; and it is presumed that the designation
which is here assumed for it will not be disapproved.

Mantellia. — An animal with a fusiform or ramose, root-
like pedicle, a stem and body formed of tubuli, anasto-
mosing in a basket-like texture, with openings on the
internal surface.

The most common species of this genus is the fossil
which has been described by Mr. Mantell, as a species of
Alcyonium*. But whilst removing this fossil from the
genus under which Mr. Mantell had placed it, it must be
observed, in justice to this gentleman, that it had been
stated by the present writer, that "although I shall in
general speak of these bodies as alcyonia, I am aware that*
when their histories have been elucidated by the inspection
of more illustrative specimens, several of them may claim
other designations-]-." In conformity with this opinion, Mr.
Mantell chose to speak of this body as an alcyonium ; his
judgment, at the same time, directing him to do it with due
reserve ; he also " wishing it to be allowed only a temporary
admission into this situation, till future discoveries shall
point out more precisely its situation in the scale of ani-
mated nature."

The specimen PL 1, fig. 9, reduced from vol. ii. PL 11,
fig. 1, of Organic Remains, belongs to a species of this
genus, and appears to have been part of a stem. In this

* Description of a fossil alcyonium from the chalk strata, near
Lewes. Transactions of the Linnsean Society, vol. xi, 1815, Part 2,
page 401.

t Organic Remains of a former World, vol. ii, page 89.

55

species, it will be observed, that the transverse anastomosing
vessels are but few, and smaller than those which proceed
in a perpendicular direction. In the specimen PI. 1,
fig. 10, reduced from PI. 11, fig. 6, of Organic Remains,
the characteristics of the genus are more decidedly shown,
the intervening vessels are much more numerous, and ap-
proach nearly in thickness to those which they connect.
In other specimens depicted in the work just referred to,
the characters of other species may be perceived ; thus in
Organic Remains, vol. ii. PI. 11, fig. 3, the anastomosing is
formed by the oblique arrangement of the tubuli ; and in
fig. 7 of the same plate the same effect is produced by the
very frequent ramifications and inosculations of the vessels.
It is indeed extremely probable, from the appearance of
numerous imperfect specimens, that the industrious col-
lector will be enabled to place many more species under
this genus.

The remains of this genus are almost all confined to the
chalk ; but in one or two specimens, appearances are ob-
servable which lead to the supposition that they may have
been deposited in some part also of the chalk marl.

Alcyonites. — There are very few animals to which we
can have access in their living state, whose nature and
structure are so little understood as the alcyonium; and
hence have arisen considerable difficulties when examining
them in their fossil state. The definition and descriptions
of M. Lamouroux, with the observations which he has made
on their structure, are so likely to yield useful information
in the examination of their fossil remains, that I feel no
hesitation in introducing them.

" Alcyonium. — A polymorphous polype bearing animal,
formed of a fleshy animated mass, sometimes inert, some-
times sensible, and filled with retractile polypi which expand
on its surface. In the dry state this mass appears composed
of fibres reticulated and interlaced at the centre, radiating

56

to the circumference, and covered with a firm cellular,
coriaceous or cretaceous covering*."

The number of tentacula are said to vary in different
species, but M. Lamouroux only examined the polypes of
Alcyonium lobatum, and found them not to agree with those
attributed by Dr. Solander and Dr. Spix to this species.

In the following catalogue, as in that of the sponges,
the most obvious characters, and those which are most likely
to be detected in the fossil, are particularised.

1. Alcyonium arboreum. — With papillary pores, disposed in

lateral and terminal tuberosities. —
Gmelin, p. 3810, n. 1.

2. A. palmatum With a simple stem, subramose, and

papillous at the extremity. — Mar-
silli, Tab. xv. n. 74, 75.

3. — lobatum. With a grey, tuberous crust ; lobated ;

with numerous impressed pores. —

1. A. digitatum, or dead man's toes of Ellis, Cor. Tab. xxxiii. a. . A. a.

2. A. exos, Spinx, An. du Mus. Tom. xiii. Tab. xxxiii. fig. 8 to 14.

4. — rubrum. Red, soft, and encrusting ; entirely

covered with points or stars with
eight rays.

5. — cydonium. An oval or elliptical mass, convex above,

concave beneath, irregularly grooved
and notched; cells discoverable, if
the skin is not injured.

6. — massa. Irregularly shaped.

7. — cidaris. Fixed, globose, and hard; excavated

by tortuous sinuses; terminal de-
pression large ; frequent, small, sub-
stellated openings Donat. Adr.

p. 56, Tab ix.

* Histoire des Polypiers Coralligenes flexibles, &c. par J. V. F.
Lamouroux, A. Caen, 1816, p. 317.

57

8. A. vesparium. — Fixed, erect, large, ovate-oblong ; apex,

obtuse ; internally cavernous ; many
minute openings.

9. — incrustans. Lobated ; spongio-fibrous within ; nu-

merous small substellated pores.

10. — serpens Fleshy, tape-like ; tortuously creeping ;

with wart-like prominences, with sub-
radiated openings.

11. — trigonum Carnous ; cellular; s ub trigonal ; cover-

ed all over with small openings.

12. — foratum. Oblong; smoothish ; surface subreti-

culated; foramina rather large and
scattered. Spongia 9

13. — cribrarium. — Coriaceous; widely incrusting.

14. — phallo'ides Pedicle short and thick, supporting

wide tortuous lobated branches, heap-
ed in a dense mass ; small scattered
oscula.

15. — pyramidak. -Cylindrico - conical ; red and fleshy

within.

16. — pulmonaria. ~Pulpous; olive-coloured and livid ; com-

pressedly lobated ; covered with very
small stellated oscula. — Ellis Cor.
p. 97, n. 1, Tab. xvii. b. B.C.D.

17. — lyncurium (Orange du mer). — Globose ; fibrous ; yel-

low ; warted. — Plane. Conch. Min. 2,
p. 44, app. 2, p. 114, n. 3; Marsil.
p. 82, Tab. xiv. n. 72, 73.

18. — alburnum White; very branched; thin; subdi-

vided; with tubular-terminal pores.

19. — plicatum Wide ; rounded ; lamelliform ; with

thick lamellae windingly plaited ; sub-
cristated ; with minute scattered fo-
ramina.

58

20. A. sinuosum. , — Lamellated ; lamina erect and thick ;

tortuously winding, like the folds of
the brain, with numerous marginal
openings. Spongia ?

21. — manusdiaboli. ^Polymorphous ; perforated; with ob-

tuse protuberances.

22. — diffusum. Very ramose ; diffused and ill-formed.

23. — sceptrum. Long ; cylindrical ; obsoletely clavated.

24. — ensiferum. Long branches, rather flat and bent like

ti sabre.

25. — - junceum. Very long, roundish, but compressed,

soft branches.

26. — quercinum. — Frondose ; with flat, winding, lobate

processes.

27. — asbestinum. — Stem reddish, nearly cylindrical, beset

with oblong pores, set in quincunx
order.

28. — cranium. White ; tuberous ; set with setce.

29. — papillosum. — Sessile ; incrusting ; and variously lo-

bated and papillated, with spinous
tubercles and echinulated interstices.

30. — tuberosum. ~~Tuberous, yellowish ; tops often sub-

divided ; set with tubular pores.

31. — ficus. Fig or pear-formed; tuberous; rather

ovate; pulpy and livid. — Marsil.

p. 87, Tab. xvi. n. 79.

M. Lamouroux observes that there is reason for believing
that there exists in the Mediterranean two bodies of
the same figure ; the one belonging to sponge, the
other to alcyonium. Solander considers that figured
by Ellis to be sponge.

32. — cylindricum.- White and round.

Lamarck considers this as only being a detached poition
of a ramose alcvonium.

59

S3, A. radicatum. — Substance homogeneous, like cork ;
with very small scattered pores ; base
divided by many clefts. No bark
discoverable.

34. — gelatinosum. -Cylindrical or compressed, pellucid and

watery within, irregularly compressed
and branching. — Plane, ed. 2, p. 115,
c. 29, Tab. X. A ; Ellis, Cor. p. 102,
n. 5, Tab. xxxii. fig. dD.

In Parkinson's Herbal, he considers it as a sponge ; others
have thought it an ulva or fucus.

35. — papillosum. — Incrusting ; covered with large convex

papillae. — Mars. p. 86, Tab. xv. fig.
76-78.

36. — distomum. Incrusting ; with red scattered papillae,

each with two openings.

37. — gorgonoides. ~Ash-coloured, flesh mixed with sand ;

radiated wart-like cells.- Solander and
Ellis, p. 181, n. 8, Tab. ix. fig. 1, 2.

38. — comiculatu/n.~¥our stellated pores surrounding a

central papilla, with four erect ter-
minal crescents.

39. — stellatum. Terminations distinguished by two stel-

lated cells.

40. — fluviatile. -~~~Incrusting, polymorphous ; set with

pentagonal tubular pores.

The following compose the second section of the alcyonia
of Lamarck, who distinguishes them from the former by the
openings of the cellules not appearing on the dry specimen.
M. Lamouroux considers them as doubtful, and perhaps as
intermediate between the alcyonia and the sponges :

41. A. compactum. —Tuberous ; globoso-pulvinate ; surface

smooth.

60

42. A. medullare. Lamarck assumes for this species the

synonymous alcyonium ofJEllis, Cor.
Tab. xvi. fig. D, d, D 1.

43. — testudinarium-Elliptical ; rather flattened convex ;

spread, slightly reticulated, with
many dorsal ridges, with slightly in-
terrupted christae.

44. — orbiculatum. -Compressed, rounded, thick ; surface

rough, and very porous ; unequal
sized pores.

45. — radiatum. ,~~~Circular ; upper surface concave,

smooth, folds radiating to the margin;
with about six conoidal tubercles;
lower surface convex, radiated with
fibrous costae.

46. — cuspidiferum.~Sessi\e ; erect ; hollow ; slit upwards

in many long, straight, sword-shaped
lobes, surface very slightly porous.

47. — granulosum. -Hemispherical ; gelatinous ; semi-pel-

lucid ; raggedly grooved underneath ;
surface granulated and wool-like. .

48. — putridosum. — Ventricoso-globose ; somewhat pear-

shaped ; thin at the edges and slightly
reticulated ; surface set with tubular
openings.

49. — purpureum. — Of an intense purple ; flattish, carno-

spongeous ; surface smooth.

50. — boletus. Substipated ; clavated ; internally, ra-

mose fibres latticed with dilated la-
mellae ; surface incrusted, porous and
tuberculated.

51. — boletiforme. Sessile, simple, rounded ; flat on one

side, convex on the other ; with small
tubercle-formed risings sprinkled with
small cells.

61

Although difficulties may attend the attempt to arrange,
by these characters, substances so vaguely formed as the
alcyonia, especially those which exist in a fossil state ; yet
it will be found that the above table will afford considerable
advantage to the student of fossils. He will, by a com-
parison with the characters of the species as there given,
and by attention to the following observations, gain a nearer
approximation to the true character of the substance under
examination, and will be frequently enabled to give to it a
name and place.

Whilst endeavouring to make the required distinctions
in fossils of this kind, difficulties must arise from the ina-
bility which is frequently found of ascertaining, in fossil
specimens, the nature of their texture ; it sometimes hap-
pening that no assistance can be yielded either by the form
of the fossil or by the appearance of its surface. The am-
biguity arising from the form depends on the fossils of this
genus being sometimes found under the same specific forms
which belong also to Spongites, Syphonites, and Mantellites :
this is particularly the case with the cyathiform and fruc-
tiform species, which may be found in all these genera.

There are therefore four distinct genera under which
fossils bearing the same general forms may be placed ; and
the characteristic marks of each genus will, in general, be
found sufficiently evident on their surfaces to mark the
situations which, in classification, each of them should hold.

If a cellular texture, such as would be formed by the
irregular decussation of membranous substance, can alone
be traced, without any appearance of tubuli, the place of the
fossil would appear to be under the genus sponge ; but itj
in addition to the spongeous texture, straight or regularly
divaricating simple tubuli should appear, its place would
be under syphonia. If, whether spongeous texture appear
or not, simple tubes are discovered connected laterally either
by anastomosing or intercurrent tubules, the fossil may be

62

considered asbelonging to Mantellia ; but should the more
compact part of the fossil, or its porous surface, display the
dwellings and evident labours of polypes, no doubt should
be entertained of placing it among the species of alcyonium.
This may be instanced, as has been just mentioned, in those
fossils which bear the forms of fruit : in sponge, is sp. fici-
formis; in syphonia, a correspondent form frequently occurs ;
in Mantellia, the fossil figured, Organic Remains, vol. ii.
PI. 11, fig. 3, may be instanced; and in alcyonium, is both
A.faus and A. cydbnium.

Although M. Lamouroux has not thought proper to
reject from the preceding table several bodies which have
been considered as alcyonia, he is himself of opinion, that
the number should be much diminished : considering those
only as alcyonia which are evidently the production, and
have been the habitation of polypes. He accounts for
Lamarck having intermingled and confounded these animals,
by his having too frequently judged of them from the dry
specimens; but is of opinion that they may be readily
distinguished either in their living or dead state.

In the recent alcyonia, the polypes or their cells may
be always seen on taking them out of the sea ; but nothing
similar is discoverable in sponges. In the alcyonia not only
is that pulsatory motion observable which is attributed to
sponge, but, in those alcyons which are ramified, the
branches are sometimes seen to be curved and afterwards
straightened again. This is particularly observable in
A. lobatum. The difference between the two animals is
also apparent on the examination of the dried specimens.
On a section, either transverse or vertical, being made of
dried sponge, no difference of substance is discoverable ;
from the centre to the circumference is the same organi-
zation : but on making a section in any direction through
the centre of the dried alcyonium, a structure more or less
fibrous, and a substance more or less grooved, will be seen

63

passing from the centre to the circumference ; and on the
surface will be found a distinct skin or bark-like covering,
with numerous foramina, some of which are hardly per-
ceptible. These foramina appear to be the openings of the
radiating fibres, or tubes rather, and in some species are
very evident.

To endeavour to trace the fossil remains of alcyonia to
the strata in which they were originally infixed, has hitherto
been accompanied with but little success : this has been
partly owing to the incorrect accounts which have been
given, respecting these and similar substances, by the
earlier writers on fossils ; and partly to the difficulty of
discovering these fossils when imbedded in stone, in the
more obvious characters of which they are likely to parti-
cipate, and thereby become more difficult of detection.

The fructiform figures which the spongeoid fossils so
frequently possess, had obtained for them, to a late period,
the names of those fruits which it was thought they most
nearly resembled : and even when, in a former work, the
present writer removed these substances from the vegetable
kingdom, he was still unable to discover in them such
characters as would allow him to decide which specimen
should be considered as sponge, and which as alcyonium.
It is a remarkable circumstance, and not easy of expla-
nation, that, after numerous eager examinations with pow-
erful glasses, he has never seen, to his knowledge, the
characteristic radiating or decussating fibres of the internal
part of the alcyonium. In the fossils represented, Organic
Remains, vol. ii. PL 11, fig. 4 and 8, where the appearance
of a cortical substance led to the belief that these substances
are of alcyonic structure, and although the specimen, fig. 4,
in particular, possesses such a degree of transparency as
allows the discovery of organic structure, in that part
which is connected with its cortical covering, no appearance
of fibres can be discovered.

64

But the establishment of the genus syphonia, it is hoped,
will considerably assist in the required arrangement of
this class of fossils : the obvious tubular structure in the
fossils of this genus will readily enable the student to effect
their separation from those of spongia and alcyonium : and,
in consequence of this abstraction, it will in future be only
required to determine to which of these two genera the re-
maining ambiguous fossils of this class are to be attached ;
or failing in this, to endeavour to detect in them the cha-
racters of some undescribed genus.

With respect to the ascertaining of the stratum, or even
the formation, to which the alc}7onic fos?ils belong, little
more than negative information can be given. It does not
appear that they exist among the syphonia in the green
sand ; none having been spoken of as existing in the rich
mines of Warminster, in the Portland freestone, or in the
Black-down hills of Devonshire.

Some fossils, which have been considered as belonging
to this genus, have possessed appearances which led to the
suspicion that they had been imbedded in some of the
strata of oolitic formation ; but no positive evidence has
been adduced of their having been found in such situations ;
nor do any statements appear to have been made of their
remains having been detected in any of the subjacent form-
ations of lyas, mountain limestone, &c.

It is from the examination of the matrix of some fossils
apparently of this genus that the conjecture is offered that
the chalk marie is the stratum to which the alcyonia more
peculiarly belong.

Tethia. — A tuberous, subglobose polipifer ; fibrous within ;
the fibres rather fasciculated ; divaricating or radiating from
the centre to the periphery, and glued together by a small
portion of pulpy matter ; cells in a cortical crust disposed
to fall off.

65

The characteristic difference of this genus, and by which
it is proposed to separate it from alcyonium, is the diverging,
radiating, internal fibres, being collected in fasciculae.

From the description of this genus and of some of its
species, there does not appear to be any reason for sup-
posing that it may not be as susceptible of those changes on
which petrifaction depends, as some of the species of al-
cyonia are known to be. Fossils indeed, resembling in form
tethya lyncurium, (Orange du Mer) figured by Marsilli,
Donati, and Esper, are not infrequent among the assumed
fossil remains of alcyonia.

Geodia. — A free, carnose, tuberiform polypifer, hollow
and empty, and firm and hard when dry ; the outer surface
being all over porous ; and has on the side a separate cir-
cular area, pierced with large pores.

This animal is perhaps described only by Lamarck, who
had seen but one specimen of it, which he purchased at the
sale of the cabinet of M. Turgot, Governor of Guiana : no-
thing has been stated respecting its existence in a fossil state.

Palythoa. — M. Lamouroux has very properly formed a
genus for the reception of two animals which Solander had
placed among the alcyoniums, but which differ from that
genus in manifesting more complexity of organization ; the
cavities, which are distinct, are divided by longitudinal la-
mellae, being each appropriated to a single polype.

Palythoa. — A polypifer, flat, covered with numerous, cy-
lindrical, united mammillae, of more than a centimetre in
height, with isolated cavities or cellules, almost longitudinally
chambered, and each containing a single polype. — Lam.

Sp. 1. P. mammillosa. — The polypiferous cellules with a stellated

opening. — Sol. and Ellis, p. 179, n. 5, Tab. i. fig. 4, 6.
2 — ocellata. — Rugous mammillae ; opening stellated and ra-
diated,—Sol. and Ellis, p. 180, n. 6, Tab. i. fig. 6.
A sketch of this species in its recent state, from Ellis, is given
Plate i. fig. 14.

66

One specimen has been seen by the writer which he con-
sidered as the fossil remains of the second species ; it pos-
sessed the general external characters, and also had the
peculiar ochraceous appearance which is attributed to it
by Solander.

Advancing on the scale of organization, we arrive at that
division of zoophytes in which our admiration is excited by
the minuteness and elegance of forms, observable in their
receptacles ; the habitations of the animals appearing like
minute plants of beautiful forms, whilst the animals who
formed and inhabit these dwellings require the aid of the
microscope to examine into their nature, and oftentimes
even to discover their existence. These little architects are
divided into those which form their domiciles of a soft and
yielding substance ; and those which have the property of
secreting and depositing for this purpose a substance rapidly
indurating and acquiring a hardness almost approaching to
that of stone : the latter alone require attention here.

POLYPIFERS FORMED LIKE NET-WORK.

Flustra. — A submembranous, flexible, lapidescent poly-
pifer ; frondescent, or expanded in a thin crust, formed by
numerous rows of cells, disposed as if woven together, on
one, or on the two opposite surfaces. The cells sessile, con-
tiguous, adherent, short and oblique ; the terminating mouth
rather gaping, and in some dentated or ciliated.

The following are given by Lamarck as fossil species, but
of which the genera appear to be doubtful.*

1. Fl. tesselata. — Incrusting ; with septa rounded forward ; cells de-
pressed upwards ; the mouth small and nearly round. — Des-
marets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 53, PL ii. fig. 2.

*Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, par M. le
Chev. de Lamarck.

67

Found on the fossil bodies, such as echinites, belemnites, &c.
of the environs of Paris.

2. Fl. reticulata. — Formed of moderately thick fronds, with cells on

both sides ; the cells long oval ; the septa rather prominent ;
and the mouth rather transverse. — Desmarets and Le Sueur,
Ball, des Sc. 1814, p. 53, PI. ii. fig. 4.

Found in the sands of the environs of Valogne, with the bacu-
lites, belemnites, &c.

3. Fl. quadrata. — Incrusting and radiated ; cells formed in squares

or parallelograms. — Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc.
1814, p. 53, PL ii. fig. 10.
On the cast of a fossil vivalve.

4. FL crassa. — Incrusting ; thick ; with septa prominent, but de-

pressed upwards ; the cells short ; a large crescent-formed
mouth. — Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 53,
PL ii. fig. 1 .
On a fossil oyster of Grignon.

5. FL cretacea. — lucrusting ; thick ; with ovately oblong cells. —

Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 53, No. G,
PL ii. fig. 3.
On a fossil murex in the environs of Plaisance.

6. FL utricularis. — Incrusting ; with rather depressed ovate cells,

widest behind ; the mouth small, and placed forwards. — Des-
marets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 54, PL ii. fig. 8.
On fossil echinites of the chalk. -f*

In addition to these, M. Lamouroux particularizes the
following :

7. FL bifurcata. — Foliaceous ; the fronds dichotomous, with bifur-

cated summits, and set with hexagonal cellules on both sur-
faces.— Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814, p. 53,
PL ii. fig. 6.

8. FL microstoma. — Incrusting ; thin ; with oval, slightly convex,

indistinct cells ; the mouth very small and round, and placed

f Histoire des Polypiers coralligenes flexibles, vulgairement
nommes Zoophytes, par J.V.F. Lamouroux, D.E.S. Caen, 1816.

68

in the middle. — Desmarets and Le Sueur, Bull, des Sc. 1814,
p. 54, PI. ii. fig. 9.
On the large fossil oysters of Sceaux.

II. Cellepora. — A sublapideous polypifer, internally
porous, expanded in a crust ; or raised in flat, stiff, lobated
or ramose, slightly convoluted fronds, bearing cells on their
outward surface . The cells rather membranous, urceolated,
ventricose, close, rather projecting, and confused ; the mouth
constricted.

Desmarets and Le Sueur have, in the Bulletin des Sci-
ences, already referred to, ascertained the existence of two
fossil species.

1. Cell, megastoma. — Incrusting ; with very distinct ovate cells, ir-

regularly heaped together ; the mouth large. — Bull, des Sc.
1814, Al. ii. fig. 5.
On chalk fossils.

2. Cell, globulosa. — Incrusting ; with distinct globulous cells, and a

transverse mouth.
On chalk fossils.

The fossil celleporce are distinguishable from the fossil
flustrce, by their cells being urceolated and irregularly placed,
and by the constricted appearance of the mouths.

No species of tubulipora has been found fossil. They
might be distinguished by their cells being longish, tubular,
and not connected together by any lateral adherence ; and
by their mouths being round and regular.

Neither has any species of the genus discopora been de-
scribed as seen in a fossil state : they might be distin-
guishable by their form, which is that of a discoidal undu-
lated plate, the upper surface covered with numerous small,
short cells, in quincunx order, the mouth not being con-
stricted. They differ from the tubulipores, in the cells
being more sunk and less free ; and from the cellepores in
having no lobated, convoluted, or ramose expansions.

69

Eschara also has not been found fossil ; its species would
be discovered by their flat, lamelliforni, thin expansions,
with cellules in quincuncial order disposed on both sides
by which they may be distinguished from the millepores
and retipores.

Adeona might be placed in the same genus as eschara,
but for its peculiar stem, which is sub-articulated and
covered with a superficial crust, and its leaf-formed ex-
pansions, which are covered with cellules.

Retepora has also thin and flat expansions composed of
branches sometimes free, but most frequently anastomosing
in web-work or in fillets. The cells are disposed only on
one side, which distinguishes it from the adeonas and
escharas. It is not incrusting, which distinguishes it from
the cellepores.

A fossil species has been found in the environs of Angers,
in small pieces, by M. Menard, which is thus described : —
Ret. frustulata. In flat pieces, in lattice work, with pores on
one side.

Alveolites. — A lapideous polypifer, either incrusting or
in a free mass composed of many concentric tables, involving
each other. The tables are formed of tubulous, alveolar,
prismatic, short, contiguous, and parallel cellules, connected
externally in a net-work. — Lam.

The greater part of the substances belonging to this
genus, Lamarck observes, are yet only known in a fossil
state ; and of these he particularizes the following :

1. Alveolites escharoides. — Subglobose, the surface webbed with

rhomboidal cells ; the margin of the cells biporous.
Found fossil, in the environs of Dusseldorf. In the cabinet of
Chevalier de Lamarck. A subglobular irregular mass, as big
as a middling-sized apple, formed of numerous layers, rather
thin, enveloping each other.

2. Ali\ suborbicularis. — Hemispherical ; the surface perforated with

oblique subimbricated cells.

70

Fossil, from the environs of Dusseldorf, in the cabinet of Chevalier
de Lamarck.

These are in masses rather large ; they are convex, and almost
turbinated on one side ; flattened and even a little concave on
the other ; being of irregular hemispherical shapes. The beds
are of a moderate thickness, the inner ones being the thinnest ;
the tubes which by their union form these layers are very much
inclined.

3. Alv. madreporea. — Oblong, smooth, subramose, and reticulated

on the hollow surface. — Guettard. Mem. Tom. iii. PI. 56, fig. 2.

Fossil, from the environs of Dax, in the cabinet of Chevalier de
Lamarck.

This alveolite has the appearance of along, rolled fossil madrepore,
with cells, not projecting as in the madrepora porites ; but the
examination of its interior part discovers a considerable dif-
ference, and shows that the mass is a compound of pentagonal
and hexagonal tubular cellules, placed in layers on each other.

4. Alv. incrustans. — Incrusting marine bodies, the outer surface

reticulated; the cells prismatic, vertical, unequal, and close
together.

Its crust is composed of a single layer of closely set tubes ; the
surface presents outwardly a net-work of small, unequal, pen-
tagonal, or hexagonal meshes.

These fossils are perhaps not very frequent in this
island: I know but of two; one of which appears to belong
to the last species, Alv. incrustans. The polygonal septa
dividing the meshes exist in the cavities and pass into the
substance of a gravel flint, with the localities of which I am
uninformed. A portion is shown, PL x. fig. 1 1 .

The other is of an hemispherical form, and is, com-
paratively, a very large mass, being more than fifteen inches
in diameter. It is composed of concentric tables, about half
an inch in thickness, involving each other, and formed of
alveolar, prismatic, parallel and contiguous cells. It was
found in a mass of Portland stone ; and by exposure to the
weather has undergone such separations of its external

71

table, as have shown its right to be considered as of this
genus, and probably as Alv. suborbicularis.

Ocellaria. — A lapideous polypifer, expanded in a mem-
branous form ; variously convoluted and rather infundi-
buliform; with an arenaceous surface, porous on both sides ;
pores cylindrical, in quincunx order, with a solid axis in a
raised centre.

These bodies have the appearance of an eschara, or a
retepora; but are distinguished particularly by the solid
central axis which is raised to the orifice of each pore, and
forms there a species of papilla.

There are but two species, both of which are fossil.

1. Ocellaria nuda. — Infundibuliform, expanded and branching in

various ways. — Ramond Voyage au Mont Perdu, p. 128, PL ii.
fig. 1, and p. 345 : Bulletin des Sciences, No. 47, p. 177.
Found in the limestone of Mount Perdu in the Pyrenees.

2. Ocellaria inclusa. — Conical, involved in flint. — Guettard, Mem.

vol. iii. PL xli ; Ramond, PL 2, fig. 2 ; Bulletin des Sciences,
p. 177.
Found in Artois.

Dactylopora. — A lapideous free polypifer, of a cylin-
dricallv clavated form, with a perforation in the narrower
extremity. The surface reticulated with rhomboidal meshes,
the network itself porous.

It differs from retepora, in being a loose, simple poly-
pifer, without lobes, ramifications or frondescence. It pos-
sesses an opening essential to it. The net-work is double,
interior and exterior, which unite near the opening.

.D. Cylindracea.
1. Fossil. Reteporite. — Bosc Journal de Physique, Juin 1806.

FORAMINATED POLYPIFERS.

Stony, solid, and internally compact: with perforating
or tubular cells not furnished with laminae.

72

Ovulites. — A stony, free, oviform, or cylindrical, poly-
pifer ; hollow within ; the extremities generally perforated,
and minute pores regularly diffused over the surface.

Known only as a fossil ; very small, not exceeding two
millimetres in length.

The openings are suspected to have proceeded from
inj ury . — Grignon.

Sp. 1. 0. margaritula. — Oval, with very minute pores.— Grignon.
2. 0. elongata. — Cylindrical ; the extremities truncated. — Ibid.

Lunulites. — A free, stony, circular polypifer, with one
side convex, the other concave.

The convex side striated in rays, with interstitial pores ;
the concave side radiated with diverging rugae and grooves.

Sp. 1. L. radiata. — The concave side with radiating striae, the con-
vex with pores.
Fossil. — Grignon.
2. L. urceolata — Cupola-formed, the convex side latticed with

numerous pores.

It resembles in form the cup of an acorn or a thimble.
Fossil, from Parnes and Liancourt.
It is also found in the green sand of Wiltshire.

Orbulites. — A free, circular, stony polypifer ; flattish ;
porous on both sides, or at the margin ; resembling the
nummulites.

Set with minute pores, sometimes scarcely visible, re-
gularly disposed, but not in a spiral order.

It differs from Lunulites in having pores on both sides.

1. 0. marginalis — With a porous margin ; both sides flat.

Recent.

2. — complanata. — Thin, fragile, flat and porous on both sides.

Fossil. — Grignon; Guettard,Mem.iii, p. 434, Tab.xiii. fig. 30, 32.

3. — lenticulata. — Upper surface convex, the lower flattish.

Fossil.

4. — concava. — Convex on one side and concave on the other ;

surface rather rugous.
Fossil.

73

5. 0. macropora. — Rather flat, with the centre depressed ; rather

large pores on each side.
Fossil.
.6. — pileolus. — Convex on one side and concave on the other;

a groove round the margin, no pores visible.
Fossil.

Distichopora. — A stony, solid, fixed, ramose and rather
compressed polypifer. The pores stelliform, unequal and
marginal, placed on the two opposite edges, in longitudinal
rows, and in the form of sutures ; wart-like projections are
scattered on the surface of the branches.

This genus is formed by Lamarck for the reception of
what has been considered as a millepore, millepcra viclacca
of Pallas ; but which from its form, and the arrangement of
its polypiferous pores, he thinks requires to be separated
from that genus.

1. Dlst, violacea. — Ramose, with flexuous ascending branches
smoothly compressed. — Pallas. Zooph. p. 258; Ellis and Sol.
p. 140.
Not known fossil.

Millepora. — A stony, internally, solid, polymorphous,
ramose or frondescent polypifer, pierced by simple, not la-
mellated pores.

The pores cylindrical, and perpendicular to the axis or
to the expansions of the polypifer ; for the most part small,
and sometimes not apparent.

1 . With the polypiferous pores apparent.

In this class are disposed the following species of Linnaeus,
Solander, &c. M. squarrosa, complanata, alcicomis, aspera,
truncata, tubulifera, pinnata, and rubra.

2. With the pores scarcely or not at all apparent. — (Nullipores.)

Among these are placed, M. informis, racemus, fasciculata, bys-
soides, calcarea, and ayariciformis.

None of these are represented as having been seen in a
fossil state ; but the separations adopted here and in the

L.

74

subsequent genera are too important not to be particu-
larized; since by an attention to such distinctions fossil
substances may be traced back to recent analogues little
suspected. At PL ix. fig. 12, is the representation of,
apparently, a minute frondescent fossil millepore, from
Chippenham.

Favosites. — A stony, simple polypifer, in various forms,
composed of parallel, prismatic, fasciculated tubes. The
tubes are pentagonal and hexagonal ; regular or irregular ;
contiguous and rarely articulated.

The favosites resemble the honey-comb in appearance.
Lamarck describes two species, both fossil.

Sp. 1 . F. alveolata. — Turbinated, irregular, transversely sulcated on
the outside ; the tubules rather large and subhexagonal ; the
inside of -the partitions striated. — Esp. Supp. ii. Tab. iv.

This fossil is particularized as being a turbinated mass,
as if truncated at the summit, its upper surface showing the
terminations of unequal pentagons and hexagons, appearing
like a net-work. The descriptions agree with the fossil from
Dudley, represented Organic Remains, vol. ii. PL vii, fig 3
and 7 ; and the fossil, Organic Remains, vol. ii. PL v. fig. 9,
is perhaps referrible to this genus.

2. F. Gothlandica. — With solid, parallel, contiguous, and hexahedral
prisms. — Amoen. Acad. i. Tab. iv. fig. 27.

This fossil is very interesting. It differs from the other
species in the prisms being parallel with each other, as is
observed by Lamarck, like the prisms of basalt. In the spe-
cimen which I possess, the angular tubes are so filled with
earthy matter as not to allow the discovery of the state of
the septa.

Lamarck has thought it necessary to separate tubiporn
catenulata, chain coral, from the genus tnbipora, and to
place it in a distinct genus, cfi.teni.pora, and to form a genus,
tubipora, for the reception of T. mttsica only. But, by this

75

arrangement, eight species, placed by Gmelin under this
genus, besides the fossil species radians and ramulosa,* are
removed, and no other genus proposed for their reception.

The chief generic character of these animals, as derived
from their ascertained structure, is, that the animal sub-
stance contained in each tube so communicates with the
whole mass by an intercurrent organization, as to render it
one connected system ; and, by retaining the original ar-
rangement of the perspicacious Linnaeus, with a very small
change in his definition, the genus will be found sufficiently
distinct and comprehensive; and the several species, the
structure of which is known, will be characterized by the
different modes of organization by which this communi-
cation is effected.

Tubipora. — A stony polypifer formed by cylindrical
tubes, communicating laterally with each other.

Sp. 1. T. musica. — Formed by erect, cylindrical, parallel, and dis-
tinct geniculated tubes, containing an internal tubular orga-
nization, connected by small radiating tubuli passing through
the external tubes and the transverse plates, by which the
tabes are supported and united.
Recent.

2. — radians. — With erect parallel tubes, including others, which,

by radiating horizontally through the external tubes, connect
the whole.— Org. Rem. vol. ii. p. 13, PL i. frontispiece.
Fossil.

3. — catwuloia. — With erect, oval, parallel tubes, laterally porous,

and placed in vertical laminze, which, by anastomosing, form
a chain-work. — Amoen. Ac. Tab. iv. fig. 20. It is also re-
presented, Org. Rem. PI. iii. fig. 4, 5, 6.
Fossil.

4. — axillaris. — With very short, distant, erect, cylindrical tubes,

placed in the connecting angles of flexuous vertical laminae. —
Millep. Serpens. Anioen. Ac. i. Tab. iv. fig. 26.
Fossil.

* Organic Remains, vol. ii. p. 13, PI. i. p. 18, PI. iii. fig.

5. T. ramulosa. — Formed of tubes connected l>y sub-dichotomous

ramifications. — Org, Rem. vol. ii. p. 18, PI. iii. fig. 1.
Fossil.

6. — fascicularis.—O. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. 429.

Fossil.

7. — ramosa.— Koelruter Act. Petrop. p. 374, Tab. x. fig. 3.

Recent.

8. — pinnata. — Pallas el. Zooph. p. 247, n. 151.

Recent.

9. — penicillata. — O. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. p. 429, n. 430.

Recent.

10. — fabellaris.— Ibid. p. 430, n. 431.
Recent.

1 1. _ stellata.— Modeer. n. Act. Stockh. 1788, n. 10, Tab.vii. fig. 1.
Fossil.

12. — strues.— Ibid. 4. n. 1.

Fossil. Org. Rem. vol. ii. p. 16, PI. ii. fig. 1.

An interesting fossil is found among the diluvial sub-
stances of the Farringdon gravel, which has not hitherto
been described, and which appears to belong to this genus.

It is formed of tubes about the size of a crow's quill, in-
osculating frequently at its base ; the cavities of the tubes
are divided by very closely-set transverse plates, pierced
with a small, well-defined central foramen. Further oppor-
tunities of examining the fragments of this fossil are ne-
cessary to allow of determining whether there exists any
other communication between the tubes besides that re-
sulting from their early inosculations. Until then its specific
characters can hardly be considered as ascertained ; but,
should nothing contradictory be discovered, it may be dis-
tinguished as T. anastomosans.

This fossil is seldom found in a state which will lead to a
suspicion of its nature. The broken tubes, for they are ge-
nerally in fragments, have mostly a whitish and shelly ap-
pearance ; but, on their surface being examined with the aid
of a lens, it is found somewhat to resemble that of shagreen
skin, and to give the notion of its having been covered by

77

the labours of some parasitic animalculae : but on examining
the substance at the fractured ends, it was found exactly to
accord with the external surface, being composed of small,
crumbly, rather oblong, particles, appearing as if held to-
gether by an imperfect adherence. The substance of the
recent tubipora musica being also thus examined, was found
to be of the same construction.

LAMELLATED POLYPIFERS.

Stony polypifers, with lamellated stars, or with undu-
lating grooves, furnished with lamellae.

LAMELLATED POLYPIFERS, WITH TERMINAL STARS.

Stylina. — A stony polypifer, formed of simple thick
masses, echinated in the upper part. Numerous cylindrical
fasciculated tubes, containing radiating lamellae, with a solid
axis : the solid styliform axes projecting beyond the tubes.

St. echinulata. — Recent, from the South Seas.

The recent species which Lamarck considers as the type
of this genus, and which is the only one with which he is
acquainted, was brought from the South Seas by Perron
and Le Sueur, and furnishes us with another instance of the
astonishing fact of animals whose remains are found in the
formations containing the reliques of animals of the earliest
creation, no traces of which have been seen in any of the
subsequent formations, but which are now found in a living
state in the seas of the opposite hemisphere.

Different species of this genus are found in the transition
limestone ; in one of these, the fossil is simple, of a turbi-
nated or rather of a longish clavated form, terminating at
its upper end in a round, lamellated star, with a projecting
style-like axis in the centre, PI. x. fig. 4. In another
species, a similar structure exists, except that instead of the

78

periphery being circular, it is angular, and generally either
pentagonal or hexagonal. In a third species, the fossil is of
a compound construction, being formed by the union of
polygonal, chiefly hexagonal tubes. This fossil has a highly
ornamented surface ; a projecting sharp ridge surrounds
every star ; the styloid projecting axis rises from a depres-
sion in the centre, and from its sides the surrounding
lamellae ascend with an undulating sweep to the acute
surrounding ridge ; the whole giving to each star some-
what of a floriform appearance. A small portion of this
fossil is represented PI. x. fig. 5.

Not having the opportunity of reference to the specimen
referred to by Lamarck, the classification of these fossils
must be indeed considered as conjectural: but it must be
observed, that they appear to accord with the characters of
stylina ; and that there does not appear to be any other
genus in which they can be placed.

Sarcinula. — A stony polypifer, formed in a free, sim-
ple, thick mass, by tubes united together. The tubes
numerous, cylindrical, parallel, and vertical, accumulated in
bundles, by intermediate and transverse septa. Radiating
lamellae within the tubes.

It differs from tubipora in its tubes being lamellated,
and, from stylina, in having no central style.

1. Sarc. perforata. — This species is only known recent.

2. Sarc. organum. — This is described as being found recent in the

Red Sea. Fossil specimens are also found on the coast of
the Baltic. — Madrep. Organum. Am. Ac. Tab. iv. fig. 6.

Caryophillia. — A stony fixed polypifer, simple or ra-
mified; the stem and branches rather turbinated, and
striated longitudinally, each being terminated by a cell,
radiated in a stelliform figure.

These substances are separated by Lamarck from the
madreporse, in which they were placed by Linnaeus, and

79

retained by Solander. Their distinctive character is, that
their polypiferous cells are really terminal ; the extremity
of the stem, or of each branch, being terminated by a single
lamellated star.

Under this genus are placed : —

I. Those with simple stems, solitary or fasciculated.

1. Car. Cyathus. Mad. Cyathus. — Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxviii.

fig. 7 ; Organic Remains, ii. PL iv. fig. 1.
Fossil,

2. — Calycularis. Mad. — Lin. Esper. Tab. i. fig. 16.

Fossil.

3. — tntncularis. — Aggregated; with thick cylinders, externally
reticulated and connected by a lamellated crust, with radiating stars
and a striated edge.

Recent.

4. — fasciculafa. Mad. fascicularis. — Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxx.

Well preserved fossil specimens of this coral are found in the
transition limestone of Gothland.
Fossil,
o. — libft'eata. Mad. musicalis. — Esper. i. Tab. xxx. fig. 1.

6. — musicalis. Mad. musicalis. — Lin.

Fn-sil in the mountain limestone of Ireland.

II. Those with divided stems or ramified.

7. — flexuosa. Mad. — Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxii. fig. 1 ; Or-

ganic Remains, ii. PI. vi. fig. 8.

Fossil in the mountain limestone of the neighbourhood of
Bristol.

8. — cespitosa. Mad. Jiexuosa. — Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxi. fig. 5, 6.

9. — antJiophyUnm. Mad. anthophylUtes . — Sol. and Ellis. Tab. xxix.

10. — corniyera. Mad. ramea, var. — Esper. i. Tab. x.

11. — ramea. Mad. — Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxviii.

12. — fastiyiafa. Mad. — Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxiii.

13. — anyulosa. Mad. — Esper i. Tab. viii.

14. — si.t"0fif. Mad. anyulosa. — Sol. and Ellis, Tab, xxxiv.

15. — coi-dnun. Mad.— Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxv.

80

Turblnolia. — A stony polypifer ; free, simple, turbinated
or cuneiform ; longitudinally striated on the outside ; the
base pointed, the terminating cell stelliformly lamellated and
sometimes oblong.

These bodies are considered, by Lamarck, as differing
from caryophillia, in not being fixed or adherent.

Lamarck enumerates eight species, all of which are fossil :

1. Turb. patellata. — Organic Remains, ii. PL iv. fig. 6.

An interesting specimen of this species is formed by a spathose
cast retaining satisfactory marks of its origin.

2. — turbinata. — Mad. Am. Acad. i. Tab. iv. fig. 2, 3, 7. Organic

Remains, ii. PI. iv. fig. 3, 10, 11.

3. — cyathoides. — Mad. turbinata. Am. Acad. i. Tab. iv. fig. 3 ;

Organic Remains, ii. PI. iv. fig. 3.

4. — compressa. — Organic Remains, ii. PI. iv. fig. 9.

5. — crispa. — Cuneiform, sulcated externally with longitudinal

undulated grooves ; the star oblong, with rough lamellae on
the side. — Grignon.

6. — sulcata. — Cylindrically striated ; with longitudinal grooves,

the interstices transversely striated. — Grignon.

7. — clavus.< — Clavatedly turbinate, straight, with longitudinal

granulated and subdentated striae. — Agin, and Aix-la-Chapelle.

8. — caryophyllus. — Roundish, but turbinated, with simple striae

externally. — Organic Remains, PI. xiii. fig. 10.

Cyclolites. — A stony free polypifer, orbicular or ellip-
tical ; convex and lamellated in the upper part, with a cen-
tral groove ; flat beneath, with sunken, concentric circular
lines ; one lamellated star occupying the upper surface, with
entire, smooth, and very slight lamellae.

1 . Cycl. numismalis. — Mad. porpita ; Lin. Am. Ac. i. Tab. iv. fig. 1 . a. b.

2. — hemispJuerica. — Scheuch. Herb. Diluv. Tab. xiii. fig. 1.

3. — cristata. — Orbicular; convex and lamellated on the upper side,

with variously crested, slightly decussating ridges.

81

4. C. elliptica. — Convex on the upper part; stellated by obsolete
lamellae; with an elongated central groove. — Guett. Mem.
vol. iii. Tab. xxi. fig. 17, 18.
Fossil. Perpignan.

Only known as fossils.

Lamarck observes, that this last fossil is the largest of
the known species of this genus, and that its oval or elliptical
figure is peculiar to it. The fossil here described is the
same as is figured, Org. Rem. vol. ii. PL x. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4,
and its nature inquired into, p. 113.

The superior part of this fossil, possessing the longitu-
dinal groove, derives a smooth downy appearance, from
innumerably fine striae, formed by articulated fibres, which,
proceeding from the margin of the inferior surface, pass
round every part of the upper surface, and terminate in the
sides of the central longitudinal groove. The inferior sur-
face is nearly flat, and is marked by concentric linear ridges
and corresponding depressions, intersected by numerous
lines, radiating from the centre to the circumference. The
examination of this peculiar organization shews it to be
probable that it gave to this animal the power of fixing
itself, like the remora or sucking-fish ; whilst, by the opening
in its superior part, it alternately received and ejected the
sea water, the medium of its nourishment.

Supposing the animal laid with its inferior surface, on
any substance wet with the sea water, the retraction of the
fibres upwards, about the centre of that surface, would
produce a vacuum between that surface and the surface of
the body on which the animal was placed ; such a degree of
adhesion would be thereby obtained, that no removal of it
from that spot could take place, whilst the vacuum was pre-
served. On the other hand, on the contracting of the per-
pendicular muscular fibres terminating on the edge of the
inferior surface, the edge would be raised ; air would gain

M.

82

access to the vacuum, and the animal be immediately
loosened. But whilst fixed by its inferior surface, the mus-
cular fibres of the upper convex surface would, by their
contraction, draw down the whole upper surface, and at the
same time widen the central longitudinal opening, and ne-
cessarily expel the contents of the ventricular cavity. The
immediate subsequent relaxation of these fibres would then
occasion the refilling of the cavity ; and thus the alternate
filling and emptying of the ventricular cavity would be
continued. The examination of the figure given by Guettard,
Memoires, Table xxi. fig. 17, 18, confirms this opinion.

The figure given by Scheuchzer, Herb. Diluv. Tab. xiii.
fig. 1, appears to be a correct representation of the second
species, C. hemisphcerica.

Fungia. — A stony, free polypifer, simple, orbicular or
oblong ; convex and lamellated in the upper part, with an
oblong central groove ; concave and rough beneath. The
star single, lamellated, and subproliferous, occupies the
upper part ; the lamellae are dentated or rough on the side.

The extensive surface which almost every species of this
genus possesses, formed by a single star, probably the labour
of a single animal, shows the propriety of placing it in a
distinct genus.

1. F. semilunata Compressed at the sides, striated outwardly ;

the edge bowed ; a longitudinal groove, and a short pedicle.
Fossil.

2. — compressa Indian Seas.

3. — cyclolites Indian Seas.

4. — patellaris. . . . Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxviii. fig. 1 — 4.

5. — agariciformis. . . . Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxviii. fig. 5, 6.

6. — scutaria. . . . Rumph. Amb. vi. Tab. Ixxxviii. fig. 4.

7. — • limacina. . . . M. pileus. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlv.

8. — talpa Seba, iii. Tab. iii. fig. vi. and Tab. cxii. fig. 3.

9. — pileus. . . . Rumph. Amb. vi. Tab. Ixxxviii. fig. 3.

Fossils of this genus have been found at Steeple Aston.

83

Pavonia. — A stony polypifer, fixed and frondescent ; the
lobes flat, subfoliaceous, erect or ascending, with stelliferous
rugae or grooves on each side.

The stars lamellated, in rows, sessile, and rather im-
perfect.

None of the species of this genus have been found fossil.

1. Par. agaricites Mad. agaricites. Lin. Sol. & Ell. Tab. Ixiii.

2. — cristata. . . . Knorr. Delic. Tab. A. X. fig. 1.

3. — lactuca Sol. and Ellis, Table xliv.

4. _ boletiformis Mad. Cristata. Sol. & Ellis, Tab. xxxi. fig. 3, 4.

5. — divaricata. . . . Indian Seas.

6. — plicata. . . . Esper. Supp. i. Tab. Ixvi.

7. — obtusangla. . . . Indian Seas.

8. — frondifera South Sea.

Agaricia. — A stony polypifer, fixed, with flat, subfoli-
aceous expansions, the upper surfaces only having stel-
liferous grooves.

The stars lamellous, sessile, and in rows, most frequently
imperfect, and hardly distinct.

The pavoniae and the agaricae agree in some respects ; the
stars are disposed in grooves or on rugae in lines which give
the first idea of the meandrinae. But in the pavoniae, both
surfaces of the foliaceous expansion are constantly furnished
with stelliferous wrinkles or grooves, whilst in the agaricae
only one surface is thus furnished ; and although, from the
folding of the expansions, contradictory appearances may be
seen, the correctness of this observation will be ascertained
by minute inspection.

1. Ag. cucullata Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlii.

2. — undata Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xl.

3. — ampliata Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xli. fig. 2.

4. — rugosa. . . . South Sea.

5. — papillosa. . . . South Sea.

6. — lima South Sea.

7. — explanulata. . . . Mad. pileus. Esper. i. Tab. vi.

No fossil specimens have been described.

84

Meandrina. — A stony polypifer, fixed, in a simple he-
misphaerical or sphaeroidal mass.

On the convex surface are excavated, open, winding,
ambulacrae, lamellated on each side. The lamellae are trans-
verse and parallel, adhering on each side of hillock-shaped
ridges.

The lamellae abut upon the hillock-like ridges ; and the
ambulacra may be compared to tortuous vallies, separated
by corresponding hills : the lamellated ridges occupy the
interstices of the tortuous vallies which held the polypes,
and thus separated them.

1. Meand. labyrinthica. . . . Mad. labyrinthica, Sol. and Ellis, Tab.

xlvi. fig. 3, 4.

2. M. cerebriformis. . . . Shaw's Miscel. iv. Tab. cxviii. The Ame-

rican Seas. Seba Mus. iii. Tab. cxii. fig. 5, 6.

3. — dadalea Mad. dsedalea. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlvi. fig. 1.

4. — pectinata. . . . Lin. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. Ixviii. fig. 1.

5. — areolata Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlvii. fig. 4, 5.

6. — crispa. . . . Seb. Mus. iii. Tab. cviii. fig. 3 — 5.

7. — gyrosa Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. li. fig. 2.

8. — phrygia Mad. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlviii. fig. 2.

9. — • filograna. . . . Mad. filograna, Gmelin.

None of these species are mentioned as having been
found fossil ; they are however found in this state : some
fine specimens are in the British Museum. Very beautiful
specimens, impregnated with quartz, are in the collection
presented by Dr. Nugent to the Geological Society, col-
lected by him on the Island of Antigua, with several other
silicious remains of astrece^ madreporce, &c.

Hydnophora. — A stony polypifer, fixed and incrusting
other bodies ; either forming a subglobose, gibbous, or lo-
bated mass, or spread in subfoliaceous lobes ; the upper
surface set with little stars raised in pyramids or little
mounts.

85

The stars project and are conical, or like little hillocks ;
the central axis is solid, simple, or dilated, surrounded by
radiating lamellae adhering to it.

In the hydnophorae, as in the meandrinae, the raised
cones and little hillocks are the parts which occupy the
interstices which are left by the polypes between them ; the
polpyes existing in the vallies, where they adhere to each
other. In the hydnophorae, the cones, as well as the little
hillocks, are insulated and circumscribed ; whilst the hillocks
in the meandrinae are not.

The necessity of placing these fossils under a distinct
genus was seen by M. Fischer, of Moscow, who distinguished
them by the name hydnophora. Lamarck also, seeing the
necessity of their separation, formed the genus monticularia
for their reception.

1. Hydnoph. folium. . . . Recent.

2. H. tobatum. . . . Recent.

3. — polygonatum. . . . Recent.

4. — microconos. . . . Mad. exesa. Pallas. Zooph. p. 290. Sol. and

Ellis, Tab. xlix. Hydnophora Pallasii, Fisch.

5. — meandrinum.

6. — Cuvieri. . . . Fossil. . Russia Fisch. Rech. No. iv. Tab. i. fig. 2.

7. — Molii Fossil. . Russia Fisch. Rech. No. 5. Tab. i. fig. 1.

8. — Knorrii Fossil. . 4 Fisch. Rech. No. 6. Guettard iii.

PI. xxvii. fig. 2.

9. — Guettardi Fossil. . Fisch. Rech. No. 7. Guettard iii.

PL Ixiv. fig. 1, 4, 5.

10. — Bourguetii Fossil. . Fisch. Rech. No. 8. Guettard iii.

PI. xliv. fig. 5, 7, 8.

The figures represented, PL iii. fig. 19, 21, 22, and 23;
PL viii. fig. 40 ; PL ix. fig. 41 ; PL x. fig. 46, in Bourguet's
Traite, belong to this genus.

The fossils represented, Organic Remains, vol. ii. PL vi.
fig. 4; PL xii. fig. 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 13, are also of this genus.

86

Echinophora. — A stony polypifer, fixed, flat, or expanded
in a rounded membrane, free and bearing the form of a
leaf, finely striated on both sides. The upper surface is
echinulated with small papillae ; is besides supplied with
rose-formed, convex tubercles, considerably echinated, and
pierced with one or two holes, each covering a lamellated
star.

The stars are scattered, circular, and covered ; the la-
mellae unequal, rather confused, projecting from the bottom
and sides, and partly filling up the cavity.

Sp. 1. Echinoph. Rosulariu. — Recent. Sea of New Holland.

Explanaria. — A stony polypifer, fixed, expanded in a
free, foliaceous, undulated, or convoluted and sublobated
membrane, with one stelliferous surface.

The stars scattered, sessile, and rather distinct. Recent.

Explanaria differs from the following genus, astrea, in
its never, like the latter, heaping into a globular or hemi-
spherical mass ; but its expansions, at every age, preserving
their foliaceous form, and allowing their under surface to be
seen. The stars are only on the upper face ; are circum-
scribed, and not sunk in wrinkles or grooves.

1. Expl infundibulum. — Pall. Zooph. p. 332.

2. — mesenterina. — Mad. Cinarescens. Sol. and Ellis, No. 26.

Tab. xliii.

3. — gemmacea. — Mad. Scabrosa ? Sol. and Ellis, p. 156.

4. — * aspera. — Mad. aspera. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxix.

5. — ringeus. — American Seas.

6. — cristata.— Mad. Acerosa ? Sol. and Ellis, No. 30.

Astrea — A stony polypifer, fixed, conglomerated, in-
crusting other bodies, or formed in a subglobose but rarely
lobated mass.

The upper surface set with sessile, lamellated, round or
subangular stars.

87

The stars in this genus are circumscribed. The sub-
stance is never raised in extended expansions, or developed in
leaves, as in the explanariae, or ramified like the madrepores.

The stars are in some separated from each other by
interstices, and in others, though circumscribed, they are
contiguous.

Stars separate, even from their base.

1. Astr. radiata Mad. radiata, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlvii. fig. 8.

2. — argus. . . . Mad. Cavernosa, Esp. Supp. i. Tab. xxxvii. (the

great Astroites.)

3. — annularis. . . . Mad. annularis, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. liii.

fig. 1, 2.

4. — rotulosa Mad. rotulosa, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. Iv. fig. 1 — 3.

5. — ananas. . . . Mad. ananas, Sol. and Ellis, Tab, xlvii. fig. 6.

6. — detrita. . . . Mad. detrita, Esper. Supp. i. Tab. xlvi.

7. — porcata. . . . Mad. porcata, Esper. Supp. i. Tab. Ixxi.

8. — punctifera. . . . Mad. Indian Seas.

9. — myriopthalmia. . . . Mad. Indian Seas.

10. — micropthalmia. . . . Sea of New Holland.

11. — pleiades Mad. pleiades, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. liii. fig. 7, 8.

12. — stellulata Mad. stellulata ? Sol. and Ellis, Tab. liii. fig. 3,4.

13. — obliqua. . . . Sea of Guiana.

14. — palifera. . . . South Sea.

15. — pulvinaria. . . . South Sea.

Contiguous stars.

16. Astr. dipsacea Mad. favosa, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. 1. fig. 1.

17. — favosa. . . . Mad. favosa, Esper. Supp. i. Tab. xlv. fig. 1.

18. — denticulata Mad. denticulata, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlix.

fig. 1.

19. — versipora. . . . Indian Sea.

20. — deformis. . . . Indian Sea ?

21. — reticularis Mad. favosa. Am. ac. Tab. iv. fig. 16. Fre-

quently found fossil.

22. — abdita Mad. abdite. Esper. Supp. Tab. xlv. fig. 2.

23. — retiformis. . . . Resembles in its network, Mad. retepora, Sol.

and Ellis, Tab. liv. fig. 3 — 5. which, however, is a true
species of porites.

88

24. Ash\ heliopora. . . . South Sea.

25. — crispata. . . . Indian Sea.

26. — diffluens South Sea.

27. — calycularis Sea of New Holland.

28. — intersepta. . . . South Sea.

29. — emarciata. . . . Fossil ; Grignon.

Glomerated ; the surface reticulated ; the stars subpentagonal,
hollow, contiguous ; very few lamellae separate from the axis.

30. — siderea Mad. siderea, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlix. fig. 2.

31. — galaxea Mad. galaxea, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlvii. fig. 7.

The corals of this genus will be frequently found in
former writers, under the name astroites.

At PL ix. fig. 1 1 , is represented the section of a fossil
astrea in calcedony, from Antigua, by favour of Dr. Nugent.

Porites. — A stony polypifer, fixed ; ramified ; or lobated
and obtuse ; the outer surface stellated all over.

The stars are regular, nearly contiguous, superficial or
excavated ; no margin or an imperfect one ; the lamellae
filamentous, interrupted or cuspidated.

Porites resembles both astrea and madrepora in some
respects ; but their stars differ materially. They are not at
all or but partially circumscribed; their lamellae are but
filaments, like the points of pins, and are either tuberculated
or cuspidated. The edge of each star is dentated or echi-
nated, so as to be confounded with the interstices which are
often echinated in the same manner.

1. Por. reticulata, . . . Mad. retepora. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. liv.

fig. 3-5.

2. — conglomerate,. . . . Absque descriptione, Sol. and Ellis, Tab.

xli. fig. 4.

3. — astreoides. . . . American Ocean.

4. — arenacea. . . . Mad. arenosa ? Gmelin.

5. — clavaria. . . . Mad. porites, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xlvii. fig. 1.

6. — scabra Mad. digitata, Sol. and Ellis, No. 74.

7. — elongata.

89

8. . . furcuta.

9. . . angulata. . . . South Sea.

10. . . subdiyitata. . . . South Sea.

11. . . cervina. . . . Indian Sea.

12. . . verrucosa. . . . Mad. spongiosar Sol. and Ellis, No. 49.

13. . . tuberculosa.

14. . . complanata.

15. . . rosacea. . . . var. Mad. foliosae ? Sol. and Ellis, Tab. Hi.

16. .. spumosa Knorr. delic. Tab. A. I. fig. 4.

Pocillopora. — A stony polypifer, plant-formed, ramose
or lobated ; the surface set with deep cellules, as if scooped
out, with porous interstices.

The cells few, distinct, hollowed into pits, the edges
rarely prominent; obsoletely stellated; the lamellae very
narrow, sometimes none.

The pocilliform shape of the cells, and the margins having
little or no projection, separate this genus from madrepora ;
and the depth and fewness of the lamellae distinguish it
from porites.

1. PocilL «cwfa....Mad. damicornis. Sol. and Ellis, No, 73.

2. P. damicornis Ibid. Pall. Zooph. p. 334. Var. A. B.

3. — verrucosa. . . . Mad. verrucosa. Sol. and Ellis, No. 78.

4. — brevicornis. . . . Indian Ocean.

5. — fenestrata. . . . South Sea.

6. — stigmataria. . . . Mad. muricata? Esp. Supp. i. Tab.liv. A. fig. 1.

7. — ccerulea. . . . Mad. caerulea. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xii. fig. 4.

Madrepora. — A stony polypifer, fixed, subdendroidal,
ramified ; the surface furnished on every part with projecting,
muricated cells ; the interstices porous.

The cells scattered, distinct, cylindrical, tubular, and
prominent ; hardly any stellae ; the lamellae of the internal
parietes very narrow.

Linnaeus and Pallas, as is noticed by Lamarck, gave the
name of madrepores to all the lamellated polypifers ; in con-
sequence of which, bodies essentially different have been

N.

90

classed together. Lamarck having separated all those la-
mellated polypifers which appeared to bear distinctive
generic characters, retained under the genus madrepore
those only which are not found in form of incrustation, and
whose substance is divided in plant-like lobes or branches,
with a surface muricated by the sharp projections from
stelliform, oblique, subcylindrical, tubular, and slightly
laminated cells, and by the finely porous and echinulated
interstices.

1. Mad. palmata. . . . Mad. muricata. Esper. Supp. i. Tab. li. Ixxxiii.

2. — flabellum. . . . American Seas ?

3. — corymbosa. . . . Humph. Amb. 6. Tab. Ixxxvi. fig. 2.

4. — plantaginea. . . . Mad. muricata. Esp. Supp. i. Tab. liv.

5. — pocillifera. . . . Indian or South Seas.

6. — laxa South Seas.

7. — abrofanoides. . . . Mad. muricata, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. Ivii.

8. — cervicornis. . . . Seba. mus. 3. Tab. cxiv. fig. 1 .

9. — • prolifera Esp. Supp. i. Tab, I.

Seriatopora. — A stony fixed polypifer, with thin and
rather cylindrical branches.

The cells perforated, slightly lamellated, or ciliated
in their edges, and placed in rows, transversely or longi-
tudinally.

This separation from madrepores is founded on the cells
being thus placed in rows, and having only their margins
set with very small plates, or rather hair-like points, instead
of plates projecting inwards.

1. Ser. subulata Mad. seriata. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxi. fig. 1, 2.

2. — annulata. . . . South Sea.

3. — nuda*

Oculina. — A stony polypifer, most frequently fixed;
ramose and dendroidal ; the branches smooth, spread, and
for the most part very short.

The stars, some terminal, the others lateral and superficial.

91

Although ramified and dendroidal, like the madrepores,
the oculinae are distinguishable by their substance being
solid, smooth, hardly at all porous, and their stars not
numerous.

1. Oc. virylnea. . , . Mad, virginea. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxvi.

2. — hirtella Mad. hirtella, SoL and Ellis, Tab. xxxviL

3. — dijfusa, . . . American Sea.

4. — axillaris Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xiii. fig. 5.

5. — prolifera. . . . Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xxxii. fig. 2.

6. — echidnea. . . . Mad. rosea. Esp. 1. Tab. xv.

7. — infundibulifera.

8. — flabelliformis Seba Mus. 3. Tab. ex. fig. 10.

9. — rosea. . . . American Ocean.

CORTICIFEROUS POLYPIFERS.

Phytodial or dendroidal, composed of two sorts of dis-
tinct parts ; one a solid, central axis, and the other a fleshy
incrustment, which covers it, and contains the polypes.

The axis is full, inorganic, either horny, or in part or en-
tirely stony.

The polypiferous incrustment constitutes/ after its re-
moval from the water, a corticiform celluliferous envelope,
more or less friable.

Corallium. — A fixed polypifer, dendroidal, not articu-
lated, rigid and corticiferous.

The axis caulescent, ramose, stony, solid, and striated
on the surface.

The cortical part, whilst living, is soft, fleshy and polypi-
ferous ; after drying it is hardened and porous, with octo-
valved cells.

The propriety of allotting to this substance a distinct
genus must be evident; it is not articulated, therefore is not
an !sis, with which Linnaeus had blended it; and its stony
axis will not permit its being placed among the Gorgonia,
as proposed by Solander.

1. Cor. rubrum Isis nobilis, Lin. ; Gorgonia nobilis, Sol. and

Ellis, Tab. xiii.

92

This substance is very rarely discovered fossil ; but Scilla
states that he found it in the neighbouring hills of Messina,
in a mineralized state, reduced to lime, mixed with echini,
shells, &c. in a similar state. He found the choral in beau-
tiful branches as well as in fragments ; the whole surface
deprived of its colour; although, in some of the thicker frag-
ments, a purplish hue might still be found in the internal
parts*.

Silicified fragments of this substance are sometimes found
among the Blackdown fossils, showing., by their transparency,
the beautiful red colour remaining in the internal part.

Melitcea. — A fixed dendroidal polypifer, composed of
an articulated, nodose axis, and of a permanent corticiform
incrustation.

The central axis is caulescent, ramose, formed of stony
substriated portions joined by rather spongy and tumid
articulations.

The cortical crust, in a living state, is fleshy and polypi-
ferous ; when dry, it is thin and cellular.

The Melitaeas differ from the Isides, the following genus,
in the character of their articulations, the joints in the
former, though stony, being spongy and tumid ; but in the
latter, horny and contracted.

1. Mel. ochracea. . . . Isis ochracea. Lin. Soland.

2. — retifera. . . . Isis auraulia. Esp. Supp. ii. Tab. ix

3. — textiformis. . . . South Seas.

