THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID OUTLINES PHYSIOLOGY, COMPARATIVE AND HUMAN; IN WHICH ARE DESCRIBED THE MECHANICAL, ANIMAL, VITAL, AND SENSORIAL ORGANS, AND FUNCTIONS; INCLUDING THOSE OF RESPIRATION, CIRCULATION, DIGESTION, AUDITION AND VISION, AS THEY EXIST IN THE DIFFERENT ORDERS OF ANIMALS, FROM THE SPONGE TO MAN. ALSO, THE APPLICATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES TO MUSCULAR EXERCISE, AND FEMALE FASHIONS, AND DEFORMITIES. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. Intended for the Use of Schools and Heads of Families. BY j. L. ccmsjrocK, M. rr. AUTHOR OP " MINERALOGY," " NATURAL PHILOSOPHY," " CHEMISTRY." "BOTANY," "GEOLOGY," etc. NEW YORK. ROBINSON, PRAT.T &f C O . 259 PEARL STREET. 1836. At * ft Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1836, by J . L . C O M S T O C K , in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. CASE, TIFFANY & CO., PRINTERS. PREFACE. PERHAPS the author of the following work cannot do better than to make an extract or two, by way of Preface, from Dr. DICK, " On Mental Illumination and Moral Improvement," in which he has shown the want of, and the advantages to be derived from, a trea- tise on Comparative and Human Physiology for the instruction of youth. That a work on these subjects is wanted, it is believed every intelligent Instructor is ready to acknowledge ; and whether that here offered to the public will serve the required purpose, must now be submitted to the judgment of others. " It is somewhat unaccountable," says Dr. DICK, " and not a little inconsistent, that while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the earth, and survey its mountains, rivers, seas, and continents, and guide their views to the regions of the firmament, where they may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances, — * * that we should never teach them to look into themselves, to con- sider their own corporeal structures, the numerous parts of which they are composed ; the admirable functions they perform ; the wis- dom and goodness displayed in their mechanism, and the lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from such contempla- tions." Again, the same author, speaking of subjects for Natural The- ology, enumerates " particularly, the curious and admirable mechan- ism displayed in the construction of animated beings, from the mi- croscopic animalcula, ten hundred thousand times less than a visi- ble point, to the elephant and the whale — the organs of mastication, deglutition, digestion, and secretion, all differently contrived, accor- ding to the structure of the animal, and the aliments on which they feed — the eyes of insects, and the thousands of transparent globules of which they consist — the metamorphoses of caterpillars and other insects, and the peculiar organization adapted to each state of their existence — the numerous beauties, and minute adaptation in the wings, feet, probosces, and feathers, of gnats and other'insects — the respiratory apparatus of fishes, and the nice adaptation of their bodies to the watery fluid in which they pass their existence — the construction of birds, their pointed bills to penetrate the air, their flexible tails serving for rudders, the lightness, strength, and tena- city of their feathers, and the whole structure of their bodies adap- IV PREFACE. ted to the air in which they fly, and the food by which they are sustained — above all, the wonders of the human frame, the numer- ous parts of which it is composed; the hundreds of bones, and mus- cles, the thousands of veins and arteries, glands, nerves, and lympha- tics— the heart with its ventricles and auricles, the brain, with its infinity of fibres, the lungs with their millions of vesicles, * * — 'these and thousands of similar objects, adaptation and contrivan- ces will afford ample scope for expatiating on the power, wisdom, and intelligence of the Almighty Creator, and the benevolent con- trivances which appear throughout every part of the universal system." "One great practical end," says he, c< which should always be kept in view in the study of physiology is the invigoration and improve- ment of the corporeal powers, and functions, the preservation of health, and the prevention of disease." All these, and many other subjects of a similar nature are noticed in this volume, and if the author has succeeded in adapting his lan- guage and manner to the understanding of youth, he cannot but hope that this treatise will be the means of greatly increasing the knowledge of the rising generation, in one of the most interesting and useful departments of natural science; and at the same time of directing their attention, especially that of females, to the preserva- tion of their forms, and their health, by avoiding habits and fashions, which at once deform their persons and ruin their constitutions. To avoid the necessity of frequently quoting authorities, we sub- join a list of authors which have been consulted in the progress of the more strictly physiological part of this work, the application of these principles towards the sequel, being chiefly the original sug- gestions of the author. Among the authors consulted, we are especially indebted to the " Bridgewater Treatise, on Animal and Vegetable Physiology," by Mr. Roget. From this, much matter and many cuts have been taken. Dr. Ticknor " On the Philosophy of Living," Harpers' Family Library, No. 77, contains a mass of sound and valuable observations on many of the various subjects on which it treats, but was un- known to the author, until too late for him to take much advantage from the matter it contains. Dr. Alcott's little book, " The House I live in," is an original and curious treatise, and is well calculated to arrest the attention of children, and to instruct them with respect to the structure of their bodies. Dr. Combe's Physiology, No. 77 Harpers' Family Library, is a highly valuable and sufficiently popular work on the subject, and ought to be read by every parent, and school teacher. The author expected to have inserted at the close of the volume, a short treatise on the peculiar application of Callisthenics, guided by music, as an exciting and proper exercise for young ladies, but have to regret that it was not received in time, and therefore must be deferred until the next edition. It is by Miss C. E. Beecher. Hartford, Connecticut, July 1836. CONTENTS. Page. PHYSIOLOGY EXPLAINED, - ' 15 PART I. Mechanical Functions, 16 Sponge, - '-• 16 Polypifera, 19 Hydra, - 22 Pennatulse, - 24 Infusoria, - 26 Wheel Animal, - 27 Portuguese Man-of War, Sea Urchin, - 28 29 Mollusca, -•'-". - 30 Acephala, - - -.•»/* • 31 Cardium, - ''•'•"- Cuttlefish, - 33 34 Articulata, - 35 Crustacea, - 35 Lobster, - 36 Process of casting the shell of, 36 Insects, - 38 Changes in the forms of Insects, 38 Silk Worm, 40 Metamorphoses of Insects, - Larva that feeds on the pars- 41 nip, - - , Butterflies and Moths, 42 44 Change from Chrysalis to Butterfly, Wings of the Butterfly, how 45 expanded, - , - ._.- ; 47 Scales on the wings, - . ^ 48 Red drops emitted by Butter- flies, - - - "- ', 49 Ancient showers of Blood, - 50 Tusseh silk worm, , - " 54 Beetles, - - - " - 55 Blind beetles, ... 56 White worm, ... 56 Mantis, .... 59 Musqueto, - 62 Structure of Insects, 64 Insects walk by atmospheric pressure, 68 Ingenuity of Insects, 70 Caddis worm, 72 PART II. VETEBRATED ANIMALS, 75 Animals resist heat and cold, 76 Structure of the bones, 80 Formation and growth of bone, 83 Spine of the vertebrata, - 84 Form of the vertebra, 85 Skeleton of the human trunk and arms, 86 Unity manifested in the spines, 88 Mechanical elements of the vertebra, 89 Vertebra of Fish, - - 90 Locomotion of Fishes, - 91 Spines of Birds and Fishes, - 95 Skeleton of the Swan, - - 95 Comparison of the bones of Men and Birds, - - 96 . PART III. 97 98 98 98 ANIMAL FUNCTIONS, Sources of Nutrition, - Vegetable food, - - Vrrivv Animal food, - Relation between animals and their food, - 100 Man omnivorous, - - 100 Animal Nutrition, - - 101 Complexity of Stomach in the high orders, - 102 Man eats every thing, - - 102 Grinding of Food, - - 103 Grinding in the Lobster, - 104 Gizzards of Birds, - - 104 Organs of nutrition and vi- tality in the Mammalia, 106 Plan of the most important Viscera, - - 107 Circulation of the blood, - 109 VI CONTENTS. Page. Mastication, - 101 Teeth of Man, - - - 111 Teeth of the Tiger, - - 112 Teeth of the Antelope, •• - 113 Teeth of the Rat, - - 114 Masticating organs of Man and the Mammalia, - 114 Organs of Digestion, - - 116 Human Stomach, - - 116 Gastric juice, - - - 117 Chemical effects of the Gas- tric juice, - - - 118 Comparative Digestion, - 119 Stomach of the Sheep, - - 119 Rumination, - 121 Relation of the horns and stomach, - 121 Water cells in Camels' stom- ach, .... 121 Water cells in Elephants' stomach, - - - . 122 Food of Man and other Ani- mals, - - - - 123 Elements of Nutrition, - - 123 Food nutritive and digestible, 123 Man requires a variety of food, 124 Dr. Starks' Experiments, - 125 Dr. Magendie's Experiments, 126 Dr. Cooper's Experiments, - 126 •. Beaumont's Ex Dr xperiments, 127 PART IV. CIRCULATION OP THE BLOOD, 131 Circulation in Insects, - - 132 Circulation in the Frog, - 133 Circulation in Fishes, - - 134 Circulation in warm blooded Animals, - - - 135 Two hearts separated, - - 136 Two hearts united, - - 136 The two hearts act together, 138 Number of pulsations of the heart, - 138 Effects of Alcohol on the cir- culation, - - - 139 Alcohol not the product of dis- tillation, - 140 Muscular force of the heart, 142 Respiration, .. - - 143 Respiration, in the Oyster, - 144 Respiration in Fishes, - - 145 Respiration in the Lamprey, 146 Page. Atmospheric Respiration, - 146 Respiration in Insects, - - 147 Respiration in Reptiles, - 148 Respiration in the Frog, - 149 Respiration in Birds, - - 150 Lungs of the Ostrich, - - 151 Respiration in the Mammalia, 153 Respiration in Man, - - 153 Trunk of the Human Skeleton, 154 Situation of the diaphragm, 155 Human lungs and heart, - 156 Chemical effects of Respira- tion, - 157 Animal heat, - 159 PART V. SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS, - - 160 Brain and Nerves, - - 160 Nervous Ganglions, - - 162 Vision, - - - - 163 Structure of the Human Eye, 163 Structure of the Iris, •• - 165 Physiology of Vision, - - 166 Cause of the inverted image. 169 Motions of the Eye, - - 173 Magnitudes and distances, 174 Insensibility to certain col- ors, .... 177 Comparative Physiology of Vision, - - - 178 Eyes of Insects, - - - 179 Eyes of Fishes, - - - 182 Eyes of Birds, - - - 183 Audition, or Hearing, • 185 Auditory organs in Man, - 187 Bones of the Ear, - - 190 Physiology of hearing, - 192 Comparative Physiology of hearing, - - - 193 Hearing in the Lobster, - 194 Hearing in the Frog, - - 194 Hearing in Birds, - - 196 Musical Ear, - - - 197 Musical Ear situated in the Brain, - - - - 199 Organs of Smell, - - 200 Olfactory nerves in the Duck, 201 Audubonon the smell of Vul- tures, - - - - 202 CONTENTS. Vll Page, i Page. Organs of smell in Fishes, - 203 Men bound to use such exer- cise as conduces to health, 244 Organs of Taste , Organs of Touch, - 204 - 205 PART VI. MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXER- CISE, - - - - 207 The Brain, Size of the Brain. - 207 - 208 Phrenology, - 209 Phrenology wants more facts, 210 Roget's Opinion, - - 211 Bostock's Sentiments, - - 211 Double Organs, - 217 Susceptibility of the Bruin, - 218 Of the Muscles, - - - 220 Action of the Muscles depend on the Brain, - - 220 Muscular contraction, - - 220 Mechanism of the Muscles, 221 Muscular action of the Arm and Hand, - 222 Motions of the Fingers, - 225 Connection between the Nervous and Muscular Systems, 227 Temperament and Disposition, 230 Force of muscular contraction, 231 Thomas Topham, - - 232 Increasing the muscular pow- ers, - 233 Practical inferences from the foregoing principles, - 235 Connection between the Brain and Muscles, - - 235 Muscular exercise of the Cler- gy and other Literary Men, - 236 Obvious effects of too much mental labor, - - 237 Clergymen not allowed excit- ing exercise; - - 238 Men incapable of constant mental labor, - - 239 Former condition of the Cler- gy, - - - - 240 Different effects of Exercise, 241 Muscular exercise requires ce- rebral excitement, - 242 Dr. Darwin's case, - - 242 Nature requires exciting exer- cise, 243 Effects of incessant mental la- bor, - 245 Mere attention to diet of little use, - 246 Cheerfulness a remedy, - 247 Laughing a proper exercise, 249 Different kinds of muscular exercise, Manual Labor, 251 251 251 251 254 256 Scientific Excursions, - -, ( ^ - i Field Sports, - - ,' . Angling, "-'.' Riding, .... Exciting exercise absolutely necessary to the studious, 259 Sir Walter Scott an example, 260 Physical and Mental Educa- tion of Youth, - - 262 Consequences of confined po- sition of Females at school, 263 Remarks of Dr. Combe, - 264 Remarks of Dr. Dick, - - 267 Callisthenics, ... 270 Archery, - 270 Selection of Bows and Arrows, 272 APPENDIX. DESCRIPTION OF THE ATTITUDES, 277 Standing, - 277 The Foot, .... 279 Walking, - 281 Pedestrianism, - . .-•« ,' - 282 Sitting, ..... 282 Causes of spinal curvatures, 283 Sitting postures described, - 285 Leaning posture, - - 286 Dress a source of deformity, 288 Fashionable Deformity, - 289 Effects of pressure on the mus- cles of the back, - - 290 Application of these principles, 292 Effects of tight lacing on the Lungs, - - - 296 Pulmonary Consumption in consequence of pressure on the Lungs, - - - 299 Dr. Morton's case, "-."* '"- 301 Mortality by Consumption, 304 Prevention of spinal distortion, 305 Effects of stays on the vigor of the species, - - 310 Books consulted with reference to this work. Arnotts* Elements of Physics. Bostock's Physiology. 3 vols. London. Blumenback's Physiology. Magendie's Physiology. Edinburgh. Dunglissons' Physiology. Library of Useful Knowledge. Cuvier's Animal Kingdom. 4 vols. Combe on Health, and Mental Education. Ticknoronthe Philosophy of Living. Bingley's Animal Kingdom. 4 vols. London. Parkinson's Organic Remains. London. Roget's Animal and Vegetable Physiology, 2 vols. London. Fyfes' Anatomy. 4 vols. London. Bells' Anatomy. 2 vols. Hooper's Medical Dictionary. Spallanzani's Dessertations on Natural History. 2 vols. London. Brown's Book of Butterflies. 2 vols. London. Combe on the Physical Constitution of Man. Dick's Christian Philosopher. Dick's Mental Illumination. Alcott's House I live in. Bell on the Hand. Letters on Entomology. London. Lizar's Plates of the Human System. Folio. London. Beaumont on Digestion. Kirby's History of the Habits of Incects. Shaw on Dislocations of the Spine. London. Jardine's Library of Natural History. Edinburgh. Natural History of Insects. (Harpers' Family Library.) 2 vols. Rennie's History of Insects. 3 vols. Hay ward's Outlines of Human Physiology. Morton's Illustrations of Consumptive Diseases. Kitchiner's Invalids' Oracle. (Family Library.) Habits of Birds. (Library of Entertaining Knowledge.) London. Willich's Lectures on Diet, and Regimen. Brewster's Letters on Natural Magic. Bichat, On Life, and Death. Rennie's Alphabet of Insects. London. Barry on Digestion. London. Ure's Chemical Dictionary. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. THE term PHYSIOLOGY signifies " a discourse on Na- ture," and hence is applicable to an explanation of the laws which govern the growth of vegetables, and the crystalization of minerals, as well as to a discourse on the functions of animal life. Animal Physiology is divided into two distinct de- partments, viz., Comparative and Human. Comparative Physiology is a discourse or treatise, on the corporeal functions of the inferior animals. Human Physiology explains the corresponding functions of Man. In pursuing the subject of Animal Physiology, the student will constantly be reminded that nothing has been left undone, even to the minutest detail, which could in any way advance the welfare and comfort of living existences taken as a whole. On the contrary, he will find that each animal is placed in a situation most congenial to its own organization and capacities, and that it is provided with instruments and endowed with senses and capabilities exactly befitting the condi- tion in which it is placed. The earth worm, for in- stance, has no use for eyes, since it never voluntarily comes to the light ; nor for hands or wings, since these would be worse than useless in the place and manner of its existence. Nor has the fish any use for lungs or What is the meaning of the term Physiology? How is Animal Physiology divided 1 What is said of the adaptation of the organs and capacities of animals to their wants ? 2 14 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. feet, since its organization prevents it from breathing the air or walking on the earth. On the contrary sight, instruments for rising in the air, and for walking on the earth, are absolutely necessary for the higher orders of animals, otherwise they would be unable to accomplish the ends for which they were created. The student will also be able to notice, that the Cre- ator has employed the strictest economy with respect to animal organization, every individual being in posses- sion of all the instruments and means with which to ac- complish the ends of its creation, but no more. No su- perfluous organs are bestowed on any, even of the fa- vorites of nature, but always a sufficiency for every destined purpose, both with respect to number and power. In the details of the habits and physiological functions of some of the lower orders of insects, the pupil will prob- ably often find himself greatly excited by curiosity, but it is hoped that he will not therefore neglect or forget the chief design of this work, which is to bring him to the acknowledgement and adoration of a Great First Cause, by making him acquainted with the mechanism and functions of His animated creation. What is said with respect to the economy employed in animal organ- ization ? PART I. MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. THE lowest orders of the animal creation possess neither bones, nerves, sight, or hearing. Some of them are fixed, while others have the power of locomotion, though they possess neither eyes nor ears to direct them in their movements. Some of the medusa tribes can hardly claim the rank of organized beings, appearing when alive like a trans- parent jelly, and when dead leaving nothing but a lim- pid watery fluid into which they dissolve by decompo- sition. The sponges have no higher place as animal existen- ces, being fixed to the bottom of the sea, and having no sensation and no motion, except that by which they ob- tain their food. Many other orders, as the'Hydra, Vorticella, and Infu- soria, are but little removed from these in organization or capacity. Some of these tribes are so little above vegetables in their organization, that they may be pre- served like the seeds of plants. The Rotifer, or wheel animal, which lives and moves in water, may be taken out and dried, when it appears like a grain of dust, and may so be kept for any length of time. But if placed in a drop of water it soon shows its vitality by its brisk voluntary motion, and this alternate life and death the little animal passes through any number of times without What is said of the senses of the lowest orders of animals'? What is said of the medusa T: What is said of the sponges 1 What is said of the rotifer, or wheel animal7? 16 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. injury. In like manner the Gordius, a worm resembling a horse-hair, which inhabits stagnant pools, may be dried, when it has no more signs of life than a piece of wire, and again revived to life by immersion in water. This animal is supposed by many to have derived its existence from a horse-hair accidentally falling into the water. But it is hardly necessary to say that such mis- takes call for a more general knowledge of Animal Physiology. We shall begin our physiological descriptions with the most simple organizations, and gradually passing through those which are more and more complex, finally come to that of our own species. SPONGE. The remains of this animal are in such universal use, and consequently so well known as to require no gene- ral description. It belongs to an order of animals called Zoophytes, which also includes the Corals, the Polypi, and several other races which are only a single grade above vegetables. This order indeed appears to be the connecting link, between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The term Zoophytes signifies " animated plants." The Sponges, of which there are manv species, are all marine animals, living at the bottom of the sea, where they are firmly attached to rocks and stones. These productions in general appearance much more nearly resemble plants than animals ; but in their inter- nal organization and structure they differ entirely from vegetables. Their animal nature is clearly shown by chemical analysis, and by the voluntary motion of some of their parts which resembles respiration. Every part of the surface of a living Sponge presents to the eye two kinds of orifices ; the larger having a rounded shape, and generally a little raised on the mar- What is said of the gordius'? To what order of animals does the sponge belong 1 What is the meaning of the term zoophytes 1 How is the animal nature of the sponge indicated 7 What is said concerning the orifices of the living sponge 1 SPONGE. 17 gins ; the smaller are much more minute, running in all directions, and constituting what are termed the pores of the Sponge. Fig. 1. The structure of the living Sponge is shown by fig, 1, where it will be observed that the larger orifices are much more conspicuous than in the dead one, these ele- vated parts being usually almost obliterated by the death of the animal, and by pressure in packing it for market. From these orifices, Dr. Grant has discovered, that in the living Sponge there is a constant stream of the fluid in which the animal is immersed. A small piece of liv- ing sponge being placed in a watch crystal filled with sea water and the whole placed under a microscope, Dr. Grant perceived some motion among the opaque particles of the fluid. " On moving the watch glass," says he, " so as to bring one of the orifices on the side of the sponge fully into view, I beheld, for the first time, the splendid spectacle of this living fountain, vomiting forth, from a circular cavity, an impetuous torrent of liquid matter, and hurling along, in rapid succession, opaque masses, which were strewed every where around. The beauty and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long arrested my attention, but after twenty- five minutes of constant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from fatigue, without having seen the torrent for one instant change its direction, or diminish, in the slightest degree, the rapidity of its course. I con- What was the experiment by which Dr. G? ant proved that sponge i* an animal I 2* 18 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS, tinued to watch the same orifice, at short intervals, for five hours, sometimes observing it for a quarter of an hour at a time, but still the stream rolled on with a con- stant and equal velocity." The water thus poured forth in a perpetual stream from these apertures is received through the millions of pores which pervade the sponge in every direction, and by this means it is that the animal is nourished. Even fish of several pounds weight will live for weeks, or per- haps months, upon no other nourishment than what is contained in sea water, so that the sustenance of the Sponge by such means presents nothing uncommon. The mechanism by which these currents of water are constantly produced, is involved in obscurity. It is however supposed to consist of cilia, or small hairs lining the inner surfaces of the tubes, the motions of which propel the water through them. These currents are readily made apparent by placing the living animal in a shallow vessel of sea water, and strewing a little powdered chalk on the surface, the motions of which make that of the water plainly visible, as shown in the figure. Manner in which the young Sponges are disseminated. In all parts of creation, whether of the vegetable or ani- mal kingdoms, there is provided effectual means for the dissemination of the species. (For an account of the dissemination of the seeds of plants, see the author's In- troduction to Botany.) For the distribution of the Spon- ges the method provided is singularly curious and interest- ing, and at the same time displays in a most striking manner the care which the Creator has taken to per- petuate his most humble works. On examining certain parts of the Sponge, which when living and wet, is nearly transparent, there is found a multitude of yellow opaque spots, visible to the naked eye. These, when examined with a microscope Whence comes the water which is poured forth from these apertures ? How does the sponge obtain its nourishment 7 By what means is it supposed the currents through the apertures are produced 1 How are the currents made apparent 1 In what manner are the young sponges distributed 1 FOLYPIFERA. 19 are ascertained to be the eggs, or gemmules of the fu- ture animal. In a few months they enlarge in size, and Fig. 2. assume an oval or pear-shaped form, and are covered with cilia, or hairs, as shown by fig. 2. They then become detached from the parent one after another, and float or swim along with the current, always carrying their broad and rounded extrem- ity forward. While thus suspended in the water, the cilia, with which they are cover- ed, are in rapid and perpetual motion, giving them a slow impulse forward. In these movements if they strike against each other, or meet with any other im- pediment, they avoid the difficulty as other animals do, by turning aside and then proceeding in their former course. In some instances when two of these little animals happen to meet, they adhere to each other, and in a few days no line of distinction can be observed be- tween them, the two being united into one individual, and so continue to grow during the rest of their lives. This union appears to be analagous to that of engrafting in plants, only with respect to the young Sponges it is voluntary. After leaving the parent, these little animals float about for a day or two, when finding a suitable place, they fix themselves firmly to a stone or rock, and there gradually increase to the adult size, and in their turn send forth their progeny as above described. These facts of course could only have been ascer- tained by placing the parent sponge in a vessel of sea water. Many of these observations were made in vessels no larger than watch crystals. POLYPIFERA. The term Polypifera is the name of the order, and means animals bearing polypi. The name polypus de- In what manner do they move through the water? What is said of the union of two of these animals into one? What does this union ap- pear to be analagous to ? What becomes of the young sponges after be- ing detached from their parents ? What is the meaning of the term Polypifera ? 20 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. notes a mass of these animals, and polype a single animal. This order embraces many species of very simple animals, chiefly inhabiting salt water. Some of them are exceedingly minute, while others are several inches in length. Each of these curious animals is formed of a tube, attached by its lower end to some solid substance, the upper end being surrounded by a number of flexible fibres or arms, called tentacula. These tentacula radi- ate from a common centre, in the midst of which is the mouth of the animal. A single polype is represented Fig. 3. by fig. 3. The tentacula are eight in number, but in some species are much more numerous. The arrangement of these, on the margin of the mouths of the animals, bears a considera- ble resemblance to a flower with radiating petals, as the daisy and aster. Polypi for the most part reside in cells, or tubes, composed of horny or calcarious matter, in the form of sheaths, which enclose the body of the animal, leaving the tentacula and mouths free for action above their margins. Sometimes these tubes are joined to- Fi°-. 4. gether endwise, like the branches of a tree, leaving lateral apertures for the protrusion of the tentacula of each animal, as shown by fig. 4. In this figure each bundle of radiating fibrils along the branches represents the ten- tacula of a polype. The well known marine substance called coral is the product of the la- bors of certain species of these indus- trious animals. A great number of species are perpetually employed in the construction of different varieties of this substance. Coral is composed of calcarious particles, with a portion of animal, and occasionally coloring matter elaborated into a solid, or porous form, by these animals. What does polype mean 1 Polypus ? Polypi 7 Describe a polype I What are tentacula 7 What common flowers do these animals resem- ble ? What does fig. 4 represent 1 POLYPIPERA. Fig. 6. Fig. 5. A branch of red coral is represented by fig. 5, with the little animals at work on it. Fig. 6 is a part of one of these branches magnified, and showing the tentacula expanded as when the animal is under water ; and also in the con- tracted state, as when the branch is removed from the fluid. These structures are fixed perma- nently to stones or rocks at the bottom of the ocean, which in warm climates are often covered with them to a great extent. It has been ascertained that these fixed zoophytes are multiplied like the sponge, by gemmules, in the manner similar to that already described. The mechanism by which some species of polypi pro- duce a constant current of water towards their mouths is so curious that we should not do justice to this subject without describing it. When the tentacula are expanded, small particles in the water may be observed constantly tending towards the mouths of these animals. This motion of the water is not produced by the motion of the tentacula them- selves, but is- the effect of the rapid vibration of minute cilia placed along their sides. In the species called Flustra Carbacea, the tentacula in each polype are twenty-two in number, and along the Fig. 7. Fig. 8. lateral margins of each, there is a single row of cilia extend- ing from the base to the ter- mination. This animal is re- presented in the posture of forming the current by fig. 7. Fig. 8 is a portion of a tenta- cula highly magnified, to show the cilia, and the manner in which the current is produc- ed. From the positions in which the cilia stand, it will be observed that their mo- 22 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. tions are ascending on the one side, and descending on the other. By these contrary motions the water would be carried around the tentacula in a longitudinal direc- tion, provided it was detached. But many of them be- ing placed around the mouth of the polype, with the motions of the cilia on the outside ascending, and those on the inside descending, it is obvious that the effect is to produce a perpetual current of the fluid to the mouth of the animal, and as the polype subsists on minute in- sects, and particles of decomposing matter which it takes from the water, this wonderful mechanism is evi- dently designed to bring food to its mouth. The vibrations of these cilia, when the animal is vig- orous, are too rapid to be distinguished by the eye, even when assisted by a microscope ; and it is only when it becomes languid, and the motions diminished, that they can be seen. But the effect can be discovered by the naked eye, by the motions of floating particles in the water. HYDRA. To the Zoophytic order belong another tribe of ani- mals called Hydra, which on some accounts are the most singular and curious productions of nature. This ani- mal consists of a stomach with tentacula for catching its food, and nothing more. It exhibits not a trace of either brain, nerves, or organs of sense of any kind ; nor is there any parts corresponding to lungs, heart, arte- ries, or veins, or any other vessels whatever, all those organs so essential to the existence of other animals be- ing entirely wanting. Mr. Trembley, of Geneva, who watched the actions of these animals with unwearied patience for days to- gether, has given the following curious account of what he discovered. What ornamental substance is made by polypi 1 What is composi- tion of coral 7 In what manner are polypi multiplied 1 Explain fig. 7 and 8. In what manner do polypi produce a constant current of water towards their mouths 1 What purpose does this current answer to the animal? What parts pertaining to other animals are wanting in the hydra? HYDRA.' 23 The Hydra are fresh water animals of very diminu- tive size, and are generally fixed to some solid body, as a stick or leaf, by the tail, though they have the power of detaching themselves and of moving slowly through the water. They are carnivorous animals, and though they do not chase their prey, they devour all kinds of living creatures coming within reach of their tentacula, which they can manage. Worms longer than them- selves they devour, by first doubling them together by means of their long arms. A Hydra in the act of gorging a worm of twice its own size is seen at fig. 9. The poor worm is completely entangled within the folds of the ten- tacula, while the voracious animal, with expanded mouth is absorbing its juices, so as to bring it within the capacity of himself. It sometimes happens that when two of these animals have siezed the same worm by different ends, a violent struggle ensues between them, and the stronger, having gained the victory,- not only swallows the object of con- Fig. 10. tention, but his antagonist along with it. Fig. 10 represents such a case, the tail of the swallowed animal protruding from the mouth of the victor. But the former soon extricates himself from this dilemma, without having suffered the least injury, and indeed is often the gainer, by retaining a portion of the object of contention to himself. But the most singular, and indeed, astonishing facts which Mr. Trembley ascertained with respect to these animals, are, that they have the power of repairing all sorts of injuries and mutilations inflicted on them, and of still digesting their food, and of recovering a good de- gree of health after being turned wrong side out. If their tentacula be clipped off they soon grow again. If the animal be cut in two, across the middle, there will sprout forth a new head from one part, and a new tail from the other, together with such portions of the body in each case as were wanted to make a good and What is said of the power of the hydra to reproduce mutilations 1 2 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. complete animal. If the head of the Hydra and a por- tion of the body be divided by a longitudinal section, the animal is thereby the gainer, for the divided parts form two heads instead of one, with complete sets of tentacula for each mouth, and thus he can enjoy the sat- isfaction of eating with two mouths at the same time. If the head be split into half a dozen parts, each part will form a new head with mouth and tentacula to match, Fig. 11. the whole being united to one body. Fig. 11 represents a seven headed monster, the result of several mutila- tions and divisions of one of these pro- tean creatures. Sometimes of its own accord a Hy- dra will split in two parts lengthwise, each division becoming independent of the other, and growing to the same size, and attaining the same organs as the original animal. Mr. Trembley also found that any portion of one Hydra might be engrafted on another, in the same man- ner that pieces of India rubber may be joined, that is, by cutting their surfaces and pressing them together. By this means they would unite and become a compound animal. Thus many heads may be united to one body, or many bodies to one head ; and so on the contrary when one Hydra is introduced into the mouth of another so that their heads are kept in contact, for a time, they unite and become one individual animal. Even the figures of other animals, as quadrupeds, or man, might be constructed in this manner, though every where covered with moving tentacula. PENNATUL.E. Another form under which polypi exist, is that called Pennatula. This is called sea pen, from its re- How may parts of these animals be engrafted upon each other? some account of the pennatulae. PENNATULJ3. 25 Fig. 12. Fig. 13. semblance to a quill. It consists of a calcareous stem, the upper end of which has a series of branches on each side, resembling the filaments of a feather, and in the end of each of which re- sides an animal, the whole being represented by fig. 12. Some of the polypi are seen magnified in fig. 13. These animals are not fixed like those we have described, but float along with the currents of the ocean, having little or perhaps no power of locomotion, though the movements of their tentacula are sufficient to prevent their sinking, and to enable them to rise slowly in the water. The Pennatulaa must be considered as a mass of dis- tinct animals aggregated together to form, in many re- spects, one individual. In Botany the class Syngenesia presents many distinct flowers assembled together to form a single compound individual, as the Thistle and Dandelion, each individual being on the same receptacle, and supported by the same stem. So far, therefore, as aggregation is concerned, there is a strict analogy be- tween a compound flower and the Pennatulae. But while each individual of the Syngenesian flowers re- ceives its nourishment through the same stem, the cor- responding part of the compound animal, which is a common stomach, receives its nourishment through hun- dreds of mouths, so that here the analogy fails. In the Pennatulae each mouth leads into a separate stomach, whence the food, after digestion, passes into several channels, which proceed in different directions from the cavity of each stomach, dividing into many branches, and being distributed over all the surrounding portions of flesh. These branches communicate with similar channels proceeding from the neighboring stom- What is said of the stomach of the pinnatulae'? 3 26 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. achs ; so that the food which has been taken in by one of the mouths, contributes to the general nourishment of Fig. 14. the whole mass of aggregated polypi. These curious facts were discovered by Cuvier, and are re- presented by fig. 14, where the stomachs of the three polypi, with their tentacula spread out, are seen communicating at their lower extremities with a canal, which thus be- comes a common stomach to the whole colony. INFUSORIA. The Infusory insects, or Infusoria, were so named from the circumstance that they always appear during the warm seasons, in water in which vegetable or animal substances have been infused. Hence they exist in stagnant ditches and pools of water, every where du- ring the summer and autumn. These animals are generally too minute to be distinguished by the naked eye, and therefore it is to microscopic observations that we owe our knowledge of their existence and habits. Former writers on natural history have called these animalcula, monads, and have regarded them as occu- pying the very lowest rank of animal creation. Some have even expressed doubts whether they really belong to the animal kingdom ; but would rather consider them as molecules, or the elementary particles of organic be- ings, separated from each other by chemical decompo- sition, but retaining the power of voluntary motion. The Infusoria, during the last century, have been the object of veiy laborious microscopical research ; no nat- uralist considering himself accomplished until he had spent a considerable portion of time in observing the motions and studying the characters of these animated particles. Many theories, conjectures, and disputes Whence do the infusoria derive their name 7 What was the former .name for infusoria 7 INFUSORIA. 27 arose in consequence of such observations ; some con- tending that Monads were merely living globules with- out animal organization, but capable of uniting into ani- mated masses, and thus of forming the flesh and blood of organized creatures. According to this doctrine, all other animals, including us, human beings, are nothing more than great congregations of Monads. That great naturalist, Buffon, was the author of this hypothesis, and therefore it is hardly necessary to say that it had many profound advocates. It would neither interest nor in- struct the student in physiology to give a detail of other opinions concerning these living motes, since the more perfect microscopes of later philosophers have shown that these animals are regularly and carefully organized, having not only a stomach, but such other organs as fit them for their station in life. Wheel Animal. — The Rotifera, or wheel animalcula, Fig. 15. is one of the Infusoria race, though larger than the monad. Fig. 15. re- presents an animal of this order, mag- nified 380 times its natural size. Its name is derived from the apparatus which it possesses for creating a cir- cular current in the water. The or- gans by which this effect is produced are two in number, and are seen at the top of the figure. They are situa- ted on the head, but do not surround the mouth, like the tentacula of the polypi. They consist of circular disks, the margins of which are fringed with rows of cilia, bearing a resemblance to a crown wheel in machinery. These wheels appear to be incessantly revolving, and generally in one direction, giving to the fluid a rotary impulse, which carries it around in a con- tinual vortex. The constancy of this motion would seem to indicate that it is as necessary to the life of the animal as respiration is to the higher orders ; the revolu- What was the opinion of Buffon with respect to monads 7 What pe- culiarity do the rotifera exhibit 1 Is the revolution of the wheel of the rotifera real, or only apparent 1 28 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. tions never ceasing so long as the animal is alive. This motion, when considered merely with respect to the mechanism by which it is produced, cannot but excite intense curiosity ; for we have no analogy in the organi- zation of any other animal with which to compare it, nor from all we know on the subject should we believe it possible that a circular motion of a part of an animal could be continued for any length of time in the same direction. What animal or other substance will with- stand perpetual twisting in one direction ? and yet if there is no deception with respect to the revolutions of these wheels, one would be led to suppose such a sub- stance. The appearance is undoubtedly that of a con- stant revolution of the wheel itself, but recent observers, however, believe it to be only apparent, and the decep- tion to be caused by a peculiar and exceedingly rapid motion of the cilia on the margin of the wheels. Physalia, or Portuguese Man-of-War. — This animal greatly excels in size those we have heretofore descri- bed, but scarcely ranks above them in organization ; its powers of motion being merely such as to enable it to rise and sink in the water. It consists of a large air bladder, of perhaps a quart in capacity, which floats on the surface of the ocean, and which serves it as a sail. Below this there is a bundle of tentacula, with a mouth and stomach, the whole appear- ing more like an inorganic mass than a living creature, Fig. 16. fig. 16. These animals are very abundant in most parts of the At- lantic ocean, where they appear at a little distance like so many large soap bubbles floating along before the wind, only that they pre- I sent the most vivid hues of color. 'Nothing, it is said, can exceed the beauty of the spectacle pre- sented by a numerous fleet of these animals quietly sailing on the smooth surface of a tropical sea. Whenever the surface is ruffled by the slightest wind, they suddenly INFUSORIA. absorb the air from their viscicles, and thus, becoming specifically heavier than the water, immediately disap- pear by sinking into the depths of the ocean. By what process they effect the absorption and reproduction of the air in their bubbles, yet remains to be discovered." Echinus. — The shell, or skeleton of this animal is well Fig. 17. known under the name of sea urchin, or sea egg, and is re- presented by fig. 17. Its form is spheroidal, resembling that of an orange. On the outside there are a great number of tubercles arranged in double lines in beautiful symmetry, from the mouth downwards, and form- ing meridian lines from one pole of the sphere to the other. Each of these are little balls, smooth, and polish- ed on the outside, and which serve for the articulation of the bases of the spine, with which, when alive, this animal is covered. When examined by a magnifier, it will be seen that the end of the spine has a socket ex- actly fitting this ball, thus forming the ball and socket joint, which has a universal motion. The head of the spine is furnished with a capsular ligament to keep it in place, and around which are sets of radiating muscular fibres, by which motion in all directions is given it. The shell is constructed of calcareous matter, and is composed of oblong six sided plates, accurately fitting each other, and arranged in rows like a mosaic pave- ment, as seen by fig. 18. There is a wonderful pro- Fig. 18. Fig. 19. vision by which the globular shell of the Echinus is enlarged accord- ing to the wants of the internal ani- Imal, for some species grow from I the size of a pins' head, to six or eight inches in diameter. This is accomplished by dividing the shell into a great number of six sided How are the spines of the echinus fitted to its shell! What motion have these spines 1 In what manner is the house of the echinus enlarged 1 3* 30 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS*- pieces, as seen by the above figure, and of allowing stant additions to be made to the margins of these pie- ces. In this manner it is obvious that the whole struc- ture would be enlarged without changing the shape. Fig. 19 shows the appearance of these plates when magnified. By employing his spines as feet, or levers, this animal is capable of making considerable progress along the bottom of the sea. MOtLUSCA. The Mollusca, as the name signifies, are animals with soft bodies. They have neither bones, nor hard parts corresponding to the bones of the higher orders of ani- mals. This order includes all those animals which live in calcareous habitations, constructed by themselves, and so far as they are popularly known, are called shell fish, as the Oyster, Muscle, and Clam. The shells of the Mollusca are formed either of one or of several pieces, which are called valves. Those of one piece are called univalves, those consisting of two pieces are termed bivalves, and those of more than two pieces are multivalves. This order presents a vast number, and variety of in- dividuals, many of which have been minutely examined, and arranged into species, genera, and orders, forming a distinct object of study, entitled the science of CON- CHOLOGY. It is proper, however, to state, that this sci- ence is not founded on the physiology of the animals which inhabit these shells, but on the forms and peculi- arities of the shells themselves. This arose, originally, from the necessity of the case, for in a great many in- stances the shell is readily obtained, being cast upon the sea shore, empty, while the animal which inhabited it is never seen, because while alive it lived only in the un- fathomable depths of the ocean. But could the classi- fication have been founded on the animal organization, it is obvious that this method would be practicable only to a few, since the animals could not be preserved for What does the term mollusca signify 1 What are molluscous animals? ACEPHALA. 31 any length of time. Besides, it being the object of the conchologist to collect, arrange, and preserve some of the greatest beauties which nature has presented to us, in the form of shells, this object could be effected only by an arrangement founded on the shells themselves. Without going further into the general subject of this order, we shall examine a few individuals as types of their general organization, so far as this is known. ACEPHALA. This term means without head, and common exam- ples exist in the Muscle, Oyster, and Scollop. These are bivalve shells, the two valves being united at the back by a hinge, and connected by teeth which lock into each other. Besides these, the two shells are connected by Fiff. 20. means of a strong ligament in form of a short pillar, a b, represented in fig. 20, which are the two valves of a spe- cies of [/mo, or fresh water Clam. These ligaments are very distinct in the common species of Venus, called Round Clam, seen in all the fish markets of the Atlantic states. These ligaments hold the two valves together with great force, so that when the animal is alive it is difficult to separate them without a knife. There is also in all bivalve shells, a cartilage, gene- rally of a dark color, situated between the two valves at the hinge, the office of which is to force them asunder. 32 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Now as the nourishment of the animal requires that the shell should be kept open to a small distance for the admission of the water, and as its safety might require it to be closed suddenly, provision is made for this action, by a strong muscle passing from one of the valves to the other, and by which they are instantly brought to- gether at the will of the animal. Thus we see that the Creator has furnished these ani- mals with every comfort and convenience which it would be possible for them to enjoy in the situation in which they are placed. A pair of hard shells to protect them — a cartilage, answering as a spring to keep these shells a little open, to admit the water from which they obtain food and air — a ligament, to prevent the shells from opening too widely, in which case the sand and mud would destroy the animal — and a muscle by which he can in an instant close his doors, and become proof against the attack of the most voracious monsters of the deep. When the animal dies the muscular force ceases, but the cartilage retains for some time its elasticity, and the ligament continues its adhesion to the valves, and from these circumstances it is that we find the shells cast upon the shore, only open to a certain distance, until after the destruction of the ligament, when the cartilage throws them quite open. Several of the bivalve Mollusca have the power of giving themselves a considerable motion, by suddenly closing their shells, and thus forcibly expelling the water from between them. The reaction of the fluid on the temporary current thus produced, may often be seen to throw the shell many inches in the opposite direction. The common Scollop contrives to give itself motion, even on the shore, by suddenly and forcibly closing its valves ; one of which, striking against some impediment, as a pebble, acts as a spring, and thus throws it to a little distance. It is said that when left by the tide, they often reach the \vater in this way. In bivalve shells, when the animal is alive, how are the shells kept open ? What prevents them from opening too widely 1 How are the shells sud- denly brought together 1 Why are bivalve shells generally found only partly open on the shored In what manner do some of these animals give themselves a sudden motion in the water? How is it said the scol- lop contrives to more on the shore ? ACEPHALA. 