4. — coccinea. . . . Isis coccinea. Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xii. fig. 5.

This genus has not been described as a fossil ; but the
writer is of opinion that a fossil specimen of one of its
species is in his possession.

Isis. — A fixed dendroidal polypifer, composed of a jointed
axis and a corticiform crust, not adherent.

* De Corporibus marinis lapidescentibus, &c. Angustino Scilla,
Romee, p. 55. Tab. xx. fig. 1.

93

The axis central, caulescent, and ramose, formed of
stony striated portions, connected by a contracted horny
substance.

The cortical part, in a living state, is fleshy and polypi-
ferous ; but separates entirely or partly from the stem, on
being removed from the water.

1. Isis hippuris. . . . Sol. and Ellis, Tab. iii. fig. 1 — 5.

2. — elongata. . . . Esper i. Tab. vi.

3. — dichotoma. . . . Esper. i. Tab. v.

4. — encrinula. . . . Seas of New Holland.

5. — coralloides. . . . South Seas.

The disjointed members of some species of this genus
were found by Scilla in the mountains of Sicily, and he at
first believed them to be the tibia of some animal ; but on
referring to Imperatus (Hist. Nat. lib. 27), he was soon
convinced of his mistake, and enabled to trace them to their
real origin*.

Antipathes. — A fixed, subdendroidal polypifer, composed
of a central axis, and a corticiform, fugacious and deciduous
crust.

The axis is flattened and fixed at its base ; it is cau-
lescent, subramose, horny, solid, flexible, rather fragile, and
mostly set with small spines.

The cortical crust is gelatinous and polypiferous, covering
the living axis and branches, and falling off on the removal
of the specimen from the water.

Antipathes spiralis, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xix. fig. 1 — 6 ;
Pall. Zooph. p. 217 ; Esper. 2, Tab. viii. may be referred to
as the type of the genus of which seventeen species have
been particularized.

Gorgonia. — A fixed dentroidal polypifer, composed of a
central axis and a corticiform crust.

* De Corporibus marinis lapidescentibus, Tab. xix. Organic Re-
mains, &c. vol. ii. p. 72, pi. viii. fig. 2, 4, 7, 9.

94

The axis flattened and fixed at the base ; caulescent,
ramose, substriated, solid, horny, and flexible.

The cortical crust covering the axis and branches, in the
living state, is soft, fleshy and polypiferous ; in the dry state
spongy, porous, and friable ; the surface pierced with the
superficial or the projecting openings of cells.

Gorgonia reticulata, Sol. and Ellis, Tab. xvii. will serve
as an example of this genus, forty-eight species of which
have been observed.

No specimen of either of these genera appears to have
been noticed in a mineralized state ; a circumstance which,
at first consideration, appears difficult of explanation, since
the axis seems, in general, to be sufficiently solid to au-
thorize the belief, that it might remain long enough in a
subterraneous or subaqueous situation to admit of its im-
pregnation with earthy particles, previous to its becoming
entirely decomposed. But on further consideration of the
original nature of the substance, which does not owe its
solidity to the intermixture of earthy particles, but merely
to the condensation of a horny or membranaceous substance,
its decomposition, under the circumstances mentioned, should
rather be expected than its preservation.

Corallina. — The fixed, phytoidal, ramified polypifers
ranging under this genus, have not, as far as have come to
our knowledge, been discovered in a mineralized state ; a
circumstance which may perhaps be sufficiently accounted
for, by their extreme delicacy, and by the frequent sepa-
rations or articulations into which their substance is di-
vided. By these circumstances their adherence together
sufficiently long after death to allow of impregnation, would
be prevented ; although the dense calcareous crust in-
vesting their filiform axis might appear to be well adapted
to admit it.

The delicacy of structure and the prevalency of corneous
membrane in the substance of peidcillus and fatbellaria,

95

seem also to be sufficient to account for neither of these
bodies having been found fossil. From similar considerations
the remains of the tubuliferous polypi can hardly be ex-
pected to be discovered in a mineralized state.

Encrini and Pentacrini, — Our attention is now claimed
by a series of animals rendered interesting, not only by
their curious forms and extraordinary structure, but also by
their being among the earliest inhabitants of this planet.
Hence they are so far aliens of this world, that whilst im-
mense tracts of rocks are literally formed of the entombed
remains of different species in a mineralized state, only five
or six fragments of the remains of one of these numerous
species have yet been discovered in a recent state.

The general characters which embrace the different
genera and species of these animals are, — an acephalous
animal, attached by a radiciform, subarticulated base, from
which arise cylindrical, oval, or pentagonal vertebrae pos-
sessing pcntaphylloidal or stelliform articulating surfaces
and central openings, and forming an articulated tubular
spine, supporting a pelvis from which proceed articulated
arms, hands, fingers, and tentacular, forming a body which
bears a floriform appearance.

These animals appear to have had a considerable range
for the seizure of their prey, without possessing absolute
locomotion ; the peculiar mode of the articulation of their
vertibrae affording them a great degree of mobility, with
considerable security against dislocation. They have been
hitherto classed under two genera ; one, the encrinus, with
chiefly cylindrical vertebrae ; the other, the petifacrinus, with
principally pentagonal vertebrae.

The encrinus has been divided into species, which have
been hitherto distinguished chiefly by, and named ac-
cording to, the characters of the base of the floriform
part of the animal, with which the uppermost vertebra is
articulated.

$p. 1. The lily encrinus. Organic Remains, vol. ii.
PI. xiv. has this part formed of five wedge-shaped bones,
ossa innominata, which constitute the smooth circular cen-
tral part, round which are disposed five trapezoidal pieces,
ribs. On the upper edge of each of these is placed an
ossicle termed a scapula, and on the two superior oblique
surfaces of this little bone are disposed the first ossicles of
two arms, not connected laterally ; each of which divide
into articulated fingers and tentaculae, which when closed
bear a lily-like appearance, and when opened and expanded
form a nearly circular net of jointed meshes. These,
on closing, would secure the prey and direct it into the
stomach, which was in all probability placed in the central
cavity formed by the pentagonal base and its superincumbent
ossicles.

The pentagonal base of this animal is represented at
PL ix. fig. 1 ; the surface of one of the cylindrical vertebrae
termed a trochite at PI. ix. fig. 4 ; and three of these con-
joined at PL ix. fig. 6 : when thus united they form a body
which is named an entrochite.

No remains of this species have been found in this
island ; but in Lower Saxony, Westphalia, and particularly
in Brunswick, they are very abundant ; the remains of the
upper part of the animal are sometimes, though rarely,
found in their connected floriform state: their matrix
appears to be a limestone of the lias formation.

Sp. 2. The cap encrinite. — Differs from the preceding
in being of a more globose form in its lower part ; the base,
PL ix. fig. 3, partakes of the same roundness, and is more
simple and plain in its construction than that of the pre-
ceding species ; its arms also differ in being unequally and
dissimilarly divided. — Organic Remains, vol. ii. PL xv. fig. 9.

The fossil vertebral remains of this animal literally con-
stitute the rocks, considered as mountain limestone, which
traverse part of Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland and

97

Derbyshire ; the remains thus preserved forming a most
useful and ornamental marble. But extraordinary as it
may appear, although these remains exist to so immense an
extent, only one body, with the arms, &c. of the animal, has
been yet stated to have been found; and this was so far
imbedded in its matrix, as to restrict our knowledge of the
structure of the animal to the particulars above-mentioned.
— Organic Remains, vol. ii. PI. xv. fig. 9.

Sp. 3. The turban encrinite. — The existence of this
species was only made known by the preservation of its
pentagonal base with some indistinct fragments, in a spe-
cimen of limestone of the earliest formation, from Wenlock
edge : the superior elegance of the form of the pentagonal
base, PI. ix. fig. 7, decidedly marked this animal to be of a
different species from the preceding.

The radical termination or organ of attachment of this
animal, Organic Remains, vol. ii. PL xv. fig. 5, manifests a
very curious structure : it terminates in very frequent
ramifications, which are jointed by numerous crenulated
articulations, admitting a certain degree of mobility.

The limestone in which the remains of this animal are
found also contains the remains of madrepores and tubipores,
particularly of the chain-coral: the antiquity of its depo-
sition is manifested by its being repeatedly seen alternating
with sandstone, above the coal.

Sp. 4. The pear encrinite (Organic Remains, vol. ii.
PL xvi.) The radical termination or organ of attachment
of this species is of a flat and extended form, and possesses
a purplish hue. It has the appearance of having been ori-
ginally covered by several coats of a ligamentous or car-
tilaginous substance possessing crenulated articulations:
from this proceed the vertebrae, which are very thin and
finely crenulated, and at their lower termination participate
with their base in a portion of membranous or cartilaginous
matter, which is extended over them. As they approach

o.

98

their superior termination they enlarge rather suddenly,
both in width and thickness, receding so far from each other
internally as to leave vacuities between them about their
centre, which is also pierced by a large foramen. On the
uppermost of these vertebrae is placed a flattish body di-
vided into five compartments, answering to the five sepa-
rated clavicles of the lily encrinite ; and on this, the ossicles
corresponding to the scapulae, arms, &c. are disposed in such
order, as to form a pear-shaped body, containing in its
centre a ventricular cavity, and set round at its upper part
with twenty depressions, from which proceeded the fingers
of the animal.

With respect to the geognostic situation of these re-
mains, we obtain the following information from Mr. Towns-
hend, who considers it as a fossil of the great oolite.
" Among the extraneous fossils, imbedded in the white clay,
(on the surface of the uppermost bed, but not in the body
of the rock,) the most interesting are the encrinites, first
noticed by the Rev. Benjamin Richardson, at Burfield,
Wiltshire, near the summit of the hill on the southern
hanging of which Bradford stands ; they were next dis-
covered south of the river, on the surface of the rock, in the
same bed of white clay, but more than one hundred feet
lower than Burfield, and a little elevated above the level of
the river : finally, they were traced on the high summit of
the opposite hill, yet always deposited in their proper bed*."

Remains of this animal, agatised, have been found at
Soissons ; its remains are also found at Pfeffingen, in Ger-
many, it appearing that the remains found there belonged
to much larger animals than those from which the Wiltshire
fossils proceeded.

Sp. 5. The nave encrinite — This appellation was em-
ployed as a temporary designation of this fossil, derived

* The Character of Moses Established, &c. p. 268.

99

from its form, it being thought to resemble the nave of a
wheel, to which five spokes were attached. This fossil was
first noticed by that industrious naturalist, Martin Lister,
who describes it as being about the size of a wallnut, but
hollow, and rounded into five double points, in the figure of
crescents, and having on its bottom the impression of a
trochites, or a trpchites itself yet adhering : the surface he
describes as being formed of rough polygonal plates.*
vSeveral specimens of these fossils are represented, Organic
Remains, vol. ii. PL xvii. since which Mr. Cumberland has
favoured us with the figures of several others of very curious
structure, in a very interesting communication, in the fifth
volume of the Geological Transactions.

Among the benefits resulting from the researches of the
fossilist, is that of being sometimes able by the contained
fossils, to trace beds of marl and clay to the rocks from the
decomposition of which they have proceeded. Thus several
of the specimens "discovered by Lister were described as
having been found in the soft earth in the villages of
Braughton and Stock in Craven, whilst their subsequent dis-
covery in the mountain-lime of Mendip. and in that neigh-
bourhood, manifests the original bed into which they had
passed. Thus, the pear encrinite may be found rather to
belong to the magnesian limestone rocks than to the white
clay, as it is termed, which may have proceeded from the
decomposition of these rocks : agreeable to this opinion,
Dr. Capeller, in a letter to Scheuchzer, describes and figures
some of these fossils, with the fingers attached, from the
magnesian limestone of the island of Gothland.

Sp. 5. The plumose encrinite. — This fossil is distinguished
by its long fingers, partly naked and partly furnished with
articulated tentacula, disposed like the feathery appendages
on the sides of a quill. This fossil was described in Organic

Philosophical Transactions, vol. x.

100

Remains, vol. ii. p. 224, from a specimen from Dudley in
the possession of Mr. Donovan : I have since seen a spe-
cimen, apparently of this species, in the possession of
Geo. Hawker, Esq of Stroud, in Gloucestershire.

In volume Hi. of the Philosophical Transactions, is figured
the representation of the body of an encrinite or pentacrinite
found at Pyrton Passage, Gloucestershire, bearing, when
closed up, the form of a fig ; a similar specimen has been
since found also, on the banks of the Severn, by Mr. G.
Hawker.

Sp. 6. The tortoise encrinite (Organic Remains, vol. ii.
PI. xiii. fig. 24) is formed of various angulated plates, dis-
posed in a purse-like form, five of which are pentagonal and
surround the mouth, having in the upper edge of each a
semicircular notch, from which proceeded a jointed arm
dividing subdichotomously : under these is a row of hex-
agonal plates, and beneath these pentagonal ones, every
plate being striated from the centre to the margin, and
united by fine crenulations with the adjoining ones.

Various small substances are found, chiefly in the chalk,
possessing the characters of this tribe of animals, and of
which no recent prototypes are known; such are, 1. the
straight encrinite, PL ix. fig. 5, possessing an organ of at-
tachment, with vertebrae, pelvis, and ramifying superior
extremity ; 2. the bottle encrinite, possessing a utricular
form, but divisible in its upper portion into parts corres-
ponding with the clavicles, scapulae, &c. of the lily encrinite,
PL ix. fig. 13 ; 3. the stags-horn encrinite, PL ix. fig. 14, in
which the arms, &c. proceed directly in a ramose form, from
the trunk of the animal ; 4, the clove encrinite, ( caryophillus
lapideus of Lhwydd, and other oryctologists) PL ix. fig. 15 ;
5. the digitated encrinite, distinguished by the extraordinary
manner in which its spines or arms are connected by nu-
merous digitated processes ; the oval-spined encrinite, and
many others whose forms and characters seem to mark

101

them as closely allied to, if not actually belonging to this
family.

The pentacrinm appears to have been an animal with a
pentagonal, articulated, vertebral column, from the superior
part of which, from five bases, proceeded as many articulated
arms, dividing into ramifications, closely beset with jointed
fingers, bearing much of a plumose appearance.

The form and structure of the fossil remains of the dif-
ferent species of this genus, plainly show that the animal
possessed similar powers of seizing the surrounding objects
of its prey, as the encrinus, but on a wider range.

The fossil vertebrae of this genus are small, flat, and
generally pentagonal, stelliform stones, ornamented -on both
their upper and under surfaces with five petal-formed
figures, from the supposed resemblance of which to five
lilies the name of the genus, pentacrinus, has been derived :
these form, by their union, asterice columnares, or columnar
star-stones, being parts of the pentagonal spine ; in the
figure of which, as well as in the forms of the markings
of the vertebrae, considerable differences occur in dif-
ferent species.

On the upper extremity of the spine are disposed the
parts which form a pelvis, being in all probability the ven-
tricular cavity, and those parts also which give support to
the limbs. As the use of these parts is more obvious in this
genus than in that of the encrinus, an excuse will be more
readily admitted for adopting for them those terms which
are applied to the supposed corresponding parts in the more
perfect animals.

On each of the five sides of the upper end of the spine,
PI. ix. fig. 16, three pieces are disposed, the largest of
which (a) performs the office of scapula, its upper coty-
loidal surface receiving the first bone of the arm (c) : on
this is placed the second bone (d)^ the upper part of which
is divided into two obliquely disposed surfaces, on which the

102

two first bones (e) of a new series, those of the forearm,
are articulated, and which, first dividing subdichotomously,
afterwards give out innumerable articulated fingers. Firm-
ness appears to have been given to this arrangement, by the
interposition of a small body (b) between each scapula,
which appears to perform the office of a clavicle by retaining
the scapulae in connection with the trunk. At various
distances, in different species, jointed vertebral processes
are given out from the spine, apparently for the purpose of
aiding the fingers in seizing and retaining the hold of dif-
ferent substances. As there is reason for believing that the
jointed spine was of considerable length, and as the fingers
were evidently capable of being fully expanded, the range
of the animal, though fixed at one extremity, must have
been very extensive.

There are undoubtedly several species of this genus ;
but from the smallness of connected specimens, and from
their being often rendered indistinct by their being im-
bedded, and from other circumstances, the necessary dis-
tinction and separation are but seldom capable of being
made. The fossils of this genus, however, which are found
in Dorsetshire, manifest characters sufficiently important
and determinate to be assumed for specific distinction : it is
to this fossil I presumed to give the name briarean penta-
crinite, remarking that it was characterized by its numerous
and widely comprehensive arms, &c. and by its long jointed
arm-like spinous processes given off from every side of each
vertebra.

The fossil remains of this species are particularly abun-
dant in the cliffs of Lyme, and of Charmouth in Dorsetshire.
The remains of other species distinguishable from this by
the vertebral processes being given off, not from every
vertebra, but at certain distances, are found in the lias in
different parts of Gloucestershire, and in the more north-
eastern parts of the Island ; but the discovery of more

103

perfect specimens than those which are at present known
will be necessary to be obtained, before the particular
characters of the species can be ascertained : more also is
required to be known respecting the fossil of M. Hiemer,
spoken of in p. 256 of the second volume of Organic
Remains, before it can be considered as being of a distinct
species.

Whilst this part of the present work was in the hands
of the printer, I had the gratification of receiving Mr.
Miller's Natural History of the Crinoidea or Lily-shaped
Animals : the pleasure which I experienced in contemplating
the scientific and successful inquiries of this gentleman, in
subjects on which, as a student, I had myself toiled, led me
to hope that, by pointing out the importance and extent
of his discoveries, I should diffuse pleasure among my
readers, and, by giving them a glimpse of the treat there
prepared for them, render them eager to partake of a
banquet so rich and so cheap, it containing fifty illustrative
lithographic plates.

In this work the numerous and interesting animals of
former worlds, which have been loosely ranged as encrinites
and pentacrinites, are classed as the members of one distinct
and peculiar family, distinguished as — CRINOIDEA or Lily-
shaped Animals. The members of this family are placed
under four principal divisions, comprising nine genera,
each containing several species, with most of which we had
hitherto been but imperfectly acquainted, and of some
entirely ignorant.

I. ARTICULATA, in which joints forming the superior
cup-like body of the animal articulate to each other, are
divided into three genera: — I. Apiocrinites, the pear-like
lily-shaped animals, dividing into two species, 1. Ap. ro-

104

tundus, and, 2. Ap. ellipticus. n. Encrinites, the true
lily-shaped animal, of which Mr. Miller knows but of one
species, I. Enc. moniliformis. in. Pentacrinites, five-angled
lily-shaped animals, comprising five species, 1. Pent, caput
medusce. 2. Pent, briarceus. 3. Pent, subangularis. 4. Pent,
basaltiformis. 5. Pent, tuberculatus.

II. SEMIARTICULATA, in which the plate-like joints,
which form the cup containing the viscera, articulate
imperfectly with each other, furnish but one genus, i.
Poteriocrinites, a vase-like lily-shaped animal, one species
of which only, 1 . Pot. crassus, will serve as the type of the
generic character ; the other species, 2. tennis, having its
plates adhere only by sutures and not by articulations,
may be considered as forming the transition to the next
division.

III. INARTICULATA, in which the plates adhere by
sutures, lined by muscular integument. These are divided
into, i. Platycrinites, broad-plated, lily-shaped animals, in
which five broad plate-like scapulae proceed from a saucer-
shaped pelvis, formed of three unequal pieces. The species
are, 1. Icevis ; 2. rugosus ; 3. tuberculatus; 4. granulatus ;
5. striatus ; 6. pentangularis. n. Cyathocrinites, cup-like
lily-shaped animals, with a saucer-shaped pelvis of five
pieces, on which are placed, in successive series, five costal
plates, five scapulae, and an intervening plate ; from each
scapula proceeds one arm having two hands. Sp. 1. planus ;
2. tuberculatus ; 3. rugosus; 4. quinquangularis. in. Ac-
tynocrinites, radiated, lily-shaped animals ; the pelvis formed
of three plates, on which five first costals and one irregular
costal adhere ; succeeded by second costals and intercostals,
and the scapulae, from whence five arms proceed, each
forming two hands, with several tentaculated fingers. Sp. 1.
Triaconta dactylus ; 2. polydactylus ; 3. Icevis. iv. Rhodo-
crinites, rose-like, lily-shaped animals, pelvis formed of
three pieces supporting five square plates, in the spaces of

105

whose lateral bevelled angles are inserted five heptagona
first costals : from each scapula proceeds an arm supporting
two hands. There is only one species, 1. /?. verus.

IV. COADUNATA ; the joints of the pelvis anchylosing
to the first columnar joint, i. Eugeniacrinites, a clove-like,
lily-shaped animal, of which but one species is known,
1. E. quinquangularis.

Fossil pentagonal plates are frequently found in chalk,
which are sometimes connected, and form a body of a mar-
supial form : considering these remains as belonging to an
animal of the family of the encrinites, I introduced them in
Organic Remains, vol. ii. Tab. xiii. fig. 24, as portions of the
tortoise encrinite, deriving its name from its plates. Since
which, Mr. Mantell has investigated the remains of this
animal with so much care, as to have ascertained it to have
been an unattached animal, and without a column : and from
its purse-like form Mr. Mantell has denominated the fossil
ma.rsupites. An interesting account of this fossil may be
found in the work of Mr. Mantell on the South Down fossils.

The observations of Mr. Miller, on the geological distri-
bution of the crinoidea, are highly interesting ; and I am
pleased with the opportunity of pointing out to the student
the localities of the different species from Mr. Miller's work;
and to add, that the localities of the specimens which I
possess, serve to confirm these important observations, and
to encourage the opinion that the different genera and spe-
cies of this family have commenced and terminated their
existence at different periods.

Cyatlwcrinites rugosus is found amongst the earliest
traces of organic remains, imbedded in the TRANSITION
LIMESTONE formation, in Shropshire, Herefordshire, the
islands of Oeland and Gothland, and in Dalecarlia. C. quin-
quangularis occurs in the magnesian variety of the MOUN-
TAIN LIMESTONE, at Clevedon ; and in MOUNTAIN LIME-
STONE, at the Black Rock, near the Avon.

p.

106

Poteriocnnites crassus is found in the MAGNESIAN BEDS
OF MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Clevedon ; and in MOUNTAIN
LIME, at Bristol; and P. tennis, in the MOUNTAIN LIME of
Mendip and of Bristol.

Platycrinites Icevis occurs in the MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE
of Mendip, and in the BLACK ROCK, near Bristol, Dublin,
and Cork. P. rugosus in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE of Mendip
and Caldy Island. P. tuberculatus, in MOUNTAIN LIME
strata. P. striatus, MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, near Bristol.
P. pentangular is, MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Bristol, Mendip,
and Mitchel Dean; and in the TRANSITION LIMESTONE,
Dudley and Dinewaur Park.

Cyathocrinites planus, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Cleve-
don, and Black Rock, Bristol.

C. tuberculatus, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Dudley?
C. rugosus., in TRANSITION LIMESTONE, Shropshire, Here-
fordshire, the islands of Oeland and Gothland, and in Dale-
carlia.* C. quinquangularis, in MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE,
Clevedon, and MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, Black Rock.

Actinocrinites triaconta dactylos, in MOUNTAIN LIME-
STONE, in Craven in Yorkshire, the Mendip-hills, and Black
Rock, Bristol. A. polydactylv-s, in MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE
of the Mendip-hills and Caldy Island. A. Icevi*.. in MOUN-
TAIN LIMESTONE of Mitchel Dean.

Rhodocrinites. R. verus, TRANSITION LIMESTONE,
Dudley; MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, near Bristol, Mendip-hills,
and Mitchel Dean.

It appears that all the preceding remains occur in the
transition, the mountain and the magnesian limestone de-
posits, " where," as Mr. Miller observes, " they are lost,

* It was the body of this animal which I saw in Mr. John
Hawker's Collection, and which, from its general form, and the
figure of its plates, I considered as belonging to the tortoise encri-
nite, or the marsupite of Mr. Mantell.

107

(as far, he says, as I have been able to ascertain) and make
room for the different species of pentacrinites, which may be
traced through the beds of the lias, oolite, and chalk : and
of which one species, the pentacrinus caput mediisce, has
continued from the formation of the lias to our times, and is
now met with, though very rarely, in a recent state."

The apiocrinites rotundus is only found adhering to a
bed of the oolite formation, and the apiocrinites eltipticus
in chalk.

The radiated echinodermata. — The first section of animals
under this division contains the stelleridce, distinguished by
their possessing a coriaceous skin, not irritable, but move-
able in several points ; the body depressed, wider than long,
with radiating marginal angles or lobes, more or less nu-
merous and moveable. They are furnished with spines,
which are fixed on moveable tubercles ; and in some of the
genera of this section there exists on the back, opposite to
the mouth, a short tubercle, or a reticulated disk ; but it has
not yet been ascertained what office this part performs.
The mouth of these animals is surrounded by five little
ossicles or granular substances.

This family is divided, by Lamarck, into four genera : —
1. Comatula ; 2. Euriale ; 3. Ophiura ; 4. Asteria.

Comatula. — An orbicular, depressed, radiated body,
having two sorts of rays, dorsal and marginal, all supplied
with calcareous joints. The dorsal rays are very simple,
small, cirrous, and filiform, disposed like a coronet on the
back of the disk. The marginal rays are always pinnated,
and much larger than the simple rays ; their inferior pinnulae
are elongated, flattened beneath, and surround the ventral
surface. The mouth is beneath, central, isolated, mem-
branous, tubular, and projecting.

The dorsal rays of this animal, by which it clings to
other substances whilst seeking for or retaining its prey by
its pinnated rays, with its membranous projecting mouth in

108

the form of a purse, are characters sufficiently distinctive of
this genus.

Some of the species of this genus are described among
the stellce of Linck, as in Tab. xxii. fig. 34, Asteria muHi-
radiata, Lin.? Stella rosacea, Linck, Tab. xxxvii. fig. 66, dc.

Euryale. — An orbicular, depressed body, with a naked
back ; divided at its circumference in a row of long, thin,
dichotomous, frequently divided, cirrous rays ; these rays
being flat beneath, and cylindrical on the back. Ten long
openings exist in the under part and towards the margin of
the disk. The mouth is beneath, and central. The stomach
fills, and, of course, possesses the form of the central semi-
globular ventricular cavity.

The very fine capillary terminations of the almost innu-
merable rays of the animals of this genus, and the oblong
openings in the lower surface of the disk, two between each
ray, serving for the passage of retractile organs, are cha-
racters strongly distinctive of this genus.

This genus is distinguished, by Linck, by the name
astrophyton, and was designated, by Gmelin, as asterias
euryale et asterias caput medusce. The species to which
this name applies is the only one which was known to
Linnaeus.

Ophiura. — An orbicular, depressed body, with the back
naked; having, at its circumference, a row of long, thin,
simple, cirrous rays ; papillous or spinous, and nearly pin-
nated on their sides ; the spines being jointed only at their
base. The lower surface of the rays flat, and without any
groove or channel ; the mouth beneath, and central, with
several openings round it : the stomach possesses a sub-
globose form.

Several species of this genus are described and figured,
by Linck, as Stella longicauda, s. lacertosa, &c. and others
are to be found among the astericc of Linnaeus, as cisterias
aculeata, &c.

109

Asterias. — A suborbicular, depressed body, divided at
its circumference into angles, lobes, or rays, disposed in a
stelliform figure. The lower surface of these lobes, or rays,
is furnished with a longitudinal groove, bordered on each
side with moveable spines, and with holes for the passage of
tubular and retractile feet. The mouth is beneath, and
central, and placed in the point where the grooves unite.

The mouth, in these animals, opens directly into the
stomach, which has no other opening. It is, in fact, a
cul-de-sac^ augmented laterally by ten elongated and pin-
nated caecums, two in each ray, which proceed from the
sides of the stomach through three-fourths of the length
of the ray.

These are the animals commonly known by the names
of star-fish, stellce marince, &c.

Lamarck has had recourse to an arrangement of these
bodies, which is better adapted to facilitate their dis-
tinction and examination than any which has been hitherto
employed. He divides them into the scutellated and the
radiated asterice : under the former of which he places those
with continuous margins, such as pentetagonaster regularis,
pentaceros plicatus et concavus, &c. of Linck ; and, under
the latter, the numerous stelliform species.

The fossil remains of the stelleridce are not frequently
found ; circumstances proceeding, in a great measure, from
the proneness to decomposition of the membranaceous
connecting matter.

Fossil remains, referrible to the genera comatula, or
euryale, have been supposed to have been found by Rosinus
and by Lhwydd ; but there is sufficient reason for supposing,
that the remains which they described belonged to some
species of pentacrinites, of which we have yet to speak.
Two fossil specimens, apparently referrible to this genus,
are figured by Baier, in Supplementa Oryctographiae Noricae,
Tab. iii. fig. 3, 4.

110

Fossil remains of the genus ophiura are very rarely to
be met with. A specimen is figured by Bourguet, Traite
des Petrifications, Planche lix. 438. in which a considerable
portion of the central part of the animal of one of the spe-
cies is preserved. A very perfect specimen of this genus,
imbedded in chalk, was purchased by Mr. Donovan at the
sale of the Leveriau Museum.

Fragments of the genus asterias are found more fre-
quently than of the preceding genera ; and, of the scutel-
lated sort, more frequently than of the radiated. A fossil
specimen of the former, approaching to pentagonaster semi-
lunatus of Linck, is figured by Schultz, Bertrachtung der
Versteinerten, Tab. ii. fig. 6, from Pirna. A similar spe-
cimen is figured, Organic Remains, PL i. fig. 1 ; and at
PL i. fig. 3, is represented a chalk fossil resembling penta-
gonaster regularis^ Linck; asterias regularis, Lamarck.
Mr. Knorr gives the figure of an impression in flint of an
asterite of this kind.

A fossil, in a yellowish coloured limestone, in the writer's
cabinet, bears a tolerably close resemblance to astropecten
echinatvs minor, Linck, Tab. viii, No. 12. Some fragments
of an asterite apparently similar are figured in the supple-
ment to Knorr's work, PL vii. Book iii ; and a petrification,
somewhat similar, from Malesme, in France, is figured by
Guettard, Mem. del' Acad. An. 1763. Similar fossils are
also found in the blue clay of Sheppey Island. Fossils of
minute animals approaching to some of the preceding ge-
nera, deserving careful examination, appear to exist in St.
Peter's mountain, and in the neighbourhood of Verona.

The facts which have been pointed out in a preceding
work, respecting the structure of such of the encrinital and
pentacrinital remains as were then known, evinced that the
animals to which they belonged ought not to be placed, as
has been done by our justly celebrated teacher, Lamarck,
among \\\epolypi natantes, but rather among the echinoder-

Ill

mata radiata. Agreeable to this opinion they were placed,
in the present work, next to, but preceding this order of
animals. Their most proper station in the scale of nature
could not be so perfectly ascertained, until further know-
ledge respecting their internal organization had been ob-
tained. The examination made by Mr. Miller has furnished
us with that information ; he has shown that they well
deserved to be considered as forming a distinct family; and
his observations have also manifested that, both in their
structure and habits, they agree with the stelleridce. Thus
far the anatomical observations of Mr. Miller have been in
accordance with the opinions entertained by the present
writer, who* however, would, had he been so happy as to have
obtained an earlier view of Mr. Miller's labours, have been
disposed to place the crinoidea, from their greater complexity
of structure, at the end of, rather than before, the stelleridcc.

After having examined the distinctive characters of
ojjJmtra, euryale., and asteria, and ascertained that neither
of them approximated particularly to the crinoidea, Mr.
Miller proceeded to the examination of the comatulce, by
which he discovered such a conformity of structure, and so
many points of accordance, as to allow him to say that coma-
tula might be defined, with sufficient precision, as a penta-
crinus destitute of its column. But, as the characters
hitherto given of coniatula do not allude to those parts
of its organization which mark the link between it and the
crinoidea. Mr. Miller thought it necessary to propose the
following new generic character : —

" GENUS. COMATULA. — An unattached animal, having
a depressed orbicular body, formed of calcareous plates con-
taining the viscera. The mouth in the centre (capable of
being elongated into a proboscis), surrounded by tentacu-
lated arms, or fingers, composed of numerous joints : near
the base of the body, below the fingers or arms, many jointed
auxiliary side-arms terminating in a hooked point."

112

It was found, on dissection, that the comatulce have series
of calcareous secretions, or ossicula, exactly similar in their
general plan and arrangement to the erinoidea,, and espe-
cially to the genus pentacrinus, and intended, like theirs, to
sustain muscular action : that, at the base of the subglobose
body of the comatulce there exists a pentagonal plate, ana-
logous in situation to the first columnar joint of the erinoidea;
and an interesting affinity was found to exist between the
plates forming the pelvis of comatula, and of pentacrinus ;
and it was manifested that the auxiliary side-arms pro-
ceeding from the pelvis-like plate of comatula, the for-
mation of their joints, and their hook-like terminations,
resemble, in every particular, those of pentacrinus caput
medusa, only that they are much shorter, and formed of a
less number of joints.

Having pointed out several other particular circum-
stances, proving the accordant structure of the comatula
and pentacrinus, Mr. Miller observes, that " The scapula
resemble also those of the pentacrinus caput medusa, but
are much more angularly pointed at their superior surface,
and are also tied laterally together by an integument.

From each of the scapula in the different species pro-
ceed either two arm-like fingers, or two arms, each of the
latter formed of a common and cuneiform joint, from which,
on one side the first finger, and on the other a continuation
of the arm sets off, which, again, by the intervention of cu-
neiform joints, divides into two or more fingers, and then
forms a hand as in other erinoidea. Each joint of the arms
and fingers sends off, from alternate sides, a tentaculum,
formed of many articulated small joints, resembling, in for-
mation, those of pentacrinus caput medusa. An integument
extends over the abdominal cavity, the groove in the arms,
fingers, and tentacula, and is, like that in pentacrinus, also
protected by numerous minute calcareous plates*."
* Natural History of the Crinoidea, by J. S. Miller, A. L. S. p. 131.

113

Echinicke. — This order is filled by those animals which
have been hitherto named echini.

The echinus is one of the radiated echinodermata of
Lamarck, and is distinguished from the preceding section of
this order, the stellerida^ by the mouth and vent being
separate : the body, which is short, variously formed, and
generally quinquepartite, is inclosed in a crustaceous,
porous, and spiniferous covering, formed by numerous po-
lygonal assulae, or little plates joined by finely serrated
vertical sutures, crossed by others rather more linear : the
whole is still farther connected by an investing cuticle.

The crust or shell readily separates into five triangular
sections, one of which is represented, PI. x. fig. 6 : each of
these is divisible into four sections ; two larger, a. a. termed
areas, ornamented with roundish tubercles on which are
articulated the larger spines ; and two smaller, b. b. termed
ambulacra, which are perforated by numerous pores, from
which proceed retractile tubules, terminating in strongly
adhering sucker-formed feet. Each of these five triangular
sections dividing thus into four smaller, the whole crust, it
appears, is formed of twenty vertical sections.

Besides the almost innumerable pores from which the
feet proceed, there are other larger pores at the upper part
of each section, for the exclusion of the ova?: two large
openings also exist for the mouth and vent. The mouth is
always on the lower part, and in most kinds has in its
middle five teeth, collected together and terminating in a
firm point, bearing the appearance of enamel : these teeth
are fixed in a testaceous craticular apparatus, which has
been termed Diogenes' lantern. The vent is variously situ-
ated, and is surrounded by tubercles, from which generally
proceed numerous spines.

The fossil remains of echini are frequently found in so
perfect a state of preservation, as must suggest many sub-
jects deserving earnest inquiry : the most important of

114

these is the degree of agreement of the fossil remains with
the correspondent parts of the existing animals. But to
make this comparison, it is obvious that knowledge must be
obtained respecting those genera and species which have
been already discovered, either in their recent or fossil
states. To communicate this knowledge in the most correct
and impressive manner, different systematic arrangements
of these animals have been formed.

Among the earliest attempts of this kind was that of
Dr. Woodward, in his catalogue of the foreign fossils in his
collection : a sketch of it is given here, not only as serving
to show the state of the science at that period, but as likely
to be useful for reference, since many of our early writers
on these subjects adopted the nomenclature which Dr.
Woodward had employed.

Marine Echini.

Part I. Those having two openings and very small tubercles on
the surface are called spatagi.

Sect. I. Those having a remarkable groove at one side, cordiformes.

Art. 1. With the openings at the sides, one under the groove, the
other at the opposite side.

2. Cordiform spatagi, with one opening in the middle of the
base, the other in the groove.

Sect. II. Spatagi, having no lateral groove, and with both openings
in the base of the shell.

Art. 1. With one opening in the edge of the base, and the other
near to the opposite margin, called galeati.

2. Spatagi, with one opening in the centre of the base, the
other in the margin.

Divis. 1. With porous lines extending from the vertex to the
margin.

Member 1 . Of a conoidal figure, or pileati.

2. Of a compressed form, or dischoides.

115

Divis. 2. With rows of lines proceeding from the vertex, but not

reaching to the margin.*
Part II. Echini, in which the shell has only one opening, and that

placed in the centre of the base.
Sect. I. Echini, set with very small tubercles, with ten rows of

short lines not reaching to the margin, but so disposed

as to form a figure on the surface resembling the leaf of

cinquefoil, and therefore not improperly sailed penta-

phylloides
II. Echini, with larger and more prominent tubercles, and

with rows of lines or tubercles reaching from the vertex

to the mouth, called ovarii.^

The indefatigable Klein, in his Naturalis Dispositio
Echinodermatum, published in 1734-, not only improved the
classification, but added considerably to our knowledge of
these substances : from the situation of the mouth, he dis-
tinguished them into emmesostomi, when the mouth was
placed in the centre of the base ; and apomesostomi when
out of the centre. When the vent was in the upper part, he
designated them anocysti ; in the under part, catocysti ; and
in the side, pleurocysti. Considering these as classes, he
formed the following arrangement, by placing under each of
the three last as many of these substances as respectively
accorded with the class, but which differed from each other
in some respects as to their general form, and the situation
of the mouth : these he subdivided, according to other less,
but constant distinctions, into genera.

* These he instances in a specimen of scutum or echinanthus.

f It will be observed in this arrangement of Woodward, that
he separates these substances into two divisions ; spatagi, having
two openings, and echini, having only one opening, at the base of
the shell.

CLASS

116

["SECT.

I. Cidaris* (1)

I. Anocysti.

I II.

r

(2)

II. Catocysti.

GENUS.

C I. Miliarcs.
II. Variolates.

III. Mammillatce.

IV. Coronales.
V. Corollares.

VI. Asterizantes.
VII. Assulutce,
VIII. Botryoides.
IX. Toreumaticce.

I. Com«K.
II. Discoides.

III. Pleurocysti

I. Fibulae. (3)

II. Cassides. (4)

III. Scttfa. (5)

IV. Placentae. (6)

I. Arachnoides. (7)
II. Corda marina (8) £

S 1. JJI tdSl.

^-III. Ova marina. (9) J II. Brissoidcs.

II. Galeolae.
V I. Anyularia.
t II. Orate.
T I. Mellitce.
•N II. Laqance.
I III.

I. Spatangi.
II. Spatagoides.

* As most of the terms employed for these sections have beeu since
adopted as the names of genera, it was thought proper to subjoin the
general characters of the substances to which they were here applied.

( 1 .) Cidaris. Turban- formed, with areas ornamented with prominent
tubercles and porous ambulacrse ; the mouth in the centre of the base,
the vent in the apex.

(2.) Clipeus. Hound, shield- formed ; the mouth nearly in the centre
of the base ; the vent at nearly the same distance on the other side of
the centre of the apex.

(3.) Fibulce. Conical or discoidal ; the mouth in the centre of the
base, the vent in the margin.

(4.) Cassis. Helmet-formed; the mouth and vent at the opposite
ends of the base.

(5.) Scutum. Angular or ovate shield-formed ; the ambulacra cre-
nated and porous, disposed in the form of five petals ; the mouth in the
centre, and the vent near the margin, in the base.

(6.) Placenta. Nearly flat ; the upper surface sligfhtly convex ;
lower flat ; margin acute; the mouth in the centre; vent nearly mid-
way between the mouth and the margin.

(7.) Arachnoides. Placenta-formed ; the mouth in the centre ; the
vent square on the upper surface, at the margin.

(8.) Corda marina. Cordiform ; the smaller end truncated, the
mouth labiated, near the larger end of the base ; the vent in the trun-
cated smaller end.

(9.) Ova marina. Egg-formed; smaller end truncated ; mouth labiated
near the larger end of the base ; the vent in the truncated smaller end.

117

Breyn, in Schediasm. de Echinis, reduced the number
of genera to seven, forming them upon the situations of the
mouth and vent, and assuming, for his groundwork, the sec-
tions of Klein as genera.

Genus

1. Echinometra Cidaris of Klein.

2. Echinoconus Fibula of ditto.

3. Echinocorys Cassis of ditto.

4. Echinanthus Scutum of ditto.

o. Echinospatagus Spatangus and Spatagoides of ditto.

6. Echinobrissus Brissus and Brissoides of ditto.

7. Echinodiscus Placenta and Arachnoides of ditto.

Van Phelsum, adopting almost the whole of the genera
suggested by Klein, and being under the necessity of
forming new ones, rendered his classification too extensive,
forming them into twenty genera.

Genus

1. Echinus Cid. Miliaris, Klein.

2. Echinometra Cid. Variolataand Mammillaris, ditto.

3. Echinosinus Clipeus, ditto.

4. Echinites Conulus, ditto.

5. Echinoneus

6. Echinodiscoides Discoides, ditto.

7. Echinodiscus Laganum, ditto.

8. Echinoplacos Mellita, ditto.

9. Echinocyamus

10. Echinus salinaris. . . . Galea and Galeola, ditto.

11. Echinus pelagius .... Galea, ditto.

12. Echinomitra Conulus, apice obtuso, ditto.

13. Echinanthus Scutum, ditto

14. Echinorodum Scutum, ditto.

15. Arachnoides

16. Amygdala Brissoides, ditto.

17. Ova Brissoides, ditto.

18. Nuces Brissus, ditto.

19. Campana Spatangus, ditto.

20. Echinocardium Spatangus and Spatagoides, ditto.

Aided by these labours, N. G. Leske, Professor of
Natural History at Leipsic, in his Additamenta ad Jacobi
Theodori Klein, Nataralem Dispositionem Echinodermatum,
&c. formed the following arrangement of these animals,
which was published in 1778 : —

118

O. Echinus.

Genus Genus

1. Cidaris. 6. Echinanthus.§

2. Clipeus. 7. Echinodiscus.\\

3. Echinites* 8. Echinocyamus**

4. Echinoneus.^ 9. Echinarachnius.\\

5. Echinocorys.\ 10. Spatangus.H

* Klein, it may be seen, p. 116, had divided his section fibula into
two genera, conulus and discoide? ; but Leske seeing no material difference
between these two genera, included them in one under the name of echi-
nites; being evidently led to this from the variety of figures assumed by
the casts of this genus, which, from their very frequent occurrence in
various parts, had acquired the name of echinites vulgares ; and which in
many instances, have so depressed an appearance, and are so rounded at
their top, as hardly to possess a conical figure. These different forms
Klein considered as constituting merely so many varieties ; whilst
Phelsii'.n, regarding them as so many distinct species, gave to them
specific names adapted to their forms. These differences were, however,
considered by Leske, as dependent on compression, which he supposed
might have taken place during the process of petrifaction, and therefore
he could not so separate them.

Another circumstance requires to be taken into consideration: — In
numerous specimens that have not suffered mutilation by fracture, it
appears that this form has proceeded from a deficiency of the infiltrated
siliceous matter of which the casts have been formed. Many of them
have evidently been subjected to this infiltration whilst placed in their
natural situation, on their base, and hence have been filled chiefly from
below upwards ; and, consequently, if from any circumstance the infil-
tration ceased before the mould had been filled, the more pointed upper
part would be wanting, and the remaining part would be nearly level or
rounded on its upper surface. Others, indeed, possessed originally a
compressed discoidal figure; but these, as well as those which have been
just described, are considered by Leske as properly referrible to conulus.
No reason is offered by this attentive observer, nor does any appear, for
their being placed under a genus bearing another name.

t This genus was formed by Phelsum, and agrees, as is observed by
Leske, with the discoides of Klein, except in the periphery being ovate,
or oval rounded, and never angular, and the vent being oblong and
nearer to the mouth.

J In this genus he includes the two genera galea and galeola of Klein.

§ Includes all the scutiform echini of Klein, whether ovate or angular.

|| Is substituted for the placenta of Klein— it had been previously
adopted by Breyn.

** This is a new genus formed by Phelsum, the generic characters
of which are nuciform ; ten stelliform, biporous, ambulacra ; the mouth
and vent near to each other, about the centre of the base.

ft This agrees with arachnoides of Klein, the name only being
changed.

tt The sections of Klein, cor marinum, divided into the genera spa-
tangus and spatagoides, and the section ovum marinum divided into brissus
and brissoides, were, after much consideration, included by Leske in this
genus spatangus ; he separating the members of this genus into four
families. — I. Cordated spatangi, with a sulcated vertex. — 2. Cordated
spatangi, not sulcated. — 3. Brissi, oval spatangi, the ambulacra sulcated.
— 4. Brissoides, oval spatangi, the ambulacra not sulcated.

119

M. Leske concludes with particularizing some fossil
echinites, which he thinks might serve to form a new genus
between echinanthus and spatangus ; they agreeing with
the former in the situation and structure of the mouth, and,
with the latter, in the situation of the vent.

Le Chev. de Lamarck, to whom the lover of natural
history is so much indebted, afterwards proposed a con-
siderable change in the arrangement of these animals, and
in the denominations by which they should be distinguished,
employing the form and size of the ambulacra among the
generic distinctions.

The arrangement thus made was the following* : —

DIVISION OF ECHINIDEJE.

1. The vent below the margin, in the lower surface, or
in the margin.

* The mouth beneath, always central.

Scutella

Clypeaster V Ambulacra contracted.

Fibularia
Echinonius

1

> Ambulacra complete.

** The mouth beneath, not central, but approaching
to the margin.

Ananchites.
Spatangus.

2. The vent above the margin, and consequently dorsal.

a. The vent dorsal, but approaching to the margin.

Cassididus.
Nucleolites.

b. The anus dorsal and vertical ; the shell regular.

Echinus.
Cidarites.

* Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, Tom. iii. p. 6.

120

Scutella, the first genus, comprises placenta of Klein
( echinodiscus of Breyn and Leske), and echinarachnius of
Klein and Leske.

The admission of echinarachnius within the limits which
Lamarck has prescribed to this genus cannot be allowed.
The ambulacra, extended only to the margin, and the mouth
placed on the upper side of the margin, must exclude it
from a genus, comprized in a section, the members of which
are described as having the ambulacra complete, and the
mouth beneath the margin. Of the name of the genus, it
may be observed that it is not more expressive than that
which it is proposed to supersede ; and is, besides, the
diminutive of the word ( scutum) , by which another widely
different genus has been designated.

Clypeaster is a new, but does not appear to be a more
distinctive, name for this genus, than scutum of Klein, or
echinanthus of Leske, Breyn, &c.

Fibularia is proposed as a denomination preferable to
that of echinocyamus, which had been adopted for this
genus by the assiduous Phelsum. No reason, however, for
this preference appears, and the term, jibulqria, is so far
objectionable, as it resembles fibula employed by Klein,
with equal propriety, for a section including echini of very
different characters.

Echinoneus is applied in the same manner as by Phelsum
and Leske.

Galerites is assumed as appropriate to the genus, the
first species of which is conulus albo-galerus of Klein, and is
followed by those other fossil echini to which have been
applied the more apt name ofconulites.

Ananchytes is employed in the place of cassis of Klein,
or of cchinocorites of Leske.

Spatangus is applied nearly in the same manner as by
Leske ; its species are divided into those with four and
those with five ambulacra.

121

Cassidulus is the name of the genus proposed by La-
marck for the reception of those echinites which Leske
described as having the mouth in the centre of the base*
and the vent above the margin, possessing, as it were, those
generic characters which would form a genus between
echinanthus and spatangus.

Nucleolites. — The echinites of this genus are admitted,
by Lamarck, to agree so closely with those of the preceding
genus, that they might be united; the only material
difference being, that the ambulacra in the cassiduli are
contracted, but, in the nucleolites^ are radiated to the
mouth.

The genus cidaris is divided, by this naturalist, into two
genera. The one, named by him echinus, is intended to
comprise all those species which have the tubercles, on
which the spines are placed, entire ; the other, distinguished
as cidarites, contains all those whose tubercles are perforated
for the transmission of what is considered to be a muscular
cord. The species of this latter genus he divides into two
families, the turbans and the diadems.

In forming the following arrangement, the classification
of Lamarck being the latest, and having the sanction
of a name so justly celebrated, has been almost exactly
followed.

From the situations of the mouth and of the vent are
formed the chief generic distinctions. When the mouth
is central, the echini are said to be emmesostomous ; and
when towards the margin, apomesostomous : when the vent
is in the vertex, they are distinguished as anocystous,
when in the base as catocystous, and, when in the side, as
pleurocystous. The more obvious circumstances dependent
on the ambulacra, and on the general form and surface,
complete the characters of each genus. From the more
subordinate distinctions of form, &c. result the several spe-
cific characters.

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GENUS I. Echimis. — With a roundish, testaceous, or
crustaceous internal skin, inclining to oval ; the mouth be-
neath, and central, armed with five ossiculae ; the vent ver-
tical. Ten areas, five large and five smaller, set with im-
perforate tubercles for the articulation of spines ; and ten
porous ambulacra, or bands, interposed between the areas, are
disposed vertically from the mouth to the vent. PL ii. fig. 1.

It has been thought advisable to follow Lamarck, in di-
viding the cidaris of Klein, Leske, &c. into two genera,
echinus and cidaris : the former having the tubercles entire,
and the spines which are set on them moved only by the
muscular fibres in the investing cuticle ; the latter having
them perforated through their centre, for the passage of a
muscular cord, which, being attached to the base of the
spines, serves to augment and direct their motions.*

The echini are distinguishable, not only by their im-
perforated tubercles, but by the spines which are articulated
on these tubercles, which are simple in their forms, and
either smooth or very finely granulated. In some, which
have somewhat of an oval form, the spines are of different
sizes and shapes on the same shell ; these are considered
as approximating to cidaris. The ambulacra in the echini are
not so regularly formed, nor so distinctly separated from the
areas, as in those species which belong to the other genus.

Sp. 1. E. esculentus. — Subglobose, rather hemispherical ;
areas, with tubercles not large. The ambulacra with six
rows of pores, disposed obliquely; the spines acicular.
Recent and fossil.

2. E.saxatilis. — Suborbicular and rather depressed ; eight
rows of tubercles in the larger areas, the third from the

* It must be observed, that the difference which lias been as-
sumed here as a generic characteristic by Lamarck, may be found
in the individuals of another genus. Spafangns purpureus has its
tubercles perforated.

124

sides larger than the rest; four rows in the lesser. The
ambulacra narrow, with three double rows of pores ; the
spines acicular, and longitudinally striated. Recent and
fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxxi. fig. A. D.

3. E. angulosus. — Rather depressed, and subangular ;
two rows of larger tubercles in both large and small areas,
surrounded with smaller. The ambulacra with three double
rows of pores, the outer ones in a straight, the inner ones
in zigzag lines. Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. ii. fig. 7.

4. E. excavatus. — Nearly hemispherical ; the areas with
two rows of miliary, surrounded by granular tubercles ; the
ambulacra depressed as if excavated, and having a double
row of alternating pores. Fossil. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. xliv. fig. 3, 4.

5. E. fenestratus. — Roundish, the base smooth and
widely open ; the larger areas with six rows of tubercles,
the two intermediate rows largest ; the smaller areas with
two rows of larger tubercles; the surface of the areas granu-
lated with minute tubercles. The ambulacra granulated
and pierced with three pair of pores, transversely slanting ;
the spines-setose. Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. iv. fig. 3.

It is doubtful if Ech. lucunter is not a variety of this
species.

6. E. rupestris. — Subelliptical ; areas with two rows of
larger tubercles, with smaller ones between in a serrated line ;
the ambulacra with the pores in curved lines; spines acicular.
Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. v. fig. a. b. c.

7. E. variegatus. — Orbicular, rather depressed; larger
areas with tubercles of a medium size ; smaller ones a little
more raised, with three rows of smaller tubercles; am-
bulacra with three pairs of rows of pores; mouth nearly
round; slightly waved; vent round. Recent and rare. —
Leske ap. Klein, Tab. x. fig. B. C.

125

8. E. pustulosus. — Hemispherical and depressed ; larger
areas with medium-sized tubercles, beginning at the ends
with, and extending in the middle to six, in transverse
rows; smaller areas with two longitudinal rows of smaller
tubercles ; ambulacra with four or five pairs of rows of
pores, wide towards the mouth ; the mouth large, widely
sinuous ; vent small. Recent. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xi.
fig. A. B. C. D.

9. E. granulatus. — Suborbicular, slightly angulated ;
larger areas with seven rows of smallish tubercles on each
side, leaving a space in which the joining of the assulae is
seen ; smaller areas with four rows on each side ; ambulacra
with pores in three pairs of rows, disposed in quincunx
order ; mouth rather small, slightly waving ; vent circular.
Recent. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xi. fig. E. F.

10. E. tesselatus. — Suborbicular, slightly conical ; areas
showing the assulae, and bearing slight traces only of a row
of tubercles ; ambulacra with two rows of closely-set pores ;
mouth circular, small, and turned inwards ; vent small.
Fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xi. fig. G.

11. E. botryoides. — Subglobular ; larger areas with two
rows of largish tubercles ; those of the smaller not disco-
verable with precision ; but these areas are more raised than
the larger : ambulacra with two rows of transversely bent
lines of pores. Fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xi. fig. H.

12. E. toreumaticus. — Nearly hemispherical ; vertex
rather raised ; areas with two rows of tubercles with crenated
margins surrounded by granular tubercles, almost to the
ambulacra. The larger areas have four rows of excavated
transverse lines, two of which lie nearest to the ambulacra,
and separate them from the largest tubercles, and two are
placed within the rows of tubercles ; the outer and inner
rows of lines are opposed to each other, alternating with the
tubercles, whilst the inner adjacent rows alternate with each
other. In the lesser areas only two rows of lines are placed

126

between the tubercles ; these excavated lines exist only from
the vertex to the widest part of the periphery. Ambulacra
with pores disposed in serrated rows ; mouth small, retracted.
Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. x. fig. D. E.

13. E. pentagonus. — Pentagonal and subpyramidal ; the
sides nearly flat ; the porous fasciaB with two rows of pores ;
the areas, on the upper part, with but few small tubercles ;
but, on the lower, thickly set with tubercles surrounded by
circles. Fossil, found in the upper oolite.

This species is very interesting : its form is so decided
as to authorise it to be considered as possessing a depressed,
obtuse, five-sided subpyramidal form. The upper parts of
all the areas are remarkably bare ; but, about the rounded
margin, the verrucae, surrounded by rings, as in echinanthus,
become frequent, and, particularly over the whole of the
base, they are set very thickly, but distinctly, between the
interposed biporous bands.

The descriptions given, by Lamarck, of the following
species of cidaris, brought by MM. Peron and Le Sueur,
give reason for believing that the recent analogues of more
of our fossil echini may be discovered in the South Seas.

14. E. virgatus. — Hemispherical, rather raised ; subven-
tricose, assulae apparent ; the middle of the areas thin of
tubercles, and striped with violet; the ambulacral bands
with three double rows of pores. Recent. — Lam.

15. E. globiformis. — Nearly spheroidal ; red or orange
coloured, with white-eyed tubercles ; four rows of pores in
the areas. Recent. — Lam.

16. E. polyzonalis. — Hemispherical, rather depressed ;
subpentagonal ; greenish, with transverse white zones de-
cussating white porous rays ; the lower surface concave.
Recent. — Lam.

17. E. maculatus. — Hemispherical ; white, with spots of
a greenish yellow disposed in transverse zones ; areas slightly
verrucous. Recent. — Lam.

127

18. E. variegatus. — Hemispherically globose, variegated
with green and white ; the pores in two pairs of rows at the
sides of the areas ; the spines green. Recent. — Lam.

19. E. bigranularis. — Hemispherical, rather depressed;
ambulacra rather bare ; the pores in four rows ; the areas
with large tubercles in double rows. Fossil. — Lam.

20. E. arenatus. — Hemispherical ; ambulacra with pores
in four rows ; the tubercles of the largest areas but small,
the rest as if covered with sand. Fossil. — Lam.

21. E. sardicus. — Orbicular, depressed; base nearly flat;
areas multifariously tuberculated ; the larger with eight or
twelve, the smaller with four or six rows. A suture passes
down the middle of the areas. Ambulacra sunken, with
five double rows of pores ; mouth small, with ten grooves.
Recent, large as a child's head. Tuscan and Adriatic Sea.
— Leske ap. Klein, Tab. ix, fig. A. B.

22. E.flammeus. — Nearly hemispherical, depressed ; the
larger areas with twelve rows of tubercles at the broader
part ; the less, more raised, and with three rows in the
middle part ; ambulacra narrow ; mouth small. Recent.
— Leske ap. Klein, Tab. x. fig. A.

23. E. marnmillatus. — Subelliptical, depressed; sixteen
or eighteen imperforate papillae in the larger areas, and
fourteen in the smaller, the largest being about the margin,
and followed by others of a middling size : all encircled by
others of a granular appearance ; the ambulacra rise broad
from the mouth with four or five pairs of pores, and ter-
minate in one sinuous pair ; the mouth large, and the vent
pentangular*. Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. vi.

* Spines are of the pallisadoe kind, sudes fortalitiorum, Klein ;
and are placed on the large mammillary tubercles ; small, spatulous
ones being attached to the smaller tubercles. Some of the fossil
specimens resembling this species deserve rather to be considered as
dictinct species, having very long cylindrical spines, denticulated in
longitudinal striae. — Some in the writer's collection are more than
three inches in length.

128

GENUS II. Cidaris. — With a spheroidal or depressed
orbicular crustaceous or testaceous internal solid skin, fur-
nished with tubercles perforated through their summits,
supporting moveable spines, the largest of which ai'e bac-
ciliform. The ambulacra are complete, reaching from the
vertex to the mouth, and bordered by two multiporous
bands. The mouth beneath, central, and supplied with
teeth. The vent above, vertical.

In the species of this genus, the tubercles are pierced
through their apex, for the passage, it is presumed, of a
muscular thread ; the ambulacra are narrower and more
regular than in those in which the tubercles are imperforate ;
and the little porous bands which border the ambulacra are
less diverging and more nearly approximated. Their spines
are various, never uniformly setous, but either large and
sudiform and as if truncated, or long and crenulated, with
others very small and numerous, surrounding, as with a
little collar, the base of the larger ones. In some of the
species of this family, the margins round the papillous
tubercles are regularly crenulated. Lamarck divides these
echini with perforated spines into turbans and diadems. By
the former term he designates those which are rather
elevated, but nearly spheroidal, with the ambulacra winding ;
by the latter he means those which have a round depressed
shell, with straight ambulacra, and with spines generally
hollow.

Sp. 1. Cid. imperialis. — Subglobose, depressed on both
sides ; the ambulacra and smaller spines of a violet colour ;
the larger spines cylindrical, but rather ventricose, striated
in their apex, and marked with white rings.

Cid. papillata major. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. vii. fig. A.

This cidaris differs from cidaris mammillata, Kl. in
its shell being more globular, and in its tubercles being
pierced.

2. C. diadema. — Nearly circular : the vertex depressed ;

129

the base rather convex ; the mouth large, and the vent
circular. The larger areas have two rows of large tubercles
next the ambulacra ; between which are two rows of small,
surrounded by others still smaller. These tubercles are
pierced in their tops, and their surrounding rings are finely
crenulated. The ambulacra are bordered, and have three
pair of rows of pores in their widest part, which lessen as
the space is contracted. The spines are acicular, and are
surrounded at their base with a ring, within which is the
excavated bulb that articulates with the perforated papillary
tubercle. Recent and fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab.
xxxvii. fig. 1, 2.

3. C. papillata. — Orbicular, but the vertex depressed
and the base flattish ; the areas with two rows in each of
perforated papillae, each surrounded by a circle of granular
tubercles and punctured spaces. Between each two winding
biporous bands, or ambulacra, a band is raised which cor-
responds with the smaller areas : the mouth is nearly round ;
the vent varies in its form. Recent and fossil. — Leske
ap. Klein, Tab. vii.

In some fossils, probably of this species, the spines assume
a ventricose, clavated form. These have been long known
by the name of lapides judaici.

4. C. atrata. — Ovately hemispherical, rather depressed ;
of a violet colour, inclining to black. The tubercles large ;
the dorsal spines short, obtuse, and imbricated ; those at the
circumference subspathulated. Recent. — Cid. violacea.
Leske.

5. C. crenularis. — Subglobose ; with two rows in the
larger areas of large tubercles, crenulated round the pa-
pillae. Fossil, from Switzerland. — Bourguet, Petrjf. Tab.
Hi. 344, 347, 348.

6. C. pseudo-diadema. — Depressedly hemispherical ; the
bands straight and biporous ; and two rows of large tubercles
in each area. Fossil.

s.

130

7. C. calamaris. — Spheroidal, rather depressed ; the
larger areas, with distant papillary tubercles, surrounded by
a granular surface ; two rows of tubercles in the smaller.
The ambulacra, with pores, in four divisions ; the spines
hollow, and possessing much of the structure of a quill.
Recent. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlv. fig. 1-4.

8. C. radiata. — Circular, depressed ; the vent surrounded
by plates forming a star of five angularly pointed rays, with
a foramen in the point of each ray. From each termination
of these rays proceed two other rays forming another star ;
these, being the ambulacra, are pierced with numerous
pores. The interstices, or areas, are filled with differently
sized tubercles. On the base is also a stelliform expansion,
in the middle of which are five semilunar openings.

This is a large recent echinus ; Echinanthus major, Seba.
— Komet groote, Phelsum. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xliv. fig. 1.

The following fossils appear to belong to this genus, but
their specific characters are not so obvious :—

9. Coronalis. — Nearly hemispherical ; the areas alter-
nately wide and narrow, with scattered papillae ; the am-
bulacra flat, uniting at the top, and forming a flat space
round the vent. Fossil. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. viii. fig. A. B.

10. Corollaris. — Various siliceous nuclei have been placed
under this head which have doubtlessly belonged to dif-
ferent species of cidarites. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. viii,
fig. C.

The fossil specimen, named cidaris asterizans, by Klein,
does not appear to deserve, as is justly observed by Leske,
to be considered of a different species, being a spathose
fossil of C. diadema, or of one of its varieties, the striae, in
the engraving, having been too much helped by the artist. —
Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlvi. fig. 5.

GENU;J III. Clypeus. — Of a roundish subconical form ;
the base rather concave ; the mouth beneath, nearly central;
the vent near the apex ; the ambulacra bowed, striated

131

across, bordered by pores, and disposed in five pairs, each
pair forming a petaloidal figure, and are then contained in
the form of bands to the mouth. The smaller areas are
contained within the petaloidal figures, and the larger sur-
round the ambulacra, and are extended over the rest of the
surface, which is covered with small tubercles, separated
from each other b}' distinct circlets. — PL ii. fig. 6.

Synon. jEchinobrissus, Breyn.

Sp. 1. Cl. sinuatus. — Nearly orbicular, depressed; one
of the larger areas is divided by a longitudinal groove, com-
mencing near the apex, and continued nearly to the margin ;
the ambulacra are bowed and broad, are transversely divided
by bars, leaving intervening openings, and are bordered by
rows of thickly set pores ; each pair of ambulacra approx-
imate towards the margin, and thus almost enclose the
smaller areas. The base is divided by five bands, pro-
ceeding from the ends of the petaloidal ambulacra and ter-
minating at the mouth ; the mouth is small and pentagonal ;
the vent opens laterally in the apex of the groove which
exists in the upper surface.

This is the polar stone of Plott.

No recent species of this genus is known.

This genus is not even mentioned by Lamarck ; and the
first species here noticed is offered by him interrogatively,
as similar to galerites umbrella, with which, however, it does
not agree, since one of the generic characters of galerites
is the having of the vent placed in, or beneath and near to,
the margin.

2. CL conoideus. — A spathose petrifaction ; the figure
conoidal ; the circumference subrotund, inclining to the
elliptical. The divisions and situations of the areas, with
the structure of the ambulacra, and the nature of the sur-
face, point this fossil out, in the opinion of Leske, as being
a species of this genus.

132

CL hemisphcericus and Cl. qvinquelabiatus are names
given to two mutilated fossil specimens, possessing, in Leske's
opinion, uncertain claims to places under this genus. The
first, he thinks, resembles galea wagrica, Klein ; and the
second does not appear to have been in a state, the vent not
being discoverable, to allow a correct judgment being formed
respecting even its generic characters.

GENUS IV. Cassidulus. — Ovate or subcordiform, and
rather raised ; the mouth beneath, subcentral ; the vent at
one end, considerably above the margin ; the ambulacra
porous, subpetaloidal, and reaching nearly to the margin. —
PI. ii. fig. 7.

These echinidae were pointed out by Leske as requiring
to be placed under a distinct and new genus, the mouth
being placed nearly in the centre of the base, and bearing
the character of echinanthus ; the vent situated on the upper
part of one end, as in spatagus. Leske having declined
giving a name to the genus, it received it from Lamarck.

Sp. 1. Cass. pyriformis. — Ovate and gibbous, the base
rather flat ; the surface, particularly of the base, tubercular ;
and the back slightly carinated ; the ambulacra obsoletely
porous ; the mouth roundish, subpentagonal, and with five
rather prominent lips ; a double row of pores, forming a five-
rayed star, round the mouth ; the vent round. Fossil.

2. C. lapis cancri. — Convex and obtusely ovate ; the
vertex excentric and perforated with four pores ; the am-
bulacral lines of pores double, and forming subpetaloidal
figures, with the terminations open ; the mouth not exactly
in the centre, but nearer to the narrower end ; the vent
round. Fossil.

3. C. patellaris. — Oval and flattish ; the back very
slightly raised, and the base as slightly concave ; the am-
bulacra biporous ; the pores linearly connected in the form
of a star, and rather separated from the rest of the surface
by an almost obsolete line.

133

Lamarck, who considers that the characters of the am-
bulacra should be reckoned among the distinguishing generic
characters, has instituted the following genus for the re-
ception of such of the echinidae as accord with the preceding
genus, cassidulus, in every respect, except in the state of
the ambulacra. These, in this genus, reach only to the
margin ; but those which belong to the following genus are
extended to the centre of the base.

GENUS V. Nucleolites. — Ovate or subcordiform, rather
raised ; the mouth beneath and subcentral ; the vent at the
end, much above the margin ; the ambulacra radiating to
the centre of the base.

Synon. Echinobrissus, Breyn.

Sp. 1. Nucl. scutata. — Elliptical and rather quadrilateral ;
slightly convex and widest behind, where it is sulcated;
vent dorsal. Fossil.

Lamarck places under this species, spatagus depressus
of Klein. This is an interesting fossil. From its form and
sulcus, and from the situation of the mouth and vent, it ap-
proximates to clypeus ; and, from its four radiating ambu-
lacra, with the fifth passing along the sulcus, it resembles
spatagus.

2. N. colombaria. — Obovate, rather elevated, and widest
behind ; ambulacra with biporous lines, with faint striae .
the mouth pentagonal. Fossil.

3. N. ovulum. — Ovate and pulvinated ; with thinly scat-
tered tubercles with surrounding rings ; the ambulacral lines
subbiporous. Fossil.

4. N. amygdala. — Ovate and rather gibbous, the vertex
rather prominent ; the ambulacra very narrow ; the vent
beneath a small projection. Fossil.

A figure illustrative of this genus appears to be unneces-
sary, as it would differ from that of the preceding genus
only in the form of the ambulacra.

134

GENUS VI. Echinarachnius. — Circumference subpenta-
gonal ; the upper surface slightly raised, rather conoidally,
in the centre ; the under surface flat ; the areas separated
by ten tortuous crenated lines ; and immediately between
the approximating larger areas are interposed five straight
slightly sulcated lines, which, passing over the margin, are
extended to the mouth ; thus dividing the surface into five
equal parts. The mouth is beneath, and central ; the vent
square, on the upper side, close to the margin.

The whole of the surface is marked by elegant tracings,
as if in ink, bearing somewhat of the appearance of a spider's
web. — PI. ii. fig. 8.

But one species is known, which has only been seen
recently, and is placed by Lamarck under his genus scutella ;
but the situation of the vent, decidedly on the upper surface,
appears to claim for it a distinct genus.

GENUS VII. Galerites. — Conoidal or subpyramidal, rising
from nearly a circular base, and terminating in a vertex
more or less obtuse ; the mouth beneath, central ; the vent
beneath, in or near to the margin ; the surface divided into
larger and smaller areas by ten pair of ambulacral lines
passing from the vertex to the mouth, the area in which the
vent is placed being the largest. — PI. ii. fig. 3.

Synon. Oonulus, Klein. Echinites, Leske. Echino-
conus, Breyn.

No remains of these animals are known to exist but in a
mineralized state. These petrifactions have been dis-
tinguished by various appellations — scolopendrita, bufonitce,
cap-stones, &c.

Sp. 1. Gal. albogalerus, — Conical; circumference sub-
ovate, there being a slight extension on that side in which
the vent is placed ; the vertex perforated with five foramina,
in the tips of the lesser areas ; the surface is beset with
minute tubercles, and the sutures connecting the assulae are
generally visible ; the ambulacral lines of pores are placed

135

close in straight double rows ; the mouth round ; the vent
oval, the shell round it being vaultedly convex. — Leske ap.
Klein, Tab. xiii. fig. A. B. Fossil.

2. G. depressus. — Circumference circular; the division
of the areas marked by the sutures, but the assulae not
shown ; the mouth rather small ; the vent large and oval.
Fossil.

3. G. vulgaris. — Under this vague and comprehensive
designation are placed those numerous small fossil specimens
which are common in many parts of the world ; possessing
the characters of the genus, but varying so indeterminately
in their minor distinctions, as not to allow of their being
described as even definable varieties. They are found,
sometimes, to vary so in their figures, as if they were the
members of some undescribed genus : instead of possessing
the complete conical form, the vertex is depressed as if
truncated; and sometimes the slight angles are entirely
removed, and the sides are so rounded that the fossil pos-
sesses almost a globular form. Even the mouth and vent,
though in their regular situation, are frequently found to
vary much in their size and form. The areas vary con-
siderably, being sometimes raised, other times sunk ; some
bear the marks of the assulae, and others not. The ambu-
lacra vary in their breadth, as well as in their depth or ele-
vation, and sometimes, but rarely, show the two lines of pores.

As these fossils, which are almost all siliceous casts,
bear the markings of the inner surface of the shell which
they filled, their surfaces must necessarily differ from the
outer surfaces of the shells from which they proceeded ; and
endless, indeed, are the differences which have resulted
from the various degrees of correctness in the casts, and
which must have depended not only on the condition of the
mould, but on the state of the injected matter and the
degree of perfection to which the crystallizing process had
been allowed to proceed.

136

4. G. quaterfasciatus. — Nearly globular or acutely co-
nical ; four small and four large areas divided by eight am-
bulacra; the mouth and vent quadrangular. Fossil —
Siliceous.

5. G. sexiesfasciatus. — Subconical ; vertex obtuse ; six
large and six small areas, separated by twelve tuberculated
ambulacra ; vent round, and larger than the mouth. Fossil.
— Siliceous.

These two species of fossils are exceedingly rare.
The following species are also particularized by Lamarck : —

6. G. abbreviatus. — Fossil, from France and Germany.

7. G.fissuratus. — Fossil, from the north of Germany.

8. G. hemisphcericus. — Fossil.

It is doubted whether this may not be the same as Ech.
subuculus. of Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xiv. fig. L — O.

9. G. dupressus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xl. fig. 5, 6.
Fossil.

10. G. rotularis. — This is referred to Ech. subu,culus of
Gmelin and of Leske, Tab. xiv. but is supposed to be dis-
similar from G. hemisphcericus. Fossil.

11. G. conoideus. — Large; conoidal, nearly circular; the
mouth transverse, surrounded by a hollow. Fossil. Italy.

12. G. scutiformis. — Resembles that figured by Klein,
Tab. xlii. fig. 2, 3. Fossil.

13. G. ovatus. — Ovato-conoidal ; depressed at the sides.
Fossil.

14. G. semi-globus. — Orbicular and hemispherical; the
vertex excentrical, — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlii. fig. 5.
Fossil.

15. G. cylindricus. — Cylindrical ; short ; the back rounded,
but nearly flat. Fossil.

16. G. patella. — Orbicular, depressed, and rather convex;
the ambulacral grooves elegantly striated ; one of the areas
excavated by a longitudinal groove. — Encyclop. PI. cxliii.
fig. 1, 2. Fossil.

137

17. G. umbrella. — Is questioned as being clypeus sinuatus
of Klein, with which the description agrees ; but Lamarck
has not adverted to the vent in clypeus being on the upper
surface. Fossil.

1 8. G. excentricus. — Ovate, convexly gibbous ; the vertex
excentrical, from which proceed four ambulacra ; the lower
side sulcated with five grooves.

This curious and irregular formed fossil is described as
being as large as the preceding. Its habitat is not mentioned.
19. G. subuculus. — Discoidal; vertex subrotund; base
rather concave ; the whole surface of the areas set with
minute rings ; the ambulacra biporous ; the mouth small
and circular ; the vent even, minute, and circular ; the vertex
sometimes scutellated in those specimens in which the shell
remains. Fossil.

Echinites subuculus of Leske. figured by Klein, Tab. xiv.
1. m. n. o. Fossil.

GENUS VIII. Clypeaster. — Oval, or elliptical; sub-
angular ; somewhat raised and gibbous in the centre ; the
margin thick and rounded ; the under side concave at the
centre ; the mouth, armed with six bony pieces, is beneath,
and central ; the vent beneath, and in or near to the margin ;
the ambulacra, on the upper surface, in a pentapetalous
form. — PL ii. fig. 2.

Synon. Scutum, Klein. Echinanihus, Leske.

Sp. 1. Cl.humilis. — Ovate; margin winding ; ambulacra
with two rows of pores connected by small transverse
grooves, and so disposed as to form the sides of five peta-
loidal figures ; the larger areas are disposed around ; the
smaller ones circumscribed by the ambulacra, and somewhat
raised; the surface covered by granular tubercles, set in
rings, with numerous smaller grains interposed; the base
flat towards the margin, and concave in the middle ; the
mouth deeply seated in the centre, of an obtuse pentagonal
form ; the vent transversely oval. Recent and fossil.

138

2. C. altus. — Subovate ; vertex conoidal, considerably
vaulted ; areas granulated, the larger without, the smaller
within, the petaloidal spaces formed by the ambulacra.

This species is only known in a petrified state. It is
distinguishable by its size, being, sometimes, six inches
long, and two inches in height, by its rising in a round
vaulted form ; and by its ambulacra being large and wide.
Fossil.

The casts of the two last species form very interesting
fossils. — Organic Remains, PL ii. fig. 8, and PL iv. fig. 7.

3. C. ovatus. — Ovate ; the margin not waving, the upper
part convex, with four pores in the vertex ; the ambulacra,
in petaloidal forms, not united at their lower terminations,
but the one side of each ray extending farther than the
other ; the surface covered with minute tubercles ; the base
flat ; the mouth subreniform, with five prominent lips, from
the hollowed spaces between which proceed five grooves ;
the vent in the margin. Recent and fossil, — Leske ap.
Klein. Tab. xx. fig. c. d.

4. C. orbiculatus. — This is a fossil which was placed,
by Leske, under this genus, with considerable doubt, it
being so injured that the state of the under part could not
be ascertained.

5. C. marginatus. — With a convex stelliferous vertex ;
with short ovato-acute ambulacra ; the margin rather thin,
expanded, and broad. Fossil. — Scilla, Corp. mar. Tab. xi.
fig. inferior.

6. C. scutiformis. — Elliptical ; the back flattish and sub-
marginated. — Seba, mus. iii. Tab. xiii. fig. 23, 24. Encyc.
PL cxlvi. fig. 1, 2.

7. C. laganum.

Echinodiscus laganum. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxii.
fig. a. b. c.

8. C. excentricus. — Suborbicular, depressed, but rather
convex ; five narrow ambulacral compartments divaricating

139

from the excentric vertex ; the vent marginal. — Encyc. PI.
cxliv. fig. 1, 2.

9. C. oviformis,

Echinanthus ovatus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xx. fig. c. d.
Recent and fossil. Found in the South Seas.

10. C. politus. — Ovate, inflated, and smooth ; with five
long narrow ambulacral compartments, open at their termi-
nations. Fossil, from Sienna.

11. C. hemisphcericus. — Orbicular, convex, and semi-
globose ; with five ambulacral divisions radiating from the ex-
centrical vertex. Fossil.

12. C. stelliferus. — Ovate and tumid; with five long
narrow ambulacral divisions, the contained areas rather
prominent. — Knorr. Petr. p. 18, Tab. E. iii. fig. 5.

GENUS IX. Scutella. — Rather flat or discoidal ; slightly
convex on the upper surface ; with four large pores in the
vertex ; the margin rather thin and acute, and sometimes
dentated ; the base flat. The ambulacra short, disposed in
a pentapetalous figure ; the mouth beneath, central ; the
vent beneath, between the mouth and margin. — PI. ii. fig. 10.

The mouth is armed with five pieces, divided into two
branches, and vertical irregular plates are interposed between
the two branches.

Synon. Placenta, Klein. Echinodiscus, Breyn, Leske,
and others.

Sp. 1. Scut, dentata. — Orbicular, depressed ; the disc
entire ; the posterior part of the margin dentated. — Leske
ap, Klein, Tab. xxii, fig. E. F.

2. S. digitata. — Orbicular, depressed ; the disc pierced
in the fore part by two or four openings. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. xxii. fig. A. B. Echinodiscus decius digitatus, fig. C. D.
octies digitatus. Recent.

3. S. emarginata. — Orbiculato-elliptical, depressed;
with six foramina, five of which cut into the margin. — Leske
ap. Klein, Tab. 1. fig. 5, 6. Recent.

140

4. S. sexforis. — Orbicular, depressed, and as if trun-
cated ; with six oblong foramina; the vent near to the mouth.
— Leske ap. Klein, Tab. 1. fig. 3, 4. ^ Recent.

5. S. quinquefora. — Orbicular, depressed, and sub-
reniform ; with five oblong foramina ; the vent near to the
mouth. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxi. fig. C. D. Recent.

6. S. quadrifora.

This appears to be only a variety of scutella emarginata,
in which only two of the three posterior foramina reach the
margin. It however differs in being somewhat subreniform.

7. S. bifora. — Obtusely trigonal and depressed ; with
two oblong foramina at the posterior part ; the vent distant
from the mouth.

Echinod. bis perforatus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab xxi. fig.
A. B. Recent.

8. S. bifissa. — Cordato-orbicular, depressed ; with two
slits on the wider side, and an intermediate, projecting lobe,
with an undulating margin.

Echinus auritus. — Leske ap. Klein, p. 202.

9. S. lenticularis. — Orbicular, rather convex ; with five
short ambulacra with open apices ; the vent marginal.
Fossil. Grignon.

10. S. orbicularis. — Circular, and depressed towards the
margin ; the back rather convex in the centre ; ovato-acute
ambulacra ; the vent between the mouth and the margin. —
Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlv. fig. 6, 7. Fossil.

11. S. fibularis. — Small, orbicular, depressed, and rather
thick, the margin rounded ; the vent between the mouth and
the margin. — Lang. lap. fig. Tab. xxxv. fig. ult. Fossil.

12. S. placenta.

This is the name applied by Lamarck to the echinus
which has been assumed above as the type of the genus
arachnius.

13. S. par ma. — Orbicular; the back rather convex;
with five subovate ambulacra, disjoined, at the apices ; and

141

five ramified grooves in the lower part ; the vent marginal.
Recent.

1 4. S. subrotunda. — Orbicular ; the back rather convex ;
with five subovate ambulacra, contracted in their apices ;
the vent beneath the margin. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlvii.
fig. 7. Fossil.

15. S. placunaria. — Elliptical, depressed, and widest
in the fore part; with narrow linear ambulacra, disjoined
at their apices ; the vent near to the margin. Recent.
South Sea.

16. S. latissima. — Very large, depressed, elliptical,
subpentagonal, and truncated posteriorly ; with oblongo-
oval ambulacra ; the vent near to the margin. Recent.
South Sea.

17. S. ambigena. — Ovato-elliptical ; the back rather con-
vex ; the sides rather winding ; the ambulacra ovato-oblong,
pulvinated ; the vent near to the margin. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. xix. fig. C. D.

An echinanthus? This appears to approach nearly to
the genus clypeaster.

GENUS X. Fibularia. — Subglobular, ovoid, and nearly
round, with no determinate margin ; the ambulacra forming
petaloidal, short, narrow, and circumscribed figures ; the
mouth beneath, central; the vent near to the mouth, or
midway between it and the side. — PI. ii. fig. 4, 5.

Synon. Echinocyamus. — Phelsum and Leske.

The known species of this genus are of very small size.
Several species of this genus have been found by Faujas
St. Fond in St. Peter's Mountain, near Maestricht.

Sp. 1. Fib. nucleus cerasi. — Circumference circular;
upper surface globose ; sides rather sulcated ; the base
narrow and flat in the middle ; the small areas petal-formed
and rather pulvinated ; the vertex excentric with four
pores ; the mouth circular ; the vent smaller than the mouth,
and oblong.

142

2. F. vertice centrali. — This differs from the preceding
only in the vertex being central.

3. F. ervum. — Globose ; the circumference inclining to
oval ; the base narrow ; sides sulcated ; and the ambulacra
somewhat raised.

4. F. craniolaris. — Anterior surface globose, the pos-
terior subangular, pulvinated, and abrupt ; the circumference
elliptical ; the vertex excentric ; the base rather narrow.

The 5th, 6th, and 7th species of Phelsum, turcica, vicia,
and ovata, appear to be merely varieties of the fourth spe-
cies, craniolaris. The 8th and 9th species, latliyrus and
equinuS) do not appear to be marked by any characters de-
cidedly distinctive.

10. F. angulosa. — Appears to be distinguishable from the
circumference possessing somewhat of a quinquangular form.

11. F. ovalis. — This, besides being of an obtusely oval
form, is marked by four pores existing in the vertex.

12. F. incequalis.— Bearing the form of an apple pip, or
seed, ovate, very slightly pentagonal ; the back uneven and
anteriorly gibbous, posteriorly slanting and flattish ; base
subglobose and rather narrow ; sides sulcated ; petals sub-
pulvinated ; the apex central.

13. F. cor ranee, and Sp. 14, F. paddehart. — Appear to
be varieties of the 12th, F. incequalis.

These small echini have been, it appears, found only recent
in the Adriatic, and on some parts of the American coast.

14. F. ovulum. — This is the least known of these echi-
nidae, being about the size of a pea ; globosely ovate ; the
base rather narrow ; ambulacra short, and separate at their
terminations.

15. F. tarentina. — Ovately elliptical; rather convex;
plano-convex beneath ; ambulacra short and disjoined.

GENUS XI. Echinoneus. — Obovate or suborbicular, rather
depressed, of a boat-like form ; the ambulacra, formed by
ten grooves, radiating from the vertex to the base.

143

These echini differ from those of the preceding genus by
their extended ambulacra ; they are also larger, and of a
more oblong form.

Sp. 1. Echinoneus cyclostomus. — Ovato-oblong, rather
depressed ; though pulvinated ; five pores in the vertex ;
the mouth round. Recent. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxxvii.
fig- 3, 4.

2. E. semilunaris. — Ovato-oblong, rather depressed ; with
four pores in the vertex ; the mouth oblong, obliquely
transverse. Recent.

Echinon. minor de semilunari. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab
xlix. fig. 8, 9.

3. E. gibbosus. — Ovate, turgid, irregular ; vertex excen-
trical ; ambulacra waved ; the mouth oval, acute, and ob-
liquely transverse. Recent.

One species remains which is placed under this genus,
but not without some hesitation. It is figured, by Scilla,
Tab. xi. fig. 1, 2, and is named, by Phelsum, echinoneus sou-
tiformis ; but its characters are such as to render it difficult
to determine under what genus it should be placed.

It is placentiform, its circumference oval ; the ambulacra
striated, passing from the vertex nearly to the mouth, where
they terminate in slightly depressed grooves ; the mouth is
in the middle of the base, obtusely pentagonal ; the vent
towards the margin.

The striated rays, with the grooves in the base, agree
with clypeus ; the structure and disposition of its ambulacra
with clypeaster ; whilst its outline and form, with the position
of the mouth and vent, approximate it to scutella.

No figure of this genus is given, since, to obtain an idea
of its appearance, it is only necessary to connect its ovoidal
boat-like form with the situation of the mouth and vent, as
in the preceding genus, the ambulacra being continued
from the vertex to the base.

144

GENUS XII. Ananchytes. — Irregularly helmet-formed,
ovate or conoidal ; the ambulacra radiating from the vertex
to the margin, and even to the mouth ; the mouth labiated
and subtransverse, near the margin, at one end ; the vent at
the opposite end. — PI. ii. upper surface, fig. 9, under sur-
face, fig. 12.

The species of this genus are only known fossil.

Synon. Cassis, galea, and galeola, Klein. Echino-
corytes, Leske.

Sp. 1. An. ovata. — Obovato-conoidal ; the vent ovate. —
Leske ap. Klein, Tab. liii. fig. 3. Fossil, near Paris.

2. A. striata. — Ovato-rotund, raised, and much striated ;
the back convex, somewhat compressed, with numerous ver-
tical striae ; the assulae obsolete. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlii.
fig. 4. Fossil, Picardy.

3. A. gibba. — Ovate, raised ; the back ventricose, but,
at the top, compressed; the sides depressed inferiorly, with
light ambulacral interstices ; the vertex duplicate. — Leske
ap. Klein, Tab. xv. fig. A. B. Fossil, from Normandy.

4. A. pustulosa. — Ovato-conical, pointed towards the
top ; depressed, and showing the assulae at the sides ; the
biporous lines of the ambulacra disposed in pairs ; the ver-
tex double and impressed. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xvi.
fig. A. B. Fossil.

5. A. bicordata. — Obovate ; slightly grooved at each
extremity ; the back smooth, with a double vertex.

Spatangites bicordatus, — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlvii. fig. 6.
Fossil, from Mons.

6. A. carlnata. — Cordated, slightly grooved forwards ;
the back carinated in the middle.

Spatangites carinatus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. li. fig. 2, 3.

7. A. elliptica. — Ovato-elliptical and pulvinated ; with
two remote vertices ; assulae nearly obsolete. — Knorr, Petr.
Tab. E. Hi. fig. 6.

145

8. A. cordata. — Cordato-conical ; assulae evident ; dented
in at the anterior part ; the ambulacra in bands, with four
rows of pores ; the vertex not divided.

Spatangus ananchytis ? — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. liii. fig.
1, 2. Fossil.

9. A. spatangus. — Cordated, convex; ambulacra im-
pressed and continued to the mouth ; a groove in the ca-
rinated posterior part. Fossil, from France.

10. A. semiglobus. — Ovato-hemispherical ; base flat ; am-
bulacra narrow, with ten biporous lines, approximated in
pairs ; the vertex undivided.

Echinocorytes minor. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xvi. fig.
C. D. Fossil.

11. A. pillula. — The least; ovato-globulose ; rather con-
vex beneath ; vent in the upper part of the edge. Fossil,
from near Beauvais.

12. A. cor avium. — Subcordated, convex ; ambulacra
widely striated ; the fifth obsolete.

Spatangus ovatus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xlix. fig.
12, 13. Fossil.

GENUS XIII. Spatangus. — Gibbous, heart or egg-
shaped ; the mouth beneath, near to the wider end, trans-
verse, labiated, and without teeth ; the vent on the side, at the
opposite end ; the ambulacra, four or five, short and unequal.

The striking difference of form between the egg-shaped
and heart-shaped species of this genus had almost induced
Leske to divide these bodies into two genera, and to have
considered the former as brissi, and the latter as spatagi ;
but further consideration, and the concurring opinion of
Muller, as to the identity of the animals themselves, led him
to retain them under one genus, separating them by di-
visions, chiefly founded on these characters, into the two
families of brissus and spatagus. Lamarck has thought
proper to effect this separation in a more simple manner ;
he divides the species into those which have four ambu-

u.

14(3

lacra, brusit and those which have five, spatangi ; the ge-
neral form and characters of both of which are represented
in PL ii. fig. 13, 11.

Brissus, (Ovum-marinum), PL ii. fig. 13 ; Spatangus,
(Cor. marinumj, fig. 11.

* With four ambulacra (brissi.)

Sp. 1. Spatangus pectoralis. — Ovato-elliptical, depressed,
large ; four ambulacra, with the interstices elegantly granu-
lated ; the assulae elongated at the margin. Recent. — Seba,
Mus. iii. Tab. xiv. fig. 5, 6.

2. S. ventricosus. — Ovate, inflated, obsoletely assulated ;
with four oblong canaliculated ambulacra; the larger tu-
bercles placed in zig-zag. Recent.

Brissus ventricosus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxvi. fig. A.
An. Scill. Corp. Marin. Tab. iv. fig. 1, 2.

3. S. purpureus. — Cordated ; with four smooth lance-
olate ambulacra; the larger tubercles placed in zig-zag.
Recent and fossil.

Spatangus purpureus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xliii.
fig. 3-5; Tab. xlv. fig. 5. Scill. Corp. Marin. Tab. ii.
No. 1. fig. 1.

4. S. ovatus. — Ovate ; semicylindrical ; depressed back-
wards, with four excavated canaliculated ambulacra, the
fore ones oblique.

Spatangus brissus unicolor. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxvi.
fig. B. C. Recent.

5. S. carinatus. — Ovate, inflated, and a little turgid at
the sides ; ambulacra four, the fore ones transversely diva-
ricated ; the dorsal area carinated backwards, and obtusely
projecting. Recent.

Spatangus brissus, late carinatus. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab. xlviii. fig. 4. 5.

6. S. columbaris. — Oval ; vertex depressed ; with four
shortish ambulacra, the hinder ones straight. Recent. —
Seba. Mus. iii. Tab. x. fig. 19.

147

7. A^. compressus. — Small, ovate, as if compressed at the
sides, and not spotted ; the back carinated ; four impressed
ambulacra. Recent, from the Isle of France.

8. S. crux andrecR. — Ovate, depressed ; with four lance-
olate ambulacra, obliquely divaricating ; with ccellated in-
terstices. Recent. South Sea.

9. S. sternalis. — Ovate, assulated, spotted; with four
ambulacra ; with a carinated sternum on the lower surface.
Recent. South Sea.

10. S. planulatus. — Elliptical, depressed ; with four
narrow lanceolate ambulacra, obliquely divaricating ; inter-
stices subocellated. Recent. South Sea.

* * With five ambulacra (spatangi.)

11. S. canaliferus. — Cordato-oblong, gibbous in the
hinder part ; with five open impressed ambulacra, the fore-
most the deepest, and channel-formed.

Spatangus lacunosus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxvii.
fig. A. Recent, in the South Sea. Fossil.

12. S. atropos.

An spatangus lacunosus ? — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. x. fig.
A. B. Recent and fossil.

13. S. arcuarius. — Cordated, inflated, gibbous poste-
riorly ; with five ambulacra, the side ones resembling double
bows ; the mouth subcentral.

Spatangus pucillus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxiv. fig.
c. d. e. and Tab. xxxviii, fig. 5.

14. S. punctatus. — Cordated, convex ; the back carinated
posteriorly ; with small punctiform tubercles ; the ambulacra
crenulated.

An spatangus cor anguinum? — Leske ap. Klein, Tab.
xxiii.* fig. G. Fossil.

* There exists a variety of this species, spat. cor. anguinum,
sulcis crispis, in which the ambulacra are slightly bent, and have
their transverse strise rather broader.

148

15. S. cor anguinum. — Cordate, subconvex ; five im-
pressed ambulacra, with four rows of pores ; two rows of
pores extended beyond the ambulacra.

Spatangus cor anguinum. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxiii.
fig. A. B. C. D. ; Tab. xlv. fig. 12 ; and Tab. xxiii. fig. e. f.

16. S. retusus. — Cordiform, raised in the hinder part of
the back ; convex, but depressed, narrower and grooved
before ; with five ambulacra, the fifth in the dorsal groove.
Fossil.

Ecliino-spatagus. — Breyn, Tab. v. fig. 3, 4. Spatangus
depressus. — Leske 9

17. S. subglobosus. — Cordato-orbiculate ; convex on both
sides ; with five ambulacra, doubly biporous ; the mouth
reniform, the vent ovate. Fossil. — Leske ap. Klein,
Tab.liv. fig. 2, 3.

18. S. gibbus. — Cordato-abbreviated ; convex; sub-
gibbous ; depressed in the fore part ; the hinder part raised ;
with five ambulacra, doubly biporous ; the vent ovate.
Fossil. — Encyc. fig. 4, 5, 6.

19. S. prunella. — Subglobose; gibbous in the back part ;
five short ambulacra with four rows of pores ; the vent at the
highest part of the marginal area. Fossil, from Maestricht.

20. S. radiatus. — Ovate, raised, grooved before, and there
rather depressed ; five ambulacra', the fifth rather obsolete
in the groove. Fossil, from Maestricht.

Spatangus striato-radiatus. — Leske ap. Klein, Tab. xxv.

No echinital remains appear to have been discovered in
either the transition or the mountain limestone. They occur,
but not frequently, in the lias formation ; and, from the size
and form of the spines, small and setose, they may be sup-
posed to belong to some of the species of cidaris, or of the
Lamarckian genus, echinus.

No remains of these animals are found in the sandy beds
of the inferior oolite, which have been deposited over the
Jias ; but, in the fuller's earth of the inferior oolite, placed

149

over these, the cidaris subangularis of Klein, and the echinus
angulosus of Lamarck, with one or two more of the La-
marckian genus echinus, are found. Here are also first dis-
covered remains of the genus clipeus : clipeus sinuatis of
Plot, and clipeus clunicularis, are here found in very good
preservation. These fossils afterwards occur in all the suc-
ceeding superior beds of the oolite series.

Echinidal spines, of a long, acicular form, so well pre-
served as to retain traces of their original colour, are found
jn the Stonesfield slate.

In the cornbrash, and in the clay over the great oolite,
are found a very depressed conular echinus, which might, at
first sight, be mistaken for Cl. sinuatus. The situation of
the mouth and vent would characterize it as a depressed
galerites, but that the petaloidal forms in which its ambulacra
are disposed would place it rather among the clypeasters.

Several species of cida rites also occur in the beds of the
oolite, and principally in the cornbrash, in the clay over the
great oolite, and in the upper beds of that rock. Three
beautiful species are found chiefly in the coral rag: — 1. Cid.
papillata, Organic Remains, Vol. iii. PI. i. fig. 9, very closely
agreeing with that which is found in the chalk. 2. Cid.
intermedia, Organic Remains, Vol. iii. PL i. fig. 6. 3. Cid.
diadema, fig. 4 of the same plate. In . this bed, the coral
rag, probably the last in which they occur, none having
been spoken of as found in any strata of posterior formation,
clipeus sinuatus, and clunicularis, are found in excellent
preservation.

The green sand presents some very curious and inte-
resting facts respecting these fossils. In the waters which
deposited this formation, the spatangi appear to have first
existed, no remains of this genus having been discovered in
any of the subjacent formations. It is also deserving of
observation, that they are not found again but in the chalk,
and in the seas of the present world. These fossils, like

150

almost all those of the green sand, are siliceous, and are
rendered more interesting from the white quartz crystals
which fill their cavities, and from their excellent preser-
vation, by which the minutest markings on their surfaces
are shewn.

If the fossil, which has been so frequently considered as
clipeus clunicularisj be not ranged under galerites, Lam.
(conulus), it is in this formation that galerites first appears
in a very small species.

Two of the genus cidarites are found in the neighbour-
hood of Heytesbury, which have been figured, Organic
Remains, Vol. iii. PL i. fig. 12 and 13, and are remarkable
for the appendages which are attached on the upper sur-
face, round the superior opening, and which extend over
nearly a third of the surface. In one of these, fig. 12, this
appendage is formed of roundish plates, their margins having
obtained somewhat of a polygonal form, apparently from the
lateral pressure against each other from the increase of their
size : a foramen is generally discoverable in the centre of
each plate, and numerous short filaments connect them with
each other. Repeated examination of this structure, in
numerous specimens, has led to the suggestion, that this
appendage may have been formed by the young animals,
just escaped from their ovulae, and thus attached to the
surface of the parent. The fossil, represented fig. 13, is
furnished with appendages formed by raised lines, crossing
each other in an irregular trellised form. No explanation
has yet been offered which will account for the existence of
this structure. May it not have proceeded from corru-
gations of the cuticular surface occasioned by the attach-
ment of the young, as noticed in the preceding fossil?

The chalk marl does not appear to contain any fossil
echinidae whatever.

It is in the chalk, and chiefly, perhaps, in that with in-
terspersed flints, that these fossils are most abundant.

151

Ananchytes, Lam. (helmet-shaped), is found here only : no
individual has been noticed as having been found in any of
the preceding subjacent formations; nor are any found in
the posterior formations or among the echinidae of the
present seas. Specimens of the galerites, Lam. frequently
occur here ; but, as has been observed respecting cJypeus
and ananchytes, this genus is only known in its mineralized
remains.

The spatangites are also frequently found in the chalk.

Numerous specimens of the genus cidaris are also found
in the chalk, and particularly in the Kentish chalk pits,
where several different species are discovered, and not
uncommonly those, which, from their being highly orna-
mented, may be termed diadems, many of which have their
tubercles perforated in the centre, and have also the bases
of their papillary projections, on which the spines articulate,
ornamented by regular crenulations.

Siliceous casts of the different species which exist in a
mineralized state are frequently found in the gravel derived
from the chalk; particularly of the smaller galeritfe, and
which, from their general diffusion, and from the irregular
variation of their forms, not allowing their separation into
distinct species, have been spoken of as echinitce vulgares.

Shells. — Recent shells are divided into univalves, bivalves,
and multivalves ; the univalves being also divided into those
which have one or more chambers, being unilocular or mul-
tilocular. But another section is necessary for the re-
ception of those extinct shells of the former world which
have been found in the earlier strata, and which, though
bearing the outward appearance of bivalve shells, are di-
vided by septa into several chambers. Such are productus
of Sowerby, first noticed by Martin ; and pentamerus dis-
covered by Mr. Aikin in the mountain limestone of Shrop-
shire, the nature of which shell has been so successfully

15-2

investigated by Mr. Sowerby*. These shells may be dis-
tinguished as multilocular bivalves.

Univalves vary considerably in their forms, being tubular,
discbidal, fusiform, turbinated (the spire passing suddenly
from the tumid belly of the shell), or turriculated (the turns
gradually enlarging, so as to form an elongated cone) ; they
are also ovoid, elliptical, &c. The surface also varies con-
siderably, being smooth, striated, trellised, grooved, &c.
and is, in some shells, beset with rounded or sharp ribs,
spines, foliaceous processes, &c. The shell (PL ix. fig. 2)
terminates superiorly with the top of the spire, which is
pointed, obtuse, or globular, and sometimes decollated, as
is chiefly observable in some shells of the genus bulimus.
The spire (a) is formed by the union of the turns, or whirls
(b), which are counted by reckoning the lower turn, con-
taining the opening, see below, as the first, and reckoning on
the same line to the top of the spire. The turns generally go
in a direction from the right to the left ; they very rarely pass
in the opposite direction, and, when that is the case, they are
termed reversed shells. The line at which the whirls are
united to each other is termed the suture. The whirls are
either plain, keeled, grooved, crenulated, or crowned with
points, tubercles, or spines, &c.

The back (c) is the external tumid part of the last turn
which forms the opening; the belly (d) is the corresponding
concavity, reaching to the part where the cavity contracts,
which is called the throat. The opening (e) is circular,
semicircular, oval, angular, &c. and is whole, or terminates
in a groove or a notch, which is either straight or reverted :
when the opening is longer than wide, it is said to be longi-
tudinal ; when wider than long, transverse; and when
straight and narrow, linear. The edge, or margin of the
opening, is divided into the right and left lips : the right, or

* Mineral Conchology, Vol. i. p. 154, &c.

153

outer lip (f), reaches from that point where it rests on the
last turn but one of the spire to the base of the shell. This
lip is notched at its base in the buccinums, and channelled
or grooved in the nmrexes, and has a fissure or notch in its
side in pleurotomas. In several shells, as in the helixes, it
extends over to the left side ; in some shells the right lip is
eared, having an appendix, differing in different species ;
being straight, smooth, digitated, &c. The left lip (g) is
opposite, of course, to the right, being that part which is
attached to the second turn of the spire, and is but of small
extent in those shells the opening of which is entire. The
columella (h), the little column round which the turns are
formed, is on the left side of the sheii, and terminates at its
base ; sometimes in a point, and sometimes in a hollow,
which is termed an umbilicus : the surface of the columella
varies considerably in different genera, being smooth or flat,
or rounded, and sometimes plaited, transversely or ob-
liquely; and sometimes dentated, channelled, tuberculated,
&c. : in some instances the umbilical termination is filled, as
if by an exudation of callus. The opening is sometimes
filled by a testaceous, or, sometimes, a cartilaginous body of
a convex external surface, but flat on the side next the
animal, where it is marked with a spiral line ; this is termed
the operculum.

Bivalve shells, when their valves are similar in size and
form, are said to be equivalved, if not, inequivalved ; when
the anterior part agrees in form and size with the posterior,
they are said to be equilateral, if not, inequilateral. The
valves are connected at their base by a ligament, with or
without a hinge, this ligament being placed either externally
or internally : the belly, PL ix. fig. 8 (a), is the most tumid
part ; the disk (b) is that part between the belly and the
margin (c), which is considered to refer to the external side,
or, as it may be termed, when the shell is placed on its
base, the upper side; then the eminences, (umbones) (d),

x.

154

are beneath the hinge, and terminate in the points or beaks
(mucrones) (e), which are incurved, reflexed, earformed,
&c. The beaks are frequently, in particular shells, accom-
panied by two external impressions ; one of these, the
corselet (f), is on the anterior surface, and is separated
from the disk, generally, by a ridge, an angle, or a sunken
line, and is often distinguishable by its difference of colour
as well as by other circumstances : it is sometimes spinous,
carinated, lamellated, &c. but it is generally smooth, when
it is said to be naked. The other, the lunule (#), is placed
at the bottom of the posterior surface : it is variously
shaped, oval, oblong, lanceolated, &c. and is sometimes
edged, toothed, &c. The shell being placed on the hinge,
the anterior side being forward, that is considered as the
right valve which answers to the left hand, and that as the
left valve which answers to the right hand of the observer.
The length of the shell is measured from the hinge to the
outer or upper edge, and the width from the end of the
anterior to that of the posterior margin. Those shells,
whose length exceeds their width, are considered as longi-
tudinal shells, and those whose width exceeds their length,
transverse shells. The forms and markings of bivalves are
too numerous to be noticed in this place. Shells are ne-
cessarily distinguished into free, such as are capable of
being moved, and fixed., being such as are adherent to other
solid bodies. On the internal surface of the valves are
impressions of a regular form, varying in that respect as
well as in their number, in different shells : these are the
places where the animal was attached to the shell by its
muscular or tendinous attachment, and may be called the
muscular impressions. These vary in their number, ac-
cording to the number of muscles employed for this purpose,
being one, two, or even more, on each valve. The hinge (h)
is placed in the most solid part of the shell, generally in its
base, beneath its beaks. It is usually formed of teeth,

which either shut into each other or into corresponding
grooves in the opposite valve. Those teeth which are most
decidedly beneath the beaks, in the middle, are termed the
cardinal or hinge teeth , and the distant ones the lateral or
accessory teeth. In some shells there are no decided teeth ;
the motion being regulated by the ligament being attached
to a testaceous protuberance, termed a callus. The teeth
themselves vary also in their forms, situations, &c. as' will
be seen in the description of the several genera.

A knowledge of the action of the ligament, which, it has
been mentioned, serves to attach the valves, is necessary
to be possessed by those who enter into the investigations
frequently demanded respecting fossil bivalves. This li-
gament is sometimes placed externally, and sometimes in-
ternally. When external, it necessarily becomes stretched
when the shell is closed ; and then, if the muscle which
holds the valves together becomes relaxed, it opens them by
its elasticity only : but, if internal, between the valves, it
becomes compressed when the valves are closed, and then
opens them by its elasticity, as soon as the muscular action
diminishes or ceases.

Multivalve shells differ materially in their form and
structure : some, as the pholas, may be considered, from
their having their two sides of the same form and dimen-
sions, as equivali-ed ; others, as the anomia, are inequivalced.
Some have their valves joined by a squamose kind of suture,
as the balanus ; others have their valves united in a ten-
dinous peduncle ; whilst, in others, the valves are contained
in a testaceous tube.

The illustrious Linnaeus disposed all the shells which
were known in his time under thirty-six genera, founding
their generic distinctions, in the univalves, chiefly on the
characters of their openings, and, in the bivalves, on those
of their hinge. But these genera were found insufficient
for the necessary distinctions : shells essentially different

156

being crowded together under the same genus ; and the
fossil shells which were subsequently discovered differed so
much from those which were before known, as to render an
an augmentation of the number of the genera absolutely
necessary. This work was commenced by M. Bruguiere ;
and has been since most successfully conducted by Le
Chev. de Lamarck, to whom we are much indebted for
making a considerable augmentation of the number of ge-
nera, and for suggesting several other important changes in
the classification.

In this part of the present work it is proposed to give
the most prominent characters of the known genera, with
sketches illustrative of their distinctive differences.

Univalves.

GCNUS 1. — Planospirites. — A flat univalve, nearly cir-
cular, with a cord-like ridge passing from the edge on to
the inferior surface, and curving backwards in a spiral
direction. Fossil, St. Peter's, Maestricht. — PI. iii. fig. 1.

2. Oscana. — An oval univalve, slightly vaulted ; no spire,
semitransparent, and nearly coriaceous. Recent. — PL iii.
fig. 2.

3. Testacella. — An obliquely conical univalve; apex
turned ; opening oval ; the left edge turned inwards. lie-
cent. — PI. iii. fig. 3.

Grows on the caudal termination of an animal generally
resembling a slug.

4. Patella. — A shield formed, subconical univalve ; no
spire, and without perforation of the disk, or marginal
fissure.* Recent and fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 4.

* Patella mitrata, Lin. and P. cornucopia and dilatata, Lam.
have the peculiar property of being attached to an operculum, or
undervalve, by a muscle, the mark of attachment of which, espe-
cially on the lower valve, bears somewhat of the figure of a horse-
shoe ; this valve being attached by the other side to other bodies.

157

5. Fissurella. — A shield-formed, subconical univalve;
no spire ; the vertex perforated with an oblong opening.
Recent and fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 5.

6. Emarginula. — An obliquely conical univalve ; the ver-
tex inclined, and the posterior margin notched. Recent
and fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 6.

7. Concholepas. — An oval univalve, convex upwards ; the
vertex inclined on the left side ; the cavity terminating at
the base of the right edge with two teeth and a groove.
Recent. — PI. iii. fig. 7.

8. Slomatia. — An oval, ear-formed univalve, with a pro-
minent spire ; opening ample, entire, and longer than wide ;
disk not perforated. Recent. — PI. iii. fig. 8.

9. Argonauta. — An involuted univalve ; the spire turn-
ing into the opening ; very thin, with a tubercular double
dorsal keel. Recent, and very rarely fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 9.

10. Carinaria. — A subconical univalve; flattened at the
sides, very thin ; the apex turned in a small spiral ; the back
furnished with a dentated keel ; the opening entire, oblong,
and contracted toward the keel. Recent. — PI. iii. fig. 10.

11. Sigaretus. — An oval, flattish, and ear-formed uni-
valve, with a short spiral columella; the opening entire,
ample, longer than wide, and spread out towards the right
lip. Recent, and but rarely fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 11.

This shell, vrhich has been named hipponix, is considered by
M. de France, its discoverer, as an univalve, the animal of which
has the power of forming this additional portion to raise it above
the substance by which it is supported.

Mr. G. Sowerby, who has given a very interesting account of
this shell in his valuable work on the genera of recent and fossil
shells, considers it as being decidedly a bivalve shell.

It has not either cardinal ligament or hinge : and it is worthy
of remark, that similar muscular impressions are observable on other
valves which have been attributed to other species of patella.

158

12. Haliotis. — An oval, flattish, and ear-formed univalve,
with a depressed spire and row of round holes along the right
edge ; the opening large, and longer than wide. Recent. —
PI. iii. fig. 12.

13. Calyptrcea. — A conoidal and spiral univalve; the
apex entire, and rather depressed ; with a folded tongue-like
process proceeding from the internal summit, Recent
and fossil. — PL iii. fig. 13.

14. Infundibulum. — A conical univalve ; hollow beneath,
spirally twisted, with a central spiral columella, and a spi-
rally decurrent plate or valve within ; mouth round, ex-
panded ; lip entire and sharp. Recent and fossil. — PL iii.
fig. 14.

I have adopted Mr. Sowerb^'s description of this genus,
agreeing with that gentleman in the propriety of separating
this shell from the genus calyptrcea, as has been done by M.
Denys de Montfort.

1 5. Crepidula. — An oblong, vaulted univalve ; the apex
inclined to the edge ; the cavity partially divided by a
simple .diaphragm. Recent, and very rarely fossil. —
PL iii. fig. 15.

16. Dentalium. — A tubular, tapering, slightly bowed
univalve ; open at both ends.* Recent and fossil. —
PL iii. fig. 16.

17. Siliquaria. — A tubular univalve, spiral at the be-
ginning, and continued in an irregular tubular form ; par-
tially divided at the side by a narrow sharply dentated slit,
and sometimes formed into chambers by partial septa.
Fossil.— PL iii. fig. 17.

The commencing spiral turn is omitted in the figure, to
give a better opportunity of showing the peculiar charac-
teristic of the shell, its dentelated fissure.

* Dentalium, siliquaria, vermicularia, and serpula, belong to les
annelides sedentaires of Lamarck.

159

18. Vermicularia. — A tubular, free univalve,.commencing
spirally, and continued more or less contorted ; the sides
entire, and the opening simple and round. Recent and
fossil.— PL iii. fig. 18.

The spiral commencement of vermicular ia is not marked
in the figure, it having been more desirable to show the form
in which this shell is generally found as a fossil. Indeed,
they occur so frequently in this form, as to give reason for
supposing either that the straight vermiculana forms a dis-
tinct species, or that, the spiral commencement being as-
sumed as a generic distinction, another genus should be
formed for the reception of the straight ones. Perhaps
some of the smaller fossil vermicular shells, resembling
those in the preceding figure, may be found to belong rather
to ver miUa, Lam.

19. Serpula. — A tubular, adherent univalve, variously
twisted and grouped; sometimes divided by entire septa.
Recent and fossil. — PI. iii. fig. 19.

The protean character of the fossil shells of this genus
is very remarkable, they imitating the forms of the Shells of
several other genera.

20 — Conus. — A turbinated, convoluted, and reversedly
conical univalve ; the aperture long, narrow, toothless, and
not contracted at its base. Recent and fossil. — PL iii.
fig. 22.

21. Cyprcea. — An ovate and vaulted univalve; spire
small, and nearly covered over ; the opening narrow, the
length of the shell ; the margins involuted and toothed on
each side. Recent and fossil. — PL iii. fig. 23.

22. Ovula. — An obovate univalve, tumid in the middle,
and more or less elongated ; the opening the length of the
shell, with a channel at each end ; with no teeth on the left
side. Recent. — PL iii. fig. 24.

23. Bulla. — A univalve of a roundish oval form, the
spire not projecting ; the opening the length of the shell,

160

and widest at the lower part. Recent and fossil. —
PI. iii. fig. 25.

24. Terebellum. — A spiral and convoluted univalve, with
a pointed apex; the opening long and narrow upwards,
toothless, and notched at the base. Recent and fossil. —
PL iii. fig. 26.

M. de Montfort has separated a shell which had been
included in the genus terebellum, and has formed of it the
following genus, since adopted by Mr. Sowerby.

25. Seraphs. — A convoluted, elongated, univalved shell;
spire internal, concealed; base truncated; mouth longi-
tudinal, extending to the apex of the spire ; lip sharp ; co-
lumella smooth. It differs from terebellum chiefly in having
its spire entirely internal.

26. Volvaria. — A cylindrical and convoluted univalve ;
the spire scarcely extruded ; the opening narrow, the length
of the shell; the columella plaited at its base. Recent. —
PI. iv. fig. 1.

27. Oliva. — A spiral and nearly cylindrical univalve,
notched at the base ; the turns of the spire separated by a
small groove ; the columella obliquely plaited. Recent and
fossil. — PI. iv. fig. 2.

28. Ancilla. — An oblong, subcylindrical univalve, with
a short spire ; the sutures not grooved ; the aperture spread;
the base notched ; a thick oblique fold at the base of the
columella. Recent and fossil. — PI. iv. fig. 3.

29. Valuta. — A subfusiform, more or less tumid, uni-
valve ; apex obtuse or papillated ; base slightly grooved, not
channelled : columella plaited, the lower plaits being the
largest or the longest. Recent and fossil. — PI. iv. fig. 4.

30. Mitra. — A subfusiform univalve, with a pointed apex ;
base notched, but with no channel ; the columella plaited,
the lower plaits being the smallest. Recent and fossil. —
PI. iv. fig. 5.

31. Columbella. — An oval univalve, with a short spire;

the base grooved, but not channelled ; the lip crenulated,
and tumid on the inner side ; folds or teeth on the columella.
Recent. — PI. iv. fig. 6.

32. Marginella. — An oval univalve, with a short spire ;
lip with a thick border; base slightly grooved; columella
plaited. Recent and fossil. — PI. iv. fig. 7.

33. Cancellaria. — An oval and subturretted univalve;
lip transversely grooved on the inside ; base slightly notched,
sometimes entire ; columella with sharp but compressed
plaits. Recent and fossil. — PI. iv. fig. 8.

34. Fasciolaria. — A subfusiform univalve ; the base
grooved ; no projecting sutures ; columella with two or three
very oblique folds. Recent. — PL iv. fig. 9.

35. Turbinellus. — A subfusiform univalve; the base
grooved ; with from three to five compressed transverse
plaits on the upper part of the columella. Recent. — PL iv.
fig. 10.

36. Buccinum. — A suboval univalve ; opening oblong,
notched at the base, but not channelled ; columella convex
and full. Recent and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 11.

37. Eburna. — A suboval univalve ; the lip thick ; open-
ing oblong and grooved at the bottom ; the columella umbi-
licated and slightly grooved at its base. Recent and
fossil.— PL iv. fig. 12.

38. Terebra. — A longish turriculated univalve ; the open-
ing about one third of its length, notched at its base ; colu-
mella terminating obliquely. Recent and fossil. — PL iv.
fig. 13.

39. Dolium. — A ventricose, nearly globose univalve ;
ribbed transversely ; the lip ribbed through its whole length ;
the opening wide, notched at the bottom. Recent. —
PL iv. fig. 14.

40. Harpa. — An oval and ventricose univalve, with longi-
tudinal compressed ribs terminating upwards in an angle or

162

point ; the opening terminating in a notch ; the columella
smooth, with an acute base. Recent and fossil. — PL iv.
fig. 15.

41. Cassis. — A ventricose univalve; the aperture long,
terminating in a short reflected groove ; the lips subden-
tated: the left lip flattened, and forming a ridge on the
body of the shell ; the columella plaited on its lower part.
Recent and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 16.

42. Nassa. — An oval univalve ; the opening terminating
inferiorly by an oblique reflected notch ; a callosity on the
left side covers the columella, forms into a transverse fold
in the upper part, and has its base obliquely truncated.
Recent.— PL iv. fig. 17.

43. — Purpura. — An oval and sometimes tuberculated or
spinous univalve ; the opening terminating in a short oblique
groove, notched at the extremity. The columella naked,
flat in the whole of the lower part, and finishing at its base
in a point. Recent and fossiL — PL iv. fig. 18.

44. Strombus. — A slightly ventricose univalve, termi-
nating inferiorly by a short truncated or notched groove ; the
right edge dilating with age into a wing or lobe, having a
sinus distinct from the notched canal at the base. Recent
and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 19.

45. Pterocera. — A ventricose univalve, terminating in-
feriorly by an elongated canal ; the right edge dilating with
age into a digitated wing, with a sinus at its summit.
Recent.— PL iv. fig. 20.

46. Rostellaria. — A subturriculated or fusiform univalve,
terminating at its base with a lengthened canal, with a sharp
beak ; the lip, dilating with age, is either whole or dentated,
with a groove at the lower end, and a sinus extending to the
summit of the spire. Recent and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 21.

47. Murex. — An ovate or oblong univalve, with rough,
spinous, or fringed longitudinal sutures ; base channelled.
Recent and fossiL — PL iv. fig. 22.

163

48. Fusus. — A subfusiform univalve ; ventricose in the
middle or lower part, but with no varices ; the spine longish;
the base channelled ; columella generally smooth ; and lip
entire. Recent and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 23.

49. Pyrula. — A somewhat pyriform univalve, without
varices ; the spire short ; the base channelled and caudated ;
the columella smooth, arid the lip entire. Recent and
fossil.— PL iv. fig. 24.

50 Pleurotoma. — A turriculated and subfusiform uni-
valve ; the lower part of the opening channelled ; a notch in
the upper part of the right lip. Recent and fossil. —
PL iv. fig. 25.

51. Clavatula. — A subturriculated univalve, the opening
terminating by a short channel or notch ; a sinus in the
upper part of the right lip. Recent. — PL iv. fig, 26.

f>2. Cerithium. — A turriculated univalve, the opening
oblique, terminating at the base by a truncated or recurved
canal, and upwards in a groove more or less distinct. Re-
cent and fossil. — PL iv. fig. 27.

53. Melania. — A turriculated univalve, the opening oval
or oblong ; the inner lip spread out ' at the base of the
columella, which is smooth. Recent and fossil. — PL v.
fig. 1.

54. Turritella. — A turriculated univalve ; the opening
roundish ; the margin disjoined in the upper part ; a sinus
in the right lip. Recent and fossil. — PL v. fig. 2.

55. Pyramidella. — A turriculated univalve; the opening
entire and semi-oval; the columella projecting, furnished
with three transverse plaits, and perforated at its base.
Recent. — PL v. fig. 3.

56. Auricula. — An oval or oblong univalve, with a
raised spire ; the aperture oblong, entire, and contracted
above ; the lips united ; the columella with plaits inde-
pendent of the decurrence of the outer lip. Recent and
fossil —PL v. fig. 4.

164

57. Achatina. — An oval or oblong univalve ; the opening
oblong and entire; the columella smooth. Recent. —
PL v. fig. 5.

58. Lymncea. — An oblong, subturriculated univalve ; the
opening entire and oblong ; the right lip rising within the
opening, and forming an oblique fold on the columella.
Recent and fossil. — PI. v. fig. 6.

59. Turbo. — A conoidal and subturriculated univalve;
the opening roundish; the columella smooth; the margin
disjoined at the upper part. Recent and fossil. — PL v. fig. 7.

60. Monodonta. — An oval or conoidal univalve; the
opening roundish and entire ; the columella forming a
tooth-like process by its projecting base ; the margin dis-
joined at the upper part. Recent. — PL v. fig. 8.

61. Bulimus. — An ovate or oblong, and subturriculated
univalve; the opening entire, longitudinally oblong, having,
in adults, a reflected right lip; the columella smooth,
neither truncated nor expanded at its base. Recent and
fossil.— PL v. fig. 9.

62. Phasianella. — On ovate and thick univalve ; the
opening longitudinal, ovate, and entire ; with a sharp plain
lip ; the columella smooth and attenuated at its base. Re-
cent and rarely fossil. — PL v. fig. 10.

63. Vivipara. — An oval or oblong univalve, with a regu-
larly elevated and rounded spire ; the opening entire, longi-
tudinal, and oblong; the lips united angularly above.
Recent and fossil. — PL v. fig. 11.

64. Helix. — A globose univalve, with a convex or co-
noidal spire ; the opening entire, wider than long, and dimi-
nished in its upper part by the projection of the penultimate
turn of the spire. Recent and fossil. — PL v. fig. 12.

65. Helicina. — A subglobose univalve ; the opening en-
tire and semiovate ; the columella callous, with no umbi-
licus; depressed and flattened at the lower part. Recent;
one or two fossil species ? — PL v. fig. 13.

165

66. Ampullaria. — A subglobose univalve ; the opening
longer than wide, and entire ; umbilicus at the base of the
columella, but no thickening of the left lip. Recent and
fossil.— PI. v. fig. 14.

67. Natica. — A subglobose, umbilicated univalve ; open-
ing semicircular and entire ; the columella transverse, without
teeth, and callous externally, the callus contracting or even
covering the umbilicus. Recent and fossil. — Pl.v. fig. 15.

68. Nerita. — A semiglobose univalve; the columella
nearly transverse and flat, with an acute and generally den-
tated edge. Recent and fossil. — PI. v. fig. 16.

69. Cyclostoma. — A subdiscoidal or subpyramidal uni-
valve, with round turns, the last of which is the largest ; the
opening round, or nearly so; the edge circularly united,
forming a wide continuous margin. Recent and fossil. —
PL v. fig. 17.

70. Pupa. — A somewhat cylindriform univalve ; the spire
long, the last turn not being larger than the preceding one ;
the opening irregular, rounded or oval ; the edges circularly
united. Recent. — PI. iii. fig. 20.

71. Scalaria. — A turriculated univalve; the turns
rounded and nearly separate, with acute and longitudinal
raised ribs ; the opening nearly circular ; the margin unin-
terrupted and reflected. Recent and fossil. — PI. v. fig. 18.

72. Delphinula. — A subdiscoidal, thick, pearly, and um-
bilicated univalve ; the turns generally muricated ; the
opening round; the margin circular and uninterrupted.
Recent and fossil.— PI. v. fig. 19.

73. Cirrus. — A spiral and conical univalve, without a
columella ; funnel-shaped beneath ; volutions united. Fossil.
—PI. v. fig. 20.

74. Planorbis. — A discoidal univalve ; spire depressed ;
turns visible on both sides ; opening entire, but diminished
by the projection into it of the preceding whirl. Recent
and fossil.— PI. v. fig. 21.

166

75. Euomphalus. — An involute and rather discoidal uni-
valve ; the spire depressed ; concave beneath, or largely um-
bilicated ; aperture mostly angular. Fossil. — PL v. fig. 22.

76. Janthina. — A subglobose univalve ; the opening
triangular, with an angular sinus on the right edge. Re-
cent.— PL v. fig. 23.

77. Trochus. — A conical univalve ; the opening almost
quadrangular, transversely depressed; the axis oblique on
the plane of the base. — PL v. fig. 24.

78. Solarium. — A conical univalve, with an open um-
bilicus underneath ; the inner edges of the whirls crenu-
lated; the opening nearly quadrangular. Recent and
fossil.— PL v. fig. 25.

Multilocular Univalves.

M. Denys de Montfort, author of an interesting and im-
portant work, Conchyliologie Systematique, has, with much
careful discrimination, separated into different genera the
multilocular univalves ; the microscopic shells into sixty ; and
those which are within the power of the naked eye, being those
which had been included in nautilus, ammonites, belemnites,
orthoceratites, spirula, scaphites, nummulites, and siderolites,
into forty genera ; forming almost every shell, marked by a
slight difference, into a distinct genus. These separations,
although, perhaps, founded on accurate discrimination, ap-
pear to be too frequent ; and their multiplicity bears too
much on the memory, and deprives it of the aid which it
seeks to derive from classification. These observations are
applicable only, perhaps, to the larger kinds ; for, as to the
microscopic shells, the eccentricity of their forms, their vast
variety, and the peculiarity of character which mark their
ornaments, must render their classification a very difficult
task; every different shell appearing to repel all association.
A more intimate knowledge of their nature and charac-

167

teristics seems to be necessary, before an appropriate ar-
rangement of them can be adopted. The larger tribe has
been separated into twenty-two genera, all of which have
been found in a fossil state : whilst one genus only, nautilus,
is known to exist in a recent state. Two opinions are
entertained respecting this great disproportion between the
number of fossil and of recent shells of this tribe. Some
suppose that those genera, of which only fossil shells are
found, have become extinct ; whilst others believe that
these shells are still existing in a recent state; but are
pelagian shells, their inhabitants constantly residing at the
bottom of the deep. This opinion is entertained by some
of the latest French writers, particularly by M. de Montfort.

But an examination of these shells proves, that, so far
from their inhabitants having been destined to a constant
residence at the bottom of the ocean, they possessed, beyond
all other testaceous animals, the power of rising up to, and
remaining at, the surface of the sea. Supposing them, there-
fore, still to live, they would occasionally, as the nautilus is,
be seen at the surface ; but not a single instance being
known of a shell of these genera having been thus seen,
their existence may be reasonably doubted.

The apparatus enabling the animal to raise or sink him-
self at pleasure is plainly discoverable in the fossil shell of
the nautilus: but the most important part of this organ, the
continuous siphuncle, is not discoverable in the dried speci-
mens of the recent shell. The shell in the nautilus (PI. vi.
fig. 1) is formed of a number, more or less, of chambers, divi-
ded by pierced septa. The animal resides in the largest
and last formed chamber ; an elastic tube, proceeding from
the animal, passes through the pierced septa and the several
chambers, and terminates in the first. Now, assuming that
the office of this tube is analogous with that of the swim-
ming bladder of fishes, it is by no means difficult to conceive
how the required changes of situation may be produced.

168

The weight of the shell is so counterbalanced by the empty
chambers, that the siphuncle passing through these cham-
bers, accordingly as it is dilated with gaseous or with aqueous
fluids, will alter the specific gravity of the whole mass, and
cause it either to swim or to sink. Supposing the animal to
be lying at the bottom of the sea, saturated with food, and
the siphuncle filled with a fluid ; as the food is digested and
decomposed, detached gas may pass from the primce vice
into the siphuncle, and gradually take the place of the
water ; when, in proportion as the specific gravity of the
whole mass is thus diminished, it will rise, probably into
that region of the waters in which the food of the animal
most abounds. Here, on obtaining sufficient food, or on
alarm from an enemy, the animal admits water into the
siphuncle, and immediately sinks.

In all the other genera of this tribe, an apparatus, formed
of vacant chambers and a membranous siphuncle, exists,
capable of producing similar effects with those produced
by that of the nautilus ; but necessarily differing in some
respects, from variety of modification of the form and struc-
ture peculiar to each genus. The siphuncle is often very
well displayed in sections of the orthoceratite, and in these
this tube will be found to have been capable of being dilated
to a very considerable extent.

Multilocular Spiral and Discoidal Shells.

GENUS I. Nautilus. — A multilocular, spiral, and sub-
discoidal shell ; the turns contiguous, the outer one including
the others ; the chambers separated by plain or nearly plain
transverse septa, concave outwards, and perforated by shelly
tubes connected by a tubular membrane so as to form a com-
plete siphuncle. Recent and fossil. — PL vi. fig. 1.

2. Orbulites. — A multilocular, spiral, and subdiscoidal
shell, the turns contiguous, the outer one including the

169

others ; the chambers separated by ivinding septa, pierced
by a siphuncle at the outer side of their margin. Fossil.

The shells of this genus agreeing in their external form
with that of the shells of the preceding genus, nautilus, the
difference being internal, from the septa being winding, and
the siphuncle marginal, an illustrative figure was unnecessary.

The propriety of the adoption of this genus seems to be
indisputable, its shells possessing the external characters of
nautilus, and the internal characters, the winding septa and
marginal siphuncle, of ammonites. But there are other
fossil shells, which, possessing the exterior of nautilus, have
only one of the characteristics of ammonites, as in Organic
Remains, PL vii. fig. 15, in which the winding septa are
\vithout the marginal siphuncle: and in fig. 16 of the same
plate, where the marginal siphuncle exists without the
winding septa. Indeed, the situation of the siphuncle is
too variable, existing in every point on a line from the
centre, and, perhaps, from the posterior to the anterior
margin, to allow of its being assumed alone as a distinctive
generic character.

3. Planulites. — A multilocular, spiral, flattish, and dis-
coidal shell ; the turns contiguous and apparent ; the cham-
bers separated by plain septa, pierced with a marginal
siphuncle. Fossil.

As the shells of the preceding genus have possessed the
outer appearance of nautilus, with the internal characters
of ammonites, so this shell possesses the external appear-
ance of ammonites, and, at the same time, is characterized
by the plain concave septa of nautilus. As its external
form agrees with that of the following genus, another figure
is not requisite.

4. Ammonites. — A multilocular, spiral, and discoidal
shell, with contiguous apparent turns ; the chambers divided
by winding septa, pierced by a siphuncle always placed at
the outer side. Fossil. — PI. vi. fig. 2.

z.