33 The Cardium. — Other bivalves are furnished with an instrument shaped somewhat like a foot and leg, with which they give themselves a slow, but continued motion through the sand. The form of this in- strument in the Cardium or code, is shown by fig. 21. This > organ is a hard mass of muscu- lar fibres, woven together in a very complex manner, and capable of motion in every direction. By retracting, and then forcing this instru- ment forward, a contrary motion is given the shell, for the same reason that a boatman, in shallow water, pushes his craft along with an oar from the stern. With his foot the Cardium also contrives to bury himself to any depth he chooses in the sand or mud. For this pur- pose the leg is elongated, and by a sort of vermicular motion is forced deep into the sand ; then turning up the toe, and forming it into a kind of hook, the animal, by an alternate retraction and elongation of the leg, raises and depresses the shell, and by the resistance of the sand on the hook gradually draws the whole down- wards. By a reverse of this motion, that is, by first drawing up the foot, and then pushing it downwards against the sand, the shell is again forced towards the surface. In this manner does the Cardium bury itself in the sand, in the course of a minute or two, to avoid danger, and as quickly emerges from its hiding place when the danger is past. With an instrument similar to that belonging to the Cardium, many species of bivalve mollusca move along on the sandy bottoms of the water in which they live, with greater or less facility. In nearly every still pond, or river, the furrows left by the passage of Unios, or fresh water clams, may be seen running in every direc- tion, and made in this manner. In what manner does the cardium move ? How does the cardium bury itself in the sand 7 34 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. CEPHALOPODA. Among the mollusca, next to the acephala, in the or- der of organic developement, come the Cephalopoda, a name which signifies head-footed, in allusion to the situa- tion of the organs of locomotion, which are on the head. These parts consist of many long, flexible, muscular legs, or fleshy processes, situated like the tentacula of the polypi, around the opening of the mouth. These members answer the double purposes of legs and arms, of feet and hands, for they are not only employed as organs of locomotion, but as those of prehension also. The Cuttle Fish. — One of these most singular ani- mals is represented by fig. 22, being one of the Sepice. or Cuttle fish tribe, called Loligo, or Calamary. In addition to the prehensile powers of these tentacu- la, by which they grasp objects with great force, by twining around them, they also have the power of ad- hesion by means of suckers, in the form of tubercles placed along their inner sides, as shown in the figure. " So great is the force" says Mr. Roget " with which the tentacula of the Cuttle fish adhere to bodies by means of this apparatus, that while their muscular fibres continue contracted, it is easier to tear away the sub- stance of the limb, than to release it from its attach- ments. Even in the dead animal," he continues, " I have found that the suckers retain considerable power of adhesion to any smooth surface to which they may be applied." What is the meaning of the term cephalopoda ? Why is this term ap^ plied to certain animals 1 Give some description of the cuttle fish. CRUSTACEA. 35 Besides the tentacula, the Cuttle fish is furnished with a pair of arms, with the ends expanded and also fur- nished with suckers. These long members are employ- ed as cables, and the suckers as anchors, by which, these animals fix themselves firmly to rocks during violent agitations of the sea, and without which they would un- doubtedly sometimes be dashed to death against the rocky shores. These long arms are not employed by the animal in swimming, the short ones being used as oars for the purpose of impelling this singular creature, not forward but backward, for in this manner do all the Cuttle fish tribe swim. Some of them are 15 or 20 feet long. ARTICULATA. The animals now to be noticed are articulated, or are provided with joints, by means of which their hard and inflexible parts become the instruments of motion. Hence this division includes animals having joints, wheth- er large or small, and by which they are at once distin- guished from the mollusca, where nothing analagous to articulation exists. This division contains a vast assem- blage of living beings, including the Insects, Fishes, and Quadrupeds. The limits of this work will however al- low an account of the physiology of only a few of the most curious and important. CRUSTACEA. The Crustacea are animals encased in a compact, crusty frame-work, composed chiefly of carbonate of lime, as the Lobster, and Crab. The joints of Crustaceous animals are constructed in the most admirable manner, by which in most cases every part of the limb can be moved in all directions. They have either three or four pairs of legs, each of which is divided into five pieces, by as many joints. On each side of the head there is a long, and often very Why are certain animals denominated articulata? What races of animals are articulated ? What are the Crustacea 1 What parts of these animals are called antennae 7 36 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. delicately formed instruments called antenna, or feelers. These, in the Lobster are many inches in length, and composed of a great number of rings, articulated to each other in a most beautiful manner, and furnished with minute muscles on the inside, so as to give them motions in all possible directions, at the will of the ani- mal. Some naturalists have supposed that these are not merely the organs of feeling, but that they might also serve for that of hearing, or smelling also. As the coverings of the Crustacea are composed of hard unyielding substances, it is obvious that the animal within must be restrained in its growth, unless some means were provided by which it could relieve itself from such confinement, and accordingly, as nature every where provides for the comfort and perpetuity of the lowest, as well as the highest of her works, so in the case before us, the animal has the power of casting off its old covering when it becomes too small, the same be- ing soon after replaced by a new one, of ample dimen- sions. The pocess of casting the Shell. — These animals cast their shells once a year ; and the manner in which the Lobster, as an example, draws himself out of his old case, his condition afterwards, and the incipient forma- tion of the new shell, has been particularly investigated by the celebrated Reaumur. The Lobster, for some time before the process begins, becomes exceedingly restless, undoubtedly from the pain excited by the pressure of its shell, and thus the poor animal is under the necessity of making violent ef- forts to relieve itself. By this means the shell is burst open along the chest, between the insertion of the legs. The claws are the first parts withdrawn from their sheaths, and next the feet, both of which seem to require much muscular exertion ; the head next throws off its case, together with the many jointed antennae, and the two eyes are disengaged from their horny pedicels. In this operation, not only the complex apparatus of the What provision has nature made for the growth of the Crustacea ? In what manner does the lobster cast off its crusty covering? CRUSTACEA. 37 jaws, but even the horny cuticle and teeth of the stom- ach, are all cast off along with the shell ; and last of all the tail is extricated. The whole process is not accom- plished without long continued, violent, and painful ef- forts. Sometimes the legs are lacerated, or even torn off in attempting to withdraw them from the shell, and not unfrequently in the younger animal, death follows before, or soon after, its accomplishment. Even under the most favorable circumstances, the denuded animal is left in the most languid and helpless condition, the limbs being so soft, and pliant as by the utmost exertion, to be scarcely able to draw the body along. The flesh is not, however, left entirely without de- fence, for before the old shell is cast away, preparations have commenced for a new one ; the membrane sur- rounding the entire animal, and which by the addition of new matter becomes the future shell, having already acquired some density. As soon as the old shell is cast off, this membrane which was flabby and wrinkled, be- comes tense by the expansion, or sudden growth of the animal, so that the new shell is much larger than the old one. The process of hardening, and thickening now proceeds rapidly, and the animal soon acquires the per- fect use of its limbs, with the addition of about one fifth of its former weight. The Lobster, like some species of polypi, already de- scribed, when it happens to loose a limb, soon acquires a new one in its place. Possibly the instinct of the ani- mal has taught it this fact, for when caught by one of the claws, it will sometimes by a sudden jerk break the limb off at the first joint, or at its junction with the trunk, at which place it appears that the new limb grows with the greatest facility. With respect to the growth of the new claw, Reaumur observed that the w7ound left by the old one soon be- comes covered by a delicate white membrane, with a convex surface. This is gradually pushed forward, be- coming thinner as it is stretched, until it gives way, and exposes the little new claw in the soft state. The new part now enlarges rapidly, and in a few days, acquires a shell as hard as the old one. It however does not at- 38 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. tain the size of the preceeding claw, or its mate, and this is the reason why we often see, both Lobsters and Crabs, with one of these parts much smaller than the other. INSECTS. This division of animals derives its name from the Latin insecto, which signifies " to cut," because most of them appear nearly divided by an incision through the middle. The natural history of this class of animals affords a highly interesting, useful and curious field of inquiry. It is a subject, in which it appears to us, the most in- curious can hardly avoid to take more or less interest, since its objects are so common and so diversified in ap- pearance, as to have forced themselves, more or less, on the notice of every one who has his perfect senses. Insects have organs of locomotion, sensation, sight and taste, and many of them are endowed with the most wonderful instincts ; but they have neither heart, arteries nor lungs, though some of them have parts analagous to the two latter organs. Changes in the Forms of Insects. — Most Insects begin their lives in the form of larvae, or worms, the power of flight being reserved until after having passed through several preparatory changes, they attain their perfect state. These changes are termed metamorphoses, and are most conveniently seen, in the Lepidopterous, or But- terfly tribes. Beginning with the hatching of the egg, laid by the Butterfly, the following changes take place, before a Butterfly is again produced. Most of these eggs are no larger than mustard seeds, and are attached to the leaves of plants on which the future larva, or caterpillar is to feed. In this the Butterfly is directed by that most mysterious property, called instinct, and by which she never fails to place her eggs on such plants as are the most proper food for her future progeny. Thus some What is said of the lobster acquiring a new claw in place of one de- stroyed 7 Whence is the term insect derived 7 What organs have in- sects ? In what form do insects begin their lives 1 INSECTS. 39 species place their eggs on nettles, others on the parsnip, others on the cabbage, &c., and it is found that if the caterpillars produced, are transferred from one of these plants to the other, they in most cases die of starvation, or improper food, being unable to partake of any other, except that on which they are found. The young caterpillar is at first exceedingly small, being often less than a line in length. As they enlarge in size their skins, being at first somewhat elastic, are stretched so as to accommodate their growth. But this part growing more firm with age, finally refuses to yield any further to the growth of the animal. It is then cast off in the following manner. The worm fastens the old skin to the side of a leaf, and then breaks through that part which covers the head, and liberating its fore feet, gradually draws the body out, the skin remaining sta- tionary. But before this is done, a new skin has been prepared underneath, more capacious than the former, and which again for a time allows the insect to grow. This, however, in its turn becomes too small ; or rather the caterpillar becomes again too large for its skin, and the same process is repeated four or five times before the full size is attained. When the larva is fully grown, and therefore when there is no further necessity for a new skin, it makes a much more decided and important change than those it had before undergone ; for although it had thrown off coat after coat, it still had become nothing more than a worm. But now it not only strips itself of the cater- pillar's skin for the last time, but so changes its form as to have no appearance of what it was before. It is wrap- ped in a shroud of skin, presenting no vestige of its form- er legs, mouth, or any oth^r member. It is fixed in its place by a rope of silk, or wound up in a cocoon of the same material, and presents, in either case, scarcely any signs of life. In this condition it is said to be in its pupa, or chrysalis state. What is said of the different plants on which the butterfly lays her eggs 1 What change takes place when the larva passes to the chrysalis 1 40 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Fig. 25. The Silk Worm. — Of the silk worm, Fig. 24, represents Fig. 24. the full grown caterpillar, and Fig. 25 the chrys- alis which it pro- duces, the latter being deprived of its cocoon in order to show its form and size. The chrysalis remains in this state for various lengths of time, depending on the species to which it belongs, or on the warmth to which it is exposed. Some Insects continue in this state for years, while others emerge and become perfect in a week, or two. During this time the organs which are to serve them in their future, and more elevated career, are preparing ; although very little change can be observed in the size, or appearance of the chrysalis. When the time arrives that these several organs are completely formed, and the butterfly is ready to assume its rank among the beautiful and lively inhabitants of the air, then it is that the insect bursts the shroud in which it has so long been enclosed, and comes forth in form and colors so beautiful, and in spirits, so joyous Fig. 26. and sportive, as amply to compensate for its inglorious, and degrad- ed origin. Our Insect has now arrived to its imago, perfect, or butterfly state, the Moth, of the Silk Worm being rep- resentes by Fig. 26. Through these several changes do all the butterflies, and a great proportion of the Insects, properly so called, pass. Some of them enjoy their perfect state only for a short time, a few hours ; while others continue to dis- play their beauties, and wanton among the sweets of the How long do insects remain in the chrysalis state, 1. METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 41 garden for weeks or months. In all cases they deposite eggs for a future race, before their final exit. The Moth, or as it is more commonly called the But- terfly, of the silk worm, has, like all other Insects, six legs. The wings are four, of a greyish white color, with two transverse undulated bands across them. They are far from being beautiful when compared with most others of the same race, and are also entirely void of that sportive vivacity, so common to most other species. METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. The subject of Insect metamorphos has excited cu- riosity, and has been the object of inquiry and inves- tigation among naturalists and philosophers in all ages of the world. Having given a detail of the changes which take place during this process in a single species, we are now prepared to pursue this wonderful subject more at large, and to shew the variety and difference of circumstances which attend the same changes in other species. Messrs. Kirby and Spence, in one of the best works ever written on Insects, introduce the subject of their metamorphoses in the following manner. "Were a naturalist to announce to the world the discovery of an animal, which, for the first five years of its life existed in the form of a serpent, which then, penetrating into the earth, and weaving a shroud of pure silk of the finest texture, contracted itself within this covering into a body without external mouth or limbs, and resembling more than any thing else an Egyptian mummy ; and which, lastly, after remaining in this state, without food, and without motion, for three years longer, should, at the end of that period, burst its silken cerements, strug- gle through its earthy covering, and start into day a winged bird — what think you would be the sensation excited by this intelligence ? After the first doubts of its truth were dispelled, what astonishment would sue. ceed ! Among the learned wrhat surmises, what inves. What is said of the time which the chrysalids of insects remain in the jorpid state ? 4* 42 MECHANCAL FUNCTXOjrS. tigations ! Among the vulgar what eager curiosity, what amazement." In the same spirit, Swammardam, who spent most of his life in making observations on Insects, observes on the same subject : " This history is so extraordinary, so ama- zing in all its circumstances, that it might very well pass for a romance, were it not built upon the most firm foundations of truth," With respect to the size and appearance of the cater- pillars and of the chrysalids they form, as well as the situ- ations in which they are placed, and the time of remain- ing in the torpid state, there are nearly as many varie- ties as there are species of Insects. Some larvae de- scend deep into the ground before they assume the tor- pid state, and there remain three or four years before they acquire wings. Others weave small cocoons, and having thus covered themselves in beds of silk, then change to chrysalids. These are sometimes construct- ed in the earth, and sometimes attached to the sides of fences, or the side of any vessel in which the worm is confined. If confined in a glass vessel the observer may witness the whole process of weaving the cocoon, and of casting off the old skin, by which the chrysalis be- comes apparent. The positions in which the larvae place themselves in order to undergo this change, are also extremely various. One species suspends itself to a leaf with it she ad down- wards, being only fixed by the tail ; another passes a rope of silk around its neck, and thus hangs in an oblique position ; while others are simply glued in a horizontal position, in any convenient place. Larva which feeds on the parsnip. — There is a com- mon larva which may be seen feeding on the leaves of parsnips in the autumn, and which every one has noticed en account of its handsome appearance, and the fetid odor which it emits on being disturbed. The color is greenish yellow, with bands of velvety black, and when full grown it is nearly two inches long. The younger ones of this caterpillar would at first be taken for a different What is said of the positions in which ehry salids are placed ? METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 43 species, being dotted, or sprinkled, with yellow and black, instead of having the colors well defined. If the young naturalist will take a sprig of the parsley, with one of these on it, and put the whole into a glass jar, or other place of confinement, taking care to water the plant, he will soon find it to be identical with the large ones. This larva is remarkable for having on the back of the neck, an instrument composed of two fleshy horns, branching from a common stem somewhat like the letter Y. This organ appears to be similar in some respects to the horns of snails, and is capable of similar move- ments, being completely retractile. When the animal is irritated these horns are projected, and it appears from the observation of Reaumur, that this organ se- cretes an acid liquor, which emits the unpleasant smell, and which every one who has touched one of these wrorms cannot but have perceived. Reaumur supposes that this acid is a means of defence against the attacks of the ichneumon, a small fly which deposits its eggs in the flesh of the larvae of various insects. This larva, when spinning the silken cord by which it 27. Fig. 28. *S tO ^.e suPPorted m ^e chrysalis state invaria- bly fixes it around the neck at the junction of the fifth and sixth segments, where there is a cavity in which it is kept from sliding back- wards or forwards. This cord appears to pass un- der the skin of the chrysa- lis, but on examination with a magnifier, it will be seen, only almost con- cealed in a deep channel. The larva and its chrysa- lis, both of the natural size, are represented by Fig. 27 and 28 ; the latter being suspended by the cord in the manner described. 44 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Difference in the Chry solids of Butterflies and Moths. There are differences between the chrysalids of butter- flies and moths, and also between these species of In- sects, which it is proper to point out at this place. The Fig- 29. chrysalids of Butterflies are naked, that is, they are not covered with cocoons, but are attached to trees, or other substances, by ' silken cords, passing around the neck, (Fig. 28,) or are attached by the tip, and hang suspended as represented by Fig. 29. They are also angular. The antennae of Butter- flies are club-shaped, that is, they are thick- est towards the tip, or end in a bulb, as seen by Fig. 30. Fig. 30. The chrysalids of the Moths, or Millers, as they are sometimes called, are commonly short cones Fig. 31. composed of several rings, and presenting no angles. They are usually enclosed in brown silk cocoons, sometimes glued to the sides of • trees, or fences, and sometimes buried in the ground. A few are naked, and are suspended by the small end. Fig. 31 represents the most common form. Both forms of chrysa- lids are occasionally dotted with spots exactly resembling gold. What difference is there [between the chrysalis of a butterfly and a moth 1 What is the difference between the antennae of these insects ? METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 45 The antennae of Moths are somewhat sword-shaped, Fix>< 32 tapering from the inser- tion to the point, and are sometimes fringed, Fig. 32. The Butterflies are diurnal insects, flying only in the day. The Moths are nocturnal, seldom flying except at night, or after sun set. Some of the small spe- cies are, however, occasionally seen by day. Some of this tribe, called Hawk Moths, have a pro- boscis, or tongue several inches long, by means of which they pump the honey from the nectaries of flowers. Both Butterflies and Moths, are furnished with four wings, six legs, a proboscis, and suck honey as their chief aliment. Change from the Chnjsalis to the Butterfly. — Swam- mardam, one of the oldest and best authorities on the anatomy of larvae, demonstrated that even before the time when the caterpillar changes into the chrysalis, all the parts of a butterfly may be discovered within its skin. His directions for observing this phenomenon are, to take a full grown caterpillar, and having tied it to a thread, put it into boiling water, and take it out soon after ; thus its external skin will separate, and may be easily drawn off from the Butterfly, which is contained folded up in it. This done, it is clearly and distinctly seen, that within this skin of the caterpillar, a perfect and real Butterfly was hidden. On examining certain chrysalids, which are covered with a light colored shroud, and consequently translu- cent, we are able to discovert he eyes of the Butterfly, as well as its wings, which are of small size and folded upon the sides. There may also be observed several slender ribs or divisions, arising from the head, and What ist he difference in their time of flying'? What is said of the existence of the butterfly within the skin of the larva'? What is said of the butterfly in the chrysalis 1 46 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. which on more minute examination may be seen to con- sist of the two filaments of the tongue, or proboscis, the legs, and the antennae of the Butterfly. It appears therefore, that during the chrysalis state, the future organs \vhich the Butterfly requires are in the progress of perfection, as those of the chicken are in the egg, and that when the Insect has remained under this form, a sufficient length of time for these parts to fain a proper degree of consistence and strength, it then ursts open the membrane, and makes its escape, as the young quail does from its egg-shell. Just before the Butterfly emerges from its confine- ment, it is easy to see, in some chrysalids, the form of the legs, antennas, and tongue, and even the color of the wings. The extremities of the legs may be seen to move, the wings to enlarge, and finally the whole insect to struggle as if determined no longer to submit to con- finement. After a few such efforts, the membrane of the chrysalis gives way in a longitudinal rent down the back, where a suture may be observed, undoubtedly for this purpose. The rent then extends over the head, and down the breast, and after various efforts and contor- tions, the butterfly finally disengages itself entirely from its covering, leaving it divided into several sections, as Fig. 33. represented by Fig. 33. But the Insect though now disengaged from its prison, has not yet attained its full perfection, for besides being exceedingly weak, so as hardly to be able to crawl, its wings are folded and doubled together in such a manner as to make them appear like pieces of wet paper, as shown by Fig. 34. The spots and markings are also indistinct, as though their wet condition had made the colors run into each other. But they expand with such rapidity, that, accord- ing to Swammardam, "the naked eye , cannot trace their unfolding, for, from reaching scarce half the length of the body, they acquire, O miracle of mira- cles ! in the short space of about half a quarter of an hour, their full extent, and METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 47 bigness." The colorings peculiar to each species also become defined and perfect as the wings expand. The means employed to effect a change so wonder- ful with respect to the wings, and in so short a time, has not been left unexplained. The Wings of the young Butterfly, how expanded. — The wings of Butterflies are composed of two fine membranes between which are little veins or ribs re- sembling those of the leaves of some plants. These may be seen by the naked eye, when the scales, or dust which colors the wings is rubbed off, and are called nervures. They are hollow tubes, having a communi- cation at the insertion of the wing with the body of the Insect. Into these, the young Butterfly forces a quanti- ty of air, and perhaps also a fluid, and by the distention of which, the folds and wrinkles of the soft and wet wings are in a few moments obliterated. The nervures, and also the fully developed wings are shown by Fig. 35. These when compared with Fig. 34, will show the change produced by the means above described in " half a quar- ter of an hour," and at the sight of which Swammardam could not help exclaiming, O ! miracle of miracles ! The whole process, indeed, from the hatching of the egg, to the perfection of the Butterfly, though not a miracle, be- cause the whole is in the ordinary course of nature, must ever be considered among the most wonderful se- In what manner does the butterfly make its escape from the chrysalis ? Is the insect perfect when thus disengaged 1 In what manner are the new wings of the butterfly unfolded and distended '« 48 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. ries of natural phenomena which man has been allowed to witness. Who can study such traits of nature, with- out acknowledging the care, design, and wisdom of the Creator to be displayed in them in a most striking and wonderful degree. Wing Scales of Butterflies. — The soft down which covers the wings of Butterflies and Moths, which ap- pears like the finest dust, and by which all the splendid variety of colors are given to these insects, is found when magnified, to consist, of scales, or feathers, of different, but regular forms. It is from these scales that the name of this genus, Lepidoptera, "scaly-winged," is given. According to some naturalists, these minute parts should be considered rather as feathers than as scales, since they are affixed to the wings by minute quills. But others consider them as scales from their being composed of merely membranous plates, having nothing in common with feathers excepting perhaps, the manner in which they are attached. The reader may have the Fig. 36. . opportunity of deciding this matter for himself, by con- sulting Fig. 36, where the forms of a number of these parts are shown, highly magnified. The number of these on the wings of the larger Butterflies, must amount METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 49 to millions, since Leuwenhoeck, the best observer on such subjects, found more than 400,000, of them on the wings of the silk worm Moth, which is comparatively a small Insect. The construction and arrangement of the parts of these scales are very regular and beautiful, their sur- faces being striated with parallel, and equidistant lines, the distinct visibility of which, in those from the Pontia brassica or cabbage Butterfly, is considered as afford- ing an excellent test of the goodness of microscopes. The forms of these scales as seen by the adjoining figures, are exceedingly various, as also their sizes, when magnified by the same power. These differences of form occur not only in the different species, but also on different parts of the wings and body of the same In- sect ; for the surface of the body generally, as well as the legs, and in some species the antennae are more or less covered with these scales. These forms are indeed so various on different parts of the same Insect, that in the works of that distinguished naturalist, Lyonet, there are six quarto plates nearly covered with the delineations of different forms of these scales found on a Moth of the silk worm tribe, the Bombyx cossus. The arrangement of these scales upon the wings are in regular transverse lines, the ends of one row lying over the basis of the next, like the shingles on the roof of a house. When these are removed from both sides of the wings, of a Butterfly it will be seen that these parts are exceedingly thin, and transparent like the wings of the dragon fly and bee. Red drops emitted by Butterflies. — Several species of Butterflies just after the time of changing from the chrys- alis to the perfect state, or perhaps at that of emerging from their place of confinement, emit several drops of a red fluid, resembling blood in appearance. When a great number of these insects have been produced at Whence does the genus to which the butterfly belongs derive its name? What is said with respect to down on the wings being feathers 1 What is said of these scales with respect to their being a test of the goodness of microscopes 1 What is said of the different forms of these scales ? How are they arranged on the wings -of -the insect ? 5 50 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. the same time, and place, as sometimes happens, the people have been struck with terror and dismay, taking these drops for the effects of a shower of blood, which of course could portend nothing less than some direful calamity to the country. The author of this volume, last October, obtained a specimen of these bloody drops, from the Papilio urticce, the caterpillar of which was taken from the common nettle, and underwent the met- amorphoses in confinement. The red drops happening to fall on a piece of oil cloth carpet, were cut out and preserved. They are of a deep red and do not fade by keeping. In consequence of this circumstance, the au- thor's attention was excited to the subject and he threw together the following remarks and facts, which were offered as a little contribution to " The Hartford Natur- al History Society." Ancient showers of Blood explained by facts, in the Natural History of the Butterfly. — It is well known to the general reader, that various authors have described showers of blood as falling from the heavens, and that such phenomena have been considered the miraculous, precursors of some extraordinary, or direful event. Thus Ovid has commemorated such an occurrence among the other prodigies which attended the violent death of the great Roman dictator. " With threatning signs the lowering skies were filled. And sanguine drops from murky clouds distilled." Such occurrences are alluded to by several other ancient writers, both Greek, and Roman. Homer speaks of showers of blood which fell before his time, and also one or two, of which it would appear that he was an eye witness. Such phenomena he declares in- dicate the direct and violent encroachmentof the gods on the established laws of nature. Cicero also alludes to such events, and was the first to doubt their preter- natural origin ; but in his attempts to account for them on natural principles, he involves suppositions not less difficult to explain than the phenomenon itself, even without reference to its real cause. Dion Cassius, who flourished in the third century, mentions a shower of blood which fell in Egypt in the METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 51 time of Octavian. This he considers a very rare and extraordinary occurrence, not however, it would seem, because it was of blood, but because, as he states, it fell in a country where showers of any kind are unknown. Stowe, the old British Chronicler also speaks of sev- eral cases of what he calls blood-rain. " In ths days of Rivalla," says he, " it rained bloud three days, and then a great mortalitie caused almost desolation." Again, " in the time of Brithricus of the bloud of Cerdicus, who was king of the West Saxons for seventeen years, it rained bloud, which falling on mens' clothes appeared like crosses." Nor does Hollingshed fail to record some scraps of the same history. He relates that in the fifth century, " at Yorke it rained bloud," and that in the seventh, " corne, as it was gathered in the herveste-time, appeared bloudie." From Batmans' "Doome" we find that in 1553, it was deemed among the fore warnings of the deaths of Charles, and Philip, Dukes of Brunswick, that "there were drops of bloude upon herbs and trees." In the days of Nero it is said that blood-rain fell in such quantities as to tinge some rivers of a red color. It is likewise recorded by historians that the phenome- non, or miracle of falling blood, either seen on the leaves of plants, or on stones, or fences, has occurred at vari- ous times and places, ever since the Christian Era. But after having quoted the above authorities, it will be needless to specify others to establish the general fact of such records. It will therefore be sufficient to state that two instances of bloody rain are recorded to have fallen in the tenth century ; one in the eleventh ; two in the twelfth ; one in the thirteenth ; two in the four- teenth ; one in the fifteenth ; and five in the sixteenth. Thus, although it appears that almost from the earli- est times of history, it has been understood and believed that showers of blood actually falling from the air, were not uncommon, still no one as we shall see directly, until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, under- took any serious investigations for the purpose of ac- counting for phenomena so extraordinary. It is most probable this neglect of inquiry arose from a superstitious dread of interfering with so sacred a 5£ MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. subject ; for it was generally believed that such showers undoubtedly prognosticated some direful event, and hence they were received as miraculous warnings, or special interpositions of providence in the affairs of men. Under such a belief, we can hardly wonder that few or none could be found, who were so bold, or per- haps wicked, as to attempt to account for such occurren- ces on natural principles. Such conduct would have been a virtual denial of the miracle itself, or at least a fool hardy attempt to explain the acknowledged special communications of heaven by a reference to the ordi- nary laws of nature. It is true that in the time of Hippocrates, a learned doctor named Garceus, declared it as his opinion, that blood-rain, was common rain boiled by the heat of the sun, but with this exception, we find no expressions of doubt with respect to the miracle, or at least no attempt to solve the mystery, from the time of Cicero to that of the celebrated naturalist Reaumur, in the beginning of the seventeenth century. Before we proceed to the explanation, it may be proper to remark, that so far as we know, all the ancient accounts of bloody rain, fail entirely with respect to the detail of attending circumstances. We are not in- formed whether such showers fell from thick clouds, ac- companied with lightning and thunder. Whether they fell by night or by day, or indeed whether the red drops were ever seen to descend, or whether they were first discovered on the leaves of plants, and on stones and fences. Hence we may fairly conclude that the fall of bloody showers have only been inferred from appear- ances on, or near the ground. It is now known that there are several species of But- terfly which emit red drops, immediately after their emer- gence from the chrysalis, as the Papilio Io,or the peacock Butterfly ; the Papilio urticse, and several others. The report of Reaumur to which we have before al- luded, and which accounts satisfactorily for these bloody showers, is as follows. In the beginning of July 1608, the people of Aix la Chapelle, wrere in the utmost alarm from what they thought a shower of blood, that had fjajlen in, the suburbs, and some miles around the place. METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 53 M. de Peiresc, a philosopher, who among other kinds of knowledge, had not neglected that of the operations and economy of Insects, was consulted on the subject. He found the walls of a church-yard near the place, and the walls of several small villages in the neighborhood to be spotted with large drops of a blood colored Iqiuid. A little before this time this gentleman had happened to pick up a large and beautiful chrysalis which he had carefully laid in a box. Immediately after its transform- ation into the Butterfly state, he remarked that it had left a large drop of a blood colored liquid in the bottom of the box. The red stains on the walls, and the stones near the highways, and on the leaves of plants in the fields, were found to be perfectly similar to that left on the bottom of the box. M. de Peiresc hesitated no longer to pronounce, that all the blood colored stains wherever they appeared, proceeded from the same cause. The prodigious number of Butterflies which he at the same time saw flying in the air confirmed his original idea. He likewise observed that the drops of miraculous rain were never found in the middle of the town, but that they appeared only in places bordering upon the coun- try ; and that they never fell upon the tops of houses, or upon walls more elevated than the height to which Butterflies generally rise. What the investigator of these facts saw himself, he showed to many persons of knowledge, or curiosity, and finally established as an in- contestible fact, that the pretended drops of blood were in reality nothing more than drops of red liquid deposit- ed by these Butterflies. It is also deserving of remark, that all the showers of blood that have been recorded to have happened, took place in the warm seasons of the year, when Butterflies are most numerous. And now who will deny the practical use of Ento- mology, when these simple facts have been the means of delivering the world from the thraldom of supersti- tious fear, which from time immemorial has been con- sequent upon the belief in miraculous showers of blood. When Newton demonstrated that the comets, instead of wandering in any direction and without order, were con- fined to regular orbits, and therefore that we of the earth, 54 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONSV had nothing to fear from them, Astronomy was liailed as the noblest and most useful of sciences on this very ac- count ; and yet Astronomy in that instance did nothing more for the world than Entomology has done in the case before us. Tusseh Silk Worm. — Before we leave the Lepidop- terous Insects, we will describe a species of Silk Worm found in India, which although it is not domesticated like the common one of Europe and America, the Bombyx mori, still appears from time immemorial to have fur- nished the natives with an abundance of an inferior kind of silk for common uses. It is called the Tusseh Silk Worm, and is found in abundance in many parts of Bengal and the adjoining provinces, and the cocoons are reeled and wove into a coarse, dark colored, but most durable fabric called Tusseh doothies, much worn by the Brahmins, and other classes of Hindoos. This Silk Worm, whether from want of skill, or from the wild habits of the Moths, is unknown, has never been reared in the usual manner of other worms ; the natives therefore every year, at the proper time, go into the jungles and find the young worms on the limbs of certain trees, which they cut off and convey to other trees of the same kinds near their habitations. These are known by the native names of asseen, and byers trees, and these trees are guarded day and night, in or- der to prevent birds and bats from destroying the young caterpillars. In two or three weeks, these worms ac- quire nearly their full size, being monsters of four inches in length, and three in circumference ; their colors are of a light green, with a yellowish stripe on each side, the sixth and seventh rings being marked with an oblong golden spot. From the back issue a few long, coarse, distinct hairs, with others of a smaller size scat- tered over the body, Fig. 37. When these worms are ready to spin their cocoons in which they change to the chrysalis state, they begin by attaching glutinous filaments to a leaf as a foundation, and afterwards spin a strong cord by which the future cocoon is suspended to a twig for additional security. The cocoon is of an oval form and firm texture, as rep- BEETLES. 55 resented by Fig. 37 a. The chrysalis remains in the Fig. 37. torpid state for nine months, when it discharges from the mouth a quantity of corrosive liquor, which softens the upper end of the cocoon, and the moth makes its escape. These Insects are of enormous size, the largest meas- uring with the wings spread, six, or even eight inches across. They are exceedingly vigorous on the wing, and fly to great distances. The natives often catch, and mark them, and then let them fly ; the marks of the different districts being known, it is said they are fre- quently caught more than a hundred miles distant from the places where they were marked. The wings of these insects are of a uniform yellowish brown, with one round transparent spot in each of the fore wings. They live from six to twelve days, deposite their eggs and die. BEETLES. The Beetles belong to the Linnaean order Coleoptera, which word signifies "wing-sheathed," so called, because these insects are provided with hard wing cases, with which they cover, when at rest, their proper wings. These cases are called elytra, and when shut together, form a longitudinal suture along the back. A great To what order of insects do the beetles belong? What is the mean- ing of the term coleoptera 1 What are the wing cases of these insects called I 56 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. variety of this tribe are known under the common ap- pellation of bugs. Most of them fly only in the night, and some of the larger, make a deep toned sound with their wings, so loud as to be heard many rods distant. The larvae of some of this tribe, in consequence of their living under the ground and destroying the roots of plants, which serve them for food, are exceedingly de- structive to the farmer. The perfect insects also some- times make terrible desolation among the forest, and other trees. The Blind Beetle. The Melolontha vulgaris, called also Chafer, Blind Beetle, or more commonly Cock- chafer, is one of these insects. Fig. 38. The larva of this beetle is known to farmers under the name of the White worm, and is represented by Fig. 38. The eggs of these worms are deposi- ted in the ground by the parent insect, and when first hatched are of very small size. As they grow, they change their skins several times, and at the end of four years during which time they remain in the earth, they acquire the size represented, having six legs, armed with strong claws, and a reddish head. During its subterranean residence, it lives on the roots of grass, sometimes com- mitting the most deplorable ravages. When their num- bers are great they cut off all the roots of the grass in the richest meadows, leaving the turf entirely detached and dead, so that it may be rolled up by the hands like a carpet without the aid of a turfing knife. Under- neath, the soil appears pulverized, and turned into a soft mould like the prepared bed of a garden. In this, the worms are seen coiled up and lying on their backs, generally almost motionless. Some years since a poor farmer in Norwich, England, suffered so much from these worms as to destroy all his hopes, and the authority of that city out of compas- sion, voted him 25 pounds to assist him under such a calamity. This man and his servant testified, that they BEETLES. 57 Fig. 39. had gathered eighty bushels of these obnoxious crea- tures, but still his farm for the season was destroyed. At the close of the fourth year these larva construct for themselves large oval cocoons, having first descended to the depth, it is said, sometimes of five or six feet below the surface of the ground. These cocoons are of an oval form, of considerable bulk, and are constructed with a good deal of ingenuity, and reference to comfort, being wove of silk and lined with the same. Fig. 39 shows the section of one of these cases with the worm in it. The covering of this chrysalis is so Ithin and transparent that all parts lof the Insect may be seen through 'it. In the month of February the perfect Insect rends its envelope, and emerges from it, though still several feet under ground. It is now yellowish, soft, and weak, but gradually acquires strength and firmness, and begins slowly to make its way towards the surface. This however, it does not reach until May, when it is not uncommon to find these yellowish bugs, as they are called, just under the surface, and about which time they assume their new and elevated condition as inhabitants of the air. Fig- 40- The Cock-chafer, is a strong Insect of a yellow- ish brown color ; antennae largely club-shaped ; feet armed with sharp claws, and the body somewhat hairy. Fig. 40 represents this Insect of the natural size. During the day these Beetles remain motionless, some- times concealing themselves under the bark of trees and about fences ; but on the setting of the sun they issue forth from their hiding places to feed on the leaves of various trees, and sometimes their numbers are such as to do as much mischief in their perfect state, as they did when in that of the larvae, devastating whole forests 58 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. in such a manner as not to leave a green leaf behind them. Devastations committed by this Beetle. In the Philo- sophical Transactions, for the year 1697, there is an account of the appearance of these insects in certain parts of Ireland, and the ravages they committed there. " Multitudes," says this statement, " appeared among the trees and hedges in the day time, hanging by the boughs in clusters, like bees, when they swarm. In this pos- ture they continued, with little or no motion during the heat of the sun ; but towards evening they would all disperse, and fly about with a strange humming noise, like the beating of distant drums, and in such vast num- bers that they darkened the air for the space of two or three square miles. Persons travelling on the roads, or abroad in the fields, found it very uneasy to make their way through them, they would so beat, and knock them- selves against their faces in their flight, and with such force as to make the place smart, and leave a mark behind them. In a short time after their coming, they had so entirely eaten up, and destroyed all the leaves on the trees for some miles around, that the whole country though in the middle of summer, was left as bare as in the depth of winter ; and the noise they made in gnaw- ing the leaves made a sound resembling the sawing of timber. They also came into the gardens and destroyed the buds, blossoms, and leaves of all the fruit trees so that they left them perfectly naked : nay, many that were more delicate than the rest, lost their sap, as well as leaves, and quite withered away, so that they never recovered again. Their numerous young hatched from the eggs, which they had lodged under ground, near the surface, did still more harm in that close retirement, than all the flying swarms of their parents had done abroad ; for this destructive brood lying under ground, ate up the roots of corn and grass, and thus consumed the support of both man and beast." Many other instances of similar devastations are recorded to have been committed by these insects in different parts of the world. MANTIS. 59 MANTIS. There is a Hemipterous, or half-winged Insect of very singular manners and habits called the Orator Mantis, and sometimes the Praying Mantis, from the position in which it is usually found. This Insect is of considerable size ; the elytra, or wing cases are of a bright green color, and on each of the wings there is a black spot. The common posture of the Mantis is that of resting on its hind legs, and erecting its fore feet, holding them, close together and giving them a quick motion, as if, as some say, it was in the act of praying, Fig. 41. Hence Fig. 41. among certain people, this creature has been held in great veneration from time immemorial. It has been supposed to tell fortunes ; forewarn of evils, and to do many other things, according to the vividness of super- stitious imaginations. Dr. Moufet, who wrote a work in folio, on insects, in the sixteenth century, very seri- ously tells us of this insect, " that they are called Mantes, that is, fortune tellers, either because by their coming they do show the spring to be at hand, so Anacreon, the poet sang ; or else they foretel death, or famine, as Caelius, the scholiast of Theocritus, writes ; or, lastly, because it always holds up its fore feet like hands pray- ing, as it were, after the manner of their diviners, who, in that gesture, did pour out their supplications to their gods. So divine a creature is this esteemed, that if a child asks the way to such a place, she will stretch out one of her feet, and show him the right way, and sel- 60 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. dom, or never misses. As she resembleth these divi- ners in the elevation of her hands, so also, in likeness of motion, for they do not sport themselves as others do, nor leap, nor play, but walking softly, she returns again modestly, and shows forth a kind of mature gravity." This is only the position of the Mantis, that it takes to catch its prey. The praying position, and soft modesty of this insect, which charity and superstition thus metamorphosed into kindness and virtue, by a more attentive examination of its habits, prove to be nothing more than cunning devices to secure its prey, being one of the most cruel and vo- racious of all the Insect tribes. The patience of the Mantis, says Bingley, in waiting for its prey, is remarka- ble, and the posture to which superstition has attribu- ted devotion, is no other than the means used to catch it. When it has fixed its eye on an insect, it rarely loses sight of it, though it may cost some hours to accom- plish its destruction. If it see an insect a little beyond its reach, over its head, it slowly erects its long thorax, then resting on the posterior legs, it gradually raises the anterior also. If this brings it near enough to the in- sect, it throws open the last joint of its fore paws, and snaps the object between the spines that are set in rows on the second joint. If it is unsuccessful, the paws are not retracted, but still held forth waiting for the victim to come again within its reach. Should the insect go far from the spot, the Mantis flies, or crawls after it, slowly, like a cat. Observations of RoeseL — Roesel, the naturalist, de- siring to study the character and habits of this curious creature, put some of the eggs into a glass case until they hatched. The young ones, immediately dis- played the most savage disposition towards each other, but Roesel supplying them with flies, which they tore in pieces and devoured with avidity, he in this way saved some of his brood for a time. But notwithstand- ing he supplied them well with insects, they continued to devour each other apparently through wantonness. Despairing at last of rearing any of them to the winged state, he seperated them into small companies, under MANTIS. 