170

Two very different shells have been placed under the
genus ellipsolithes (Sowerby), both oval and discoidal shells;
but one possessing the involved whirls and the plain septa
of nautilus, and the other the whirls, apparent on both sides,
and the winding septa of ammonites. It being desirable
that the student should be apprised of the forms and cha-
racters of these fossils, their figures and a description of
their characters are given ; but although, for the sake of
discrimination, a name is added to each, it is not intended
to urge a claim for their being considered as distinct genera.
In this I am glad to concur with Mr. Sowerby, who ob-
serves, that " The genus ellipsolithes must certainly be
abolished, and its species ranged under ammonites, the oval
form being quite accidental."

5. Nautellipsites. — A multilocular, tumidly discoidal and
elliptically spiral shell ; the turns contiguous, the outer one
including the others ; situation of the siphuncle nearly
central. Fossil. — PI. vi. fig. 3.

6. Ammonellipsites. — A multilocular, flatly discoidal and
elliptically spiral shell ; the turns contiguous and apparent
on both sides ; the chambers separated by winding septa ;
the siphuncle marginal. Fossil. — PI. vi. fig. 4.

7. Nummulites. — A multilocular, lenticular shell; the
spire internal, formed of several plates, connected with each
other on both sides by numerous transverse septa, the in-
ternal plates being involved by the more external. Fossil. —
PI. vi. fig. 5.

8. Siderolites. — A flattish, multilocular shell, convex
above and beneath, set with pointed tubercles, with four or
five short unequal rays on the edge, not manifesting any pores.

An idea of this fossil may be formed by considering the
radiating appendices as proceeding from bodies like the
nummulites. Faujas St. Fond, who has given the best re-
presentation of these bodies, delineates them as being mul-
tilocular, somewhat like the nummulites.

171

9. Scaphites. — A multilocular shell, commencing with
spiral turns, the last of which, after being enlarged and
elongated, is contracted and reflected. Fossil. — PL vi.
fig. 6.

10. Spirula. — A multilocular shell, partly spiral and
partly straight: the whirls circular, separate from each
other, and the last elongated in a straight line; the
septa plain, concave outwards, and pierced, nearly at the
margin, with a shelly siphuncle. Recent and fossil. —
PL vi. fig. 7.

11. Lituites. — A multilocular shell, partly spiral and
partly straight ; the whirls circular and contiguous, but the
last elongated in a straight line ; the septa transverse, con-
cave outwards, and pierced, nearly at their outer margin,
with a siphuncle. Fossil.

The figure of the preceding genus will suffice for this,
only with the conceived difference of the whirls being con-
tiguous, and a greater length of the straight part. The
student should be guarded in his conclusions with respect
to the contiguity of the whirls in these fossils. The contact
is, necessarily, only in a line passing horizontally through
the middle of the spiral ; and as these fossils are constantly
imbedded, this line of contact can only be seen when the
artist is so successful as to make his section exactly in this
line : if the section is made the least beside the central,
widest, part of the tube, the whirls will not be seen in con-
tact, but will appear separate, in proportion as the section is
distant from the centre.

12. Hamites. — A multilocular hook-formed shell, with
sinuous septa, pierced with a marginal siphuncle. Fossil.
—PL vi. fig. 8.

13. Orthoceratites. — A multilocular straight, or slightly
bent, cylindrical, or slightly conical shell ; the chambers
separated by plain septa, concave towards the larger end,
and pierced with a siphuncle. Fossil. — PL vi. fig. 9.

172

14. Baculites. — A raultilocular straight, or slightly bent,
cylindrical, or slightly conical, shell; the chambers sepa-
rated by sinuous septa, pierced with a marginal siphuncle.
Fossil. — PL vi. fig. 10.

15. Belemnites. — A conical or fusiform stone, of brown
radiating spar, generally terminating at the small end in a
point, and having at the larger end a conical cavity, natu-
rally retaining a conical testaceous body, divided into cham-
bers by plain concave septa, and pierced by a siphuncle.
Fossil. — PL vi. fig. 11.

16. Hippurites. — A straight or conical shell, furnished
internally with transverse septa, and with two lateral, longi-
tudinal, obtuse, and converging ridges, of very light texture.
Fossil.— PL vi. fig. 12.

It was endeavoured to show, in a former work, that the
spathose substance in the belemnite was originally a light
substance, of a texture somewhat similar to cork, and was
the float to the animal, which rendered it so nearly equal to
the weight of water as to allow it to rise or fall, as the
siphuncle was filled with air or with water.

In the fossil last described, a peculiar modification of
structure in its covering appears to have accomplished the
same purpose : the shelly enclosure has evidently been of a
peculiar light texture, by which such a diminution of the
gravity of the mass would be obtained as would fit it for
being similarly acted upon by the internal presence of gas
or of water, as in the instance of the belemnite.

17. Turrilites. — A spiral, turriculated, multilocular shell ;
the turns contiguous, and all visible ; the chambers separated
by winding septa; with a siphuncle in their disks; the
aperture round. Fossil. — PL vi. fig. 13.

18. Fasciolites. — A subcylindrical shell, formed of multi-
locular tubes, narrowing at both their ends, disposed con-
tiguously and parallel ; the tapering ends transversely and
obliquely folded on each other. Fossil. — PL vi. fig. 14.

173

19. Actinias. — A multilocular, straight, and conical shell ;
mouth round and horizontal ; siphuncle central ; summit
pierced by eight small tuberculated apertures, disposed
round a stelliform figure ; the septa conical, plaited at the
bottom and plain at the edge. The substance spathose,
similar to that of the belemnites.

This fossil is figured and described by M. de Montfort.
It was also noticed by Knorr; and was found by Annone
in the neighbourhood of Prattelen, in the Canton of Basle.
The termination of its summit is represented in PI. vi.
fig. 15. Fossil.

20. Amplexus. — A nearly cylindrical shell, divided into
chambers by numerous transverse septa; the septa em-
bracing each other with their reflexed margins. Fossil. —
PI. vi. fig. 16.

We are indebted to Mr. Sowerby for the addition of
this interesting genus to the multilocular shells. The fossil
which was subjected to this gentleman's examination was
found in the Black Rock, at Limerick ; and bearing much
of the appearance of a coral or madrepore, received the
specific designation of amplexus coralloides, its specific cha-
racters being, " Tube irregularly bent, longitudinally stri-
ated ; margins of the septa deeply reflexed and regularly
plaited. The septa are a fourth or a fifth part of the dia-
meter distant from each other, with the margin reflexed to
the next septum. The folds on the margin of the septa
correspond in width to the longitudinal striae of the tube,
and are so deep as to form elongated cells, opening into the
chambers ; the lines of growth are close, and rather unequal
in depth*."

21. Conularia. — A conical, hollow, univalve shell; di-
vided by imperforate septa ; the mouth half closed. Fossil.
—PI. vi. fig. 17.

* Mineral Conchology, vol. i. p. 165, Tab. Ixxii.

174

This fossil was first described and figured by the Rev.
Mr. Ure, in his " History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride."
It has also been particularly noticed by Mons. Denys de
Montfort, as having been found in St. Peter's Mountain,
near Maestricht, and has been distinguished, by him, by
the term pyrgopolon, with the specific designation of mosce,
but to which, perhaps, the term teres would be more ap-
plicable, the specimen figured by De Montfort agreeing,
I conjecture, with C. teres of Mr. Sowerby, Min. Conch.
Tab. cclx. fig. 1, 2. We are obliged to Mr. Miller, of
Bristol, for having instituted this genus. Mr. Sowerby
describes and figures two species, C. quadrisulcata, fig. 17,
and C. teres.

Besides the multilocular shells which are here parti-
cularized, many more, both in a recent and mineralized
state, have been described by Bianchi, Soldani, Fichtell,
Moll, Boys, Walker, and others, which are so minute as to
require microscopical aid to discover, with correctness,
even their forms. These objects of admiration occur in
such variety of forms, of structure, and of richly varied
markings, as nearly to foil the naturalist in his attempts at
classification, and almost to authorize the mode of M. de
Montfort, who places almost every shell under a distinct
genus. Sixty genera have been already formed of these
interesting domiciles, and many more, doubtlessly, lie hidden
to reward the diligence of future inquirers.

When it is considered that these belong to only one
division of shells, and that there remain to be added to these
the microscopic univalved and bivalved shells, their mul-
titude will certainly authorize these minute shells being
described and treated of in distinct works ; although their
connection with the larger subjects of this class of Nature's
works will demand their being studied with them, both by
the conchologist and the oryctologist.

It has, however, been thought proper to introduce here,

175

three of these shells to the reader's notice, on account of
some particular circumstances in their history.

Miliolites saxorum, Lam. (PI. vi. fig. 18.) — This minute
species of fossil shell is known to form the principal part of
the masses of stone in some of the quarries in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris, Versailles, Champagne, &c. The recent
shell has been found on Fucus, near the island of Corsica ;
and by Mr. Boys and Mr. Walker on our coasts, and was,
by the latter writer, named serpula subovalis intorta. *
It was also mentioned by Mr. Montague as vermiculum
i /i tor turn.

Cornu ammonis ariminiense, Plane. (PI. vi. fig. 19,) is
the shell which Plancus and others classed with the cornu
ammonis, considering them as the recent shells of this
genus ; but the discovery of fossil microscopic shells exactly
analogous with the minute recent ones has shown their
correspondence with each other, and that they are entirely
different from the shells of the genus ammonites.

Gyrogonites. — A spheroidal hollow fossil, of the size of a
middling pin's head, having two poles, in which terminate
five tubules turning from right to left, and making one
revolution and a half round the spheroid. — PI. vi. fig. 20.

M. Leman has been enabled to discover a close agree-
ment between the form and structure of this fossil and of
the seed-vessel of a small aquatic plant, chara vulgaris,
which has been described and figured by Gaertner.

These three last fossils are figured of their natural size,
and as magnified by the microscope.

It may not be improper to observe, that the great
numbers in which these and various other minute fossil
shells have been found in different strata, render them very
desirable objects of research to the scientific inquirer.
There are several circumstances by which the oolitic bodies,

* Testae, minut. rarior. Tab. i. fig. 1.

176

which occur in such myriads as to give name to the form-
ation in which they are contained, are pointed out as
requiring still further examination with respect to their
original mode of existence, and more satisfactorily to prove
that they were not of animal origin.

Confining ourselves to the univalve multilocular shells
which may be examined by the naked eye, it still remains
to advert to some of those shells which have been marked
by M. de Montfort with generic designations, and to notice
the claims which they may possess for such distinction.

Angulitlies. — A multilocular shell, with the characters of
nautilus, the mouth being of a triangular form. Triangular
nautilite of Havre.

Bellerophron. — The shuttle nautilus. Le nautile de prime.
— Sonnini.

Oceanie. — Le petit nautile ombiliquc. — Favanne.

The distinctions marking these shells can hardly be con-
sidered as more than specific characters ; and it is with still
less reason that the species of ammonites now distinguished,
by De Montfort, by the generic names aganides, pelagus,
canthropes, simplegades, and amalthea, are removed from
their original genus ; since, if such differences as these
exhibit are to be admitted as generic, with equal right
generic titles might be claimed for many more of the hun-
dreds of different shells which are numbered under the
genus ammonites.

Several of the additions which this author has made to
the genera of straight multilocular shells appear to be founded
on insufficient or even erroneous assumptions.

Paclites — is a fossil which Mr. Walch had described as
a belemnite, having a small circular hole at the extremity of
a curved point, and, beneath this, a long narrow opening.
This is described, by M. de Montfort, as terminating in a
stellated sphincter, and having a plaited lateral slit ; which
does not accord with that of Mr. Walch, who both describes

177

it and figures it as a belernnite, with a small circular hole at
the extremity of a curved point, and, beneath this part, a
narrow small opening. De Montfort speaks of its having
chambers and a central siphuncle, but does not state whether
these are formed in the spathose substance, or whether they
are of a shelly substance and fixed as an alveolus in the
spathose substance.

Thalamus. — The fossil which is here referred to does
not appear to have a single pretension to be placed in a
distinct genus. The belemnites polymitus of Scheuchzer is
taken for its type, and the external markings which de-
signate its generic characters are thus accurately described
by Scheuchzer: — "Belemnites cujus superficies undique
circulis concentricis est obsita." — Lapid. figurat. Lub. p. 15.
Walch, who noticed the same markings, was of opinion that
they were merely accidental, and were probably produced
by the adhesion of flat spiral shells. But similar markings
are frequently found on the green-sand fossils. I have it
in several instances, and particularly on a belemnite, exactly
agreeing with the description of the belemnites polymitus of
Scheuchzer. These markings are formed of patches of
chalcedony, in rude sub-concentric forms, having somewhat
of a stalagmitic appearance : I have seen a mass of chal-
cedony, its surface thus covered, and its substance appa-
rently thus formed, from Devonshire, as large as a man's fist.

Amimomus. — The fossil for which this genus is formed
is said to be figured in the Supplement to Knorr's work,
Tab. iv. fig. 2, but no such fossil appears in the place to
which we are referred.

Tiranites — is the name of a genus under which it is pro-
posed to place a fossil described and figured by Knorr, Supp.
Tab. xii. fig. 1 to 5 ; and also found in the neighbourhood
of Rouen by M. de Montfort, who thus describes it : — " A
free, chambered, straight, tubular cone ; chambers undulated

A a.

178

on the edges ; the mouth oval, undulated, and horizontal ;
the top pointed, and the siphon central." Fragments only
are found, some of which are three inches in diameter at
their base ; but the characters of the whole fossil do not
appear to be sufficiently known to warrant the founding on
them a new genus. It appears, undoubtedly, to have been
a multilocular shell of a considerable size ; but, previously
to removing it from the genus orthoceratites, and forming of
it a genus by itself, it is certainly necessary that more of its
generic characters should be determined.

Molossus — is a genus formed for the reception of a fossil,
which is named, by Professor Blumenbach, orthoceratites
gracilis, and is described as " A free, chambered univalve ;
straight, conical, tubular, and intersected ; chambers plain,
in form of a drum ; siphon lateral, continuous, round, and
serving for a mouth ; the top pointed ; the base horizontal."
Blumenbach describes the joints as being pyritical, which
leads, with the account of the chambers being intersected,
and the necessity of pointing out the continuity of the septa,
to believe there might be an agreement between these
bodies and the pyrites found at Dorking, which are cylin-
drical, pyritical bodies, with slender points passing out at
each end, much resembling those figured by M. de Montfort.

Echidnis — is a similar fossil with that which is figured
as a species of orthoceratites •, (Organic Remains, vol. iii.
PL vii. fig. 14), its specific character being the alternate
circular risings and depressions on its surface ; but certainly
no characters have yet been shown which mark it to be of a
distinct genus.

Achelois. — The fossil, figured by De Montfort, as the
type of this genus, as being of a conical form, with conical
septa, and for which reference is also made to Knorr, Tom. ii.
sect. 1, PI. ii. A. viii. and Supp. Tab. iv. fig. 1, is very un-
satisfactorily described; nor is this description aided by

179

reference to Knorr, the figures there not agreeing with
either De Montfort's account or figure. A sufficient know-
ledge of the characters of this fossil is certainly not yet
known to warrant a genus being formed from it.

Calirrhoe. — This genus is formed for the reception of
a fossil which is, undoubtedly, only the camerated alveolus
of a belemnite ^ such as is seen in situ, PL vi. fig. 11, and
which is frequently seen bearing all the appearances attri-
buted to this fossil.

Telebois — is appropriated to a fossil, the nature of which
has been undoubtedly mistaken by De Montfort. It is,
obviously, part of a vertebral column of the turban encrinite,
as hereafter described, and as figured in Organic Remains,
Vol. iii. PL xv. fig. 8, and was, indeed, considered as such
by Mr. Walch.

Cetocis. — Mr. Walch considered this fossil as a belenmite ;
but it having a stellated opening at its pointed termination,
it is placed, by M. de Montfort, in this genus.

Hibolithes — is a genus formed to receive the fusiform
belenmite figured in Vol. iii. PL viii. fig. 13, of Organic Re-
mains. The form of this fossil, which possesses every cha-
racter of the belemnite, cannot be considered as more than a
specific difference.

Porodragus — is a genus formed, by this author, on a
belemnite, bearing the same form as the last described ; but
having a round horizontal mouth ; a central ciphon ; conic,
smooth partitions ; a groove on the outer surface ; and being
superficially pierced with numerous longitudinal pores.
The partitions, siphon, &c. of this fossil, are those which
are to be found in every species of belemnite ; but the pores,
existing on the surface, are difficult of explanation. If
formed by the animal belonging to the shell, as supposed by
M. de Montfort, we may have a right to conclude that the
belemnite was invested by the animal which formed it.

180

Bivalves, Conchifera. — Lam.

TubicolcR. — Bivalve shells, contained in a tubular sheath
distinct from the valves ; and which are either incrusted
entirely, or in part, in the sides of the sheath, or project
beyond it.

GENUS 1. Aspergillum. — A tubular, testaceous sheath,
diminishing gradually towards its fore part, where it is open,
and enlarging to a club-shaped form towards the other ex-
tremity; the club having two valves incrusted on the side of
its inner substance. The terminal disk of the larger end is
convex, furnished with subtubular foramina, and has a fissure
in the centre. — PI. iii. fig. 21.

Serpula penis. — Lin.

2. Clavagella. — A tubular testaceous sheath, diminishing
to an opening anteriorly, and terminating behind in an oval
and club-shaped form, set with spiniform tubes ; the cla-
vated termination displaying, on one side, one valve fixed in
its substance, the other valve being loose in the sheath.

Fistulana echinata. Ann. du Mus. Tom. vii ; Teredo
echinata ^ Brocch. Vol. ii. Tab. xv. fig. 1.

3. Fistulana. — A tubular, and, most frequently, a testa-
ceous sheath, lessening towards its anterior end, which is
open, and including a loose bivalve shell, gaping when the
valves are united.

This differs from the preceding tubicolce in neither of the
valves of the included shell being imbedded in the substance
of the sheath.

Fistul. ampullaria, Ann. du Mus. Vol. vii. p. 428.

4. Septaria. — A very long testaceous tube, tapering in
its fore part, and internally subdivided by vaulted septa,
generally incomplete. The anterior part of the tube is
terminated by two other very thin tubules, not internally
divided.

181

Serpula polytlialamia. — Lin.

These are generally of considerable size ; but Lamarck
is of opinion that they, perhaps, should not be separated
from the preceding genus.

5. Teredina. — A cylindrical, tubular, testaceous sheath,
closed posteriorly, and showing the two valves of the shell
at the open anterior extremity.

Fistulana personata, Ann. du Mus. Vol. vii. p. 429 ;
Vol. xii. PL xliii. fig. 6. 7. Organic Remains. Vol. iii.
PL xiv. fig. 10.

6. Teredo — is the genus in which Lamarck has disposed
T. navalis, the ship piercer.

Mr. Sowerby, who has considerably illustrated this
genus, describes it as "a bivalve, gaping; back and posterior
side closed by membrane or shelly valves terminating an
accessory shelly tube; hinge with one tooth in the right
valve ; a long free process arising from the beaks contained
in each valve.

" The principal valves are longer than broad, striated
and gaping at both sides and at the back ; in the posterior
side of each is a deep rectangular sinus ; in the anterior side
is a corresponding small rounded sinus ; the front is lan-
ceolate, with an internal tubercle at the extremity ; one of
the accessory valves lies over the beaks, and is lobed ;
another is trapezoidal, covering the sinus at the posterior
side ; it has a line down the middle where there may possi-
bly be an opening, or it may indicate two valves. The
membrane which covers the shell is extended over the an-
terior side, forming a taper tube, many times longer than
the proper shell, and strongly impregnated, at a little dis-
tance from the valves, with shelly matter : in the extremity
of this lie two spatulate valves, attached by muscles to the
animal, and capable of closing the aperture, in which is
placed a longitudinal septum ; this tube is slightly attached
to a tortuous passage bored in the wood by the animal, and

182

is elongated, and gradually increased in diameter, as the
animal recedes further into the wood."

Mr. Sowerby refers to the recent species, T. navalis,
and to the fossil species which he terms T. antenautce, from
their having existed before ships were invented, he refers
all those found in calcareous or siliceous wood. Among the
former he has seen none which show any of the accessory
valves, except the tube and the two spatulate valves
attached to the animal. Even the membrane that is pre-
served in the fossil ones covering the proper shells, and
attaching them to the outside of the tube, is not discoverable
in the recent specimens.*

Pholadairice. — Bivalves, either with or without acces-
sory pieces, and gaping anteriorly. — PL viii. fig. 25.

1. Pholas. — An equivalved, transverse bivalve, gaping
on each side ; with various shelly accessory pieces placed
above or beneath the hinge ; the posterior or inferior border
of the valves reflected upwards. Recent.

2. Gastrochcena. — An equivalved, subcuneiformed bi-
valve ; the opening anteriorly oblique, very large and oval ;
posteriorly, hardly any. The hinge linear, marginal, and
without teeth.

This genus of Spengler differs from the preceding chiefly
in being without accessory pieces.

SolenacecB. — Bivalves elongated transversely, without
accessory pieces, and gaping only at the lateral extremities ;
the ligament external.

1. Solen. — An equivalved bivalve, elongated trans-
versely ; gaping at the ends ; the beaks very small, not pro-

* Mineral Conchology, Vol. ii. p. 229. The accompanying
figures, in that work, PL cii. are very satisfactorily illustrative of
the nature of this genus.

183

jecting ; small cardinal teeth, varying in their number,
sometimes none ; the ligament external. Recent and
fossil. — PL vii. fig. 24.

2. Panopcea. — A transverse, equivalved bivalve, gaping
unequally at the sides ; one conical hinge tooth in each
valve, with a short, compressed, ascending callosity ; the
ligament external, fixed to the callosities on the longer side
of the shell.

3 Glycimeris. — A transverse bivalve, gaping very much
on each side ; the hinge callous, without teeth ; nymphae
projecting outwardly; the ligament external. Recent

and fossil.— PL vi. fig. 27.

MyaricE. — Bivalves ; inequilateral and subequivalved ; a
spoon-formed tooth on one or both valves, giving attachment
to the ligament ; the shell gaping at one or both extremities.

1. Mya. — A transverse bivalve, gaping at both sides;
one large, compressed, and dilated roundish cardinal tooth,
to which the ligament is attached, projects almost vertically,
and, when the valves close, lies upon the ligamental pit of
the other valve. Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 16.

2. Anatina. — A transverse, subequivalved, gaping bi-
valve, with a flat spoon-shaped tooth on each valve ; with,
sometimes, a falcated plate running obliquely beneath the
hinge teeth. Recent.

Mactracece. — Equivalved bivalves; generally gaping at
the lateral extremities ; the ligament internal, with or with-
out a complication with the external ligament.

1. Lutraria. — An inequilateral bivalve, transversely
oblong or rounded, gaping at the lateral extremities ; the
hinge with one tooth as if plaited into two ; or two teeth,
one of which is simple; with an adjoining oblique, deltoidal
pit, internally projecting ; no lateral teeth ; ligament internal.
Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 29.

184

*2. Mactra. — A transverse, inequilateral, subtrigonal bi-
valve, a little gaping at the sides ; the beaks prominent ; a
compressed grooved cardinal tooth, with an adjoining pit;
two lateral compressed inserted teeth ; ligament internal.
Recent and fossil. — PI. vii. fig. 30.

3. Crassatella. — An inequilateral, suborbicular, or trans-
verse, close shell ; hinge complicated, two cardinal teeth
slightly diverging with a pit at the side ; ligament internal ;
lateral teeth, obsolete or none. Recent and fossil. — PL viii.
fig. 9.

4*. Erycina. — A transverse, subinequilateral, equivalved
bivalve, seldom gaping ; two unequal, diverging cardinal
teeth, with an interposed pit; two lateral, oblong, com-
pressed, short penetrating teeth ; the ligament internal.
Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 10.

This is an equivocal genus ; the character of the hinge
being, with difficulty, ascertained.

5. Ungulina. — A longitudinal or sub trans verse bivalve,
nearly equilateral, and with close valves ; one short subbifid
cardinal tooth on each valve by the side of an oblong mar-
ginal pit, nearly divided in two; the ligament internal.
Recent.

6. Solemya. — An equilateral, equivalved, transversely
oblong bivalve ; beaks hardly distinct ; a dilated, compressed,
very oblique cardinal tooth in each valve, with a slight con-
cavity receiving the ligament. Recent.

7. Amphidesma. — A transverse, inequilateral, suboval
bivalve, sometimes a little gaping at the sides ; the hinge
with one or two teeth, and a narrow small pit for the in-
ternal ligament, there being another external.

Corbulea.

1. Corbula. — A regular unequivalved, inequilateral bi-
valve; a hinge tooth on each valve; conical, curved, and

185

elevated, with a pit at the side ; no lateral teeth ; ligament
internal. Recent and fossil. — PI. vii. fig. 20.

2. Pandora. — A regular, unequivalved, inequilateral,
transversely oblong bivalve ; the upper valve flat, with two
oblong obtuse teeth, the lower one convex. Recent.

Mr. G. Sowerby considers that this shell possesses only
one obtuse tooth on the flat valve.

The lithophagous shells, without tube, or accessory pieces,
are rounded or obtuse at the ends, more or less gaping
forwards, with the ligament external. They are divided,
by Lamarck, into three genera : —

1. Saxicava. — A transverse bivalve ; hinge without teeth.

2. Petricola. — A transverse, inequilateral bivalve, nar-
rower in the fore part ; with two teeth on one, or on both
valves. — PI. vii. fig. 22.

3. Venerupis. — A transverse, inequilateral shell, very
short in the hind part ; the hinge with two teeth on one
valve and three on the other, and sometimes with three on
each valve.

NympJiacece. — With two cardinal teeth, at the most, on
the same valve ; a little gaping at the lateral extremities ;
the ligament external ; the ligamental cartilage projecting.

1. Sanguinolaria. — A transverse subelliptical shell,
gaping a little at the sides ; the upper margin bowed, not
parallel with the lower ; the hinge with two approximated
teeth in each valve. Recent. — PL vii. fig. 25.

2. Psammobia. — A transverse, elliptical, or oval-oblong
bivalve, rather flat, and a little gaping on each side ; the
beaks prominent ; the hinge with two teeth on the left valve,
and only one, penetrating, on the opposite valve.

3. JPsammotea. — A transverse, oval, or oval-oblong bi-
valve, a little gaping at the sides ; one cardinal tooth in one,
and sometimes in both, valves.

Bb.

186'

The three preceding genera bear somewhat of the form
of tellens.

4. Tellina. — A transverse or orbicular shell, for the most
part flattish ; angular on the anterior side, on which is a
flexuous and irregular fold ; one or two hinge teeth on the
same valve ; two lateral teeth, generally remote. Recent
and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 16.

5. Tellinides. — A transverse, inequilateral shell, rather
flat, and slightly gaping at the sides ; the beaks small ; no
fold on the margin ; the hinge with two diverging teeth on
each valve ; two lateral, nearly obsolete, teeth, the posterior
one of which, in one valve, is placed near to the hinge.

Only one species is known. Recent.

6. Corbis. — A transverse, equivalved bivalve, without
any irregular fold at the anterior border ; the beaks curved
inwards, opposite to each other ; two hinge teeth ; two
lateral teeth, the hinder of- which comes near to the hinge ;
the impressions simple. Recent and fossil.

Separated from lucina by the impressions not being com-
plicated ; and, from tellina, by having no fold.

7. Lucina. — A suborbicular, inequilateral bivalve, with
small, pointed, oblique beaks ; two diverging hinge teeth,
one of which is bifid, these being variable or disappearing
with age ; two lateral teeth, one of which approaches the
hinge ; two lateral impressions, one of which is considerably
extended posteriorly ; the ligament external. Recent and
fossil.— PL viii. fig. 15.

8. Donax. — A transverse, equivalved, inequilateral bi-
valve,' the anterior side very short and obtuse ; two hinge
teeth on each valve, or on one only ; one or two lateral
teeth, more or less remote ; the ligament external, short,
and at the lunule. Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 11.

9. Capsa. — A transverse, equivalved, close shell, the
hinge having two teeth on the right valve, and one bifid
penetrating tooth in the other valve ; no lateral teeth ; the
ligament external.

187

A general idea of the hinge of this genus may be gained
from PL vii. fig. 22.

10. Crassina. — A suborbicular, transverse, close, equi-
valved, subinequilateral bivalve ; the hinge with two strong
diverging teeth on the right valve, and two unequal teeth in
the other ; the ligament external, and in the longest side.

This shell is distinguishable from a small crassatella by
the situation of the ligament ; and, from venus, by having
only two teeth on each valve.

Lamarck forms the family of concha for the reception of
the following shells : —

Fresh-water shells — Cyclas, Cyrene, and Galathea.
Sea shells — Cyprina, Cytherea, Venus, and Venericardia.

1. Cyclas. — An oval, rather tumid, transverse, and equi-
valved bivalve ; the hinge teeth very small, sometimes hardly
any ; sometimes two on each valve, of which one is divided
into two ; and sometimes there is only a plicated or lobated
one on one valve, and two on the other ; the lateral teeth
are compressed, and extended transversely; the ligament
is external.

The recent shells are very thin and fragile, and some-
times transparent.

2. Cyrena. — A roundish, trigonal, solid, thick, tumid,
inequilateral shell; the hinge with three teeth on each
valve, the lateral ones always two, and of which one often
approaches the cardinal ones ; the ligament external, at-
tached to the largest side.

These have been confounded with the cyclades. They
are not known in Europe in a recent state ; some of the
species have their lateral teeth serrulated. — PI. viii. fig. 14.

3. Galathea. — A subtrigonal, equivalved bivalve; the
hinge teeth grooved ; two in the right valve, united at their
base ; and three in the other valve, the intermediate one

188

being distinct and forward ; the lateral teeth remote ; the
ligament external.

Venus paradoxa, Born. Galathea radiata, Ann. duMus.
Tom. 5. PI. xxviii.

Concha MarinL — Rarely with epedermis, or lateral
teeth.

1. Cyprina. — An equivalved, inequilateral, and obliquely
cordated bivalve ; three unequal cardinal teeth : one lateral
tooth on the anterior side, sometimes obsolete.

2. Cytherea. — An equivalved, inequilateral, suborbicular,
trigonal or transverse shell ; four cardinal teeth on the right
valve ; three diverging, approximated at their base, and one,
entirely separate, under the lunule ; three diverging cor-
responding teeth in the other valve ; with a separate pit for
the separate tooth of the other valve. No lateral teeth.
Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 13.

3. Venus. — An equivalved, inequilateral, transverse, or
suborbicular shell; three cardinal approximated teeth on
each valve, the lateral ones diverging from the summit ; the
ligament external. Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 7.

CardiacecB. — Teeth irregular either in form or situation.

1. Venericardia. — An equivalved, inequilateral, subor-
bicular bivalve, most commonly with longitudinal ribs ; the
hinge, two cardinal teeth, nearly in the same direction.
Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 2.

2. Cardita. — A free, inequilateral, equivalved bivalve ;
the hinge with two unequal teeth, one short and straight
under the beaks, the other oblique and marginal, extended
beneath the corselet. Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 27.

3. Cardium. — A subcordiform equivalve, protuberant at
the base, the valves plicated or dentated on their inner
margin. The hinge with four teeth in each valve ; two
oblique approximating cardinal teeth, those of each valve

189

receiving each other crosswise ; two lateral ones, remote
and inserted. Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 12.

4. Cypricardia. — An equivalved, inequilateral bivalve,
extended transversely and obliquely, with three teeth under
the beaks, and a lateral one under the corselet.

Differing from cardita in having, instead of one tooth
under the beaks, three, like venus.

5. Isocai^dia. — An equivalved, cordiform, ventricose
bivalve; the beaks separate, diverging, and turned in a
spiral; two flat, inserted cardinal teeth, one of which is
recurved under the beak ; a lateral tooth extended beneath
the corselet ; the ligament external. Recent and fossil.
—PI. viii. fig. 8.

Arcacece. — With numerous small penetrating teeth dis-
posed on both valves in a straight or bent line.

1. Cucullea. — An equivalved, inequilateral, trapeziform,
ventricose shell, with detached beaks, separated by a liga-
mental area ; marked with oblique lines meeting in angles
at the union of the valves ; the hinge linear, straight, set
with small transverse teeth, with from twTo to five at the
ends disposed obliquely. Recent and fossil. — PI. viii. fig. 20.

2. Area. — A transverse, subequivalved, inequilateral
shell, with distant beaks, separated by a ligamental area;
the hinge straight and linear, formed by numerous teeth
closely set in a row : the teeth of one valve inserted between
those of the other ; the ligament external. Recent and
fossil— PI. viii. fig. 17.

3. Pectunculus. — An orbicular, almost lenticular, equi-
valved, close, and subequilateral, bivalve ; the hinge with
numerous teeth, obliquely inserted in bent rows, obsolete
and scarcely any in the middle ; the ligament external.
Recent and fossil. — PI. viii. fig. 19.

4. Nucula. — A transverse, ovato-trigonal or oblong, equi-
valved and inequilateral bivalve ; no intermediate area ; the

190

hinge narrow, with numerous teeth like those of a comb ;
the beaks contiguous, inflected backwards ; the ligament
marginal, partly internal, inserted in a pit at the hinge.
Recent and fossil. — PI. viii. fig. 18.

Trigonice. With lamelliform teeth, transversely striated.

1. Trigonia. — An equivalved, inequilateral, trigonal,
and, sometimes, suborbicular bivalve ; the hinge teeth
oblong, flat on their sides, diverging, and grooved trans-
versely, the two on the right valve being grooved on both
sides, and received between the two on the left valve,
which are double and grooved only on the insides ; the
ligament external and marginal. Recent and fossil. —
PL viii. fig. 3.

2. Castalia. — An equivalved, inequilateral, trigonal shell;
the beaks recurved ; the hinge with two teeth ; one back-
ward, short, and slightly trilamellated, with transverse
striae ; the other forward, longitudinal, and lateral ; ligament
external. Recent.

A rare shell, apparently from fresh water.

Naiades.

Fresh water shells, having one irregular hinge tooth,
simple or divided, and one longitudinal tooth extended under
the corselet : sometimes, without any tooth ; but having,
along its base, irregular, granular tubercles. Impression
posteriorly compound ; furnished with an epidermis worn
off at the beaks.

1. Unio. — A transverse, equivalved, inequilateral, bi-
valve ; impression complicated ; the hinge with two teeth in
each valve ; one, short, irregular, simple or divided, and
substriated hinge tooth ; the other, lateral, compressed, and
elongated under the corselet ; ligament external. Recent
and fossil.— PI. vii. fig. 19.

191

2. Hyria. — An equivalved, obliquely trigonal, eared bi-
valve, with a straight and truncated base ; the hinge formed
of two spreading teeth ; the hinder, or cardinal, divided into
many parts, of which the inner are the smallest ; the other,
the anterior or lateral, very long and lamellar ; the ligament
external and linear.

This genus much resembles anodonta in its form.

3. Anodonta. — An equivalved, inequilateral, transverse
bivalve ; the hinge linear, with no tooth ; a smooth cardinal
plate, truncated so as to form a sinus at its anterior ex-
tremity, forms the base of the shell ; the impressions are
two, remote and lateral ; the ligament is external and linear,
placed at the anterior extremity in the groove of the hinge
plate. Recent. — PL vi. fig. 26.

4. Iridina. — Differs from anodonta-m its hinge line being
irregularly tuberculated. Its shell has considerable pearly
lustre.

Chamacece. Inequivalved, irregular, and attached, with
one large tooth at the hinge, and two impressions.

1. Diceras. — An inequivalved, adherent bivalve, with
very large, conic, divaricating beaks, turned in irregular
spires; a large, thick, concave, subauricular tooth in the
larger valve ; two muscular impressions.

One species only has been seen of this shell, and that in
a fossil state.

2. Chama. — An irregular, inequivalved, fixed bivalve,
with recurved beaks; the hinge one thick, oblique, sub-
crenulated tooth, received in a pit in the opposite valve ;
two distant lateral impressions ; the ligament external, sunk.
Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 17.

3. Etheria. — An irregular, adherent, unequal-valved bi-
valve, with short beaks, as if sunk in the base of the valves ;
the hinge without tooth, waved and rather sinuous and
unequal ; two distant, lateral, oblong, muscular impressions ;

19-2

the ligament external, tortuous, and partly penetrating into
the shell.

A very rare large shell, of beautiful pearly lustre, ad-
herent to the rocks at great depths. Only known in a
recent state.*

TridacncB. — Transverse, equivalved ; one large laterally
extended impression.

1. Tridacna. — A regular, equivalved, inequilateral,
transverse bivalve, gaping at the lunule ; the hinge with two
compressed, unequal, forward, inserted teeth ; the ligament
external and marginal. Recent and fossil ? — PL vii. fig. 26.

2. Hippopus. — Differs from the preceding in its lunule
being close.

Mytilacece. — Hinge, an almost internal, marginal, linear
ligament. The inhabitants of many of these shells attach
themselves by a byssus.

1. Modiola. — A subtransverse, equivalved bivalve, very
short on the hinder side ; the beaks sublateral, lying on the
shorter side ; the hinge lateral, linear, and without teeth ;
the cardinal ligament rather internal, placed in the marginal
groove ; one sublateral, hatchet-formed impression. Recent
and fossil.— PL vi. fig. 25.

2. Mytilus. — A longitudinal, equivalved, regular bivalve,
pointed at its base ; the beaks nearly straight, terminal and
pointed ; the hinge lateral, generally without teeth ; the
ligament marginal, and rather internal ; one long, clavated,
and sublateral impression. Recent and fossil. — PL vi. fig. 24.

3. Pinna. — A longitudinal, wedge-formed, equivalved
bivalve, gaping at its summit, pointed at its base, and having

* This genus is beautifully illustrated in Mr. G. Sowerby's
work on the genera of shells, from which this definition has been
taken.

193

straight beaks ; the hinge lateral, without teeth ; the liga-
ment marginal, linear, very long, and rather internal. Re-
cent and fossil. — PI. vi. fig. 23.

MalleacecR. — A marginal, sublinear ligament, either
simple or interrupted by rows of teeth, or crenulae ; the
shell lamellous,

1. Crenatula. — A flat, lamellated, subequivalved, rather
irregular bivalve ; the hinge sublateral, linear; marginal, and
crenulated ; the crenulae in rows, callus hollowed into pits,
which receive the ligament ; no groove for byssus. Recent
and fossil.— PI. viii. fig. 22.

2. Perna. — A subequivalyed, flattish bivalve, with la-
mellar texture ; the hinge linear, marginal, formed of trans-
verse, parallel, sulciform teeth, not penetrating, and between
which the ligament is inserted ; a posterior groove, rather
gaping, for the byssus, under the extremity of the hinge,
with callous sides. Recent and fossil. — PI. viii. fig. 21.

3. Malleus. — A rough, subequivalved bivalve, generally
elongated ; sublobated at the base ; with small divaricating
beaks ; the hinge edentulous ; an oblong, conical small pit
under the beaks, traverses obliquely the ligamental groove ;
the ligament, which is short and almost external, is inserted
in the sloping depression in each valve. Recent. — PI. vii.
fig. 5.

4. Avicula. — An inequivalved, fragile, rather smooth
bivalve ; the base transverse and straight, with produced
extremities and caudiform anteriorly ; the left valve notched ;
the hinge linear, with a tooth in each valve beneath the
beaks ; the ligamental area marginal, narrow and grooved,
not traversed by the byssus. Recent and fossil — PI vii.
fig. 6.

5. Jleleagrina.

This genus differs from avicula in being nearly equal
valved, of a roundish square figure, with no hinge tooth,

c c.

194

and in having its ligamental pit always dilated in its
middle part.

PectinidecB. — Ligament chiefly internal; the shell, in
general, regular and compact.

1. Pedum. — An inequivalved, slightly eared bivalve, the
valves terminating at the base in a triangular disk, with a
furrow across that of the lower valve, and a cicatrix across
that of the upper, for the attachment of the hinge ligament ;
the hinge toothless ; the lower valve notched in the left side,
near the hinge.* Recent. — PI. vii. fig. 7.

2. Lima. — A longitudinal, subequivalved, eared bivalve,
gaping a little on one side of the valves ; the beaks sepa-
rated, their inner surface rather everted ; the hinge tooth-
less ; the hinge-pit, receiving the ligament, partly external.
Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 3.

3. Plagiostoma. — A free, subequivalved, slightly eared
bivalve ; the base transverse and nearly straight ; the beaks
rather separated, their inner surfaces extended in flat,
transverse areas, disposed rather externally ; one straight,
the other inclined obliquely ; the hinge without a tooth ; a
conical hinge-pit under the beaks, partly internal, and
opening externally. Fossil. — PL vii. fig. 12.

4. Pecten. — A free, regular, unequal valved, eared bi-
valve ; the lower edge transverse and straight ; the beaks
contiguous ; the hinge without teeth, with a trigonal hinge-
pit entirely internal for the ligament. Recent and fossil. —
PL vii. fig. 2.

5. Plicatula.— — An unequal valved bivalve, contracted
towards its base ; the upper margin rounded, and sub-
plicated; the beaks unequal, and with no cardinal areas;

* The chief particulars respecting this genus are derived from
Mr. G. Sowerby's more extended, and, necessarily, more complete
description, in the work already referred to.

195

the hinge with two strong teeth on each valve, with a pit
between receiving the ligament, which is entirely external.
Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 4.

The shell, named harpax, in Organic Remains, Vol. iii-
and figured, PI. xii. fig. 14, ]5, 16, 17, and 18, differs from
plicatula of Lamarck, in being an attached shell, and in
having its teeth not disposed like those of spondylvs, but in
the form of a V, and in their being crenulated. It appears
to agree, in its specific properties, with P. tubifera of
Lamarck.

6. Spondylus. — An unequal valved, adherent, eared
bivalve, rough or echinated ; the beaks unequal ; the lower
valve having a flat external cardinal area, divided by a
groove ; the hinge has two strong teeth on each valve, with
an intermediate pit for the ligament, communicating by its
base with the outer groove ; the ligament internal. Recent
and fossil. — PI. viii. fig. 6.

7. Podopsis. — An unequal valved, subregular bivalve,
not eared, adhering by the beak of its lower valve ; the
iower valve is larger and more convex than the upper, and
has its beak more advanced ; the hinge is without teeth, and
the ligament internal.

These shells are only known as fossils : the upper valve
has no curved or projecting beak, nor is the lower beak re-
curved over the upper valve, as in gryph&a. They more
resemble the pectens in the regularity of their forms and
their longitudinal striae.

Ostracece. — The ligament internal or semi-internal ; the
shell irregular and foliaceous, or even, sometimes, papy-
raceous.

1. Gryph&a. — An unequal valved free bivalve, the in-
ferior valve large and concave ; the beak large, incurved,
and terminating in an involuted spire ; the upper valve small
and flat, like an operculum ; the hinge edentulous ; the

19G

hinge-pit oblong and bowed ; one impression. Recent and
fossil. — PL vii. fig. 1.

Le Chev. de Lamarck states his having seen, at Paris,
one species in a recent state.

2. Ostrea. — An adherent, inequivalved, irregular bivalve,
the beaks disjoined ; the valves becoming more unequal with
age, so 'that the upper valve is gradually protruded; the
hinge is toothless ; the ligament semi-internal, affixed in the
hinge-pit, which, in the lower valve, increases with the beak
to a considerable length. Recent and fossil. — PL vi. fig. 29.
3. Vulsella. — A long, subequivalved, irregular, free bi-
valve, with equal beaks ; the hinge having, upon each valve,
a projecting callosity, with a conical ligamented pit obliquely
bowed. Recent and fossil. — PL vii. fig. 4.

4. Placuna. — A free, irregular, flat, subequivalved bi-
valve ; the hinge has interiorly, on one valve, two longi-
tudinal sharp ribs, approximated at their base, and diverging
in the form of a V ; and, on the other, two corresponding
depressions ; at this part the ligament is attached. Recent
and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 5.

5. Anomia. — An unequal valved, irregular, operculated
bivalve, adherent by its operculum ; one valve, which is
pierced, is generally flat, having a hole or notch at its base ;
the other, a little larger, whole and concave ; the operculum
is small, elliptical, and subosseous, and is affixed to various
marine bodies. Recent and fossiL — PL vii. fig. 10.

Under the designation les rudistes, Lamarck places those
shells in which neither the hinge, the ligament of the valves,
nor the muscle of attachment, is discoverable : these he
places under six genera — Spherulites, Radiolites, Calceola,
Birostrites, Discina, and Crania.

1. Spherulites. — An unequal valved, orbiculato-globose
bivalve, a little depressed at the top ; outwardly echinated
with large subangular scales ; the upper valve small, oper-

197

cular, and flattish, and furnished, on its inner surface, with
two unequal, subconical, curved tuberosities ; the lower
valve larger, rather subventricose, with squamae radiating
beyond its border ; the .cavity is obliquely conical, having,
on one side, a keel or ridge, as if formed by a fold of the
inner surface, which is transversely striated; the hinge is
unknown. Fossil.

There is only one species known. From the Isle of Aix.

2. Radiolites. — An unequal valved bivalve, striated ex-
ternally with longitudinal rays ; the lower valve, which is
the larger, is turbinated ; the superior is convex or conical,
like an operculum ; the hinge is unknown. Fossil. — PL vi.
fig. 22.

3. Calceola. — An unequal valved, triangular, subturbi-
nated bivalve, flat beneath ; the large valve like a hood, ob-
liquely truncated at its opening ; the hinge margin straight
and transverse, being slightly notched and dentated in its
middle ; the upper margin bowed ; the less valve flat, semi-
orbicular, like an operculum, with two lateral tubercles on
its hinge-margin, and, in its centre, a small pit. Fossil.
—PL viii. fig. 24.

4. Acardo. — A flat, nearly equivalved bivalve, having
neither hinge nor ligament, with one impression in the
centre of the valves. Recent. — PL vi. fig. 21.

This shell is admitted, by Lamarck, in La Systeme de
la Nature, but is not mentioned in his Histoire Naturelle
des Animaux sans Vertebres.

5. Birostrites. — An unequal bicornuted bivalve; the
disks of the valves raised into unequal, rather straight, ob-
liquely divaricating cones, resembling horns, the base of the
shortest being surrounded by that of the other.

Found only as a fossil. Its locality does not appear to
be known.

6. Distinct. — An unequal valved, ovate, roundish bivalve,
a little depressed ; the valves equal in size, with a very dis-

198

tinct orbicular disk on each ; the disk of the upper valve
submammillated and undivided, the mammillae surrounded
by fine radiating striae ; the other valve very white, and
divided by a transverse slit: there is no trace of hinge'
ligament, or impression. Recent.

7. Crania. — An unequal valved, soborbicular bivalve ;
the under valve flat, fixed beneath, the inner surface
pierced with three unequal and oblique foramina ; the upper
valve is convex, subgibbous, with two prominent callosities
at its base. Fossil. The under valve. — PI. vii. fig. 21.

JSrachiopodes, conchifera. — Having, near their mouths,
two opposite elongated ciliated arms rolled in spirals when
at rest. Mantle, with two lobes separated forwards, wrap-
ping up or covering the body. A bivalve shell adherent to
marine bodies either immediately or by a tendinous cord.

The genera of this family are — Orbicula, Terebratu/a,
and Lingula.

1. Orbicula. — A suborbicular, unequal valved bivalve,
with no perceivable hinge ; the lower valve is very thin, flat,
and affixed beneath ; the upper valve is subconical, with a
pointed top, more or less prominent.

This shell is described, by Muller, Zool. Dan. i. p. 14,
Tab. v. fig. 1—7; and, by Poli, Conch. Vol. ii. p. 189,
Tab. xxx. fig. 15.

A fossil shell of this description is found in the iron
stone nodules in Shropshire and Worcestershire.

2. Terebratula. — An inequivalved, regular, subtrigonal
bivalve, attached to other bodies by a short tendinous
pedicle ; the largest valve has an advanced beak generally
incurved, and pierced either by a round hole or a notch,
through which its organ of attachment passes ; the hinge
with two teeth. In the inner part are two subosseous, thin,
forked, and variously ramified branches, proceeding from
the disk of the small valve, and supporting the animal.
Recent and fossil. — PI. vii. fig. 23.

199

3. Lingula. — A subequivalved, flat, ovally oblong bi-
valve, truncated at its top ; rather pointed at its base ;
raised on a fleshy tendinous pedicle, and fixed to marine
bodies ; the hinge toothless. Recent and fossil. — PL vi.
fig. 28.

Cirrhipeda. — Soft animals, without head or eyes, fixed
and testaceous. The shell either sessile, or raised on a
flexible tendinous pedicle.

Sessile. — Shell fixed generally on marine bodies ; the
mouth in the upper and anterior part.

1. Tttbicinella. — A straight cylindraceo-tubular opercu-
lated shell, attenuated towards its base, girt with transverse
annular ribs ; truncated at both ends, shut at the bottom by
a membrane, and open at the top. The operculum formed
of four small obtuse valves. — Attached to the whale ; but
not known in a mineralized state.

2. Coronula. — A sessile, suborbicular, or subconical shell,
the extremities truncated; the sides thick; hollowed out
internally into radiating cells. The operculum formed by
four small obtuse valves. Recent, and very rarely fossil.
— PL viii. fig. 27. — The figure given here is of the fossil
coronula of the whale.

3. Balanvs. — A sessile, affixed, conical univalve, the
apex truncated ; the base closed by an adherent testaceous
plate ; the opening subtrigonal or elliptical ; the operculum
internal, with four moveable valves inserted near the inner
base of the shell. Recent and fossil. — PL viii. fig. 26.

4. Acasta. — A sessile body, composed of separable
pieces, with a convex base, and a four-valved operculum.
Recent.

5. Creusia. — Sessile and subglobular, formed of four
valves, and having an internal bivalved operculum. Recent.

6. Pyrgoma. — Sessile, subglobular, with a bivalved oper-
culum : found on astrea, /nadrepora, &c. Recent.

200

Pedunculated. — Supported by a moveable, coriaceous,
tubular peduncle, attached by its base to marine bodies.

1. Anatifa. — A pedunculated, five-valved shell ; the
valves unequal, pressed together so as to be nearly conti-
guous ; the lowest on the sides being the largest. Recent.
— PL viii. fig. 28.

2. Pollicipes. — A pedunculated shell, formed of thirteen
or more subcontiguous, unequal valves ; the lowest at the
sides, being the smallest. Recent.

Lepas scalpellum, Lin. ; Lepas mitella, Lin. ; Lepas
pollicipes, Gmelin.

3. Cineras. — Leach.

A pedunculated shell, with five oblong separate valves,
not entirely covering the body ; two at the sides of the
opening, the others dorsal. Recent.

Lepas coriacea. — Pallas.

4. Otion. — A pedunculated shell, with two separate
small semilunar testaceous valves adhering near its lateral
aperture. Recent.

Lepas aurita. — Lin.

Trigonellites. — A slightly rounded, trigonal, thick shell,
gaping on each gide. The inferior margin nearly on a
straight line ; the anterior and superior margins in a gently
waving line. The outer surface of each valve pierced by
numerous foramina, which, passing nearly through its sub-
stance, give it the cancellous appearance of bone ; the in-
ner surface smooth, but marked with striae, agreeing, in
their direction, with the posterior and anterior margin.
The assumed hinge completely linear, without teeth ; there
being only, on the posterior margin of each valve, an appro-
priate, linear surface for the attachment of cartilage or liga-
ment externally. There is no appearance of muscular
attachment. — PI. viii. fig. 29.

201

The nature of the substance placed under this vague
designation and description is entirely unknown. It bears
no resemblance in its structure to any known testaceous,
crustaceous, or bony fabric. Its appearance, as fixed in
the calcareous fissile stone of Pappenheim, in the above
figure, gives the idea of the valves of a shell ; but exami-
nation shows, that, if these valves were brought together,
they would touch only at two points, leaving all else, except
at the inferior line, open.

The following shell is, in fact, neither univalve nor bi-
valve ; for, though a bivalve in form, the two parts are con-
nected, not by a hinge, but rather by suture.

Hyalcea. — An inequivalved, tumid, and transparent shell ;
tricuspidated at the base ; gaping beneath the prominent
beak. Recent. — PL vii. fig. 7.

We are indebted to the scientific and successful inquiries
of Mr. Sowerby, for the formation of the following genera,
in addition to cirrus, plagiostoma, and euomphalus, which
have been already noticed : —

Dianchora. — An attached, inequivalved bivalve ; the at-
tached valve having an opening. instead of a beak, the other
beaked and eared; hinge without teeth. — PL vii. fig. 11.

Productus. — An equilateral, unequal valved bivalve, with
a reflexed, more or less cylindrical margin ; hinge trans-
verse, linear ; beak imperforate ; one valve convex, the other
flat or concave, externally. Fossil. — PL vii. fig. 13.

This genus was formed, by Mr. Sowerby, for the re-
ception of those fossils which had been placed, by Mr.
Martin, under conchyliolithus (anomites) scabicrulus, Petrif.
Derb. and, of others, which he had obtained from the lime-
stone which forms a part of the independent coal-formation
of the Lothians, Scotland.

Dd.

202

The characters and classification of the shells of this
family are not, however, yet determined : with the hope,
therefore, of leading to more decisive information respecting
these points, the structure of the hinge, as existing in a
shell bearing the external appearance of one of this family
from the mountain limestone of Shropshire, with which the
writer was favoured by the Rev. Mr. Hallifax, of Standish,
in Gloucestershire, is shewn, PL ix. fig. 9.

Magas. — An inequivalved, equilateral bivalve ; one valve
with an angular sinus along an incurved beak ; line of the
hinge, and back of the other valve, straight, with two pro-
jections near the middle. A partial longitudinal septum,
with appendages, are attached to the hinge within. Fossil.
—PI. vii. fig. 14.

Spirifer. — An equilateral, inequivalved bivalve ; the
valves beaked : one valve with a large angular sinus along
the inside of the beak ; hinge transverse, long, and straight ;
two spirally-coiled tubular appendages nearly filling the shell.
Recent. — PL vii. fig. 15.

Astarte. — Suborbicular or transverse ; ligament exter-
nal ; lunette on the posterior side ; two diverging teeth near
the beak. Fossil. — PL viii. fig. 1.

Inoceramus. — An inequivalved, inequilateral bivalve,
slightly eared ; hinge formed of alternate ridges and furrows
on the margin of the eared part ; the substance of the shell
spathose, vertically striated. Fossil. — PL viii. fig. 23.*

Pentamerus. — An equal-sided, inequivalved bivalve ; one
valve divided by a longitudinal, internal septum into two
parts ; the other, by two septa, into three parts or valves ;
the beaks incurved, imperforate. Fossil. — PL x. fig. 7.

* I have placed this shell among those, for the name and de-
scription of which, I believe, we are indebted to Mr. Sowerby,
although I have not yet been able to ascertain in what work his
account of the genus is to be found.

203

A LIST OF THE

SPECIES OF FOSSIL SHELLS

Particularized by Le Chev. de Lamarck, in Les Annales du Musee,
and Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres ; with a spe-
cification of their most distinguishing characters.

Note. — When the size of the shell is mentioned, it is to be taken as
generally meaning the larger size : by small, is meant less than half an
inch ; and, by very small, less than a quarter of an inch.

Chiton.

Grigmnensis. . octovalvis ?
Patella.

elongata. . obtuse, radiated, apex much inclined.

dulcis. . subconical, apex inflected.

scutatella. . very small, apex central.

dilatata. . rugose, depressed.

cornucopia. . obliquely conical, impression semicircular.

spirostris. . rudely striated.

retortella. . spire obliquely lateral.

pennata. . subimbricated posteriorly.

squamaeformis. . flattish and smooth.

Fissurella.

labiata. . subsquamose, striae decussating.
Emarginula-

costata. . ribbed longitudinally, apex hooked.
clypeata. . cancellated, back grooved.
radiola. . with radiating costulae.

Calyptraea.

trochiformis. . echinated, apex subcentral.
crepidularis. . subovate : var. of former ?

Conus.

antediluvianus. . long, spire pointed, wreaths crenulated.
deperditus. . spire not much raised, the wreaths not crenulated,

but grooved on the top.
turritus. . subfusiform, whirls oblique.
stromboides. . spire obtusely nodose, whirls obtuse.
antiquus. . dilated upwards, lip bowed, spire smooth, slightly

canaliculated — 3| inches.
Betulinoides. . oblongo-conical, smooth, spire convex, pointed,

base rounded — 4 inches.
clavatus. . conico-clavated, striae longitudinal and bowed, spire

elevated, rather pointed, wreaths convex — 3 inches.

•204
Conus — continued.

intermedius. . smooth, base transversely sulcated, spire acutely

convex, wreaths not striated — 2^ inches.
avellana. . short, base substriated, spire rather convex and pointed

— 1 inch.

Cypraea.

pediculus. . transversely striated.

inflata. . smooth, obscurely marginated.

leporina. . ventricose, submarginata, opening dilated at the base

— If inch.
mus. . the perfect analogue of the recent shell known by this

name.

pyrula. . obtuse, narrowed behind, lip bordered — If inch.
utriculata. . inflated, subumbilicated, lip obsoletely marginated

— 1| inch.

rufa. . agrees with the recent shell of the same name.
antiqua. . ventricose, rough, rather flat beneath, opening narrow

1^ inch. — Ronca.
ruderalis. . ovately oblong, rough, obsoletely marginated on the

sides — 1 inch. — Ronca.
fabagina. , subventricose, obscurely marginated on one side —

f inch.
flavicula. . ventricose, marginated on one side, back yellowish,

with white spots — 1 inch.
ambigua. . contracted at the extremities, convex beneath, opening

winding — f inch.
colombaria. . one lip marginated, rather projecting forwards —

f inch.
dactylosa. . oblong, ventricose, rather cylindrical, obtuse, sul-

cated transversely, no flattening on the under surface, no

longitudinal groove on the back, spire not apparent —

1| inch.

C. sulcosa of Les Annales du Mus.

sphcericulata. . transversely sulcated, no dorsal groove, lip mar-
ginated.

coccinella. . variety of the preceding ?
pisolina. . pisiform, back smooth ; opening curved, plicatedly

dentated — f inch.
ovulata. . obtuse in the fore part, smooth ; columella obsoletely

dentated.

Ovula.

passerinalis. . smooth, scarcely beaked, lip lightly bowed — f inch
birostris. . exterior lip marginated, columella with an oblique
fold— 1 inch.

Terebellum.

convolutum*. . subcylindrical, no spire, opening the length of
the shell — 1 inch.

* Bulla sopita, Brand, Foss. No. 29. — Bulla voluta ejusdem, No. 75.

205
Terebellum — continued.

fusiforme. . spire extremely obtuse, opening shorter than the
shell— 2^ inches.

Oliva.

canalifera. . callus of the columella having a canal.

mitreola. . columella striated.

Laumontiana. . columella biplicated.

plicaria. . long, spire pointed, rather short ; columella longi-
tudinally plaited — 1 inch.

clavata. . spire prominently pointed, columella with numerous
striae — f inch

Ancilla.

buccinoides. . margaritaceous.

subulata. . spire elongated.

olivula. . unidentated at the base.

canalifera. . canal between the right lip and the spire.

glandiformis. . subventricose, rather pointed at the summit,

callous in the lower part, sutures of the whirls concealed

— 2 inches.

Voluta.

harpa. . longitudinal ribs with two spines at their tops, five

folds on the columella — 3j inches.
spinosa*. . subcostated ; short, pointed spinous spire ; four or

five folds — If inch.
mu&icalis. . longitudinal ribs with one spine, four large folds —

3 inches.
muricina. . ribbed and spinous in the upper part, smooth and

caudated in the lower, deeply grooved between the four

columellar folds — 3^ inches long.

costaria. . elongated, fusiform, subcaudated, ribs plain, longi-
tudinal— 2f inches.
lyra. . spire short ; plain longitudinal ribs, denticulated towards

the apex — 2 inches.
bicorona. . ribbed longitudinally, no transverse strise ; turns of

the spire bicoronated — 2 inches.
crenulata^-. . ribs crenatedly granulated — 1 1 inch.
harpula. . finely ribbed, the ribs smooth, whirls subcanaliculated,

two very strong folds — 1 j inch.
labrella. . ovate, subventricose, wreaths sharply carinated, spire

denticulated — If inch.
depressa. . ribbed upwards, base transversely grooved, spire

subcoronetted, columella flat — about If inch.
variculosa. . with a marginal and sometimes a dorsal varix ;

four slight folds — about f of an inch.
mitreola. . lip obsoletely bidentated.

* Strombus spinosus — Brand, Foss. No. 65.
t Murex suspensus— Brand, Foss. No. 70.

206

Voluta — continued.

heteroclita. . base smooth, spire ribbed, rather tuberculated,

columella with the smallest plaits upwards, as in Mitra

— 2f inches.
digitalina . . decussated, subgranular, spire short — 1 inch —

perhaps a variety of V. crenulata.
clathrata. . subcoronetted, cancellated, columella with numerous

plaits— If inch.
ambigua*. . transversely striated, longitudinally ribbed, spire

subdenticulated, lip sulcated internally, the lower folds on

the columella the largest — If .inch.
Jiculina. . transversely striated, last wreath crowned with spines,

lip submarginated, striated inside, and bowed at the top

— 2 inches.
rarispina. . with two or three dorsal spines, lip rather bordered,

spire small, with five or six dentellated turns — If inch.

Mitra.

crebricosta. . ribs obsolete in the lower part, four folds — f inch.
monodonta. . smooth, but striated in the upper part — small.
marginata. . a crenulated border on each turn.
plicatella. . margin of the turns subplicated — f inch.
labratula. . ribs decussated with transverse striae — f inch.
mixta. . resembles marginella, but has the folds of the mitres —

f inch.

cancellina. . lip internally striated.
terebellum. . narrow, fusiform — small.
fusellina. . smooth, base striated — small.
graniformis. . longitudinally ribbed — very small.
mutica. . no striae on the spiral wreaths, four folds — 1 inch.
elongata. . fusiform, smooth, five folds — 2 inches.
citharella. . distant longitudinal ribs, four folds, no left lip.

Marginella.

eburnea. . spire conoidal, the borders of the turns confluent.

dentifera. . smooth, spire subpyramidal.

ovulata. . lip grooved internally, four folds — f inch.

Cancellaria.

costulata. . longitudinal, decussated, ribbed, three folds — f to f

inch.
volutella. . with the varices of a murex, the folds of a volute, and

the notch of a buccinum — ~ inch.

Purpura.

lapillus^. . acutely ovate, ribs transverse, lip subdentated.

* Stromhus ambiguus. — Brand, Foss. No. 69.
t Buccinum lapillus. — Lin.

207

Buccinum.

stromboides. . oblongo- ovate, smooth, a groove between the

right lip and spire — 2 inches.

striatulwm. . the turns rounded, striae transverse — small.
terebrale. . long, smooth, rather turriculated — | inch.
decussatum. . the whirls convex ; opening subdentated — ^ inch.
bwtriatum. . striae alternately larger and smaller, a slight border

on the lip — 1 inch.
clavatulatum. . long, lip emarginated in the upper part — very

small.

Terebra.

plicatula. . the last turn smooth, the rest plaited — 1 inch.
scalarina. . longitudinally ribbed, turns convex — 1 inch.

Harpa.

mutica. . ribs plain, not pointed ; decussating intercostal striae
— 1 inch.

Cassis.

harpceformis. . ribs longitudinal, with a transverse row of tu-
bercles at their upper part — 2 inches.
cancellata. . with two rows of tubercles, lip dentated.
carinata*. . with five carinated girdles, the upper tubuculose.

Strombus.

canalis. . longitudinally ribbed, the lip notched.
Rostellaria.

macrop feraf. . lip large and round,, running up the spire — from

6 to 7 inches.

colombaria. . lip alaeform, bent upwards on the spine — 2 inches.
fissurella. . longitudinally ribbed ; lip small, passing up the turns

and forming a groove — 1 ~ inch.

Murex.

tripterus^.. . trigonal, with angular, winged, membranaceous

processes — 2 inches.
tricarinatus. . ovato-oblong, with curled, frondose, subspinous

processes — 1| inch.
contabulatus. . spire long, subpyramidal ; mouth subtrigonal —

var. ?
calcitrapa. . ovate, frondose ridges, terminating in points ; colu-

mella subumbilicated.
crispus. . ovate, with about nine frondose but not spinous ridges ;

the mouth and canal short — f inch.
frondosus. . ovato-oblong, with about nine curled frondose va-

rices ; the canal rather long — f inch.

* Buccinutn nodosum — Brand, Foss. No. 131.
t Strombus amplus— Brand, Foss. No. 76.
t Brand, Fos. No. 79 and 80 ?