61 different glasses hoping in this way to render them more pacific. But still the strongest in each little com- munity, with the same savage disposition as before, tore in pieces the weaker. Finally, he put a pair of these insects, full grown, into a glass case, and having taken the precaution of first supplying them with food, watched their actions. But no sooner did they espy each other, than they stood stiff and motionless, each eyeing the other with an air of the sternest defiance. In this posture did they remain for many minutes, when the whole frame of each became violently agitated ; their necks were elevated, their wings expanded, and in this state they rushed towards each other with the utmost fury, and hewed away with their sharp sabre-like fore feet, like, says Roesel, a couple of infuriated Hussars. Barrow, the traveller, states that the Chinese keep these insects in separate bamboo canes, for the purpose of seeing them fight, as other people do game cocks ; and that in the summer months, scarcely a boy is seen in the streets, without a cage of these ferocious warriors. A practice as barbarous with respect to these animals, as it is humiliating to human beings. Follicle of the Mantis. The case, or sort of follicle, which the Mantis constructs to contain her eggs is not Fig. 42. ^- the least curious thing belong- ing to this famous insect. This case is about two inches long, of a yellow color, of a texture like parchment, and curiously reticulated, or waved on the outside. The shape is that of a double cone united at their bases. It is fixed to the stalk of some plant, as seen by Fig. 42. Along one side there is a kind of suture through which the young escape as they are hatched, the figure showing some of them in this act 62 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Fig. 43. The eggs are very numerous, and are arranged in rows as seen by fig. 43, which is a transverse section of 42. One of these follicles being sent to Ro3sel, he ob- served that a double row of egg-like bo- dies sprouted up in close contact with each other in a furrow, which divides the egg case longi- tudinally ; these little eminences soon became animated, for out of them he perceived the little Mantes struggling to escape. As soon as one had succeeded in freeing itself from the egg, it ran off with the agility of an ant, which it resembled in form and nimbleness. MUSQUETO. The general appearance and habits of the Musqueto are too well known to need description. It belongs to the order Diptera. that is, double winged, these tribes having only two wings, of which, the common house-fly is another example. The Gnat and Musqueto belong to the same species, the latter being only a large variety of the former. The larvae of these insects in the warm season, are common in all stagnant pools, and ditches. Even a small vessel of water, if allowed to stand still, will soon exhibit these little beings, diving and swimming about in all directions, generally with their head downwards. They are, how- ever, obliged often to rise to the surface to breathe, being furnished with a small cylindrical tube for this pur- pose. Changes of the Musqueto in the water. — The Mus- Fig. 44. queto undergoes several metamorphoses before it leaves the water. The larva, at first is composed of nine segments, each of which is furnished with a number of fine cilia on both sides, as shown by Fig. 44, which is a magnified view of the insect. After having thrice changed its skin, as it increases in size, it appears in a sort of len- ticular, or bean-like form, as shown by Fig. 45. In this state, it is still capable of mo- ving briskly through the water, in the manner MUSQUETO. 63 Fig. 45. Fig. 46. Of the lobster, that is, by alte mat e ly contracting and expanding the body, and striking the fluid with its fins and tail, as shown by Fig. 46. In this stage of its progress, it takes no food, hav- ing neither mouth nor organs bf digestion ; but a plentiful supply of air seems to be indispensable, and hence it floats on the surface of the water, and only descends when disturbed. In every stagnant pool, thousands of them may be seen, at the proper season, in this state of repose. Their respiratory organs are two ear-like processes shown by the adjoining figures, and these are kept above the surface of the water until another change is about to ensue. Musqueto leaving the water. — When the Musqueto is about to emerge, and to take the station and form of a perfect being, it stretches out its body at full length on the surface of the water, and then by some secret mechanism, puffs up its skin, so as to split it open at the head. As soon as this fissure is sufficiently large for the purpose, the insect, in perfect form, appears. And, now the condition of the little adventurer is critical, and perilous in the extreme, for, from being an aquatic, it is suddenly transformed into an air-breather ; and after having spent all his past life as a sailor, he is in a twink- ling turned landsman, perhaps far from the shore, and having no other boat but his own skin, with neither oar nor sail, for he has no use of either leg or wing. If at this juncture a little breeze comes on, it proves a most dreadful hurricane to the poor animal, for if a drop of Fig. 47 water gets into the case, which has now become a canoe, it inevitably sinks and carries the insect down with it. This hazardous situation is shown by Fig. 47, which exhibits a , magnified picture of the Musqueto 1 just taking its departure into its new "element. Reaumur, who saw eve- ry thing which nature exhibits with respect to this insect, 64 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. speaks of the peril of this moment in the following lan- guage : " When the observer perceives how much the prow of the little bark sinks, and how near its sides are to the water, he forgets for the moment, that the gnat is an insect, which at any other time he would destroy ; nay, he becomes anxious for its fate, and the more so if the slightest breeze plays on the surface of the water : the least agitation of the air being sufficient to waft the creature with swiftness from place to place, and to make it spin round and round. Its body, folded in its wings, bears a greater proportion to the little skiff, than the lar- gest mass of sail to a ship : it is impossible not to dread lest the insect should be wrecked ; once laid on its side, on the water, there is no escape. Generally, however, all terminates favorably, and the danger is over in a min- ute." STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. Having detailed the steps by which nature produces a perfect Insect from the egg, and shown also how these natural processes vary in several different orders and species, it is now proper to say something of the struc- ture of these beings, in order to show by what means they perform the functions of life. Insects, as we have seen, and as common observa- tion evinces, vary exceedingly in their forms, habits and dispositions, and they must consequently vary in respect to their structure, since each species must be furnished with organs, and instruments by which it is precisely adapted to the situation and condition in which it is placed. But although there is so much variety in their appearance, all Insects consist of only three principal parts, viz, the head, trunk and abdomen. In order to illustrate this subject, we will take one of the Beetle tribe, and divide it into sections, and by means of plans show the names and uses of the several parts. The Insect here represented, is the Carabus sycophantat What are the principal sections of an insect 1 STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 65 Fig. 48, and may stand as a type of all the other Beetles, Fig. 48. since they do not differ in their structures. This spe- cimen is of the natural size, but the sections are somewhat magnified, that the smaller parts may be more distinctly seen. The head c, Fig. 49, "contains the principal en- largement of the nervous system, or the brain, the scull or cranium being us- ually the hardest part of the insect. To the head are attached the antennae, and instruments of masti- cation. The latter are much more complicated in Insects than in larger animals. Those which divide their food, have a double set of jaws, called mandibles and maxilla, besides which, there are four other moveable pieces called palpi, and labial palpi. The mandibles or upper jaws, m, cut the food ; the lower, or proper jaws, j, masticate it; the palpi, p, and the labial palpi, /, appear to be instruments of sense by which the insect judges of the quality of its food. The motions of all these parts are horizontal, and not vertical as with us, and other an- imals having incumbent maxilla?. To obtain an idea of the motions and uses of these parts, it is only necessary to watch an insect for a few moments while feeding. Fig. 49. The trunk, or thorax is composed of three parts, con- What are the jaws of insects ca-led ? What other pieces belong to the mouths of insects 1 What are the uses of the mandibles and proper jaws 7 What are the uses of the palpi 1 6* 66 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. sisting of the three segments, figures 50, 51 and 52. The first is called the Prothorax, Fig. 50, to which is Fig. 50. connected the first pair of legs. The second, Fig. 51 , is called the Mesothorax, and gives origin to the second Fig. 51. pair of legs and the first pair of wings, or the elytra c. The third section is the Metathorax, Fig. 52. This part sustains the third pair of legs and the second pair Fig. 52. of wings, or the wings proper 10. These two last seg- How many sections is the trunk of an insect composed of? On what principle are the limbs of insects named 7 What are the names of th« different parts of one of these limbs, and what are their relative situa- tions 7 STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 67 ments are closely united, but the natural distinction be- tween them is marked by a transverse line. The third principal division is the abdomen, Fig. 53. Fig. 53. This, in the instance before us, is com- posed of six complete, and three im- perfect segments, but these segments vary in number in different insects from three or four, to twelve or more. These segments all have a ligamentous connection with each other, allowing free motion in all directions. The limbs of Insects, are named from their supposed analogy to cor- responding parts in the higher order of animals. Thus the haunch, h, corresponds to the hip bone of quadrupeds ; the trochanter, t, to the head of the thigh bone ; the femur, /, to the thigh bone itself ; the tibia, s, to the bones of the leg ; and the tarsus, r, to those of the foot. It is perhaps unnecessary in a work like the present, to give a detailed account of the peculiar mechanism, motions and uses of each of these parts. The limbs of Insects down to the feet, may be considered as acting in a manner analagous to our own. The feet have pecu- liarities to which there is no analogy in other animals, and which therefore must receive further notice. The legs of most Insects diverge, so as to reach con- siderably beyond their bodies on each side, thus giving them a firmer support, by throwing the centre of grav- ity far within the base. When the legs are very long, the Insect therefore, appears rather suspended, than sup- ported by them, contrary to what obtains in quadrupeds and man, where the feet are immediately below the points where the legs are connected with the body. In Insects, the last joint of the tarsus is generally ter- minated by a claw, sometimes single, and sometimes double, and by which the foot is fastened in walking to any surface which is in the least degree rough, or un- equal. By these hooks insects also suspend themselves on perpendicular surfaces, or with their backs down- wards, this being from the mechanism of these parts, the By what means do insects walk on rough surfaces ? 68 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. most easy position they can take. The Beetle tribe, and the Grass-hoppers, are furnished with this appara- tus. They cannot climb up smooth surfaces, as a polish- ed door, or a pane of glass, their hooks being useless,, without some degree of roughness. Some Insects walk by Atmospheric pressure. — Other Insects are furnished with a curious, and somewhat com- plicated apparatus, by which they are enabled to walk not only upon rough, but also upon the smoothest sur- faces, even with their backs downwards. It is well known, that the common house fly, (Musca domestica,) prefers this position to all others, for the purpose of re- pose. Hence we may infer, that this is the easiest po- sition the Insect can take, and therefore the one which requires the least muscular exertion. There has been much diversity of opinion among naturalists, by what means, these Insects are able thus to suspend themselves on surfaces entirely smooth, with so much ease as to prefer this position for sleep- ing. Dr. Derham in his Physico-Theology, speaking on this subject, says, " that divers flies and other Insects, besides their sharp hooked nails, have also skinny palms to their feet, to enable them to stick on glass and other smooth bodies by means of the pressure of the atmos- phere, after the manner I have seen boys carry heavy stones with only a wet piece of leather clapped on the top of the stone." This theory acquired additional weight, or rather was confirmed in the opinions of most entomologists by the elaborate and celebrated experi- ments of Sir Everard Home, in which he was assisted by the microscopic observations, and drawings of M. Bauer. Mr. Roget, in his Animal and Vegetable Physiology, one of the most recently published " Bridgwater Trea- tises," has given the following description of this curious mechanism. Mechanism of the Foot of the house Fly. — In the house Fly, that part of the last joint of the tarsus, which Why cannot they walk on smooth surfaces 7 STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. W is immediately under the root of the claw, has two suckers appended to it by a narrow, funnel-shaped neck, Fig. 54. moveable by muscles in all direc- tions. These suckers are shown in Fig. 54, which represents the under side of the foot of the blue bottle Fly, (Musca vo??iitoria,) with the suckers expanded. The sucking part of the apparatus consists of a membrane capable of contraction, and extension, and the edges of which are serrated, so as to fit them for the closest application to any kind of surface. In the Horse Fly each foot is furnished with three suckers. Mechanism in the Saw Fly. — In the yellow Saw Fly, (Cimbex lutea,) there are four suckers, of which one is placed upon the under surface of each of the first joints of the toes, Fig. 55. All the feet of this insect are thus provided. Both of these figures are highly magnified. The mode in which these suckers operate may be distinctly seen, by observing with a magnifying glass, the actions of a large blue bottle Fly in the inside of a glass tumbler. A Fly, by the application of this appa- ratus will remain suspended from the ceiling with his back downwards, for any length of time, without the least exertion ; for the weight of the body pulling against the suckers, serves to make them adhere strong- er, for the same reason that a boy's leather sucker ad- heres more forcibly in lifting a large stone, than a small one. For this reason it is, that house Flies prefer the ceiling to an upper surface, as a place of rest. In what manner is it said the house fly adheres to the under surfaces of smooth bodies 1 70 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Doubts concerning this mechanism. — Notwithstanding it would thus appear, that there could be no doubt with respect to the manner in which Flies are enabled to ad- here to smooth surfaces, yet some entomologists still doubt whether the feet of these Insects really contain any organs which adhere by suction. If Flies adhere by the pressure of the atmosphere, then, if the atmos- phere be removed, it is said, they would be unable to walk on a smooth perpendicular surface. To demon- strate this, house Flies were put into the glass receiver of an air-pump, and the air exhausted, when it is said, " it was demonstrated to the entire satisfaction of several intelligent gentlemen present, that the house Fly, while it retains its vital powers unimpaired, can, not only trav- erse the upright sides, but even the interior of the dome of an exhausted receiver, and that the cause of its re- laxing its hold, and ultimately falling from the station it occupied, was a diminution of muscular force, attributa- ble to impeded respiration." In consequence of such experiments, it has been proposed to account for the phenomena observed, by the secretion of an adhesive matter with which the foot of the Fly, or the hairs on it are embued. The advocates for this mode say, that they have facts on this subject, which are quite inexpli- cable except on the supposition that an adhesive secretion is emitted by the instruments employed in climbing. We are however, rather inclined to the belief that these Insects adhere by the pressure of the atmosphere as was so clearly shown by the observations of Sir E. Home. INGENUITY OF INSECTS. There are some traits in the characters and habits of certain Insects, which appear so much like the cunning, ingenuity and contrivance of the higher order of ani- mals, that we cannot see why they have not an equal What experiment seems to make it doubtful whether flies adhere by the pressure of the atmosphere 1 ^yhat is the conclusion of the author with respect to the means by which flies adhere to smooth surfaces 1 What is meant by the ingenuity of insects 7 INGENUITY OP INSECTS. 71 claim to those attributes. We do not here allude to that instinctive endowment, which guides the different spe- cies to deposite their eggs in places where the young when hatched, perhaps many months afterwards, will immediately find the aliment best adapted to their con- dition ; nor to that apparent foreknowledge with re- spect to time, by which there is a precise adaptation in the state of the plant to the want of the young larva ; for these are mysteries of which we can say nothing, except that they are the means which the Creator has taken to perpetuate his works. By the ingenuity of Insects, we mean that endowment by which they plan and execute, various structures for convenience, or comfort, and which are varied accord- ing to circumstances ; and also the devices which they employ for the purposes of entrapping, or escaping each other. Ingenuity of Spiders. — Thus one species of Spider constructs her net for catching game, in a place where he thinks such flies as best suit her appetite are most likely to come ; and being sensible that her presence is frightful to those insects which she would make her vic- tims, she takes the precaution to conceal herself with far more cunning than the cat, or even the tiger. The Spi- der having finished its game net, next goes to work to make a place of ambush, where it can repose in com- fort, until some poor fly not seeing the trap, gets en- tangled in it. The place of ambush is some sly crevice at a distance from the net. In this it constructs a tube of silk, the entrance of which is no larger than abso- lutely necessary, and is often entirely concealed from external view. This is constructed somewhat like a sack with a small mouth, the interior being enlarged, so that the inmate can stretch out its limbs, and turn around with facility. But that the cunning Insect may not be under the necessity of watching continually at the mouth of its ambuscade, it carries a cord from some convenient part of it to the net, and having carefully fastened both ends, retires to wait the result of its craf- tiness. The least motion of the game net, instantly brings the owner to the mouth of its ambuscade, the 72 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. news being conveyed by the cord stretched between them. If it proves to be some luckless fly, which has caused the alarm, the voracious spider mounts the cord, and in another instant, may be seen tying the legs, and wings of its victim, with the utmost eagerness and art, so as to prevent the possibility of escape. Having thus secured its prey, it sucks its blood at leisure, and then retires and waits for another haul. If craftiness, ingenuity and contrivance are not ex- hibited in such proceedings as these, we know not where to find them in the animal kingdom. Any one by watching a common house Spider, may convince him- self of the truth of our statement. The ingenuity with which spiders contrive to escape when surrounded by water, is sometimes highly curious and interesting. Mr. Kirby placed a large field spider upon a stick about a foot long set in a vessel of water. After fastening its thread, at the top of the stick, it crept down the side until it came to the water, then immedi- ately swinging from the stick which was slightly bent, it climbed again to the top. This it repeated many times, still finding its retreat cut off, and no means of escaping in that manner. At length it let itself down from the top of the stick, not by a single thread, but by two, each distant from the other about the twelfth of an inch, guided as usual by one of its hind feet, one of the threads being apparently smaller than the other. When it had suffered itself to descend nearly to the surface of the water, it stopped short, and by some means not apparent, broke off close to the spinners, the smallest thread, which still adhering to the top of the stick, float- ed in the air, and was so light as to be moved by the slightest breath. This thread catching on an object at a little distance, the spider employed it as a bridge to make its escape. But the ingenuity and resources of this tribe of in- sects are so well known, that we will not multiply more instances. / Ingenuity of the Caddis worm. — A little insect, or worm, common in fresh water brooks, called the Caddis worm, and well known to anglers, builds for itself a INGENUITY OP INSECTS. 73 house, or tube, in which it lives, of most singular, and curious workmanship. pio. 56 The body of this insect is composed of nine sections, the sides of which are fringed with cilia, or paddles. The legs are six, all situated near the head, as shown by Fig. 56, which represents the creature naked, or without its case. It may be observed that this worm, though it is en- tirely aquatic, is still not well adapted to swimming. Its six legs all close together are specifically heavier than water, and its long body beset only with a few hairs, would appear better fitted to crawl than to swim. But apparently as a compensation for these defects, the Great Author of nature has endowed it with a degree of instinctive knowledge, by means of which, it is able to avoid the evils which would otherwise arise from its construction. The Caddis worm constructs for itself a tube or habi- tation, by means of such materials as it can most easily Fis- 51. obtain, and which are fitted to its purpose. Leaves, straws, bits of wood, and shells are employed according to the taste, or conve- nience of the builder. Fig. 57, shows one of these cases made of a few pieces of leaves, so arranged as somewhat to imitate a Spanish mantle, the head and feet of the insect protruding at the upper end. This, like all the other forms which it constructs is lined with a kind of silk on the inside, and it is by means of the same substance that the different pieces of which these curious habitations are made and fastened together. Fig. 58. By Fig. 58 is shown the worm cov- ered by a couple of pieces of semi- cylindrical, hollow bark, cemented together. Happening to find two such pieces- suitable for the purpose, it has been saved the labor of joining more, as most of its brethren have done. 74 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS. Fig. 59. Fig. 59 representsts another of these geniuses enveloped in a riband, ^^M^--O=/~^B^ mac^e °f Pieces °f leaves joined to- ^^BiimtfiMSp> gether, and rolled on like a bandage, the folds being laid with as much regard to symmetry and skill, as the neatest surgeon displays in dressing a limb. Sometimes these mantles are constructed with small Fig. 60. shells cemented together, as seen by Fig. 60. These shells are commonly empty, but it seems the builder does not always wait for this, sometimes k employing living snails, when their sizes happen to suit his wants. It appears that this insect, when out of its case, can do little more than crawl along the bottom of the brook, where it lives. But when clothed in the manner rep- resented, it floats along near the surface, or sinks towards the bottom at pleasure ; generally retaining the perpen- dicular position, but changing it to the horizontal, or turning the head downwards, at will. These different positions, as well as some motion in any direction, the insect gains by using its feet as paddles, these parts being always out of the case and free. But the most wonderful point in this history is the judgment involved in the selection of materials, which when united to the body of the insect will exactly coun- terpoise the whole, so that it neither rises to the surface, nor sinks to the bottom, but may be made to do either by the small degree of force exerted by the feet. A vast number of instances might be selected of the ingenuity, craft, and seeming discretion of the Insect tribes, especially of the bee, ant, spider, and wasp, but for these, we must refer the reader. to works on Ento- mology. What is said to bo the most wonderful point in the history of th« caddis worm ? PART II. VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. VERTEBRA, signifies "back bone," and the animals which come next to the Insects in the scale of organi- zation, are called Vertebrated, that is, they have back bones. The animals we have heretofore examined consist of those which have no hard parts as the Polypi, or those covered with shells as the Mollusca, or with a crust as the Crustacea, or such as pass from the soft, to a more consistent state as the Jnsecta. None of these animals possess an internal solid frame- work to support, and connect the softer parts, this kind of structure being reserved for animals of the higher orders and more complex organizations. " If," says Roget, " it be pleasing to trace the foot- steps of nature in constructions so infinitely varied as those of the lower animals, and to follow the gradations of ascent from the Zoophyte to the winged insect, which exhibits the greatest perfection compatible with the restricted dimensions of that class of beings, still more interesting must be the study of those more elaborate efforts of creative power, which are displayed on a wider field in the higher orders of the animal kingdom. In the various tribes of beings which are now to come before us, we find nature proceeding to display more What are vertebrated animals 7 How are the vertebrated animal* •specially distinguished from those we have already examined? 76 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. refined developements in her system of organization ; resorting to new models of structure on a scale of greater magnitude than before ; devising new plans of economy, calculated for more extended periods of du- ration ; and adopting new arrangements of organs, fitted for the exercise of a higher order of faculties. The result of these more elaborate constructions is seen in the vast series of Vertebrated Animals, which comprises a well-marked division in Zoology, compre- hending all the larger species that exist on the globe, in whatever climate or element, they may be found ; and including man himself, placed, as he unquestionably is, at the summit of the scale, the undisputed Lord of the creation." " A remarkable affinity of structure prevails through- out the whole of this extensive assemblage of beings, Whatever may be the size, or external form of these animals, whatever the activity, or sluggishness of their movements, whether inhabitants of the land or water, or the air, a striking similitude may be traced in the dis- position of their vital organs, and in the construction of their solid frame works or skeletons, which sustains and protects their fabric. The Quadruped, the Bird, the Tortoise, the Serpent, the Fish, however they may differ in subordinate details of organization, yet are constructed upon one uniform principle, and appear like varied copies from the same original model. In no instance do they present structures, which are altogether isolated, or can be regarded as the results of separate and independent formations." Animals resist both heat and cold. — But although there is a general analogy with respect to the skeletons of all ver- tebrated animals, and a general similitude in the disposi- tion and construction of their vital parts, still there is a stri- king and wonderful difference in the effects produced by the action of these parts, especially vital action, on the animal, and particularly on its temperature ; for while the What is said concerning the affinity of structure, which exists among all animals with back bones 1 What is said of the different effects of vital action on different vertebrated animals ? VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 77 fishes, properly so called, partake the temperature of the water in which they live, even to the point of free- zing ; air breathing animals have the power of resisting both heat and cold, and of preserving nearly the same temperature, whatever that may be in which they are placed. It is perhaps true, that to a certain degree, all animals, and even trees, resist both heat and cold so long as the vital principle remains active. But in the lower orders of animals, this power is exceedingly feeble when com- pared with that, which endows Quadrupeds and Man. Thus eels become as cold to the touch as the ice in which they may be preserved, and yet the vital princi- ple remains, since these creatures may be thus kept in a torpid state, probably for any length of time, and then again revived to life and activity. It is well known also, that the gold fish may be frozen with the water in its vase, and yet by a slow application of heat, become as lively as ever, in the course of half an hour. In these cases, and many others which will be mentioned hereaf- ter, life is suspended, but its principle yet remains, and although such animals do not preserve their temperature like those of the higher orders, they are still endowed with a much greater tenacity of life, for with a few exceptions, when a warm blooded animal becomes cold, the vital principle is not merely suspended, but is extinct, and death ensues. The power of man, and also of quadrupeds and birds, to resist changes of temperature, is indeed sur- prising. With respect to the power of animals to resist low degrees of temperature, every one who resides in a cold climate has seen abundance of natural examples. The turkey, for instance, will sleep comfort- ably, perched on a high tree, entirely exposed to the northern blast, when the thermometer is 30 degrees below zero. Allowing the temperature of the bird to be 100 degrees, which is not above the truth, then there What is said about the freezing of eels and fish 1 What animals have the greatest tenacity of life, cold or warm blooded 1 What difference sometimes exists between the temperature of the turkey and the air in which he is? 7* 78 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. is a difference of 130 degrees, between that of the atmosphere and that of the turkey. But the Black-cap* titmouse, a little bird which passes its winters with us is a much more extraordinary instance of the same kind, on account of its diminutive size. This bird as it flies, does not probably weigh more than half an ounce, and yet small as it is, the vital action with which it is endowed, is sufficient to maintain its temperature, 130 or 140 degrees, above that in which it is placed, and this difference so far from inducing torpor, seems from the cheerful and lively appearance of the little animal, to be a temperature most agreeable to it. On the contrary, it is found by accurate experiments, that the animal system is capable of resisting degrees of heat in a much greater proportion above its own tem- perature, than these are below. Origin of the experiments on the power of Man to resist heat. — A circumstance which happened in France, in the year 1760, first led philosophers to make experi- ments on the power of the human system to resist high temperatures. Some gentlemen having occasion to use a public oven for certain experiments on the day in which bread had been baked in it, and wishing to ascer- tain its temperature, a girl, one of the attendants at the bakery, offered to go in, and mark the height of the mer- cury with a pencil. The girl smiled at the hesitation of the gentlemen to allow her to do so, and going into the oven, marked the temperature at 260° of Fahrenheit. Notwithstanding the anxiety they felt for this young sala- mander, she declared to their astonishment, that she felt no inconvenience from the heat, and insisted on staying longer, and having remained ten minutes, the thermom- eter then was found to stand at 288°, that is, 76° above the heat of boiling water, and 190° above the ordinary temperature of the human system, which is 98°. Experiments of Sir Charles Blagden and Dr. For- dyce. — The publication of these facts excited general What circumstance first led philosophers to make experiments on the power of the human system to resist heat 1 How much higher was the temperature of the oven than that of the ordinary human system ! VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 79 attention, and several philosophers made experiments on their own persons with a view of testing and explaining such a singular phenomenon. Of these experiments, probably the most accurate and decisive, and certainly the most famous, were those of Sir Charles Blagden and Dr. Fordyce. The room where these cele- brated experiments were made was heated by flues, there being neither chimney nor any other aperture where the heat might escape. In the first experiment, Sir Charles went in, with wooden shoes on his feet, the heat being a little above that of boiling water. The first impression is described as exceedingly disagreeable, but in a few minutes all this uneasiness was removed by the breaking forth of a pro- fuse perspiration. Having staid twelve minutes, he came out with a sense of fatigue, but nothing more, the thermometer then standing at 220°. It was afterwards found that the temperature of 260° could be endured for a short time, without much diffi- culty. But the most curious part of these experiments were the sensations produced by touching their own persons on some vital part, or touching each other, and also objects in the room. Every piece of metal about their persons, as their watch chains, became intolerably hot ; small quantities of water placed in metallic vessels, boiled in a few minutes. Though the air of the room was 260o, it could be taken into the lungs with impunity, but the boiling water in which the thermometer indica- ted only 212°, scalded the finger as usual. Eggs and beef-steak suspended in wire nets, were completely done in from five to fifteen minutes, and still the gentle- men were able to remain in the room. But notwith- standing dead matter became heated to the temperature of the air, as was expected, the persons of the gentle- men never rose higher than about 101°, or at most 102°, as indicated by the thermometer, with the bulb placed on the tongue, or under the arm. The hands being at a distance from the vital parts, were heated to a much higher degree, so that when the What were the degrees of heat to which Sir C. Blagden and Dr. For- dyce exposed themselves ? 80 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. gentlemen touched any part near the seat of life, as the tongue or side, it felt nearly as cold as a piece of ice under ordinary circumstances. Thus though these per- sons were in a temperature of 260°, and even in some experiments as high as 264°, the heat of their bodies never rose higher than 102°, making a difference of 160°, between them and the air in which they were placed. In what manner the heat is carried off. — If we look for the means which nature displays to carry away the superabundant heat to which the system is exposed, we shall find that perspiration is the most obvious, though not the only one to which we can refer. The boiling water, in the rooms in which these experiments were made, as is the case every where at the surface of the earth, nev- er exceeded 212 degrees, the remaining heat being car- ried off by the steam rising from its surface. In like manner the gentlemen state, that within a few moments after entering the heated room, their persons were cov- ered with a profuse perspiration, which continued as long as they staid. But besides this cause, the operation of heated air on the system is not so great as might be expected in consequence of its being so highly ratified, and expanded, that comparatively few particles come in contact with the surface of the body. It has been found also, that the quantity of oxygen consumed by the lungs, (which is the source of animal heat,) during these experi- ments, is much less than ordinary, most probably owing to the rarity of the air. It appears that these are the several causes which conspire to keep the temperature of the animal system nearly the same as ordinary, when exposed to high de- grees of heat. STRUCTURE OF THE BONY, OR OSSEOUS FABRIC. The framework of all vertebrated animals is made of bone, the appearance of which we need not describe. What are the means employed by nature to resist high degrees of heat 1 Why is the temperature of boiling water stationary at 212° 1 STRUCTURE OF THE BONE. 81 The composition of bone is chiefly phosphate of lime, cemented into a solid form by animal matter. On ex- posure to heat, bone becomes black, in consequence of the conversion of this animal matter into charcoal. In the mean time the oil contained in the cavities takes fire, and all the combustible materials of which the bone is composed are consumed. It now becomes white and porous, having by the process lost about half its weight. What remains, being as it were the skeleton of perfect bone, is phosphate of lime deprived of its animal ce- ment. It is now so brittle as to be broken by a light blow, or even ground to powder in a mortar. On break- ing the bone across, we are now able to discover the cavities which contained the oily matter, and probably also some of those which contained the animal cement. On the contrary, by steeping a bone in a quantity of acid, sufficiently diluted to prevent its action on the ani- mal matter, we may deprive it of its phosphate of lime, and preserve this matter entire. The substance remain- ing after the solid matter has been dissolved, retains the exact form of the bone, but is soft, flexible, and elastic ; and is resolvable into a jelly, by boiling. This substance is very nourishing, and is that which forms the soup made from bones. The different mechanical purposes for which the bones of the living system are employed, require that they should be of a great variety of forms. Thus the spine, or principal support of all the vertebrata, requiring mo- tion in all directions, is made up of a great number of pieces, joined together by a layer of cartilage between each two, which by its elasticity allows of the required motions. The wrist and ankle are also composed of many pieces each, also allowing of general motion. On the contrary, the limbs acting as a system of levers, con- nected by joints, are composed of solid, firm pieces, gen- erally of a cylindrical form, and of considerable length, What is the composition of bone 1 Why does burning bone become black 1 Why does burned bone become white 7 When a bone is steep- ed in acid, what part of its composition is destroyed 1 What is the ap- pearance, and what the consistence of the bone, when the phosphate of lime is destroyed 7 What is said of the different forms of bones 7 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. having motion only at the points of connection. Lev- ers of various kinds, most artificially and beautifully com- bined, are found in the limbs of quadrupeds, the wings of birds, and the fins of fishes. The construction of these bones combine strength and lightness to an admir- able degree, being hollow cylinders, with the enlarged ends porous. All the long bones of quadrupeds, birds, and man, are made on this principle. When we come to the physi- ology of the birds, we shall find a wonderful provision in that particular class to ensure lightness, the bones be- ing thin cylindrical tubes filled with air. In the corresponding bones of quadrupeds, the interi- Fig. 61 and 62. or ^s filled with an oily substance called marrow, which is entire and undivided along the shaft, or small- est part of the cylinder, but is con- tained in pores towards the two ex- tremities, where there is a spongy expansion of bony matter, for the purpose of strengthening the enlar- ged size of the bone at these parts. Fig. 61 represents a longitudinal section of the femur, or human thigh bone, showing the dense, sol- id substance of the external parts, and the cavernous and spongy structure of the interior. Fig. 62 shows a similar section of the hu- merus, or bone of the arm which joins the shoulder. It is said by mechanical philosophers, who have made experiments on this subject, that it would have been impossi- ble to have otherwise formed with the same quantity of solid mat- ter, a lever so strong, and yet so light, as that presented by the long bones of the quadrupeds and man. What is said of the construction of bones which are used as levers 1 Give a description of the structure of the two bones shown by Fig. 61 and €8. What is said of the mechanical strength of the long bones ? FORMATION OF BONE. 83 FORMATION AND GROWTH OF BONE. In the earlier stages of animal growth, there is form- ed in those parts of the system which are ultimately to be supplied with bone, a cartilaginous pattern in minia- ture, of the bone itself. This cartilage is semi-hard, somewhat tenacious, and translucent. When the bone begins actually to form, the cartilage becomes absorbed at the centre of the piece, and a few ossific particles are deposited in its place. As the process goes on, cartilage continues to be taken up and bone formed in its room, from the centre towards the circumference, or extremi- ties, until the whole becomes ossified. In the cylindrical bones the process begins in the mid- dle of the cylinder, forming a ring there, which increas- es in both directions, until the whole becomes bone. Several of the bones of animals, particularly those ol the skull, are not completely formed until the animal is of considerable age. The heads of the bones are formed independently of the shafts, being separate pieces with a thin layer of car- tilage between them. Afterwards these parts unite, the cartilage being replaced by bone ; but this does not happen in our species, until the age of fifteen or eighteen years. The bones are well supplied with blood vessels, which enter about the middle of the long bones, and penetra- ting the central cavity, pass both upwards and down- wards, supplying the substance of the bone with small branches, and giving off some very delicate arteries which secrete the marrow. It is the arteries which thus pass into the bones, giving off the most delicate fibres through every part of its substance, that secrete, and form the bone itself. Every bone is surrounded by a thin membrane, call- ed the periosteum, from which pass into the exter- nal, and most solid part of the bone, thousands of fine blood vessels by which this part was formed, and is still In what manner is it said bones are formed 7 Are the long bones of young animals formed of one, or several pieces 1 Are the solid parts of bones supplied with blood vessels or not T What is the membrane which surrounds the bones called 1 What vessels deposite, or secrete bone ? 84 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. nourished, as is proved by the fact, that the destruction of the periosteum, causes the death and decay of the part over which it was placed. SPINE OF THE VERTEBRATA. The word spine signifies a thorn ; this part of the skel- eton being so called, because each piece of which the back bone is formed, has a projecting process outward, making as a whole that prominent ridge so well knowrn as the spine in various animals. Thus by common con- sent, and long usage, a column made up of many pieces, is not only named after a sharp pointed instrument, but is spoken of as a single bone. This column, in the human species, consists of twenty- four distinct bones, named vertebra, from the Latin ver- tere, to turn, because this part of the skeleton has mo- tion in every direction. Of these twenty-four pieces, five belong to the loins, Fig. 63. twelve to the back, and seven to the neck. The whole spinal column is rep- resented by Fig. 63, of which the pieces above 2, and below 1, belong to the neck and loins ; while those between, belong to the back. The spine is the foundation, or chief mechanical support of the whole skele- ton ; and not only so, as giving protec- tion to the spinal cord, which in one sense is a part of the brain, being a continua- tion of its substance, but is a very essen- tial part with respect to the nervous sys- tem. A single vertebra is shown by Fig. 64, where the lower part, or body, which is somewhat radiated on the surface, is that by which it is joined to its fellow. The elongation s is called the spinous process ; and is that which, when the whole are in place, forms the ridge of the spine, or back. Besides this, there is another pro- jection, t, on each side of the base of the SPINE OF THE VERTEBRATA. 85 Fig. 64. arch, on which the spinous processes are situated. These are called the trans- verse processes of the vertebrae. The arch formed by the united bases of these processes, and a groove in the body of e vertebrae, form the canal through which the spinal marrow passes. This aperture through a single vertebra, is obvious in the adjoining figure. When all are united, they form a continuous canal with solid walls, for the protection of that most important part of the animal system next to the brain, the spinal marrow. The spine is the great central beam of the whole fabric of the skeleton. To this part all the other bones are connected by muscles, and joints, the whole being thus combined into a general frame work. It is the common axis of all the motions of the limbs, by furnishing fixed points for the attachment of all the larger muscles. No where has the mechanical art of the Great Ar- chitect of Nature, been more skillfully displayed, than in the construction of this part of our frames. Had the spine been made of a single rigid piece, it would be lia- ble to fracture by blows which it now withstands with impunity ; and besides, such a construction would have deprived us of a great variety of motions, which are now so important to us in the business and comforts of life. Between the bodies of each bone there is an elastic cartilage, allowing of a little motion in all directions ; and this slight flexure at each part, being multiplied through the whole column, admits of sufficient motion for all our purposes. In addition to the cartilaginous connection, the spinal bones are bound together by strong ligaments and mus- Whatdoes the word spinemean'? Why is the back bone called spine? How many bones does the spine consist of? How are these bones divi- ded, and what names are given to each division 1 What is said of the mechanical importance of the spine 1 What very important part does the spine protect 1 Which is the spinous, and which the transverse pro- cesses of the spine 1 What most important portion of the system is pro- tected by the spinel What is said of the importance of the spine, as connected with the other parts of the bony fabric 1 What would have been the consequences, had the spine been formed of a single piece? How are the several pieces of the spine connected together ? 8 86 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. cles, passing from one process to the other, through the whole line, thus combining the twenty-four pieces into one entire, and firm column. It is by the action of these muscles, thus passing lon- gitudinally along the spine, that we are enabled to bend it backwards and forwards, or from right to left. Thus the back is made hollow, or bent backwards, when the muscles attached to the spinal processes are contracted ; and when those attached to the transverse processes are contracted on the one side, and relaxed on the oth- er, then the column is bent from the right towards the left, or the contrary, as the case may be. Fig. 65. The connection of the spine of the human frame with the ribs and arms, is shown by Fig. 65. The ribs are How is the spinal column made to bend backwards, or from right to left? SPINE OF THE VERTEBRATA. 87 generally twelve in number on each side, though in some instances they are found to be thirteen, and more rarely only eleven. They are distinguished into true and. false ribs. The seven upper ones, which are artic- ulated, or joined to the sternum, c, are called true ribs, while the five lower ones, which are not immediately at- tached to the sternum, or breast bone, but to a cartilage connected with it, are called the false ribs. The other extremities of the ribs are articulated by small heads to the vertebrae, and secured by a ligament, so as to allow of a small motion upwards and downwards, but in no other direction. The use of the ribs is to give form to the thorax, to cover and defend the lungs and heart, which are situa- ted within them ; and also to assist in breathing, by their alternate elevation and depression. The sternum, c, or breast bone, it is well known is sit- uated in front of the thorax. In young people this bone is in several parts, united by cartilages ; but as we ad- vance in life these cartilages ossify, or are changed into bone. Its shape is oblong, and its external surface con- vex. To its edges are immediately articulated the sev- en upper ribs. The clavicle, b, has its name from the Latin clavis, which appears to come from clando, to shut, this bone resembling in shape an ancient key. It is usually called the collar bone, and is placed at the upper part of the breast, or root of the neck, extending across from the tip of the shoulder to the upper part of the sternum. It is a round bone, curved somewhat into the shape of the italic S. It supports, and maintains the shoulder in its proper place, and prevents it from falling forwards to- wards the breast. Its outer end is firmly fixed to the upper part of the scapula, or shoulder blade. Animals which employ their fore feet as hands, are furnished with this bone, as the monkey tribe and squirrels ; while What is the number of ribs in the human skeleton 7 How are they distinguished 1 To what part are the seven upper ribs articulated in front 1 How are the anterior ends of the five lower ribs secured 1 How are the posterior ends of all the ribs secured 7 What are the uses of the ribs 1 What is said of the sternum 1 Whence is the name clavicle ? What is the common name of this bone 7 To what parts is the clavicle articulated 1 What animals besides man have this bone 7 88 VERTEB RATED ANIMALS. those which make no such use of their feet, are without it, as the horse and sheep. The bones of the arm are the humerus, d, and the ra- dius and ulna, e and/. The humerus is a long cylindrical bone, with its up- per end articulated to the scapula, forming the shoulder joint. At the point of articulation, the extremity is en- larged into a round, smooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid, or shallow cavity of the scapula, where it is strongly secured by ligaments, but in such a manner as to allow it motion in all directions. At its lower extremity the humerus is gradually ex- panded, for the articulation of the two bones of the fore arm, the radius and ulna, both of which are connected with this bone at their upper extremities, forming the el- bow joint. The mechanism of the elbow joint, as well as the ac- tion of the muscles on the radius and ulna, together with the mechanism and wonderful powers of the hand, will be reserved for another place, while we proceed to an account of the spines of other vertebrated animals. The whole number of bones in the human species, amount to 240. Unity of design manifested in the constitution of the Spines of Vertebrated Animals. — It is a truth as won- derful as it is instructive, which the study of nature de- velopes, that although the Creator had Almighty power and Infinite wisdom, and might therefore have varied his plans and executed his designs in an infinite number of ways, in the construction of the different races of animals, that we still find an economy of design, and a unity of plan in the general construction of the frame work, or foundations of the grand divisions of animals which prevails throughout all the orders, or sub-divisions, however different the destinies, or habits of the distinct races may be from each other. Reasoning and judging on this subject as we do with respect to the arts of man, "What are the bones of the arm called 1 What joint is formed by the articulation of the head of the humerus ? What bones are articulated with the lower end of the humerus 1 What is said of the unity of design, as exhibited in the spines of various animals 1 SPINE OF THE. VERTEBRATA. we should be led to suppose that the frame work of our own species had first been constructed, and that the corresponding parts of other animals had been varied from this, only so far as their means of existence, habits, or the element in which they were destined to live, made it absolutely necessary. We have already stated that the spine is the main column, or most substantial part of the skeleton of ver- tebrated animals, and we have described and figured this part as it exists in our own frames. We will now show the unity of design which exists in the construc- tion of the animal kingdom, by comparing the spines of other animals with that belonging to the human frame. Mechanical elements in the Vertebra. — The number of elements, or mechanical parts which enter into the composition of the Vertebrae of different animals is shown by Fig. 66. This does not represent the precise Fig. 66. form of any vertebra, but is meant to combine the elements of the corresponding parts as existing in vertebrated animals generally. The first part is the nucleus or body of the vertebra &, which is present in all the species. Next in importance is the bony plates, or leaves as they are called /, /, which proceed from the sides of the body, and embrace the spinal marrow, which runs through the aperture between them as shown in the figure. Another essential ele- ment is the spinous process s, which unites the two plates, and thus completes the superior arch, of which it may be considered as the key-stone for the protection of the spinal cord. Then come the two transverse processes t, t, which extend outwards, towards the sides, and with which the ribs r. r, are generally connected. These Explain Fig. 66. Point out the parts that are essential to a vertebra* 8* 90 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. are the six parts which comparative anatomists consider the elements of the vertebrae, and which are found in most vertebrated animals, however various in form, size, or habits, they may be. In some cases however, in ad- dition to these, there is the process f, bifid at the base, and forming a spine at the lower surface of the verte- bra, or opposite to the spinous process. This structure is common in the Fishes. The aperture formed by the bifurcation of this process admits the passage of a large artery. As our plan will not allow an extension of this part of our subject to the different orders of the vertebrata, we will omit any illustration from the quadrupeds, as being most nearly allied to man in the scale of organi- zation, and therefore most likely to present similar spines; and since illustrations the most remote from man in the scale of being, will tend most clearly to show a unity of plan in the construction of the whole, we will give examples from some of the lower orders of vertebrated animals. Vertebra of Fish. — Fig 67 represents a section of a Fig. 67. part of the spine of a Fish standing in the natural posi- tion. The body of each ver- tebra is hollowed out on both sides, so as to form cup like cavities ; by which means, when the two convex cavities are applied to each other as in the living animal, a cavity hav- ing the shape of a short double cone is formed, as shown in the figure. These cavities left by the bones, are filled with a gelatinous substance, which is nearly incompress- ible, and which appears to serve as a kind of pivot for the motions of the joint. By dividing a spine in the centre, these parts are seen, as shown in the figure. A single vertebra is represented by Fig. 68, for the Explain Fig. 67. What is the difference between the vertebrae of quadrupeds and fishes'? SPINE OF THE VERTEBRATA 01 Fig. 68. purpose of showing the peculiarity of this part in the Fish, and which forms one of the elements of Fig. 66, which is marked f. In the vertebrae of the Fishes, therefore, we see two spinous processes /, f, standing opposite to each other, the one "above and the other below the body, while the trans- verse processes are wanting. These are the points of difference between the spines of this class of animals, and those of the land vertebrata. The design of this difference will immediately become obvious, if we stop for a moment to inquire what sort of motion in the spine, is best calculated to impel the fish through the element where it lives. The spines of the vertebrae, standing in a vertical position, when the fish is in its usual posture, all vertical motions, or flexures of the spinal column upwards and downwards, is entirely pre- vented, the motions being limited to flexures from side to side. Now since the fish moves through the water, on the same principle that a boat is propelled by what is called sculling, that is, by a single oar moved backwards and forwards in the stern, it is plain that any compound flexure of the spine would rather retard, than facilitate its progress. Locomotion of Fishes. — The manner in which fishes give themselves pro- gressive motion through the water, will be understood by Fig. 69. Sup- pose that the tail is curved to the right as shown in the figure, and in this situ- ation the muscles on the left side act suddenly, so as to bring the fish into a straight line, then the re-action of the water against the motion of the tail in the direction of r,p, would give the whole body an impulse contrary to that of the re-action, and the centre of gravity c, would move in the direc- tion of c, 5, which is parallel to p, r. This impulse is not destroyed by the next flexure of the tail in the contrary Fig. 69. 92 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. direction, because the principal force exerted by the muscles has already been exerted in the motion from r to ?7i, in bringing the tail in a straight line with the body ; and the force which carries it on to Z, is much weaker, and therefore occasions but a feeble re-action of the water. When the tail has come to /, a similar action of the muscles, on the other side will give an impulse in the direction of k, I, and a motion of the whole fish in the same direction, that is in the line c, a. The flex- ures, and consequent re-action of the tail being repeat- ed in quick succession, the fish moves forwards in the diagonal of c, d, intermediate between the direction of the two forces. By bending the whole body almost to a circle, and then suddenly straightning it, fishes are able to leap out of the water, or to ascend a perpendicular cataract of considerable height. Did the plan of this little work allow an extension of the subject of this section, it could be shown that the spines of the frog, tortoise, birds, and indeed, all other vertebrated animals present a striking similarity in their structures, and that their forms, lengths, and peculiari- ties are deviations from the general plan we have de- scribed, only so far as is necessary to adapt them to the general organization of the animals to which they be- long. However ignorant any one may be of anatomy, he will generally distinguish the back bone of any animal without mistake, so great is the similarity in all. STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. In no class of animals is the structure of the several parts, so obviously adapted to the uses for which we see them employed as in the Birds. In these animals, the frame of the skeleton, the figure, position, and construc- tion of the wings, the size of the muscles ; the lightness of the whole system when compared with the size, to- In what directions does the spine of a fish allow of motion ? Would any other motion assist the fish in its progress T Explain fig. 69, and show in what manner the fish gains progressive motion through the water 1 What is said of the peculiar adaptation, of the construction of birds to the element in which they move 1 STRUCTURE OP BIRDS. 93 gether with the positions and strength of the quills, and feathers, all have a direct and beautiful relation to the properties of the element, in which they are intended to move. In no part of Creation, therefore, do we see more di- rect and positive marks of design in the Great Author of Nature, than in the adaptation of means to specific ends, than in the construction of Birds. What is particularly striking in the skeletons of these animals when compared with others, is the vast size of the sternum, or breast bone as seen at/, Fig. 70. This bone not only covers the whole chest to a considerable depth on each side, but extends back nearly to the inser- tion of the legs. Its lower part forms a deep perpendic- ular crest, shaped, it is well known, like the keel of a ship, the whole being remarkably thin and light, when compared with the extent of its surface. The design of this great developement is obviously to furnish an exten- sive surface for the attachment of the pectoral muscles to be employed in the motions of the wings. In many Birds these muscles outweigh all the others of the body put together, and it is owing to their great power that the eagle and other birds have such amazing strength of wing, as to carry animals heavier than themselves, and that the Swan sometimes breaks a man's leg by a single flap of his pinion. But in addition to the general appearance of lightness which the bones of Birds present, the cylindrical ones are hollow tubes filled with air. In this they differ from all other living bones, those of other animals being filled with marrow. The lungs of Birds are placed on the ribs, between which their substance also projects. They are of a compact texture, and so bound down to their places among the ribs, as to have no expansive and contrac- tile motion, like those of other animals ; hence respi- ration in this order is carried on by alternately enlarg- ing and contracting the cavity of the chest, as will be For what purpose is the breast bone peculiarly large in the birds? With what substance are the bones of birds filled 1 In what manner is ^aspiration carried on in birds 1 94 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. explained in another place. The air not only circulates through the lungs by this means, but also penetrates the cavities of the bones through vessels constructed for this purpose. In Birds not formed for extensive flight, this provision, however, is much less extensive than in others. Thus in the domestic fowl, the humerus, or first bone of the wing is the only one filled with air. But in the Eagle and other tribes which spend much of their lives in the air, nearly all the bones are hollow, and are filled with the element in which they live. The air thus ad- mitted becomes considerably rarified by the tempera- ture of the Bird, by which provision the whole body is rendered considerably lighter than it otherwise would have been. In all this we cannot but observe a wonderful adap- tation in the construction of the animal to its habits, and the element in which it lives. Structure of the Back Bones of Birds and Fishes. — In the structure of the two classes of vertebrata, the Birds and Fishes, we may trace remarkable differences, which are obviously dependent on the adaptation of each to the elements in which they are respectively des- tined to live. In the Fish, the chest, and all the viscera are placed as far forward as possible ; the respiratory organs, which are the gills, and the heart being also close to the head. Thus the bulk and consequently the centre of gravity, being placed near the head, the tail is left light and flexible for the purpose of motion. In the Fish, the neck, or rather that portion usually occupied by the neck in the other classes, disappears, its place being filled with those parts usually found in the chests of other animals. In the Birds, on the contrary, the viscera are placed as far back as possible, and a long flexible neck is con- tained between the trunk, and head, so as to place them at a considerable distance asunder. In Fish, progressive motion is effected by the tail, the impulse being given by its horizontal flexures from one side to the other. In What difference is there in the different kinds of birds with respect to the quantity of air contained in their bones 1 What reiiiarkabk differ- ence is there, between the construction of birds and that of fishes 1 STRUCTURE OP BIRDS. 95 the Birds, the instruments of motion are fixed to the fore part of the trunk, the impulse being given by the verti- cal, or up and down action of the wings at the same in- stant. In the Fish, the spine is flexible, especially to- wards the tail, while in the Bird this part is rigid through the body, having motion only in that part which forms the neck. Birds change the centre of gravity. — It is by means of the neck, that the Bird is enabled to change its centre of gravity according to circumstances. In the act of flying, this centre must be between the articulations of the wings ; while in resting on its legs, it must be be- tween the feet. Had not Birds the power of adjusting the centre of gravity, they could neither fly with precis- ion through the air, nor rest secure on their feet. Fie. 70. Skeleton of a Swan. — The skeleton of a Swan rep- resented by Fig. 70, will not only serve to show in what 96 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. manner these changes with respect to the centre of gravity are effected, but also how nearly the bones of Birds correspond with our own. The neck of this Bird is composed of twenty-three bones, most of them so articulated together as to allow of free motion in all di- rections. By extending this part in a straight line, the bird, while flying, moves the centre of gravity so as to bring it to some point between the insertions of the wings, whereas, while the Swan is floating on the water, or resting on the feet, the neck is thrown backwards and curved into the form of the letter S, by which the equi- librium of the whole system is preserved by throwing the centre of gravity between the feet. On the same principle all other Birds are enabled to preserve their equilibria in any position they choose to take. Comparison between the bones of Men and Birds. — We have already shown that there is a general simili- tude in the skeletons of all the Vertebrated animals, and especially in their spines. At first view it would hardly be thought that there could be much similarity between the bones of a Bird, and those of a Man, and yet on a closer examination we shall find that the general principles of structure are the very same, and not only so, that some of the individual bones approximate each other in form. Thus the humerus, of which a, Fig. 70, is the head, has a general form like that of our own species. It is flattened in the same manner at the lower extremity for the articulation of the two tones, the radius and ulna. The two latter bones, b, with which the humerus form- ing the elbow joint, are also the same in number, and somewhat similar in shape to those forming the corres- ponding part of the human skeleton. The carpus, or wrist, c, consists of only two bones, the one articulated with the radius, the other with the ulna. These move together as one piece. The metacarpus, or hand d, also consists of two bones, but these are united so closely as to form only one in effect and use. Below these, at e, there is a little projecting bone which may be considered as a rudimental thumb. The prehensive organ in Birds being the bill, and as ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. 97 nature never furnishes any organs but such as are abso- lutely necessary, so the terminations of the wings of Birds, instead of being furnished with bones and muscles which have the prehensile power, like the hand, are only provided with such as are fitted for the insertion of quills. PART III. ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. THE Vital functions, or actions, of animals are such as are immediately essential to life, as the circulation of the blood, respiration, secretion, and absorption. Without these the animal cannot exist. The animal functions are those which support and renovate the system, and with- out which the vital functions could not long be maintain- ed, as digestion, nutrition, and the formation of chyle. These are not immediately essential to life, but may be suspended for a time. The mechanical functions are such as depend on the will, as the action of the muscles, whether employed for the purposes of swimming, flying, or walking. The instruments by which mechanical action is effected have been the chief subjects of the What are the vital functions of animals 7 What are the animal func- tions ? What are the mechanical functions ? 98 ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. foregoing pages, and we shall now proceed to treat of the animal functions, reserving for future consideration the action of the human muscles, which can be most properly noticed when we come to speak of Physical Education. SOURCES OP NUTRITION. The nutrition which nature has provided for the vari- ous tribes of animals, is derived, entirely, from two sources, namely, from the animal and vegetable king- doms. But as the carnivorous tribes derive their food from those which are herbivorous, the nourishment of all is ultimately derived from the earth itself. Vegetable food. — The economy of nature, is no where more wonderfully manifest than in the adaptation of animals to the consumption of every kind of nutrition, there being hardly any organized substance which does not furnish food for some living creature. The succu- lent parts of vegetables are not only the chief source of nourishment of the greater proportion of the larger ani- mals, but also serve the same purpose to myriads of insects. Many tribes of birds likewise, live on vegeta- bles, but insects become the food of the larger number, while not a few are strictly carnivorous. But while these substances are the common food of the most numerous races, even the hardest parts of vegetables, and the most poisonous plants serve the same purpose to certain other tribes. The larvae of various insects live by eating their way through the diseased portions of timber logs ; while the Nettle, the Deadly Night-shade, the Henbane, and other acrid and poisonous plants, afford wholesome food to several species. Some live on fruits and seeds, and others on the juices which they pump from succulent plants. Animal food. — But while a vast number of tribes thus subsist on the fruits of the ground, these in their turn become the prey of at least as great a number of Whence do animals derive their nutrition 7 What is said of the ex- tent to which vegetables serve as the food of animals ? SOURCES OF NUTRITION. 99 carnivorous animals. Every part and portion, of the earth's surface ; every tree, every building, every room in which we live, and even the atmosphere which we breathe, contain a greater or less number of beings, which are perpetually on the alert to procure victims for their voracious appetites. From the spider, which " taketh hold with her hand and liveth in king's pala- ces," to the lion which prowls over the deserts of Africa, there is an uninterrupted series of Carnivora, ready to suck the blood of any living thing they can master. We can see, and shudder at beholding the formidable arms of the lion, and tiger, and can observe the murder- ous disposition of the cat. But there are thousands of insects which lie in wait for their prey, and which emu- late the feline race in their savage dispositions, which fall under the observation of none except naturalists. Many of these when only a few hours old, begin to hunt for their prey, and continue during their lives, to subsist only by war and bloodshed. Many of them are canni- bals, devouring their own kind, or even their own fami- lies, without hesitation, when other food does not come in the way. Nor are many of the inhabitants of the water, whether fresh or salt, less predacious in their dis- positions. From the larvae that is contented with the stagnant pool by the road side, to the shark that roams through the wide ocean, there exists a continued series of animals, not less rapacious in their dispositions, and even more voracious in their habits, than the correspond- ing series which inhabit the land. Many of the carnivorous tribes insist upon killing their own food, and will touch nothing which they find already dead ; while others are too indolent to live by the chase, and are contented to devour any thing that once had life, in whatever state they may fiad it. In the absence of the larger animals, myriads of insects are ever ready, in the warmer seasons, to devour any dead animal, no matter in whatever place it may be found. So strongly was Linnaeus impressed with the immen- sity of the scale on wrhich the work of demolition was What is said of carnivorous animals, and their food 1 100 ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. carried on by insects, that he used to maintain that the carcass of a horse would not be devoured by a single lion, as soon as it would by three green flesh flies, (Mus- ca vomitoria,) and their immediate progeny : for it is known that one such fly will lay 20,000 eggs, which in the course of a single day will produce larvae, each of which will devour so much food, as in another day to increase its weight two hundred times ; and each of these 20,000 in the course of a few days more, will produce a third generation equally numerous. Relation between the organization of Animals and their food. — Thus we see that one race of animals is destined to become the food of others, and these again are in their turn consigned to the same fate from their more powerful enemies. Each kind, whether they subsist on vegetables or flesh, are so organized as to digest the food which their appetites crave. The peaceful cow and sheep are contented with cropping the blades of grass from the field, because their organs of nutrition are fitted for the digestion of this kind of food and no other. But the lion, the tiger, and all other carnivorous animals are organized only for the digestion of flesh, and can no more live upon herbs, than the cows and sheep can sub- sist upon each other. Hence the Creator has pro- vided these animals with claws to secure their prey, and cutting teeth to tear and divide it ; and since this is the only mode by wrhich such animals can live, we are no more at liberty to treat these races with cruelty because they tear other animals in pieces, than we have to mal-treat the cow because she crops the herbage of the field. Mian Omnivorous. — But while one class of the animal kingdom, are herbivorous, and another carnivorous, from their structure, the lord of the creation, has a stomach, and a general organization, which so far as food is con- cerned, embraces both these classes, and hence Man What is said of cruelty towards the predacious animals ? How may- animals be divided with respect to their subsistence ? ANIMAL NUTRITION. 101 may be called, as he strictly is, the omnivorous, or all- eating animal. ANIMAL NUTRITION. When we examine the structure of the very lowest orders of animal existences, we find, that whatever other parts may be wanting, whether they be eyes, or ears, or nerves, or brain, or organs of locomotion, two parts are always present, to wit, a mouth and a stomach. Without these no animal can exist, for however com- plex the organization, in other respects, may be, nothing can compensate for the organs of nutrition. From the account we have given of the structure of the Hydra, it would appear that nearly every other part usually constituting an animal may be dispensed with, except these ; and that some of the Polypi consist of little or nothing more than a throat and organ of digestion. Some animals have several stomachs. — Some of the polypi tribes have at least four stomachs, and the Asteria or star-fish a very common inhabitant of our sea shores, has ten distinct digestive organs. Fig. 71. The mouth of this animal, a, is situated in a depres- sion at the centre of the under surface, and leads into a capacious sack or bag, placed immediately above it, when the animal lies with the mouth downwards which What is said of the necessity of a mouth and stomach to each animal 1 What is said of the number of stomachs, possessed by some animals 1 9* 102 ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. is the natural position. From this central sack, there proceeds ten prolongatives, or canals, which occupy in pairs, the centre of each ray, or division of the body, of which there are five to each star-fish. These prolonga- tions, or stomach subdivide into numerous ramifications on each side, as shown by Fig. 71, c c, which represents one ray of the Asteria, laid open from the upper side. Each ray has two stomachs, such as are here shown, making ten for every animal. Increased complexity in the Stomach of the higher orders. — We shall not consider it necessary to describe the apparatus for digestion belonging to the different grades of animals as they ascend in the scale of organi- zation. It will be sufficient for our purpose to state that the operations preparatory to the introduction of food into the stomach, increase in some proportion to the complexity of the animal organization. Thus the hydra takes its food into the stomach in precisely the same state >that it happens to come to the mouth, and the fish, snake, frog, and many other tribes swallow their aliment in an entire state. Neither have the birds any organs for mastication, so that in common writh them, they take their food in an undivided state. But the birds are furnished with an apparatus for grinding the materials thus swallowed, before they are introduced into the stomach, thus affording an example of com- plexity in the organs of nutritition, proportionate to the general scale of organic developement which these ani- mals exhibit. In all the warm blooded quadrupeds, the food is prepared by mastication and admixture with saliva, before its introduction into the stomach. With the exception of man, all animals take their food in the raw, or natural state ; but with him great preparations, and often very pernicious ones, are made to suit the aliment to his pampered taster before the act of masti- cation commences. Man eats nearly every digestible thing. — Man being an all-eating animal, there hardly exists an article which can be digested, in the sea, on the land, or in the air, that he has not in some way or other contrived to render GRINDING OF FOOD. 103 palatable, or at least to convert by the science of cooke- ry, into something he can take into his stomach. The most active ingredients in the vegetable and ani- mal kingdoms, and even slow poisons, are in common use as condiments, for what otherwise would be wholesome food ; and notwithstanding man is the most anxious of all animals to procure long life, and is perpetually invent- ing new and improved methods to prolong his earthly existence, yet in practice no animal shows so little wis- dom on that very point for which he is so anxious, as the Lord of Creation. All the inferior animals are taught either by instinct or experience to avoid deleterious aliment, and to select such food as is most congenial, and wholesome, and in the wild state most animals would starve rather than touch the food which man prepares for himself. Indeed, no being which the Creator has brought into existence, except the dog and the swine, could long exist on the scientific compounds which man has invented to gratify the artificial cravings of his omnivorous appetite. These animals having been, from time immemorial subjected to human power, the one his companion, and the other the object of his cravings, have finally like their masters, acquired indiscriminate appetites. But notwithstanding the pernicious effects of luxurious indulgence, it will be shown, in another place, that man requires a variety of nutriment. GRINDING OF FOOD. Animals which are furnished with jaws and teethr prepare their food for the stomach by mastication. But there are several tribes which are not provided with such an apparatus, and which, as they take solid food, require some internal means of breaking it in pieces, before it enters the stomach. All the birds which live on seeds, as well as the lobster and crab are provided with an apparatus for this purpose. The part which performs this office in the birds is well known under the name of gizzard. That which performs the same functions in the lobster is very differ- ent in its construction, though equally efficacious in ha operations. 104 ANIMAL FUNCTIONS. Grinding apparatus of the Lobster. — This part in the Fig. 72. Lobster is represented by Fig. 72, which shows the inside of the stomach, to- gether with the triturating machinery at its entrance. There is a cartilaginous frame work, in which the hard calcareous bodies marked a, b, and c, are implanted. These have the form, and perform the office of teeth. The tooth «, is situated in the middle of this frame ; it has a conical rounded shape, and is smaller than the others, b and c, are of the same size and shape. When these three teeth are brought together by the action of the surrounding muscles, they exactly fit into each other, and are capable by the motion which is given them, of completely pulverizing the small shells of mollusca, which have been introduced into the cavity of the stomach as food. Grinding apparatus of Birds. — But the internal machinery for grinding is larger, and more completely formed in the granivorous, or grain-eating birds than in any other animal. In carnivorous birds, as the owl and eagle, this part is entirely wanting, but is found in all the tribes which live on the seeds of vegetables as the Hen, Goose, Pigeon, Swan, Where are the bones of the ear situated 1 To what parts are these bones attached 1 What are the names of the tympanic ossicula 1 PHYSIOLOGY OP AUDITION IN MAN. 191 mary description of the organs of audition, as far as the labyrinth, which in Fig. 114, is marked, v, s, Ar, and is there drawn of the natural size. But in order to give any distinct conception of this part, it is necessary to represent it on a larger scale which is done by Fig. 116. In this figure the labyrinth is detached from every oth- er Part» and separated from the solid bone in which it is embedded. It consists of a middle portion called the vestibule, v, from which, on its upper and posterior side, proceed, the three tubes, x, y, z, called from their shapes, the semi-circular canals ; while the lower side of the vestibule terminates in a spi- ral canal, resembling in ap- pearance, or rather in form, the shell of a snail, k, and on that account is denomi- nated the cochlea. All these cavities are surrounded by solid bone, lined with a very delicate membrane called the periosteum, and are filled with a transparent, watery fluid, called the perilymph. The parts marked a «, are merely the swellings of the .semi-circular canals at their junction with the vestibule. Within the sac of t hevestibule at the point o, there are found two or three masses of chalky, or calcareous matter, suspended in the fluid by the intervention of some nervous filaments, proceeding from the auditory nerve. These exist in the Ears of all the mammalia, and therefore undoubtedly perform some important office, but of what kind is unknown. They are also found in aquatic animals, and of a larger size and greater hardness, than in others. Where is the labyrinth of the ear situated 1 What part of the laby- rinth is the vestibule 7 What are the semilunar canals 7 What part is denominated cocklea 1 192 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. PHYSIOLOGY OF AUDITION IN MAN. The uses of several parts of the complex apparatus above described, remain unknown. The following, however, appears to be the manner in which hearing is performed. The sonorous vibrations being transmitted through the air to the external Ear, are collected by its sinuous canals, and directed through the auditory orifice to the Ear-drum, which is thereby made to vibrate. The action of the tympanum as a muscle is undoubtedly concerned in this effect, probably becoming more or less tense as the sound is less or more audible. The vibra- tions of the tympanum are communicated through the chain of bones to the fenistra ovalis, which being a mem- brane covering a part of the labyrinth, the motion is communicated to the fluid which the labyrinth contains. The undulations of the fluid thus excited, produce audito- ry impressions on the nerves of the ear, which are spread over the inside of the membrane lining the labyrinth, and by them are conveyed to the brain, thus giving the sensation called sound. The tympanum undoubtedly becomes more tense, by the stimulus of sound, and hence in some persons, where this part is naturally lax, or has become so by disease, there is a difficulty of hearing low sounds, except when the drum is excited by louder ones. Thus we know a person who can distinguish ordinary conversation, when walking in the sound of the surf on the sea-shore, but who hears with much difficulty even a loud voice in a silent place. With regard to the purposes which are answered by the semi-circular canals, and the cocklea, hardly any plausible conjectures can be offered ; yet no doubt can be entertained of the importance of all these parts in audition ; for, we find that when we are able fully to understand the uses of any piece of natural mechanism, every part in one way or another, serves to make the Are the uses of all the parts of the internal ear understood ? What is the use of the external ear 1 What is the use of the tympanum ? How does the tympanum probably act as a muscle 7 How are the vibrations of the ear-drum communicated to vestibule? COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING. 193 whole the more perfect, and we may presume therefore, that such is the case with respect to the ear. It does not, however appear, that the preliminary steps with respect to the introduction of sonorous vibra- tions into the ear, as above described are" necessary ; nor that all the parts usually concerned in the process of hearing are required, since Sir Astley Cooper has recorded cases in which hearing remained perfect, after the tympanum was destroyed, and the little bones lost. More commonly, however, the loss of these parts pro- duce total deafness for a time, after which, the power of hearing is often in a measure regained, and in some instances entirely. It is well known that a puncture through the ear-drum does not at all affect the power of that organ. COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING. We have seen that the organs of Circulation, of Vis- ion, and of Respiration, and Digestion all present the most simple structures in the lower orders of animals, and that all these organs increase in complexity, and perfection, as animals rise in the scale of capacity and power. The organs of Hearing follow the same law of gradation, the most complex being found in the higher orders of animals, of which we have an example in those of man. In the inferior races, Hearing is perform- ed by means of a simple vestibule with its membranous sac, supplied with nervous filaments leading through the auditory nerve to the brain. This simple form is found in most aquatic animals, the sonorous undulations of the water, requiring neither tympanum nor bones, nor indeed any of the complex accessory parts found in the mam- malia and man. We have seen, that according to the experiment of Franklin, sound passes to a great distance through water without losing much of its intensity, and according to What effect does the destruction of the ear-drum have upon the hear- ing 1 What effect does the puncture of the ear-drum have upon the hearing 1 What is said of the continuation of the auditory organs in the lower and higher orders of animals 1 What does the organ of hearing in fishes consist of? 17 194 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. the experiments of others, its transmission through water is more than four times more rapid than it is through the air. These facts assist us in understanding why it is, that no part is required in aquatics, like the tympanum and little bones, to increase the sonorous undulations, and also why these organs in other respects, may be reduced to their utmost simplicity, since the water in which they live transmits sound with so little diminution of its inten- sity. Hearing in the Lobster. — The simple auditory appa- ratus, as it is found in the Lobster, is represented by Fig. 117. It consists of a vestibular cavity at r, con- Fig. 117. taining a membranous sac^, which is furnished with the filaments of the auditory nerve. This vestibule is pro- tected on all sides by solid matter, (as the same is by bone in the human ear,) except at one part, e, where it is closed by a membrane, like the fenestra ovalis, to which part therefore it corresponds. The water com- ing in contact with this membrane, the sound is trans- mitted through it, to the nerves of the vestibule and so to the brain. The Mollusca appear to be entirely destitute of the sense of hearing, except perhaps in the highly organized Cephalopoda or Cuttle Fish tribe. In these, there exists a tubercle containing two membranous sacs, which cor- respond to the vestibules of other animals. Hearing in the Frog.— In the Frog, the ear is entire- ly closed on the outside by a membrane, situated over a little cavity on each side of the head, but on a level Why is it supposed unnecessary that the vibratory apparatus should exist in aquatics ? COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OP HEARING. 195 with the integuments. This membrane corresponds to the ear-drum of the Mammalia, the cavity within, con- taining air. From this cavity there proceeds an Eusta- chian tube ; and from the external membrane to the vestibule there extends a small bone, shaped like a trum- pet, and called the columella. These parts are represented by Fig. 118 ; where c,is the columella of an elegant trumpet shape, having its base, b, attached to the fenestra ovalis of the vestibule, v, and which contains the chalky body, o. There is also a small bone, i, appended to the end or front of the columella, where this is attached to the external membrane, or ear- drum. In the Frog, therefore, the sonorous undulations of the air, instead of passing through an aperture, as in man, strike the tympanum on the outside of the head, the vibrations of which, are communicated immediately to the fenestra ovalis of the vestibule, and through the auditory nerves spread over it, directly to the brain. In other amphibia these parts are essentially the same. This mechanism is probably designed to enable the animal to hear both in air and water. In the fishes there is no internal cavity containing air, as is also the case with the Lobster, the ear of which, as we have seen, is so contrived as to place the fenestra, or window of the vestibule, which contains the nerves of hearing, on the outside, so that the sonorous undulations of the water are communicated immediately to the audi- tory nerves. In the Frog there is a communication from the exter- nal tympanum to the vestibule by a solid body, the ope- ration of which, therefore, does not differ from that of the lobster ; but in addition to this, there is a cavity What is said of the hearing of the mollusca 1 What description can you give of a frog's ears 1 By what mechanism is the frog fitted to hear both in the air and in water ? 196 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. under the tympanum containing air ; this part of the apparatus being obviously fitted for atmospheric hearing, as the other apparently is for aquatic hearing only. What clear marks of design and what wonderful tra- ces of wisdom and goodness is evinced in the adapta- tion of these parts to the wants and habits of these poor cold blooded animals ! Truly, " an undevout naturalist must be mad." Hearing in Birds. — In the Birds there is a cavity beyond the tympanum, as in man, and the tympanum itself, instead of being on the outside, lies concealed in a short tube, without any external ear, thus placing this class, in respect to the auditory apparatus, between the Amphibia and Quadrupeds. The ear of man may be taken as an example of the interior structure of this organ in the whole of the oth- er Mammalia. In Quadrupeds, the chief peculiarity in other respects is in the size and form of the external ear ; and from a comparison of the relative size of this part in the various tribes, it has been inferred, that it bears a tolerably constant proportion to the degree of acuteness of hearing, and consequently that it contrib- utes essentially to that faculty. Thus in the rabbit, where the cochlea is uncommonly long, and somewhat trumpet-shaped, the hearing is remarkably acute. In the dog and horse this part is well developed, and we accordingly find a corresponding acuteness of hearing. In animals with long ears, there are muscles for the purpose of erecting or turning them towards the point whence the sound proceeds ; and thus they have the effect of an ear trumpet, in concentrating the sono- rous undulations, from whatever direction they come. Every one must have observed the employment of this faculty in the horse, which always turns his ear in the direction of the sound. Hence it is, that the leaders of coach horses turn their ears forward, while those What is said of the ears of birds 7 What is the construction of the internal ear of the mammalia 7 Is there any relation between the exter- nal ears of animals, and their sense of hearing 7 Do men ever possess the power of turning their ears 7 MUSICAL EAR. behind them turn theirs backward. In a few instances, men, like quadrupeds, have had the power of turning their ears backwards, or forwards at pleasure. MUSICAL EAR. That learned anatomist, Sir Everard Home, consid- ered the Ear-drum, with its radiated muscular fibres as a sort of monochord, or rather perhaps the string of the monochord, " of which the tensor muscles are the screw, giving the necessary tension to make the string perform its proper scale of vibrations, and the radia- ted muscle acting upon the membrane like the moveable bridge of the monochord, adjusting it to the vibrations required to be produced." The same philosopher says, " that the difference between a musical Ear, and one that is too imperfect to distinguish the different notes of mu- sic, will appear to arise entirely from the greater or less nicety with which the muscle of the malleus renders the membrane capable of being truly adjusted. If the tension is perfect, all the variations produced by the action of the radiated muscle will be equally correct, and the Ear truly musical" This view of the subject would make a musical Ear, little more than a fine piece of mechanism, in which the mind has no participation. But we cannot believe that this is the true doctrine, for although some Quadrupeds, it is said, will listen to the strains of music, with seeming pleasure, yet it is most clearly through his intellect that man enjoys that high degree of gratification, which music is capable of conferring. It is therefore in the brain itself, that, what is called the " musical Ear " is situated, the mechanical apparatus of audition being in this respect, merely the instrument by which the sono- rous undulations constituting melody are conveyed to the soul. What was Sir E. Home's opinion with respect to the action of the ear- drum in forming a musical ear 1 Where is it said the musical ear is situ- ated 1 17* 108 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. The charms of Music do not depend on the Tympa- num. — That the charms of music do not always depend on the vibrations of the tympanum, is proved by the fact already noticed, that this part is sometimes entirely destroyed and still the power of hearing is retained. The case alluded to, is detailed by Sir Astley Cooper in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1801, of which we will here give a summary. The subject was a gentleman who stated to Sir Astley, that at the age of ten years, he was attacked with an inflammation and suppuration of the left ear, which continued to discharge matter for several weeks. In about a year afterwards the right ear was attacked with similar symptoms, and in consequence he became totally deaf, and remained so for three months. His hearing then began gradually to return, and in about ten months he was restored to the state in which Sir Astley found him. The ear-drums were found to be totally destroyed, together with the little bones, which had escaped, with the matter during the suppuration. Hence there was a communication from the mouth, through the Eustachian tubes to the external orifice of the ear. This was shown by filling his mouth with air, closing the nostrils, and compressing the cheeks, when the air thus compres- sed was heard to rush out of the external orifice with a whirling sound, the hair on each side of the cheeks becoming agitated by the current. When a candle was applied, the flame was also agitated by the stream of air. Sir Astley ascertained by minute examination, that not a vestige of the tympanum remained in the left ear, and that in the right, though there was a remnant of it, around the circumference, the centre was gone, leaving an aperture of a quarter of an inch in diameter. Yet this gentleman was not only capable of hearing every thing that was said in company, but was nicely suscep- tible to musical tones. He played well on the flute, and had frequently taken a part in concerts ; he also sung with taste, and perfectly in tune. How is it shown that the charms of music, or even common sounds do not depend on the vibrations of the tympanum ? ;| MUSICAL EAR. 190 Musical Ear situated in the Brain. — But if it be ob- jected, that the above is a rare and extraordinary case, and tends to prove that the tympanum may be dispensed with, in ordinary hearing, as well as in the constitution of a musical ear ; still setting this case aside, we find that those who have no ears for music, are equally, with the most enthusiastic amateurs, capable of distin- guishing every kind of sound from the full peel of the organ to the evanescent tones of the Eolian harp. His sense of hearing, therefore is equally perfect, with that of a .most skilful musician; and consequently there is every reason to believe that his mere physical organ is just as nicely constructed. Indeed there does not seem to be any relation between a musical ear and mere deli- cacy of hearing. If these considerations be admitted, and it is believed no one will deny them, then we must admit also that the soul-stirring effects of harmony depend on the organi- zation of the brain, and not on that of the ear. And this is the opinion of several recent physiologists of the first class. " Speech," says Broussais, " is heard, and repeated by all men, who are not deprived of their auditory sense, because they are all endowed with cere- bral organization, fit to procure for them distinct ideas on the subject. Music when viewed as a mere noise, is also heard by every one ; but it furnishes ideas suffi- ciently clear to be re-produced and communicated by those individuals only, whose frames are organized in a manner adapted to this kind of sensation." Singular defects in certain Ears. — The late Dr. Wollaston in the Philosophical Transactions for 1820, describes several peculiarities in certain ears, which appear to have no defects in their organization, or capa- city of receiving common sounds, not even in the per- ception of musical harmony, but are insensible to cer- tain acute sounds. The writer himself found that his ear was insensible to any sound higher than six octaves above the middle E of the piano. In several other persons he found a similar insensibility to acute sounds of a certain kind. Thus some could not hear 200 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. the chirp of a grass-hopper ; others the sharp cry of a bat ; and he refers to one who was insensible to the note of the sparrow. ORGANS OF SMELL. From nearly all bodies there escapes certain particles, which being carried along by the air, are taken into the nostrils where they excite the sensation which we call odor, or smell. All bodies, the particles of which are fixed, are called inodorous, that is, they do not excite the sensation of smell. Some bodies, it is well known, fill the air to great dis- tances with their odoriferous particles, while in others, under ordinary circumstances there is no appreciable smell. Every odoriferous body excites a sensation peculiar to itself, and hence has a peculiar odor. We cannot describe an odor, except to persons who have themselves smelled that which we intend to de- scribe ; or something with which we can compare it. Thus, no one could have the least idea of the smell of camphor, or musk, who had not experienced it. The terms aromatic, or sweet, and rancid, or fetid, are gene- ral terms intended to include odors which are pleasant or disagreeable, and in these respects we are able to compare odors, so far as to specify what is agreeable and what not. It is exceedingly difficult for us to conceive how mat- ter, so rare, and minute, as must be the particles of some odoriferous bodies, can excite any sensation on the ani- mal organs. Thus a single grain of musk will scent an apartment for years, and still not loose the least appre- ciable part of its weight, though tried by the nicest scales , and it is said, if a little of this drug be put into a How is it proved that the appreciation of harmony is owing to effect on the brain, and not merely on the ear? What peculiarities did Dr. Wollaston observe with respect to the sense of hearing 7 What excites the sense of smell 1 What bodies are inodorous'? "What is said of the description of odors 1 ORGANS OP SMELL. 201 gold snuff-box, for a short time, and then the box be cleansed with soap and water, still it will retain the odor of musk for years. The sense of smell is conveyed to the brain by a pair of nerves, called the olfactory, which are spread on the sides of the nostrils. Dr. Magendie says that the olfactory apparatus ought to be described as a sort of sieve, placed in the passage of the air, as it is introduced into the chest, and intended to stop every foreign body that may be mixed with the air, particularly the odors. In all the terrestrial animals the cavity of the nostrils is divided into two parts by a vertical partition, the whole interior being lined by a soft membrane, called the schneiderian or pituitary membrane. This is con- stantly kept moist by glands which secrete a fluid for that purpose. This membrane is well supplied with blood vessels, and with nerves from the olfactary pair. These nerves in carnivorous animals are much larger, than in those that live on vegetables. In most animals the bony structure of this part of the skull is exceedingly intricate, and therefore cannot be described to the understandings of those who have no previous knowledge of anatomy. We must consequent- ly refer those of our readers who wish to examine this point more particularly, to some treatise on that subject. The best way, however, is to take the head of some quadruped, and with a fine saw, divide the parts both transversely- and longitudinally. Such an examination, assisted by a good description, will give the general stu- dent all the information he may want on this subject in a few hours. Olfactory nerves of the Duck. — We give a single lon- gitudinal figure on this subject, in which the olfactory nerves are peculiarly conspicuous, both from their size and mode of distribution. This is the upper mandible of a 202 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. Duck, Fig. 119, with the olfactories laid bare. They pass out of the orbit of the eye, o, in two large branches, Fig. 119. an upper one, u, and a lower one, Z, the branches of each being spread over the contiguous parts, both with- in and without, being merely protected by the surface, except at the extremity of the beak, where there is a horny process, p, for this purpose. Audubon's Experiments on the olfactory powers of Vul- tures.