205
Murex — continued.

clathratus. . ovate, ribbed, sulcated transversely, lip dentated,

canal short — very small.
cingulatus. . ovato-oblong ; transverse encircling rugae, squamose

between ; canal covered over — If inch.

striatula. . oblong, with transverse striae, and but few longitu-
dinal convex ribs ; lip dentated — f inch.
cancellinus. . ovato-oblong, cancellated ; opening winding and

toothed : resembles the white grimace,
pyraster. . ovate, caudated, transversely sulcated, with subno-

dulous ribs ; the opening rounded ; grooved internally —

\l inch.
textiliosus. . ovate, obsoletely ribbed, transversely striated, squa-

mous between ; one tooth on the columella ; subumbili-

cated — 1| inch.

colubrinus. . elongated, subfusiform ; with fine transverse gra-
nular striae ; few varices — 1 inch.
viperinus. . elongated, with transverse striae slightly granulated;

tail small ; very small indistinct ribs on the upper part —

f inch.
nodularius. . ovate, subcancellated ; transverse nodular striae,

the nodules disposed in ribs ; the tail short, and curved

outwards — 1 inch.
reticulosus. . ovate, pointed at both ends, reticulated ; opening

triangular ; lip toothed — small.
tubifer. . ovate, pointed ; four rows of ridges ; with fistulous,

bowed, erect spines, with short tubes between.

Fusus.

rugosus*. . long, subcancellated ; spire nodular ; canal long,
straight, and nearly covered over — 3 inches.

Note. . long, transversely striated ; the top of each whirl de-
pressed and plicated — 3| inches.

longeevus-^. . long, thick and smooth ; last turns rather flat on
their tops ; spire nodular, striated — 4 inches.

clavellatusl . . fusiformly clavellated ; transversely striated ; ribs
nodular ; tail very long ; turns of the spire not flat.

aclculatus^. . fusiformly linear, very narrow strise with decus-
sating plicae : different from F. rugosus — 1 j inch.

subulatus. . longitudinally ribbed ; tail shorter than the spire —
f inch.

hordeolus. . fusiformly turriculated ; tail short — very small.

intortus. . subcancellated in the upper part, in the lower the
transverse striae most evident ; columella as if twisted — >
If inch.

* Murex porrectus— Brand, Foss. fig. 35.
t Murex longaevus — Brand, Foss. fig. 40, 73, 93.
J Murex deformis— Brand, Foss. fig. 37,38.
§ Murex— Brand, Foss. fig. 36.

209

Fusus — continued.

polygonus. . ovate, with many ribs ; transversely rugose ; the

edges of the turns raised against the preceding ? opening

dentated — 1-j inch.
abbreviatus. . ovato- conical, rugous transverse rings ; nodose

ribs ; columella obsoletely umbilicated — \ inch.
excisus. . columella as if cut obliquely — 5 inch.
minutus. . ovate, ribs numerous ; transverse striae united in bands

— very small.
asperulus. . ovate, turreted, ribbed, rough transverse striae ; canal

short — small.
plicatus. . ovate, turreted ; ribs smooth, longitudinal ; base short ;

no transverse striae — small.
scalaroides. . numerous distinct fine ribs, obsolete transverse

striae ; canal short — ~ inch.

coronatus. . ovate, conical both ways ; spire crowned with nu-
merous small nodules, lower half finely striated — small.
alligatus. . ovate, turreted, prominent, transverse rugae ; canal

short — small.
marginatus. . fusiform, turreted ; spire nodulous, and the upper

edge of each turn raised — small.
nodulosus. . ovate, small, nodulous ribs ; columella obliquely

biplicated.
angulatus. . fusiform, veutricose ; thick, acutely angular ribs ;

transverse, prominent striae — 1 inch.
•ittijiUcatus. . rough, with ribs and decussating striae ; columella

with one plait — l\ inch.
funiculosus. . long, fusiform ; transverse rugae, alternating in

size; columella slightly plaited — 1~ inch.

heptagonus. . seven rows of ribs with decussating striae ; colu-
mella rather plaited — nearly 2 inches.
subcarinatus. . ovate, short and turgid ribs, angular at their

ends ; turns carinated angularly, flattish at their tops.
ficulneus. . ovate, almost globular ; about fifteen ribs like folds,

forming at about two-thirds of their length a row of

tubercles across the shell ; the base bowed ; columella

twisted, with an oblique fold — 1 inch.

Pyrula.

lavigata. . obovate, very thick, especially on the left side ;

obtusely striated, the spire pointed — 2 inches.
subcarinata. . smooth, back obtusely carinated ; turns concave

upwards ; spire pointed.
tricarinata. . clavated, last turn decussated and with three

transverse prominent distant striae — lj inch.
elegans. . decussated, the transverse striae raised and undulating.
clathrata. . ovately clavated, decussated, the transverse striae

alternately large and small.
nexilis*. . ovately clavated, decussated, the transverse striae

largest.

* Murex nexilis — Brand, Foss. fig. 55.
E e.

•210

Pyrula — continued.

bulbiformis* . . ovate, ventricose, rather smooth ; spire hooked ;

tail rather bowed ; the left side thickened as by a callus

on the columella — 2| inches.
terehralis. . girt with transverse and granulated striae ; whirls

dentatedly carinated, spire like a screw — small.
citharellus. . tnrreted, with smooth narrow ribs ; base short —

small.
Icevigatus. . fusiform and turreted ; spire smooth and conical,

with a mammillary termination.
striatulus. . fusiform and turreted ; the turns flat on their tops

and sides, with very fine equal strise — very small.
biplicatus. . ovate, transversely striated ; longitudinal ribs ;

columella with two folds — very small.
variabilis. . many ribbed, turns subangular — small.
truncatulatus. . ovate and turreted, the margins of the spiral

turns truncated, the spire plicated — small.

Pleurotoma.

filosa. . ovato-fusiform, lip alaeform — 1| inch.

lineolata. . ovate-fusiform — var. ?

clavicularis. . fusiform, turreted, whirls bordered with striae on

the upper part, lip alated — 2 inches.
glabrata. . fusiform, base transversely grooved — 1£ inch.
marginata. . turns bordered upwards by a cord-like margin, and

separated by two or three grooves with sunk points.
transversaria. . fusiform, deeply grooved transversely, whirls

carinated — 2| inches.
catenata. . fusiform, decussated ; the transverse strise strongest,

like a chain of tubercles on every turn — 2 inches.
dentata. . fusiform ; a dentated keel on each turn — 1^ inch.
undata. . fusiform, turreted ; whirls crenulated, with undulated

ribs on their upper part, the tail short — 1 inch.
multinoda. . fusiform, turreted ; whirls submarginated, nodulous

in the middle — | inch.
crenulata. . fusiform, turreted ; straight ribs, like cogs of a

wheel on each whirl — f inch.
bicatenata. . fusiform, turreted ; with two rows of nodes on the

upper part of the whirls — f inch.

costellata. . oval, fusiform; whirls with longitudinal ribs — i inch.
plicata. . fusiform, turreted ; whirls with rather curved plaits. .

small .
sulcata. . fusiform, turreted ; decussated in the lower part ;

whirls with longitudinal ribs. . small.
curvicosta. . ovato-fusiform ; bent ribs, as if split or bifid at their

tops. . f inch.
furcata. . whirls, with ribs contracted above their middle, and

forked underneath.

* Murex bulbus — Brand, Foss. fig. 54.

211

Pleurotoma — continued.

nodulosa. . ovate-fusiform ; spire pyramidal, with nine rows of

short nodulous ribs. . f inch.

rentricosa. . ovato-fusiform, ventricose and caudated. . | inch.
terebralis. . fusiform, with transverse granulated striae and

dentated keels. . £ inch.

yramdata. . subturreted, granulated, base short. . \ inch.
brflexa. . subturreted ; spire long, plaits separate in their middle,

a granulated keel. . small.
turrella. . subturreted ; the whirls carinated ; spire tubercu-

lated in the upper part. . small.
striarella. . fusiform, turreted, ahnost smooth, plaits and striae

hardly discoverable. . small.
decnssata. . fusiform, turreted; spire small, long, and nodulous,

with two rows of tubercles, one small the other large. .

| inch.

Cerithium.

interruptum. . pyramidal ; transverse striae in rows, alternately

large and small ; ribs bowed, last turn ventricose. . T|

inch.
hexayonum. . with five or six longitudinal ribs ; last whirl tumid,

with five or six spinous tubercles. . 2 inches.
serratum. . turreted, echinated; two rows of compressed teeth

on each turn, the lower smallest ; four internal plaits on

right side. . 2f inches.
tricarinatus. . pyramidate ; three denticulated keels, the lowest

by much the largest — 2 inches.
i-ittatitm. . turreted ; upper whirls smooth, lower ones with

three tuberculated bands — 2 inches.
clavatulatum. . rough, with transverse tubercular keels, three

at the upper part, and decreasing to one on the lowest

turn; notched like a. pleurotoma — 1£ inch.
echinoides. . rather heptagonal, with tubercles a little pointed,

in two or three rows ; twelve or fourteen turns, sometimes

orange coloured — !£ inch.
a/igulosum. . pyramidate, twelve turns, with transverse striae,

and a central angulated keel, points at the angles — lj

inch,
cristatum. . turreted ; whirls with a dentated keel in the middle ;

the base transversely sulcated — \\ inch.
calcitrapoides. . turreted, with transverse muricated ribs, no

striae — 1^ inch.
denticulatum. . spire subulated and smooth at the top, the other

whirls denticulated with points in their upper parts, and

striated beneath — f inch.
umbrellatum. . the upper margins of the whirls denticulated,

the under ones crenulated and expanded in the teeth of the

next whirl, no striae, top of the spire smooth — \~ inch.
larnellosttm. . turreted, subplicated ; distant transverse striae,

base with three transverse lamellae — 1^ inch.

212

Cerithium — continued.

thiara. . turreted, rather cylindrical ; whirls crowned with

tubercles, flat beneath ; the lip alated — f inch.
mutabile. . three transverse striae on each whirl, the lower whirl
with the upper stria tuberculated stronger than the others,
upper whirl with the striae all alike — 1| inch.
semicoronatum. . turreted ; three granular striae on each whirl,
the uppermest thickest ; a plait on the columella — 1| inch.
cinctum. . conical, turreted ; three granular striae, rather equal

in size ; a plait on the columella — If inch.
plicatum. . turreted, subcylindrical ; whirls granulated longi-
tudinally— 1 inch.

conoideum. . short, conoidal, three or four rows of granulse on
each whirl — 1^ inch.

confluens. . turreted, with three transverse granulated keels, the
lowest the largest, granulse confluent — f inch.

clavus. . subulate ; two or three transverse granular striae, ver-
tically confluent ; base short and twisted — f inch.

baccillum. . subulate, with eight or nine unequal obscure granular
striae — f inch.

scabrum. . pyramidate ; echinated with two dentated keels, the
lower the largest — f inch.

asperellum. . conical, with two dentated keels, teeth very small
— var. ? — small.

turritellatum. . turreted ; whirls convex, with three transverse
striae, and vertical bowed ribs — 1 inch.

mitra. . conical, with four vertical striee, crossed by small gra-
nular ribs — small.

pleurotomoides, . conical, turreted, with two rows of obtuse
tubercles ; a notch in the right lip — small.

involutum. . conical, turreted ; turns smooth, imbricating ; colu-
mella twisted — 1 inch.

tuberculosum. . turreted ; two rows of tubercles, the upper
largest, the lower margins crenulated — 1^ inch.

bicurinatum. . turreted, with subangulated keels ; four trans-
verse striae at the base — f inch.

trocMeare. . conical, subturreted ; two transverse keels, raised
and dentated, crossed by vertical ribs, giving an alveolated
appearance — sm all .

trochiforme. . conical, short ; striae obsolete ; longitudinal ribs
— very small.

muricoides. . conical, ventricose ; tubercular and granular striae ;
whirls convex — | inch.

purpura. . conical, short ; transversely striated, and distinctly
tuberculated — var. ? — | inch.

conoidale. . short ; the whirls flat, with unequally truncated
and subtubercular striae — small.

subulatum. . turreted, with noduliform ribs and transverse obso-
lete striae ; opening oblong.

lupidorum. . turreted ; whirls convex, subtubercular in the
middle ; bowed vertical ribs, nearly obsolete — 1| inch.

213

Cerithium — continued.

petricolam. . turreted, smooth, with a thick border on the upper

part of the whirls, transversely grooved beneath — 1 inch.
spiratum. . round, turreted, smooth ; turns flat and channelled

in the upper part ; base with one groove, plicated out-
wardly— 2 1 inches.
columnare.'. subulate, transverse and vertical striae decussating,

with a marginal groove beneath the upper margin — 1 inch.
substriatum — conical, turreted, almost smooth ; the lower

whirls with simple distinct striae, the upper with obsoletely

crenulated ones — 1 inch.
quadrisulcatum. . subulate, turreted ; turns flat, with four grooves

— f inch.
umbilicatum. . subulate ; whirls flat with four transverse grooves ;

the columellla umbilicated. . ^ inch.
perforatum. . subulate ; whirls rather convex, finely striated ;

columella perforated. . £ inch.
clavosum. . smooth, turreted, with obsolete striae ; the lower

whirls involving the upper. . ~ inch.
cancellation. . subulate, turreted ; cancellated whirls convex ;

columella subplicated. . small.
semigranosum. . turreted, decussated with subgranulated crossing

striae ; canal very short. . f inch.

acicula. . subulate, smooth ; whirls subcarinated. . 5 inch.
terebrale. . turreted, smooth convex ; whirls with obsolete

transverse striae. . small.
inversum. . turreted, subulate, left-turned; the whirls cancellated

by transverse keels and suboblique vertical striae. . ~ inch.
melanoides. . oval, turriculated, with transverse striae ; opening

much like that of melania. . very small.
larva. . turreted, cylindrical ; whirls with two equal transverse

granular keels. . very small.

yracile. . turreted and subulate ; whirls inversely imbricated.
incertiim. . turreted ; whirls convex, with distant transverse

striae and more numerous vertical ones.
emarainatum. . turreted, transversely sulcated, upper grooves

granulated, upper borders of the whirls subcanaliculated ;

the lip notched. . 2 inches.
rugosum. . turreted, upper whirls discussatedly granulated, the

lower slightly sulcated with one groove, lowest rugous

beneath. . 1^ inch.
giganteum. . turreted, very long ; transversely striated ; whirls

nodose upwards ; columella with one plait ; opening ob-
long, oblique, with a canal which rather terminates back-
wards ; upper part of the right side with a lateral auriform

elongation.
Hitdum. . turreted ; whirls plicated in the upper part, numerous

transverse striae ; no plait on the columella. . 3 inches.
unisulcatum. . turreted, numerous transverse striae, no plicae ;

the turns have a single, nearly central groove. . ^ inch.
turritdlatum. . turreted ; convex whirls with transverse unequal

striae ; a notch in the right border of the opening. . small.

214

Trochus.

crenularis. . pyramidate, transversely tuberculated, the lower
margins of the whirls thickly crenated with large tuber-
cles ; columella truncated — 1 inch.
Resembling trochus mauritianus.

monilifer. . conical, imperforate, transversely granulated in four
rows ; columella obliquely sub truncated ; eight concentric
rows of grains on the base — f inch.

sulcatus. . conical, subperforated, transversely and elegantly
grooved ; the lower margin prominent. Analagous in some
respects with T. granulatus and conulus — | inch.

aUigatus. , conical, imperforate, spotted ; whirls flat, with six
unequal lines, lowest thickest — ~ inch.

ornatus. , conical, imperforate ; whirls with numerous oblique
ribs on their upper part, on the lower two rows of small
tubercles — f inch.

subcarinatus. . abbreviated, conical ; whirls smooth, the inferior
borders forming an obtuse keel ; base rather convex, finely
striated circularly, and perforated — not £ inch.

bicarinatus. . conical, imperforate ; whirls smooth, with two dis-
tant keels.

agglutinans*. . conical, depressed, dilated at the base ; wThirls
rude, polyedral ; umbilicus internally plaited.

Solarium.

patulum. . convex, with smooth whirls, with carinated and cre-
nulated borders ; umbilicus open — f inch wide.

sulcatum . . convex, with radiating grooves beneath ; whirls
smooth, with a doubly- grooved border ; umbilicus concave,
with crenulated margins — f inch.

canaliculatum. . convex, with transverse grooves formed between
strings of grains ; umbilicus crenated and canaliculated —
f inch.

plicatum. . convex, depressed, rugous, vertically sulcated ; um-
bilicus crenated with large plicae — nearly f inch.

spiratum. . conoidal, smooth, substriated ; whirls flat, subcana-
liculated and crenulated in the upper part ; umbilicus gra-
nulated and crenulated within.

ammonites. . depressed, discoidal ; turns flat, with sulcated ver-
tical rugae ; umbilicus open, crenated — very small.

patellatum. . depressed, discoidal, carinated ; turns flat, except
on their borders ; a platter-formed umbilicus ; margin sub-
crenulated — very small.

disjunctum. . discoidal, carinated, smooth ; spire flat, lower sur-
face convex, the last whirl disjoined ; umbilicus serrated.

bifrons. . discoidal, obtuse, smooth, spire sunk ; opposite side
also subumbilicated, the last turn including the rest —
very small.

* Trochus umbilicaris— lirand, Foss. fig. 4 and 5, non Linnaei.

215

Turbo.

squamulosus. . conoidal, pointed, umbilicated ; whirls convex,
with five squamose grooves — not 5 an inch.

radiosus — globosely conoidal, five whirls deeply sulcated in the
middle, above and below radiately striated — small.

helicinoides. . depressedly conoidal, polished, a little spotted ;

four whirls, smooth ; base rather callous.
Resembles troch. vestiarius, Lin.

denticulatus. . globosely conoidal, transversely striated ; whirls
four, with two de'nticulated keels in the middle ; base um-
bilicated— very small.

Delphinula.

calcar. . spire depressed ; whirls rough, keeled in the middle,
keel armed with spines — nearly 1 inch wide.

lima. . orbiculato-convex, rough, transversely striated, echinated
with concave squamous striae ; whirls round, but sub-
angulate — f inch.

cornea. . conically pyramidal ; whirls smooth but bicarinated,
last turn disjoined — small.

turbinoides. . obtusely conical, whirls obsoletely keeled, with
minute striae — small.

marginata. . roundish ; whirls smooth, umbilicus lessened by a
border — small.

striata. . roundish, transversely striated ; whirls subangular ;
umbilicus spiral — very small.

a idea fa. . roundish; depressed ; whirls deeply sulcated, lip ser-
rated— very small.

canalifera. . roundish ; smooth ; margin of the umbilicus plaited;
a canal passing spirally up its sides — very small.

Cyclostoma.

cornupastoris. . orbiculato-convex ; transversely striated, whirls
round, detached at the base. . very small.

spiruloides. . orbicular, smooth, pellucid. . very small.

planorbula. . round, solid, umbilicated beneath. . very small.

macrostoma. . orbicular, pellucid, mouth very open. . minute.

mumia. . cylindraceo-conical ; solid, longitudinal and trans-
verse striae ; opening ovate. . f inch,

turritellata. . turreted ; turns convex, with decussating striae. .
very small.

Planorbis.

nitidula. . smooth ; polished ; opening round. . very small.
snbangulata. . obsoletely carinated ; opening round but rather

angular. . very small.

bicarinata. . transversely striated ; bicarinated.
spirorbis. . belongs, perhaps, to delphinula.

Scalaria.

crispa. . turreted ; ribs numerous, subangulated at the base ;
whirls ventricose — | inch.

Scalaria — continued.

decussata — turreted ; long, transversely striated ; ribs longitu-
dinal ; whirls contiguous — f inch.

denuduta. . turreted, ribs few, whirls distant — f inch.

monocycla. . conical, whirls contiguous, a raised stria on the
base of the last turn — f inch.

plicata. . turreted, small plicae-formed ribs.

Turritella.

imbricataria. . subulated ; whirls flat, imbricated, transversely

striated, finely granulated intermediately — 3 inches.
sulcata. , conical, transversely sulcated, lowest grooves deepest,

fine vertical bowed striae — 2 inches.
subcarinata. . conical, transversely sulcated, grooves unequal,

separated by keels — 1 inch.
fasciata. . conical ; two grooves in the upper part of the whirls ;

a flat zone in the middle divided by a fine striae — f inch.
multisulcata. . conical, whirls convex, numerous ; nearly equal

grooves — 1 inch.
terebellata. . long, subulated, whirls subconvex, striated, with

small interstitial whirls — 5 inches.
per/orata. . subulated, whirls flat and imbricating, with three

transverse strise and a raised margin ; columella perforated

through its whole length — 1 inch.
unisulcata. . subulate ; smooth flat whirls, one groove at the

lower margin — 1 inch.
uniangularis. . conical, subulate, one transverse angle in the

middle of each whirl — £ inch.
melanoides. . conical, whirls flat with transverse striae and

grooves intermixed — ~ inch.
There exist numerous varieties of these species.

Bulla.

ovulata. . transversely striated, spire involved — f inch.
striatella. , short, finely striated ; spire obtuse, upper edges of

each whirl carinated — small.

cylindrica. . striae chiefly on the base, vertex umbilicated — | inch.
coronata. . oblong, subcylindrical vertex umbilicated, the margin

coronetted.

Bulimus.

albidus. . ovate, smooth, whirls rather convex ; opening semi-
ovate. Seems not to be fluviatile — \ inch.

citharellus. . ovate conical ; transversely striated, longitudinal

ribs, apex papillated — very small.
Marine ?. . Auricula ?

terebellatus. . turreted, umbilicated, very smooth, opening oval,
angular at both sides — f inch.

acicularis. . turreted, long, thin — small.

nitidus. . turreted, very smooth, whirls rather convex, lip sharp
. . small.

217
Bulimus — continued.

sextonus. . turreted, six smooth convex whirls, opening ovate. .

small.
conulus. . conical, upper part of the whirls channelled, spire

acute. . very small.

clavulus. . whirls flat, striae transverse. . very small.
striatulus. . whirls convex, very finely striated. . very small.
nanus. . whirls convex, with very small vertical plicae. . very

small.
Several other shells are placed, doubtfully, under this genus,

which are hardly distinguishable from turbo, cyclostomus, &c.

Phasianella.

turbinoides. . ovate ; variously coloured, whirls smooth. . | inch.

Lymnaea.

palustris. . oblong, substriated, with rather convex whirls, open-
ing ovate.

Melania.

costellata. . turreted, subulate, transversely striated, the upper
part of the lip channelled within. . 1 inch.

lactea. . turreted, thick whirls convex, lower, smooth ; upper
striated vertically. . 1 inch.

marginata. . conical, turreted, striae transverse, distant, whirls
subcanaliculated in the upper parts, opening bordered. .
1 inch.

hordacea. . turreted, striae transverse ; opening small. . small.

canalicularis. . turreted, subulate, whirls convex, with fine trans-
verse striae. . small.

corrugata. . turreted, whirls decussated on their upper parts. .
f inch.

semiplicata. . conical, transversely striated, vertically subpli-
cated ; opening with a produced sinus. . f inch.

nitida. . subulate, pointed, whirls smooth and shining. . f inch.

semistriata. . upper whirls vertically striated ; lower ones smooth
. . small.

cochlearella. . with small long grooves ; lip produced somewhat
like cerithium. . \ inch.

fragilis. . convex whirls, longitudinal grooves. . very small.

dubia. . ovato- conical ; ribbed vertically, striae small and trans-
verse ; columella truncated. . small.

Auricula.

sulcata. . ovato-conical, transversely sulcated ; spire acute ; co-
lumella with one plait. . f inch.

ovata. . ovato-acute, subventricose, smooth ; lip bordered inter-
nally ; columella subtriplicated. . f inch.

ringens. . ovato-acute, rather turgid ; transversely striated ; lip
bordered with a callous margin ; columella subtriplicated
. . very small.

miliola. . ovato-conical ; smooth, columella with one fold. . very
small.

F f.

218

Auricula — continued.

hordeola. . ovato-conical ; smooth, lip striated within ; colu-

mella with one fold. . small.
acicula. . turreted, subcylindrical, smooth ; columella with one

fold. . small.
terebellata. . turreted, smooth, opening semiovate ; columella

with three folds. . small.

Volvaria.

buttoides. . cylindrical, transversely striated ; spire pointed and
nearly included. . f inch.

Ampullaria.

pygmcea. . ventricose, smooth ; base umbilicated ; aperture long
. . very small.

excavata. . ventricose, smooth ; columella with a sinuous exca-
vation. . small.

cornea. . ovato-conical, whirls smooth and convex ; umbilicus
half covered. . f inch.

acuta. . ventricose, spire short and pointed ; umbilicus half co-
vered. . 1 inch.

acuminata. . ventricose ; spire long and pointed ; umbilicus co-
vered.

spirata. . subventricose ; whirls flat on the top, with an acute
border.

depressa. . globose, turns convex on the upper part ; columella
depressed in the lower part. . 1 inch.

canaliculata. . globose ; spire short and canaliculated ; a spiral
groove accompanying the umbilicus. . f inch.

patula*. . ventricose ; spire short ; umbilical groove covered
over ; lip wide, subauriculated. . If inch.

sigaretina. . ventricose, imperforate ; spire short, lip large. .
If inch.

crassatina. . globose, thick, imperforate ; base of the columella
spread out ; spire canaliculated. . 3 inches.

hybrida. . globose, imperforate ; columella effused. . If inch.

Serpula.

intorta. . rathei angulated, contortedly agglomerated, plicae

transverse.
cristata. . round, with denticulated ribs ; contorted in a discoidal

spire, the other end extended. . France.
spirulaa. . compressed, smooth ; discoidal spire, fore part

disjoined, sharp edge. . Bayonne.
minima. . capillary, glomerated. . Grignon.
echinata. . flexuous, with subspinous ribs.
sulcata. . round, subglomerated, straight forward, numerous

subdentated longitudinal folds. . Touraine.

Helix mutabilis— Brand, Foss. No. 51.

219
Serpula — continued.

costalis. . angulated, loosely contorted, base subspirated, smooth,

longitudinal.
dentifera. . round, contorted, with two or three dentiferous

longitudinal folds. . Italy.

Balanus.

sukatus. . conical, obtuse long grooves ; radiating transverse

striae.
tintinnabulum. . conical, subventricose ; longitudinally lineated,

transverse striated rays ; rostrated backwards. . Italy.
cylindraceus. . narrow base, elongated, subventricose. . Turin.
miser. . gregarious, short, valves straight, back in the lower

part with two or three grooves ; opening dilated ; valves

of operculum pointed. . Italy.
pustularis. . short, subconical ; valves smooth, six rays, two

solitary, the rest in pairs. . Piedmont.
crispatus. . conical ; five distinct rays ; valves naked at the

apex, muricated at their base. . Italy.

Clavagella.

echinata. . ventricose, echinated all over ; on one side with

tubular spines. . Grignon.

Fistulana echinata. Ann. duMus. Tom. vii. p. 429, PL xii. fig. 43.
cristata. . a crest of tubular spines on one side. . Grignon.
tibialis. . naked, compressed ; valve discoverable. . Grignon.
Brocchii. . pyriform, set with short tubes. . Italy.

Fistulana.

ampullaria. . sheath ampullaceous, produced, opening bicari-

nated. . Grignon.
pyrum. . sheath pyriform, plain. . Italy.

Teredina.

personata. . straight, sinous and lobules like a mask. . Courtagnon
baccillum. . solid, straight, and round. .Italy.

Solen.

vagina. . linear, straight ; one tooth. . Grignon.

coarctacus . . oblong, transversely striated, contracted in the

middle.

fragilis. . analogue of solen cultellus ?
effusus. . ovato-oblong, straight, smooth, subangulated forward^

Somewhat resembling solen vesjtertinus.
strigilatus. . ovato-oblong, with oblique imbricating striae.
appendiculatus. . elliptical, smooth ; an appendicular part at the

base. . small.

Glycimeris.

margaritacea. . ovate, truncated forwards. . Grignon.

220
Lutraria.

salenoides. . transverse, rugaeform striae ; foreside very long ; apex

rounded, gaping much. . Mount Marius.
elliptica. . transverse striae. . very small. . Bourdeaux.
crassidens. . solid, opaque, substriated ; cardinal tooth thick.

Mactra.

deltoides. . ovato -trigonal, shorter behind ; elegantly plicated by
the corselet and lunule. . Grignon and Bourdeaux.

Crassatella.

tumida. . ovato -trigonal ; gibbous and thick with age ; the fore-
side angulated; base transversely sulcated; margin den-
tated within.

sinuata . . obliquely trigonal ; foreside angulated, winding. .
Bourdeaux.

striatula. . ovato-trigonal, with numerous fine transverse grooves
or striae. . St. Brieux.

compressa. . ovato-orbiculate, rather flat ; angulated forwards ;
transverse striae, most prominent at the base. . Grignon and
Courtagnon.

lamellosa. . transversely oblong, with distant erect lamelliform
ridges ; valves crenulated. . Grignoh.

trigonata. . orbicularly trigonal ; transversely grooved ; base
rather smooth ; border smooth. . Grignon.

latissima . . elliptical, compressed ; unequally sulcated trans-
versely ; border smooth. . Saint Iries.

Erycina.

Icevis. . ovate, polished ; striae very fine, transverse ; hinge with

two teeth,

pellucida. . ovato-orbicular ; with one very small tooth.
trigona. . ovato -triangular ; one smooth tooth.
inequilateral. . obovate, tumid, smooth ; two small teeth.
fragilis. . ovato -trans verse ; thin and pellucid ; two teeth.
elliptica. . depressed in the middle ; transverse striae, very fine ;
two hinge teeth ; pit intermediate.

Corbula.

gallica. . ovato-transverse ; larger valve turgid, finely striated to
the base, that being smooth. . Grignon.

costulata. . the less valve with radiating longitudinal ribs ; base
smooth.

rugosa. . trigonal, ventricose j thick transverse grooves ; angu-
lated forwards, rather pointed. . Grignon,

striata. . ovato-transverse ; rathea beaked, elegantly striated
transversely. . Grignon and Courtagnon.

Petricola.

chamoides. . ovate, inflated, thick ; with longitudinal rugae, curled
and lamellated toward the margin on the upper side ; the
foreside widest. . Italy.

221
Psammotsea.

solenoides. . oblongo-elliptical, smooth ; base rather prominent ;
hinge about the middle, one tooth. . Grignon.

Tellina.

patellaris. . elliptical, rather compressed ; fine transverse striae ;

hinge with two teeth. . Grignon.
scalaroides . . rotundato-ovate ; with transverse, fine, distant

raised striae ; two teeth. . Grignon.
rostratis. . oblongo -transverse, narrow ; transversely sulcated ;

beaked on the foreside. . Grignon.
zonaria. . ovate, flat ; very finely striated transversely ; brownish

unequal zones, rather acutely angulated forwards.
patellaris. . approaches to T. remies, Lin.. . If inch. . Grignon.
scalaroides. . ovato- elliptical ; transverse striae, raised, distant,

and regular, like the steps of a ladder. . 1| inch. . Grignon.
carinulata. . orbiculato-elliptical, rounded at both sides ; rather

remote, elevated and carinated striae.

sinuata. . ovato-elliptical, short and obtuse forward ; a depres-
sion on the disk rendering it sinuous ; striae transverse,

very fine. . Grignon.
donacialis. . ovato-oblique, smooth ; very short on the foreside,

scarcely inflected ; two wedge-like teeth, one grooved. .

Grignon.
rostralis. . oblongo-transverse, narrow, transversely sulcated ;

the forepart beaked, subbiangulated ; two very small teeth

on one valve, and one on the other. . Parnes and Grignon.
corneola. . ovate, subpellucid, angulated forwards ; very small

transverse striae.
pusilla. . ovate, pellucid, smooth, with an oblique small pit

added to the hinge tooth. . Grignon.
rudis. . oblongo-ovate, transverse, rather smooth ; the foreside

obtusely angulated. . Grignon.

Corbis.

lamellosa. . transversely elliptical ; cancellated, but on the pos-
terior part, the lamellae only dentated. . Grignon.

petunculus. . round, ventricose ; cancellated at the back part, the
transverse lamellae plaited and serrated. . Granville.

Lucina.

mutabilis. . orbiculato- ovate, compressed radiating striae inside
the valve ; the teeth lost with age. Two teeth, one
divided, giving the appearance of three. . 3 or 4 inches. .
Grignon.

concentrica. . orbicular ; rather flatly convex ; raised concentric
lamellae, with minute longitudinal interstitial striae, some-
times none. . Grignon.

circinaria. . orbicular ; subangulate forwards ; very small trans-
verse striae ; hardly any lateral teeth. . Grignon.

222
Lucina — continued.

columbella. . suborbicular ; transversely sulcated on the side ;
base projecting with deep grooves, bowed obliquely. .
Touraine.

Donax.

retusa. . wedge-form, flat, blunt forwards ; fine transverse striae,

margins entire. . 1 inch wide. . Parnes.
incompleta. . ovato -triangular ; smooth, round on the foreside ;

two hinge teeth, no lateral ones. . small. . Beynes.
tellinella. . ovato -oblong, finely striated transversely ; remote

lateral teeth ; margins entire. . small. . Grignon.
nitida. . ovato-oblong, smooth, polished ; two lateral teeth. .

small.
lunulata. . orbiculato-ovate, flat ; blunt at the foreside, the

striae very fine. . f inch. . Houdau.
obliqua. . longitudinal, ovately oblique, smooth ; margins entire ;

one tooth on one valve and two on the other ; vestiges

only of lateral ones.

Cyprina.

gigas. . large, cordato-rotund, with fine remote striae ; large
opening beneath the beaks ; lateral teeth obsolete. . 5j
inches. . Italy.

islandica. . cordate ; striated transversely ; retains epidermis ;
foreside rather angular ; no posterior depression. . Sienna.
Italy.

Piedmontana. . round, thin ; transversely grooved ; posterior
opening oblong ; lateral tooth obsolete. . 2 inches. .
environs de Turin.

corrugata. . ovato-cordate ; grooved transversely, with intersti-
tial vertical striae ; impression posterior. . 4 inches. . Italy.

tridacnoides. . transversely ovate ; corrugated, striae vertical ;
plicated on the upper surface.

tenuistra. . longitudinally ovate, thick brown, white within,
transverse concentric striae, border crenated ; no posterior
opening, with an isolated tooth as in cytherea concentrica.

islandicoides. . roundish ; longer than wide ; cordated, striae
transversely upwards ; foreside not angulated ; no poste-
rior opening.

umbonaria. . rounded and cordate, subantiquated ; delicately
striated transversely; base tumid; no opening beneath
the beaks.

Venus angulata, Sowerby.

Cytherea.

erycinoides. . rather depressed, white spotted with brown, transverse

grooves, very obtuse. . Bourdeaux.
Analogue, cedo nulli ?

multilamella. . inequilateral, distinct, transverse grooves..
Montmarin.

223
Cytherea — continued.

scutellaria. . suborbicular, thin, rather flat ; striae distant. . 2£

inches.
demisulcata. . ovato-trigonal ; on the upper part of the foreside

transversely sulcated ; sides flat ; corselet sunk. . Grignon.
nitidula. . ovate, inequilateral ; small transverse striae, some-
times obsolete. . Grignon.

polita. . ovate, rather flat ; beaks very small, recurved, pointed.
antiquata. . trigonal, subcordated, transversely striated ; grooves

beneath the beaks. . 1£ inch wide. . Pontcharin.
luevigata. . oblongo-transverse, smooth, polished ; beak obtuse,

recurved. . Grignon.
tellinaria. . obovato-trigonal, smooth ; lunule ovato-oblong. .

Grignon.
elegans. . ovato-orbiculate ; with transverse, parallel grooves ;

lunule ovate. . f inch.
deltoidea. . ovato-trigonal ; fine transverse striae ; hinder side

rounded. . small.
corbulina. . suborbicular, ventricose ; transverse striae very slight ;

valves very thick and concave. . very small.

Venus.

casinoidea. . cordated, oblique, compressed, angulated forwards ;

transverse, sublamellous grooves, most numerous in the

upper part of the valves. . Italy.
Resembles V. casino,.

paphia. . subcordate, subcompressed, oblique, with thick trans-
verse rugae. . North Carolina.
aratina. . subcordated, trigonoidal ; concentric, transverse striae ;

inner margin crenulated. . Touraine.
obliqua. . long and rounded, rather smooth ; beak obliquely

recurved.
callosa. . orbiculato-cordated, subangulate ; beaks prominent,

obliquely incurved; valves callous internally, externally

striated. . Grignon.
text a. . ovate ; cancellated by the intersections of oblique lines ;

lunule oval.

Venericardia.

planicosta. . obliquely cordated, very thick ; transversely ribbed,

ribs flat ; entire.
Chama rhomboidea. . Brocch.
petuncularis. . orbicular, subequilateral ; ribs convex, subimbri-

cated, laterally muricated. . Beauvais.
imbricata. . suborbicular ; ribs convex, imbricatedly squamous,

nodose, rough. . Grignon.
acuticosrta. . suborbicular ; ribs carinated, squamoso-dentated,

rather rough.
mitts. . suborbicular, numerous, separate, compressed ribs ; back

smooth, crenulated behind. . Boves.
senifa. . obliquely cordated, very inequilateral, with large convex,

obsoletely crenulated ribs. . Angers.

224
Venericardia — continued.

concentrica. . suborbicular, rather depressed ; concentric, ele-
vated, lamellose striae, with grooves. . Chamont.

decussata. . suborbicular ; longitudinal ribs cancellated by trans-
verse striae ; hinge teeth divaricated. . Grignon.

elegans. . suborbicular ; numerous elevated, compressed ribs ;
backs squamosely serrated. . Grignon.

Cardium.

distans. . tumid, subequilateral ; sixteen ribs, obtuse, smooth,

and distant. . England.
echinatum. . tumid ; ribs flat, grooved, with thick ear-formed

papillae.
burdigalinum. . gaping forwards, ribs smooth in the middle,

serrato-spinose before, and crenato-squamous in the hinder

part ; border of the opening deeply serrated. . Bourdeaux.
porulosum. . margin serrated with ligulated teeth ; ribs carinated,

crenulated, and porulous at their base. . Grignon.
sulcatinum. . longitudinally sulcated ; corselet and lunule smooth.
rhomboides. . subtransverse ; sixteen distant ribs, transversely

sulcated.
diluvianum. . angulated in the fore part ; fourteen ribs, distant,

convex ; corselet raised, subcarinated. . Sienna.
serrigerum, . thirty ribs, with serrseform teeth ; sharpest on the

foreside. . Grignon.
Telluris. . shaped somewhat like cardium cardissa ; the carinated

back of the valves sulcated ; the anterior side flat ; back

part convex ; with obtuse entire keels. . Mons and St. Jean

d'Asie.
lithocardium. . subtrilateral ; valves with carinated ribs on the

back, diminishing upwards, very sharp.

cymbularia. . long, subtrilateral ; valves with carinated ribs, di-
minishing to points upwards ; longitudinally sulcated. .

Valogne.
umbonare . . obliquely cordated ; seventeen ribs, transversely

striated ; base large. . Sienna.
Hillanum. . obliquely cordated ; transverse, close, concentric

striae ; longitudinally sulcated on the foreside. . England.
hibernicum. . rounded ; valves sulcated and carinated ; sides

transversely produced, pervious at the extremity, hinder

part shortest, truncated, projecting in the middle. . England.
discors. . subcordated, thin, rather smooth ; with longitudinal

strise anteriorly, and transverse ones posteriorly.
porulosum. . subcordated ; edge serrated ; ribs raised, crenulated,

carinated, thin, porulous at the base.
asperulum. . roundish, cordated, subechinated ; numerous sub-

squamous convex ribs, about thirty-two ; with erect for-
nicated squamae.
calcitrapoides. . roundish, cordated ; fore part echinated ; convex

ribs, twenty to twenty-two, mostly smooth, but sharp in

the fore part.

225

Cardita.

yallicana. . roundedly rhomboidal, oblique ; ribs radiating, sub-

sqaamose ; upward, the squamae more distant. . Angers.
rudista. . obliquely cordated, transverse ; ribs round, separated;

squamously echinated in the forepart. . Sienna.
Etrusca. . obliquely cordated ; ribs nearly flat and smooth. .

Sienna.
crassa. . oblong, rather winding backwards ; ribs thick, rounded,

imbricatedly squamose ; squamae obtuse.

Cypricardia.

coralliophaga. . thin, oblong, rather cylindrical ; decussatedly

striated ; compressed before ; marginal striae prominent in

laminae. . Italy.
modiolaris. . oval-oblong ; tumid ; transverse, bowed striae ;

lunule ovate, impressed. . Caen.
obliqua. . obliquely cordated, convex, rather smooth; upper

border rounded ; no transverse striae. . Mouliers.
trigona. . cordato-trigonal, short ; with very small transverse

striae.

Isocardia.

Cor. . cordato-globose, smooth. . Italy.

arietina. . oblongo-cordate, with deep longitudinal grooves ;
bases large, terminating in two contorted turns. . Italy.

Cucullaea.

crassatina. . subcordated, ventricose, with interrupted longitu-
dinal grooves, sometimes none; a very short internal
auricle. . Beauvais.

Area.

scapha. . transversely oblong, ventricose, many ribbed; the ribs
flat ; umbos oblique. . Demifossil. . Timor.

diluvii. . ovato-transverse, ventricose, many ribbed ; ribs thirty-
two to thirty-six, flat, transversely striated ; area sloping ;
margin crenated. . 2 inches wide. . Plaisance.

biangula. . transversely oblong ; decussated, with granulato-
squamous striae, the foreside produced, with two angles. .
lj inch wide.

scepulina. . oblongo-ovate ; transverse, windingly contracted in
the middle ; with longitudinal grooves closely granu-
lated. . Grignon.
Area barbatula, Annales du Mus.

interrupta — ovato-oblong ; transverse, depressed, longitudinally
grooved ; hinge interrupted, with few teeth ; beaks con-
tiguous. . Parnes.

clathrata. . ovato-transverse, depressed, finely cancellated;
foreside oblique, beaks approximated. . f inch. .Angers.

angusta. .transversely oblong ; narrow, rather depressed ; decus-
sated; beaks approximated. .Grignon.

quadrilatera. . transverse, oblongo- quadrate, windingly depressed
in the middle, decussating striae ; the long striae most con-
spicuous.

Gg.

226
Area — continued.

mytiloides. . oblong, very smooth, obsoletely striated longitu-
dinally ; valves compressed in the middle. . Plaisance.

Pectunculus.

pulvinatus. . orbiculated, transverse, subequilateral ; with longi-
tudinal grooves and striae ; beaks small. . Grignon.
Analogue of P. glycemeris ?

cor. . obliquely cordate ; tumid ; with longitudinal, rather
distinct grooves ; base subturgid. . Bourdeaux.

obovatus. . convex, subequilateral ; very thick, superior margin
rounded ; no longitudinal strise. . Weissenstein.

planicostalis. . ovato-orbiculate ; ribs numerous, small, flat,
angular on one side ; transverse strise obsolete. . Pont-
chartrain.

transversus. . elliptical transversely, rather tumid ; equilateral ;
remote longitudinal grooves, with very fine decussating
striae.

nudicardo. . transversely elliptical, tumid ; hinge, without teeth
in the middle ; but few at the extremities.

subconcentricus . . suboval, rounded, convex, longitudinally
striated ; some distant, transverse, concentric grooves on
the upper part.
An. P. decussatus, Sowerby ?

nummiformis. . lenticular, not eared, rather smooth ; transversely
concentric, and longitudinal strise, blended or separate. .
Touraine.

pygmceus. . orbicular, subequilateral, depressedly convex, small,
with transverse and decussating longitudinal striae. .
Grignon,

nuculatus. . inequilateral, obliquely transverse ; very fine trans-
verse striae ; beaks conniving. . Grignon.

Nucula.

rostralis. . transverse, oblong, gradually rostrated forwards,
base tumid ; corselet concave, lanceolated. . Bourgogne.

emarginata. . ovate ; striae obliquely transverse; foreside pro-
duced.

deltoidea. . triangular, inflated ; foreside obliquely truncated ;
rounded backward ; corselet flat. . Grignon.

placentina. . ovately transverse ; rather large, oblique, longitu-
dinally striated, pearly within, margin crenulated.

margaritacea. . obliquely ovate, subtriangular, rather smooth,
internally pearly ; prominent hinge tooth. . Grignon.

striata. . ovate, subplicated forwards, with elegant transverse
strise ; no hinge tooth. . Grignon.

Trigonia.

scabra. . ovato-trigonal, produced forwards, with transverse

tuberculatedly scabrous ribs.
T. spinosa ?. . St. Paul-Trois chateaux.

227
Trigonia — continued.

crenulata. . ovato-trigonal, produced forwards, many ribbed ;
ribs transverse, bowed, obliquely crenated, with numerous
oblong crenulations. . Mons.

aspera. . ovato-trigonal, subcompressed, produced forwards ;
ribs transverse, remote, tuberculatedly rough; corselet
raised, more smooth, but carinated.

dadalea. . ovato-rhomboidal, subangulated, rather depressed,
fore part with rather large hemispherical tubercles in
transverse rows ; hinder, with smaller tubercles in varying
directions. . Coulaines.

navis. . ovato-trigonal ; extended and compressed forwards ;
longitudinal tuberculato-nodose ribs ; hinder area flat,
transversely ribbed.

costata. . ovato-angulated ; trigonal ; ribs smooth, transverse ;
corselet large, longitudinally grooved, carinated in the
upper part. . Havre.

sulcataria. . trigonal-subcuneated, produced anteriorly, and
becoming thinner ; posterior transverse and anterior lon-
gitudinal grooves ; corselet striated transversely.

sinuosa. . ovato-angulated, trigonal ; transverse smooth ribs,
sinuously angular ; corselet smooth.

rugosa. . ovato-trigonal, depressed, subangulated, with trans-
verse rugseform ribs; anterior ones smooth, posterior
subtuberculated.

crassatellina. . trigonal, depressed, with transverse angularly
plaited grooves ; margin crenulated.

cardissoides. . cordated ; depressed on the sides, valves raised in

a flat keel on the back ; beaks prominent, rather remote.
Assumed to be of this genus, but the hinge not known.

inflata. . trigonal, turgid, produced forwards, wedge-shaped,
rather smooth, truncated behind ; the posterior area much
cordated.
Bourguet, Petrif. 153.

arcuata. . trigonal ; longitudinal ; bowed ribs ; obsolete, decus-
sating transverse grooves ; beaks compressed.

Chama.

Icevigata. . left-turned, smooth, fixed obliquely ; small valve flat,

subconcave.
gryphina. . left-turned, imbricated ; with unequal, for the most

part, depressed squamae on the smaller valve ; the border

partly crenulated. . Piedmont.
lacernata. . the smaller valve flat, subantiquated ; thick waving

transverse frills, back longitudinally striated . . Mont

Marius.
turgidula. . rounded, turgid; small valve convex, imbricated,

with short overlying lamellae ; back striated.
echinulata. . oval, tumid, echinated with numerous subtubulated

squamulse. . Plaisance.

228

Chama — continued.

unicornaria. . subimbricated, rough, with unequal, semierect,

vaulted squamae ; base of the larger valve extended.
lamellosa. . ovate, rounded, transversely plicated, with pointed,

fimbriated concentric, lamelliferous folds ; lamellae dentated

. . Grignon.
calcarata. . orbiculate, with acute distant transverse folds ; the

upper ones echinated in rays with very long canaliculated

spines.

Tridacna.

pustulosa. . transversely fusiform, ribbed, waved, sprinkled with
numerous pustules ; lips of the lunule reflected. . Nor-
mandy.

Modiola.

subcarinata. . oblong, smooth, lower margin keeled ; upper

curved inward. . Grignon.
tulipea. . oblong, windingly contracted upwards ; obsoletely

keeled beneath ; scutellum of the beaks circumscribed with

ribs. . Havre.
cordata. . oblong, subcordated beneath ; ribs at the beak, very

tumid.
solenoides. . elongate, narrow, roundedly angulate, rather bowed ;

forepart obliquely sulcated ; no keel. . Chauffeur.
lithophagites. . long, straight, roundish beneath, thin ; upper

part rather depressed.
Presumed fossil.

Mytili.

scapularis. . subtrigonal, ovatedly wedge-form ; forepart ob-
liquely rounded, margin sharp ; hindpart blunt, grooved
longitudinally, subdecussated. . Coulaines.

margaritaceus. . oblong, thin, pearly, tumid, posteriorly forming
a longitudinal smooth rib ; longitudinal and transverse
striae. . England.

Pinna.

subquadrivalvis. . narrow, wedge-form ; subtetragonal ; dorsal
angle of the valves slit. . Parma.

Perna.

maxillata. . trigonal, convexo-depressed, thick ; hinge very
broad, furrowed with numerous long sulciform teeth. .
Virginia.

mytiloides. .ovato oblong, depressed, base pointed ; hinge oblique.

Avicula.

trigonata. . very small ; wing very oblique ; foreside subtran-

cated, with a bowed sinus. . Grignon.

phalaenacea. . small, wing very oblique, hinder ear longitudinally
grooved. . Bourdeaux.

229

Lima.

spathulata. . oblongo-ovate, depressed upwards, rays squamalous,
hinge straight. . Grignon.

mutica. . ovate, oblique, inequilateral, both sides gaping, rays
smooth, rather sharp.

plicata. . ovate, inequilateral, subtruncated forwards ; rays
plicaeform, obtuse, rather smooth, obsoletely squamous. .
Touraine.

vitrea. . oblong, thin, pellucid, depressed, hinge oblique. .
Grignon.

dilatata. . roundedly ovate, oblique, depressed, rays thin, obso-
lete, distant.

Plagiostoma.

transversa. . large, transversely ovate, upper part rounded ;
lower sides oblique ; numerous longitudinal grooves trans-
versely striated. . 6 inches wide.

" semilunaris. . large, trigonal, smooth, very wide on the foreside,
semicircular, with a sharp edge, hinder side truncated,
thick, subconcave, one-eared. . Calvades.

turgida. . longitudinally grooved, upper valve with sharp serru-
lated grooves ; the other with smooth and obtuse ones. .
Chateau de Loir.

depressa. . suborbicular, lower part rather thin, upper rounded,
small longitudinal striae divaricating to the side.

sulcata. . ovate, lower part subacute, longitudinally radiiform,
subcarinated grooves.

inequivalvis. . upper valve flat, longitudinally striated ; near the
border rough with vaulted squamulae. . Bourdeaux.

Pecten.

solarium. . suborbicular ; rather convex on both sides ; rays
fifteen or eighteen, distinct, flat, scarcely any longitudinal
striae. . Doue.

multiradiatus. . convex on both sides ; eighteen to twenty rays,
distinct, convex, and smooth.

rugosus. . convex on both sides ; fourteen to eighteen convex
rays ; transversely rugose. . Normandy.

laticostatus. . suborbicular, large, convex on both sides ; seven
to ten flat, very broad, faint, rays ; grooves longitudinal,
obsolete.
The largest pecten known. . 8 inches wide.

rotundatus. . subordicular, convex on both sides ; fourteen to
sixteen distinct convex rays, flat towards the circum-
ference. . Vence.

lurdigalense. . suborbicular, very wide, convex, radiated on
both sides, from twelve to fourteen convex rays, becoming
flat towards the circumference. . 5| inches.

aculicosta. . suborbicular, rather convex on both sides, with
twenty-one rays on the back ; acute and smooth. . 2|
inches.

230
Pecten — continued.

asper, . suborbicular, convex on both sides ; twenty to twenty-
two rays, longitudinal, imbricated, squamous, rough, d'i-
vided by grooves. . 3| inches.

benedictus. . inequivalved, upper valve plano-concave, lower very
convex ; twelve to fourteen flat rays, distinct, transversely
striated.

elongatus. . ovato-oblong ; twenty-six to thirty rays, thin, un-
equal, subdenticulated. . 3 inches. . Mons.

subacutus. . longitudinal, ovately wedge-form; twenty-four close,
equal rays, sharp on the back. . 1^ inch.

phaseolus. . very small, oblongo-trigonal ; lower valve bowed in-
wards ; rays small, close, striaeform, equal. . f inch. .
Coulaines.

cequicostatus. . unequal valved, trigonal, upper valve flat ; under
valve tumid, bowed inwards ; twenty-eight to thirty rays,
close, equal, smooth. . Mons.

versicostatus. . unequal valved, trigonal ; upper valve flat ; under
valve tumid, bowed, curved inwards ; numerous close rays,
some remote, others more raised. . Mons.

costangularis — unequal valved ; lower valve bowed, curved in-
wards ; four large anguliform, longitudinal, grooved rays. .
Decize.

orbicularis. . suborbicular, depressed, rather convex, no rays,
striae transverse, concentric. . Coulaines.

discors. . subinequivalved, roundedly trigonal, rays ten, fine
transverse rugse on the other valve. . Chauffeur.

palmatus. . ovato-rotundate, five or six faint rays ; one ear very
large.

lepidolaris. . ovato-rotundate ; with twenty squamoso-imbri-
cated rays ; squamae small, disposed in many rows. .
1 inch. . Boutonnet.

sieniensis. . suborbicular, convex on both sides ; striae longitu-
dinal. . 1| inch.

striatulus. . suborbicular, convex on both sides ; ten or twelve
thick rays ; interstices longitudinally striated. . 1£ inch.

incequicostalis. . suborbicular, twelve to fourteen unequal rays,
with the interstices longitudinally striated. . 1| inch.

scutularis. . ovato-rotundate, subdepressed, small ; twenty to
twenty-five equal rays, rather sharp on the back. . f inch
. . Bourgogne.

scabrellus. . suborbicular, with fifteen sulcated rays, squamously
denticulated; ears unequal — 1| inch. . Italy.

plebeius. . suborbicular, with twenty-five to thirty angulato-
sulcated rays ; sides squamosely scabrous. . Grignon.

pumilus. . very small, roundedly ovate ; ten or twelve rays.

squamula. . very small, orbicular.

PHcatula.

angulosa. . oblong, wedge-formed ; with large unequal folds ;
backs angular, squamous. . 2 inches.

231

Plicatula— continued.

radiola. . rounded ; plano-concave upwards ; with numerous
subsquanious radiating ribs ; margin plaited. . f inch.

placunea. . obliquely oval, plano-concave upwards ; with squa-
mous tuberculated radiating ribs and striae ; margin plain
. . Env. de Paris ?

ostreiforme. . rounded, irregular; with oblique folds, sub-
squanious.

tubifera. . subirregular, varied, windingly flattish ; echinated
with short tubular squamae.

rugosa. . oval, very hollow ; upper valve flat, longitudinally sul-
cated ; obsolete, transverse, concentric rugae, margin en-
tire. . 2f inches.

Spondylus.

crassicosta. . rounded, very wide ; ribbed and grooved longi-
tudinally.

rastellum. . sublongitudinal, thick, very hollow, ribs and grooves
longitudinal, rough, with unequal squamae. . 3 inches long
and 2 5- inches wide. . Turin.

radula. . obliquely rounded ; with slight longitudinal grooves,
rough from squamae ; with others, interstitial, smaller and
smoother. . 1^ inch. . Grignon.

podapsideus. . trigono-cuneate, rather smooth on the upper part,
longitudinally sulcated, distant tuberculiferous ribs on the
larger valve ; tubercles fornicated. . 2f inches. . Havre.

Podopsis.

truncata. . longitudinal, wedge-formed, rounded upwards, sub-
oblique ; with fine longitudinal striae, sometimes rough with
a few spines ; the extended beak crenated. . Touraine.

gryphoides. . ovato-rotundate, extremely ventricose beneath,
smooth, adherent by the larger beak.

Gryphaea.

columba. . ovately rotundate, dilated smooth, with a small ob-
lique hook. . Mons.

cymbium. . ovately rotundate, rather smooth, upper valve con-
cave, hook s'lightly oblique.

arcuata. . oblong, incurved, transversely rugose ; with a large

suboblique hook.
G. incurra, Sowerby.

secunda. . oblong, with "oblique beak.

lituola. . larger valve flat on one side ; with tuberculated rib,
subcarinated on one side.

plicata. .bowed, carinated beneath; folds oblique; with a la-
leral hook. .Gazonfier.

distans. .variable, oblong, oblique; hook twisted, lateral ; the
folds of growth bowed, concentric and distant. .Mons.

angusta. .oblong, narrow, curved, obsoletely carinated beneath ;
hook lateral. .Rochelle.

232
Gryphaea — continued.

plicatula. .oval, oblique, underneath slight oblong folds, hook

lateral . . Mons,
silicea. .oval, oblique ; no folds ; hook lateral. .Rochefort.

Ostrea.

Valves plaited, margin dentated.

serra. . suborbicular, sinister, gigantic, thick; teeth of the mar-
gin large, erect, acutangulate. ,6| inches wide.
diluviana.. suborbicular, right, teeth acutangulate. .3 inches. .

Mons.
/a6eWttm..nabellatedly ovate; long, subdivided, convex folds,

obsoletely squamous ; bowed on each side. .2^ inches.
flabelloides. . subtrigonal, thickly plaited ; plaits large, with

sharp backs, subimbricated ; oblique at the sides.
placunata. . semicircular, flat and plaited on both sides ; with

squamous plaits, divaricating to the sides.
flabellula. . oblong, wedge-form, rounded upwards, rather

bowed; with longitudinal rugose folds, one beak pro-
duced. . Grignon.
pectlnata. . oblong, bowed, pectinated in folds, valves convex,

margin serrated, with a middle groove. . 3 or 4 inches.
phyllidiana. . oblong, thick ; back convex, with subimbricated

plaits on both sides. . 4 inches. . Angers.
leporina. . oblong, bowed, thick ; disks convex, carinated ; two

rows of plaits ; outer margin prominently rounded. . 4j

inches.
carinata. .oblong, upper and under valve rather acute; sides

flat, bowed ; valves complicated, backs carinated, with

transverse plaits.
colubrina. . oblong, narrow, bowed, plaited ; valves semicom-

plicated, outer side convex.
scolopendra. .oblong, narrow, reduced toward the apex, plaits

in two rows ; oblique, becoming gradually shorter. . If inch

. .Mons.
larva . . oblong, curved, plicated on the sides ; rows of plicae

unequal; margins crenated. . Maestricht.
pennaria. .oblong, subarcuate, plicated in two rows; plicae of

the sides oblique, curved. .Champagne.
bifrons. .ovato- rotund ; upper valve convex, smooth; lower

longitudinally plicated ; margin crenated. .Grignon.
undata. .ovato-oblong, thick, obsoletely plicated, plicae undate,

imbricato-squamous ; one beak produced. .Bourdeaux.
Valves not plicated.
crassissima. .elongate, very thick, ponderous ; beak long, wide,

channelled, striated transversely ; apex rather hooked.
longirostris . .lower valve thick, subcucullated ; beak very long,

contorted. . Sceaux.
canalis. .ovato-oblong, very thick ; lower valve with prominent

beak, channelled, with a flat margin on each side..

5 inches.

233

Ostrea — continued.

caUifera. . ovate-rotund, a thick callus near the base ; rather

eared, excavated internally. . Rocquencourt.
0. hippopus, Annales du Mus.
brevialis. . rotundato-trigonal, base rather pointed, very thick ;

ligamental canal produced, apex bowed on one side. .

3 inches.
scalar ina. . oblong, reduced toward the base, with transverse,

bowed, rather distant, step-like rugae. . 2 inches.
edulina. . reduced at the base, with imbricating, undulating la-
mellae, upper valve fiat.
bellovacina. . oblongo-cuneated, rounded upwards ; larger valve

grooved at the base radiatedly.
widtilamellata. . oblong, apex dilated, rather bowed, thick ; with

numerous imbricated, depressed lamellae. . 3| inches.
linyuatula. . ovato-spathulated, oblique, rather flat; lower valve

rostrated.
creniilata . . oval, depressed, slightly lamellated, crenulated ;

chiefly on the inner margin. . size of 0. edulis.
cucullaris. . cuneato-spathulate, base rostrated.

O. cochlearia, Annales du Mus.
resicularis. . semiglobose, base retuse, smooth ; lower valve ven-

tricose ; upper plano-concave. . Meudon.
bifiuriculafa. . semiglobose, base truncated, biauriculated ; lower

valve very ventricose ; upper valve flat, operculifonn. .

2^ inches.
rjbliqua. . obliquely ovate, smooth ; lower valve ventricose ;

upper valve flat ; hinge very short.
linyularis. . elongate, sublinear, flat, narrow towards the base,

lamellae compact. . 2 inches. . Mons.
squama. . ovato-trigonal, flat, but rounded upwards ; concentric

transverse rugae ; with internally decumbent cylindraceous

tubercles. . size of a finger nail.

anrtmialis. . suborbicular, thin, smooth, convex beneath, up-
wards flatter.
pseudo-chama. . irregularly orbiculate, ligamental pit narrow,

very oblique. . 2 inches.
cyathula. . suborbiculate, with imbricated lamellae, lower valve

concave, margin crenulated. . 1£ inch.

deformis. . deformed, subdepressed on one side, very irregular.
uncinata. . semiorbiculate, hooked, depressed ; a lamellous sinus

on one side.

Vulsella.

deperdita . . oblong, sublingulate, convexo-depressed ; striae
transverse, concentric ; base retuse. . Grignon.

Placuna.

pectinoides, . obliquely trigonal, flat upwards ; radiated with
costellae, a little convex beneath.

H h.

234

Sphaerulites.

foliacea. . the only species known.
Radiolites.

rotularis. . valves forming opposite, short, nearly equal cones.
ventricosa. . lower valve turbinated, upper valve ventricose ;
opercule retuse.

Calceola.

sandalina. . formed like the point of a slipper : the only species
known.

Birostrites.

incequiloloba. . two long, conical, rostriform, unequal valves,
disposed in an obtuse or rather open angle, and united at
their base, but the edge of one overwrapping that of the
other.

Discina.

ostreoides. . small, flat, ovato-rotundate ; adhering to the stones
on the sea coast.

Crania.

personata. . orbiculate ; the upper valve conical ; the lower valve
with three little pits.

nummulis. . suborbicular, free, flat, radiately striated within ;

three little pits ; margin thick, not crenulated.
Only one valve known, perhaps the under, but with no marks

of adherence on the back. . Sweden.
Nummulis Brattenburyii.

Parisiensis. . resembles the former ; but shows marks of ad-
herence.

antiqua. . lower valve adhering only by its beaked termination
under the hinge, striated beneath concentrically ; three
pits ; the upper valve very convex, with three impressions
answering to the pits of the under valve, . Nehou.

striata. . very small, rounded ; lower valve flat, subtruncated,
adherent ; prominent calluses within ; the free valve orbi-
cular, back raised, radiatedly striated.

Orbicula.

Norwegica :

Patella aiiomala, Mull.

Terebratula.

Smooth, not grooved,

subundata. . subglobose, smooth ; with fine concentric striae,
margin subundulated ; valves nearly equally ventricose. .
Warminster,

cornea. . sub rotund, subdepressed, smooth ; with five concen-
tric striae ; beak elevated, incurved ; foramen very small. .
near Norwich.

235
Terebratula — continued.

depressa. . oblong ; transversely dilated, contracted and obtuse
upwards ; with smooth concentric striae ; beak produced,
not incurved ; foramen large. . St. Saturin.

avails. . transversely and superiorly dilated ; with concentric,
smooth striae ; beak incurved.

numismalis. . depressed, subrotund, smooth ; a sinus in the
upper part of each valve ; distant concentric striae ; beak
short ; foramen very small.
This shell, though round, shows five angles.

umbonella. . elongated, turgid, transversely compressed ; above
obtuse ; smooth, with a raised umbo ; beak incurved. .
Montigny.

diyona. . elongated, subgibbous, grooved upwards, smooth, ter-
minating in two angles ; beak raised and incurved. . near
Bath.

This species generally shows very plainly a beautifully punc-
tated surface ; a similar surface is observable in several of
the smooth species.

deltoidea. . compressed, transversely dilated, triangular, smooth;
margin straight in the upper part, winding in the middle.

triangulus. . elongated, triangular, smooth ; the lower valve re-
flected on the upper, with a groove on the margin.

cor. . cordiform, subglobose, a deep sinus in the upper part ;
decussated with delicate striae.

birostris. . subglobose, smooth ; contracted upwards, sinuated
in the middle ; sinus with two angles, margin not plicated.

ampulla. . subrotund, inflated, antiquated ; upper margin ob-
scurely biplicated. . Italy.

carinata. . subquadrangular, smooth; lower valve rather flattish ;
upper valve diedral, the two surfaces divided by a longitu-
dinal keel, formed by their union at an obtuse angle.

concava. . small, lower valve flat ; upper one larger and concave,
with concentric striae. . Meudon.

semiglobosa. . elongate, ovate, tumid, very smooth ; umbo raised,
margin entirely without plicae. . Warminster.

piinctata. . oblong, subdepressed, upward biplicated, with con-
centric striae ; and with minute points disposed in undu-
lating lines.

phaseolina. . small, subcompressed, subrotund, with concentric
striae ; upper margin subbiplicated, beaks short. . Mons.

ovata. . ovato-oblong, subcompressed, smooth ; with distant
concentric striae ; beak produced. . Heytesbury.

biplicata. . subrotund, subglobose, smooth, biplicated upwards ;
concentric striae ; beak incurved ; plane of the foramen
horizontal. . Cambridge.

bisinuata. . subrotund, subdepressed, antiquated, smooth, up-
wards biplicated ; beak produced, not incurved ; plane of
the foramen inclined upon that of the valves. . Grignon.