— It is the common opinion that vultures, and oth- er birds of prey have the power of smell so acute that they can discover by this means, the effluvia of a carcass at great distances. But it now appears from the obser- vations and experiments of that celebrated ornithologist, Mr. Audubon, that these birds in reality possess this sense in a degree far inferior to many of the carnivorous quadrupeds ; and that so far from guiding them to their prey, at a great distance, it is hardly sufficient to indi- cate its presence when near at hand. The following experiments appear satisfactory on this subject. Having procured the skin of a deer, Mr. Au- dubon stuffed it full of hay, and after the whole had become completely dry and hard, so as to emit no smell, he placed it in the middle of an open field, laying it on the back, in the posture of a dead animal. In the course of a few minutes he saw a vulture approaching for a feast ; and quite unsuspicious of the deception, began the attack as usual, in the most vulnerable part. But finding nothing to his taste, it next, with much exertion tore open the seams of the skin, appearing earnestly intent on getting at the flesh, which he expected to find ORGANS OF SMELL. 208 within, and of the absence of which, not one of his sen- ses, it appears, was able to inform him. Finding that his efforts after a long trial, led to no satisfactory results, and that nothing could be obtained but a bundle of hay, the bird took its flight in search of other game ; " to which," says the observer, "he was led by sight alone, and which he was not long in finding." Another experiment, the converse of this was next tried. A large dead hog was concealed in a narrow and winding ravine, about twenty feet deeper than the sur- face of the earth around it, and filled with briars and high canes. This was done in the month of July in a tropical climate, where decomposition took place rapid- ly. Yet although many vultures were seen, from time to time sailing in all directions over the spot, none ever discovered it ; but in the mean time, several dogs had found their way to it, before which, it was fast disap- pearing. In other experiments Mr. Audubon found that young vultures confined in a cage, never seemed to perceive that their food was near them, until it was seen. It therefore appears that vultures are guided to their food by the acuteness of their visual, and not by their olfactory organs, as has heretofore been supposed. The above results have been fully verrified by Mr. Bachman, and a detailed account thereof published in Loudon's Magazine of Natural History. Organs of Smell in Fishes. — It has been doubted by some physiologists whether water is capable of convey- ing odoriferous particles, and consequently, whether fish had any use for olfactory organs. But almost every angler knows that at least, with some sorts of fish, he has much better luck when his bait is scented with some strong odoriferous drugs,, as assafcetida, musk, or cam- phor. It is well known, indeed, both by other experi- ments, as well as by dissection, that fishes are endowed with organs of smell. What were the results of Audubon's experiments on the smell of vul- tures 1 What is said of the organs of smell in fishes 1 204 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. ORGANS OF TASTE. It is well known that the tongue is the principal organ of taste ; though the lips, the palate, the internal surfa- ces of the cheeks, and the upper part of the esophagus, all participate in this favorite sense. The organs of this sense are much the most abundant on the tongue, where they may be seen, especially towards the end, in the form of papilla, or minute ele- vated protuberances. If these be touched with a fluid, that is strong to the taste, such as vinegar, they will be seen to rise by the stimulus, an effect which probably accompanies the sen- sation of taste at all times. The lingual nerve, or nerve of the tongue, is that which is chiefly concerned in conveying the sense of taste to the brain. But Magendie says, that after the most careful examination of this part by dissection, assisted by the most delicate instruments, he was unable to trace these nerves to the papillae. Still the sense of taste must be attributed to the filaments of this nerve. The primary use of taste is to guide animals in the selection of their food, and warn them against the intro- duction of noxious articles into the stomach. In all the inferior animals, this sense, together with that of smell, is generally a sufficient guard against the use of noxious food. In these, therefore, the original design of taste is still answered. But in man, this sense has been so abused and perverted, by the introduction of stimulants, and the endless admixture of different arti- cles of food, that the simple action of this part, seems to have been superseded almost entirely by acquired taste. Hence man, in his present state of civilization, and luxu- riousness, has no sense by which he can determine with any degree of certainty, what is wholesome and what is poisonous. In the savage state, the sense of taste and What part of insects constitutes the organ of smell 7 Where is the organ of taste situated 1 What is the primary use of taste ? In what animals is this design still answered 7 What is said of the power of man to detect poisonous articles by the taste ? ORGANS OP TASTE. 205 smell are much less vitiated, than in civilized man ; and hence the men of the forest, it is said, are guided, in a considerable degree by these senses, in the choice of their food, especially in times of scarcity, when they are obliged to roam in search of new articles. ORGANS OF TOUCH. By the sense of touch we are enabled to know the external properties of bodies. Physiologists make a distinction between tact and touch. Tact, with some few exceptions, is generally dif- fused through all our organs, and particularly over the skin. It exists in all animals, while touch exists chiefly in the fingers of man, in the antennce of insects, and in the noses of certain quadrupeds. In the exercise of these functions, tact is considered passive, as when any part of the system comes into con- tact with another body, a sensation of its presence is given, without the exercise of volition. On the coittrary touch is active, and is exercised voluntarily for the pur- pose of conveying to the mind a knowledge of the qualities, or properties of the surfaces of bodies ; as when we feel a piece of cloth to ascertain its quality, or a polished surface to prove its smoothness. Anatomy of the Skin. — The sensation of tact, and touch is conveyed to the brain by means of nerves situ- ated in the skin. The skin consists of three parts called the cuticle, or epidermis ;'the rete mucosum ; and the corium, or cutis vera, or true skin. The cuticle is the external layer. In its structure it is membranous and dry, having neither nerves, veins, nor arteries. It has therefore no sensation, its office being merely to protect the true skin from external injury. The cuticle is that thin membrane which is raised by a What is the difference between touch and tact 1 In the exercise of these functions which is active and which passive 7 How are these sensations conveyed to the brain 7 What parts compose the skin, and what their names 1 What is the cuticle and where is it situated ? What is the use of the cuticle ? 18 206 SENSORIAL FUNCTIONS. blister, and which when removed, leaves the true skin exposed. The pain consequent upon such exposure, is the best test of the importance of the office which this membrane performs. It is full of minute pores, through which the perspiration escapes. The next layer of the skin is the rete mucosum, or mucous web. It is in this that the coloring matter of the different races of men exists. In the African, it is black, in the American and European, white, and in American Indians, copper colored. The corium, or true skin, lies next. This consists of a tissue of dense fibres intersecting each other in all direc- tions, the nerves and blood vessels, passing between them. It is a thick and firm covering for the protection of the flesh, and the larger nerves, and blood vessels, some of which are immediately under it. The composition of the true skin is chiefly gelatine, and hence it is used in the manufacture of glue, and the substance called sizing, used by paper-makers. When this gelatine is hardened by tanning, the skin becomes leather, and is used for shoes and boots. In addition to these, there is the corpus papillarce, which may be con- sidered as a part of the true skin, being formed by the extremities of the nerves and vessels, which have pass- ed through that part. These are little protuberances, and are seen distinctly in the true skin, after the cuticle has been removed by a blister. When the parts are relaxed, they are not so apparent, but become erect, rising a little above the surface, when the skin is stimu- lated, or touched. It appears to be in these papillae that the sense of touch resides, these being furnished with nerves appro- priated to this particular sensation. In most cases the ends of the fingers, but sometimes the lips, are employed to convey information by the touch. In what part of the skin do the colors of the different races lie ? What is the corium, and where is it situated 1 Where is the sense of touch sit- uatedl PART VI. MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. THE BRAIN. Preparatory to treating of the Sensorial Functions, we gave a summary account of the nervous system, as it exists in various animals, with a figure of the ganglion ; reserving more particular descriptions of the brain and its functions as they are found, in the human species, for the purpose of connecting them with observations on Physical and Mental Exercise. Size of the Brain. — Aristotle and Pliny both assert that the brain of man is, not only comparatively, but absolutely larger than that of any other animal. At the present time, only two exceptions to this assertion are known. The brain of the Whale, and that of the Ele- phant are larger in bulk than that of the human species. Comparatively, however, the human brain is much lar- ger than that of any other known animal. By analogy, therefore, we might infer that in man, the largest de- velopment of this organ, would, other circumstances being equal, insure the most capacious intellect, and perhaps this may be considered as generally true. Says Magendie, " the volume of the brain, is generally in What is said of the absolute size of the human brain 1 What is said of the comparative size of this organ in man ? 208 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. direct proportion to the capacity of the mind." " We ought not to suppose, however, that every man having a large head is necessarily a person of superior intelli- gence, for there are many causes of an augmentation of the volume of the head beside the size of the brain ; but it is rarely found that a man distinguished by his mental faculties has not a large head. The only way of esti- mating the volume of the brain in a living person, is to measure the dimensions of the skull. Every other means, even that proposed by Camper is uncertain." Dimensions of the Brain — The whole substance of the brain, and spinal marrow, are continuous, forming but a single piece. But the different parts of this organ are supposed to perform different functions, and they present also a variety of appearances, and hence have received different names. That portion of the brain which fills the upper part of the skull and extends from the orbit of the eye, to the most prominent parts of the hind head is called the cere- brum, or encephalon. Fig. 120. Is there any proportion between the size of the brain and the intellect 1 THE BRAIN. 209 This is divided into two equal parts, longitudinally, called the right and left hemispheres of the brain h h h, Fig. 120, which represents the right hemisphere. The medulla oblongata, m, or oblong marrow, is that portion of the spinal chord which is contained within the skull. Its continuation downwards, s, is called the medulla spi- nalis, or spinal marrow. The part c, is the cerebellum, or little brain, so called to distinguish it from the cere- brum, above described. The tree-like figure, shown by dividing it through the centre is called the abor vita, or tree of life. The corpus callosum, or hard body, q, is a white medullary part, which joins the two hemispheres together ; v, marks one of the lateral ventricles of the brain. The pineal gland p, was supposed by Des Car- tes to be the seat of the soul. It is not within the scope of this work to enter into a minute description of the different parts of the brain ; our object being to give a general, rather than a partic- ular account of its structure and functions. All the nerves are considered as originating either directly or indirectly from the medullary substance, that is, from the medulla oblongata, or the spinal chord. Those which pass through the bones of the skull, are however, called cerebral nerves, while those which arise from the spinal marrow are called spinal nerves. Among the first are the optic and olfactory nerves. The brain receives a larger quantity of blood than any other organ of the same size. The arteries for this purpose, are four in number, and are supposed to convey to the brain an eighth part of all the blood which flows from the heart. PHRENOLOGY. Physiologists have been at great pains to ascertain what parts of the brain are the particular instruments of What part of the brain is the cerebrum 1 What are the hemispheres "of the brain 1 What is the medulla oblongata 1 What does the continu- tion of this part form 1 What is the situation of the cerebellum 1 From what parts do the nerves arise 7 What is said of the quantity of blood sent to the brain ? 18* 210 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. the different functions of life, as those of sensation, of intellect, of voluntary motion, and of the passions. But aside from the more recent investigations of Phre- nologists, and the light which that science has been sup- posed to have thrown upon this most difficult of subjects, it must be confessed that these attempts have not been crowned with much success. All that experiments and observations appear heretofore to have determined on this point, is, that the hemispheres of the brain are the instruments of the intellectual faculties ; the central parts of the brain, and the medulla oblongata, are those principally concerned in sensation, and that the cere- bellum is the chief sensorial agent in voluntary motion. Phrenology wants more facts. — With respect to the foundation of Phrenology, as being based upon the ana- tomical structure, and natural divisions of the brain, the author of this work has nothing to offer, having had no recent opportunities of examining that organ with such views. Nor will he venture to affirm that this science will not ultimately be, in one way, or another, of some use to mankind. But he must be allowed to say, that so far as the principles of this science have yet been developed, its practical usefulness in directing parents to educate, or employ their children according to their different capacities, or inclinations ; or of enabling them to counteract their evil propensities ; or even of point- ing out with any degree of certainty the peculiar intel- lectual powers of an adult, by an examination of the cranium, Phrenology has not, at least, in this country answered the former promises and expectations of its advocates. It is true, that George Combe, Esq., of Edinburgh, and others, have collected together many facts on this subject, and from which it would appear that this science might, with certain modifications be ultimately placed on a permanent foundation. But a multitude of facts, and severe critical observations, are still wanting, to induce the great mass of well-educated What part of the brain is the instrument of the intellectual faculties 1 What part of the brain is chiefly concerned in sensation 7 What part is the agent of voluntary motion? PHRENOLOGY. 211 people to form their opinions on a matter which is held out to them to be of such high importance ; and more still, to induce them to trust to its guidance, the educa- tion of their children, or any of the important concerns of life. Mr. Rogefs opinion. — But without making further observations of our own, we will merely cite the opinions of two or three individuals, which have been formed with a knowledge of the facts, and whose decisions are not of less weight than those of any cotemporary wri- ters. " Although," says Mr. Roget, " the brain is construct- ed with evident design, and composed of a number of curiously wrought parts, we are utterly unable to pene- trate the intention with which they are formed, or to perceive the slightest correspondence which their config- uration can have with the functions they respectively perform. The map of regions which modern Physiolo- gists have traced on the surface of the head, and which they suppose to have relation to different faculties, and propensities, does not agree either with the natural divis- ions of the brain, nor with the metaphysical classifica- tion of mental phenomena."* Dr. Bostock's sentiments. — " The view," says Dr. Bos- tock, " which I have taken of the connection that sub- sists between the physical structure of the nervous sys- tem, and the mental faculties, naturally brings me to a subject, which has of late attracted a considerable degree of attention among anatomists and physiologists, viz. the dependence of the character and disposition upon the peculiar shape and organization of the brain. Certain facts, which seemed to favor this opinion, had long been noticed ; persons of observation were in the habit of associating the idea of superior intellect with a capacious and prominent forehead, while the contrary form was equally conceived to indicate a deficiency of * Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Bridgwater Treatise. Vol. ii. p. 565. London, 1835. It is proper to remark, that Dr. Roget, is the author of the Article 11 Cramoscopy " in the Encyclopedia Brittanica, and therefore has not given this opinion, without knowledge. 212 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. mental powers. * * * When the sculptors of antiquity formed the statues of their gods, or heroes, to which they were desirous of imparting the character of high intelligence, they endeavored to accomplish this by giving a peculiar form to the head." * * " The arguments which have been urged in favor of the science of Cranioscopy,"* continues Dr. Bostock, " are partly anatomical and partly physological. In the first place, it is said that the brain exhibits a very elabo- rate structure, and a very complicated organization, and it is therefore reasonable to conclude, that its different parts must be subservient to the exercise of different functions." " Secondly, both metaphysicians and physiologists have been in the habit of referring all the impressions which we receive through the intervention of the nerves to some central part of the brain, but the great diversity of opinion which exists respecting the part which ought to be regarded as this common centre, affords us at least a strong presumption of its non-existence, while on the contrary, if we suppose that there actually is such a cen- tral spot, we are at a loss to assign any use to the remainder of the brain." " Thirdly, we are in possession of a number of obser- vations upon the partial loss of the mental faculties, in consequence of disease or injury of the brain, and although we are not able to trace out the connection between the situation of the injury received, and the defect of the mental powers, yet it favors the opinion that these faculties are distributed over the different parts of which, the brain is constituted. " Fourthly, the analogy of the nerves that are con- nected with the external organs of sense is adduced by the cranioscopists in favor of their doctrine. Each of these nerves, in conveying their respective impressions, must exercise a different office, and in the same way, the different convolutions of the brain are supposed to be the organs of the respective mental functions. * Dr. Bostock remarks, that this being the term originally employed, and being much more appropriate, than Phrenology, he continues to use it. PHRENOLOGY. 213 " Fifthly, it is argued that the state of the brain in regard to its perfection, and full development, corres- ponds to the state of the mental faculties at the different periods of life, and also to their degree of perfection among the inferior animals, so as to indicate a necessa- ry connection between these circumstances. ; „ " Sixthly, the brains of different individuals actually differ in the proportionate form and size of their parts, and it is therefore reasonable to presume, that this may be the cause of the difference which is admitted to exist in the faculties of different individuals. " Seventhly, the exercise of the mental powers, like those of the physical functions is attended with fatigue ; but it is found by experience, that the fatigue only ex- tends to that particular power which has been exercised : it may, therefore, be presumed that its action is confined to a certain portion of the brain only. " Eigthly, proceeding upon the principle, that the dis- positions, and mental faculties are, to a certain extent, innate, and observing that they exist in different individ- uals in different proportions, it follows that they must be attached to different organs. " The above," says Dr. Bostock, " appears to me to exhibit a fair statement of the nature of the arguments which have been employed, to prove the antecedent probability of the doctrine of cranioscopy. But its ad- vocates are aware that its merits must principally rest upon the degree in which it is found to correspond with well ascertained facts, and correct observation, and with the power which it actually affords us of acquiring a knowledge of the character and disposition of indi- viduals, by an examination of the skull. It is, therefore, by an appeal to experience, that the supporters of cran- ioscopy, and Dr. Spurzheim in particular, attempt to establish their opinion, and they have accordingly brought forward a number of facts of this description, which are supposed to form a sufficiently firm basis for their system. They consist of the results which were obtained by examining the heads of various individuals of all ages, ranks, and conditions, minutely noticing the deviations from average form, especially with regard to the size and situation of the eminences, or protuberances which 214 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. they exhibited. The examination has also been exten- ded to the inferior animals, and the same principles have been applied to their skulls, both as to what respects their general form, and the proportionate size of their individual parts, whether indicating a generic, or an individual difference. " In estimating the value of these arguments, I shall arrange them in two divisions, as they relate to general considerations of probability, or as they depend more upon particular facts. " And with respect to the first point, I think it will be admitted that there is none of them which possesses more than an indirect application to the question in discussion. Admitting that the perfect organization of the brain is a necessary intermedium for the exercise of the mental powers, we may conclude, that every part of this organ must have a necessary connection with the exercise of these powers, as every part of the eye and the ear has a reference to the production of vision and of sound. Inconsequence of our knowledge of the physical laws of light, and the undulations of the air, we are enabled to trace out the mode in which the several parts of the eye, and of the ear co-operate to produce the ultimate effect. Had we the same knowledge of the mode in which the mind operates upon the brain, we should probably have it in our power to detect the same kind of co-operation of all its parts and structures to the production of percep- tion and thought. But on this point we are in total ignorance, and therefore, although we may go so far as to assert, that a perfect brain, in a certain sense, is essen- tial to a perfect mind, we are unable to say in what way it is so. " The only anatomical argument which is of so tangi- ble a nature as to allow of any thing approaching to direct deduction, is derived from a consideration of the degree in which an injury of the brain produces a cor- responding injury of the mental powers. Upon this point I have already stated my opinion, and I have only to add, that while the connection is not of that nature which indicates the relation of cause and effect, so I should be still less disposed to allow, that the fact§ which we possess are of that distinct and direct nature, PHRENOLOGY. 215 which can enable us to connect particular injuries of the brain with corresponding injuries of particular facul- ties. " The position that the size of an organ is an indica- tion of the degree of its power, or capacity, a position which may be regarded as almost the fundamental prin- ciple on which the whole doctrine rests, is in direct con- tradiction to fact. To revert to the case of the eye ; it may be asserted that this perfection of this organ, either when considered with respect to the different species of animals, or to the different individuals of the same spe- cies, does not bear the least relation to its size, but depends entirely upon the nature of its organization, and, except in those cases where the exercise of an organ is connected with mechanical force, as in muscu- lar contraction, bulk has no relation to the perfection of a part. * * * * " And even were it proved, as a general principle that distinct parts of the brain were appropriated to distinct mental functions, we may still be permitted to doubt whether the cranioscopists have been fortunate in their division and appropriation of the functions which are supposed to possess these distinct localities. If we consider the subject theoretically, we might pre- sume, that there would be a separate organ correspond- ing to each of the external senses, as the impressions are themselves distinct in their nature, and might be sup- posed to require some different modification of the nervous matter for their perception. And again, with respect to the intellectual powers, there are some which appear so distinct from the others, that we might apply to them the same mode of reasoning, and suppose it probable that they might possess their appropriate organs. The fac- ulty of memory might be supposed to require a different modification of the nervous power from that of the imagination ; and this again from that of abstraction or volition. But we do not observe any classification or division of this kind in the faculties that are enumerated by Dr. Spurzheim, or his disciples. Some of them are complex feelings, resulting from the union of primary perceptions with ideas ; others appear to be a com- bination of ideas only ; some may be regarded as the obvious result of association, and others again as the 216 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. effect of association operating through the intervention of education, or of the accidental circumstances in which the individual has been placed. " And with respect to what may be regarded as the practical application of the art, or science of craniosco- py ; it may be objected, that the convolutions of the cerebrum are not what one should expect to be the seat of the ultimate operations of the organ. They are not the part in which we behold that elaborate and compli- cated structure, the existence of which has been sup- posed to form so powerful an argument in favor of the doctrine, while this view of the subject still leaves unex- plained the uses of the more minutely organized parts, that are situated in the interior of the brain." Dr. Bostock further remarks, that the question wheth- er this science has any foundation or not, must be deci- ded by an appeal to facts. " These facts are of two kinds, almost exactly coinciding in their object. We must obtain skulls that are marked by some peculiarity of form and shape, and must then endeavor to learn what was the natural character of the subject ; or we must take the cases of those who have shown some de- cided peculiarity of disposition and character, and exam- ine the figure of their skulls. A sufficient number of these observations, carefully made and impartially re- corded, cannot fail to decide the question, whether there be any ground for the doctrine of the appropriation of the different parts of the brain to distinct faculties; and more particularly, whether we have it in our power to ascertain their seat by an external examination of the cranium. On this point, I must give it as the conviction of my mind, that the facts hitherto adduced, are altogeth- er inadequate to the end proposed ; that they are fre- quently of doubtful authority, and of incorrect applica- tion ; and that nothing but the love of novelty, and the eagerness with which the mind embraces whatsoever promises to open a new avenue to the acquisition of knowledge, could have led men of talents and informa- tion to place any confidence in them."* * An Elementary System of Physiology, by John Bostock, M. D., F. R. S.,L. S. G. S. H. S. M. R. L, London, Vol. III., p. 264—5-6. PHRENOLOGY. 217 We have added this long extract from one of the high- est physiological authorities of the age, to that of Dr. Roget, for the purpose of showing those into whose hands this volume may happen to fall, that there is still a doubt among the most competent judges in Europe, not only whether Phrenology is likely to be of any practical utility to man, but even whether it has any founda- tion in nature. At the same time, as it is acknowledged by the advocates of its doctrines themselves, that it must stand or fall on the facts which can be adduced for, or against it, we can see no objection to their accumulation, provided in the mean time, the public curiosity can be so suspended as to prevent the waste of too much time in studying it, or the adoption of a system, which does not at present appear to be of any great practical use to the rising generation, whatever it may ultimately become. Double Organs of the Mammalia. — In man, as well as in all the other vertebrated animals, every organ sub- servient to the sensorial functions, and most of those concerned in voluntary action, are double ; that is, there is a symmetrical organ on each side, whose powers and functions are exactly alike. Thus we have two eyes, two ears, two arms, two legs, &c. The same law holds with respect to the brain, this part, as we have shown, being divided into two equal parts, called the right and left hemispheres ; so that in fact, we have two brains, and a double set of nerves, as well as double eyes and ears. In the sensorial functions these two parts constitute, in action, only a single organ of sensation ; thus the ac- tion of the two eyes convey to the mind only a single im- pression, and of the two ears only a single sound. This effect is produced by a free communication which exists between the two divisions of the brain, by means of me- dullary substances, called tha commissures of the brain, and which pass directly from one hemisphere to the oth- er. The principal commissure is the corpus callosum, shown at g, Fig. 120. In the functions of most of the What is said of the double organs of the sensorial, and muscular pow- ers ? In sensorial action is the effect double or single 1 19 218 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. voluntary powers, no necessary use appears to be made of this communication ; since \ve can employ the mus- cles of one side, without the necessary action of those of the other, or we can use them both at the same time. Thus we can throw up one hand, or both, at the same in- stant. Insensibility of the Brain. — The brain, as we have seen, is the source of every sensation ; the common sen- sorium through which we derive every pleasure, and feel every pain. And yet this wonderful organ, so sensible to mechanical impressions that a little blow, even through the bones of the skull, will often produce instant death, is itself entirely insensible ! "That part of the brain," says Sir Charles Bell, " which if disturbed or diseased, takes away consciousness, is as insensible as the leather of our shoe !" It may be touched, or a portion of it torn off without sensation, and yet, to its proper office, it is exquis- itely sensible. OF THE MUSCLES. \ We have designedly omitted to treat of the muscles, until we came to that part of our work, where they could with propriety be described in connection with an ac- count of their functions, the exercise of which is one of the principal means by which we are to continue in the enjoyment of health, both corporeal and mental. The muscles are the red fibrous parts of animals, which are situated immediately under the skin. They constitute all those parts commonly called flesh. Their number in the human body is about 400. They consist of distinct portions, or separate bundles of fibres, which are susceptible of contraction and relaxation, at the will of the animal ; for which reason they are called volunta- ry muscles, in order to distinguish them from the heart, and other muscular parts over which the will has no con- trol. Every muscle of course, is furnished with its ap- propriate set of nerves. What are the muscles ? What do they constitute ? What do the muscles consist of 1 Why are they called voluntary muscles ? OP THE MUSCLES. 219 Each muscle is distinguished into three parts, called the origin, venter or swell, and the insertion or termin- ation. The origin is that part by which the muscle is attach- ed at its upper end ; the swell is the thickest or most conspicuous part, and that which makes up the chief bulk of the whole ; the insertion is the smaller, or tendi- nous part, being that by which it is attached at the end opposite to the insertion. These three parts are shown by Fig. 121, of which a Fig. 121. is the origin, b the swell, and c the tendinous in- sertion. - The tendons, in which most of the muscles end, are strong, white glistening cords, known in the feet of an- i imals under the name of sinews. The tendon in which the muscles of the leg terminate, and which is fastened to the bone of the heel, is a good example of this part of the human frame. It is called the Tendo Achilles, and is said to have been so named, because as fable reports, Thetis, the mother of Achilles, held him by this part when she dipped him into the river Styx, to make him invulnerable. Hence that famous hero was said to be proof against all weapons, ex- cept in the right heel. Names of the Muscles. — Every part of the human body which we ca\[ fleshy, is covered with muscles, some parts having several layers, one over the other. They all have distinct names by which they are discriminated by anatomical writers. Most of these names are deri- ved from those of the parts where they are situated. — Thus the muscles of the breast are called the pectoral muscles, from pectus, the breast ; and those extending from the shoulder to the elbow, are called the brachial muscles, from brachium, the arm. Some are however named from their shapes, as long, broad, or triangular. What are the three parts into which a muscle is distinguished 1 What are tendons 7 What are the names of the muscles generally derived from 1 220 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE* The action of the muscles depend upon the Brain.— We have said that the muscles have the power of con- traction, and relaxation, at the will of the animal. We can by no means trace the connection between the ac- tion of the brain in willing, and the action of the muscle in contracting. We know that if all nervous communi- cation between the brain and the muscle be cut off, there will no effect be produced by the action of the brain ; that is, we may will to raise the arm, but the muscles re- main inactive, without the intervention of the nerves. This proves that the nerves, in some way, transmit to the muscles the mandate of the brain ; but how this is done, is a mystery which has never been solved, and most probably will always remain beyond the limits of human knowledge. Muscular contraction. — When a muscle contracts, the swell becomes enlarged or thickened, and the two ends approach each other. By grasping the thick part of the arm, above the elbow, and bringing the hand towards the mouth, the bulk of the part grasped, will be felt to enlarge, and grow hard, as though it actually contained more matter than before the contraction. In this act, the absolute bulk of the muscle is however supposed not to change, though its shape is considerably modified, a part of the bulk towards the extremities, being thrown into the centre ; hence the increased hard- ness, and swelling of this part. The contraction of the muscle appears to consist in the shortening of all the fibres individually, by which, the whole bundle is diminished in length. On the contrary, relaxation appears to be simply the want of contraction, or a passive state in which the muscle ceases to act. During sleep all the muscles are in a relaxed and pas- sive state, but when awake we can take no position, except the recumbent one, in which, more or less of the organs are not in an active state. In the standing pos- Can we trace any connection between the action of the brain in swel- ling, and the action of the muscle in contracting ? When a muscle con- tracts, how is its shape altered 7 In what does the contraction of a muscle consist 1 In what does relaxation consist ? OF THE MUSCLES. 221 ture, the muscles of the lower limbs and back are per- petually active, in order to keep the upright position ; for the instant they are relaxed, as from faintness, or a fit, we fall to the ground. Use of the Muscles. — Some of the uses of the mus- cles are obvious, from what has just been said. They are also the grand organs of motion, by which the sys- tem is moved from one place to another, constituting the instruments of locomotion. It is by the muscles, indeed that all the motions of the body, whether general, or local are performed : not a finger moves ever so slightly without the contraction of some fibres ; nor is a word spoken, or any sound of the voice heard without a simi- lar motion of the muscles. Even the act of respiration is carried on by these moving powers, and therefore life cannot be sustained, even for a moment without their action. Mechanism of the Muscles. — In the muscles concern- ed in locomotion, and in the other voluntary motions of the body, the rise or origin of the muscle is from one bone, and the insertion into another, the thick part being between these two points, and the motion is performed by the intervention of a joint. The bones, must therefore, be considered as levers, acted upon by the muscles ; the part where the tendon is inserted representing the power ; the joint itself the fulcrum, and the part that is moved constituting the weight. Levers are divided into three kinds according to the relative position of their three essential parts, the weight, the power, and the fulcrum. In the first kind, the ful- crum is between the weight and the power, or moving cause ; in the second, the fulcrum is at the end of the lever, the weight being between it and the power ; in the third, the power is in the centre, between the weight and fulcrum. When are all the muscles relaxed 7 What are the uses of the muscles 7 Considering the bones and muscles in a mechanical relation, what part is the lever 1 What part the power 1 What the fulcrum! What the weight 1 Ho w do the three kinds of levers differ from each other 1 19* 222 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. So far as mechanical advantage is concerned the last is by far the less effective, and it is the application of this principle by which the levers are moved by the mus- cles. We shall see however, that it is not mechanical power alone which is created in the construction of the limbs, and that all the circumstances considered, this is the only kind of lever which could be employed consist- ently with the perfection of our organs of motion. Muscular action of the Arm and Hand. — The motion of the fore arm may be taken as an example of the effect of muscular contraction, and the manner in which it is produced in the animal system. When we raise a weight by bending the elbow joint, this is effected by muscles situated below the shoulder with the tendons inserted into the upper sides of the bones of the fore arm just below the joint. Let a b, Fig. 122, represent the bones of the fore arm, b d, the bone of the arm, d the muscle, e the tendon, c Fig. 122. the insertion of the tendon into the radius, and b the elbow joint. It is plain that the contraction of the mus- cle, makes c approach towards d, which, as d is a fixed point is effected by bending the joint 5, raising up the point c, and thus giving great velocity of motion to «, and the weight attached to it. " The consideration of the manner in which the mus- cle acts in this case, proves that the mechanism of the animal body is calculated to produce a great loss of absolute power. It is an established position in mechan- ics, that in the action of levers, the power is to the weight as the distance between the weight and the ful- Whatkind is applicable to the bones 7 Explain Fig. 122, and show why much mechanical force is lost in that arrangement '.' Why is mus- cular power thus sacrificed 1 OF THE MUSCLES. 223 crum, is to the distance between the power and ful- crum. In the present case, therefore, the power of the muscle is to the effect produced by it, as a b is to c b ; and supposing c b to be one twentieth of the length of a b9 then one twentieth only of the power of the muscle is exerted in raising the weight, the rest being expended in acting against the disadvantage of the position."* We shall, however, find that it is a general fact, or law of the animal economy, that muscular power is always sacrificed to convenience. Had the object been to raise the weight with the least possible power, the muscle would have been placed on the fore arm, and the tendon inserted into the lower part of the arm bone, but in this case the awkwardness of the limb would have much more than counterbalanced the supposed advan- tage of saving the muscular power. This remark ap- plies with still greater force to the fingers, which are now moved by the contraction of muscles placed on the fore arm, and from which small delicate tendons pro- ceed along both sides of the hand, to be inserted into the several ranks of bones. Now had this order been reversed, and the muscles placed on the fingers, by which the greatest mechanical advantage would have been gained, the consequences would have been, a hand so clumsy as to have been nearly useless, and not only so, it would have been, when compared with its present delicate and beautiful form, an absolute deformity. Motions of the Radius and Ulna. — Besides the lever- age motions^ of the fore arm above described, the two bones composing it, called the radius and ulna, have movements peculiar to themselves. In Fig. 123, a is the radius, and b the ulna, both of which are articulated to the humerus, as formerly shown in Fig. 65. Suppose the muscle of the hand had been so placed as to have given that organ the greatest mechanical power what would have been the result in its form and usefulness ? * Bostock's Physiology, vol. i. p. 186. 224 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. Fig. 123. The easy motions of the hand, which might be sup- posed to belong to the wrist, are in a great proportion owing to the motions of the radius and ulna. The up and down action of the hand, when the lower ends of these bones are still, belong to the wrist, which is com- posed of eight bones ; but the rolling motions of the hand, by which, the palm is alternately turned up and down, are caused entirely by the slight movements of the radius on the ulna. The ulna projects beyond the head of the humerus, forming, when the arm is bent, the point of the elbow. The radius has a small round When the palm is turned up and down, what bones are concerned in the motion ? OF THE MUSCLES. 225 head on which it turns, without any motion of the humerus ; and as the bones of the wrist are attached to the lower end of this bone alone, and not to the ulna, c, when the radius revolves, the whole hand turns with it. This alternate rolling motion is called pronation and supination. Motions of the Fingers. — The motions of the fingers do not merely result from the actions of the large mus- cles, which lie on the fore arm, these being concerned more especially in the stronger actions of the hand. The finer and more delicate motions of the fingers are performed by small muscles, situated in the palm, and between the bones of the hand, and by which the fingers are expanded, and moved in all directions with wonder- ful quickness. These are the organs which give the hand the power of performing all its nicest motions, and by which we are enabled to execute our finest works ; such as engra- ving, writing, sewing, and painting ; in all these cases the motions are directed by the will, while the instru- ment is guided by the eye. The Thumb. — The thumb is the antagonist to the fin- gers. On the length, strength, free lateral motion, and perfect mobility of the thumb, depend the power of the human hand. Without the fleshy ball of the thumb the power of the fingers would avail nothing ; and accordingly, the large ball, formed by the muscles of the thumb, is the distinguishing character of the human hand and especially that of an expert workman.* The Fingers of different lengths. — Although the fin- gers are of different lengths, yet when they are doubled into the palm, their ends become parallel. This is owing to their difference of length being chiefly in the To what bone is the wrist attached 1 By what organs are the finer and more delicate motions of the hand performed 1 What is said of the importance of the thumb to the perfection of the hand 7 * Bell on the hand. 226 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. first rank of bones ; in consequence of which, the mid- dle joint is carried a proportionate distance from the palm, so that in doubling each point cornes to the same line. This difference in the length of the fingers, though we are seldom aware of it, serves to adapt the hand to a great variety of uses, which would have been awk- wardly performed had they all been of the same length. In writing, for instance, did the little finger project an inch and a half beyond its present place, how awkward- ly should we perform. In grasping any small article with the whole hand, a similar awkwardness and diffi- culty would be experienced. " Nothing," says Sir Charles Bell, " is more remarka- ble, as forming a part of the prospective design to pre- pare an instrument fitted for the various uses of the human hand, than the manner in which the delicate and moving apparatus of the palm and fingers is guarded. The power w7ith which the hand grasps, as when a sai- lor lays hold to raise his body in the riging, would be too great for the texture of mere tendons, nerves, and vessels ; they would be crushed, were not every part that bears the pressure, defended with a cushion of fat, as elastic as that which we have described in the foot of the horse and camel. To add to this purely passive defence, there is a muscle which runs across the palm, and more especially supports the cushion on its inner edge. It is this muscle which, raising the edge of the palm, adapts it to lave water, forming the cup of Dioge- nes." Thus does anatomy prove that the human hand was designed for laborious employments. Says Ray, " Some animals have horns, some have hoofs, some teeth, some talons, some claws, some spurs and beaks ; — man hath none of all these, but is weak and feeble, and sent unarmed into the world — but a hand with reason to use it, supplies the place of all these." Thus we see that the " lord of the creation," through What is said of the different lengths of the fingers in making the hand & perfect instrument 1 What prevents the nerves and tendons from in- jury when we grasp firm a hard body, as when a sailor climbs a rop« 7 MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS. 227 the special benificence of his Divine Maker, has not only been endowed with the attributes of reason, judgment, and discretion, but has also been given the most perfect of all mechanical instruments, by which to carry into effect the plans which his intellect might suggest. No created being, except man, can with any instrument fur- nished him by nature do so much as to draw a pair of parallel lines, or even a single straight line. But man by the exercise of his reason, assisted by his hands, builds palaces, erects monuments, constructs ships, and with the same instruments manufactures watches ; and with still more delicate touches, imitates nature herself with such art, as almost to appear the author of a new creation. All these powers, so far from fostering the pride and self-sufficiency of man, ought to be a reason why he should render to the Giver of such endowments, per- petual obedience, thanksgiving, and praise. CONNECTION BETWEEN THE NERVOUS AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS. Every person of common observation, has noticed the great difference which exists in the human species, with respect to muscular firmness and strength, and nervous irritability and weakness of the bodily powers. Some persons are strong and vigorous in their muscles, and are capable of exerting a great degree of strength and of continuing it for a long period ; while others, perhaps of equal size and weight, are absolutely incapable of putting forth such bodily powers, or can do so but for a moment, when they become utterly exhausted. We find that persons of great muscular firmness are not generally subject to what is called " nervous excite- ment." They are not easily thrown into trepidation ; they keep cool and quiet on all occasions ; while those with the lax muscular fibre are easily thrown into excite- ment, any sudden event being sufficient to bring on gene- ral agitation, or even convulsions of the whole system. What is said of the goodness of the Creator in providing man with an instrument to execute the projects his reason might suggest. 