Kleinii. . ovate, depressed, subantiquated, smooth, biplicated
upwards ; finely and closely punctated ; beak incurved.

236
Terebratula — continued.

Piedmontana. . subrotund, subdepressed, transversely striated,

biangulated upwards ; umbo elevated, beak recurved.
quadrifida. . triangular, depressed, dilated ; four angles upwards,

beak short.
angulata. . subtrigonal, ventricose, upper margin deeply grooved,

with three acute angles, longitudinally striated.
mullicarinata, . large, round, pectiniform, with numerous cari-

nated ribs ; margin not grooved. . 3 inches long by 3,|.
tetraedra. . gibbous ; upper valve deeply grooved ; in the groove

and sides three or four angulated ribs; beak incurved..

Aynhoe.
plicata. . subtetraedral, plicated, not grooved ; five or six ribs

obtuse at the base, angulated at the margins, beak short.
canalifera. . trigonate, gibbous, longitudinally sulcated with a

deep groove ; hinge straight, beak large, striated perpen-
dicularly to the hinge.
Icevicosta. . trigonate, gibbous, grooved in the sides ; a sinus

in the middle of the larger valve, and a broad rib in the

less, both smooth ; striae transverse ; hinge straight ;

beak short. . Bemberg.
intermedia. . subtetraedral, dilated, plicated, grooved ; four

plaits to the groove and five to the sides ; beak short,
alata . . subtrigonate, dilated ; a deep sinus upwards, beak

short.
concinna. . globose, subsinuate, plicated ; five to seven raised

plaits in the middle, ten to twelve on sides ; beak produced.
media. . subtrigonate, gibbous, sinuate, plicated, six plicae in

the middle, seven or eight on the sides ; beak subrecurved

. . Aynhoe.
pectita. . subrotund, larger valve subconvex, smaller rather flat,

with radiating plaits ; beaks produced, recurved. . Horn-

ingsham.

cardium. . elongato-ovate, convex, plicated, with thick longitu-
dinal rounded grooves, beak rather prominent.
difformis. . trigonate, dilated, subdepressed ; margin unequal,

windingly bent in the middle ; beak rather produced. .

Havre.
tyra. . subglobose, contracted forwards ; beak so produced as

to equal in length the smaller valve. . Horningsham.
Menardii. . globose, truncated in the base, larger valve having a

deep longitudinal groove ; margin sinuously deflected. .

Coulaines.
decussata. . subpentagonal, subconvex ; larger valve canalicu-

lated ; striae fine, decussating ; beak rather produced,

foramen large.
spinosa. . globose, dilated, with small spinous grooves ; beak

very short, pointed.
spathica. . subtrigonate, subglobose, smooth ; upper margin

grooved, beak pointed, subproduced. . From the hills to a

great extent near Mons.

237

Terebratula — continued.

compressa. . dilated ; upper margin dentated, subflexuous ; beak

produced, pointed. . Mons.
granulosa. . subdepressed, rounded ; upper margin rostriform,

produced forwards ; grooves granular ; beak short. . Mount

Marius.
articiilus. . trigonal, depressed, delicately striated longitudinally ;

upper margin angular, beak short.
radiata. . subdepressed, rounded ; contracted in the lower part,

dilated in the upper; radiating longitudinal grooves;

margin subflexuous.
punrila. . very small, compressed, small valve flattish, radiated

with longitudinal grooves, beak pointed, produced. . Maes-

tricht.
spirifera. . trigonate, transversely dilated, with spiral bodies

placed in the inside over the lower border, which is

angular ; beak short, perforated. . Derbyshire*.

Almost all the above English terebratula are contained in Mr.
Sowerby's elegant work on Mineral Conchology.

* The shells possessing the characters here particularized form the
genus spirifer of Mr. Sowerby.

238

In accordance with the important fact ascertained by
Mr. William Smith, of peculiar fossils being found in
and characterizing particular strata, the fossil shells in
the succeeding table are arranged in the order of the
strata in which they occur, commencing with the ear-
liest. Each genus is placed under the formation in
which it is first found; and each succeeding stratum is
marked, in which the several species are discovered.
But as, previously to Mr. Smith's " Strata identified by
Organized Fossils," and Mr. Sowerby's " Mineral Con-
chology," with " an arrangement of strata, shells, and
places," by Mr. Farey, contained in the last mentioned
work, no publication has regularly particularized the
strata in which the described fossils have been fonnd, I
have availed myself of the information yielded by Mr.
Sowerby's work for the facts which the table contains.
It is however proper to observe, that, in the present
state of our knowledge, this table must necessarily be
far from perfect. Many shells must exist in the different
strata, of species, and even of genera, which have not yet
been noticed; and various circumstances may have led
to erroneous conclusions : but, notwithstanding this, it is
hoped, that sufficient will be rendered evident by it to
establish the important and valuable facts stated by
Mr. Smith, and to assist the student in this part of his
inquiries.

It is presumed also, that, by pursuing this mode of
arrangement, we may assist and correct our conjectures,
whilst contemplating the relative periods of the crea-
tion, duration, and extinction of the animals, which are
only known to us through their mineralized or otherwise
preserved fossil remains. To obtain complete information
on these points may be impossible, but every approximation
must be accompanied by interesting instruction.

239

A TABLE OF BRITISH FOSSIL SHELLS,

Each Genus and each Specie? being placed in the Order of the Strata
in which they occur.

The number (or letter) at the end of each species, points out the plate in
Mr. Sowerby's Mineral Conchology in which that species is depicted.

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

PRODUCTUS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE-

longispinus 68

ditto

Flemingii 68

ditto

spinulosus 68

ditto

scoticus 69

ditto

spinosus 69

ditto

aculeatus 68 Limestone rock (coal measures)

scabriculus 69; ditto

aculeatus 68 ditto

CONULARIA.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

quadrisulcata260

ditto

teres

ditto

AMPLEXUS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

coralloides 72 ditto

PENTAMERUS.

! MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

Knightii 28 ditto

laevis ditto

Avlesfordii 29 ditto

ORTHOCERA.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

annulata 133

ditto

%

circularis 60

ditto

striata 58

ditto

gigantea 246

ditto

cordiformis 247

ditto

undulata 59

Grey limestone (coal measures)

Breynii 50

Limestone shale.

Steinhaurii 60! Coal shale.

conica 60| Alum shale.

NAUTILUS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

discus 13

ditto

pentagonus 249

ditto

bilobatus 249

ditto

tuberculatus

ditto

complanatus 261 Slaty limestone.

truncatus 123 Blue lias.

striatus 1$2 ditto

intermedius 125 Blue lias and crag.

lineatus 41 Lower oolite.

sinuatus 194 ditto

obesus 124 ditto

240

Genera.

Species. Strata.

NAUTILUS.

simplex 1 22

Green sand.

undulatus 40

ditto

inaequalis 40

Chalk marl.

elegans 116

ditto

Comptoni 121

ditto

imperialis 1

London clay.

centralis 1

ditto

ziczac 1

ditto

AMMONITES.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

striatus 53

ditto

sphaericus

ditto

Walcotii 106

5 Alum shale. Lower oolite.
^ Upper oolite.

Henslowi 262

Grey limestone, Isle of Man.

Listeri 280

Coal shale.

annulatus 222

Alum shale. Lower oolite.

ellipticus 92j White lias clay.

, _0 ( Upper lias clay. Marston or
planicosta 73 } ^L marble. Chalk marl.

communius 107 White lias clay.

armatus 95( Lias clay.

angulatus 107

ditto

Bucklandii 130

Blue lias.

Coneybeari 131

ditto

Green'oughi 1 32

ditto

fimbriatus 164

ditto

obtusas 167

ditto

Henleyi 172 ditto

Loscombi 1 83 ditto

Birchi 267

ditto

Brooki 190

ditto

Bechei 280

ditto

Brongniarti A

Lower oolite.

Banskii 200 ditto

Blagdeni 201 ditto

Brocchii 202 ditto

Sowerbii 213( ditto

Browni 263 ditto

Gervillii A

ditto

Strangewaysi254

ditto

falcifer

ditto

nodosus 92

Clay under the lower oolite.

discus 12

Cornbrash.

Calloviensis 104

Kelloway rock.

Koenigi 263

ditto

Duncani 157

5 Chinch clay under coral rag,
J or Oxford clay,

excavatus 105

Calcareous grit beneath coral rag

vertebralis 165

ditto

241

Genera.

Species,

Strata.

AMMONITES.

plicatilis 166 ditto

splendens 103

Coral rag. Chalk marl.

jugosus 92

Clay under the lower oolite.

elegans 94

ditto

concavus

ditto.

cordatus 17 Kentish rag.

rotundus 293 Kimmeridge clav.

Lamberti 242 ditto.

Leachi ditto.

omphaloides ditto.

triplicatus 92 Portland freestone.

stellaris 93 ditto.

giganteus 126 ditto.

Goodhalli 256 Green sand, Devon.

NutfieldiensislOB Green sand.

monile 117 ditto.

inflatus 1 78 ditto.

auritus 134 ditto.

rostratus 173 Chalk marl.

minutus 53 ditto .

varians 106 ditto.

Mantelli 55

ditto.

rusticus 177

Lower chalk.

biplex

Blue clav, Suffolk.

decipiens 294

ditto. "

acutus 17

Blue clav, Sheppev.

binus 92

Crag.

quadratus 17

ditto.

serratus 24 ditto.

NAUTELLIP- I
SITES. S

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

ovatus 37 ditto.

AMMONEL- }
LIPSITES. S

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

funatus 32 ditto.

1

compressus 38 ditto.*

EUOMPHALUS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

pentangulus 45 ditto.

catillus ditto.

-

nodosus 46 ditto.

discors 52 ditto.

rugosus ditto.

angulosus ditto.

Note. — Ammonites, nodosus, jugosus , elegans, concavus, should precede
lower oolite, pp. 240, 241.

* Remains of other species, bearing, with the oval form, the charac-
ters of nautilus or ammonites, are found in some of the succeeding strata,
but most frequently in the chalk marl and lower chalk.

I 1.

242

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

CIRRUS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

acutus 141

ditto.

nodosus

Lower oolite.

Leachi 219

Chalk marl.

plicatus

ditto.

PLANORBIS.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

aequalis 140

ditto.

euomphalus

5 Lower oolite. Green sand.
£ Above the London clay.

radiatus

Greed sand.

hemistoma

London clay.

lens

Above the London clay.

cylindricus

ditto.

obtusus

ditto.

SPIRIFER.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

cuspidatus 120

ditto.

trigonalis 268

ditto.

oblatus

ditto.

glaber 269

ditto.

obtusus

ditto.

striatus 270

ditto.

pinguis 271

ditto.

TEREBRATULA

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

Mantiae 277

ditto.

Wilsoni 118

ditto.

lateralis 83

5 Mountain limestone. Clay of

£ upper oolite.

biplicata 90

| Mountain limestone. Green
^ sand. Chalk marl.

5 Coal shale. Blue lias marble

crumena 80;

i (Marston.)

punctata 15

Marly sandstone of lower oolite

subrotunda

Ditto. Cornbrash. Chalk marl

ornithocephalalOl

Upper lias clay. Cornbrash.

acuta 150

Lower oolite. "

resupinata

ditto.

lampas 100

ditto.

digona 96

f Lower oolite. Oxford clay.
I Cornbrash.

obovata 161

Cornbrash.

intermedia 89

Cornbrash. Green sand.

obsoleta 83

Cornbrash. Crag.

concinna

Clay in oolite.

media

ditto.

tetraedra

ditto.

carnea

Great oolite. Upper chalk.

inconstans 277
dimidiata 18

Kimmeridge clay.
Green sand, Devon.

ovata

Green sand.

243

Genera.

TEREBRATULA

GRYPH^A.

CARDIUM.

HELIX.

LINGULA.

UNIO.

PLAGIOSTOMA

Species.

138

pectinata
lyra

semiglobosa 1 8
subundata
plicatilis 118
octoplicata
obliqua 277

ovoides 100

lata

incur v a
dilatata

112
149

hybernicura 82
elongatam
hillanum 1 4

proboscideum J 56
umbonatum
semigranu- I U4

latum. y '
nitens 14

Parkinson! 49

carinatus

Gentii

globosus

mytilloides

tenuis

ovalis

10
145

19

33

acutus
uniformis
subconstrictus
hybridus 144
Listeri 154

crassissiinus 153
crassiusculus 1 85

gigantca 77

pectinoides 114

punctata 113

ovalis 114

cardiiformis 113

obscura 114

Strata.

Green sand.

ditto?

Chalk marl.
Upper chalk.

ditto.

ditto.

ditto.
Green sandstone in alluvium.

ditto.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.
Bluelias. Kello way stone. Crag.
C Under oolite. Chinch clay.
Portland freestone. London
(_ clay, alluvia.
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.

ditto.

ditto.
Green sand, Devon.

ditto.

ditto.

London clay.

ditto.
Crag.

5 4th LIMESTONE, above the
I MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE

ditto.

Green sand.

Above the London clay.
COAL SHALE.

ditto.

London clay,
Crag.
COAL SHALE.

ditto.

ditto.

Coal shale, alluvial clay.
Magnesian limestone.
Magnesian limestone. Crag.
Lias. Portland freestone.
London clav.
LIAS.

"White lias. Blue lias.
Blue lias.

ditto.

Fullers' earth.
Upper oolite.
Kello war rock.

244

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

PLAGIOSTOMA

rigida 114
spinosa 78

Portland freestone.
Lower chalk. Upper chalk.

TROCHUS.

LIAS.

anglicus 142

Blue lias.

abbreviates 193

Under oolite.

concavus 181

ditto.

dimidiatus

ditto.

duplicatus

ditto.

elongatus 193

ditto.

punctatus

ditto.

agglutinaus 98

London clay.

Benettise

ditto.

laevigatus 181

Crag.

similis

ditto.

MODIOLA.

LIAS.

kevis 8

ditto.

depressa

Alum shale. London clay.

elegans 9, ditto.

parallela 9 Upper oolite.

pallida 8 Green sand.

M ELAN I A.

HELICINA.
CARDITA,

MYA.

PECTEN.

striata 47

Heddingtonensis
sulcata 39

compressa

lirata

obtusa

similis

lunulata

producta

abrupta

striata

deltoidea

10

197

232

89

197

tuberculata 143

scripta 224

angulifera

literata

mandibula

plana

intermedia

subangulata

lata 81

fibrosus

136

LIAS.

ditto.

Upper oolite.
London clay.
LIAS.

ditto.
LIAS.

Lias. Cornbrash.
Under oolite.

ditto.

ditto.

Ditto. Cornbrash.
Great oolite.

ditto.

Cornbrash, Kelloway stone.
Green sand.
LIAS.

Lias. Kelloway rock.
Fullers' earth bed, near Bath.
Grey limestone, near Scarbro'.
Green sand.

Sand under London clay.
London clay.

ditto.
Crag.

UNDER OOLITE.
5 Under oolite. Cornbrash.
I Kelloway rock.

245

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

PECTEN.

barbatus 231

5 Under oolite. Cornbrash.
4 Kelloway rock.

equivalvis

ditto.

obscura 205

Stonesfield slate.

lens

Cornbrash.

similis

Forest marble.

rigida

ditto.

arcuata 205

Coral rag.

lamellosa 239

5 Chicksgrove limestone. Green
I sand.

orbicularis 186

Green sand.

quadricostata 56

ditto.

quinque costata

ditto.

Beaveri 158

Chalk marl.

cornea 204

London clay.

ASTARTE.

UNDER OOLITE.

lurida 137

ditto.

elegans

ditto.

excavata 233

ditto.

lineata 179

5 Oaktree clay over Sussex mar-
{ ble, or Kimmeridge clay.

cuneata 137

Portland stone.

planata 257

Indurated marl at Gunton.

plana 179

Crag.

obliquata

ditto.

TRIGONIA.

UNDER OOLITE.

costata 85

ditto.

striata 237

ditto.

clavellata 87

ditto.

gibbosa 236

Tisburv limestone.

duplicata 238

ditto'.

daedalea 88

Green sand, Devon.

spinosa 86

ditto.

eccentrica 208

ditto.

affinis 237

ditto.

CUCULI^EA.

UNDER OOLITE.

oblonga 206

ditto.

decussata

ditto.

carinata 207

Green sand, Devon.

fibrosa

ditto.

glabra 67

Green sand.

NERITA.

UNDER OOLITE.

hevigata 217

ditto.

sinuosa

Chilmarsh, near Tisbury.

LUTRARIA.

MIDDLE or GREAT OOLITE.

gibbosa 42

Middle oolite.

ambigua 227

Cornbrash.

ovalis 226

Cornbrash. Upper oolite.

lirata 225

Limestone at Norton Edge.

246

Genera.

Species

Strata.

MYTILUS.

MIDDLE OOLITE.

araplus 7

ditto.

pectinatus 282

Kimmeridge clay.

antiquorum 275

Crag.

alaeformis 275

ditto.

OSTREA.

GREAT OOLITE.

f Fullers' earth of great oolite.

acuminata 137

-< Clay over oolite, and on

C Wooburn sand.

Marshii 48

Cornbrash.

palmetta 111

Oxford clay.

deltoidea 148

5 Oxford clay. Kimmeridge
J clay. Clay over Sussexmarble.

gregaria 111

Coral rag. Green sand.

expansa 238

Tisbury limestone.

undulata

Farley, near Salisbury.

Meadii 252

Somersetshire.

canaliculata 135

Upper chalk.

tener 252

Charlton.

gigantea 64

London clay.

pulchra 279

London clay and gravel.

flabellula 253

ditto.

O^f* Fossil oysters also occur in the Lias formation.

VENUS.

CORNBRASH.

varicosa 245

ditto.

lineolata 20

Green sand.

planus

ditto.

angulata 65

ditto.

equalis 2 1

Green sand. Crag.

incrassata 155

London clay.

margaritacea 297

ditto.

gibbosa

Crag.

rustica 196

ditto.

lentiformis 203

ditto.

turgida 256

ditto.

ISOCARDIA.

CORNBRASH.

minima 295

ditto.

tener 295

Kelloway stone.

rostrata 295

Upper oolite.

sulcata 295

^ London clay, (only a single
( individual)

PINNA.

CORNBRASH.

lanceolata 281

Neighbourhood of Scarbro'.*

margaritacea

London clay.

* I have taken the liberty to place this fossil under the Cornbrash,
from the appearance of the matrix of that which I possess. I think
that the Ucv. Mr. Marsh, of Felmersham, has favoured me with
fragments of this fossil from his neighbourhood.

247

Genera.

Secies.

Strata.

VERMICULAR
RTA S

UPPER OOLITE.

1X1 » x. y

ovata 57

ditto.

concava

Green sand.

umbonata

Chalk marl.

crassa

London clay.

SOLARIUM.

UPPER OOLITE.

conoideum 1 1

ditto.

discoideum 1 1

London clay.

patulum 10

ditto.

HAMITES.

GREEN SAND, DEVON.

spinulosus 216

ditto.

tenuis 61

Chalk marl.

rotundus

ditto.

attenuatus

ditto.

compressus

ditto.

adpressus

ditto.

maximus 62

ditto.

intermedius

ditto.

gibbosus

ditto.

armatus

ditto.

spiniger 216

ditto.

nodosus

ditto.

tuberculatus

ditto.

turgidus

ditto.

plicatulis 234

ditto.

CHAMA.

GREEN SAND, DEVON.

canaliculata 25

ditto.

haliotidea

ditto.

recurvata 26

ditto.

conica

ditto.

plicata

ditto.

digital a 174 ditto.

CORBULA.

GREEN SAND, DEVON.

laevigata 209 ditto.

globosa

ditto.

pisura

London clav.

gigantea

ditto.

revoluta

ditto.

ARCA.

GREEN SAND.

carinata 44 ditto.

subacuta

Chalk marl.

Branderi 276 Crag.

appendiculata

ditto.

PERNA.

GREEN SAND.

aviculoides 66 Blue marl under green sand.

248

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

VIVIPARA.

GREEN SAND.

extensa? 31 ditto.

iuviorum

Sussex marble.

;enta

London clay.

concinna

ditto.

suboperta

Crag.

DIANCHORA.

GREEN SAND.

striata 80

ditto.

lata

Lower chalk.

TURRILITES.

GREEN SAND.

costata 36

Green sand. Chalk marl.

obliqua 75; Green sand.

tuberculata 74J Chalk marl.

undulata 75

ditto.

SCAPHITES.

GREEN SAND.

equalis 18

ditto.

obliquus

Chalk marl.

NUCULA.

CHALK MARL.

pectinata 192

ditto.

minima

London clav.

similis

ditto.

Cobboldise 180

Crag.

lanceolata

ditto.

Isevigata

ditto.

MAGAS.

CHALK.

INFUNDIBU- I

pumilis

Upper chalk.
(LONDON CLAY, SAND

LUM. 5

J UNDER.

echinulatum

ditto.

obliquum 97

ditto.

rectum

ditto.

tuber culatum

ditto.

spinulosum

ditto.

rectum

Crag.

PECTUNCULUS

LONDON CLAY.

plumstediensis27

ditto.

costatus

ditto.

decussatus

ditto.

EMARGINULA.

LONDON CLAY.

crassa 33

ditto.

reticulata

London clay. Crag.

CYPR^EA.

LONDON CLAY.

oviformis 4

ditto.

OLIVA.

LONDON CLAY.

Branded 288

ditto.

Salisburiana

ditto.

ANCILLA.

LONDON CLAY.

aveniformis 99

ditto.

turritella

ditto.

249

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

CASSIS.

LONDON

CLAY.

striata 6

ditto.

carinata

ditto.

bicatenatas 151

Crag.

AMPULLARIA.

LONDON

CLAY.

acuta 284

ditto.

patula

ditto.

sigaretina

ditto.

NATICA.

LONDON

CLAY.

glaucinoides 5

ditto.

similis

ditto.

depressa

Crag.

ROSTELLARIA.

LONDON

CLAY.

lucida 91

ditto.

rimosa

ditto.

macroptera 298

ditto.

SCALARIA.

LONDON

CLAY.

semicostata 16

ditto.

acuta

ditto.

similis

Crag.

TEREBELLUM.

LONDON

CLAY.

fusiforme 287

ditto.

SERAPHS.

LONDON

CLAY.

convolutus 286

ditto.

PLEUROTOMA.

LONDON

CLAY.

attenuata 146

ditto.

exorta

ditto.

rostrata

ditto.

acuminata

ditto.

comma

ditto.

semicolon

ditto.

colon

ditto.

CERITHIUM.

LONDON

CLAY.

melanoides 147

ditto.

geminatum 127

ditto.

pyramidale

ditto.

funatum 128

ditto.

funiculatum 147

ditto.

„

intermedium

ditto.

dubium

ditto.

cornucopias 188

ditto.

FUSUS.

giganteum

ditto.
LONDON

CLAY.

longaevus 63

ditto.

bifasciatus 228

ditto.

acuminatus 274

ditto.

asper

ditto.

rugosus

ditto.

bulbiformis 291

ditto.

Kk.

250

Genera.

Species.

Strata.

VOLUTA. !

LONDON CLAY.

magorum 290

ditto.

luctator 1 15

ditto.

;

ambigua

ditto.

spinosa

ditto.

costata 290

ditto.

magorum

ditto.

Lambert! 119

London clay. Crag.

MUREX.

LONDON CLAY.

latus 35

ditto.

Bartonensis

ditto.

trilineatus

ditto.

coniferus 187

ditto.

regularis

ditto.

carinella

ditto.

fistulosujs 1 89

ditto.

gradatus

ditto.

tuberosus 229

ditto.

minax

ditto.

tubifer 189

ditto.

cristatus 230

ditto.

coronatus

ditto.

mgosus 199

ditto.

curtus

ditto.

striatus 22

Crag.

.

contrarius

ditto.

rugosus 34

ditto.

corneus 35

ditto.

costellifer 199

ditto.

echinatus

ditto.

VENERICAR- >
DIA. 5

LONDON CLAY.

planicosta 50

ditto.

deltoidea 258

ditto.

carinata 259

ditto.

senilis 258

Crag.

SANGUINO- >
LARIA. $

LONDON CLAY.

Hollowaysii 159

ditto.

SOLEN.

LONDON CLAY.

affinis 3 ditto.

TEREDO.

LONDON CLAY.

antenautae 102

ditto.

BALANUS.

LONDON CLAY.

tesselatus 84

ditto.

crassus

ditto.

BUCCINUM.

CRAG.

elongatum 1 1 0, ditto.

granulatum 110 ditto.

251

Genera.

Species. Strata,
1

BUCCINUM.

i rugosum

Crag.

reticosum

ditto.

EBURNA.

CRAG.

> glabrata O. R. ?
I III. 5, 25 S

ditto.

TELLINA.

CRAG.

obliqua 161

ditto.

ovata

ditto.

obtusa 179

ditto.

PHOLAS.

CRAG.

cylmdricus 198

ditto.

PHASIANELLA

SAND ABOVE LONDON CLAY.

orbicularis 175

ditto.

minuta

ditto.

angulosa 178

ditto.

LYMNEA.

SAND ABOVE LONDON CLAY.

fusiformis 169

ditto.

minima

ditto.

CYCLAS.

SAND ABOVE LONDON CLAY.

deperdita? 162 ditto.

cuneiforrnis ditto.

obovata ditto.

25-2

The following LIST of FOSSILS of the MOUNTAIN LIME-
STONE and the TRANSITION LIMESTONE near CORK,
kindly communicated by Mr. Miller, the Author of the
Natural History of the Crinoidea, is, in many respects,
extremely valuable, and particularly, from its showing
the general accordance of the Fossils with those of the
corresponding formations of this Island.

Fossils of the Mountain Limestone, near Cork.

Nautilus, an unfigured species deeply umbilicated, showing from

three to four volutions ; septa slightly undulated.
Ellipsolites ovatus, Sowerby, Tab. xxxvii.

COmpresSUS, SOW. Tab. XXXVlii. \ These two cllipsolitcn are evi-

funatus, SOW. Tab. XXxii. J (lent'y compressed ammonite,.

Orthocera striata, Sowerby, Tab. Iviii.

Euomphalus pentangularis, Sowerby, Tab. xlv. fig. 1, 2.

Cirrus acutus, Sowerby, Tab. cxli. fig. 1 .

Natica, undescribed.

Cardium hibernicum, Sowerby, Tab. Ixxxii. fig. 1,2.

Terebratula lateralis, Sowerby, Tab. Ixxxiii, fig. 1.

Spirifer cuspidatus, Sowerby, Tab. cxxx,

pinguis, Sowerby, Tab. cclxxi.

...... . trigonalis, Sowerby, Tab. cclxv.

striatus, Sowerby, Tab. cclxx.

Productus scabriculus, Sowerby, Tab. Ixix, fig. 1.

undescribed ; frequently much compressed.

Trilobite, similar to that in mountain limestone near Bristol.
Platycrinites Icevis, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 74.

Round crinoidal columns of a cyathocrinites ?
Amplexus corralloides, Sowerby, Tab. Ixxii. this in Mr. Miller's

opinion, has no claim to be considered as a multilocular shell,

but is a lamellated polypifer, approaching to the genus caryo-

phillia.

Flustra, assuming sometimes a conic funnel-shaped form.
Turbinolia.

253

Transition Limestone.

Orthocera anulata, Sowerby, Tab. cxxxiii. Park. Organic Remains,

vol. iii. pi. vii. fig. 14.

circularis, Sowerby, Tab. Ix. fig. 6 and 7.

pyramldalis ? Fleming's Annals of Phil. 1815.

sulcata, ibid.

Conularia quadrisulcata, Sowerby, Tab. cclx. fig. 2 to 6.
Euomphalus rugosus, Sowerby, Tab. Hi. fig. 2.

discors, Sowerby, Tab. Iii. fig. 1.

angulosus, Sowerby, Tab. Iii. fig. 3

(Delphinula), Park. Organic Remains, vol. iii. PI. 5.

fig. 18.

Helix striatus, Sowerby, Tab. clxxi. fig. 1.
Tkibulites geniculatus naturforscher, Sowerby, Tab. iv. fig. 2.
Pentaments Kniyhtii, Sowerby, Tab. xxviii.

Aylesfordii, Sowerby, Tab. xxix.

leevis, Sowerby, Tab. xxviii.

Terebratula, with the perforated beak not incurved.

Trilobite, Park. Organic Remains, vol. iii. Tab. xvii. fig. 11, 14, 19.

Tab. xvii. fig. 17.

Cyathocrinites rugosus, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 89.

Rhodocrinites verus, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 106.

Actinocrinites ? moniliformis, Miller's Crinoidea, p. 115.

Tubipora catenulata, Park. Organic Remains, vol. ii. Tab. iii.

fig, 4 to 6.
Astrea lithostrotion, a larger species than astrea basaltiformis figured

by Lhwydd and Parkinson.

Madrepora truncata, Park. Organic Remains, vol. ii. Tab. v. fig. 2.
Madreporite, Park. Organic Remains, vol. ii. Tab. vii. fig. 3.

Tab. vii. fig. 10.

Favosites.

254

Order of Arrangement of Shells in the different Forma-
tions.— It has been conjectured by some naturalists who had
become convinced of the comparatively late creation of land
animals and of man, that the peopling of this planet had
commenced, in the enduing with the principles of life, beings
of the simplest forms and organization ; and, that by the
influence of certain external causes, acting through passing
ages, those changes had been gradually wrought in succeed-
ing animals, from which have resulted the numerous differ-
ences which constitute the various tribes : rising from the
almost lifeless sponge to the highly complex and more per-
fect animal, man. On this hypothesis it might have been
expected that those beings which had possessed life under
its most simple modifications, would be found in the earliest
formed strata ; and that, in proportion to the lateness of
the period at which the strata had been formed, would be
the degree of complexity in the organization of the inha-
bitants whose remains they would contain. But investi-
gation has ascertained, and the preceding table manifests
most decidedly, at least, with respect to the class of animals
of which we are now treating, that such a conjecture is ill
founded. In the carboniferous and the mountain limestone
are the remains of shells of the earliest creation, which are
unexpectedly found, with hardly an exception, to exceed,
in complexity of structure, all the shells which have been
discovered, either in any subsequent formation, or living in
our present seas. It is in this early creation that those
shells are found which possess that complicated structure,
very rarely found in the shells of this day, which enabled
their inhabitants to rise and sink with them in the water.
Such are the many-chambered univalves, the nautilus, am-
monites, orthoceratites, &c. The bivalves and multi valves of
that «ra also seem to have been endued with a similar pro-
perty. The curious structure of spirifer, PI. vii. fig. 15,
and the multilocular construction of prodvctus of Martin,

255

PL vii. fig. 13; of pentamerus, PL x. fig. 7 ; amplexus, PL vi.
fig. 16, and of conularia, PL vi. fig. 17, imparted, in all pro-
bability, to their inhabitants, a power of a similar kind.
The fissure, noticed in one of the valves of the shells,
bearing a close analogy with the productus of Martin, and
figured, Organic Remains, Vol. iii. PL xvi. fig. 10, may,
with reason, be supposed to have been also part of an ar-
rangement for enabling the animal to accomplish a corres-
ponding process.

But the existence in the mountain limestone, and others
of the early strata, of shells bearing the form of the snail-
shell, is a circumstance so apparently contradictory to the
notions which have been just suggested, and, indeed, to opi-
nions which are very generally entertained, that it should
not pass as supported by the authority of Mr. Sowerby,
without determining how far that authority has really been
given.

The first fossil of this kind, which was noticed by Mr.
Sowerby, is helix carinatus, (Min. Conch. Tab. x.) found in
the grey limestone, near Settle, in Yorkshire; after which
he saw the cast of a shell found in the micaceous sand form-
ation near the Devizes, helix gentii, of which he says, " I
presume it to be an helix, as somewhat according with
Tab. x." But on the subsequent examination of two other
fossils of the mountain limestone, Mr. Sowerby was led to
observe, " Had not the general form strongly resembled the
helix above-mentioned, I might have been induced to have
placed this as a trochus, although it does not positively
accord with the characters of that genus. I might have
formed a new genus of the two, to which the following
species should have been added, did they not differ mate-
rially from each other in the characters which should dis-
tinguish it : besides, the aperture is very imperfect in them
all. It is prcbable that other species may be found, and
that by their help, and that of more perfect specimens, the

256

genera they belong to may be determined, or the characters
of new ones ascertained ; and this is the more desirable, as
they appear from their localities to be marine inhabitants,
rather than land shells." *

In consequence of the agreement in form of the first
mentioned shell with the latter ones, they become all in-
volved in the same ambiguity ; possessing the exterior cha-
racters of the snail-shells of the present day, and being
imbedded among the earliest shells, those which possessed
the power of rising and sinking themselves in the water.
But a question here arises, and it is presumed that on these
subjects, involved in the darkness of distant ages, questions
and conjectures founded on analogy may be allowed: May
not these shells have been actually of a genus different from
helix ; and might not they have been furnished with such a
structure as gave them the same powers as were possessed
by their associates ?

This conjecture derives support from the fact, that shells
of such a description exist even now in the seas of the v/arm
climates: such is ianthina, (PL v. fig. 23.) This shell had
always been considered as a helix by Linnaeus, and by his
successors, until the time of Lamarck, who determined it to
be necessary to place it in a distinct genus. He ascertained
that the inhabitant of this shell differed essentially from the
snail. That organ which would by its situation be con-
sidered as the foot in the snail, was found not to be formed
for crawling, but for swimming ; being covered with air
bladders which could be filled or emptied agreeable to the
impulse of the animal. This shell, which is very thin, with
four whirls in its spire, is, like the fossil shells of the same
form found in the mountain limestone, striated both longi-
tudinally and transversely, and, as if to diminish its gravity,

* Min. Conch. Vol. ii. p. 159.

257

possesses no solid columella. * When the sea is calm, the
ianthines, it is said are seen, in great numbers, swimming
on the surface of the sea with their shells reversed, by means
of their distended air-bladders ; but on the sea becoming
agitated, the air in the bladders is absorbed, the animals
contract within their shells, and the whole immediately
sink.

This power is, indeed, possessed by other shell animals
of the present day, besides the ianthines ; the tymncea
stagnalis (Le Grand buccin de Geoffroy) is known to swim
on the surface of the water in a reversed position, and,
when desirous of returning to the bottom, it compresses
itself within the shell, thus expelling the air which had
supported it ; and, by this simple process, sinks immediately
to the bottom.

The opinion that these shells of early creation, bearing
the external characters of snails, might have been natant
animals, having the power of swimming to the surface, like
their associates, derives some confirmation from analogy ;
since the multilocular, natant shells are not only found in
their own peculiar forms, as nautili, ammonitce, &c. but have
also assumed the peculiar form, as in turrilites, of unilocular,
turriculated shells, which do not appear to have been
created until a much later period.

In the lias formation, which succeeds to the mountain
limestone, the contained fossils differ considerably from
those which preceded them : only a few species of some of
the multilocular univalves, and of the terebratulas, being
here discoverable. The fossil shells found in this formation
chiefly consist of bivalves of the genus ostrea, gryphcea,
plagiostoma, plicatula, avicula, mi/a, and cardita, with the
single trochiform shell, trochus anglicanus of Lister, not

* This is also the case with cirrus, and, perhaps, with euomphalus.

Ll.

258

perhaps met with in any of the succeeding strata ; a shell
of the genus helicina, and the first simple unilocular shell
bearing a turriculated form, being a species of the genus
melania.

In the strata above the lias, belonging to the under
oolite, as well as in those of the middle and upper oolite,
including the cornbrash, Kelloway rock, &c. numerous
genera are found which are not known in the preceding
subjacent formations. The small proportion which the
univalves bear to the bivalves, which was observable in the
preceding formation, is here more obvious. Various species
are found ofpecten, lima, astarte, trigonia, lutraria, mytilus,
modiola, venus, and isocardia, with the tubular shell vermi-
cularia, and the .single univalve solarium.

In the superjacent green sand formation, including the
whetstone of Devonshire, many new genera of bivalves are
found : cardium, corbula, perna, dianchora, nucula, veneri-
cardia, occur here, with the simple turriculated shells of the
genus turritella, and the subglobose univalve auricula. Here,
also, are first found the multilocular turriculated shells of
the genus turrilites and the hooked shells of the genus
hamites.

The blue marl and the chalk marl which next super-
vene, display the genera scaphites and inoceramus, with the
oval multilocular shells, distinguished in this work as ammo-
nellipsites and 7iautellipsites, and some other curiously
formed multilocular shells much resembling, in their general
characters, nautili and ammonitce ; and deriving their
peculiar forms, perhaps, merely from compression.

The chalk, although containing many interesting species
of the genera which had appeared in preceding strata, has
perhaps only two genera of shells which originated in the
waters by which it was deposited, crania and magas.

The fossil shells which are found in the immense stratum
of blue clay resting on the chalk, manifest that a consider-

259

able difference existed between the inhabitants of the
waters by which the two formations had been deposited.
Hardly a shell is to be found in the blue clay of any genus
which has been seen in the chalk. The waters from which
the clay and the succeeding crags proceeded, appear to have
been chiefly stored with testaceous animals differing from
any which had been before in existence. This formation is
remarkably characterized by the simple univalves, which in
the preceding formations had existed, comparatively, in small
numbers, but which now seem to have come into existence
in a very predominant superiority. A slight view of the
shells of this formation, with occasional reference to those
of the preceding formations, it is presumed, will lead to
interesting and useful conclusions.

Of the multilocular univalves, or of the bivalves of
complicated structure, occurring so frequently in the earlier
formations, perhaps none are to be found in the blue clay
except such as have been dislodged, by alluvial action,
from the early matrices in which they had been originally
imbedded. About thirty-two genera of bivalves had been
found in the more ancient strata, and only five or six new
genera have been found in the blue clay ; but, on the other
hand, the more ancient strata had been found to contain
only twelve or fourteen genera of simple turbinated or
turriculated univalves ; whilst the blue clay, and its accom-
panying sands and crag, have yielded thirty-two genera of
turriculated shells; twenty -five of which, with about sixteen
other genera not known to have yet existed in a mineralized
state, people the waters of the present world with the
myriads supplied by their numerous species.

We hence learn, that almost all the waters from which
have proceeded strata containing testaceous remains were
inhabited by genera, many of which, though multiplied in
numerous species, and in myriads of individuals, have
become entirely extinct ; the proofs of their having existed

2(50

being only to be traced in their entombed mineralized
remains. We thus also learn, that, in the succeeding waters,
new and totally different beings filled the deficiencies which
had been thus occasioned. These circumstances, observed
in all, is more distinctly manifested in the later formations
of the chalk and blue clay. Of the genera of fossil shells
which exist in the chalk, hardly an individual can be
detected in the blue clay ; but in their places are found
the remains of shells not known to exist in any of the
preceding strata. Investigation has ascertained them to be
the remains of an entirely new series of animals ; not
formed by the gliding of one genus into another, or by
changes induced in the structure of the animals by the
gradual and continued agency of external circumstances ;
but, as far as the state of our knowledge will allow us to
judge, by a new creation, adapted to the nature of the fluid,
for the peopling of which it was decreed ; and to the espe-
cial purposes which Providence had destined it to accom-
plish in future ages.

Links varying from each other by minute determinate
characters and secured in their integrity, and in their con-
nection with each other, by certain laws decreed at the
beginning, are, in all probability, the notions which are in
general conveyed by the figurative expression of the chain
of creation ; the loss of a single link being supposed to be
productive of disturbance, and ultimately of the annihilation
of the whole. By those who have been misled by this figure to
the adoption of the idea of a concatenation of beings depen-
dent on each other for their existence, the opinions now pro-
posed must be rejected. They are, however, it is hoped, most
accordant with a reverential idea of the great Creator ; who
is thus supposed to have conducted from the beginning, and
to be still directing, the affairs of the world, by a special care
and providence, to the termination of some certain period, and
for the accomplishment of great and important purposes.

2(31

The geological inquirer will derive some assistance
from the examination of fossil shells, whilst endeavour-
ing to ascertain how far the earth contained in the testace-
ous and crustaceous coverings of marine animals has con-
tributed to the formation of calcareous rocks. It has been
conjectured, that besides adding to the bulk of the lime-
stone or chalk by the accumulation of their remains still
bearing their original forms, that they have also contributed
to the surrounding matrix by a solution and subsequent
precipitation of the lime which had entered into their
composition. If this had been the case, we might expect
to find those remains which still bear their original forms,
manifesting every degree of resolution, from the slightest
influence of the agent in destroying the finest striae to the
smoothing of ridges, and even the diminution or removal of
projecting points. But nothing of this is discoverable
in the fossils of either the flint, the limestone, or the chalk.
In the latter, which, by the fineness and purity of its sub-
stance, gives strong evidence of its having been depo-
sited by precipitation, not the slightest appearance of
chemical action on its contained fossil shells is observable.
If preserved at all, they are preserved with their sharpest
ridges arrd minutest points in the most perfect state. The
same is observable not only in the fossil shells of the lime-
stone, but in the delicate and beautiful fossils, which have
subsequently undergone the change of silicification ; as in
the fossils of the Blackdown hills, in Devonshire.

Shells of alternating Marine and Fresh-water Formations.
— On examining the crags, the beds of gravel and fossil
shells lying over the London clay, numerous fossil shells
are found approximating in their characters to the recent
shells of our present seas. These, it has been supposed, are
the remains of the inhabitants of that sea which covered, at
a very distant period, the surface of the planet, and which

262

were left by it when it was withdrawn to its present level.
On this point no decisive opinion can be offered : it cannot,
however, fail to call to our contemplation the consequences
of that revolution which this planet sustained, when its
surface was broken up, and extensive tracts entirely re-
moved, even to the solid granite, by the inconceivable
agencies of Divine power.

To give to the world, formed anew from the shattered
fragments of that which preceded it, that state and form
which were requisite for the purposes to which it had been
decreed by the Almighty, numerous and extensive ope-
rations must have been ordained ; and from some of these,
it is not improbable that the phenomenon just mentioned
may have resulted ; and to similar causes may, perhaps, be
referred numerous other phenomena observable in the
structure of the earth. One of these, the appearance of
considerable tracts, bearing marks of the sea and fresh water,
having borne alternate sway over them, demands the earnest
attention of those who have engaged in these studies.

That the tracts here referred to have been formed partly
by deposition from fresh water, is supposed to be proved by
the near agreement of many of the fossil shells which they
contain, with those which are now to be found actually
living in our rivers and marshes, and on the surface of the
earth. The first of these, considered as the lower fresh-
water formation, is found over fossil sea shells : and in
France, with alternate beds of gypsum and of marl, and with
the remains of land animals which, it is supposed, inhabited
the borders of the lakes in which the inhabitants of those
shells lived. Above this formation are found marine shells,
and above these, another fresh-water formation.

From these facts M. Brongniart inferred that these dif-
ferent beds demonstrated the repeated alternations of sea
and of fresh-water on the same tract ; and that, at the
period when the sea was forming marbles, schists, &c. the

fresh-water lakes might also have had the quality of depo-
siting stony beds, such as gypsum, fresh-water marbles, &c.
and of enveloping in them the animals and vegetables which
lived in these waters, or on their borders. But, whilst
forming these opinions, M. Brongniart found it necessary to
admit that the formation of gypsum might also have taken
place both in fresh and in salt water ; and was obliged to
allow, that in some places, as in the quarries of Beauchamp,
the river and the sea shells are really mixed together.

These opinions, particularly as to the alternation of de-
position, have been strongly opposed by Messrs, de la
Metherie, Brard, and Faujas St. Fond. By the first of
these it is said, that as land shells are found in these
formations, they, as well as the bones of the Land animals,
must have been carried in by currents ; and, therefore, it is
probable, that the fresh-water shells might also have been
carried into the sea in the same manner, and thus have
formed the present beds. M. Brard and Faujas St. Fond
are of opinion, that all shells, previous to these depositions,
existed in water of the same nature ; but that, in the pro-
cess of time, perhaps from the increase of the saltness of the
sea, a separation took place, the inhabitants of the shells
which are at present found in fresh water, or on land,
having migrated to situations more congenial to their
nature.* M. Faujas St. Fond, too, having found ampul-
laricB and melania, with a shell much resembling those of
the genus planorbis> in bituminous marl between beds of
coal, concluded that their presence here could only be
accounted for by supposing them to have been brought
by the torrents of an overwhelming sea; and takes the
opportunity of thus attacking Cuvier, who had pointed
out the errors he had committed whilst describing some

Annales du Mus. Tom. xiv. p. 314.

264

of the fossils of Maastricht. " Those (he says) who
please themselves with their systems of lakes, finding
here the remains of various animals, suppose that these
animals of the burning zones had their dwellings on the
sides of these lakes, where they came to quench their
thirst: that the peaceable stag, the fragments of whose
antlers are found petrified by the side of the large, the
medium, and the small paleotheriums, lived here in company
with animals equally unsociable ; and that the borders of
these charming fresh-water lakes, shaded by African or
Asiatic palms, were the delightful asylums of animals of
such opposite genera : for it was not possible to deny the
existence of these palms, said those who possessed these
grand ideas, since there had been found some pieces of
petrified trunks above, as well as beneath, the remains of
these quadrupeds. No more, in a word, was wanting than to
bring into this scene, birds who should come to drown them-
selves and then to become incrusted with gypsum, to com-
plete a zoological collection, unique in its kind ; and thus
to deny to the waters of the sea the power of producing
equally astonishing accumulations of fossil organic bodies."*
With the hope of ascertaining which of these hypotheses
had the best foundation, recourse was had to more strict
examinations of the fossil shells, which had been discovered
in these fresh-water tracts, which led to the proposal for a
more illustrative arrangement of them.

M. Brard, upon examining the masses containing lymnecc
planorbes, and other fresh- water shells, found also shells
which had hitherto been considered as sea shells, a species
of cerithium, for instance ; and remarks, that this circum-
stance had been passed silently over by Brongniart and
Cuvier. He adds too, that these supposed fresh-water

* Annales du Mus. Tom. xv. p. 153.

265

shells are sometimes found scattered among a multitude of
acknowledged sea shells, as oysters, venus's, &c. He, also,
in answer to M. Brongniart's having asserted that these
fossil shells " were alike in every respect to those which
we find in our marshes," declares that they differ decidedly ;
that there is not one of them whose living analogue is to be
found among the fresh-water shells of France ; and observes,
that buli mus pygmaus, whose fresh-water origin had been
assumed, agrees, in some respects, v/ith shells found in the
calcareous rocks of Mayence, and which had been supposed
to have been of fresh-water origin ; but the living analogues
of which Faujas St. Fond had found on the shores of the
French ocean and of the Mediterranean seas, as well as in
some of the salt-water marshes. M. Brard adds, that in
five places out of six where he had found the lymnece, &c.
they were imbedded in isolated blocks, which, he supposes,
had been broken up from the sides of the waters where
these animals had lived, and had been brought to these
places by a diluvial torrent.*

On the other side, M. Brongniart, in proof of the agree-
ment of these fossil shells with the recent, states his having
found amongst them the cast of a cyclostoma elegans, and
mentions several of these shells which he thinks very nearly
agree with recent species. M. Brard having figured and
described a species of melajiia, inelanie effilee, as existing
among these fresh-water shells, M. Brongniart says, that he
discovered, by his own examination, what he should never
have found by M. Brard's description or figure, that this
sea shell was cyclostoma mumia, a land shell : and as to the
bullimi of Faujas St. Fond, both those which were found
fossil and recent, he was satisfied were also cyclostomce.
But, with respect to the cerithium mentioned by Brard,

* Annales du Mus. Tom. xv. p. 36G.
M m.

266*

he denies its being a sea shell, and finds it necessary to
consider it as belonging to the marshes adjoining the sea,
or to the salt water of the mouths of rivers : and finding
other species as having been said to be found in these
situations, he thinks it necessary to form a genus for their
reception, founded rather upon the habits of the animal
than on the characters of its shell. Thus we are led to the
consideration of supplementary genera. Cerithia was
supposed by M. Brongniart to be actually divisable into sea
and into fresh-water shells. To the former he continued
their original designation cerithium : the latter he named
potamides, and distinguished as " a turriculated shell ;
opening nearly semicircular, pinched up as it were at the
base of the columella, and terminated by a very short,
straight, canal, which is hardly grooved ; there being no
groove at the upper extremity of the right side."

Turbo is generally a sea shell, though sometimes found
in ponds of salt water. The sea and river patella, it is
acknowledged, differ hardly at all in their shells, but must
thus be placed in different genera : and the same must be
remarked of the crepidula, he, I believe, meaning calyptrea.
Ctjdostoma must be divided into cyclostoma for the land
shells, and puludina for the aquatic shells. Marine bulimi
must be separated from the land bulimi, and be disposed
in a new genus, or joined to phasianella. Melania, auricula,
cimpullaria, planorbis, and nerita, all demand subdivision.
Pupa, also, he says, requires subdivision ; but, as in the case
of patella, the shells would be difficultly distinguishable.

Of the particular shell mentioned by M. Brard, he
makes a species of this genus, and terms it Potamides
Lamarckii.* By thus dividing genera into those of sea,

* This conciliatory compliment to M. Lamarck appears to have
been by no means unnecessary. For those who attempt to explain
the circumstance of the mixture of sea, river and land shells, bv

267

of land, &c. M. Brongniart expects to prevent its being
concluded that these lymnece, &c. were sea shells, or that
revolutions of which, he says, there exists no trace, carried
these fresh-water shells into the ocean, and mixed them
with the sea shells.

Brongniart and Cuvier had founded their opinion of the
fresh-water origin of the upper beds of gypsum, chiefly on
the presence of a shell found in the gypsum, which appeared
to be a cyclostoma, and was supposed to be a fresh-water
shell. Of these shells two only were found in the gypsum ;
one of which, in the possession of Brongniart, had its mouth
unluckily concealed ; but the other, in the possession of
Faujas St. Fond, as fortunately, had it displayed so as to
show that it agreed with cyclostoma mumia of Lamarck, who
had only named it so provisionally, since, from its thickness,
he had supposed it to be a sea shell. M. Brard hence con-
cludes, that the fresh-water origin of the gypsum does not
derive any support from this shell.*

He describes, as existing among the marine fossils of
Grignon, two minute land bulimi, the conical and pyramidal ;
and one still more minute, the cylindrical, which approaches
in form to many of the small species of pupa. This
shell has six turns, very projecting, deeply separated, and
derives a cylindrical form from the last three turns being
nearly of the same diameter. He also mentions impressions

their having lived in a common medium, contend for the difficulty
of distinguishing the difference between these shells ; whilst those
who contend for alternations of sea and fresh-water, think the
practised conchologist might find but little difficulty : yet Lamarck,
after examining and naming sixty species of cerithia, says decidedly,
" Les Cerites vivent toutes dans la mer ;" but now another genus is
formed of several species of fresh- water shells out of these, showing,
certainly, that the distinction cannot be easily made.

* Annales du Mus. Tom, Ixxii. p. 448.

268

and fragments of minute planorbes among decidedly marine
shells, and supplies a list of forty-eight river and land shells
found by Lamarck among the fossil sea shells of Grignon.

But this mixture of these supposed land and fresh-water
with sea shells, is not confined, according to M. Brard, to
the lately discovered formations of the environs of Paris ;
since he has ascertained that they are found together in
several other parts of France, at a considerable distance
from Paris. Buxweiller, Mayence, Caen, Francfort, Or-
leans, Gergovia, the Brecciae of Nice, the volcanico-marine
valley, as it is called by St. Fond, of Ronca, and the island
of Sheppey, are among those places in which he states them
to have been found. Whilst speaking of the Brecciae of
Nice, he reprehends Cuvier for having entirely omitted to
mention the sea shells which are found there, although he
particularized the land shells, and this, after Faujas St.
Fond had stated his having found there turbinites and ser-
pulce, both marine shells.

The shells of the valley of Ronca, as noticed by the Abbe
Fortis, are very interesting, they being mostly filled with
very minute shells. Their substance, too, is changed into
lamellar carbonate of lime ; and they are found to have ac-
quired a considerable increase of thickness. From this
frequent discovery of sea, river, and land shells thus mixed,
M. Brard hopes that the opinion of their all having lived
originally in a similar fluid is confirmed.

M. Brongniart, anxious to support the position, that the
shells in the fresh-water and accompanying formations were
separately deposited by the alternation of fresh and sea
water, experienced, however, a considerable difficulty from
Lamarck having already admitted that, among the accumu-
lation of fossil sea shells in the environs of Paris, there were
nearly fifty species which wrere referrible to land or fresh-
water shells. To meet this, we have seen that he admits
that these may have been derived from the mouths of rivers,

269

and from the marshes adjoining the sea; and that it is
therefore necessary that the genera already formed should
be so subdivided, that genera should be established for the
complete separation of sea, river, and land shells ; a labour
in which he said M. Lamarck was already engaged.

The editor of the Journal de Physique for 1811 ob-
served, " Les Naturalistes des autres Contrees, et particu-
lierement la Societe Geologique de Londres, ne manqueront
pas de faire des recherches analogues." The supposition of
M. de la Metherie was soon verified by the interesting dis-
coveries of similar formations in the Isle of Wight, by the
highly judicious and zealous exertions of Mr. Webster, who
not only pointed out a basin, probably of some ancient lake,
formed in a depression in the chalk stratum, corresponding
with that of Paris ; but also showed that a very close agree-
ment existed between the respective beds of the two basins,
and that the beds in the Isle of Wight basin were lying
above the London clay. He ascertained that the beds of
shells of the several formations are to be found distinctly
separate, but, as might be expected, sometimes mingled.
He also pointed out the great basin of the London clay, and
noticed the mixture of fresh-water shells with sea shells,
which it contains ; observing on lymnecB^ melania, and other
fresh-water shells, being found in the Sheppey clay, " These
shells (he says), which are however very few in number,
do not prove the existence of fresh-water formations in
this place similar to those in the basins of Paris and of the
Isle of Wight. Being found among the remains of vege-
tables and marine animals, we may suppose that they were
carried down together with the branches of trees and fruits,
by the numerous streams and rivers that must have flowed
into this gulph." *

* Geological Transactions, Vol. ii.-f

•\- In a paper, read at the meeting of the Geological Society, on
Nov. 2, 1821, it appears, that Mr. Webster having recently exa-

270

That the shells in the Petworth marble are fresh-water
shells, and that this formation existed in Hampshire, as
well as in Sussex, appears to have been well known to
Woodward. In his catalogue of marine bodies, chiefly
shells, grouped together in lapideous masses, he mentions a
mass with coclditcR in it, Petworth, Sussex ; and says, they
seem to have been moulded in the cochlea fasciata vivipara
fluviatilis, Listeri.

This marble, as he observes, has been employed in many
of our cathedrals. The most ancient coffin in Salisbury,
that of, I believe, Kynrick the Saxon, which was removed
thither from Old Sarum, and has been generally supposed
to be of granite, is formed of this marble. This marble, we
know, exists also at Purbeck.

Dr. Nugent has, I think, pointed out a very important
fact respecting these formations. In a siliceous specimen
with which I was favoured by Dr. Nugent, from Antigua,
several moulds may be seen bearing very strong marks of

mined the Hampshire coast, found that Hordwell Cliff was not
formed of the London clay, as was generally supposed, and as he
had stated, from the accounts of others in the former paper pub-
lished iii the Transactions of the Geological Society ; but that it
was composed of beds analogous to the lower fresh- water formation
of the Isle of Wight. Under these beds, which dip to the east, is
another of white sand ; and below this, in the next cliff to the west,
appears the bed similar to the London clay, and which contains the
well-known fossils published by Brander. This forms also the in-
ferior part of the coast still farther to the west, called the High Cliff,
which reaches nearly to Muddiford.

This series of beds being similar to those on the opposite side of
the island at Headon Hill, Isle of Wight, is considered, by Mr.
Webster, as affording a strong confirmation of the opinion he had
formerly advanced respecting the extent of the Isle of Wight basin.
Mr. Webster also enumerates several fossil fresh- water shells
which he found at Hordwell Cliff, and, among other remains, are
fossil capsules, or seed-vessels, in considerable numbers. — Annals of
Philosophy, March, 1822.

271

their having been filled by shells of the genus planorbis ;
with a nearly perfect shell, whose mouth points it out as a
species of the genus melania, and whose size and finely
rugated surface give it a close resemblance to M.fragilis of
Lamarck. In this specimen, also, I think the dpening of the
melania is apparent. I trust that the farther investigations
of that gentleman will determine the existence of fresh-water
formations in the West Indies.*

Insects. — -The delicacy of the structure, and, indeed, the
nature of the substance, which enters into the formation of
the animals which are generally comprized under this term,
render them so unfit to sustain those changes which would
be necessary for the conservation or mineralization of their
remains, that very few become the subjects of our exami-
nation. The crustaceous coverings of the bodies and limbs,
and the hard wing-cases of some of the genera, are the chief,
and, perhaps, the only fossils which can be properly referred
to this class.

The trilobites, or Dudley fossil, the living analogue of
which is at present unknown, and the original nature of
which is so little understood, that it has, by some, been con-
sidered as a crustaceous insect, and, by others, as a bivalve
shell, and has hence been designated, by Linnaeus, as ento-
molithus paradoxus ; by Dacosta, as pediculus mar in us ; by
Hermann, as pectunculus trilobus imbricatus ; will demand
the student's attentive investigation.

Its superior covering, (PL x. fig. 1.) which is the only
part with which we are acquainted, is oblong, ovate, convex,
and marginated; the anterior wider part is gibbous, and
furnished with two semilunar tubercular projections re-
sembling palpebrae ; and posterior to, and on the inner side

* For further illustration of this subject, the reader is re-
ferred to Mineral Conchology, No. lix.

27-2

of each of these, are two round tubercles. Adjoining to
this part commences a series of triarcuated, imbricating,
transverse slips, so disposed that the three bows of these
connected slips form three longitudinal transversely divided
lobes, gradually diminishing to the lower termination. In
some specimens the fossil is almost globular, showing that
the animal possessed the power of coiling itself occasionally
in this form. No elongated caudal termination is seen in
this species ; nor in the published representations of any of
the preserved remains of this animal have the traces of any
organs of progressive motion been given ; still it may be
conjectured that this animal was furnished with articulated
and unguiculated feet.* This fossil has been found in the
neighbourhood of Dudley nearly three inches in length.

Another species is found in the schistose strata of
Llandilo, in Carmarthenshire, erroneously stated in Organic
Remains, to be Lanelly : for this correction, and much valu-
able information, I am under obligations to the Rev. Mr.
Hallifax. In these the outline of the animal approaches
rather to that of a long ellipses than to an ovate form : the
lateral lobular divisions of the dorsal plates or slips are
nearly three times as wide as those of the central part.
The crustaceous coverings are, in these species, generally
removed, leaving in some parts, however, a very accurate
impression of the inner surface, with regularly disposed
longitudinal minute rugae, appearing as if they had been
formed by the subjacent soft cuticle. — Organic Remains,
Vol. iii. PI. xvii. fig. 13.

* I have seen the sketch (on the fidelity of which I can depend)
of a fossil animal of this kind, corresponding, in its feet, with the
above description ; and have also seen a specimen of the animal at
Clun, in Shropshire, in which I believe the points of the feet ap-
peared from beneath the superior covering ; but, on endeavouring
to detach the piece of rock in which it was embedded, and though
working with the utmost care, the specimen was entirely shivered.

273

In another species, or, perhaps, approximating genus,
on a grey limestone, the locality of which is not known,
the head part differs materially from that of the preceding,
it being nearly covered by three large round and rough
protuberances, two of which possess the situation of the
eyes, and the third, which is the largest, is placed anterior
to and between these ; but each appears to have possessed
a similar porulous and granular structure. — Organic Remains,
Vol. iii. PL xvii. fig. !6.

A third species, found by Thomas Botfield, Esq. of
Hopton Court, Shropshire, in an iron stone nodule, differ
much from either of the preceding : — The head is large,
semiorbicular, lunated posteriorly, and terminates at the
sides in an acute angle. The body, which has only five
transverse plates, is remarkably short; its sides going directly
off from the head, and meeting speedily at an obtuse angle.
From this part proceeds the tail of the animal, a long central
spine-like process, which is of a greater length than that of
both the head and body." Org. Remains, Vol. iii. p. *267.
This fossil appears to be the same with monoculites lunatus
of Mr. Martin, PL xlv. fig. 4, who supposed it to approach
nearer, in size and figure, to the monoculum apus, than to
any other known recent species of that genus.

The remains of another species are found in the beds
of fuller's earth, but the caudal termination of these
have only been as yet described. This species appears
from the form of its plates to have approached the nearest
to that which is found in Dudley limestone ; but the dorsal
plates gradually diminish in size, and, at last, finishing in an
elongated caudal termination.

Mr. Benjamin Henry Latrobe relates in the second
volume of the American Philosophical Transactions, that
among the fish resorting to the waters of the York River,
the alewife or oldwife (clupea nondescripta) arrives, in very
considerable shoals, from March to May. In this season

N n.

274

each of these alewives carries in her mouth an insect, about
two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and
firmly holding by its fourteen legs to the palate. The
fishermen call this insect the louse. Mr, Latrobe names it
oniscus prcegustator.

Whether our unknown fossil animal had antennae or
feet, as I suspect, or not, cannot perhaps be determined,
and therefore the character of an oniscus cannot be claimed
for it ; and yet the structure of its body, with its transverse
imbricating slips, is so much in agreement with this living
insect, as to induce me to place the figure of the latter
before the reader, (PL x. fig. 2,) with the hope of its leading
to a more successful investigation as to the origin of the fossil.

Lhwydd relates that he found, in coal slate, the fossil
remains of spiders, and other remains approaching, in
their forms, to those of scarabcei. In the Stonesfield oolitic
slate are impressions with a slight brownish stain, the origin
of which has not yet been ascertained. They bear a figure
which somewhat resembles, in its outline, that of the figure
by which a crown is represented : by some they have been
considered as bearing a resemblance to two united wings
of a butterfly ; and, by others, have been supposed to have
been the impressions of the detached plates of some species
of tortoise.

We find, in the invaluable work of the Rev. W. D.
Coneybeare and W. Phillips, speaking, most probably,
in reference to these fossil remains, that " specimens, which
have been decidedly pronounced, by Dr. Leach, to be the
elytra of coleopterous insects, occur in the Stonesfield slate ;
they are of two or three different species."*

In the yellow fossile limestone of Pappenheim, Oeningen,
&c. are found the remains of insects ; but these are also in

* Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, by the Rev.
W. D. Coneybeare and W. Phillip?, Vol. i. p. 208.

275

such a state as will not allow their generic characters to be
ascertained. The head, which is very indistinct, appears
to have been connected with the trunk by a very contractile
neck. The thorax is shorter and thicker than the abdomen,
which is of a lanceolate form, and separated into eight divi-
sions by annular risings. Neither wings nor legs are dis-
coverable.— Organic Remains, Vol. ii.

Crabs. — The number of fossil crabs is very considerable.
They are found in Stonesfield slate, and in the limestone of
Pappenheim, &c. It is stated by Knorr, that the remains
of cray-fish, astaci, are found in a narrow district, reaching
from Gunzenhausen, in Anspach, to Aichsteadt, a length of
about seven or eight leagues, bordered on one side by the
river Altmuhl. The matrix of these fossils is evidently a
portion of the same stratification which occurs at Pappen-
heim, &c. in which the remains of fishes are so frequently
discovered. Crabs and lobsters are frequently found in the
London clay. In the London Museum there were more than
thirty species of crabs from the Island of Sheppey ; and Mr.
Donovan, the proprietor, who also possessed, perhaps, one
of the finest collections of the recent animals in this king-
dom, was satisfied that he had no recent analogue of any of
the species in his fossil collection. Verona, Malta, and
Anjou, produce these fossil remains : they are also found
imbedded in a hard, light coloured, pyritous, and argillaceous
stone, resembling indurated London clay, from some parts
of China.

Birds. — Their remains are very rarely found in a fossil
state. Bones, which may be considered as referrible to
this class, are, however, imbedded in the calcareous schist of
Oeningen, and in the oolitic schist of Stonesfield. The
foot of a bird has been found incrusted in gypsum, near
Montmartre; Blumenbach describes the bones of a water-

27(5

fowl in the Pappenheim stone; and Faujas St. Fond has
figured two feathers found in the calcareous stone of
Vestena Nuova.