228 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. TJie muscles furnished with two sets of nerves. — The cause of such differences in the temperaments, disposi- tions, and muscular powers of these two classes of individuals, as above described, appear to be accounted for by a comparatively recent discovery of Sir Charles Bell, who has found that the muscles are furnished with two sets of nerves, one set being chiefly concerned in muscular motion, and the other, in sensation. In the seventh edition of his anatomy, Sir Charles gives the following explanation of the uses of these two kinds of nerves. "The muscles," says he, "have two nerves, which fact has not hitherto been noticed, because they are com- monly bound up together. But whenever the nerves, as about the head, go in a separate course, we find that there is a sensitive nerve and a motor, [or moving] nerve distributed to the muscular fibre, and we have reason to conclude that those branches of the spinal nerves which go to the muscles consist of a motor, and a sensitive filament." " It has been supposed hitherto, that the office of a muscular nerve is only to carry out the mandate of the will, and to excite the muscle to action ; but this betrays a very inaccurate knowledge of the action of the mus- cular system ; for before the muscular system can be controlled under the influence of the will, there must be a consciousness, or knowledge of the condition of the muscle." " When we admit that the various conditions of the muscle must be estimated, or perceived, in order to be under the due control of the will, the natural question arises, Is that nerve which carries out the mandate of the will capable of conveying, at the same moment, an impression retrograde to the course of that influence which is going from the brain to the muscle ? If we had no facts in anatomy to proceed upon, still reason would declare to us, that the same filament of a nerve could not convey a motion, of whatever nature that motion may be, whether vibration, or motion of spirits, in opposite directions at the same moment of time." AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS. 229 " I find that to the full operation of the muscular power, two distinct filaments of nerves are necessary, and that a circle is established between the sensorium and the muscle ; that one filament or single nerve car- ries the influence of the will towards the muscle, which nerve has no power to convey an impression backwards to the brain ; and that another nerve connects the mus- cle with the brain, and, acting as a sentient nerve, con- veys the impression of the condition of the muscle to the mind, but has no operation in a direction outwards from the brain towards the muscle, and does not there- fore excite the muscle however irritated." Thus we are, it would seem, furnished with a double apparatus by means of distinct nervous filaments, one for muscular action, and the other for sensation, — the one to carry our commands from the brain to any mus- cle which we would have contract ; and the other to bring back an account of the condition of said muscle, and inform us whether the contraction is too great or too little, or whether the direction of the lever which the muscle has been concerned in moving is precisely such as to answer the purpose intended. Thus as the painter goes on with his work, these sentient nerves con- stantly warn him precisely how much muscular move- ment is required in his hand to place his colors according to his taste ; while the nerves of contraction move the muscles exactly as the will directs them, and as these different kinds of information are conveyed from and to the brain, in an instant, or " as quick as thought," so we are insensible of the lapse of the least portion of time, between the mandate from the brain and the action of the muscles. The same process takes place in every action which we perform. When we direct our eyes towards a landscape, for instance, and having examined one group of objects, move them ever so little towards the next, this is not done without the action of the sentient nerves, which inform the brain exactly, of the situation of the muscles of the eyes ; which muscles in their turn, are directed how to move the orbits. Thus if we wish to turn the eye from right to left, or upwards, or 20 230 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. downwards, or alternately in all these directions, the straight muscles, (Fig. 104,) are thrown into alternate contraction, and relaxation, at the mandate of the brain. Meantime the visual portion of the eye furnishes us with a picture of the landscape, the different parts of which we thus examine by means of the mechanical portion. Is it not plain, that infinite wisdom and Almighty power only, could have devised and constructed such machin- ery as this ? Personal temperament, and disposition, accounted for. — It is on the same principles, that we can account for the difference which we observe in persons, with respect to their temperaments, or dispositions, as already stated. When we see a person of feeble muscular powers, easi- ly thrown into agitation, turning pale, or fainting by slight causes, and morbidly sensitive to every nervous impression, we may conclude that in such persons the sentinet nervous system predominates ; or, in other terms, that the nerves wrhich carry impressions to the brain, are either more highly developed, or are in a more sensitive state, than those concerned in muscular con- traction. In such persons the flesh is commonly soft to the touch, and has a pallid hue. On the contrary, in persons where there is great muscular power, as indi- cated, not only by the strong outlines of the muscles themselves, but also by the capability of enduring great, and continued bodily exertions, and by a temperament void of excessive sensibility, being able to bear strong nervous impressions with little indication of nervous feeling ; w^e may conclude that in such persons the mo- tor nerves, or those concerned in muscular contraction, predominate over those subservient to sensation. In such persons the muscles are commonly rigid to the touch, even when relaxed, presenting a striking contrast with the morbid softness of these parts, in persons of excessive nervous mobility. Natural Disposition may be modified. — Although, as we have supposed, and the fact cannot be doubted, that there is a natural difference in different persons, with respect to the distribution of the sentient and muscular MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS. 231 nerves, still it is also true, that the resulting disposi- tions can be modified, and in a great measure controlled by external circumstances. In persons where the two different nervous powers are naturally in the most perfect equilibrium, the one may be made to predominate completely over the other, by the habits, the occupation, or perhaps the condition in life into wThich the person happens to be thrown. Ex- cessive study, a sedentary life, luxurious living, especial- ly in respect to drinks ; habitual melancholy, or a gen- eral disposition to give way to the love of ease and in- dolence, will, either of them, in a longer or shorter time, induce a nervous temperament, though the natural or- ganization of the two systems might have been as per- fect as ever a human being enjoyed. On the contrary, persons in whom the nervous dispo- sition might have naturally inclined to laxity of muscular fibre, and excessive sensorial irritability ; by the habitu- al practice of rigid temperance, moderate study, if at all, an active life, requiring the constant use of the muscles, together with a train of circumstances in life calculated to inspire cheerfulness and hope — by these means, such .persons would undoubtedly overcome the natural pre- dominance of the nervous system, and induce a perma- nent state of muscular firmness, which would produce a highly gratifying contrast with that which an opposite mode of living, or train of circumstances, would have produced. Force of -Muscular contraction. — The force with which the muscles contract, depend on the size and con- dition of the muscle, and on the energy of the brain ; that is, the degree of excitement which exists during the time. The same muscle, or same limb, varies greatly in the strength which it is capable of exerting. If a man, nat- urally and habitually powerful in his muscles, should suf- fer them to remain inactive for a considerable length of time, they will become absolutely incapable of those strong contractions, which had they been habituated to constant action, they would have performed with ease. This is a fact that has fallen within the experience of al- 232 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. most every person, and is accounted for in the popular way, by the common observation, that " if we do not employ our muscles, they will lose their strength," which indeed accounts for the fact, but not for its cause. The cause appears to be, that the action of a muscular part, excites the blood vessels to throw into it a greater por- tion of their contents than they otherwise would, so that such parts are better nourished than those that remain inactive. Thus the arm with which a blacksmith uses his hammer, whether the right, or left, is by far more powerful than the other. The muscles of this limb are also larger than those of the other, and are much more tense, and rigid to the touch — a positive proof of the tendency of muscular motion to produce strength and vigor. The Roman gladiators understood practically the great advantages of employing their muscles, in order to gain the most perfect use of their limbs, together with the ut- most physical power. Hence they put forth continued exertions in walking and other exercises, and performed feats of strength, which in the present age would appear incredible. In more modern times men have occasionally appear- ed, who from the size and condition of their muscles, were capable of exerting degrees of strength which as- tonished every beholder. Sir David Brewster, in his " Natural Magic," has collected and stated a number of instances of this kind. Thomas Topham. — One of the most powerful men of modern times, was the famous Thomas Topham, of whom many ludicrous anecdotes, illustrative of his enor- mous muscular strength, are related ; such as the rol- ling up of pewter dishes with his hands, as others do sheets of pasteboard ; crushing the bowls of tobacco- pipes, by the lateral pressure of the fingers of one hand, &c. He took an iron kitchen poker, a yard long and three inches in circumference, or an inch irr diameter, and holding it in his right hand, struck it upon his bare left arm, between the elbow and the wrist, until he bent the iron nearly to right angles. He took another poker, and holding the ends of it in his hands, put the middle over his neck, and then brought the two ends together MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS. 233 % • before him ; and afterwards undid the mischief, by ma- king it straight again with his hands, as others do a piece of wire. He lifted a stone, weighing 800 pounds, with his hands only, standing in a frame above it, and taking hold of a chain to which it was fastened. These feats illustrate the force of muscular contrac- tion, depending merely on size and condition ; since in such cases there is no uncommon nervous excitement, or cerebral energy. But where there is strong mental excitement, as in mania, or delirium, the other circum- stances being equal, there is a still greater exhibition of muscular power, as the keepers of Retreats for the in- sane have often found to their sorrow, and sometimes to their horror and dismay. No one, except by experience, can have the least con- ception of the efforts of muscularity, which a delicate and slightly made female is capable of exerting, when in a state of maniacal rage. In some instances, men of or- dinary physical powers are mere " smoking flax," be- fore the muscular velocity of these most pitiable objects ; and even the strongest men are sometimes foiled in at- tempting to prevent them from committing some outra- geous act on which they are determined. Such acts are rather the effects of muscular velocity, than of strength ; for the efforts are soon exhausted, after the limbs are brought into a situation where a quick movement is no longer of any avail. Method of increasing the Muscular powers. — There is no doubt but the power of the muscles may be great- ly increased by a certain restricted course of exercise and diet, to which the subject confines himself for a giv- en length of time. The English boxers go through such a course in order to prepare themselves for public performances, and we can see no reason why others should not imitate their example so far as the training is concerned, in order to gain that perfect health which it is said these men enjoy. There are few, however, who would submit to such discipline without some special motive, other than the enjoyment of ordinary health. But that the reader may observe how these men deny themselves, for the purpose of acquiring mere muscular 20* 234 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. power, and that for no laudable purpose, we will give a lew of the rules of training. There are Professors of Sparring, wrhose sole business it is, to teach the art, by learning their pupils the man- ner and time of striking, as well as the modes of de- fence ; and the means of gaining muscular strength by diet and exercise. While training, they are directed to eat beef and mutton, rather under than over done, and this without any seasoning, or sauce, the only addition to these two articles of solid food, being bread or biscuit. Neither veal, lamb, pork, fish, milk, butter, cheese, pud- dings, pastry, or vegetables of any kind are allowed. The beef and mutton must be fresh, that is, not salted, and may be cooked by roasting, broiling, or boiling, alternately, or as best suits the appetite of the trained. The strictest temperance is absolutely insisted on, by all regular trainers, good home-brewred beer, or ale, being recommended as the ordinary drink at meals. Those wrho do not like the beer are allowed a little red wine and water, with their dinners, but not to exceed in quantity eight ounces, or half a pint per day, spirits of every kind being strictly prohibited. Eight hours sleep are considered necessary, but this is left to the previous habits of the person, and may be varied according to the amount of exercise during the day. The breakfast hour is eight o'clock ; dinner at two ; supper being entirely omitted, or to consist of a little bit of cold meat at eight ; after which, a walk is taken, and they retire to bed at ten. Much exercise, consisting of sparring and walking, is taken during the whole time, of training, and undoubtedly the high degree of cheerfulness in which men thus situ- ated indulge, contributes greatly to the good effects of the comparative temperance to which they are restricted, at least for a considerable time. Dr. Kitchener says, that " by this mode of proceeding for two or three months the constitution of the human frame is greatly improved, and the courage proportiona- bly increased. A person who was breathless, and pant- ing on the least exertion, and had a certain share of those nervous and billious complaints, which are occa- PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 235 sionally the companions of all who reside in great cities, by such means becomes enabled to run with ease and fleetness." " The restorative process having proceeded with healthful regularity, every part of the constitution is effectually invigorated, and a man feels so conscious of the augmentation of his powers, both bodily and men- tal, that he will undertake with alacrity a task which before, he could not but shrink from encountering." About two months is considered the average time necessary to fit a man for the ring, or for public exhibi- tion as a boxer by the above means ; and it is particu- larly worthy of observation, that alcoholic liquors are discarded by these men, for no other reason than that experience has taught them, that its effects are to weak- en the muscular powers and destroy the courage of their pupils. Therefore, he who has much labor to per- form, or a battle to fight, ought never to drink spirits. PRACTICAL INFERENCES FROM THE FOREGOING PRINCI- PLES. Connection between the Brain and the Muscles. — The intimate connection which exists between the muscles and the brain — between the nervous system generally, and those parts by which the motions of the human frame are produced, and which connection has been illustrated by a reference to the voluntary muscles, — indi- cate, in a most decided manner the mutual dependence which subsists between them ; and tend to show as clearly as the nature of the case will admit, the necessi- ty of employing both the nervous and muscular func- tions at the same time, in order that both should be in a healthy state. And especially do these principles show, that the nervous system cannot long be employed alone without a derangement in the functions of both. It has been our chief object in the foregoing sections, to show the connection which exists between the ner- vous system and the voluntary muscles, but this may be taken as an example of the existence of the same rela- tion between that system and all the muscular fibres in 236 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. the body, whether voluntary, or not. Thus the heart, and the muscles of respiration, are equally, with the voluntary muscles dependent on the action of the brain. The organs of mastication, and digestion are also under the same influence. In. every series of actions, therefore, which take place in any part of the whole system, there is a mutual sym- pathy and dependence on some other part. MUSCULAR EXERCISE OF THE CLERGY AND OTHER LITERARY MEN* And now we come to the more especial object of this part of our work, which is, to show that the vigorous functions of the brain cannot long be sustained, without a corresponding exertion of the muscles, and that this exertion absolutely requires that the brain should be more or lets excited. We intend that these doctrines should apply more particularly to students and literary men, and we shall begin by showing the duty of ministers of the gospel in respect to bodily exercise. The present condition of the clergy and other literary men of our country, points to the vast importance of seeking some remedy against the consequences of literary pursuits, and sedentary habits, on their corporeal and mental functions. Not only ministers of all ages, but students, only a few years advanced in their studies, are constant- ly " breaking down" as it is termed, under the pressure of their literary burthens ; many of the first class being obliged to go to Europe, or otherwise suspend their labors in order to recruit their worn out frames, and rest awhile from their cerebral occupations ; while per- haps an equal number of the last, find themselves under the necessity of retiring entirely from the field of litera- ry pursuits and of seeking some employment, in which less is required of the nervous, and more of the muscu- lar system ; and thus the literary or ministerial services of many young men of great promise, and whose labors and influence would be highly important to the church, or the interests of education, are in a great measure, lost to the country. MUSCULAR EXERCISE OF LITERARY MEN. 237 Causes of these failures. — With respect to the causes of these calamities, for such they certainly are, both \vith respect to individuals, and the nation, there can be only one opinion. They are brought on by too much men- tal and too little muscular labor. Thus the balance of the system, which as we have seen, requires a due proportion between the exercise of the nervous, and muscular powers, is lost, — the equilibrium of health is destroyed in consequence of the predominance of the sentient, over the muscular principle. Obvious effects of too much mental labor. — In such subjects, it will be found that after a while, the flesh be- comes soft and flabby, while the muscles can only be made to perform their ordinary functions with difficulty, — all continued, or violent exercise is instinctively avoided and even a walk of a mile or two, at the urgent request of a friend, and which once gave so much pleasure, is now undertaken with reluctance. Fatigue, even after walk- ing but a few hundred yards becomes the prominent feeling, and the man often returns home, after a short trial, for fear that he shall not be able to do so, if he continues his walk. Having returned, perhaps out of breath, he seats himself and concludes, that exercise, since it brings on fatigue, is not only useless, but hurtful to him ; and thus if he cannot be made to change this opinion, consigns himself to the nearly hopeless condi- tion of a confirmed " literary dyspeptic." Meantime the nervous system increases in suscepti- bility in proportion as the muscles lose their contractile powers, and fall into a state of weakness. The subject becomes exceedingly sensitive to nervous impressions. Occurrences of little consequence, and which in his for- mer condition would have produced no sensation, now affect him very unpleasantly. He becomes irritated and vexed at every little mishap in the affairs of life. His friends, he begins to imagine do not behave towards him as formerly ; they have deserted him in his afflic- tion ; and his own family are wanting in that kindness, which was formerly shown him, and which his present weak condition now particularly demands. At the 238 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. same time he finds it exceedingly difficult for him to pro- ceed with his literary labors. His head often feels as though there was a rush of blood upon the brain ; — his intellect becomes clouded, and he cannot keep along with the thread of his subject, or pursue his studies as formerly. Sometimes he throws down his pen, in utter despair, and thinks he would willingly change places with any laborer he happens to see in the street. There are but a few of the feelings, and troubles, and perplexities, which a student suffers, when he allows his nervous to gain the ascendency over his muscular sys- tem, and unless some remedy be sought, will most prob- ably end in palsy or apoplexy, or at least, in such a con- dition of the system, as to render it incapable of any useful employment, for a length of time, depending more, or less on that, during which it has remained in such a condition. Clergymen not allowed exciting exercise. — The cause of these affections we have said, is an undue proportion of mental labor, when compared with that of muscular exercise. With respect to clergymen it is well known that there exists an artificial difficulty in jtheir indulging in that kind of exercise which is most congenial to mental and muscular vigor, owing to the habits and opinions of soci- ety. For it is a law of the system, which applies to ministers equally with others, that no exercise is effec- tual in restoring, or maintaining, the equilibrium between the nervous, and muscular systems, unless the brain is at the same time excited. By this we mean, that the exer- cise must be of that kind in which the mind, for the time, takes a strong interest. This is absolutely neces- sary, nor is it we believe possible, for any one who has lost his muscular energy by studious and sedentary hab- its, to regain it by any kind of exercise which does not give pleasure, or to use a more common phrase, " carry the mind along with it." Nor is it in the power of students generally, to retain their vigor of mind, and body, for any considerable length of time without the use of some such exercise. The principles we have already drawn, from the fact, MUSCULAR EXERCISE OF LITERARY MEX. 239 that every muscle has distributed to it, one set of nerves for muscular action, and another for cerebral impres- sions, proves beyond all doubt, that this is the case. The vigorous and healthy action of the muscles absolutely require that the brain, at the same time, should be under excitement, otherwise the nervous influence from which muscular contractility is derived, will not be supplied. Now the great obstacle to clerical amusements ap- pears to arise from the circumstance, that the feelings and prejudices of the public, to a considerable extent, at least, will not allow those men to partake of such gym- nastic sports as people generally may indulge in, and which of all others, is the kind of exercise they most re- quire. We are far from desiring to see the dignity of the clergy lowered, and we should regret as much as oth- ers, to see them doing acts, which would in the least degree tend to lessen the respect which they have, and ought to maintain from the public. But it seems abso- lutely necessary that something should be done on this subject. Not a year elapses, but a number, often of the most devoted and useful members of the sacred office, in different parts of our country, are under the necessi- ty of leaving their people, being literally " worn out " with their clerical labors. This, it is well known, is the case, in a greater, or less degree, with all the orthodox denominations, the ministers of which, are expected every sabbath in the year, at least, in many parts of the country, to produce two well written sermons, besides a semi- weekly "lecture ; and to perform other parish duties requiring as a whole, almost unremitted mental labor from one year's end to another. Men incapable of constant mental labor. — Now the facts clearly prove that human beings, taken as a body, are incapable, under such circumstances, of sustaining such mental burthens ; they sink down under them from debility and exhaustion, and one after another, even in the prime of life, and in the midst of their usefulness, dis- appear from public scenes, and in not a few instances, find that they have done so too late. Clergymen are still men, and like others, are subject to the laws which govern vital and corporeal action ; 240 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE* and it is therefore plain, either that the public must dis- pense with a portion of their services, or that they must be allowed to indulge in recreative exercises ; otherwise they will inevitably sink under their mental labors, and many of them at least, go down to premature graves. Former condition of the Clergy. — The condition of the clergy in this country, is entirely different from what it was within the memory of many of them, who are still able to perform their clerical duties ; and who have lived to see several generations of their younger brethren come forward, and pass away, while they, themselves, have continued their labors until the present day. A great proportion of our ministers, no longer than fif- ty years since, were settled on farms, with salaries of from two, to three, and seldom four hundred dollars per year. They were therefore under the necessity of la- boring with their hands, in order to maintain their fami- lies. Besides, their flocks were often so scattered as to occupy a considerable portion of time, and some bodily exercise, in order to visit the several families even once a year. At these visits, the minister always received presents of provisions from his parishioners, but in case the visit was not made, the present was not given ; a good old custom, which always insured every family in the parish, a personal acquaintance with their minister. At that period too, the mental labors of the clergy were not more than about one third what they are at the present day, especially ia towns. They preached two sermons a week ; in addition to which, an extra ser- mon once a month, or once in two months, preparatory to the communion, made up their stated labors. Here, it is obvious that the exertions of the mind were not disproportioned to those of the muscles, and hence the clergy were then among the longest lived individuals of their parishes, as is proved by the living witnesses of that body which here and there still remain. It is unnecessary further to contrast the parochial la- bors of the clergy of the present day, with those of their fathers in the church. It is well known that the increase of population, as well as a more advanced state of edu- cation, have rendered it necessary to increase these la- MUSCULAR EXERCISE OP LITERARY MEN. 241 bors more than two fold. At the same time, as their fa- thers required no extra exercise — no relaxation from their parochial duties, the public appear to have grown up in the belief that their sons do not ; and that it would be derogatory to clerical sobriety and dignity, for them to indulge in any sort of pleasant unbending of their minds. Different effects of Exercise. — Sawing and splitting wood, with perhaps a little work in the garden, and rid- ing on horseback a few miles, or walking the streets for an hour or two, form the chief amusements, and the chief muscular exercise of the most laborious, and, in the estimation of the great majority of the people, the most useful body of men in community. Even this small amount of exercise is seldom taken regularly, and if so, is of very little use to the subject, as there is no oth- er object in view, but merely to perform a duty. The thread of the next discourse frequently remains unbro- ken, and often the individual hurries home, while the ink of his last paragraph is hardly dry, to record some new idea, or write down what he has made ready in his mind during his absence. To one whose body and mind begins to suffer, in con- sequence of confinement to his study, and perpetual mental exertions, nearly all who have experienced its effects, will allow that such exercise is of little or no use. Such an one wants a motive ; he wants cerebral excite- ment to co-operate with, and invigorate muscular ac- tion ; and it will astonish those, who, for the first time no- tice the different effects on their own feelings, of forced muscular exertions, and that sanitive exercise which is produced when the mind is intensely fixed on an object, the attainment of which requires the strongest corporeal exertions. The one induces fatigue of the body, without at all relieving the mind ; while the other, so far from producing fatigue, brings the whole system into a highly pleasant state of freedom, and elasticity ; while the mind, sympathising with these pleasant sensations, becomes invigorated, and is again ready for the performance of its proper functions. 21 242 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. Continued muscular efforts require cerebral excite- TH^.—The principles of physiology which we have already explained, show most decidedly, that continued corporeal exertions may be maintained under the stim- ulus of the mind, which the same individual could not possibly sustain under coercion. We see the exercise of this principle every day. A boy with his kite or gun, will exert all the powers of his muscles for five or six hours, or even for the whole day, and still hardly complain of, or feel fatigue ; while the same amount of muscular power exerted against his will, could not possibly have been sustained, though his life might depend on the performance. Dr. Darwin's case. — A case mentioned by Dr. Dar- win, illustrates our subject. A young man full of desire to see his female friend, who was fifty-five miles from him, decided to undertake the journey on foot the next day ; and which, under the stimulus of hope and expect- ation, he performed without difficulty. Having arrived at her residence, he found that she was attending a ball in the vicinity, to which place of course he repaired with- out delay. Here were new causes of excitement ; the object of all his thoughts, he now saw dressed in gay at- tire ; the music, the friends, the dance, all tended to make him forget his long journey ; and as though fresh from the neighborhood, he joined in the pleasures of the evening, and danced most of the night with his wonted vigor and vivacity, and all this without fatigue. Now had this performance been commenced by com- pulsion, that is, had this person been made to take the same number of steps at the command of a master, and then in the ball room had he been compelled by the whip, to use the same gestures that he did with his lady, at the sound of the music, what think you would have been the consequence ? Undoubtedly he would have sunk down and died from exhaustion, under such treatment. In armies, it is well known that long marches can be endured under the excitement of music ; while without this, many of the soldiers would be unable to perform the duty required, and would be left behind even in the country of the enemy. In forced marches therefore, the commander who understands this, divides his mu- NATURE REQUIRES EXCITING EXERCISE. 243 sic, so as to keep a part of the band constantly playing such airs as to accommodate the pace of the marching soldiers. The same principle is involved in the attempt of an adult, to follow a child of three or four years old, where- ever it chooses to go for a whole day ; taking a similar number of steps, and using similar gestures. A healthy, active child, if entirely unrestrained, will soon convince the unthinking adult who undertakes such a task, that he has a day's work before him which he little expected ; nor do we believe it in the power of many persons to perform such a feat. The reason is obvious : the child is constantly excited by his play, and by a succession of new objects, and new motives ; while the adult, having no mental excitement, by which the nervous influence is sent from the brain to the muscles, their contractions are merely mechanical, and therefore they soon become exhausted. A parallel case is, where two men of equal muscular powers go out on a sporting excursion, the one a keen, and ardent sportsman, and the other going as a mere spectator. The former having a motive, and being con- stantly intent upon his game, but not thinking of himself, will traverse bogs, bushes and briers, for miles, without being aware of distance, or time, or place, and without feeling the least fatigue ; while the spectator, trying to keep with his companion, without any other motive than doing so, soon becomes so exhausted as to be incapable of further action, often wondering at the same time, how it is possible for his companion to go at such a rate, through such walking, and for so long a time, without complaining of fatigue. NATURE REQUIRES EXCITING EXERCISE. It is in vain to plead natural gravity, or a want of dis- position to indulge in those exercises which relax the mind of the studious, as an excuse for denying them to others, or not adopting such for ourselves. Nature, whose laws we profess to follow in this matter, makes no such excuse. On the contrary, unless the system be 244 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. worn out with age, or sickness, there exists in the feel- ings of every person, a natural disposition for play, both in the mind and muscles ; and where the restraints of society, or circumstances are removed, we may every where observe illustrations of this law of nature. Hence at watering places, at the sea-shore, or any other place devoted to public amusement, and relaxation, persons of the most erect gravity at home, and even members of the sacred office, throwing off the mantle of restraint, which had, perhaps, for a quarter of a century, hid their natural dispositions, not only from all their associates, but almost from themselves, again become boys, and play all sorts of recreative games with as much interest, and nearly with the same agility as they did twenty or thirty years before. Men bound to use exercise which conduces to health. — Now we do not make the above remarks by way of accusation, or for the purpose of hinting that such indul- gences involve either hypocrisy or levity. On the con- trary, such facts illustrate and confirm the principles of organic life which we have attempted to establish with the best intentions, and for the best of purposes. They show that nature is averse to the solemn restraints of society ; and that exciting exercise, because it is most agreeable and most natural, is the only kind which relieves the body and mind, when the first has become torpid from too little, and the last from too much exercise. And for the pur- pose of verifying those principles, we would call upon those who now and then yield to the mandates of na- ture, (whatever may be their acquired gravity,) and reckless of muscular power, or mental reputation, enjoy for a time, some sort of exciting play, to say whether the effects are not only congenial both to body and mind, and whether they do not believe that under such amusements, frequently repeated, a man would perform a greater amount of mental labor, and continue longer in health, and in life, than he would, to proceed in the usual manner, of either taking no exercise at all, or only that in which the muscles are compelled by force to per- form their duty, as is the case with most literary men ? NATURE REQUIRES EXCITING EXERCISE. 245 If this is so, and which we are confident that not a man who has made the trial, will deny, then is it not the moral, and even religious duty of every student to so far coincide with the dictates, and laws of nature, as to employ every means, which are not immoral in their tendency, to enable him, by the preservation of his health and life, to do every good in his power for the benefit of his fellow man ? Says the pious and learned Dr. Cheyne, " The studi- ous, the contemplative, the valetudinarian, and those of weak nerves, if they aim at health, and long life, must make exercise in a good air, a part of their religion. A man who believes himself to be a useful member of community, and who becomes conscious that his occu- pation, whatever it may be, requires relaxation, and that if he does not indulge in it, his health will suffer, and his life will be endangered, would certainly be con- sidered by himself and by others as wanting in a moral duty, if he neglected such relaxation. Under such cir- cumstances, no one would doubt what would be the duty of a mechanic, both with respect to his family and his country ; and if the same moral rule holds with re- spect to literary men and ministers, then they are as much bound to employ brain exciting means to preserve their mental vigor, as the mechanic is to relax from his labor, for it has been shown, we think, that no other means will effectually answer this purpose. Effects of incessant mental labor. — On this subject, the author of this work speaks from experience, and therefore knows that he tells the truth. For, having tried the ordinary routine of exercise, such as wood sawing, gardening, &c., he has been compelled, against his for- mer prejudices to resort to " field sports," with his poin- ter and gun, not only as the means by which he has been enabled to continue in a sedentary and studious profes- sion, but also to preserve himself from the dreadful con- sequences of nervous excitability, and especially from the most horrid, and appalling of all sensations, that which attends palpitation of the heart, from an accumu- lation of the nervous influence. The most acute pain is a comfort, and even a pleasure, when compared to a feel- 21* 246 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. ing from which the sufferer cannot avoid the belief that his heart swells to twice the natural size, occasionally turns over, backwards, and forwards, and is every instant in danger of bursting open and spilling its vital contents into his chest : at the same time he feels that his pulse beats half a dozen strokes in a moment and then stands still, until forced by the stimulus of the blood to begin the same rapid motions again. And yet all this, and even more than we dare to describe to the literary inva- lid, is according to the woful experience of the one who writes this, the consequence of study at the rate of fourteen hours per day, for a series of months. And yet all these symptoms were unfelt and forgotten during the most violent exercise in which the mind was intensely interested, viz. field sports. Mere attention to diet of little use. — A spare diet, omission of dinner, vegetable food, bran bread, and indeed all the remedies which the science abstemious- ness can suggest will never prove antidotes to these fearful sensations. A laborious student, like a laborious workman, requires nutriment, nor can he sustain himself in his literary pursuits without it. It is true that where the muscles are little exercised, the quantity of solid food may be diminished ; but he who goes to work at a dif- ficult piece of composition with a hungry stomach, will never finish it to suit himself until this sensation is satis- fied. An easy and comfortable state of the animal system is absolutely necessary for the student, and so far as we knowr, this is only to be obtained by a generous diet, and exciting exercise, according to the wants and feelings of the subject. As to the use of medicines, diet and rules of conduct, without muscular action, for the alleviation of nervous palpitation, they are worse than useless, because they offer false hopes to the sufferer, and prevent his seeking the proper remedy in season. And we hereby warn those into whose hands these remarks may fall, and who are thus afflicted, never to be caught by such chaff, as bran bread, and its adjuvants as a remedy for what can NATURE REQUIRES EXCITING EXERCISE. 247 only be cured by muscular motion. You may starve your- selves to skeletons and my friends, still your horrid sensa- tions will increase, until you adopt some exciting muscular exercise as a remedy. Let your stomachs take care of themselves, and never think of what you eat, or drink except at the moment, only taking the precaution to be temperate in both, and by the use of such exercise, repeated every day and increased according to feelings and circumstances, of which you are the best judges, you will gradually rid yourselves of all that train of symptoms incident to nervous excitability, which have been brought on by sedentary and mental habits. It is not denied that there are great differences in the amount of literary labor which different men are capa- ble of performing under the same circumstances. We are perfectly aware that there are Thomas Tophams in the mental as well as in the muscular departments of human exertions. But we write for those who labor under the common laws of the animal economy, — those laws which ordinarily govern the actions and powers of human beings ; and not for those, whose iron constitu- tions are equally unhurt by any amount of cerebral, or muscular performances which it is in their power to ac- complish. These are exceptions to the general laws which govern our species and to such we have nothing to say, because, not suffering from their labors they re- quire no remedies. Cheerfulness a remedy. — The best tempered men, after long confinement to study, and who take no pains to cultivate a cheerful acquaintance with their friends, are observed to grow more or less morose, in their dis- positions, until they finally contract such a habit of being out of humor, especially at home, as to become such disagreeable companions, that their former friends, if they call upon them at all, do it as a matter of duty, and not for the purpose of having a few moments of enli- vening conversation, as formerly. Of this disposition, the subject himself oftens becomes sensible, which dis- covery, instead of showing him the necessity of relaxa- tion, and joining in cheerful society as a remedy, too often 248 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. only proves a source of vexation, which increases, rath- er than alleviates the evil. Now both moroseness and cheerfulness are often ac- quired habits, arising from the circumstances in which the person is placed. Let one, for instance, to whom nature has given a pleasant disposition, be so situated in life, as to be constantly perplexed with its cares, or let him be under the necessity of pursuing studies, which do not interest his mind, and which, therefore, are a source of vexation to him ; and the contracted brow, will be- come habitual ; and the vexed spirit which it indicates will finally become so far a second nature, as to be re- tained, even long after the circumstances, which produ- ced these unhappy results have ceased. Such is the force of habit. On the contrary, w^ often see those whose disposi- tions are far from being naturally pleasant, but who, mixing with enlivening society, and being placed in such conditions in life as to escape its corroding cares and perplexities, finally become agreeable, and even courte- ous companions, having acquired happy dispositions, in consequence of being constantly pleased with their own conditions and circumstances. But whatever their conditions in life may be, it is un- doubtedly the duty of all persons to cultivate cheerful and happy dispositions. Christians in an especial man- ner are called upon to rejoice — to set examples of a hap- py state of mind, and to show by their countenances, and actions, that they are contented with the lot in which Providence has cast them. A sour, crabbed Christian, presents a combination of elements so heterogenous, that the world are always doubtful whether they ever exist in the same person. How indeed, do such adorn the doc- trines they profess ? It is true, that there are afflictions, under which, for a time, a happy countenance would betray a want of common feeling, and therefore would be unbecom- ing and improper; but under all the ordinary cares and perplexities of life, of which every one has more or less, we are bound by the duties we owe each other, as well as ourselves, to preserve and cultivate a cheerful spirit and disposition, and aside from levity of conversa- NATURE REQUIRES EXCITING EXERCISE. 249 tion, or action, we cannot see the immorality, or impro- priety of so far giving way to the dictates of nature as to carry our pleasantries even to mirth, let our ages, or professions be what they may. Laughing a proper and healthful exercise. — Man is the only laughing animal which the whole terrestrial creation affords; and in the young, the indulgence of this natural propensity, in proper places and under prop- er circumstances, is universally approbated ; youth being considered by all, as the appropriate season of innocent merriment. But there are those who look upon the ac- tion of the risible muscles, as being incompatible with the gravity and solemn dignity of certain ages and pro- fessions ; and therefore believe that such, ought always to suppress their lively and facetious thoughts, and expres- sions, lest they should excite laughter in others, or give way to it themselves. Now we have no desire that any one should do vio- lence to his conscience in this respect, but while, aside from improper levity, we cannot imagine from what source moral evil would come in consequence of the exercise of the muscles of risibility in any human being whatever, it is certain, that the act of laughter, conduces to the health of the system, by the motion it gives to certain muscles, as well as by the attendant relaxation of the mind ; and therefore as a mere secular action, is a very proper exercise for people of studious and sed- entary habits. The muscles concerned in moderate laughter are chiefly the diaphragm, and those between the ribs ; but when the action becomes violent, those of the back and chest are thrown into motion, and the whole frame is shaken ; — the lungs being at the same time alternately filled with, and exhausted of air, by rapid muscular ac- tions, which sometimes amount nearly to convulsions, thus calling into contractile motion, all the muscles of the trunk, and agitating the entire assemblage of the vis- ceral organs, thus, perhaps, detaching any adhesions that might be incipient in these parts, and at any rate, giving vigor to the actions of the pipes, and strainers, the secre- ting and the absorbing surfaces, the functions of which are 250 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. so necessary, that not only health, but even life itself depends upon them. " Laughter," says Dr. Willich, "is sometimes the effect of joy ; but it frequently arises from a sudden disappoint- ment of the mind, when directed to an object, which, instead of being serious, and important, terminates unex- pectedly, in insignificance. Within the bounds of mode- ration, laughter is a salutary emotion ; for, as a deep inspiration of air takes place, which is succeeded by a short, and frequently repeated expiration, the lungs are filled with a great quantity of blood, and gradually emp- tied, so that its circulation through the lungs is thus bene- ficially promoted. It manifests a similar effect on the organs of digestion. Pains in the stomach, colics, and several other complaints that could not be relieved by other means, have been frequently removed by this. In many cases where it is purposely raised, laughter is of excellent service, as a remedy which agitates and enli- vens the whole frame. Experience also furnishes us with many remarkable instances, where obstinate ulcers of the lungs, or liver, which had resisted every effort of medicine, were happily opened and cured by a fit of laughter artificially excited." In cases, however, where the conscience is against the practice of laughing, little good may be expected from it. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MUSCULAR EXERCISE. There is a great difference in the amount of exercise which men require, depending very much upon consti- tution and habit. There is also a selection to be made with respect to adaptation to the mind, since what would prove exhilarating to some, might be mere drudgery to others. Those who require muscular recreation, ought therefore to select such as combine excitement with convenience ; the same being adapted, with respect to its greater or less violence, to the constitution and habits of the individual. FIELD SPORTS. 251 MANUAL LABOR. In schools for manual labor, there may be introduced employments which to some, will in a degree answer the purposes required. But these must be varied, so as to give motion to the muscles in different parts of the body. Plaining, sawing, turning the lathe, turning the auger, and chopping with the axe, will in succession, bring all the voluntary muscles into play. But as we have seen, unless the subject can contrive to make these employments exciting to the mind, very little advantage will be gained from them. If therefore the student con- fines himself to such kinds of exercise, he must under- take the construction of some article of furniture, re- quiring the products of these different branches of labor ; and if several will undertake the construction of the same article, there will be produced some degree of excite- ment during the progress of the work, by a comparison of the different specimens produced. But if the labor is not sufficiently active to induce general and profuse perspiration, especially in the warm season, little good to the debilitated student may be expected from it. SCIENTIFIC EXCURSIONS. Excursions into the country on foot, especially among woods and mountains, in search of insects, or Botanical and Mineralogical specimens, to those who are fond of natural history, produce considerable energy of feeling and action ; and during the warm season, for those who live in cities especially, is a far more rational and health- ful mode of spending a few weeks, than the more com- mon one of lounging about watering places, where it is often found that there are neither wholesome lodging, wholesome excitement, nor wholesome exercise. FIELD SPORTS. Sporting with the dog and gun, and especially with a well trained pointer, affords to those who have learned to " shoot on the wing," the most exciting and health- 252 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. ful exercise. In whatever light people who are ignor- ant of this mode of employing their mind, and muscles, may look upon those men who are exhilarated by such " boyish sports," it is certain that those who have enjoy- ed the fine flow of spirits which such occasions excite, and especially the invigorating consequences thus produ- ced on the animal system, are seldom induced to think that such exercise is incompatible with the gravity of age, or office ; but more generally continue the practice, so long as the eye sight enables them to see the game distinctly. To the lovers of the dog and gun, partridge, quail, and woodcock shooting, are considered the most exciting, and healthful of all muscular exercises ; but it is too vi- olent for those whose systems are not prepared to un- dergo considerable fatigue, though the literary dyspep- tic will find after a few experiments, that he can traverse woods, bogs, and mountains, with a degree of facility and pleasure, which will be a matter of surprise to him- self. Students of athletic constitutions, are sometimes compelled to employ exercise of proportionate violence ; the ordinary routine of riding, sawing wood, &c., being insufficient to produce the effects required, even though they might excite the brain. A gentleman well known to the author, who left an active, for a sedentary and mental employment, found that sawing and splitting all the wood for his family, did very little towards preventing his nervous, from predom- inating over his muscular system. The effect of this ex- ercise was to fatigue the muscles of his arms and fingers, so that it was often difficult for him to resume his pen on this account. He found also, that tiring the muscles did nothing towards relieving the mind ; nor was there sufficient excitement in the employment, or motive in the end to be accomplished, to induce its continuance until perspiration ensued. Finding therefore, that there would soon be an absolute necessity for his either relin- quishing the profession he had adopted, or of seeking some more exciting and athletic exercise, he returned to his boyish practices, and partook himself to woodcock and partridge shooting, as the most convenient, and at the same time, as that kind of recreation from which FIELD SPORTS, there was the greatest hope of relief. In this he has not been disappointed, but has been able to perform much more mental labor than when he spent the whole day over his writing desk. Two hours per day, from five to seven, P. M. in the summer season, spent in this manner, with a good pointer, will give all the exercise which mid- dle aged men, of ordinary constitutions, require. Dur- ing this time, the exhilaration of the mind, and the mo- tions of the muscles, are constant ; not a little of the in- terest arising from the wonderful instinct and sagacity, which a well bred pointer dog exhibits in the field, and which the lover of rural sports, however often he has wit- nessed it, never sees with indifference. The admirer of nature, who for the first time beholds the phenomena which these animals exhibit, when " beating the field," and " standing at a point," will not only be intensely in- terested, but often struck with astonishment at what he sees. The dog runs backwards and forwards, a little before his master, with his nose elevated above the grass or bushes, until he scents the bird, (which is always on the ground,) when he walks slowly, and carefully, to within a rod or two of it, and then stands perfectly still, with his nose pointing to the exact spot where the game lies. The sportsman proceeding to the spot, sends the dog forward to "flush" the bird, and shoots it as it flies, the dog again standing until the game falls, when he brings, and lays it at his master's feet. In these dogs the pointing is a natural property, or per- haps an acquired instinct, and may be seen in young an- imals of good blood, without the least training. The training therefore, does not consist in learning the animal to point, but only to obey the commands of his master, with respect to the moment of flushing the game, of bringing it, and of keeping within a certain distance from him, &c. And now who ca*n account for the reason why this extraordinary property was conferred on this animal, un- less it was intended by the Giver to be employed by man in the manner \ve have described ; for in no other respect can it be of the least use to the dog or his mas- ten We cannot but believe therefore, that there was 22 254 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. design in this peculiar endowment, and that it was in- tended to be made useful to man. It is true that there are objections to this kind of sport. To those situated in large towns, it would perhaps be nearly impracticable as a daily exercise ; and besides, there is, at least, a semblance of cruelty in it. With re- spect to the latter however, the conscience may be great- ly relieved by adhering to two rules, which true sports- men never violate. The first is, never to shoot at any bird which is not fit for the table ; and the second, never to shoot at any bird that is fit for the table, unless it be on the wing. By adopting these rules, the beginner will have to account chiefly for motives, and intentions, since he will seldom be troubled by seeing his bird fall. Still, however, the excitement does not entirely fail from want of success ; and if the tyro will persevere for a few days, or until he has " bagged" a few " brace" of birds, he will then find his conscience perfectly at rest on the sub- ject of field sports, both with regard to intentions, and overt acts. Sir Walter Scott was enabled to continue his great mental efforts by the use of this kind of exer- cise. ANGLING. Those who do not require the violent exercise insep- arable from sporting with the dog and gun, may perhaps find as interesting a recreation in angling ; which ever since the days of that father of "brook sports," Izaak Walton, has never wanted most honorable patrons. And it must be confessed, that on several accounts this is hardly excelled by any other recreative employment. Indeed, we have the pleasure of knowing many a Trout- fisher, whose present enjoyments are greatly heightened by this exercise, and whose useful lives will undoubted- ly be prolonged by its continuance. One of these, a gentleman who has retired from an active employment, often expresses his thankfulness that he is attached to this recreation, considering it, indepen- dently of the pleasure it confers, as one of the most effi- cient causes of the fine state of health which he enjoys. > ANGLING. 255 To those who have no feeling on this subject, angling might be supposed to want that kind of excitement, which we have described as necessary to healthful ex- ercise. But if such an one will only just touch on the subject, in presence of a " lover of the rod," he will find his mistake ; for there is certainly not a more enthusias- tic body of men on the subject of sportive recreations, or rather recreation, than the anglers ; and to these therefore it presents a source of all the mental exhilara- tion, both as a conservative, and curative means, which could be desired. But the uninitiated, and the ignorant, are ready to in- quire, " From what source can this interest, this excite- ment, arise ?" To which inquiry we will reply, for we have more than once been witness to the intense feeling which men of gravity, and of sound minds, exhibit on such occasions. In the first place then, an early breakfast, and a ride of several miles on a May morning, with the expectation of a fine day, (that is, a little cloudy,) and fine luck, are preliminaries by no means wanting in interest. When arrived at the trout-brook, there is the prepar- ation of inserting the joints of the poles, of fixing the lines, and eeeing to the bait, during which nothing else can be thought of. JBut now the chief source of mental excitement begins. The hook all baited, and ready, is thrown into the wa- ter, and perhaps a bite is instantly felt ; or as is some- times the case, possibly the Trout may jump out of the water and seize it ; and who could avoid feeling at such a beginningl What cold heart could remain unmoved with such a crown of success ? But if no fish jumps up to welcome the bait ; if no bite, not even a nibble is felt, still the excitement does not fail, for what is not realized, is every instant expected, and therefore from the very nature of the case, the mind is constantly occupied, the brain continually excited, and nothing but the expected bite can be thought of. And then, after an early breakfast, a ride and a walk along the limpid, gurgling stream, with the mind intense- ly fixed on an object, — then comes on an animal sensa- tion, which after a while predominates over the mental 256 MEPTTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. feelings of the keenest, — the most ardent sportsman, and the cold dinner is taken with a keenness of appetite, and a degree of enjoyment, known only to those whose gas- tric organs have been prepared by such means. After the day's sport is over, still the interest does not cease, for the parties recount to each other, on the way home, the pleasures, and circumstances of the day. And finally after such a day of exercise, both of mind and body, there follows such a night of repose, as the stayer-at-home cannot appreciate, — and such a breakfast in the morning as princes seldom enjoy. RIDING. " Of all exercises," says Dr. Ticknor, " riding is most conducive to health, and to vigor of the constitution, but as a good thing may bo improperly^ or imprudently usedf so riding sometimes produces an effect contrary to what is intended. Those who are not accustomed to riding are most apt to suffer — the pleasure, and exhilaration being so great, that fatigue or exhaustion are induced when they are least expected. In cold weather, people unused to carriage exercise are apt to think the same quantity of clothing necessary in walking, will be an adequate protection when riding. Often, a person will not experience a sensation of cold, he will not be aware that his body is becoming chilled, till he alights from his carriage, or till he approaches the fire, when he becomes fully sensible that his ride has been too protracted. Those who are in good health do not often experience any more than a temporary inconvenience from this cause, but in the delicate it is sufficient to be followed by a seri- ous illness. In summer a drive towards nightfall is truly delicious, and is believed to be conducive to heajth — • and so, indeed, it is, with due precaution — but at such times females are generally thinly clad, and a thin dress affords little protection from the damp, and chilly air of an evening." " There seems, in the present age, a wonderful pro- pensity to be hurried through the world ; not only is it convenient for the man of business to be transported by RIDING. 257 steam at the rate of from fifteen to fifty miles an hour' but there is no pleasure in driving ones' 'own hired' horse at a pace of less than ten miles in the same space of time. Being thus hurried away, Pegasus-like, a just equivalent to sitting in the open air when the wind blows, in sailor's phrase, a ' stiff breeze/ and to do this at sun- set would be thought the very extreme of imprudence. There can be no objection to any man's riding with all the speed his horse can make ; but it were wisdom to shield himself against a breeze of his own raising." " Equitation, or riding on horse back, is a different exercise from the preceding ; and fast riding is not only active exercise, but severe labor. This is one of the most noble, and manly, and healthful exercises that can be imagined ; and as it formed a part of the education of the Spanish youth, so ought it to be made a part of the education of the young of both sexes, in our country. Riding on horseback, exercises every muscle, and every organ in the body ; and causes the blood to circulate so freely that in cold weather this is one of the most com- fortable ways in which a person can travel, provided he can bear the exercise without fatigue. This may seem paradoxical to those who never have made the experi- ment ; but the evidence of those who have tested it for several successive years, in all weathers, and at all sea- sons, has established the fact to my own satisfaction, that at the pace of seven or eight miles an hour, no person would feel cold in unusually severe winter weather." — Philosophy of Living, by Caleb Ticknor, A. M., M. D. Harper's Family Library, No. 77, p. 202. We will add to the foregoing judicious remarks of Dr. Ticknor, that riding on horseback, with agreeable com- pany, and on a spirited, well trained animal, does afford exercise, at once agreeable, exhilarating, and manly. It also has the advantage of bringing all the principal mus- cles into play, and of shaking the viscera in such a man- ner as to give a vigorous action to the pipes, and strain- ers throughout the system, and perhaps to detach any little adhesions that might be taking place among them. A journey on horseback, for a nervous invalid, is un- doubtedly one of the best means of restoration, not how- ever, merely on account of the muscular exercise, or 22* 258 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. the wholesome air, but because there is a constant suc- cession of new and exciting objects, which as constant- ly exercises the mind, and without requiring so much at- tention as to at any time create mental fatigue. Such a degree of mental excitement, with the muscular exer- cise, and pure atmosphere of the country, undoubtedly conspire to form a train of invigorating means hardly to be expected from any which can be employed at home. It is entirely in consequence of the action of the brain thus excited, or the employment of the mind, by the suc- cession of new objects, that a journey produces such dif- ferent results on the health of the invalid, from that to be obtained by the employment of the same amount of the same kind of exercise at one place. The fact itself, is well known, otherwise why do physicians order their patients to take journeys far from home, when with re- spect to the comforts and habits of. life, they could be much better provided for there, than abroad. Why not then, ride thirty or forty miles a day, one way, or anoth- er, and sleep at home, to which every invalid is attach- ed, and to most of whom the leaving of their beds, rooms, and families, is such a trial as is often not easily to be overcome. From all we have said of the connection which exists between the brain and muscles, the reason is obvious why little or no improvement may be expect- ed from such exercise. The patient expects nothing new — he has already seen over and again all that he ex- pects to see during his ride : he therefore begins his dai- ly task without excitement, and going through it without interest, arrives at the place whence he started, fatigued in body and mind, and discouraged, not only because he finds no improvement, but because he dreads the very idea of having to perform the same task on the morrow. On the contrary, during a journey, there is a constant change of scenery, or of objects, or of persons, which is just sufficient to keep the mind in gentle and salubrious excitement, and which acting through the brain, sup- plies the muscular system with the requisite degree of nervous power, and thus the two systems, (the muscular and nervous,) are kept in a state of pleasant and healthy equilibrium, which conspires gradually to bring both into a condition of firmness and health. The patient, after RIDING. 259 such a day's journey, feels far less fatigue than when his exercise is without excitement, and he becomes satisfied that the means he is employing answers the purpose in- tended, and therefore, instead of being discouraged, he is filled with the hope of a final, and speedy recovery. A highly intelligent female invalid, whose circumstan- ces allowed her to select the best means of improving her health ; employed for a considerable time, daily ex- ercise, either on horseback, or in an open carriage, in the form of little excursions from her residence. From this method however, and for the reasons above stated, she obtained little else than fatigue, listlessness, and discour- agement. Having relinquished it, therefore, for a jour- ney through a fine country, at a good season of the year, she returned so much improved, as to astonish her friends, as well as herself, that such a change could have been effected in so short a period : and nearly every reader will no doubt remember similar cases, which have come within his own knowledge. Exciting exercise absolutely necessary to the studious. — And now, in closing this part of our subject, we cannot but desire to impress it upon the minds of those into whose hands this volume may fall, and who are destined to spend their lives in literary pursuits, or in clerical la- bors, that an uninterrupted, and long continued course of study, or of ministerial duties, without exciting relax- ation, is from the very organization of our systems, in most cases, absolutely impossible. The kind of exercise must of course depend on the choice, or taste, or muscu- lar powers of the individual, only to answer any good purpose, as a restorative means, it must be exciting to the brain, and if possible, be repeated every day, or at least every two or three days, until the equilibrium of the system is restored, and when this is done, must be con- tinued habitually in order to insure a permanency of good health. The above considerations and remarks, with respect to exercise in adults, although they do not apply imme- diately to youth, for whose instruction this work is chief- ly intended, still it is hoped will not be deemed entirely out of place, since it is highly important that the rising 260 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. generation should possess proper conceptions with re- spect to the arduous duties of the clerical office, and al- so that our young men, who are destined to follow the pursuits of science, or literature, should at the com- mencement, know the importance of habitually using so much corporeal exercise, as to prevent their falling into that nervous and debilitated condition, under which but too many of their brethren are now laboring. Sir Walter Scott. — Sir Walter Scott, who produced, in the course of little more than twenty-five years, seven- ty-four volumes of original romances, besides histories, poems, biographies, critiques and dissertations so numer- ous, that so far as we know, their number has not been computed, and who at the same period employed many hours every day in other mental labors, still found time to take a great deal of amusing muscular exercise. Be- sides his dogs and gun, of which, being a capital shot, he was exceedingly fond, and with which he exercised him- self with all the keenness and ardor of a first rate sportsman, he also, nearly every day in the season, did something in the practice of cultivation, never taking a walk about his grounds without a weeding, or pruning hook in his hand, thus always, even when most at leis- ure, placing before himself some object of amusement, or motive of action. It is well known, that for a long time there was a mys- tery with respect to the author of the Waverly Novels, and it now appears that the apparently constant occu- pation of Scott, as clerk of the Sessions, and in other employments, was considered as a sufficient reason, why it was not possible that he could have been the au- thor. " In order to thicken this mystification" says one of his biographers," Scott, instead of being always at his writing desk, as might have have been expected in so vo- luminous an author, seemed through the whole day and evening, to have his time perfectly at command, for the routine either of business or amusement." "Three hours per diem'9 as he often observed, " are quite enough for literary labor, if only one's attention is kept so long undistracted ; and the best time for this, is in the morn- ing when other people are asleep." RIDING. 261 In conformity to this practice, Sir Walter Scott used to produce twenty-four pages of quarto manuscript be- tween the time of rising, and ten o'clock in the morning, when the court opened, and at which time his office re- quired his presence. This was closely written, in a small hand, and ready for the press. It is probable, however, that no authorities were consulted during this time, and that he previously had the matter all ready in his mind, otherwise such performances, if continued for any length of time, must be considered as little less than miraculous. We have cited Scott, to show the necessity, and the practice of active amusements in a man of letters, be- cause his writings are generally known, and because it might be supposed by some, that the great number of his productions, and the rapidity with which they fol- lowed each other, precluded the possibility of his spend- ing any considerable portion of time in bodily exercise, whereas we see, that this was, at least for a time, the very means by which he was enabled to perform such extraordinary mental efforts. Nor was Scott an ex- ception in this respect to the practice of other British authors, and especially those of Scotland, who, what- ever their ages, or offices may be, are in the habit of making play a part of their daily duties. But notwithstanding Scott understood so well the principles which ought to govern students with respect to muscular exercise, and for a long time reduced them to practice, still his pecuniary embarrassments forced him to such unparalleled mental exertions, as finally to affect the cerebral and nervous functions in such a man- ner as to induce a morbid condition of the whole system, from which he never recovered. So that the noble part by which he distinguished the age iri which he liv- ed, finally became the instrument by which he was des- tined to perish. — A striking commentary on the princi- ple, that the equilibrium of the nervous, and muscular systems cannot be deranged with impunity. It has been, not unaptly observed, by more than one of our Trans- Atlantic brethren, on visiting this country, and noticing our manners and habits, that " the Ameri- cans are very complete masters of the art of working. 262 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. but that they do not yet understand the art of playing'9 This is undoubtedly true, the newness of our country, originally, and some parts of it at the present time, making it necessary for all classes to labor more or less with their hands, and to this circumstance the pres- ent prosperity and vast enterprize of our nation is in a great measure owing. It is from the same cause also, that as a nation, we have acquired the almost universal sentiment, that a man ought to labor constantly, and with little, or no relaxation, so long as he is able, let his occupation be what it may ; and this opinion is follow- ed by a practice nearly as universal. Now so far as muscular labor is concerned, this practice is not incom- patible with the prospect of a long life and robust health, and therefore, whether followed from necessity, or for profit, or pleasure, seldom so deranges the balance be- tween the muscular and nervous systems as to induce premature evil to either. But if, instead of depending upon foreign authors for our literature and science — if we are to look to the pens of our own sons, and daugh- ters, for books of instruction for the rising generation, and for even but a small portion of the mental food which this vast republic requires, then it is certain that so far as this class is concerned, the sentiment requiring perpetual labor must be changed, for as we have- abun- dantly shown, the Creator did not form man for inces- sant mental labor. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EDUCATION OF YOUTH. The proper use of the muscles consists in their alter- nate contraction and relaxation, and this is one of the most imperious laws of the animal economy. If the muscles are allowed to remain in a state of relaxation for any considerable time, they become incapable of vig- orous contraction, as we have already stated. The cases of prisoners long confined in cells, or in chains, so that they could not use their Kmbs, have often presented lamentable illustrations of this principle. Such persons, without any positive disease, become unable to walk, or even to stand from mere debility of the muscular sys- EDUCATION OP YOUTH. 263 tern. The deplorable case of poor Caspar Hauser who was confined from his infancy in a small dungeon, and whose story is every where known, presented a still more striking, and miserable example of the same prin- ciple. On the contrary, if relaxation gradually destroys the strength of the muscles, so are their powers most rap- idly exhausted by continued contraction. This indeed appears to be impossible for any considerable length of time. To hold the arm in a horizontal position for ten minutes, even without any weight in the hand, is what no one can do without pain. To stand perfectly still on both feet, is also a most fatiguing position, because in this posture the muscles of the limbs are under continu- al tension. Hence it is, that soldiers, who are capable of enduring great exertions in marching, soon become impatient and tired, if kept beyond a certain length of time in the line, on parade ; and hence also, the neces- sity that the drill officer, who would have his men ap- pear well on parade, should often employ the word " rest" in its military sense, it being impossible for them to keep the line in the attitude of soldiers, more than a few minutes at a time. If then men, and soldiers too, are incapable from their organization of avoiding the relaxation of their muscles, how much more difficult it must be, for children and youth, whose limbs are instinctively in perpetual motion, to restrain themselves from this natural propensity. Rest, to these young creatures, after a time, undoubted- ly becomes much more painful than any degree of hun- ger, or thirst they have ever felt ; for these wants, it would be considered the highest cruelty not to supply. But the child, often, as every parent may have observ- ed, after coming out of school, prefers the exercise of his muscles, for a while, to the gratification of his hun- ger. Consequences of the confined position of Females at School. — " The Principles of Physiology, applied to the Preservation of Health," by Dr. Combe, of Edinburgh, contains some capital remarks, on the subject of muscu- lar action in youth, and which are undoubtedly applica- 264 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. ble, though it is hoped, only in a limited degree to our own country. " Although contraction and relaxation, says the author, or in other words, exercise of the muscles, which sup- port the trunk of the body, are the only means, which according to the Creator's laws, are conducive to muscu- lar development, and by which the bodily strength, and vigor can be secured. Instead of promoting such ex- ercise however, the prevailing system of female educa- tion, places the muscles of the trunk, in particular, un- der the worst possible circumstances, and renders their exercise nearly impossible. Left to its own weight, the body would fall to the ground, in obedience to the or- dinary law of gravitation ; in sitting and standing, there- fore, as well as in walking, the position is preserved on- ly by active muscular exertion." " But if we confine ourselves to one attitude, such as that of sitting erect on a chair — or what is still worse, on benches, without backs, as is the common practice in schools — it is obvious that we place the muscles which support the spine and trunk, in the very disadvanta- geous position of permanent, instead of alternate con- traction ; which we have seen is in reality more fa- tiguing, and debilitating to them than severe labor." " Girls thus restrained daily, for many successive hours, invariably suffer : — being deprived of the sports, and exercise after school hours, which strengthen the muscles of boys, and enable them to withstand the op- pression. The muscles being thus enfeebled, they ei- ther lean over insensibly to one side, and thus contract curvature of the spine ; or, their weakness being per- ceived, they are forthwith cased in stiffer, and stronger stays — that support being sought for, in steel and whale- bone, which Nature intended they should obtain from the bones and muscles of their own bodies." " The patient, finding the maintainance of an erect carriage, (the grand object for which all the suffering is inflicted,) thus rendered more easy, at first welcomes the stays, and like her teacher, fancies them highly use- ful. Speedily, however, their effects show them to be the reverse of beneficial. The same want of varied motion, which was the prime cause of the muscular EDUCATION OF YOUTH. 265 weakness, is still further aggravated by the tight pres- sure of the stays interrupting the play of the muscles, and rendering them in a few months more powerless than ever." "In spite, however, of the weariness and mischief which result from it, the same system is persevered in ; and, except during the short time allotted to that nomi- nal exercise, the formal walk, the body is left almost as motionless as before, the lower limbs only being -called into activity. The natural consequences of this treat- ment are debility of the body, curvature of the spine, impaired digestion, and from the diminished tone of all the animal and vital functions, general ill health : — and yet, while we thus set Nature and her laws at defiance, we presume to express surprise at the prevalence of fe- male deformity and disease." In the " Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine," the same subject occupies the attention of several writers, and suf- ficient proof is there adduced that Dr. Combe has not been mistaken in his apprehensions with respect to the consequences of the course of physical education above described. Dr. Forbes, one of the writers above referred to, says that he " lately visited a boarding school in a large town, containing forty girls ; and that he learned on close and accurate inquiry, that there was not one of these girls who had been at the school two years, (and the majority had been there as long,) that were not more or less CROOKED !" " Our patient," he continues, " was in this predica- ment ; and \ye could perceive, (what all may perceive who meet that most melancholy of all processions — a boarding school of young ladies in their walk,) that all her companions were pallid, sallow, and listless. We can assert, on the same authority of personal observa- tion, and on an extensive scale, that scarcely a single girl, (more especially of the middle classes,) that has been at a boarding school for two or three years, returns home with unimpaired health ; and for the truth of this assertion, we may appeal to every candid fattier, whose daughters have been placed in this situation." In the same work, it is stated by Dr. Barlow, that at least in some boarding schools, it is the practice to al- 23 266 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. low the young ladies only one hour of exercise, consist- ing of a slow walk arm in arm on the high road, and that even this, only when the weather is fine, — while their tasks in school are continued nine hours ; besides which, they are occupied three and a half hours per day, in op- tional studies, or in works. Dr. Barlow further remarks, that the superintend- ents of these schools are generally extremely anxious about the welfare and health of their pupils ; and that it is through ignorance of the consequences, that such a course is pursued. How far these strictures are deserved by the superin- tendents of boarding schools in this country, the author does not pretend to judge. It is however well known, and acknowledged, that the subject of popular education in this country, is better understood than it is in Great Britain, or perhaps in any part of Europe ; and we may therefore perhaps justly infer, without reference to the facts, that at least some of the pernicious usages still re- tained in their schools, no longer exist here. It is however believed that a reference to the facts will show, that at least in New England, the boarding schools to a considerable extent, are in a measure free from deserving censure on account of confining their pupils too closely ; though we have no doubt that less study and more exercise, taken regularly, would be high- ly advantageous to the mental progress, and certainly to the constitutional firmness of the pupils. Instead of so many successive hours being devoted to study and to books, the employments of the young ought to be varied, and interrupted by proper intervals of cheerful and exhilarating exercise ; such as is derived from games of dexterity, which require the co-opera- tion, and society of their companions. This is infinitely preferable to the solemn processions which are so often substituted for recreation, and which are rather hurtful than otherwise, inasmuch as they delude parents and teachers into the notion that this is really exercise ; whereas the slow, measured step, and the locked arms, and the solemn silence, shows that there is not a single element of wholesome recreation in such a procession. It has already been shown, that mental cultivation EDUCATION OF YOUTH. 267 cannot be carried on without a proper, and due propor- tion of corporeal activity, even in adults ; and it is well known that youth require much more action than their parents, in order that the several functions of the ani- mal fabric may be properly developed, and ultimately gain their most perfect condition. And who had not much rather see his child return home from school with a little less algebra, and a good stock of health, than to know that she had outdone her class mates, and obtain- ed the highest prizes, while the pallid cheek, and the crooked, emaciated frame, shows that this has been done at the expense of her health i Boys may run through the streets, play ball, skate, snow-ball, fish and hunt, while the fate of the poor girls is fixed, and bound down to the sedate, and measured walk, and this only for a short distance, and at stated times. And still the girls require full as much exercise as their brothers. It is true, as will be seen in another place, that the dress of females is far more pernicious in its consequences, than that of the males ; and hence in a degree, undoubtedly, we may account for the greater number of deaths by consumption in the former, than among the latter. But is it not to be feared that in ma- ny instances, a predisposition to consumption is acquired in females in early youth, in consequence of the want of those wholesome sports which the boys enjoy ? And is it not the duty of parents and teachers to look to this sub- ject especially, and see whether there is not a prevailing error in this respect ? Remarks of the Rev. Dr. Dick..— The Rev. Dr. Dick, in his excellent work on Mental Illumination, has some good remarks on the subject of school exercises for the " Pupils of every description," says he, " should be daily employed in bodily exercises, for invigorating their health and bodily powers. Every school should have a play ground for this purpose, as extensive as possible, and furnished with gymnastic apparatus for exercising the muscular activities of the young of both sexes.— Swings, poles, hoops, see-saws, pulleys, balls, and similar articles, should be furnished for enabling them to engage 268 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. with spirit and vigor in their amusements. In walking, skipping, running, leaping in height, length, or depth, swinging, lifting, carrying, jumping with a hoop or pole, they will not only find sources of enjoyment — when these exercises are properly regulated, to prevent danger and contention — but these enjoyments will also strengthen, and develope their corporeal powers. All imitations, however, of war and military manoeuvres, should be generally prohibited ; as it is now more than time that a martial spirit should be counteracted, and checked in the bud, — and those who encourage it in the young, need not wonder if they shall ere long, behold many of them rising up to be curses, instead of benefactors to man- kind. They might likewise be occasionally employed in making excursions, in company with their teacher, either along the sea shore, the banks of rivers, or to the top of a hill, for the purpose of surveying the works of nature and art, and searching for minerals, plants, flowers or insects, to augment the school museum, and to serve as subjects for instruction." " If every school had a piece of ground attached to it for a garden, and for the cultivation of fruit trees, pota- tos, cabbages, and other culinary vegetables, children of both sexes, at certain hours, might be set to dig, to hoe, to prune, to plant, to sow, to arrange the beds of flowers, and to keep every portion of the plot in neat- ness and order." " Such exercises would not only be healthful and ex- hilarating, but might be of great utility to them in after life, when they come to have the sole management of their own domestic affairs. They might also be encour- aged to employ some of their leisure hours, in construct- ing such mechanical contrivances and devices, as are most congenial to their taste." 0 "If instead of six or seven hours confinement in school, only five hours at most were devoted to books, and the remaining hours to such exercises as above mentioned, their progress in practical knowledge, so far from being impeded, might be promoted to a much greater extent." " Such exercises might be turned, not only to their physical and intellectual advantage, but to their moral improvement. When young people are engaged in their EDUCATION OP YOUTH. 269 diversions, or in excursions along with their teachers, their peculiar tastes, tempers, and conduct towards each other, are openly developed ; they act without restraint ; they appear in their true colors ; and a teacher has the best opportunity of marking the dispositions they dis- play. He can therefore apply at the moment those en- couragements, and admonitions, and those Christian rules and maxims, by which their characters, and con- duct, may be moulded into the image of Him, * who hath set us an example, that we should walk in his steps.' " "The incidents, and the atmospherical phenomena which may occur on such occasions, will also supply materials for rational observations, and reflections, and for directing the train of their affections, and the exer- cise of their moral powers ; and no opportunity of this kind, for producing useful impressions upon the young, should be lost by the pious and intelligent instructor." Every reflecting teacher and parent, who reads the above remarks, will see in them all that humanity, dis- cretion, and judgment which every where distinguish the pen of Dr. Dick, and especially when he speaks of the physical and moral education of youth. But al- though several of the exercises he has mentioned, are fit for young ladies, they are meant to apply chiefly to boys, for whose use there seems to be little difficulty in the selection. But with respect to the girls, it is obvi- ous that a distinction must be made, for although they perhaps, require as much action as the boys, it ought generally to be less athletic in its kind, and such as espe- cially to give motion to the arms and muscles of the chest. As a reason for selecting exercise of this sort, for females, we will only recur to the well known fact, already mentioned, that they are more liable to the con- sumption of the lungs than males, let the cause be what it may. Such recreations therefore, as give motion to the pectoral muscles, — as open and expand the lungs and chest, and give strength to the organs of respiration generally, are peculiarly proper for females. 23* 270 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. CALLISTHENICS. The regular and somewhat scientific gymnastics, for- merly introduced into schools, under the title of Callis- tJienic exercises, have, we believe, had their day, and gone into general disuse. Possibly the novelty of this method was its chief recommendation, though it is said that some were injured by it, either from the unnatural positions into which the limbs were thrown, or by the violence of the motions. The great objection to this mode of exercise, howev- er, we conceive arises, not from these causes, for the po- sitions, as well as the violence of the motions could easi- ly be regulated according to the condition, or strength of the pupil, which certainly ought to be the case in every exercise. The objection is founded on other grounds, and the reason why this method does not prevail, is, that it does not answer the purposes intended ; nor will any other exercise, which has no motive connected with it, and therefore does not interest the feelings, and excite the brain. Mere positions, or mere muscular contractions, as we have abundantly shown, are of very little use, especial- ly to the young. During inclement weather, when the pupils cannot employ the more exciting means of health in the open air, throwing the hoop, or playing at battle- door, may very properly be used as substitutes, and in which some take considerable interest. But throwing the limbs backwards and forwards, or up, and down, or the use of the dumb bell, or any such sort of action, without an object in view, other than that of employing the muscles, ought never to be depended upon as a means of preserving the health of students. (See more on this subject at the end of the volume.) ARCHERY. One of the most proper, convenient, modest, grace- ful, and healthful athletic recreations for females is, AR- CHERY. Every female school establishment should therefore have a piece of ground marked off, together ARCHERY. 271 with targets, and bows and arrows, prepared for this pleasant and invigorating diversion. This exercise is peculiarly advantageous, and proper for females, on account of the reason already given why they ought to employ every means for invigorating the chest in early life, and were these recreations generally adopted, we have no doubt, but many a slender one, who would otherwise occupy an untimely grave, might long be preserved to herself and society. Nor is this exercise at all deficient, when properly car- ried on, in that excitement which gives vigor to the muscles, and buoyancy to the mind. But for this pur- pose there must be preparations, and circumstances at- tending it, which it is Accessary to describe. It is well known that the bow and arrow was an- ciently the most efficient means of defence among civ- ilized men, and that before, and even after the inven- tion of gun-powder, it was the chief weapon employed in the wars of Europe. In England, in the time of Henry VIII. every man in the kingdom was obliged by law to have in his house a good bow, and three arrows. Charles II. was an arch- er himself, and once knighted a man for having beat Sir Wm. Wood, a famous bow-man, in a game of shooting. Such was the love of this sport in England, that particu- lar spots of ground were appropriated to the archers, by the law of the land, but these being gradually en- croached upon, by tenements and gardens, the people assembled, and without authority, cleared and levelled the grounds without reference to trees, ditches, or oth- er obstacles, until they opened the space of the archery- fields agreeably to the ancient landmarks. Such impor- tance did the people attach to this sport ; and at that period, on account of their athletic exercises, men were much stronger in all their limbs than we are at the pres- ent day. This fine exercise afterwards gradually declined, and for a long time was little practiced except by boys ; but has recently been revived, particularly in England, where every year meetings of archers, of both sexes, frequently occur. These meetings are attended by ma- ny of the female nobility, and are said often to compose 272 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. the most brilliant, and attractive rural fetes, which are enjoyed in that country. Ladies may shoot at a distance of twenty or thirty yards, and the attitude of an accomplished female arch- er— of one who has studied and practised the art in a proper manner, at the moment of bending the bow, is particularly graceful — all the actions and positions tend at once to produce an appearance of vigor in the frame, and to impart a general elegance to the deportment. The excitement of feeling, which a competition among the fair archers produces, together with the mus- cular exertions which such occasions call forth, make this among one of the most healthful and agreeable pas- times in which propriety permits young ladies to in- dulge. The face of the target has a gilded centre, around which are four circles, of which the inner one is red ; the second white ; the third black ; and the outer one white, with a narrow border of green. The propor- Fig. 124. tions maybe as in the adjoining fig. 124. The diameter may be from one to two feet, according to the distance, and expertness of the shooters. The mode of ascertaining the value of the hits, which is increased in proportion as they strike near the centre, is as follows. The hits in the centre are multiplied by nine ; in the red, by three ; in the inner white circle by ARCHERY. 273 two ; by adding a fourth to those in the black, and counting without alteration those in the outer white. Suppose then that Miss A. has 1 shot in the centre ; 4 in the red ; 5 in the white ; 8 in the black ; and 6 in the outer white ; then the value of the first is 9 ; the sec- ond 12 ; the third 10 ; the fourth 10, and the fifth 6=47 ; the value of Miss A's shots. Suppose Miss B. has 2 in the centre ; 1 in the red ; 3 in the white ; 8 in the black, and 6 in the outer white, then the value of her shots will be, in the first 18 ; in the second 3 ; in the third 6 ; in the fourth 10, and in the last 6=43, the val- ue of Miss B's shots. Selection of Bows and Arrows. — Bows should be from four, to five and a half feet in length, according to the height and strength of the individuals who are to use them. The shaft of the arrow should taper gradually from the head, or pile as it is termed, to the nock or notch, Fig. 125. Fig. 125. The length of the arrow should be from two to three feet, and made of light wood, with a head of some harder material, as lignum vitae, or horn. In stringing the bow, which the lady should learn to do herself, the bend should not be greater than to bring the string, in a bow of five feet long, to a greater dis- tance than five or six inches from the centre. If the bow be bent to nearly a half circle, as is sometimes done, it destroys a great proportion of its elasticity, and at the same time prevents giving the arrow its full force, by requiring the right hand to be drawn too far back in the act of shooting. To pull the string back for the discharge of the arrow, good shooters do not employ the thumb, but two, or three fingers, the arrow being held between the fore and second. These fingers are protected by a glove of 274 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE. three fingers, made of stout leather, so that these deli- cate parts should not be exposed to injury. The bow being strung, it is grasped, when about to be used, by the left hand, at a little distance from the centre ; well made instruments having a place, or han- dle, for this purpose. The arrow is then to be taken in the right hand by Fig. 126.' the middle, and carried under the string to the left of the bow, until its head reaches the left hand, the fore finger of which receives it, and the right hand is removed from the middle to the nock : the arrow is next to be drawn down the bow, and the string placed in the nock, with the red feather upper- most ; the fore finger is then with- drawn from the arrow, and pla- ced round the bow in its original place. The body now stands in the position of Fig. 126, with the weapon as there represented. " The attitude of shooting, (says the Ladies' Book,) is a matter of much importance : the heels should be a few !27. inches apart, the neck slightly cur- ved, so as to bring the head a little downward ; the face, but not the front of the body, is to be turned towards the mark. The left arm must be held out quite straight to the wrist, which should be bent in- wards ; the bow is to be held easy in the hand, and the arrow when drawn should be brought, not to- wards the eye, but the ear." " The right hand should begin to ' draw the string, as the left raises the bow : when the arrow is three parts drawn, the aim is to be taken ; in doing this, the pile should appear at the right of the mark ; the arrow is then drawn to its head, and immediately let go." The arrow passes along the root of the thumb and fore finger. Fig. 127 represents a female archer, at the instant of shooting. ARCHERY. 275 A person at the target is furnished with a card, marked off as follows, for the convenience of inserting the names Name. Gold. Red. I. White. Black. O. Whi.e. T-.tal. Value. A 1 4 5 8 6 24 47 B 2 1 3 8 6 20 43 of the shooters, and recording their hits. This will be understood by a reference to Fig. 124, together with the rules for estimating the value of the hits in the differ- ent circles, already given. The account is kept on the card, by making a pin hole through the compartments, corresponding to the circles on the target, for each hit. We have been thus particular in describing this sport, because we consider it one of the most healthful and ap- propriate in which young ladies can indulge ; and can- not therefore but hope that it will be introduced into boarding schools generally, as a recreation. APPENDIX. CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE ATTITUDES OF STANDING, WALKING, SITTING, AND LEANING ; TOGETH- ER WITH REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS ON SPINAL DISTORTIONS, AND THE USE OF STAYS, The attitudes which the human frame is capable of assuming, are exceedingly various, but physiologists have reduced them to two kinds, or classes ; the active, and the passive. The former includes all such as require the action of the muscles, as standing, or walking ; the latter, such as require no muscular exertion, as when the body lies prostrate. STANDING. When we stand on both feet, considerable muscular effort is required to preserve the upright position ; and still more when we stand on only one foot. In either case, the centre of gravity, which is between the hips, must be kept over the base. In the first attitude, the base of support is the space between the feet, including the breadth of the feet them- selves in one direction, and their length in the other ; and hence when the toes are turned outwards in stand- ing, or walking, the base is enlarged. In the last, the base is the single foot only. During this position of the body, nearly all the muscles of the lower extremities, as well as those of the back, are in a state of continual ac- tion ; and this is the reason why we become sooner fa- tigued when standing still, than when walking, in which the muscles are alternately contracted and relaxed. When we stand erect, the vertebral column trans- mits the weight of the head, as well as of all the other 278 APPENDIX. parts of the body above the hips, down through the low- er limbs to the feet ; and hence the necessity that this column should have great strength and firmness, as for- merly shown. In standing, if the spine is bent backwards so as to throw the line of the centre of gravity behind the base, the position soon becomes painful ; since the muscles of the back must be in a continued state of unnatural ten- sion, in order to maintain this position, and also because the muscles of the lower limbs are unduly straightened, for the purpose of preventing the body from declining backwards, and thus losing its balance. This uncomfort- able position is represented by Fig. 128. The most natural posture in standing, is that which 128. Fig. 129. can be supported longest with the least fatigue, and this appears to be when the spinal column is kept in a posi- tion similar to that shown by Fig. 63 ; the muscles of the back being kept in only just sufficient action to main- tain the spine erect ; the chest and arms, at the same time, being thrown forward, so as to bring the centre of gravity somewhat forward, rather than behind the base, as shown by Fig. 129. In this posture, all the muscles will be found to be in as complete a state of relaxation, as is consistent with the erect position of the body. If the pupil will imitate a few times the different pos- tures here represented, she will soon find by experience, that one can be maintained much longer than the other. STANDING. 279 The Foot. — In describing the parts concerned in stand- ing and walking, we will begin with the base, or foun- dation. We will however only give a slight description of the bones of this part. The tarsus is that part which reach- es from the heel to the middle of the foot, marked a, fig. 130. It is composed of seven bones. The metatarsus, 6, consists of five long bones, laid close together, and reaching from the tarsus to the roots of the toes. The phalanges, c, or bones of the toes, are so called because each row forms a phalanx. Of these there are fourteen in the whole. Thus the bones of the foot are 26 in number. These are covered with cartilages, and sup- plied with tendons ; the first binding them together in the strongest manner, and the second giving them mo- tion in all directions. There is indeed no part of the human frame which is put together with so much care, and so strongly guarded against accidents, as the foot. It is obvious that were this not the case, so small a part would not withstand the violent concussions to which it is subjected, in sustaining the whole weight of the body, in leaping and other exercises. The two bones of the lower limb, the tibia, or shin bone, and fibula, which is placed on its outside, form by their lower extremities, the inner and outer ankle bones. These are articulated with the great bone of the foot, called the astragalus ; by which a hinge joint is formed, having also some lateral motion. Now when we walk, this joint allows the foot to roll easily upon the ends of these bones, so that the toes may be directed according to the inequalities of the surface over which we pass. But when the foot is fixed on the ground, the muscles instantly act in such a manner as to give the joint a firm support, so that the whole body rests upon it, while the other foot is carried forward. In walking, the heel first touches the ground, at "which instant the bones of the leg and foot are in the positions with respect to each other, represented by Fig. 130. If the legs were situated perpendicularly over the part which first comes to the ground, we should come down with a dead blow, or jolt, as one does who has a wood- 280 APPENDIX. en leg. Whereas, by this arrangement, the foot acts as a Fig. 130. lever ; and by the action of the muscles, lets the weight of the body come down gradually to the ground. But notwithstanding these easy motions of the foot, the whole becomes exceedingly firm, and fix- ed, when the weight of the body bears directly upon it ; so that the bones of the leg will be fractured, before those of the foot will be displaced, or will yield in the least. With respect to the action of the muscles connected with the foot, which are concerned in supporting the bo- dy in the upright position, Sir Charles Bell speaks as fol- io ws : " The posture of a soldier under arms, when his heels are close together, and his knees straight, is a condition of painful restraint. Observe then the change in his bo- dy and limbs, when he is ordered to " stand at ease ;" the gun falls against his relaxed arms, the right knee is thrown out, and the tension of the ankle joint of the same leg is relieved ; whilst he looses an inch and a half of his height, and sinks down upon the left hip. This com- mand to " stand at ease," has a higher authority than the general order. It is a natural relaxation of the mus- cles, which are consequently relieved from a painful state of exertion : and the weight of the body then bears so upon the lower extremities, as to support the joints independently of muscular effort. The advantage of this will be understood, when we consider that all the muscular effort is made at the expense of a living pow- er, which, if excessive, wrill exhaust the man ; whilst the position of rest we are describing, is without effort, and therefore gives perfect relief. And it is this which makes boys and girls, who are out of health and languid, lounge too much in the position of relief, from whence comes permanent distortion." The standing position is as firm as possible, when the two feet, directed forwards on two parallel lines, are separated by a space equal to one of them. If the base of support is enlarged in a lateral direction, by separa- WALKING. 