Cuvier, whose zealous exertions always contributes to
the advancement of science, has not only ascertained the
existence of fossil remains of this class, but has furnished
the student with information which must aid him in his in-
vestigations with respect to these fossils. The foot, he
observes, in birds, has a single bone in the place of the
tarsal and metatarsal bones. Birds, too, form the only
class in which the toes all differ as to the number of joints,
and in which this number, and the order of the toes which
have them, is nevertheless fixed. The great toe has two;
the first toe, reckoning on the inside, three ; the middle,
five ; and the outermost five. The crocodile has the same
number of phalanges; but, as these have a tarsel and meta-
tarsal bone, they cannot be mistaken. Some birds have no
great toes, but, in these, the other toes preserve the
usual order; the ostriches and cassowars have three
toes. Although the crocodile has the same number of
phalanges, yet, as every one of the toes is supported
by a particular metatarsal bone, the distinction is easily
made.

From an attention to the different specific characters,
Cuvier ascertained the existence of the remains of five
or six different species of birds in the plaster quarries near
Paris. Among these are the bones of a pelican, less than
pelicanus onocratulus, and larger than P. carbo ; of one of
the larger curlews, with a naked neck (tantalus, Gmelin) ;
of a woodcock, a starling, and a sealark (alouette de mer.)

He also describes and figures a bird, found in the quar-
ries of Montmartre, which appears to have fallen on its belly
on the newly-formed gypsum, without having been quite
involved in it ; and having, probably whilst in this state,
been deprived of its head and the whole of the right leg.

277

The result of a careful examination of this fossil is, that it
belongs to some exotic quail, rather larger than the one
known in France.

Fishes. — The fossil remains of fishes are found in such
various states, under such different circumstances, and in
the formations of such distant periods, as cannot but lead
the zealous inquirer to expect that he shall derive, from
their examination, information of considerable importance.

The fish, in some specimens, are found nearly entire ;
the harder parts all in their natural situations, with their
scales, and even their skin, preserved. In others, all the
other parts are removed except the skeleton ; the bones of
which either retain their original relative situations, or have
undergone considerable distortion, and even dislocation.
In some instances, not only separation of these parts has
taken place, but the greater part of the skeleton has been
removed ; the harder parts, the grinding sulcated or tuber-
culated teeth having only remained. This circumstance
may be accounted for by supposing that, in these instances,
the fish were of the cartilaginous kind, and that their ske-
letons might have undergone that decomposition which these
parts, from their structure or superior degree of hardness,
had been able to resist. In other instances, the bones are
found partly surrounded by a whitish, spathose, and rather
opaque substance, which conjecture will be disposed to
consider as being probably the flesh of the animal, which
had been converted to adipocire, and subsequently mineral-
ized by impregnation with carbonate of lime assuming a
spathose state.

There is, perhaps, no class of animals the remains of
which, found in a fossil state, are capable of being referred
to so many living analogues. According to Mr. Lacepede,
more than thirty Asiatic, African, and American species of
fishes have been found fossil in the neighbourhood of Verona.

278

At Nanterre, near Paris, a fossil fish was obtained,
nearly resembling coryphena chrysurus, Lacepede ; another
was found, by Faujas St. Fond, in the mountain on which
the castle of Rochesauvre is built, which has-been ascer-
tained to be idus, pinna ani radiis 13, ventre piano. Among
these fossils are fish whose analogues live in the Indian
Ocean, and in different seas of Africa, and of North and
South America. M. Bozza, the proprietor of an immense
collection of fossil fish collected from Monte Bolca, observes,
that he possessed many whose living analogues were not
known, and that, among more than a hundred which are
known, there were four which are peculiar to the sea of
Otaheite ; polynemus plebeius, or emoi of the Otaheiteans ;
gobius striatus, or jaipoa; gobius oc cellar is ; and chcetodon
triostegus.

The remains of the following fish have been ascertained
to exist in a mineralized state in different parts of Italy,
France, and Germany: — the pike, carp, perch, eel, sea-
scorpion, mackarel, turbot, sword-fish, lod, scarus, chetodon,
balistes, gobius, Jistularia of Japan, and pegasus of Brazil.
This list may be expected to be soon considerably extended,
since some of the French naturalists, it is understood, are
engaged in making the necessary investigations for enabling
them to distinguish between those remains of this class of
animals which are referrible to known and to unknown genera.

In the neighbourhood of Naples, in the Vincentine, at
Pappenheim and Oeningen, near the lake of Constance, at
Aix in Provence, and in numerous other places on the con-
tinent, the remains of fishes are found either in limestone,
or in a yellowish or fawn-coloured calcareous fissile stone.
At Eisleben, and in Mansfeldt, in Upper Saxony, fishes are
found in a black schist ; and the metallic appearance which
they derive from the pyrites, with which they are imbued,
renders them frequently very splendid and beautiful
specimens.

279

Fishes are frequently found in a mineralized state in
this island : their fossil remains have been found in a variety
of situations, sufficient to warrant the conjecture that they
were among those animals which were of the earliest
creation, and whose existence has not been since inter-
rupted.

It does not appear that any skeletons or any connected
remains of fish have been found in the mountain limestone ;
sufficient detached parts have, however, been discovered to
prove that fish existed in the waters by which this formation
was deposited. The most interesting of these are the fossil
remains which seem to be referrible to the spinous radii of
some species of batistes ; or of some other genus which was
armed with dentated radii, accompanying, or being in the
place of fins.*

Another fossil which appears to have been obtained from
this early formation, bears a considerable agreement with
the sword of the xiphias : the fossil alluded to is round and
tapering, but has been broken at the smaller end before
either of these maxillary processes had terminated. Two
species of xiphias have been described : in one, the elon-
gated jaws or beaks are of a flattish form ; in the other, to
which the name makaira is considered as most applicable,
the beaks form a long, round, tapering weapon : it is. with
this latter species alone that the fossil referred to should be
compared. But although it was thought right to mention
this fossil as probably belonging to the mountain limestone,
it is by no means meant to contend for its claim to this
locality, since it has not the decided evidence of an ad-
herent matrix.

The remains of fish are much more frequently found in
the strata of the lias formation. They have been figured

* I am indebted for an interesting fossil of this kind to the
Rev. Mr. Hallifax.

280

by Mr. Nichols, in his History of Leicestershire, Vol. iii. but
the figures are so very indistinct as not to allow a well-
founded conjecture on the genera to which they belong.
The figure in the Rev. Mr. Townsend's work, although
doubtlessly performed with every regard to fidelity, does
not convey any decisive information respecting the genus
to which it may be referred. Two specimens are in the
possession of the writer, contained in the lias in the neigh-
bourhood of Lyme, which are flat and of a trigonal form,
about twelve inches in length and nine in width, and are
remarkable for their square, highly polished, black and com-
paratively large scales. One of the scales, detached and
showing its root, is figured, Organic Remains, Vol. iii. PL
xviii. fig. 9. In another specimen, several of these scales
are involved in a nodule of lias from the neighbourhood of
Whitby. These fishes, from the situation of their eyes not
being discoverable, and from no traces of their fins appearing,
afford no means of determining in what part of the icthyologi-
cal system they are to be disposed.* Here are also to be found
the armour, the spinous radii, of some fish, having fluted sides,
terminating in a strong pointed extremity, and bearing
sharply-pointed spines on their posterior sides. A very fine
specimen of one of these fossils is figured in Mr. Townsend's
work, " The Character of Moses," PL xi. These are by no
means unfrequent in this formation, and have, until lately,
been considered as part of the jaw of an unknown animal.
The leech-like palate teeth of some species of fish are also
found in some of the strata of the lias. Numerous teeth,
of a small size, are also found in these situations, very much

* A paper by M. de la Beche, which was read at a meeting of
the Geological Society, June 28, 1823, describes a fossil fish from
Lyme, which appears to agree very nearly with those which are
mentioned above. It is named, by M. de la Beche, Dapedium
politum.

281

resen&Hng those of the shark ; with others bearing the
same form, but differing in their surface, which, instead of
being smooth, is rendered rough by numerous grooves and
ridges disposed in radiating and sinuous directions.

In the upper beds of the oolite, and particularly in the
calcareous slate of Stonesfield, the remains of fish frequently
occur. These are chiefly the hemispherical, or obtuse
teeth, which, when changed by mineralization, and possess-
ing a dark brown colour, with a considerable polish, are
named bufonites. These are sometimes found imbedded in
the Stonesfield slate, in the regular order and rows in which
they were placed in the jaws of the animal, but without any
of the surrounding bone in which they had been disposed.
From this circumstance, and from such few vertebrae, and
no skeletons having been found in these beds, may it not be
presumed that these remains belong to fishes of a cartila-
ginous structure, the bones of which had been gradually
removed, whilst imbedded ? These fossil teeth, bufonites,
appear to be the round molar teeth with which the jaws
and palates of fish of the genera anarrhicas and sparus are
furnished. In PL i. fig. II, 12, and 13, are represented
teeth of other forms from the Stonesfield slate.

In the different beds which occur between those of the
oolite and of the chalk formation, detached fragments
of fish are sometimes found ; and remains, still bearing the
form of the fish, have been found in very good preservation
in some of the Purbeck beds.

The chalk, in its several divisions, frequently manifests
that fish abounded in the waters by which it was deposited.
These remains' are chiefly the different sulcated palates, de-
tached vertebrae, and irregular masses with the scales of fishes.
But it is with great satisfaction the reader is informed,
that Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, in his forthcoming work, will
evince the zeal and assiduity with which he has pursued his
researches respecting these fossils in the chalk formation.

o o.

282

That gentleman has kindly informed us, that he has
been enabled to ascertain the presence of the following
fish in the chalk, near Lewes : and plates of the several
specimens are presented to us in his work.

!Squalus cornubicus.
mustelus.
zygena.
galeus.
Diodon, an unknown species of.
Balistes, an unknown species of.
Murcena Lewesiensis.
Anarrhicas lupus, molar teeth and jaws.
Salmo Lewesiensis.
Esox Lewesiensis.
Arnica f Lewesiensis*
Zeus Lewesiensis.

The remains of fishes are frequently found in the
London clay, in various degrees of preservation: not only
are the numerous teeth of cartilaginous fishes found here in
their various figures — triangular, conical, single pointed,
tricuspidated, tridentated, lanceolated, &c. and from more
than an inch in length to very small sizes — but others,
belonging to spinous fishes, varying considerably in their
forms and sizes, are found still affixed in their bony
sockets. The skeletons of some of these fishes still remain,
but so fixed in their hardened matrix as to be very diffi-
cultly separable.

These teeth are mostly referrible to different species of
the genus squalus ; and are spoken of, by former writers,
under the different appellations, plectronites, rostrago, &c.
The bony tongue and palates of different species of the
genus raia, particularly of raia pastinacea, are also found
completely mineralized in this formation.

Ceti. — The fossil remains of whales are less frequently
found than might be expected. Part of the long projecting
and spirally-twisted tooth of the narwhal, improperly
termed monodon monoceros, exists in a fossil state, and.

283

from its adherent matrix, appears to have been obtained
from the London clay. A tooth, apparently of some species
of this family, is imbedded in grey limestone from near Bath.

Amphibia. — Fossil bones of the lamantin (inanatus)
have been dug up on the sides of the river Layon, to the
south of the Loire, in a calcareous bed formed of fossil
shells ; they were accompanied by other bones, belonging to
phocce and cetacea. Among these were fossil bones, deter-
minately belonging to a manatus, but different from any
known species. Some of these bones were the bones of a
seal, twice and a half as large as those of the common seal,
P. vitulina.

No decided remains of the trichecus rosmarus, or walruss,
have been found ; though several fossils have been supposed
to belong to this animal.

Sauri.* — We have been taught by the instructive labours
of the illustrious Cuvier, to whom science is so much in-
debted, that not only the external characters which dis-
tinguish the several subgenera and species of existing
crocodiles, but also those characters observable in the
skeleton, by which the kind and degrees of accordance be-
tween the existing and fossil animals of this genus may be
ascertained ; and which also serve as points of comparison
between the genus crocodile and those fossil saurian remains
which demand to be placed under other genera.

Crocodile. — A saurian reptile, characterized by conical
teeth disposed in a single row ; a broad tongue not exten-
sible ; a tail flattened on its sides ; the hind feet palmated,
or semipalmated ; with scales, nearly square on the back,
belly, and tail. Besides these more general and compre-
hensive characters, the following have also been found in

, a lizard.

284

every animal of the genus which has yet been examined,
and may sometimes be traced in their fossil remains. The
feet, with five toes before and four behind ; only three of
these on each foot armed with nails ; hence, two before and
one behind are without nails. The nostrils form a long nar-
row canal, terminating in the gullet. The vertebrae of the
neck bear a species of false ribs, which, touching at their ex-
tremities, hinder the animal from turning its head entirely on
one side. The sternum, extended beyond the ribs, gives
rise also to a particular species of false ribs, which do not
articulate with the vertebrae, but terminate in the aponeurotic
expansion.

The genus is divided into the following subgenera : —

1. Alligators. — The head oblong, its length being to its
width, at the articulation of the jaws, as 3 to 2 ; the length
of the skull being more than a fourth of that of the whole
head ; the muzzle wide ; the teeth unequal in size ; and, at
the least, nineteen, and sometimes twentyrtwo in number, on
each side, below ; and, at least, nineteen, and often twenty,
above. The first of the lower pierce, at a certain age, the
upper jaw, and the fourth, which are the longest, are received
into holes in the upper jaw, in which they are hidden when
the jaw is shut. The toes are connected in only half their
length by a short membrane. The holes in the skull, behind
the eyes, in the species in which they exist, are very small.

2. Crocodiles (generally so called.) — The head oblong,
its length double its width ; the skull being less than a
quarter of the length of the whole head. The teeth unequal,
fifteen on each side below, and nineteen above ; the fourth
tooth of the lower jaw, being the longest on each side,
passes through a groove on each side of the upper jaw.
The skull has two large oval holes behind the eyes. The
hind feet are palmated.

3. Gavials. — The skull hardly a fifth of the length of the
whole head ; the jaws narrow, elongated, nearly cylindrical.

285

and a little enlarged at the end. The teeth nearly of a size,
from twenty-five to twenty-seven on each side below, and
twenty-seven or twenty-eight above ; the two first and the
two fourth of the lower jaw pass through grooves on the
outsides of the upper jaw.

The student, it is presumed, will be aided in his inquiries
respecting the fossil remains of the saurian animals in
general, by reference to the following memoranda of the
most prominent peculiarities observable in the skeleton of
the crocodile, as most usefully instanced by Cuvier in the
crocodile a losange ; observing, that the sutures and the
number of the bones of the head are the same jn every
species, although their figures may be changed in conse-
quence of the difference in the form of the head itself.

The most anterior of the bones of the head are the
intermaxillary bones, which hold the fore-teeth. At the
junction of these bones, in their upper part, is the opening
of the nostrils, and in their lower part are the incisory
holes. The maxillary bones are immediately behind
these, each extending in a long apophysis which holds
the last teeth, and is inserted between the jugal bone
and an unnamed bone situated in the sides of the palate.
The anterior parts of the palate bones are received be-
tween the maxillary bones ;, and the posterior parts,
having widened a little, are applied to the anterior part of
the internal pterygoidal apophyses which here form the
lower part of the nasal canal, and, becoming extended, form
a wide horizontal and triangular plate, at the posterior border
of which the nasal canal opens. The unnamed bones on
each side, already alluded to, join the lateral margins of this
surface, and are united obliquely to the dental apothyses of
the maxillary bone, leaving in the roof of the mouth, on
each side, a large oval opening, surrounded by the bone
already mentioned, which is considered by Cuvier as
the external pterygoidal apothysis, by the maxillary, the

286

parietal bones, and the plates of the internal pterygoidal
apothysis.

The jugal bone joins, anteriorly, the posterior apothysis
of the maxillary bone, passes under the orbit, and terminates
behind in a point which forms the outer margin of the con-
dyloidal apothysis or prominence of the skull.

The space which is commonly filled by one or two
frontal bones is, in this genus, occupied by five distinct
bones ; a middle one, between the eyes, which articulates
with the hinder part of the nasal bones, and is notched at
its sides by the orbits, and forwarder by two other bones,
supposed, by Geoffroy, to belong to the ethmoidal bone,
and which form, by vertical apothyses, part of the orbital
margin ; the two other bones, decidedly parts of the frontal,
yield apothyses which correspond to the post-orbital apo-
thyses of the frontal bone, and, with that of the jugal
bone, fill up the back part of the orbital frame, as in the
ruminants.

The lower jaw is formed by six bones. The dental, in
which are the sockets of the teeth ; these bones unite in
front, and form the anterior angle of the jaw. The oper-
cular, which covers all the inner surface of the jaw, ex-
cepting at the fore part, which is formed by the dental
alone. The coronoidal and angular, the former the upper-
most, receive in their fore part the end of the dental, leav-
ing between them a large oval opening. The angular bone
turns upwards so as to fill a space on the inner surface of the
jaw. Between this and the opercular bone is another oval,
but smaller opening ; and, beneath that, a considerable va-
cuity, as the coronoidal does not turn over on to the inside ;
the anterior point of this vacancy is bordered by a small
crescent-formed bone. The condyle is formed by one par-
ticular bone, named the articular bone. The coronoidal has
not, in the crocodile, any apothysis, as is the case in other
reptiles.

287

The teeth are of the same number at all ages, and are
never solid in the centre. They are pointed and enamelled ;
their surface is striated longitudinally, and they have a
cutting edge on the fore and back part. It appears that
they are frequently shed, since they are never found much
worn, in very old, or even in fossil animals. The renewal
of the teeth appears to be effected in this manner : the germ,
at the bottom of the socket, gradually enlarging on the
inside of the existing tooth, occasions in it a depression, and
then, penetrating and splitting its substance, causes it to be
shed. The first and the fourth teeth below, and the third
above, are the longest and thickest ; and then, in the cro-
codiles and the alligators, the eleventh below, and the eighth
and ninth above, are the next in size. In the gavials, the
rest after the fourth are nearly of the same size. The fourth
tooth below, it is observed by Cuvier, may bear the name of
the canine tooth, as it answers to the suture of the inter-
maxillary and maxillary bones of the upper jaw. The five
or six last teeth of each side are more obtuse and more com-
pressed than the others, and the crown is distinguished from
the tooth by an evident contraction ; this, however, takes
place only in the crocodiles and alligators ; it is not ob-
servable in the gavials.

The vertebrae are sixty : seven cervicals, twelve dorsals,
five lumbar, two sacral, and thirty-four caudals. All the
vertebrae have the anterior surfaces concave and the posterior
convex, and both circular : and the annular part is joined to
the body by a suture peculiar to this genus and to the tortoise.

The atlas is formed of six pieces, which are distinct,
being united only by cartilage. The axis is formed of five
pieces. The annular part is joined to the body of the ver-
tebrae by suture ; and the odontoidal apophysis is united to
the anterior surface by a cartilage.

From the other cervical vertebrae proceed those little
false ribs or processes, which, by their pressure against each

288

other, restrain the motion of the neck. The articular apo-
physes, although disposed in a position oblique to the
horizon, are parallel with the axis of the spine : the spinous
apophyses are high, narrow, and slightly inclined backwards ;
and beneath is a small spinous process bent a little forwards.

The first of the dorsal vertebrae has its spinous apophysis
inclined as in those of the cervical ; the inferior spinous
apophyses are continued only in the five or six first. The
four first have only one costal facette on the body, and one
on their transverse apophyses ; the six following have two
on their transverse apophyses ; and the two last have none.

The lumbar vertebrae differ from the dorsals in not
having any of these facettes ; and the spinous apophyses, as
in the dorsal, are straight, wide, and square.

The two sacral vertebrae are distinguished by their
strong, prismatic, transverse apophyses, for the support of
the iliac bones.

The vertebrae of the tail resemble those of the loins,
except in their bodies becoming more and more thin and
compressed ; their transverse apophyses diminish to the
fifteenth or sixteenth, and then cease ; their spinous apo-
physes become narrower and longer to the twenty-second
or twenty-third, and then again diminish, and in the latter
ones disappear entirely. Each vertebra from the second
has beneath, at its posterior edge, two facettes to carry a
branched chevron-formed bone, like an inferior spinous
apophysis.

The ribs are twelve on each side, not reckoning the ap-
pendices of the cervical vertebrae. The two first and the last
are not joined by a cartilage to the sternum. Under the
belly are five pair of cartilages without ribs, which are at-
tached to the aponeurosis of the muscles, the two last being
fixed to the sides of the pubis.

The scapula is very small for the size of the animal. Its
flat part forms a narrow isosceles triangle, and has no spine :

289

its neck becomes cylindrical, then turns inwards, becomes
spread, and presents a long surface to the clavicle ; at the
external part, forwards, is an apophysis, which, with a cor-
responding apophysis of the clavicle, forms the pit in which
the head of the humerus is received.

The clavicle agrees very closely in its form, both in its
head and body, with the scapula ; the edge of its flat part
being united to the sternum.

The humerus is curved in two directions ; the upper
part is convex forwards, the inferior concave.

The cubitus has no olecranon nor sygmoid surface : the
upper extremity articulates with the external condyle of the
humerus by an oval pit, widest on the radial side ; its body
is rather compressed transversely, and curved outwardly.
Its lower end is the smaller, is compressed transversely, and
is wider and descends a little lower on the radial side.

The radius is nearly cylindrical, and thinner and shorter
than the cubitus. Its upper extremity is oval, the lower
oblong, thinner towards the cubitus.

There are but four carpal bones ; a radial and a cubital,
the first of double the size of the other, and both contracted
in the middle ; a third, which may be considered as a pisi-
form bone ; and a fourth, lenticularly formed, placed be-
tween the cubital carpal bone and the metacarpal of the
index and middle finger.

The metacarpal bones have a general resemblance to
those of quadrupeds.

The thumb has two phalanges, the index three, the
middle and- the next four, and the little finger three. These
two last having no nail, the terminating phalanx is very
small.

The bone of the ilium is placed vertically : it is coneave
outwardly, and convex inwards.

The ischium is nearly in the form of the clavicle. It is
united to its fellow by a flat part in the form of an isosceles

pp.

290

triangle ; its neck is thick, and its head is still more so. It
has two facettes ; one rough, which joins the ilium, and a
smooth one which contributes to form the cotyloidal cavity.
From the neck there passes forwards, and a little outwards,
a flat apothysis which supports the pubis.

The pubis is a flat bone forming an isosceles triangle,
supported by a cylindrical pedicle, which articulates with
the apothysis of the neck of the ischium. The bones of the
pubis do not touch, but are carried obliquely forwards and
rather inwards, and are supported by the same aponeurosis
which retains the false abdominal ribs.

The femur is a little longer than the humerus, and is
curved in a contrary way. Its head is compressed in nearly
a horizontal direction. Its only trochanter is a bluntish
projection at about a quarter of its length from the top.
Its lower extremity is widest in its transverse direction, and
divides behind into two distinct condyles.

The tibia differs less than the cubitus does from the ge-
neral form in quadrupeds. The fibula is thin and cylin-
drical ; the head is very compressed ; the lower extremity
rather triangular.

The calcaneum does not differ from those of other qua-
drupeds, as do the other bones of the extremities. The
astragalus is of a very different figure from that which it in
general possesses. It has four surfaces : an upper one,
small and square, to receive the fibula ; an inner one, ob-
lique and elongated, for the tibia ; an external one, in the
form of a crescent, which bears against the fibularian pro-
minence of the calcaneum : all the lower part is occupied
by an irregular tumid surface, the posterior part of which
rests on the astragalian apothysis of the calcaneum, and the
remainder supports the two first metatarsals. There are three
other bones which may be reckoned among the tarsal bones.

The metatarsals are not particularly remarkable : they
are larger and more equal than the metacarpal. The num-

291

her of the phalanges are, beginning with the great toe, two,
three, four, four ; the little toe has no nail.

It is necessary to observe, that the preceding sketch is
referrible to all the species of crocodiles : even the head of
the gavial, the head which has so particular a form, has the
same bones as the others, but, to render them conformable
to the great lengthening of the muzzle, they exist in dif-
ferent proportions.

Cuvier notices a curious modification of the sphenoidal
plates which form a vault over the palate bones, making,
instead of a semicylindrical canal, a hollow of the size of a
hen's egg, which communicates with the nasal canal only by
a middling-sized opening. He has not seen it in the little
gavial ; and from having seen this part more inflated in the
old crocodiles from the Indies than in the young, he is not
sure that it may not be, as in other sinus's, the result of age.

Fossil Crocodiles, and other Saurian Animals.*

ORDER. Sauri.

Division I. — Agreeing with recent genera, but speci-
fically distinct.
Genus I. — Crocodilus.

The two species of Honfleur and Havre, f
The crocodilus prisons of Soemmering (Munich Trans-
act ions. J

* Having been favoured by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare with a
systematic arrangement of the subjects of this section, and a com-
pendious statement of their respective characters, I have introduced
this valuable communication into the text ; placing, in notes, such
collateral matter as appeared to be required.

-f The remains of crocodiles have been found in the neighbour-
hood of Honfleur and Havre, respecting which the celebrated Cuvier
has ascertained the most interesting circumstances. These bones
are stated to have been found in a bed of greyish blue calcareous

292

Species found in England: — One specimen was obtained
from the Purbeck stone (now in the possession of Mr.
Johnson, of Bristol), and another was found in Oxfordshire,
at Gibraltar, on the Cherwell, in cornbrash, (now in the
Oxford Museum.)

marl, which, from the subsequent researches of M. de la Beche,
appears to be the same with the blue clay occurring immediately
beneath the green sand in the Weald of Kent, the Isle of Wight,
&c, The under jaw is shown to be that of a crocodile by its shape ;
by the conical striated teeth, with cutting edges, placed in distinct
sockets, and with a cavity receiving the replacing tooth. The
sutures also show that the bones of the jaw are six in number
on each side, nearly agreeing in their forms with those in the gavial ;
but in these jaws the branched part is longer than the anterior
united part, and the angle made by the branches is not so open as
in the gavials. The separation of the branches extends more among
the teeth, there being in these jaws seven teeth in each branch ;
whilst, in those of the gavial, there are but two or three; and, at
the same time, the whole number is less in the fossil than in the
recent gavial, there being in the fossil but twenty-two on each side,
whilst in the gavial there are twenty-five. Nor is the oval hole
to be seen in the outer side of the branch, as in the lower jaw of the
gavial. In these jaws the anterior end finishes in a point, instead
of spreading out as in the gavial. The jaw, too, is less depressed
and more cylindrical than in the gavial ; but, in one specimen, a
greater approximation to the snout of the gavial, especially as to its
flatness, was observable, from which the existence here of two fossil
species was suspected.

This supposition appears to have been confirmed by the exami-
nation of the accompanying vertebrae. The genus to which these
belong was determined by the body and the angular part being
joined by a suture, which occurs only in crocodiles and tortoises,
whilst several other characters decidedly show that they belonged
to two different and to two unknown species.

In one specimen, containing the atlas and axis, a particular
species was evinced by the tubercle of the axis appearing to be
adapted for the articulation of two heads of a false rib, as in the
succeeding cervicals ; whilst in the existing crocodile there is
but one. Another character, still more striking, is observable here,

293

These are clearly distinct from Cuvier's first species, but
may perhaps agree with his second. Vertebrae, apparently
of that species, are found between the Kimmeridge clay and
coral rag, near Weymouth. Crocodilean vertebrae are also
mentioned as existing in the Sussex chalk, and vertebrae of
the same species with those of Honfleur are found in clay
between the green sand and the iron sand of that county.*

and in the succeeding vertebrae ; the posterior surface, which is
convex in all known crocodiles, is here concave ; the anterior surface
of the succeeding vertebrae being of a convexity adapted to the
posterior concavity of the axis. This concavity, however, appears to
diminish in some of the succeeding vertebrae, and, in some, the two
surfaces appear to have been similar, nearly flat.

The transverse apophysis arises by four ridges which form for it
a pyramidal base ; and in the place of a single inferior spinous
apophysis, as in known crocodiles, two ridges exist here, each termi-
nated by a tubercle. The bodies of this series of vertebrae are more
contracted in their middle than they are in the known crocodiles.

But in the same bed, and often mixed with these, are found the
vertebrae of the other unknown crocodile alluded to. These
vertebrae are not contracted in the middle ; their transverse apo-
physes are not formed by the union of projecting ridges ; and the
chief circumstance in which they differ from the fossil species
already mentioned, and from the recent crocodile, is, that neither
anterior nor posterior surface of their bodies is convex, but both of
them slightly concave. The sutures, and the disposition of the
apophyses, are, at the same time, such as generically distinguish
crocodiles.

* It was with peculiar satisfaction, that whilst this part of the
work was in the printer's hands, I was favoured by William Rhodes,
Esq. with some fossil bones which had been found in a pit dug in
the London clay, at the depth of eighteen feet from the surface, in
Hackney Fields. Finding these to be the remains of a crocodile, and
being aware that no such remains had hitherto been found in this
formation, I immediately repaired to the pit, with the hope of
securing the remaining parts of the skeleton ; but too late : all the
other fragments were irrecoverably lost, except a few broken
vertebrae. On perceiving the skeleton, which, I was informed, was
lying in a curved position, the workmen had rushed on it with their

294

It is uncertain whether the remains from Whitby (lias),
described in the Philosophical Transactions, are really

pickaxes and shovels, each striving to obtain a portion of the sup-
posed monster, until its demolition was accomplished.

The pieces which I obtained were two small fragments of the
upper, and one of the lower jaw, with a series of the vetebrae, and
two obscure fragments of the leg.

Fortunately, the two pieces of the upper jaw, on being placed
together, gave the formation of the snout, from the ninth tooth to
its anterior termination, and yielded a complete view of the grooves
for the lateral admission of the large fourth tooth on each side of
the lower jaw. The teeth were broken off to the margin of their
alveoli : but they thus showed, in their transverse section, their
cutting ridges, their striated surfaces, and their central cavity,
beautifully encrusted with bright pyrites. The fragment of the
lower jaw also was of its anterior termination, but of only half the
length of the two fragments of the upper jaw, and contained four
teeth on the left and two on the right side.

The form of the two conjoined pieces of the upper jaw, gradually
tapering anteriorly, but enlarging at the termination, with the
lateral grooves for the fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw,
proved decidedly that it was not the jaw of a gavial, or of the same
species with the one whose jaw was discovered at Honfleur. The
characters possessed by the jaw are those of the recent species,
crocodile a museau aigu.

The fragments of the vertebrae, though slightly mutilated,
furnish useful and interesting information. Unlike the vertebrae of
the two fossil species of Honfleur, as described by Cuvier, they
have, it appears, throughout the whole spinal column, the anterior
surface concave, and the posterior convex, and so strongly so, as fully
to equal, if not exceed, those of the recent species, in this respect.

I could procure only twelve vertebrae : of these, two were cer-
vical; one, anterior dorsal; seven, posterior dorsal and lumbar;
and two, probably anterior caudal ; but the marks for the articu-
lation of the chevron-bone were not visible. They corresponded
so very nearly with the vertebrae of the recent crocodile in every
particular, as to require no farther description than that which is
given by Cuvier of these ; his figures would also equally serve to
represent them, for they differ only in having the extremities of
their spinous and transverse processes generally broken off.

295

crocodilean.* The remains described by Stukeley, in the
Philosophical Transactions, and which were supposed by
Cuvier, from the incorrectness of the plate, to belong to
crocodile, are decidedly remains of plesiosaurus ; nor have
any crocodilean remains been found in the lias of the south-
western countries. The crocodile said to have been found
in the Derbyshire mountain lime, is asserted to have been
a distorted orthoceratite.

Genus II. — Monitor.

Some species of this genus are found in Thuringia. f

Of the uncertain fragments, one bears somewhat of the curved
outline of the humerus, but, of the other, no opinion can be proposed.

It does not appear, from what is at present known respecting
this fossil animal, that it specifically differs from the recent crocodile.

* " The bones (Mr. Conybeare says) which I have seen from
Whitby, are of the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus ; I have seen no
other."

f In the cuprous and bituminous schists of several parts of
Thuringia are found numerous impressions of fishes, and of other
animals which had been supposed to be the remains of crocodiles
and of some species of apes. This schist, which at Mansfeldt,
Eisleben, and Ilmenau, is so celebrated for the beautifully pyritical
impressions, rests upon a red sandstone, which, in many parts,
contains coal, and has over it beds of limestone containing belem-
nites, terebratulse, entrochi, and the remains of other animals of
very early creation, and of marine origin.

The remains of fishes, thus found, have been considered as
belonging to fresh-water fish ; and Cuvier observes, that the ob-
servations made by him respecting the supposed crocodilian remains
of this schist, must serve to confirm this opinion, he having ascer-
tained them to belong to some of the numerous species of animals,
comprised by Linnaeus under the term of lucerta monitor ; and of
lupinambis, by Daudin : animals which frequent marshes and the
shallow beds of rivers. Thus, as our justly celebrated teacher
instructs us, we have here fresh proofs of fresh-water animals being
covered by immense masses of the most ancient marine productions,
and showing that the sea has repeatedly covered our continents.

29(3

Division IT. — Enalio sauri*, comprising genera dif-
fering from the recent, and fitted to live entirely in
the sea.

Ichthyosaurus.^ — A marine, oviparous animal; closely
agreeing in the whole osteology of the head and sternum
with the saurian tribe, except that the bones are usually,

The fossil remains which have been thus given to their proper
animals, are — 1st, the supposed crocodile of Spence ; 2d, the sup-
posed crocodile of Link ; 3d, the sapajou of Swedenbourg ; 4th, a
skeleton in the Royal Museum of Berlin. The supposed skeleton
of a crocodile in the Cabinet of Dresden is supposed also to belong
to the monitors.

* Ev#A/0<7, marine, and £#U£0<7, a lizard.

•f Naturalists are under great obligations to Sir Edward Home
and Professor Buckland for their long continued perseverance in the
investigations respecting the nature of this fossil animal.

At the desire of Mr. Conybeare I state, that, in drawing up the
following notice, which includes an outline of the pi ogress made in
developing the structure and relations of this animal since his com-
munication to the Geological Society, he wishes to acknowledge his
obligations to the same friend to whom he has alluded in the published
memoir, as inclined to refer the ichthyosaurus rather to the lacertian
division of the sauri than to the crocodilean type. It has been his
own endeavour to expose, as fairly as possible, its relations with both.

The account above given of its dentition is now confirmed by a
suite of decisive specimens of teeth, both in, and detached from, the
jaw, containing every stage of the process. It will at once be seen,
that it differs most essentially from that of the monitor, &c. in
whose teeth a large bony secretion, supplying the place of the root,
unites them to the maxilla, with which this osseous mass is organ-
ically incorporated : the new teeth, formed in distinct alveoli, pierce
laterally, or transversely, across this osseous mass. In the ichthyo-
saurus there is no similar osseous union, but the base of the tooth,
which lies quite freely in its place, is a simple prolongation of the
conical body of the tooth, exactly as in the crocodile. The den-
tition is a point so important, that it has been necessary to dwell
upon it more at length. The illustration of these points will form
the subject of a memoir shortly to be laid before the Geological
Society.

297

as in fish, united by squamous sutures ; and approximating
to fish in some parts of the structure of its vertebral column,
and in others, being sui generis. The four extremities are
decidedly sui generis, and may be, in some respects, con-
sidered as forming a link between feet and fins : these are
called paddles.

The following are the most essential particulars respect-
ing its structure : — Dentition. The teeth are not lodged in
separate alveoli, as in mammalia and crocodiles, nor do
they adhere by a bony union to the inner side of the maxilla,
as in other saurians, but lie loosely, retained only by the
fibrous substance of the gum in a continuous furrow formed
along the maxillae ; this furrow being only slightly contracted
between the teeth. The secondary teeth, which replace the
first set, are not formed in separate alveoli in the maxilla, but
close on the inner side of the roots of the first, which are
deeply excavated to receive them ; thus they penetrate
into and grow up within the interior of the old teeth, which
they finally push or rather lift out. All the appearances in
these stages of growth are absolutely conformable to those
exhibited in the teeth of the crocodile, excepting that, in the
crocodile, the old tooth, from the size of the conical alveolus
containing it, does not admit of being pushed out without
being previously split. But after these stages a difference
takes place, for in the crocodile, the teeth always remain
hollow, a very frequent and reiterated succession of new
teeth taking place; whereas, in the ichthyosaurus, as in
monitors and other lacertce, their succession being less
frequent, the hollow becomes filled in age by the ossifica-
tion of the pulpy matter. This is the only point in which the
dentition of these 'animals agrees. "The bones of the lower
jaw nearly resemble those of the crocodile, excepting that
the temporal muscle, rather than the masseter, appears to
have been employed in raising it, whereas in most species of
crocodile the former muscle is a mere rudiment : hence the

298

coronoid process is more developed, and the great oval hole,
so characteristic of the crocodile's lower jaw, and probably
serving for attachment to the masseter, is reduced to a long
deep sinus. In these respects the ichthyosaurus resembles
the monitor and other lacertians, but differs in the general
contour of all this part and of its constitution bones, especi-
ally in the most entire concealment of the articular bone
within it, which, in these, forms all the external and poste-
rior part ; the ichthyosaurus agrees in these points with the
crocodile.

In the head the position of the nostrils is peculiar, being
behind the snout, and close in front of the orbits ; but the
posterior opening of the nasal canal into the throat is placed
far back, behind the internal pterygoid processes, which, as
in the crocodile, form a continuous plate beneath it ; conse-
quently the whole structure of the roof of the mouth
assumes an arrangement completely agreeing with the
crocodile, and entirely distinct from that of the other lacer-
tians. The bones surrounding the orbit are not very distinc-
tive, but agree rather with the crocodile than with other
lacertae ; the sclerotica, however, resembles that of the
latter class, by its division into scales.

The cavities behind the orbits, compared in the Geo-
logical Transactions to those similarly placed in the crocodile,
bear, in their extent, a greater analogy to the temporal
fossae of other lacertae, since the temporal muscle which is
attached near their edges, being in both the ichthyosaurus
and lacertians the principal mover of the lower jaw, requires
greater space, whereas, in the crocodile, it is scarcely called
into play, except in the gavial, where these fossae neces-
sarily have their dimensions much enlarged. These post-
orbital fossae of the crocodiles, however, may be considered
as the true analogues of the temporal fossae in the other
lacertae, serving the same purposes and being surrounded
by the same bones, so that the difference in this respect is

299

not material ; it arises only from the greater employment
of the temporal muscle, and cannot be compared with the
differences, in the same respect, between different species
of the crocodile, for instance between the caiman a paupieres
osseuses and the gavial.

The most striking difference, perhaps, in the whole
osteology of the head of crocodiles, and other lacertae,
is in the posterior parts of the head ; the position and mode
of connection of that division of the temporal bone which
articulates with the lower jaw, and the place of the meatus
auditorius. In these respects, the ichthyosaurus approaches
nearly to the crocodile, and recedes entirely from the other
lacertae.

The vertebrae agree with neither class of saurians, but,
by their deeply hollowed and double concave form, approx-
imate to those of fishes, closely resembling those of the
shark in their proportions : in order further to facilitate mo-
tion in every direction, the annular part has a distinct arti-
culation with the body ; a provision peculiar to this animal.

The humero-sternal parts consist, like those of the lacertse
generally, and of most oviparous animals, except fishes, of
the furcula or clavicular arch,* the scapulae, two bones re-
presenting the coracoid processes, and humeri. These last
support the paddle, consisting of many series of small po-
lygonal bones, very greatly surpassing, in number, the pha-
langes of quadrupeds, or even the analogous bones in the
fins of fish.

Species I. /. communis. — The apex of the teeth forms a
cone less acutely pointed than in the following
species. The head, figured in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1819, PL iii. belongs to it.

* The crocodile is destitute, however, of the clavicular part.

300

Sp II. /. tenuirostris. — The apex of the teeth is more elon-
gated and more acute. The head, figured in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1820, PI. xv. be-
longs to it.

Sp. III. /. platyodon. — The teeth are more flat and smooth
than in the former species. It is not yet figured.
All these species, in which the teeth form the most
obvious distinguishing mark, are found in the lias ; one
other species, at least, is found in the Kimmeridge clay,
and is sufficiently characterized by the contour of the
cervical vertebrae, but the difference would not admit of
description in an elementary work. The remains of the
ichthyosaurus are also found in the calcareous grit under the
coral rag, and in clay above the iron sand ; so that it may
be considered as common to all the beds between the red
marl and green sand, or perhaps chalk.

Plesiosaurus.* — Mr. Conybeare observes, he has nothing
to add here to the generic description given in the paper in
the Geological Transactions, except that the dentition
appears to have been as in crocodiles, and the teeth to be
placed in alveoli.f

, approximate to, and £#UfO<T, a lizard.

•f* To render the present account more perfect, it has been
thought proper to introduce, from the paper of Messrs, de la Beche
and Conybeare, the following abridged account of their obser-
vations : —

"The newly-discovered animal adds another to that family,
which, approaching closely to the lizard family, and especially to
the genus crocodile, differs from it in many important characters,
especially in the structure of the paddles, which possess an inter-
mediate structure between the feet of quadrupeds and the fins of
fishes, and approach in many respects, most nearly to the paddles
of turtles.

" This animal appears to be intermediate between the crocodile
and ichthyosaurus; but whilst the ichthyosaurus recedes from the
forms of the lizard family, and approaches those of fishes, the new

301

Species I. PI. prisons. — The cervical vertebrae in this
species are the thickest in the series. All the bones
of this genus, figured in the Geological Transactions,
belong to this species. It occurs in lias.

animal approximates, in these respects, more nearly to the crocodile :
they therefore describe plesiosaurus as a marine animal, intermediate
in its structure between the ichthyosaurus and crocodile.

" The teeth have not been decidedly ascertained ; a peculiar tooth,
however, not belonging to any species of ichthyosaurus, yet evidently
of the crocodilean type, occurs in the lias, and may, with great pro-
bability, be referred to this animal. "

I am happy in having been favoured by Mr. Conybeare, since
the publication of his paper, with the following account of the head
of this animal, which has been lately found : —

" Of the head of this animal only a single specimen approaching
to completeness has yet occurred. It was discovered by Mr. Thomas
Clarke, in the lias of Street, near Glastonbury : unfortunately, it is
much crushed, but is yet sufficiently perfect to exhibit its most es-
sential osteological characters.

" These characters when viewed collectively, present, as might
have been expected, an assemblage sui generis; taken separately,
they exhibit partial approximations to the ichthyosaurus, the crocodile t
and the lacertian family, (more strictly so called, as considered exclu-
sively of the crocodilean branch), nor is there any structure which
may not be paralleled from one of these three types : on the whole,
we should be inclined to pronounce (though not without hesitation)
the approximations to the latter class to be most close and important.

" Its general contour, the character of its temporal fossae, and
the position of its ossa quadrata, resemble the lacerta, iguana, &c. ;
but the small size of the nostrils, the conformation of the palatal
and pterygoidal parts of the roof of the mouth (as far as the speci-
men enables us to judge of them), and the dentition, remove it
from this type.

" It agrees with the ichthyosaurus in the position and small size
of the nostrils, and in the structure of the palatal and pterygoidal
parts (in which both animals approximate to the crocodilean type) ;
but it differs in the comparative shortness of its snout, which gives
an entirely dissimilar character to its whole contour, in carrying its
teeth in distinct alveoli instead of a continuous furrow, and in all

302

Sp. II. PL recentior ? — The cervical vertebrae in this spe-
cies are the thinnest in the series, and scarcely
thicker in their proportions than those of the
ichthyosaurus ; while the dorsals are of the same

these points which we have mentioned, as peculiarly resembling the
proper lacertian tribe.

" The only circumstances of peculiar analogy with the crocodile,
are the dentition (as before stated) in distinct alveoli, and the distri-
bution of the holes in the maxillary bones giving passage to the
branches of the maxillary nerve. We have already mentioned the
analogies which are common to itself and the ichthyosaurus.

" Like the ichthyosaurus, then, this animal seems, in a certain
degree, to have blended the characters of the lacertain branch of
saurians (properly so called) with those of the crocodile, and to have
been, in the same manner, distinguished from all recent saurians by
an inferior developement of the olfactory organs.

"The vertebrae agree more nearly with the crocodile than with
the ichthyosaurus ; their annular part is attached to the body by
sutures, and there are transverse processes throughout the greater
part of the dorsal vertebrae, which, together with the whole of the
annular part, very nearly resemble the corresponding forms in the
crocodilean type. They differ from them,

1. In place of being concave at one extremity and convex at the
other, thus articulating by a species of ball and socket-joint, they
are slightly concave at both extremities of their body, but again
slightly swelling in a contrasted curve near the middle of the cir-
cular area. In these features, however, Mr. Conybeare observes,
they agree with one species, at least, of those found in a fossil state
in England, France, and Germany, and all the fossil species appear
to have this structure in the posterior part of the column.

" 2. They differ from both the fossil and recent crocodiles in
their much narrower proportions ; though far less so than do those
of the ichthyosaurus.

" 3. The number of cervical and dorsal vertebrae in this animal
appears to be forty-six ; a number almost double that of any recent
saurian animal, and greater than even that of the ichthyosaurus,
which does not seem to possess above forty-one.

" 4. They farther differ from both recent and fossil crocodiles,
in having the ribs through the greater part of the dorsal series arti-

303

proportions as the former species. The annular
part of the vertebrae is also permanently distinct
from their body, articulating in a regular socket,
as in the ichthyosaurus ; and not anchylosing in the

culated only to the end of the transverse processes ; at least, twenty-
eight appear to be thus circumstanced, whereas this takes place in
the three last of the crocodile only; in the other saurian animals,
however, all the ribs are thus borne.

" Colonel Birch's specimen exhibits a series of sixty-three
vertebrae, but several appear to be missing, and it comprises only
the first twelve of the tail : there are as yet no means of surmising
even the number of caudal vertebrae. M. de la Beche has a conti-
nuous chain of eighteen middle dorsal ; and, in the late Mr. Calcott's
collection, there is another continuous series of nine, the eighth of
which carries the last short rib; this specimen seems fortunately to have
succeeded almost immediately to the former. The cervical and first
dorsal vertebrae appear to have possessed similar forms. They have
no transverse processes ; the line of suture with the annular part is
angular, and they have on either side of the body a double notch,
into which appears to have been inserted, by a double stem, a
tubercular process corresponding to the inferior tubercle in the
cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae of crocodiles, and, like it,
bearing the false ribs which protected the neck and first true ribs.

" The position of this double notch is near the bottom of the
side in the first vertebra, and gradually ascends till it almost
rises to and runs into the annular suture in the twelfth. In the
course of the succeeding four vertebrae, the upper of the two notches
runs into and extends the margin of the annular suture ; and, in
the next (the eighteenth), the lower notch becomes a distinct
tubercle ; thus two articulating surfaces are afforded, one on the
tubercle, and a second on the cavity formed by the prolongation
of the lip of the suture, of which the former must receive the head,
and the latter the tubercle of the anterior ribs. A similar structure
exists in the cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae of the ichthyosau-
rus ; and it corresponds also in some degree, at least, in the office
of these parts, with the first dorsal vertebra of the crocodile, in
which the transverse process is not yet fully developed, and remains
only a tubercle. Atlengththe lower tubercle also disappears, and is
swallowed up in a still longer prolongation of the margin of the

304

adult animal, as in PL prisons : yet the general
analogy of the bones, as far as hitherto ascertained,
seems to warrant their being regarded as a distinct
species. It has not yet been described.

annular suture ; at the same time, the stems by which the annular
part was attached to the body expand their bases laterally, so as to
form incipient transverse processes. All the vertebrae, from the first
developement of the transverse processes (twenty-seven in number),
carry the ribs on a single articulating surface at the end of that
process, like the three last dorsals in the crocodile, and the whole
series in most other saurians. The pointing upwards of the trans-
verse processes in the middle of the series seems intended to give a
wider sweep to the ribs flanking the thorax and the abdomen.

" The lumbar and caudal vertebra appear to differ in form from
one another only in a iess inflection of the lower margin, for the
purpose shortly to be mentioned ; they are, however, very distinct
from all the others ; they have no regular transverse processes, but,
instead of them, two separate bones flattened at the extremities,
and articulated into a socket near the upper part of the sides of the
bodies of the vertebrae ; their position is exactly horizontal. The
ichthyosaurus appears to have had similar bones. The lower margin
of these vertebrae on the posterior extremity is inflected so as to
form two regular indentations, exactly as in the crocodile, for the
reception of the chevron- shaped bone beneath the tail. The middle
dorsals are considerably larger than those of the extremities of the
column. There have been, as yet, no means of even surmising the
number of caudal vertebrae. "

It appears, then, that the vertebral column of the plesiosaurus
recedes from that of the ichthyosaurus in all the points in which the
latter approaches to the fishy structure ; that the intervertebral sub-
stance must have been disposed much as in the cetacea, and that on
this account, as well as because the annular parts were firmly at-
tached to the bodies, and, therefore, by the locking into one another
of their articulating processes, must have given a considerable degree
of stability to the column, it must have possessed, in a much less
perfect manner, the flexibility which facilitates the peculiar motion
of the ichthyosaurus and of fishes. But this was much less neces-
sary to these animals, inasmuch as the structure of their extremities
rendered them much more powerful instruments of progression.

305

Its geological habitat is the Kimmeridge clay
near Weymouth, and in the Headington quarries
near Oxford.
Megalosaurus**

An animal, apparently approaching the monitor in its
mode of dentition, &c. not yet described. It is found in
the calcareous slate of Stonesfield, subordinate to the upper
part of the lower or great oolitic series, including the forest
marble, &c. Drawings have been made of the most essen-
tial parts of the animal, now in the Museum at Oxford ;
and it is hoped a description may shortly be given to the
public. The animal must, in some instances, have attained
the length of forty feet, and stood eight feet high.

Mr. Conybeare states, that he has never seen the bone which he
had called, in the ichthyosaurus, the furcula or sternal arch, which
he thinks it is most probable, from the form of the scapula, must
have existed in this animal also.

The bones of the anterior extremity, the flat clavicles similar to
those of the ichthyosaurus, the scapula and humerus, were found,
though loose and detached. Two bones were also found to which
were assigned the office of radius and ulna, their articulating sur-
faces agreeing at one end with those of the humerus, and, at the
other, with those of the paddle.

The three first paddle or carpal bones have a general resemblance
to the phalanges of reptiles, but are more flattened. The series of
small bones forming the paddle was very numerous, approaching,
in this respect, to the structure of the analogous part in the ichthyo-
saurus, with a series of round bones like those which form the
external bones of the ichthyosaurian paddle.

Thus, therefore, Mr. Conybeare observes, a general similarity of
organization between this important member in the plesiosaurus and
ichthyosaurus appears to be established ; whilst, on the other hand,
a comparison with the paddles of the sea-turtle will exhibit such
fresh analogies as to indicate that, in respect of the various forms
of the animal extremities, the plesiosaurus holds, as it were, a middle
place between it and the ichthyosaurus.

-, great, and Stfl^OF, a lizard.
R r.

300

Moscesaurus. — The saurus of the Meuse, the Maestricht

animal of Cuvier.

As Cuvier has not yet given it a name, this name is
suggested by Mr. Conybeare until he has done so.

Species I. Described by Cuvier.

II. Lacerta gigantea of Soemering.

This animal is considered, by Cuvier, Soemering, and
A. Camper, as sui generis ; its head placing it irrevocably
between the monitors and the iguanas. But, as is observed
by Cuvier, how enormous is its size compared with all known
iguanas and monitors. None of these have a head longer
than five inches ; and that of this fossil animal approaches
to four feet.

Its mode of dentition distinguishes it from the croco-
dile. Its teeth have a central hollow, only whilst grow-
ing; this at length fills up, and they generally become
entirely solid, being fixed to the jaw by means of an osseous
and fibrous body, which, although they are intimately
united with it, is very different from the proper substance
of the teeth. The replacing tooth grows in its particular
alveolus, which is formed at the same time ; and, at length,
it pierces the osseous body bearing the former tooth, at its
side or across its substance ; and, as it grows, it detaches
this body by interrupting its organic connection with the
jaw, and occasions it to fall, like the horn of the stag, by a
species of necrosis, the old tooth falling with it : the new
tooth, with its osseous body, improperly called its bony root,
takes the place the old tooth has left.

In the lower jaw are fourteen teeth, nearly regular in
size, and about ten or twelve foramina, or rather holes, for
the passage of vessels, &c. The coronoid apophysis is
raised, obtuse, and wide in its anterior margin, as in the
monitors. In these, and other points, the jaws agree more
with that of the monitor than with any other saurian. But

307

the palate bones, unlike those of the monitor, were found to
be armed with teeth, a character belonging to the iguanas.
These palatine teeth, eight in number, and necessarily
small, appear to have grown, and to have been fixed, shed,
and renewed, like those in the jaw itself.

All the teeth are pyramidal, a little bowed ; their outer
surface is flat, and distinguished by two sharp ridges
from the inner surface, which is round, or rather semi-
conical.

The vertebrae, like those of the greater part of the
saurians and ophidians, have their bodies concave forwards,
and convex backwards. From the form of those, and
particularly from the great size of the chevron-bone, It
appears that the tail was, like that of the crocodile, long
and flattened on its sides, and that it acted sideways. A
distinguishing character in this animal is, that the chevron-
bones are not articulated with, but are united to, and form
one body with the vertebra. The number of the vertebrae
appears to have been one hundred and twenty-eight. The
length of the tail appears to have been ten feet ; of the
trunk, nine feet five inches ; which, with three feet nine
inches for the length of jaw, makes the whole length of the
animal about twenty-three feet. The indefatigable Cuvier
determines, from his researches, that this animal was of an
intermediate genus between the tribe of saurians with an
extensible forked tongue, like the monitors and ordinary
lizards, and those with a short tongue and a palate armed
with teeth, as in the iguanas, anolis, &c. Without doubt,
he says, it will appear strange to some naturalists to see an
animal surpassing so much, in its dimensions, the genera
to which it approaches the nearest in the natural order,
and to find its remains with marine productions, since
no saurian is now known to live in salt water ; but these
singularities, he observes, are of very little consideration in
comparison with so many others which offer themselves to

308

our observation among the numerous monuments of the
natural history of the ancient world.

The only fossil remains by which the presence of any
saurian reptile could be determined in the Montmartre
quarries, was a frontal bone of a crocodile of a small size.

Tortoise. — The carapace, or buckler of these animals,
is formed by the eight pair of ribs and the annular portions
of the nine dorsal vertebrae, which spread so as to unite,
by suture, into one piece. The plastron, or breast-plate, is
a second buckler formed by the sternum, which in tortoises
is composed, according to M. Geoffrey, of nine bones,
commencing at nine points of ossification, but not always
meeting so as to form a continuous surface.

The sea-tortoise (chelone, Brongniart), which agrees with
the soft tortoise (trionyx, Geoffroy), as respects its breast-
plate, resembles the common tortoise in another point ; the
whole circumference of the carapace is girt with bony pieces
united to each other and to the ribs. These encircling
pieces, whi'ch M. Geoffroy compares to the cartilaginous
parts of ribs, are wanting in the soft tortoises, or, at least,
always remain cartilaginous or membranous, so that the
middle part only of the carapace is supported by a bony disk.

To distinguish the genus to which any of these coverings
may belong, it is only necessary, as Cuvier teaches, to com-
bine, with the foregoing characters, such as are yielded by
their forms. These are, in the land-tortoise, always oval,
vaulted and pointed forwards ; in the sea-tortoise, elliptical
and tumid ; and more or less depressed in the fresh-water
tortoise; with a rough and shagreened surface in the soft
tortoises ; and raised in different projections in the chelydes
and the serpentine.

The feet also furnish distinguishing characters of the
subgenera of these animals: thus, they are very long, with
very unequal toes in the sea-tortoise; the toes are exceed-

309

ingly short in the land-tortoise ; moderately long, and rather
equal, in the fresh-water tortoise and the chelydes ; and, in
the soft tortoises, it is to be observed, that three only of the
toes bear talons.

The head of the chelydes is known by its flatness, and by
its transverse jaws ; that of the sea-tortoise, by the temporal
region being covered by a bony vault ; and that of the soft
tortoises, by the long and bowed fringe.

The ossification of the intervals between the ribs is per-
formed slowly; and, proceeding from the middle part to-
wards the edge, it is terminated generally later than that of
the ribs themselves.

The fossil remains of these animals are, with difficulty, refer-
rible to even the several genera into which they are divided.

It is only, of course, the hard parts of the animal which
are preserved by petrifaction : hence the bones of the toes,
losing their connecting medium, become detached, and it
will only be by their forms that any conjecture can be made
whether they were distinct, clubbed, or webbed. In all
those species, too, of the genus emys, in which the carapace
was in a soft state, some ambiguity will arise, since it will
not be always easy to determine whether the irregularity or
apparent imperfection of form has depended on the original
structure of this part, or has proceeded from violence.
Thus, the fossil remains of one of these animals, found in
the neighbourhood of Melsbroeck, near Brussels, was de-
termined, by Lacepede, to have belonged to testudo my das,
Linn.; and Camper describes the back of a fossil tortoise
which was four feet in length and only six inches in width .
the preserved part in this, and similar specimens, being the
hard and osseous part of the animal which extended along
the vertebral column, the difficulty having arisen from the
loss of the coriaceous or horny covering with which, in that
species, the remaining part of the superior covering had
been formed.

310

A fossil carapace from Melsbroeck, in the neighbour-
hood of Brussels, was supposed, by M. Faujas St. Fond, to
belong to test, mydas ; but Cuvier observes, that, in the
fossil specimen, the intervals of the ribs are completely
ossified, there being no space between their ossification and
the border, which is much wider than in its supposed
analogue ; and, on other considerations, he determines that
it is of an unknown species. This acute anatomist has
observed that M. Faujas St. Fond has erred in considering
some fossil remains of tortoises, found in St. Peter's Moun-
tain, Maestricht, as possessing specific characters derived
from their forms ; since those forms have been produced,
in one case, by their having lost a part, and, in the other,
the whole of their bony margin : and he is satisfied that
these fossils belong to sea-tortoises of unknown species.

In the mountain named Plattenberg, near Glaris, have
been found the fossil remains of tortoises, and which are
supposed, by Cuvier, to have been sea-tortoises, but respect-
ing their species he cannot form any judgment. In the
neighbourhood of Aix are found the remains and impressions
of tortoises, which, from their vaulted forms, are considered
as the remains of land-tortoises.

The fossil remains of tortoises do not appear to have
been found in any formation older than that of the lias,
unless that fossil should be excepted which Knorr states
to have been found near Glaris, the matrix of which he
describes as being a black schist.

Mr. Johnson, of Bristol, was rewarded, during a zealous
and judicious search in the lias on the borders of the Severn,
with some very interesting remains of tortoises. Their
remains have also been found in the calcareous slate of the
oolite formation at Stonesfield ; but in no place have their
remains been found much more perfect than in the London
clay in the Island of Sheppey.

The soft tortoise (trionyx^ Geoffroy) appears to have

311

furnished the fossil remains of this genus in the plaster
quarries of Montmartre. It should be remembered, that
the ribs in this subgenus do not have the spaces between
their ribs ossified in their whole length ; that their ribs do
not articulate at their outer ends with the bony margin ;
and that their surface is always shagreened or grooved
with an infinity of little irregular pits, by which the soft
skin, the only tegument with which the carapace, in this
subgenus, is covered, is rendered more adherent. The
trionyx is not known to live in any other situation Jaut in
fresh water.

There appear, besides these, to be the remains of two
species of fresh-water tortoises, emydes : and no fossil
remains of sea-tortoises have been discovered in these
quarries.

In the neighbourhood of Verona, and chiefly in the
valley of Ronca, a formation, the fossil remains of tortoises
are also found, but in fragments too small to yield any
characteristic marks of the species to which they belong.

Solipedes. — The horse: the fossil teeth of horses have
long been described by different authors ; and have some-
times been attributed to giants, hippopotami, &c. but,
although they have been found in a state of petrifaction,
and in the same caverns with the remains of tigers, rhinoce-
roses, and hyaenas, and even in the same deposits with
unknown animals, there are no anatomical differences dis-
coverable in the skeletons of the fossil animals which will
distinguish them from those which are found in alluvial
deposits, or from those of horses which are now existing.

The remains of this animal are frequently found in peat
beds, and in alluvial depositions. I do not know of any
instance of their being found imbedded in a lapideous mass.

The ox, or the buffalo, are the animals with which the
remains of the horse are most likely to be confounded ; to

312

prevent which, Cuvier has favoured us with the distinctive
characters of the several bones of both animals. But, as the
bones are, generally, exceedingly mutilated, it appears to
be sufficient here to point out the differences between the
teeth of these animals.

The teeth of the upper jaw of the horse are, like those
of the ox and buffalo, of a prismatic form, with four double
crescents, and with an additional one in the middle of the
inner margin. The lower teeth are more compressed, they
also have four crescents in the horse as in the ox ; but, in
the former, instead of being parallel, two and two, they are
alternate, the first of the inner side corresponding with the
interval between the two on the outer side.

Ruminantia or Bisulca. — The preserved remains of the
different genera of this tribe of animals are, from the general
agreement in their characters, very difficult to be distin-
guished. Horns, resembling those of the common stag, are
very frequently found in beds of alluvial formation. But they
are also found associated with the remains of elephants,
rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, in beds of a greyish calca-
reous deposition in the upper parts of the London clay in
Essex, and at Brentford, in Middlesex.

Irish Elk. — The remains of this animal were formerly
found only in the boggy soil of some parts of Ireland, and
hence it has obtained its distinctive appellation. They have,
however, within these few years, been found on the Rhone ;
near North Dreighton, in Yorkshire ; and, a few years ago,
I found some of their remains at Walton, in Essex. The
magnitude of these horns may be presumed, from the dis-
tance between the extreme tip of each horn, which is ten
feet ten inches. It is rendered certain, by a careful com-
parison, that this animal is at present unknown, and was
materially different from the reindeer or elk of these times.

313

A very perfect specimen of these horns has been found in
the Isle of Man.

Horns have been found in Scania resembling those of the
fallow deer, but one-third larger. These are supposed, by
Cuvier, to have belonged to some unknown animal.

In blocks of sandstone, in the neighbourhood of Etampes,
are found small stag's-horns of a size between the stag and
the roebuck; they are small, thin, and rather flat; and al-
though the root is nearly round, the beam immediately be-
comes flat. These are not the horns of young animals,
their epiphyses being found in union with their bones.
There is no known animal to which these bones can be
referred. Horns, resembling those of the roebuck, have
been found among the remains of lost animals in the quar-
ries of Montabusard.

Very large fossil heads of the ox kind have been found
in different parts, respecting which it has been found dif-
ficult to determine, whether they were or not similar
species with those which are now in existence.

M. Faujas was satisfied that the large fossil heads of the
ox were of two distinct species. In the first species the
cores were placed in a horizontal position, and measured,
though the animal was young, more than twelve inches and
a half in circumference, and the distance from one orbit to
the other was more than thirteen inches. The distance
from the upper extremity of the forehead to the edge of the
occipital foramen was little more than four inches and a
half; and on the forehead, between the commencement of
the two horns, is a slight protuberance of an oval form. In
the second species, the horns formed a kind of crescent
inclining downwards ; the circumference of the core of the
horns, at their base, was thirteen inches ; and from the
upper edge of the forehead to the edge of the occipital
foramen but four inches. The forehead, which was quite
flat, is to be considered, at its upper extremity, as forming

s s.

314

a line with a little convexity, rather than a protuberance.
Cuvier considers that the horns of the first species, which
Faujas attributed to a species of ox, belongs to the auroch ;
but this he does not appear to have established. The second
species is supposed, by Cuvier, to have belonged to that
wild race from which our present domesticated oxen pro-
ceeded. Pallas supposes a fossil skull, found in Siberia, to
have belonged to the common buffalo of India, or to a very
large species named amis ; but Cuvier believes it to have
belonged to a species entirely different from the buffalo, the
amis, the ox, or the aurochs. Pallas also discovered a fossil
skull of another species in Siberia, which he believed to
belong to the musk-ox of Canada, an opinion in which Cuvier
concurs.

It appears that the fossil ruminants belong to two orders
of alluvial deposits, and consequently to two different geolo-
gical epochs ; the one having been buried in an age distant
from the period in which we live, but the others at a far
more distant period : in that revolution in which the ele-
phants, rhinoceroses, mastodons, &c. inhabitants of the
torrid zone, were destroyed.

It does not appear that the teeth of boars have been
found but in modern alluvial depositions, and no ways differ-
ing from those of the recent animals.

Ossiferous breccice. — In the rock of Gibraltar, at Concud>
near Arragon, in the northern part of Corsica, in Dalmatia,
the islands of Cherso and Ossero, in several of the islets of
the Adriatic, on the northern shores of the Mediterranean,
and in many parts, several leagues distant from each other,
the solid rocks appear to have been split in different direc-
tions, but chiefly perpendicularly, and their fissures to have
been filled with fragments of calcareous rocks, and the bones
of various animals, lying in all directions, and most of them
broken : sometimes mingled with the shells of snails and

315

pieces of calcareous spar of a darkish brown colour ; and
which having been long exposed to the action of water,
have become enveloped and cemented together by stalag-
mitic depositions. Sometimes the spathose matter is colour-
less, and, at other times, of a yellowish and reddish brick
colour. The concreted masses resemble each other in their
colour and composition in most of the places in which they
are found, except in the Vencentin and Veronese, and at
Concud, where their cementing matter is of a much lighter
colour. Some of these bones have been found at fifty-seven
feet above high-water mark.

It was long believed that many of these bones were
human : of this opinion, at one time, was Abbe Fortis, and
even Mr. John Hunter ; but it is now ascertained that they
are not so, and that they belong chiefly to quadrupeds.
Cuvier believes all those which he examined to be the bones
of ruminants, hardly the size of a deer ; and from no horns
or branches being found, and from appearances yielded by
some of the bones, he is disposed to refer them to the
antelope. This friend to science found, in the breccia of
Cette, the bones of the common wild rabbit ; of another
rabbit, one-third smaller ; of a field mouse ; of a bird of the
size of the common wagtail ; and of the common adder.
At Nice and Antibes, the remains of horses and of rumi-
nating animals, of the calf and the stag, were found. In the
breccia of Corsica, bones belonging to rosores only were
found, resembling those of the rabbit, guinea-pig, or rat :
an enormous quantity of the bones of the water-rat, and,
perhaps, of the land-mouse (mus terrestris, Linn.) was also
found in this breccia. The head of an animal of the genus
lagomys, Cuv., was also found here, but which did not agree
in size or proportions with any known species. From the
accounts which he collected, as well as from his own obser-
vation, Cuvier concludes, that the phenomena respecting
these bones point them out as posterior to the last resting

316

of the sea on our continents, since there are no sea shells
mixed with them, and they are not covered by any other
beds ; that the bones, stones, and other matters, have fallen
successively into the clefts, and that the stones have pro-
ceeded from the rock itself; that the bones are of herbivor-
ous animals, and that the greatest number belong to known
animals, and even to those which still exist in those parts ;
and that the formation of these brecciae is modern, compared
with the great strata of stone, and with the alluvial strata
containing the bones of unknown animals ; but is still ancient
with respect to us, since some of them contain the bones
of unknown animals. But the phenomenon which, in the
opinion of Cuvier, is most interesting, is the facility with
which these rocks appear to have been thus divided by
clefts in which these substances have been deposited.

Pachydermata. — Elephant: fossil remains of this genus
have been found in many parts of Europe, and, indeed, in
most parts of the known world. That the East-Indian and
African elephants are specifically different is now well
known. This is most obvious in the structure of the teeth:
the plates of which the teeth are chiefly formed, are com-
posed of the bony part of the tooth, surrounded by enamel,
and held together by a connecting substance, the crusta
petrosa. In the East-Indian elephant these plates, disposed
across the tooth, are flat, and, all through of an equal thick-
ness, their sides being covered with numerous rough longi-
tudinal striae ; but, in the African, the form of the lamellae
is different, being more lozenge-formed; an angular vertical
projection on the middle of their sides, keeping these lamellae
at a greater distance from each other at their ends, and
necessarily occasioning there to be fewer plates than in the
Indian. These plates, in both species, terminate inferiorly
in digitated or rather radical processes, which appear on the
surface when the tooth is worn down low.

317

The teeth of the fossil elephants differ materially from
those of either of the recent species : their plates, in one of
the fossil species, are thinner, and, consequently, exist in
greater number than in the recent teeth. In the recent
teeth, even of the East-Indian species, there are seldom
more than ten or twelve plates brought into use at once ;
bnt, in the fossil teeth, they are frequently from eighteen to
twenty, and sometimes twenty -four, to be seen at the grind-
ing surface. Cuvier observes two other distinctive characters ;
that the lines of enamel are thinner End less crenulated in
the fossil than in the recent ; and that the width of the fossil
exceeds that of the recent in the proportion of eight to six.
It is therefore established that, at least, one species of
elephants existed in the former world, of which no analogous
animal is known in a recent state. The grinding surface of
the common fossil tooth is represented PL x. fig. 8.

Many, and some rather ludicrous, mistakes have been
made respecting the fossil remains of elephants' teeth. One
of the plates of a tooth was considered, by Kundman, as the
petrified paw of a large baboon ; the flesh, nails, and veins
having been all supposed to be discoverable in it. The plates
are connected by the unorganized crusta petrosa, which
becoming disintegrated during the inhumation of the fossil,
occasions the separation of the plates ; the digitated pro-
cesses of which, in this instance, gave rise to the mistake as
to the existence of the fingers.

An attention to this circumstance will, it is believed,
establish the existence of, at least, one more species of
fossil elephants than had been noticed by Cuvier. The exa-
mination of the teeth of both the recent species and of the
fossil species examined by Cuvier, shows that the dental
plates are entirely detached from each other, so that, on the
decomposition of the crusta petrosa, they separate ; in which
state they are frequently found. But in three different spe-
cimens which I possess, instead of the plates of enamel,

318

enclosing the bony part, being carried straight across the
tooth, they are continued in daedalean lines. One double
deeply undulating line of enamel forming the sides of one
wide and deeply indented compages of osseous matter ; filling
the space, which, in the teeth of the other species, would be
occupied by four or five plates. — PL x. fig. 9.

The specific difference in these teeth will evidently ap-
pear, when it is considered that the undulating forms of the
plates must be accompanied by a very different arrangement
of the bony substance and enamel with respect to the crusta
petrosa ; and entirely prevent the separation into flat plates,
as in the teeth of the other fossil elephants.

In another fossil tooth, I believe from Warwickshire, the
characters of another species appear. The sides of the lines
of enamel are smoother than in any of the other fossil teeth,
and the digitated parts of the plates reach to the surface
even in the anterior part of the tooth. But the most cha-
racteristic difference exists in the greater thickness and in
the less number of the plates of this species.

The thickness of the plates may be taken at nearly
double that of the plates of fossil teeth in general ; and their
number must be proportionally fewer. In a fossil tooth
from Essex, of the length of eight inches and a half, are
twenty-two plates (PI. x. fig. 8) ; whilst in this tooth, which
is eight inches long, there are only thirteen plates, nine only
of which are seen on the triturating surface, which is of the
length of six inches, (PI. x. fig. 10.) But it is not merely
from the structure of the teeth that specific differences are
inferred between the recent and the fossil elephants ; Cuvier
having ascertained some determinate differences between
the skulls of the recent and the fossil species. He supposes
that the fossil remains are of a species differing more
widely from the Asiatic elephant (to which it ap-
proaches nearer than to the African), than the horse does
from the ass.

319

No peculiarity of character is discoverable in the tusks
of the fossil elephant.

Elephantine remains are generally found in the looser
and more superficial parts of the earth, in various parts of
the world. They have been found, as has been already
mentioned, in some of the caverns containing animal re-
mains, and frequently in thin grey-coloured beds on the
surface of the London clay.

Rhinoceros. — There appear to be three existing species
of rhinoceroses : — 1. That of India : a unicorn with a rugous
coat ; with incisors, separated, by a space, from the grinders.
— 2. That of the Cape : a bicorn ; the skin without rugae,
and no incisors. — 3. That of Sumatra : a bicorn ; the skin
but slightly rugous, thus resembling that of the Cape ; but
having incisive teeth, like that of India. In every adult
rhinoceros there are twenty-eight grinders ; seven on each
side at the top and bottom. In the lower jaw are two large
incisors, placed at the anterior angle ; and between these
are two very small incisive teeth, which remain concealed
within the gums. There are also two large incisors in the
upper jaw ; and Cuvier has discovered, that there are also
two very small incisors, which are disposed contrary to those
of the lower jaw, on the outside of the large incisors.

The fossil remains of the rhinoceros have generally been
found in similar situations to those in which the elephantine
remains are met with ; in Germany, at Darmstadt, Gruben-
hagen, on the banks of the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of
Cologne, in Westphalia, and in various parts of France.
The fossil remains of this animal have also been found in
several parts of this island ; in Warwickshire, Gloucester-
shire, Essex, and Middlesex.

We are indebted to Cuvier for ascertaining, by various
comparisons of the fossil remains with the skeleton and with
the living animal, that the animal whose fossil remains have

320

been discovered differed materially from the rhinoceroses of
the present day. The head of the fossil species is not only
absolutely much larger than the living species, but it is
much larger in proportion to the height of the limbs. The
following circumstances, with others less striking, parti-
cularized by Cuvier, manifest that the differences between
the recent and fossil animals must have been considerable.
The occipital surface, which, in the recent skull, is nearly
perpendicular, and, in the unicorn, even inclines forwards,
extends backwards in all the fossil skulls. The meatus
auditorius has its axis vertical in the living species, but
is oblique in the fossil species. The fossil species has two
horns, but the skull is not shaped like the bicorn of Africa :
there is a considerable space between the bases of the two
horns in the fossil species, whilst, in the rhinoceros of
Africa and of Sumatra, the bases touch. The form of the
bones of the nose, and their junction with the incisor bones,
differ not only from the other rhinoceroses, but from all
other known animals. The point of the nasal bones instead
of terminating in a distinct projection, at a certain distance
above the incisive, descends, without becoming thinner, be-
fore the nasal notches ; and after being separated in three
projecting tubercles, becomes united by a portion, which is
a little thinner, to the incisive bones, where they form of
themselves two other tubercles. All these four bones be-
come so consolidated together, that the sutures by which
they were connected, as well as that which distinguished
the intermaxillary from the maxillary bones, are not percep-
tible at only a moderately advanced age. This structure, it
is observed by Cuvier, so solid, was doubtlessly intended for
the support of the horn, and gives us reason for supposing
that it was more strong, and could be applied with more
power in this species than in any of those which now exist.
As to the incisive teeth, Cuvier thinks, that the fossil
animal had them not, at least, in the upper jaw ; and, if in

321

the lower jaw, they differed in size, and probably in form,
from those of the living species.

The head of the rhinoceros brought to this country by
Mr. Campbell, differing in the form and size of its horn from
the common African rhinoceros, renders it desirable that it
should be ascertained how far it agrees in character with
the head of the fossil rhinoceros. The head of the fossil
animal, as is shown above, differs from the bicorn of Africa,
in having a considerable space between the bases of the two
horns ; and Mr. Campbell, with a due attention to correct-
ness, states, " The common African rhinoceros has a
crooked horn resembling a cock's spur, which rises about
nine or ten inches above the nose, and inclines backward ;
immediately behind this is a short thick horn ; but the head
they brought had a straight horn projecting three feet from
the forehead, and about ten inches from the tip of the nose.
The projection of this great horn very much resembles that
of the fanciful unicorn in the British arms. It has a small
thick horny substance eight inches long, immediately behind
i^ which can hardly be observed on the animal at the
distance of one hundred yards."

It appears, therefore, that the newly discovered head
of the African bicorn agrees with the common African
bicorn, and differs from the fossil species in not having the
space between the horns.*

Pallas found many of these fossil remains in Siberia,
and, particularly a complete rhinoceros, still covered by its
skin, and buried in the sand on the borders of the river
Wiluji. Hence Cuvier infers, that this unknown animal
had not been brought from afar, nor had ceased to exist by
any slow, but by some sudden, change of the earth. How

* Travels in South Africa, undertaken at the request of the
London Missionary Society, being a Narrative of a Second Journey
in the Interior of that Country. By the Rev. John Campbell.

T t.

322

could the animal found by Pallas, he asks, have come there
from the Indies, or from any other warm country, without
falling to pieces ? How could it have been preserved, if the
ice had not involved it suddenly ; and therefore how could
it have been involved in this manner, if the change of
climate had been gradual and insensible ?

Hippopotamus. — The existence of fossil remains of this
animal was for some time disputed ; but the fact was ascer-
tained by Cuvier, by the examination of some fossil remains
from Languedoc. Since that time similar remains have
been found in various parts, and, particularly, in this island,
in those situations in which the remains of elephants have
also been discovered. They were found by Mr. Trimmer
in the clay at Brentford, and I have obtained several inter-
esting specimens during my researches on the Essex coast.
But the most important discovery respecting this animal
was made by Cuvier, in the examination of some fossil
remains, the locality of which could not be ascertained.
By a careful investigation he was able to ascertain that they
were the bones of an unknown species of hippopotamus.
This animal, it appeared, could not have exceeded half the
size of the existing species ; it being evident, from the state
of its teeth and the advanced progress of ossification, that
its small size had not proceeded from its having been a
young animal, but from a difference of species.

Tapir. — The only known species of this genus is an
inhabitant of South America. It is formed like the hog,
but is as tall as the ass, with its snout elongated into a
moveable trunk. It has, in each jaw, six incisors and two
canine teeth which are not longer than the incisors. Its
skin is black, and almost without hair. It lives on the banks
of rivers.

Two portions of the lower jaws which had been dis-
covered in the black mountain, at Issel, in Languedoc,
were found, by Cuvier, to agree generally with the tapir of

323

South America. The differences were, that, in the tapir of
South America, all the molares have their crown divided
into two transverse risings, of an equal width ; but, in the
fossil animal, the three first molares, instead of transverse
risings, have a kind of points or pyramids, the foremost
of which is larger than that which is behind it. The
anterior part of the muzzle is more narrow and long iu
the common tapir than in the fossil animal. In the tapir,
also, the first molar is longer than any of the four or five fol-
lowing ones ; but, in the fossil jaw, this is the shortest.
M. Cuvier named this animal, the small fossil tapir.

A molar tooth was found in the neighbourhood of
Vienna, and which appeared to have belonged to some
large animal, supposed to resemble the tapir. Another
specimen was found near St. Lary, in Couserans ; and
similar teeth are said to have been also found in Italy.
But the most illustrative specimens were two halves of a
jaw, with five molar teeth in each, found at Comminge, by
the side of Breine.

The teeth of the recent tapir are divided by five trans-
verse risings. Similar risings on the crown are observable
in the teeth of the lamantin (trichecus manatusj, and in
those of the kangaroo. Such an agreement was discoverable,
by Cuvier, in the teeth and in other circumstances between
the tapir and the fossil animal, as induced him to consider
these fossil remains as having belonged to a large animal,
approximating to the known tapir, but which, he supposed,
must have been one-fourth taller than the rhinoceros ; this
animal he calls, the large fossil tapir.

Mastodon. — The fossil remains of this enormous animal
were first discovered in Albany, in New England, rather
more than one hundred years since ; it being then described
as a prodigious unknown animal, having the tusks of the
elephant, with the grinders of the hippopotamus.

324

From a careful investigation of its remains, Cuvier thinks
that we have a right to conclude that the mastodon did not
exceed the elephant in height, but was rather longer in pro-
portion ; its limbs rather thicker, and its belly smaller. It
appears to have had a trunk, and to have agreed with the
elephant in having tusks, and in the whole of its osteology,
excepting in its teeth, which differ so much in every respect
from those of the elephant, as to forbid its being placed in
the same genus.

The teeth are formed of an internal bony substance, with
a thick cap of enamel. The crown is oblong, nearly rectan-
gular, and divided by widely-spreading grooves intersected
by another in a longitudinal direction, into two rows of large
pyramidal points, over which the enamel is thickly disposed.
The roots of the teeth are inserted into distinct and sepa-
rate cavities in the mass of bone forming the jaws.

From the points and depressions of the teeth fitting into
each other like the teeth of two saws, they must have been,
Mr. Peale observes, incapable of lateral motion, and, conse-
quently, of trituration ; he therefore inferred, that it must
have been a carnivorous animal : but, in the opinion of
Cuvier, its food must have been similar to that of the hip-
popotamus and boar; preferring, perhaps, the roots and
fleshy parts of vegetables.

According to Mr. Peale, there are but six vertebrae of
the neck ; nineteen dorsal vertebras, and as many ribs, were
found, and one was supposed to be lost ; three vertebrae re-
mained, belonging to the loins.

The vertebrae agree, in general, with those of the ele-
phant ; but the ribs differ, in being thin towards the cartilage,
and thick and strong towards the back. The scapula ap-
pears to possess the characters of the scapula of the elephant.
The larger bones of the fore extremity are much thicker
than those of the hind extremity. The enormous mass of
the os femoris, and particularly its width, exceeds that of

325

the existing as well as of the fossil elephant. The bones of
the hind feet are remarkably smaller than those of the fore
feet : it seems that the ungual phalanges had more motion
than they have in the elephant, and approached nearer to
those of the hippopotamus.

Other teeth of this animal have been found in several
other parts of the world. In the neighbourhood of Dax and
of Orleans ; in Piedmont, in different parts of Lombardy ;
at Peru; the field of giants, near Santa Fe, in Terra Firma ;
and in the province of Chiquilos, in Paraguay.

From the investigations made by Cuvier, he considers
that there are five species of this genus: — 1. The mastodon
of the Ohio. — 2. The mastodon with narrow teeth, found
at Simorre. — 3. The small mastodon, that with small teeth.
— 4. The mastodon of the Cordilleras ; the large animal with
square teeth. — 5. The mastodon of De Humboldt, which is
the smallest.

He was also able to determine, that, in an upper jaw of
the second species, there had been three teeth ; the foremost
having four points, and one at the hinder part ; the middle-
most, six pair of points and two supplementary behind ; and
the hindmost, five pair of points, and one supplementary
and undivided.

A tooth of the mastodon of the Cordilleras was found,
by De Humboldt, at the height of twelve hundred toises,
near to the volcano of Imbaburra, in the kingdom of Quito.

In the cliffs at Harwich are found fragments of bones ;
flat, seldom more than three inches wide and twelve inches
long ; their surfaces smoothed, as if by attrition ; highly
ferruginous, and yielding a sharp sound when struck upon.
From the uniformly flat shape of the fragments, nothing
can be inferred from them respecting the animal to which
they belonged.

Within these few' years, a tooth, with a ferruginous im-
pregnation, was found on the beach at Harwich. This tooth

326

had suffered much from bowldering, but still bore sufficient
of its original form to give strong proof of its having be-
longed to this animal.

The success attendant on the labours of Cuvier whilst
determining the generic characters of fossil bones ; the
distinguishing of the bones of the fossil elephant from those
of the rhinoceros, or those of the bear from those of the
hyaena, was not more than might have been expected.
But to detect in fragments of fossil bones such differences
as should determine with what recent species the fossil
species agreed, and in what respects they differed from all
known species, appeared to be a result beyond hope. His
exertions and successes, however, did not stop here : from
the discovery of a few detached bones in the plaster of
Paris beds, he was led to suspect the existence of the
remains of some animals of even different genera from any
which were known in a living state : his researches were
therefore continued with his usual perseverance, and ter-
minated in the discovery of seven or eight different species
of two entirely unknown genera.

He ascertained that the grinders of these animals were
those of the herbivorous pachydermata ; those of the upper
jaw possessing a crown formed of two or three simple
crescents ; unlike those of the ruminants, in which the
crescents are double, and have each four lines of enamel.
These grinders he found, by a careful examination, were
decidedly of different characters, and belonged to two dif-
ferent genera, one of which possessed canine teeth, the
other not. To the former he gave the name palceotherium,
or ancient large animal or beast ; and, to the other, ano-
plotherium, or beast without weapons, thereby implying its
distinguishing character, its want of canine teeth.

PalccotheriuHi., or large ancient annual. — This animal, he
ascertained, had seven grinders on each side of the lower

327

jaw, the first being small, compressed, and rather sharp.
Before the first small grinder, the jaw is void of teeth or
sockets for a little space, and at the end of this space is the
canine tooth. This tooth is not a tusk projecting out of the
mouth, as in many species of hogs ; it is rather concealed by
the lips, as in the tapir, hippopotamus, and Mexican hog.
The incisive teeth are of the common wedge-like form, and
are six in number, as in the tapir. In the upper jaw are
also six incisors, two canine teeth, and the grinders, having
four roots, whilst those of the under jaw have only two.
By the most ingenious investigations it was ascertained, that
this animal possessed a kind of snout or trunk, resembling
that of the tapir.

Correspondent bones were found of different sizes, by a
careful and anxious comparison of which, the indefatigable
inquirer ascertained that there existed in these quarries the
remains of four species of this animal : one of which, of the
size of a common cow or small horse, he named palccoiherium
magnum ; the next in size, nearly as large as a common hog,
he named P. medium. From several other bones, remark-
able for their thickness, he determined on the existence of
another species, which he distinguished as P. crassum ; and,
from several fragments, he was enabled to determine that
there also existed the remains of an animal of this genus,
which could not be larger than a fox, to which he gave the
name of P. minus.

By numerous accurate inquiries it was also ascertained
that the feet of this animal were tridactyle ; that the neck
was longer than that of the tapir and hog, approaching those
ruminants with a neck of a moderate size and with a slight
form, such as the stags and the antelopes ; and that the
ribs were sixteen in number.

Imperfect remains of another animal were found, by
Professor Herman, in the mountain of St. Sebastian, one of
the lowest in the chain of Vosges. In this animal, as in the

328

palceotherium, were both incisors and canine teeth, but it
had one molar tooth less, and no space between the first
molar and the canine tooth. The other characters leave no
doubt that this animal approached to the palceotherium.

The anoplotherium was traced from several grinding
teeth having been found which appeared to belong to an
animal which had no canine teeth : it indeed appeared, that
in the lower jaw of this animal there had been fourteen
grinding and six incisive teeth, without any canine tooth or
intervening space. The teeth of the upper jaw appear to
correspond with those of the lower jaw; there not being
any canine tooth, or any space between the incisors and the
grinders.

Besides other particularities of structure, it was found
that, in this animal, the hind leg had two perfect toes arti-
culated with two metatarsal bones, which remained distinct
and separate through life : a structure unknown among
living animals.

The most common species of this animal, An. commune,
appears to have rather exceeded, in its size, the wild boar.
The foot of A. medium was of a size which would have
agreed with that of a sheep of a middling size. A. minus,
reckoning from the size of its foot, was about the size of
the hare.

After the examinations of various specimens of separate
bones, during eight years, two skeletons were fortunately
obtained which were nearly complete. The first was of an
animal of nearly the size of a small horse. The ribs were
found to be twelve, and the tail was ascertained to be of
vast magnitude, being formed of, at least, twenty-two
vertebrae ; and equalling, if not surpassing, the body in
length : there were reasons also for supposing that the thick-
ness of the tail must have been as enormous as its length.

Half the jaw of a small carnivorous animal of the genus
canis, of an unknown species, was also found in these

329

quarries, and the astragalus of some carnivorous animal, one-
third smaller. Remains of tortoises and lacertce. were also
found here ; but, of the latter, only one or two specimens.

Agreeable to the important remarks of Cuvier, we find
that, in the country in which these quarries exist, so exten-
sive as to reach twenty leagues from east to west, hardly
any bones have been found but of one family, the pachyder-
mata. He is hence led to remark, that the present state of
large islands, as New Holland in particular, may teach us
what may have been that of the country which was inhabited
by the fossil animals of these quarries. In these quarries
one carnivorous animal only has been found, and eight
species of pachydermata. In New Holland five-sixths of the
quadrupeds also belong to one family, pedimanes, or marsu-
pial quadrupeds ; whilst the countries forming the two great
continents are inhabited by all the families of quadrupeds,
according to climate, nature of soil, &c.

In the loose soil of vallies and large plains, he observes,
are found the bones of eleven species, differing from the
known species of the order pachydermata : a rhinoceros,
two hippopotamuses, two tapirs, an elephant, and five
mastodons, the latter being of a genus distinct and unknown,
and the former, though belonging to known genera, differing
from all known species. These bones he considers as having
been enveloped by the last, or one of the last, catastrophes
of this globe ; and being frequently covered with remains
of marine animals, but not with regular beds of conchiferous
stone, he concludes this catastrophe to have been a great
but transient inundation of the sea. Before this catastrophe
these animals lived, he therefore supposes, in the climates
in which we now dig up their bones,

Lophiodon. — This genus, nearly allied to the tapir, has
been lately added by Cuvier to his former important disco-
veries. Its remains are only known as fossils. It is cha-
ir u.

330

racterized by, and derives its name from, the peculiar emi-
nences existing on the teeth. Twelve species have been
ascertained : one of which, the largest, is of gigantic di-
mensions. They are all found in what is considered as a
fresh-water formation; similar to that which contains the
remains of the palaeotherium and anoplotherium. These
remains have hitherto been met with only in France and
Germany.

Elasmotherium, — Only one species of this fossil genus
has been found, and that in Siberia. It appears from the few
fragments which have been deposited in the Museum at
Moscow, and which have been described by Fischer, to have
approximated in its size, and many of its characters, to the
rhinoceros, and is supposed to have belonged to a tribe inter-
mediate between that animal and the horse.

Tardigradi. — The megatherium of Paraguay, and the
megalonyx of Virginia, are among the lost animals of a former
world, for a just knowledge of the nature of which we are
indebted to our illustrious teacher, Cuvier, who has ascer-
tained that they are two species of the same genus belong-
ing to the family of edentata, and may be placed between the
sloths and the ant-eaters, but nearer to the former than to
the latter. The wonderful anatomy of the sloths, displaying
such deviations from that beautiful adaptation of parts to the
offices which they are to perform, and producing the per-
sonification, as it were, of wretchedness, manifests such pe-
culiarities of structure as can hardly fail to be recognised in
any tolerably preserved remains. The arm and fore arm
together are nearly twice as long as the leg and thigh, so
that, when the animal would walk on all four, it is
obliged to trail along on its elbows ; the pelvis is so wide,
and the cotyloid cavities turned so backwards, that it is
obliged to keep the thighs wide asunder. The construction

331

of the articulation of the hind feet appears as if it was in-
tended to prevent the animal from having any power of using
them. Instead of the articulation with the astragalus, al-
lowing the foot to bend on the leg, the fibula is inserted,
like a pivot, in a conical pit on the top of the astragalus, the
foot turning round like a vane on its staff; and the foot is so
placed that the sole cannot be put to the ground but by
stretching out the leg in almost a horizontal direction.

The toes of the animal are inclosed quite to the nails in
a stiff skin, which will allow only of their being bent and
straightened altogether ; and to add to its difficulty of motion,
several bones, which in other animals are always distinct, are
here joined tqgether. The nails, which are of an enormous
length, are bent, when the animal does not use them, under
the foot, with their convex side towards the ground.

In the western part of Virginia is a limestone, abounding
with large caverns, in digging the floor of one of which, a
fragment of a femur, the two condyles being nearly entire,
a radius, an ulna, three claws, and half a dozen other bones
of the feet, were discovered ; one of the claws being seven
inches and a half long. To the animal to which these bones
belonged the name was given of megalonyx, from the size of
its claws.

Cuvier, on examining the casts of these bones, was ena-
bled to determine that they were the remains of an animal
of a species of sloth (bradypus) hitherto unknown. The
bones of the fore arm are about a sixth longer than those of
a common ox ; and on the supposition that the other parts
were in the same proportion, the animal must have equalled,
in size, the largest oxen of Switzerland or Hungary.

About the same time that the above remains of the
megalonyx were found in North America, several extraor-
dinary and unknown bones were found in the banks of the
river Luxan, about three leagues west of Buenos Ayres.
Bones of a similar animal were also found at Lima and at

332

Paraguay. The bones found at Luxan were sent to Madrid,
and, being carefully connected, formed a skeleton, which is
preserved in the Royal Museum.

From a general view of the skeleton some well-founded
conjectures may be formed of the animal itself. Cuvier in-
structs us, that his teeth prove he lived on vegetables ; and
his fore feet, robust, and armed with sharp claws, point out
that roots were the chief objects of his search. His claws
supplied him with arms sufficient for his defence. His pro-
gress was not swift, nor was it requisite that it should be,
since he was not under the necessity of flying or of pursuing.
Cuvier adds, If he still exists, where can he be ? or can he
have escaped from all the researches of naturalists and
huntsmen ? The bones of the megatherium are one-third
larger than those of the megalonyx.

Gnawers. — In different peat mosses, and in other situ-
ations in which their remains might be expected to be found,
the remains of beavers have been discovered, though not
very frequently. Their teeth are known by the enamel of
their crown, in those of the upper jaw, being so disposed as
to form a line with three turns inwards, on the outer border,
and on the inner side a single one ; and by the arrangement
of the enamel, in the teeth of the under jaw, being exactly
reversed. But in none of the heads, which have been thus
found, have any characters been observed different from
those of the existing animals.

In the beds of calcareous and marly schists of Oeningen,
&c. were found the remains of one of this class of animals,
which Cuvier believes to have belonged to a species of cavia*
Another was also found, in a similar situation, at Walsch, in
Bohemia, resembling mus terrestris.

Fossil Bones in Caverns. — The phenomena which are
here offered to our observation differ essentially from those

333

which we have just viewed. Here the bones are almost all
of carnivorous animals, either lying loosely at the bottom of
caverns covered with animal earth, or encased in stalagmitic
concretions. Many of these caverns have been mentioned
by different authors, as existing in several parts of Germany.
Leibnitz describes Bauman's Cave, near Blankenbourg ;
Einhornshoele, in Scharzfeld, is described by M. de Luc;
and several, in the chain of the Hartz, are particularized by
Behrens, in his hercynia curiosa. They exist, indeed, in
many parts of Germany.

The most remarkable are the caverns of Gaylenreuth
near Bayreuth. The opening to these is at the foot of a
rock of limestone (oolite ?), passing into a grotto about three
hundred feet in circumference, which is divided by the form
of the roof into four caves. Fragments of bones are still
found in these caves, and, it is said, were once as numerous
as in the interior of the grottos. The second grotto was
found to be sixty feet long, about forty feet wide, and beauti-
fully set with stalactites ; the floor being so covered with a
sparry crust, as to prevent any search there for bones. On
passing through a hole three feet high, an entrance was
gained into the third grotto, about thirty feet across and
nearly round, the sides being fantastically adorned by its
stalactitical hangings, and its floor covered with a wet and
slippery glazing, through which several bones, jaws, and
teeth projected. Hence a descent of about twenty feet led
to the inferior caverns, where M. Esper, the narrator,
expected to be left to augment the number of zoolites con-
tained in these terrific mansions. The rock itself was here
thickly beset with teeth and bones, and the floor covered
with a loose earth, the result of animal decomposition, which
also contained numerous bones. A gradual descent led to
another grotto, which, with its passage, was forty feet in
length. Twenty feet further was a terrible gulph, at the
bottom of which was another grotto about the same size as

334

the last, and also covered with animal earth and numerous
bones. Several intricate passages and five other caves ter-
minated in a grotto above forty feet long and wide. Here
the prodigious quantity of animal earth, the vast number of
teeth, jaws, and other bones, and the heavy grouping of the
stalactites, produced so dismal an appearance, as to lead
Esper to speak of it as " a model for a temple for a god of
the dead."*

The bones which have been discovered in similar caverns,
over an extent of more than two hundred leagues, are al-
most all found in the same state, and under the same circum-
stances, and appear to belong to similar animals. Rosen-
muller and Camper were satisfied that these bones were
chiefly of the bear : and Blumenbach was able to distinguish
two species ; one, with a raised forehead, only known in
these situations, which he named ursus spelceus ; and
another, which he considered, with Camper, as the white or
polar bear, ursus arctoideus. Cuvier also examined these
remains, and was of opinion that they were those of two
species hitherto unknown among the living species.

The following is an abridged account, from The Annals
of Philosophy, March 1822, of Professor Buckland's interest-
ing paper, read before the Royal Society, on an English
cavern, resembling, in its contents, those which have been
just mentioned: —

This paper gives a detailed account of a den of hyaenas
discovered in the summer of 1821, at Kirkdale, near Kirby
Moorside, in Yorkshire, about twenty-five miles north-east
of York.

* Description des Zeolites nouvellement decouvertes d'Animaux,
Quadrupedes, inconnue, et des Cavernes qui les renferment, par J. F.
Esper, 1774.

335

" The den is a natural fissure, or cavern, in oolitic lime-
stone, extending three hundred feet into the body of the
solid rock, and varying from two to five feet in height and
breadth. Its mouth was closed with rubbish, and overgrown
with grass and bushes, and was accidentally intersected by
the working of a stone quarry. It is on the slope of a hill,
about one hundred feet above the level of a small river,
which, during great part of the year, is engulphed. The
bottom of the cavern is nearly horizontal, and is entirely
covered, to the depth of about a foot, with a sediment of
mud deposited by the diluvian waters. The surface of this
mud was, in some parts, entirely covered with a crust of
stalagmite ; but on the greater part of it there was no sta-
lagmite. At the bottom of this mud, the floor of the cave
was covered from one end to the other with teeth and frag-
ments of bone of the following animals : — hyaena, elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, two or three species of
deer, bear, fox, water-rat, and birds.

" The bones are for the most part broken, and gnawed to
pieces, and the teeth lie loose among the fragments of the
bones ; a very few teeth remain still fixed in broken frag-
ments of the jaws. The hyaena bones are broken to pieces
as much as those of the other animals. No bone or tooth
has been rolled, or in the least acted upon by water, nor are
there any pebbles mixed with them. The bones are not at
all mineralized, and retain nearly the whole of their animal
gelatin, and owe their high state of preservation to the mud
in which they have been imbedded. The teeth of hyaenas
are most abundant ; and of these, the greater part are worn
down almost to the stumps, as if by the operation of gnawing
bones. Some of the bones have marks of the teeth on them ;
and portions of the fecal matter of the hyaenas are found
also in the den. These have been analyzed by Dr. Wollaston,
and found to be composed of the same ingredients as the
album grcecum, or white faeces of dogs that are fed on bones,

336

viz. carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and triple phos-
phate of ammonia and magnesia ; and, on being shown to
the keeper of the beasts at Exeter Change, was immedi-
ately recognized by him as the dung of the hyaena. The
new and curious fact of the preservation of this substance is
explained by its affinity to bone.

" The animals found in the cave agree in species with
those that occur in the diluvian gravel of England, and of
great part of the northern hemisphere : four of them, the
hyaena, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, belong to
species that are now extinct, and to genera that live exclu-
sively in warm climates, and which are found associated
together only in the southern portions of Africa, near the
Cape. It is certain, from the evidence afforded by the
interior of the den (which is of the same kind with that
afforded by the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii), that
all these animals lived and died in Yorkshire, in the period
immediately preceding the deluge ; and a similar conclusion
may be drawn with respect to England generally, and to
those other extensive regions of the northern hemisphere,
where the diluvian gravel contains the remains of similar
species of animals. The extinct fossil hyaena most nearly
resembles that species which now inhabits the Cape, whose
teeth are adapted beyond those of any other animal to the
purpose of cracking bones, and whose habit is to carry
home parts of its prey to devour them in the caves of rocks
which it inhabits. This analogy explains the accumulation
of the bones in the den at Kirkdale. They were carried in
for food by the hyaenas ; the smaller animals, perhaps, entire ;
the larger ones piecemeal ; for by no other means could the
bones of such large animals as the elephant and rhinoceros
have arrived at the inmost recesses of so small a hole, unless
rolled thither by water ; in which case, the angles would
have been worn off by attrition, but they are not.

"Judging from the proportions of the remains now found

337

in the den, the ordinary food of the hyaenas seems to have
been oxen, deers, and water-rats ; the bones of the larger
animals are more rare ; and the fact of the bones of the hy-
aenas being broken up equally with the rest, added to the
known preference they have for putrid flesh and bones,
renders it probable that they devoured the dead carcases of
their own species. Some of the bones and teeth appear to
have undergone various stages of decay by lying at the
bottom of the den while it was inhabited, but little or none
since the introduction of the diluvian sediment in which they
have been imbedded. The circumstances of the cave and
its contents are altogether inconsistent with the hypothesis
of all the various animals of such dissimilar habits having
entered it spontaneously, or having fallen in, or been drifted
in by water, or with any other than that of their having
been dragged in, either entire or piecemeal, by the beasts
of prey whose den it was.

" Five examples are adduced of bones of the same
animals discovered in similar caverns in other parts of this
country, viz. at Crawley Rocks near Swansea, in the
Mendip Hills at Clifton, at Wirksworth in Derbyshire, and
at Oreston near Plymouth. In some of these, there is
evidence of the bones having been introduced by beasts of
prey ; but in that of Hutton Hill, in the Mendips, which
contains rolled pebbles, it is probable they were washed in.
In the case of open fissures, some may have fallen in.

" A comparison is then instituted between these caverns
in England, and those of Germany described by Rosen-
muller, Esper and Leibnitz, as extending over a tract of
two hundred leagues, and containing analogous deposits of
the bones of two extinct species of bear, and the same
extinct species of hyaena that occurs at Kirkdale.

" In the German caves, the bones are in nearly the same
state of preservation as in the English, and are not in entire
skeletons, but dispersed as in a charnel house. They are

x x.

338

scattered all over the caves, sometimes loose, sometimes
adhering together by stalagmite, and forming beds of many
feet in thickness. They are of all parts of the body, and of
animals of all ages ; but are never rolled. With them is
found a quantity of black earth derived from the decay of
animal flesh ; and also, in the newly-discovered caverns, we
find descriptions of a bed of mud. The latter is probably
the same diluvian sediment which we find at Kirkdale. The
unbroken condition of the bones, and presence of black
animal earth, are consistent with the habit of bears, as being
rather addicted to vegetable than animal food, and, in this
case, not devouring the dead individuals of their own species.
In the hyena's cave, on the other hand, where both flesh
and bones were devoured, we find no black earth ; but,
instead of it, we discover in the album gtrcecum evidence of
the fate that has attended the carcases and lost portions of
the bones whose fragments still remain.

" Three-fourths of the total number of bones in the German
caves belong to two extinct species of bear, and two-thirds
of the remainder to the extinct hyaena of Kirkdale. There
are also bones of -an animal of the cat kind (resembling
the jaguar, or spotted panther of South America,) and
of the wolf, fox, and polecat, and rarely of elephant and
rhinoceros.*

" The bears and hyaena of all these caverns, as well as
the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, belong to the
same extinct species that occur also fossil in the diluvian
gravel ; whence it follows that the period in which they
inhabited these regions was that immediately preceding the

* " M. Rosenmuller shows that the bears not only lived and
died, but were also born, in the same caverns in which their bones
have been thus accumulated ; and the same conclusion follows from
the facts observed in the cave in Yorkshire."

339

formation of this gravel, by that transient and universal
inundation which has left traces of its ravages committed at
no very distant period over the surface of the whole globe,
and since which no important or general physical changes
appear to have affected it.

" Both in the case of the English and German caverns,
the bones under consideration are never included in the
solid rock; they occur in cavities of limestone rocks of
various ages and formations, but have no further connexion
with the rocks themselves, than that arising from the acci-
dent of their being lodged in cavities produced in them by
causes wholly unconnected with the animals, that appear
for a certain time to have taken possession of them as their
habitation."*

We cannot quit these monuments of former worlds
without alluding to the incontrovertible evidence they pre-
sent of the exercise of Almighty Power and of the perpetual
influence of a Divine Providence.

In the several formations composing the outer part of
the earth down to the primitive rocks, vast accumulations
exist of the fossil remains of organized beings, varying in
each formation, and essentially differing from those beings

* The hyaena's habit of digging human bodies from the grave,
and dragging them to their den, and accumulating around it the
bones of all kinds of animals, is thus described by Busbequius, in
speaking of the Turkish custom of laying great stones on their
graves to guard them from the hyaenas : —

" Hyoeria regionibus iis satis frequens ; sepulchra suffodit, extra-
hitque cadavera, poitatque ad suam speluncam ; juxta quam videri
est ingentem cumulum ossium humanorum, veterinariorum et reli-
quorum omne genus animaliuui." — Lry. Tare. Epist. 1.

340

which now exist. The discovery of animals peculiar to
certain formations, and the general agreement with each
other of the fossils of the same formations, have led to the
belief that these several formations, were the consequences
of successive changes effected on the earth's surface ; and
that their contained fossils are the preserved remains of
the several creations which had been successively formed
to accord with the state of the planet under its several
changes.

In the lower and consequently earlier formed strata,
the beds associated with coal, are found the bituminized
remains of unknown vegetables : and in the masses of
mountain limestone, &c. are immense accumulations of
crinoideal and terebratular remains, of the numerous species
of which tribes scarcely a living individual can now be found.
In these situations also exist the mineralized remains of
multilocular univalve and bivalve shells, and of others of
more simple forms, possessing such a structure as enabled
the animals which inhabited them to rise or sink in the
water as circumstances required. Many genera of this tribe
are here found in their mineralized state, as ammonites,
belemnites, orthoceratites, &c. some of which, as the ammo-
nites, are spread through the succeeding superior formations,
in myriads ; but no living individual of these genera is
known, except in a minute state, requiring microscopic aid
for their examination. The genus nautilus is the only one
whose existence through a few species, is continued to the
present day.

The fossils of the succeeding superior formation, the
lias, yield strong proofs of their having been the production
of a distinct creation. Among them is found the first
trochiform univalve, trochus anglicanus; with numerous
genera of bivalves, differing essentially and generically from
those contained in the preceding formation ; such are

341

the different species of ostrea, grypfuea, trigonia, and se-
veral others.

But the most decided proofs of these fossils being the
remains of a prceadamitic creation, is their containing the
relics of a tribe of enormous marine animals : quadrupeds,
possessing the blended structure of fish and lizard; the
ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, &c. no traces of which have been
discovered in any of the preceding strata.

The fossil remains through the succeeding higher forma-
tions of oolite, green sand, chalk, and clay, show new genera
both of saurian and testaceous animals ; among the former
are crocodiles, monitors, &c. ; and among the latter are
numerous turbinated and turretted shells. But when we
follow, on the surface of the vast mass of upper clay, the
traces of diluvial torrents, and the desolation which accom-
panied the last grand catastrophe which the planet appears
to have sustained, we there find the remains of another
creation, the terrestrial quadrupeds ; a new order of animals,
differing in almost every respect from those which had pre-
ceded them, and of which not a single bone is to be found
in any of the preceding formations.

It appears that the devastating effects accompanying
the vast change which this planet then underwent were so
extensive, that not only some species of quadrupeds were
entirely removed, of some genera, such as the elephant,
rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, of which other species still
remain ; but that other genera, as mastodon, palceotherium,
and anoplotherium, were completely annihilated through all
their species.

These changes in the state of the planet, and this partial
destruction of quadrupeds, appear to have been succeeded
by the creation of man, and of such quadrupeds and other
animals as were fit inhabitants of the earth after its last
change. But man did not retain his dominion uninterrupted
long. The Scriptures teach us, that a flood of waters was

342

brought upon the earth, which prevailed on it for an hundred
and fifty days, and by which the whole race was nearly
destroyed. The Mosaic account of this deluge has, however,
been doubted, from the total absence of the fossil remains
of man. But reference will show that no circumstances are
stated in that account which will authorize the supposition,
that the deluge was accompanied by such subversive violence
as would bury its victims in those situations which would
dispose to the mineralization and consequent preservation of
their remains.

The assumption of successive creations with accordant
changes in the state of the planet, does not, indeed, agree
with the Mosaic account of the creation, at least in its ordi-
nary acceptation. The facts, however, appear to be as they
are stated. May not the discordance depend on a miscon-
ception of the Sacred Writings ? Once more, with submis-
sion and deference — may not the days of creation be consi-
dered as periods of long indefinite duration?

This system of successive creations fitted to the existing
or predestinated state of the planet, appears, not only not
to derogate from the wisdom and power of the Almighty,
but to be perfectly in agreement with the agency of Pro-
vidence as taught by the Divine Author of our religion.
The world is seen, in its formation and continuance, con-
stantly under the providence of Almighty God, without
whose knowledge not one sparrow falls to the ground.

Under these impressions, we view the results of these
several changes and creations as manifesting the prescience,
the power, and the benevolence of our great Creator. The
general form of the earth's surface, varied by the distribution
of hills and vallies, and of land and water ; the prodigious
accumulations of coal derived from the vegetables of a former
creation, with the accompanying slates and schists ; the
useful, durable, and often beautiful, encrinital and shelly
limestones; the immense formations of chalk and flint, and

343

the various series of clays ; all demonstrate a careful provi-
dence for the wants of man. The several breaks and faults
in the stratified masses, and the various inclinations of the
strata, as well as the vast abruptions by which these
several substances are brought to the hand of man, may
be regarded as most beneficent provisions resulting from
catastrophes too vast and tremendous for human intellect
to comprehend.

From these several creations it appears that beings have
proceeded, gradually increasing in superiority, from testa-
ceous animals to reptiles, fish, marine and fresh-water am-
phibia, quadrupeds, and lastly to man, who, in his turn, is
destined, with the earth he inhabits, to pass away, and be
succeeded by a new heaven and a new earth.

INDEX.

ACAMAS

Acardo

Acasta

Achatina

Achelois

Actynocrinites

Adeona

Agaricia

Alcyonites

Alcyonia, species of

Alligators

Alveolites

Amber

Amimomus

Ammonellipsites

Ammonites

Amphibia

Amphidesma .

Amplexus

Ampullaria

species of

Ananchytes
Anatifa
Anatina
Ancilla

species of .

Angulithes

Anodonta

Anomia

Anoplotherium

Antigua

Antipatb.es

Apiocrinites .

Area • .

.... species of

Arcacese

Argonauta

Aspergillum .

Asphaltum

Astarte

Page

173
197
199
164

Page

| Asterias . . .109
Astrea . 86
Avicula . . .193
species of . . 228

178
104

Auricula . . .163
...... . species of . 217

69
83
55

Baculites . . .172
Balanus . . .199
... . species of 219

56
284
69
9
177

Beavers . . . 332
Belemnites . . .172
Bellerophron . . .176
Benett, Miss ... 50
Wiltshire fossils

170
169
283
184
173
165
218
144
200
183
160

discovered by .50
Birds .... 275
Birostrites . .197, 234
Bivalves . . .180
Boars .... 314
Bovey coal ... 7
Brachipodes . . . 198
Brachipodes conchifera . 198
Brard, M. . 263, 8f passim
Breccise, ossiferous . .314
of Gibraltar Con-

205
176
191
196
326
270
93

cud, Cherso, Corsica, &c. ib.
Brongniart, M. 262, 8f passim
Buccinum . . . 207
Buckland, Professor 296 8f passim
Bufonites . . .281
Bulimus . . .164
species of 216

103
189
225

Bulla . . . 159, 216
Cactus .... 18
. . large growth of 19

189
157

Calcareous fossil vegetables 21
. . wood t5

180
9
202

Calceola . . .197
Calirrhoa . . .179
Calyptrea . .158

346

Page

Calyptrea, species of . 203
Cancellaria . . .161

species of . 206

Capsa . . . .186
Cardiacese . . .188
Cardita . . .225

Cardium ... . 224

Carinaria . . .157
Carnivorous animals . 332
Caryophyllia ... 78
Cassidulus . . .121

species of . 132

Cassis . . . .162
..... species of . . 207
Cavern, containing bones, in
Germany . . . 333

in England 334

Cellepora ... 68
Cerithium . . .163

species of . 21 1

Ceti . . . .282
Cetocis . . . . 179
Chama . . . .191

species of . . 227

Chamaceifi . . .191
Chiton .... 203
Cidaris . . . .128

species of . . ib.

Cineras .... 200
Cirrhipeda . . .199
Cirrus . . . .165
Clavagella . . 180/219
Clavatula . . .163
Clypeaster . . .137

species of . ib.

Clypeus . . .130

species of . . 131

Coal, origin of, supposed, 9
.... cannell . . .7
.... common . . 7

Columbella . . .160
Comatula , . .107
Concholepas .. . .157
Conularia . . .173
Conus . . . .159

species of . . 203

Conybeare, the Rev. W. D. 291
8f passim

Corallina . . . 94
Corallium . . .91
Corbis . . . .186
.... . species of . . 221

INDEX.

Corbula . . .184

species of . . 220

Coronula . . .199

Crabs . . . .275

Crania . . . .198

species of . . 234

Crassatella . . .184

species of . 220

Crassina . . .187

Creations, successive . 342

Crenatula . . . 193

Crepidula . . .158

Creusia . . .199

Crinoidea . , .103

arrangement of ib.

localities of . 105

Crocodile . . .283

fossil . . 291

found in Honfleur

and Havre . . ib.

London clay 293

Oxfordshire" 292

Purbeckstone ib.

Cucullea . . .189

species of . . 225

Cyathocrinites . .104

Cyclas . . . . 187

Cyclolites . . .80

Cyclostoma . . .165

species of .215

Cyprsea . . . 159

species of . . 204

Cypricardia . . .189

species of . 225

Cyprina . . .188

species of . . 222

Cyrena . . . .187

Cytherea . . .188

species of . . 222

Dactylopora . . . 71

Dalmatia . . .314

Delphinula . . .165

species of . 215

Deluge .... 343
Dianchora . . .201
Diceras . . . .191
Discina . . . 197, 234
Discopora ... 68
Distichopora ... 73
Dolium . . . .161
Donax . . . .186
species of . . 222

Page

Dudley fossil . . .271

Eburna . . .161

Echidnis . . .178

Echinaracnius . . 134

Echini, arrangement of, by

Woodward . 114

Klein . .116

Breyn . . 117

Van Phelsum . ib.

Leske . .118

Lamarck . 119, 122

Echinidse . . .113

Echinocyamus . .141

Echinodermata . .107

radiated . ib.

Echinoneus . . .142

species of . 143

Echinophora . . .86

Echinus . . .123

species of . . ib.

Elephant . . .316

teeth of .

Elk, Irish . . .312

Emarginula . . . 157

species of . 203

Encrinite ... 96

lily . . ib.

cap . . Ib.

turban . . 97

pear . . ib.

nave . . 98

plumose . . 99

tortoise . . 100

straight . . ib.

bottle . . ib.

stag's horn . ib.

Erycina . . .184

..'... species of . . 220
Eschara ... 69

Etheria . . .191

Eugeniacrinite . .105

Euomphalus . . .166

Euryale . . .107

Explanaria . . .86

Farey, Mr. . . . 238

Fasciolaria . . .161

Fasciolites . . .172
Faujas St. Fond 263, 8f passim

Favosites . . .74

Fibularia . . .141

species of . ib.

Fishes . . 277

INDEX. 347

Page

Fishes, in the chalk . . 281
Fissurella . . .157

species of . 203

Fistulana . . .180

species of . 219

Flabellaria ... 94
Flustra ... 66

Fossils, extraneous . . 1

animal . . 33

vegetable . . 5

Fresh- water formations . 261
Fungia . . . 82

Fusus .... 163

species of . . 208

Galathea . . .187

Galerites . . .134

Gastrochoena . . .182
Gavials . . .284

Geodia ... 65

Gibraltar . . .314

Glycimeris . . .183

.. ; specie* of . 219

Gnawers . . . 332

Gorgonia ... 93
Gryphsea . . .195

. species of . 231

Gyrogonites . . .175
Haliotis . . .158

Hamites . . .171

Harpa . . .161

species of . . 207

Harpax ' . - . .195
Helicina . .164, 258

Helix . . .164, 256

carinatus . . 255

gentii . . . ib.

Hibolithes . . .179
Hippopotamus . . 322

Hippopus . . .192
Hippurites . . .172
Home, Sir Everard . . 296
Horns . . . .313
Horse . . . .311
Hyahea .... 201
Hyteiia . . . 335, 336
Hydnophora ... 84
Hyria . . . .191
lahthina . . . 256

Ichthyosaurus . . 296

communis 299

tenuirostris 300

platyodon ib.

348

INDEX.

Impregnation
Impressions
Infundibulum
Inoceramus
Insects
Intromission .
Iridina .
Isis
Isocardia
species of

Page

2
3
. 158
. 202
. 271
2
. 191
. 92
. 189
. 225
8
7
.306

'. 104
. 194
. 229
. 199
. 171
. 186
. 221
. 72
. 183
. 220
. 164
. 217
. 257
. 184
. 220
. 183
bitumi-
8
. 89
. . . 202
. 193
. ib.
. 343
. 54
. ib.
. 270
. 161
of . 206
261, Of seq.
. 105
. 323
. 84
. 330
. 305
. 330
. 163
. 217
. 193

Page

Melitsea ... 92
Miliolites . , .175
Miller, Mr. . 103, ty passim
Monograph of Cri-

noidea
Mitra
species of . .
Modiola
species of .

103
160
206
192
228
178
295
164
306
6
30
162
207
183
ib.
192
ib.
228
190
162
165
170
168
165
3
133
189
226
i!270
170
71
90
160
205
276
108
19
ib.
193
168
, 171
1
156
195
196
232
200
, 204

Molossus
Monitor
Monodonta
Mosaesaurus
Moss Fir
.... in Chalcedony
Murex
species of
Mya
Myariae
Mytilacece
Mytilus
species of . ,
Naiades
Nassa
Natica
Nautellipsites .
Nautilus . ,
Nerita
Nuclei
Nucleolites
Nucula
species of .
Nugent, Dr. on Antigua foss
Nummulites
Ocellaria
Oculina
Oliva
.... species of
Oniscus praegustator
Ophiura
Opuntia
. of large growth .

Jameson, Professor
Jet
Lacerta gigantea
Lacertae, see Sauri
Lily encrinite
Lima
.... species o£
Lingula
Lituites
Lucina
species of

Lunulites
Lutraria
species of
Lymnea
species of

stagnalis

Mactra
. species of

Mactraceae
Macculloch, Dr. on
nous wood
Madrepora
Magas
Malleacess
Malleus
Man
Mantell, Mr.
Mantellia
Marble, Petworth
Marginella
species
Marine formations
Marsupites
Mastodon
Meandrina
Megalonyx
Megalosaurus
Megatherium
Melania
species of
Meleagrina

Orbicula
Orbulites
Orthoceratites . 168
Oryctology
Oscana
Ostracese
Ostrea
species of

Otion
Ovula . . 159

INDEX.

349

Ovulites
Ox

Page

72
313

Pleurotoma . - :..,. ... -;.^
species of

Page
163
910

Pachydermata
Paclites

316
176

Plicatula pf»
. species of .

194
930

Palseotherium
Paludina
Palythoa
Pandora
Panopoea
Patella
. . . . species of

326
266
65
185
183
156
203

Pocillopora
Podopsis « *•-»_- -' 9-
Podopsis, species of .
Pollicipes . . ';*
Po rides . . ?--±~
Porodragus
Potamides ...

89
195
231
200
88
179
966

Pavonia
Pear encrinite
Peat ....
Pecten ...
species of .
Pectinidae
Pectunculus . . ,
species of

83
97
5
194
229
194
189
226

Poteriocrinites
Productus ...
Psammobia
Psammotea . . 185,
Pterocera "...
Pupa ....
Purpura
. species of .

104
201
185
281
162
165
i(>2
906

Pedum
Penicillus
Pentacrinus . 95, 101,
Pentamerus
Perna ....
species of

194
94
104
202
193
228

Pyramidella
Pyrgomat
Pyrula
species of
Radiolites
species of

163
199
163
209
197
234

Petricola
. species of

185
220

Retepora
pustulata .

69
ih

Petrifactions .
Petroleum . . . .
Phasianella . 164, 217,
Pholadariae
Pholas

2
9
266
182
ib.

Rhinoceros
Rhodiocrinites
Rosores, see Gnawers
Rostellaria
species of

319
104

162
207

Phytolithus cancellatus
Dawsoni

14
16

Rudistes
Sarcinula . .

196

7ft

imbricatus
notatus

15
16

Sauri ....
enalio

283
996

parmatus

tesselatus

15
16

. . . .' fossil
Scalaria

291
165

transversus

15

species of

915

. . . verrucosus

11

Scaphites

171

Placuna
species of .

196
233

Scutella
species of .

139
ib.

Plagiostoma
. . . species of

194
229

Septaria . ...
Seraphs ...

180
160

Planorbis
species of

165
215

Serpula
species of .

159
918

Planospirites
Planulites . .
Platycrinites .
Plesiosaurus

156
169
104
300

Siderolites
Sigaretus
Siliceous vegetable fossils
wood.

170
157
22
ib.

priscus

301

158

. recentior

309

Sinhonia

51

350

INDEX.

Page

Siphonia discovered by Mr.

Webster ... 52
Smith, Mr. W. 238, fy passim
Solarium . . .166

species of . 214

Solemya . . .184

'Solen . . . .182

species of . . 219

Solenaceae . . .182
Solipedes . . .311
Spatangus . . .145

species of . ib.

Sphserulites . .196, 234
Spirifer . . . 202

Spirula . . .171

Spondylus . . .195

species of . 231

Sponge . . 34, 8f seq.

fossil, at Farringdon 49

in chalk, &c. . ib.

Steinhauer, the Rev. 11, 8f seq.
Stelleridee . . .107
Stomatia . . .157

Strombus . . .162

species of . 207

Stylina . . .77

Substitution ... 2
Succulent plants . . 17

, fossil, mistaken for

fossil trees . . ib.

plants have probably

contributed to the forma-
tion of coal . . 20
Sulciculmis . . .14
Suturbrand ... 7
Tapir . . .322

Tardigradi . . . 330
Telebois . . .179

Tellina . . .186

species of . . 221

Tellinoides . . .186
Terebellum . , .160

species of . 204

Terebra . . .161

species of . . 207

Terebratula . . .198

species of . 234

Teredina . . .181

species of . 219

Teredo 181

Testacella

Page

. 156

Tethia

64

Thalamus

. 177

Tiranites

. ib.

Tortoise

. 308

Tridacna

. 192

species of

. 228

Trilobites

. 271

caudated .

. 272

of Dudley

. 272

of Llandilo

. 272

of Shropshire

. 273

Trochus

. 166

species of

. 214

Tubicihella

. 199

Tubipora

75

Tubulipora

. 68

Turbinellus

. 161

Turbinolia

80

Turbo . . '

164, 215

Turrilites

. 172

Turritella

. 163

species of

. 216

Vegetables, fossil

10

Venericardia .

. 223

Venus

. 188

species of

. 223

Vermicularia

. 159

Vivipara

. 164

Volvaria

. 160

species of .

. 218

Voluta

. 160

species of

205

Ungulina

. 184

Unio

. 190

Univalves

. 152

multilocular

166

Webster, Mr. 269,

&• passim

Wight, Isle of

. 269

basin of

. ib.

Wood, fossil .

. 21

calcareous

. ib.

chalcedonic .

. 25

cupreous

. 28

. 27

jasperine

. 26

opaline

. ib.

pitchstone

. ib.

siliceous

. 22

Zoophytes

. 34

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig.

1. Phytolithus verrucosus.

u. suppressed tubercles.

c. longitudinal sulcus.

2. Fhytolithus verrucosus.

b. traces of leaves.

d. included,cylindricalbody

3. Fossil strobilus.

a. tubular processes passing
from the internal part
to. the surface.

4. Phytolithus caucellatus, epi-

dermal surface.

Fig.
5.

6.

7.
8.

Phytolithus cancellatus, cortical

surface.
Phytolithus cancellatus, ligneous

surface.

Transverse section of siphonia.
Upper extremity of siphonia,

Websteri.

lu9:i

• Species of Mantellia.

!•?

Fossil teeth

from Stonesfield

1 £• f

13.)

slate.

I

14.

Palythoa.

PLATE II.

Fig. Fig.

1 . represents the general form and 6.

characters of the genus echi- 7.

nus and cidaris ; the tuber- 8.

cles being perforated in the 9.

latter genius. 10.

2. Clypeaster. 11.

3. Galerites. 12.

4. ) r.. , . 13.
E > I'lbularia.

Clypeus.
Cassidulus.
Kchinarachnius.
Ananchytes, the upper surface.
Scutella.

Spatangus (Cor. Marinum).
Ananchytes, the under surface.
Spatangus (Ovum Marinum,
lirissus) .

Fig.

1. Planospirites.

2. Oscana.

3. Testacella.

4. Patella.

5. Fissurella.

6. Emarginula.

7. Concholepas.

8. Stomatia.

9. Argonauts.

PLATE III.

Fig.

10. Carinaria.

11. Sigaretus.

12. Haliotis.

13. Calyptrea.

14. Infundibulum.

15. Crepidula.

16. Dentalium.

17. Siliquaria.

18. Vermicularia.

Fig.

19. Serpula.

20 Pup'a.

21. Aspergillum.

22. Conus.

23. Cypraea.

24. Ovula,

25. Bulla.

26. Terebellum.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE IV.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

1. Volvaria.

10. Turbinellus.

19. Strombus.

2. OHva.

11. Bucciuum.

20. Pterocera.

3. Ancilla.

12. Eburna.

21. Rostellaria.

4. Voluta.

13. Terebra.

22. Murex.

5. Mitra.

14. Dolium.

23 Fusus.

6. Columbella.

15. Harpa.

24. Pyrula.

7. Marginella.

16. Cassis.

25. Pleurotoma.

8. Cancellariae.

17. Nassa.

26. Clavatula.

9. Fasciolaria.

18. Pupura.

27. Ceritbium.

PLATE V.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

1. Melania.

10. Phasianella.

18. Scalaria.

2. Turritella.

11. Vivipara.

19. Delpbinula.

3. Pyramidella.

12. Helix.

20. Cirrus.

4. Auricula.

13. Helicina.

21. Hanorbis.

5. Achatina.

14. Ampullaria.

22. Euomphalus.

6. Lymnaea.

15. Natica.

23. lanthina.

7. Turbo.

16. Nerita.

24. Trochus.

8. Monodonta.

17. Cyclostoma.

25. Solarium.

9. Hnlimus.

PLATE VI.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

1. Nautilu*.

11. Belemnites.

20. Gyrogonites.

2. Ammonites.

12. Hippurites.

21. Acardo.

3. Nautellipsites.

13. Turrilites.

22. Kadiolites.

4. Ammonellipsites.

14. Fasciolites.

23. Pinna.

5. Nummulites.

15. Acamas.

24. Mytilus.

6. Scaphites.

16. Amplexus.

25. Modiola.

7. Lituites.

17. Conularia.

2(i. Anodonta.

8. Hamites.

18. Miliolites.

27. Glycimeris.

9. Orthoceratites.

19. Cornu Ammonis

28. Lingula.

10. Baculites.

Ariminiense.

29. Ostrea.

PLATE VII.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

1. Gryphaea.

1 1. Diancbora.

21. Crania.

2. Pecten.

12. Plagiostoma

22. Petricola.

3. Lima.

13. Productus.

23. Terebratula.

4. Vulsella.

14. Magas.

24. Solen.

5. Malleus.

15. Spirifer.

25. Sanguinolaria.

6. Avicula.

16. Mya.

26. Tridacna.

7. Pedum.

17. Cbama.

27. Cardita.

8. Hyalaea.

18. Hippopodium.

28. Paphia.

9. Orbicula.

19. Unio.

29. Lutraria.

10. Anomia.

20. Corbula.

30. Mactra.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig.

1. Astarte.

2. Venericardia.

3. Trigonia.

4. Plicatula.

5. Placuna.

6. Spondylus.

7. Venus.

8. Isocardia.

9. Crassatella.
10. Erycina.

PLATE VIII.

Fig.

11. Donax.

12. Cardium.
13 Cytberea.

14. Cyrena.

15. Lucina.

16. Tellina.

17. Area.

18. Nucula.

19. Pectunculus.

20. Cucullaea.

Fig.

21. Perna.

22. Crenatula.

23. Inoceramus.

24. Calceola.

25. Pholas.

26. Balanus.

27. Coronula.

28. Anatifa.

29. Trigonellites,

PLATE IX.

Fig. Fig.

1. The base of the lily encrinus, 8. Bivalve shell.

or encrinites inoniliformis. 9. Internal part of the valve of

2. Univalve shell. a species of productus.

3. The base of the cap encrinite of 10. Tubipora anastomosans,p. 75.

Derbyshire, Lancashire, &c. 11. Astraea in chalcedony.

4. Trochite, or encrinital vertebra. 12. Frondescent millepore.

5. The straight encrinite. 13. Bottle encrinite.

6. Entrochite, or part of an encri- 14. Stagshorn encrinite.

nital spine. 15. Clove encrinite.

7. The base of the turban encrinite. 16. Head of a pentacrinite.

PLATE X.

Fig. Fig.

1. Dudley fossil, or trilobite. 7

2. Oniscus praegustator. 8.

3. Part of a jaw from the Stones-

field slate. 9.

4. Stylina, simple.

5. Stylina, compound. 10.

6. One of the five triangular sec-

tions into which the crust

of the echinus is separable. 1 1 .

Pentamerus.

Ordinary fossil tooth of the ele-
phant.

Fossil tooth of the elephant, the
plates winding and continued.

Fossil tooth of the ' elephant,
the plates of extraordinary
thickness.

Alveolites incrustans.

z z.

Pl.1

•

PUJ.

-
4

r f

^

•//of 2?.

i

,^ -^— '

l*ul>tishfet fertile. //////v.v /////• X/( :^

PI.V7L

Pl.VJM.

g

/-•

,

a

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