281 ting the feet, the standing becomes more firm in this di- rection ; but is less so from behind, and before. When one foot is placed in a line before the other, the back- ward and forward support becomes firm, in proportion as the base is extended in these directions ; while the right and left foundation is diminished to the breadth of the foot. The importance of the toes in standing, will be seen, when it is considered that their loss will deprive the base of about one fourth of its length in that direction. In walking, the loss of these parts is a still greater misfor- tune ; the elasticity of the step being thereby so dimin- ished, as to give the gait the appearance, rather of one who walks on wooden legs, than on sound limbs. Standing on one Foot. — With respect to standing on one foot, it is only necessary to say, that the base of sup- port is reduced to the surface which the foot covers, and therefore that the muscles of the whole limb must be in strong action, in order to keep the body from falling in such a position, which consequently can only be support- ed for a few minutes. WALKING. In walking, the position of the body should be erect, the head being always kept over the centre of gravity. The step should be firm, with the toes turned out, so that the foot at each step, will make an angle of about 33 de- grees on each side of a right line projected forwards on the ground through the centre of gravity. If the feet form parallel lines with each other in stepping, the gait is vul- gar, and tottering from right to left, the base not being sufficient to give a firm support to the centre of gravity. If the toes be turned outwards too much, although the lateral sides of the base are thereby extended, yet the movement is awkward, and unseemly, especially in la- dies, and the step will want that elasticity from the ac- tion of the toes, which gives lightness and grace to the gait. The foot should be carried forward with the toes raised sufficiently to avoid impediments, but no higher, 24* 282 APPENDIX. for no position of the foot in walking, is more graceless and vulgar, than that of placing the heel, with the toes so elevated, as to give them an apparent dread of the ground, as though they were covered with corns. Such a lifting up of the toes, together with their parrot-like crossing of each other in walking, form a gait, which no well bred person will practice, unless compelled to do so by deformity, for with common attention it may be avoided. Pedestrianism. With respect to the style of walk- ing which gives the greatest velocity, with the least mus- cular expenditure, pedestrians have learned by experi- ence to adopt a manner peculiar to themselves. Capt, Barclay, who performed the extraordinary feat of walk- ing 1000 miles, in 1000 successive hours, inclined his body so as to throw the centre of gravity a little forward of the centre of the base, thus making its weight rest chief- ly on the front of the knee joints. His step was short, and he raised his feet only a few inches from the ground. Any person, it is said, who will try this plan, will find his pace quickened thereby ; at the same time his walking will be more easy to himself, and he will be better able to endure the fatigue of a long journey, than by taking the erect posture, which throws too much of the weight of the body, it is said, on the ankle joints. Capt. Bar- clay always used thick- soled shoes, and lambs- wool stockings. The former he found indispensable, and had them so large as to avoid unnecessary pressure. Every sportsman of the least experience understands this, nev- er venturing on an excursion, however dry the walking may be, with thin-soled boots. SITTING. The postures which we take in sitting, are exceeding- ly various, and, on some accounts, of the highest impor- tance, especially to youth. Thus we may sit on the ground with the limbs extended forward ; or upon a low, or high seat, with, or without a back, and with the feet touching, or not touching the floor, (fee. , SITTING. 283 The sitting posture, even without the support of the back, can be maintained much longer than that of stand- ing, because the centre of gravity is thrown nearer the base ; and because the weight is diminished, and conse- quently the muscular power required to support the erect posture, is lessened. But this position, without the sup- port of the back, after a time, becomes too painful to be endured with patience. The sad consequences of long confinement in the sit- ting posture, without any support for the back, have already been described at some length, under another head, but the more we have thought upon, and examin- ed this subject, the more important it appears, and we cannot therefore, in duty to the youth of our country, dismiss it, without some further considerations and re- marks. Causes of Spinal Curvatures. — It is proposed here to trace the effects of the causes to which we have already referred with respect to curvatures of the spine, and to show why certain positions will make this deformity permanent. The spine itself, detached from all other parts, is fig- ured and described at p. 84, Fig. 63, where the light col- ored transverse lines between each two vertebrae, show the cartilages of the spine. These cartilages are in the young subject, about the fourth of an inch in thickness, and are compressible, and elastic like pieces of India rubber. Were it not so, the spine would be rigid, and, unyielding as though it was formed of one continued piece of bone. Its motions therefore are in consequence of the elasticity of these cartilages, so that when the spine is bent, one of their sides, or edges, are compressed more than the other. In the night, when we take the recumbent posture, and there is no pressure on the spinal column, these elastic plates swell and become thickened, but their thickness is again reduced by the weight of the body during the day, and especially in laborers who carry weights on their heads. The diurnal difference in the thickness of each cartilage, from these causes, it is true, is very slight, but their number is such, as to make an • ' 'V;^...^:.. 284 APPENDIX. appreciable difference in the length of the column at dif- ferent times. In young persons, the elasticity is much greater than in the aged, these parts gradually harden- ing with the years a person lives, until the spine finally looses a great proportion of its flexibility, and in these circumstances, there is very little diurnal difference in the length of the column. But in youthful persons, the difference in the length, especially if they are tall, be- tween morning and evening, may be from half, to a quar- ter of an inch, and may be found by the common mode of measuring. Thus do we grow taller during the night, and shorter during the day. Now these cartilages, being thus compressible and elastic, in young persons, but gradually hardening with age, it is plain, that if one edge, or side, in such a one be pressed more than the other, and this pressure be continued for any considerable length of time, they will not grow of a uniform thickness, the part thus pressed becoming thinner, and the opposite part thicker than natural. Without reference to growth, the same effect would be produced by the pressure of, and the gradual hardening of these parts. Therefore, if the spinal col- umn be bent into any unnatural shape, and the same pos- ture be continued day after day, and month after month, as is too often the case with young ladies at school, the cartilagious plates will finally become wedge shaped, having a thick and a thin edge, and as they harden with age, they will continue to operate as wedges in retain- ing the spine in that crooked state by which they were forced into this form : and thus the person will probably become deformed for the remainder of her life, in spite of all the frames, pullies, and weights, or other Procrus- tean apparatus, which may be applied to remedy the evil. This effect would be produced in such persons as had not arrived at the age, when the cartilages become hard. But in those who are quite young, as from infancy to 12, or 14 years, even the bones of the spinal column being still comparatively soft, would conform more or lass, to the curvature given it, thus making a deformity from which there is not the slightest hope of relief, since SITTING. 285 the great beam of the whole fabric has thus become permanently misshapen. Sitting postures described. — It might perhaps be con- sidered unnecessaiy to give any instructions on the most comfortable manner of sitting, it being a natural suppo- sition that every one would 'consult their own experi- ence in this respect. And yet, it may be the case, that a few observations and experiments on this subject will be the means of diminishing the pain of those who are for any considerable time confined to this position, and thus avoid some of the evils which might otherwise arise from it. The sitting posture, it will be found, soon becomes painful, and is maintained with difficulty when the infe- rior portion of the spinal column is bent inwards, and the arms are thrown back, with an erect position of the neck and head. Even when the spine is supported by a back, as in a chair, this posture becomes uneasy, be- cause the dorsal muscles, and those of respiration also, are kept in an unnecessary state of action. This position will be understood by Fig. 131. Fig. 131. Fig. 132. The most comfortable posture in sitting, is that which at once relaxes the muscles of the back and those of respiration — the inferior portion of the spine being gen- tly curved but not made crooked ; while the upper part is nearly straight, with the neck a little inclined, so as to 286 APPENDIX. relax the muscles supporting the head. This position is represented by Fig. 132. A little experience, with these suggestions in view, will teach the pupil, it is hoped, to preserve a healthful and becoming position at school, without assuming the leaning posture, the consequences of which are so per- nicious. LEANING POSTURE. One posture which school girls are exceedingly apt to take, is that of leaning forward, and placing the elbow on the desk for support ; and this they often do, even when their seats are provided with backs. This pos- ture, if continued so as to form a habit, will often show its effects on all occasions, the young lady having such a disposition to lean as to indulge it when any support happens to be near where she sits, let the place, or com- pany be what it may. Such a one will lean, with the hand supporting the head, when at home, on a table, or window stool, or any other convenient lolling place, for hours together. Where the spine is weak, in a growing girl, and there is predisposition to curvature, there is no posture that she can take, which is so unfortunate, and will produce such a complication of deformities as this ; for if it is continued in one direction, which is commonly the case, the consequences will be a curvature of the lower part of the spine, together with one high, and one low hip ; one high, and one low shoulder ; and a crooked neck. The general deformity, thus induced, is however, of- ten most apparent in the shoulder blades, one of which is sometimes thrown so far out of place, as to give it the appearance of absolute dislocation, and which indeed, is the case, when compared with its mate. Fig. 133. The other deformities which we have mentioned as arising from the same cause, may in some degree be con- cealed, or qualified by means of stays, extra padding, coussinets, and other efforts of the milliner's skill, wdth which we profess no acquaintance. But the dislocated shoulder blades, especially when they are uncovered, LEANING POSTURE. 287 seem to defy all the arts of the most profound dress-ma- ker, for neither stays, nor buckram, nor foundation mus- Fig. 133. liri, nor padding, can hide, but seem rather to magnify this deformity ; at least humanity would hope so, when the eye beholds how great it still remains, under the ap- parent use of all these remedies. Far be it from us to speak with unkindness, or levi- ty on a subject which but too often calls for commisera- tion, and gravity. But when we see those, who might, perad venture, have passed, as specimens of symmetrical form among the fairest, and most charming of the Crea- tor's works, unveiling deformities, (no matter what might have been their origin,) merely for the sake of rivalry in the extent of the fashion, we cannot but lament in such, the want of common discretion, common prudence, or common modesty — for did these unfortunates but know how such revelations sometimes affect the minds, and perhaps even the hearts of those whose kindness and good esteem they cannot but value, they certainly would have sacrificed less to fashion, and more to de- cency and discretion. It is not pretended that curved spines, and deformed shoulders, are caused only, by the leaning posture above 288 APPENDIX. described, or that every one who even habitually takes that posture, will eventually become crooked. But in slender, delicately formed females, from the ages of from 12 to 14, who are confined eight or ten hours per day in the school room, with no other exercise, than a walk along the street, with their teachers, such a pos- ture habitually indulged in, will most surely produce deformities to a greater, or less extent. The Hindoo devotees who hold their arms above their heads as a penance, are often compelled to carry them so during the remainder of their lives, the parts conforming to this position. A highly observant, and accomplished teacher, who has spent more than twenty years in the instruction of females, informs the author, that he has long been aware of the distorting consequences of this posture, and that he could remember numerous instan- ces, of crooked spines and dislocated shoulder blades from this cause : — and that although these very pupils were nearly every day warned of the consequences of such a habit, yet, not seeing, or feeling any ill effects from it themselves, they would carelessly indulge in it, until the posture became so natural, as to set all the common means of prevention at naught, and thus distortion fol- lowed of course. Now if the young lady will give no attention to the mandates or remonstrances of her instructor, or parent, there is little hope of preventing her indulgence in this, or any other pernicious habit, and such, therefore, must be left to the reward of their own doings. But in most instances, it cannot but be hoped and believed, that those who are aware of the sad consequences of this habit, both in respect to personal form and health, whether they become so, by reading these observations, or otherwise, will take warning in due time, and thus escape that deformity which is now but too common among our best educated females. DRESS ANOTHER SOURCE OF DEFORMITY. There is, or at least has been, another cause of dis- torted shoulders besides that above described, and the DRESS ANOTHER SOURCE OP DEFORMITY. 289 effects of which, are in a great number of instances ap- parent, and will remain so during the present genera- tion. This is the recent fashion of dressing so wide across the neck as to leave one, or perhaps both the acromion processes, or shoulder tips, in a state of entire nudity. The young lady, it is true, had the power, by muscu- lar action, of hiding a part of one shoulder at a time, but the dress, if in good fashion, could never be made to cov- er both these processes, except alternately, though it was quite easy to leave both uncovered. The consequence of this fashion was, that, judging from the perpetual mo- tion of these parts, the wearer constantly felt as though her dress was in danger of slipping down, and which she made as constant efforts to prevent, or to ascertain by feeling with the shoulder whether this was the case, or not, until these motions became habitual, and therefore insensible. As the dress was designed to cover only one shoulder at the same time, this partiality, (for which shoulder it was intended, we know not,) was always ex- tended to the same one, because habit made it most nat- ural and comfortable ; consequently the pressure on the two sides became unequal, and the wearer to counter- act this, or from the unnatural, or uneasy feeling conse- quent upon confining one side, while its antagonist re- mained free, constantly, and habitually elevated one shoulder while the other remained stationary, until the former became permanently higher than the latter. Although this (without using any other epithet,) per- nicious fashion, we believe, is chiefly done away, at least among the fashionables, its consequences still re- main, as many a monument of its existence can testify ; and therefore, we hope it will not be considered imper- tinent, or improper to record its history and consequen- ces, that mothers may be aware of both, when its turn, in the never ending cycle of costumal changes, shall again come round. Fashionable Deformity. — The vast number of instan- ces, in which the causes, already mentioned, or those which we shall hereafter notice, have occasioned female deformity, most of which might have been prevented, is 25 290 APPENDIX. a subject of very serious consideration, for besides the personal defects thus induced, these causes, or their con- sequences, often produce derangement in the functions of the viscera, which in their turn, superinduce either consumptions, or other lingering diseases, which it is ex- ceedingly difficult, or impossible to remedy, and which therefore end in death. In cities, personal deformity, among the higher class- es has become so common, that it seems to form a char- acteristic of the age in which we live. A few years since, and perhaps even at the present time, such was the prevalence of curved spines among those females who gave tone to the fashions, that it actually became the ton to be crooked, and many fashionables, who had escaped any misfortune in this respect, contrived to give the upper part of their spinal columns a gentle curve, so as to imitate the fashionable stoop, of these female ex- quisites. And in many instances where there was not the least intention of becoming permanently deformed, but only to be in the fashion for the season, this genteel stoop became a habit, and nature not liking such imposi- tions, has taken these poor devotees at their word, and having formed the cartilages of their back bones into wedges, has forever prevented their regaining that noble position which it was intended that man alone, among all created beings, should assume. These are therefore doomed to continue in one, and the same fashion, for the remainder of their lives. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON THE MUSCLES OF THE BACK. It is well known to physiologists, that if pressure be made, and continued on any part of the system, the part so pressed will be gradually diminished in conse- quence. Thus if one limb be tightly bandaged, for a length of time, it will become smaller* than the other. To understand the reason of this, it is necessary to state, that every part of the system is furnished with two sets, or kinds of vessels, called the capillaries, one set being designed to secrete, or produce ; and the other to absorb, or remove; and that in the living animal, both EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON THE MUSCLES. 291 kinds are constantly performing their opposite functions. The flesh, and all the other parts of the body, are formed by the secretory system, which consists of the fine ex- tremities of the arteries. We have already explained the manner in which the food is converted into chyle by the process of digestion, and now this is conveyed into the circulation, to be converted into blood. Now it is from the blood thus formed, that the secreting vessels produce all the different kinds of substance of which the several parts of the animal system are composed, one division forming flesh, another cartilage, and another bone, &c. All the fluids are also formed by appropriate organs belonging to the same system. Thus one set produce tears, another saliva, and another bile, and soon. On the contrary, the absorbent system takes up, and conveys from one part to another, the various fluids which are either employed in the process of secretion, or which being secreted in some cavity, or on some in- ternal surface, and having performed its office, is to be conveyed out of the body. Thus, the absorbents suck up the chyle by millions of mouths, and carry it to the thoracic duct, through which it is delivered into the cir- culation. They also absorb the superabundant moisture which is secreted in every interior part of the body, and consequently, did they cease to act, this watery fluid would accumulate, and a universal dropsy would en- sue. This disease, as it occurs, is owing to the defi- cient action of the absorbents. It is the o'ffice therefore of the secreting system, to produce and deposite the matter composing all the dif- ferent organs, and fluids of the body ; while the absor- bents in their turn, take up and carry away, by slow, and insensible degrees, the matter thus deposited. Such being the appropriate functions of these two great systems of vessels, which are distributed to every part of the animal frame, it is plain that the identical particles of which we are composed, are perpetually changing, and that in this respect we are not the same individuals now that we were formerly, nor will our bod- ies at a future time, contain a particle of the identical matter which they do at this moment, 292 APPENDIX. In childhood, and youth, when the frame is growing, the secretion is greater than the absorption ; — in adults, and the middle-aged, the effects of the two systems are just equal, there being the same quantity of matter ab- sorbed, that there is secreted ; but in old age the absorp- tion is greater than the secretion, and hence the weight and dimensions of the body are diminished, and the skin, instead of preserving its tension, as formerly, becomes wrinkled, in consequence of the loss of a part of the bulk which it covers. Thus, during one portion of our lives, we increase in size and vigor, until having arrived at maturity, we re- main for a time stationary in both ; and then, lastly, hav- ing passed through these two stages, we begin impercep- tibly in both, to diminish, the animal functions gradually becoming more and more feeble, until one after another they cease to act entirely, when life gives place to death. These are the immutable laws which govern all created beings, and which therefore no human means can resist. All flesh must return to dust. APPLICATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES. In applying these principles to the use of stays, it is almost unnecessary to say, that during the growth of the system, pressure, on any of its parts, though it may be in- considerable in force, yet if long continued, will prevent their increase ; and this, not only for want of room to expand, but also by interfering with the function of the secreting system in that part. A lamentable illustration of the practical use of this principle, is seen in the feet of the Chinese ladies ; which being confined in iron shoes from infancy to the age of sixteen, or eighteen, they re- main infant's feet ever afterwards, though terminating the extremities of the aged. But, besides this obvious effect of confinement during the growth of the system, it is well known that in the adult, as well as in the young, pressure will also diminish any part on which it is made, as already stated at the commencement of these observations. Not only the soft, or fleshy portions of the system may be thus ab- APPLICATION OP THESE PRINCIPLES. 293 sorbed and removed, but even the bones do not resist the power of these minute vessels, portions of their solid parts being sometimes carried away by their action. — Thus the enlargement of the aorta, or great artery, (which passes down the spine,) by a disease called ane- urism, sometimes, pressing against the interior sides of the ribs, cause the entire destruction and removal of the parts thus pressed. We have seen an instance, where several inches of three, or four of the lower ribs, next to the spine, on the left side, were entirely removed from this cause ; leaving a soft chasm, where the pulsation of the aneurism was frightfully apparent, both to the sight and touch. In the anatomical collection of Sir Charles Bell, there is preserved a specimen, showing the destruc- tion of the lateral parts of four spinal vertebrae, from tha same cause. Indolent tumors, caused by diseased action of the part, are often reduced, and sometimes cured by pressure on the part, which in these cases is employed as a curative means. But it is unnecessary to quote more practical examples of the fact, that pressure will both prevent the growth, and diminish the bulk of any part of the living system on which it is made. This fact is indeed so com- mon, that inveterate snuffers, who always carry a pinch between the thumb and finger, often acquire a little cav- ity in the ball of the former, where they keep this bane- ful luxury. The pressure of stays around the waist, it is quite clear from the foregoing principles, must in youth, and while the system is growing, prevent the full develop- ment of the muscles of the back, by presenting an imped- iment to their increase of bulk ; and if not assumed until the system has nearly, or quite attained its full size, as at the age of sixteen or nineteen, still the consequences may be equally pernicious, since the form, in this case, will probably be supposed to require a degree of tension in the lacing cords, somewhat proportionate to the time they have been delayed. The effect will therefore be to increase the absorption, and diminish the secretion of the parts pressed upon, and thus to reduce the bulk, and consequently, the strength and vigor of the muscles. Now the spinal column is chiefly supported in the 25* 294 APPENDIX* erect position by the strong muscles of the back, called the dorsal muscles ; and if these, by any means, are di- minished in bulk, or vigor, the spine will inevitably be- come distorted ; and as we have shown that tight lacing produces the first effect, so it is equally certain that the last will follow. Thus the very means which a great proportion of the ladies of the present day, take to give themselves little waists, and consequently, as they conceive, inviting forms, become a deception, because it is a wicked interference with the laws of nature ; and instead of producing the desired effect, in many instan- ces at least, actually transforms them into crooked, dis- gusting objects ; and in the sequel we shall see other con- sequences equally unfortunate from the same cause. A mother who begins to corset her child at the age of ten or twelve years, intending to present to the world a few years hence, the u works of her own hands," mod- ified and moulded according to her skill and taste, often finds that at the age of fourteen, or sixteen, she begins to " eat chalk," look pale, and grow crooked. To reme- dy the first, she detains her at home, lest she should ex- pose herself by going into the air, especially if the sea- son is cool ; but finding that under this treatment, she becomes listless, and paler still, she consults the family physician, who very judiciously prescribes iron, and oth- er tonics, according to art. The crook of the spine, the mother undertakes to man- age by her own skill, not letting the doctor know that any thing is wrong in that respect ; but only that the girl is growing tall so fast, that she has hardly strength to keep herself straight — so that the most important part of the case is kept out of sight, and not prescribed for. The kind parent begins by procuring a more substan- tial support for the back of her daughter, in the form of new stays, and which are made to order, with directions to insert an extra quantity of whale bone, and steel ; and perhaps this instrument of torture is padded at cer- tain points, so as to press with special force on that part of the spine which is most distorted, with the good in- tention of forcing it to its proper place. The means of cure being thus provided, they are put in their proper place, and the cords drawn with a force, in some degree APPLICATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES. 295 proportionate to the affection of the mother, and the amount of the deformity which it is intended thus to ob- viate. But contrary to the anxious expectations of the family, the evil not only continues, but increases ; and paleness, emaciation, loss of appetite, and general debili- ty supervene, notwithstanding the stays are tightened, and the tonics are repeated, with a liberal hand. But it is needless to pursue the details of such a picture. Tt would in many instances lead us down to a premature grave, and we willingly leave the closing scene to those whose duties call them to witness it. In such cases as we have above described, (and we leave it to any city practitioner in our country, whether such do not often occur,) the use of tight lacing, wheth- er the patient has been habituated to stays, or corsets, from her childhood, or not, is productive of the worst consequences. The muscles of the back have already been so diminished, and debilitated by pressure, as to be unable to support the spine, otherwise there would have been no need of adding stronger stays ; and in this condi- tion, a little reflection ought to show that the offending cause should be instantly removed, or at least relaxed so as to allow the muscles free action ; and that this, with country air, time, and exercise, would afford the most reasonable hope of cure. But by increasing the pres- sure, the healthy action of the muscles is entirely super- ceded, and a condition at least bordering on palsy of the part, is induced, and thus the intended remedy increas- es, and confirms the distortion. That these are some of the consequences which fol- low such attempts to produce fine forms, and to cure curved spines, could have been inferred from physiolo- gical principles ; but without depending on inferences, almost every person of common observation has seen a sufficient number of living witnesses, to convince him that thousands of such cases, or at least cases of female deformity, do exist. No fashionable dress maker will deny, that one in four or five of her customers, among what are called first rate young ladies, do not require padding, or stuf- fing, on one part or another, in order to conceal some deformity, or make one side equal with the other. 296 APPENDIX. Now we have nothing to do with the mere extrava- gances, or follies, if they exist, of the female costume of the present day ; our design being to speak only of such fashions, or habits of dressing, as produce deformities, and disease : and in this respect, and on this subject, there are facts so common, and so deplorable, that they ought to induce thousands to raise their voices, and their authority, against the practices to which their origin is plainly to be traced. EFFECTS OF TIGHT LACING UPON THE LUNGS. It is true, that while the bones of animals are in a soft and pliable state, which is always the case when they are young, their natural forms may be modified, or moulded into almost any shape. Even the head, togeth- er with its contents, that noblest of all created organs in a reasoning being, can be changed from its natural form, to a parallelogram, or cube, as the customs of the Flat- headed Indians abundantly prove. Nor are we aware that this change produces any evil, either to the bodily health, or intellectual faculties ; and since our design, as already declared, is only to condemn those fashions which by producing deformities, or otherwise, tend to shorten life, or produce disease, we should have nothing to say against the fashion of moulding the cranium into any form which the taste of the age might propose, if in- deed no bad effects followed. But if our female readers will examine the trunk of the human skeleton, represented at fig. 95, and observe in what manner the five lower ribs are attached, and how readily, in the young subject especially, they would so yield to the force of a tight band, as greatly to dimin- ish the cavity they were intended to maintain ; and also remember that this cavity contains the vital organs, the heart and lungs, neither of which will endure pressure with impunity — we think that on contrasting this with fig. 137, they can hardly avoid the conclusion, that other sad consequences must follow the use of tight lacing, be- sides the deformities we have described. EFFECTS OF TIGHT LACING. 297 It is shown by fig 96, and its description, that the lungs are always in contact with the diaphragm, and that they completely fill the cavity of the chest on each side of the heart ; this cavity cannot therefore be dimin- ished, without exerting a direct pressure on the organs of respiration. It is further shown, p. 156, that the lungs are compos- ed of a tissue of blood, and air vessels, of such extreme tenuity, that the latter have been computed to amount to nearly two hundred millions in number, forming a sur- face of many hundred feet in extent ; and that the blood vessels are equally numerous, presenting a surface simi- larly extensive. And, however incredible it may ap- pear, the whole extent of these two surfaces, thus pre- sented to each other, and by means of which a vital pro- cess is effected, without which we could not live a mo- ment, is still contained within the narrow spaces occupied by the lungs ; each of which do not exceed a foot in one direction, and six or eight inches in the other. Now who believes, that organs so " wonderfully and fearfully made," — so frail and delicate in their structure, as to present tissues of circulating vessels scarcely ex ceeding a spider's web in size, will permit such an abuse, as to be compressed into one third, or even one half their natural dimensions, without some punitive infliction on those who have the temerity to offer such violence to nature. The first effect produced by compressing the lungs, will be a want of due oxygenation of the blood ; because many of these minute vessels must thereby be closed against the admission, both of the air, and the circulating fluid. By a reference to the article "Circulation," p. 134, it may be seen that in the Amphibia, only one half of the blood circulates through the lungs ; and that in the Fish- es, there is no aorta by which it is carried to the different parts of the system, as in other animals. The quantity of blood in the latter is also exceedingly small, when compared with that of other animals of the same size. In the amphibious animals, therefore, the circulating flu- id consists of one half arterial, and the other half venous blood ; and on this account, these tribes are cold-blood- 298 APPENDIX. ed, torpid, and almost without feeling. In the fishes, the small quantity of the circulating fluid, the want of an aor- ta to give it velocity to the different parts of the body, and the minute quantity of air the water contains; all conspire to keep the temperature of these animals down to that of the element in which they live, and to give their flesh a pallid hue, so different from the florid com- plexion of that of the Mammalia. It is true that the organization of these animals, is un- doubtedly well fitted to their conditions, and the places they were intended to occupy in the scale of creation. But we find, as we rise in this scale, that the organs of animals become more perfect, and that in the Mamma- lia, and man, the respiratory apparatus is so complete, as ' to expose the whole mass of blood to the influence of the atmosphere ; and that the circulating system is such as to propel the vital fluid with great force and rapidity, to every part of the frame ; and hence it is, that these animals differ so materially from those in which the res- piratory function is less perfect, and the circulation less rapid and vigorous. In the former we find a tempera- ture of 98° or 100° at all seasons, instead of a death-like coldness ; and a high degree of vigor and vivacity, with a red muscular fibre, instead of torpor, insensibility, and white flesh, as in the latter. Now if these very remarkable differences are in any considerable degree dependent on the quantity of oxy- gen, which the different races consume by the process of respiration, and which the facts we have detailed would seem to prove beyond all doubt ; then is it not as clear, that by compressing the lungs so as to prevent the ordinary supply of oxygen in respiration, that the vigor of the circulation, which depends on that process, must gradually be diminished ; and that paleness, torpor, list- lessness, and gradual emaciation, from poverty of the blood, and a consequent want of a healthy secretion, must be the consequences ? • It is quite certain that all these consequences, in very numerous instances, follow excessive lacing in young fe- males ; and from the hurried, and laborious respiration, which those exhibit who are undergoing the process of being moulded into a fashionable form, there cannot be EFFECTS OF TIGHT LACING. 299 a doubt but the aeration of the blood is defective ; and hence the necessity of the quick and unnatural inspira- tions, in order to maintain the circulation, which would cease the moment the air ceased to act upon it. These devotees, besides betraying their sufferings by a quick- ened respiration, shew also by the livid color of the lips, that the blood is not sufficiently decarbonized; or is not completely changed from the dark venous, to the light arterial. (See p. 157.) It cannot be supposed by those who will reflect upon the subject, that the laws of the animal economy can be thus disregarded, for any considerable length of time, without inducing the most disastrous consequences to the general health and constitution. Every one knows that air is the pabulum of life, and that a free, pure at- mosphere, is absolutely necessary for vital and muscular energy. Whoever, therefore, interrupts the free ingress of air to the lungs, besides the injury which will follow to the organs themselves, does the same, in effect, as to create a vitiated atmosphere for her own use ; since in both cases, a full supply of oxygen is equally wanting, and in both, the consequences are the same. Those, therefore, who create by stays, corsets, or oth- erwise, such a continued pressure on the lungs as to in- terfere with their regular and appropriate functions, may expect sooner or later, to suffer either sudden death by apoplexy, disability by palsy, or at least, a gradual decay of the constitution, attended witji fetid breath, affections of the lungs, liver, or other viscera, and which will terminate in the prostration, and final extinction of all the powers of life. Pulmonary Consumption in consequence of pressure on the Lungs. — It is most probable, that when a degree of pressure is made on the lungs sufficient to bring the fine tissue of vessels, of which they are composed, into such a state of collapse, as to prevent the ingress of air, and the circulation of the vital fluid, that the portions so pressed suffer a slight degree of inflammation, in con- sequence of which, they adhere into masses, more or less solid, thus closing them entirely, and preventing ever af- terwards, though the pressure may be removed, the full 300 APPENDIX. and healthful aeration of the blood. From this cause there would arise all the consequences which come from living in a vitiated atmosphere, or from breathing air which contains, perhaps, only one half the usual quanti- ty of oxygen, as above explained. In such cases, it is possible, thjit no other effect on the lungs themselves may follow ; the subject gradually declining from general de- bility, and such poverty of the blood as to allow of no healthy secretions, and thus sink down to the grave with- out the usual symptoms of pulmonary consumption. Such may be said literally, " to die for want of breath ;" not however, stopped by " the destroying" but the self- destroying angel, if indeed angels ever assist on such occasions. It is perhaps singular, that this state of the lungs often betrays itself by an offensive breath, without ulceration, a designed infliction, perhaps, on those who thus vio- late nature's laws. But if nature is sometimes slow in resenting, and avenging the insults offered her, and allows some to live on for years who habitually vio- late her laws, others are brought to speedy account for such temerity ; for it is well known that blood-spitting, hectic fever, and finally all the concomitants of consump- tion of the lungs, follow excessive lacing, many of which terminate in a short period. Healthy females, who have no family predisposition, and who begin this practice late in life, as from eighteen to twenty, are not so apt to suffer as those who have such a predisposition, and are laced from their childhood. In the former, however, the most pernicious conse- quences sometimes follow, as where a fine healthy coun- try girl, who never had been laced, happens to visit her fashionable cousins in town ; and who of course, will not be seen in the streets with her, in such a countrified shape. The poor girl must therefore be literally screw- ed into the city form, before she is allowed to " see com- pany ;" and having perhaps a capacious chest, such as nature formed, and this being composed of a bony frame- work, it is impossible to bring it within the compass of the fashionable mould, without lapping the ends of the ribs either over or under the breast bone. EFFECTS OF TK3HT LACING. 301 This effect follows in numerous instances, attended with a hard projection on one side of the breast bone, and a hollow on the other ; or the bone itself in other instances, has one of the edges thrown outward and the other turned inward, consequently because the lungs, as already shown, entirely fill the cavity of the chest, one or both of the lobes, besides the general pressure, must suf- fer a local injury from the interior protuberance thus formed. More than one instance of this effect from excessive lacing, has come within the knowledge of the author ; and more than one who reads these observations will ac- knowledge perhaps mentally, the truth of the statements here made, and will be able to bring examples either in themselves or their friends. Dr. Morton9 s case, proving the above assertions. — But since many profess to doubt the injurious consequences of tight lacing on the lungs, at least so far as themselves are concerned, we will here offer an abstfact of a case for the consideration of such ; and which we cannot but hope will be thought worthy of serious notice by our fe- male readers. It is from a work on consumption, by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia. " A lady," says he, " aged thirty-two years, of strong constitution, and good frame, but of a nervous tempera- ment, with dark hair, and brunette complexion, had been for some time under the care of Dr. Hodge, for an attack of severe nervous irritation : when in the absence of that gentleman, I was requested to see her on the 6th of May, 1833. On my arrival I found her dying, and she survived but a few hours. " There was no obvious emaciation, but the thorax was contracted by a depression of the breast bone, so as to reduce the diameter between it and the spine. On removing the pectoral muscles, the five or six superior ribs were observed to be considerably depressed at their extremities, where the cartilages joined them to the sternum, and at which point there was a remarkable an- gle which protruded into the thorax. The left lung ad- hered at its apex, at which point the pleura, [the mem- brane covering the interior of the ribs,] was deeply con- 26 302 APPENDIX. tracted, or puckered. Within was observed a rounded white mass, about an inch in diameter, composed of lit- tle grains of a cartilaginous firmness : this was obvious- ly a cicatrized [healed] abscess, and in its centre were two or three crude tubercles, [the commencement of suppurative ulcers.] The remainder of the lung was perfectly healthy. "The right lung, like the left, adhered at the apex, where the pleura was also deeply sunk, and puckered ; beneath one of these plications was the remains of an old, but very small abscess, half filled with granular mat- ter, like that in the other lung, excepting that it was of a darker color ; the remainder of the abscess was in a suppurative state, and contained yellow matter. Close by were the evidences of a second cavity, of the size of a filbert, but perfectly filled, and consolidated by white granular matter, precisely like that of the left lung. The other parts were healthy. " The unexpected morbid appearances of the lungs," says Dr. Morton, " induced me to inquire into the pre- vious history of the patient, when I was informed by a near relative, that in early life she had habituated herself to excessive tight lacing ; but although she had never ex- perienced any obvious ill effects from this practice, she had of lateryears discontinued the practice, from a con- viction of its injurious tendency." " It seems probable, therefore," he continues, " all cir- cumstances considered, that the lungs became tubercu- lous and cavernous from the irritation of mechanical pressure ; but on the latter being removed the morbid secretion ceased, and the cavities became cicatrized and obliterated in the manner just mentioned. Can there be a doubt that if this lady had persisted in the unnatural confinement of her respiratory organs, the tuberculous disease would have extended, the abscesses enlarged, and the disease become a fatal malady ? The predisposition to puthisis [consumption] being slight, it was suspended by the removal of the exciting mechanical cause ; show- ing what important results physical education may pro- duce on the human frame.*" * Illustrations of Consumption, by Samuel George Morton. M. D., &c. &c. pp. 99. Key & Biddle, Philadelphia, 1834. EFFECTS OF TIGHT LACING. 303 Says Dr. Reid, " Very straight lacing, and straining for a fine shape, hath made many a fine girl spit blood, and ruined the lungs by preventing a full and free respi- ration." On Consumption, p. 99. Now since the practice of tight lacing, if not universal, is at least exceedingly common, and as the remains of comparatively few who die of diseases of the lungs are submitted to post mortem examination, it is impossible to give any conjecture of the number who destroy them- selves in this way. But I have no doubt that the ladies themselves, to a considerable extent, will agree with me in believing, that hundreds, nay thousands, of females literally kill themselves every year by this fashion in our own country : and if suicide is a crime, how will such escape in the day of final account ? We have represented by figures 134 and 135 the dif- ference between a natural human skeleton, and one in Fig. 134. Fig. 135. which the pressure of stays has pushed the front ends of the ribs inwards, bending the soft cartilages, so as to make them form acute angles outwards. It will be ob- vious to those who will reflect on this subject, even only for a moment, that the ribs cannot possibly sustain the force often applied to them in the process of forming a slim waist, in a girl of eighteen, without yielding in one direction or another ; otherwise, and if the circumfer- ence remained the same, no difference would be made in the size of the chest, except that resulting from the compression of the fleshy fibres by which it is covered ; 304 APPENDIX. and this certainly is not sufficient to account for the ef- fects actually produced. If we undertake to diminish the circumference of a hoop, we shall find it impossible to do so, without having the ends where the circle is joined shoot by, or lap over each other. The lower ribs, the cartilages of which join the breast bone obliquely, leaving a space between their ends, may be pressed so as to diminish the circumference, by forcing these parts inward upon the lungs, without producing this effect ; but the upper ribs, which are continued directly forward to the breast bone, by their cartilages, cannot have their circumferences shortened without doubling these parts upon their ends. The consequence of this will be, that these ends, on one side or the other, must project inward upon the lungs, as shown in the case dissected by Dr. Morton, and stated above. The diminution of capacity in Fig. 135, when com- pared with 134, is not nearly so great as we believe act- ually takes place in many instances of tight lacing, the figure being made to show the displacement of parts in the skeleton, by that process, rather than the extent of its effects, MORTALITY BY CONSUMPTIVE DISEASES. In Great Britain it is estimated that 50,000 persons die annually of consumption. In the the city of New York, the whole number of deaths of all ages and diseases, in five years, namely, from the beginning of 1829 to the end of 1834, was 31,822, making a yearly average of 6364. Now it is known by the reports of the Inspector, that nearly one in five of the mortality of that city are of con- sumption, in one form or another, which would give the number of 1272 per year who die of this disease in that city alone. The cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston present similar bills of mortality from the same cause; and these bills also show that much the largest proportion of these are females. But there is no reason to believe that females are, from their organization, any more predisposed to consumption than the males. How then shall we account for the difference of mortality PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. 305 from this disease, but by attributing it to a mode of dress, which no one will deny does in many instances, at least, not only create such a predisposition, but actually and obviously brings on the disease; and from which the males, even of the same families, escape, by using a dress which allows the functions of the lungs to be con- tinued agreeably to the laws of the animal economy, and the design of the Creator. PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. It is no part of the plan of this work to point out the methods of cure proposed, and practiced by surgeons and physicians, for the various deformities and other affections, in young females, consequent upon the causes wrhich have been noticed in the foregoing pages. And yet, we can hardly avoid saying a few words on this subject for the purpose of showing young ladies what terrible remedies are employed for these deformities, and how difficult it is to cure them, even in their incipi- ent stages. This we do as a warning to those who are still in the enjoyment of their natural forms, not to make use of any of the means, or indulge themselves in any of the habits which we have described as the causes of such evils. And also, as a caution to mothers, how they en- courage their young daughters in tight lacing for the sake of procuring genteel forms, lest thereby they should thus become the authors of disgusting diseases which art never can remedy, instead of the fine shapes which they expect will be so much admired and coveted. The attempts heretofore most commonly made to cure curved spines have been by means of various ma- chines, consisting of beams, bars, pullies, ropes, screws, inclined planes, straps and buckles, more or less of which are combined, and applied in different ways, according to the nature of the case, or the skill of the mechanic by whom these machines are employed. The late Mr. Shaw, a surgeon of reputation in Lon- don, who has written a treatise on the cure of curved spines, says that it is the practice of some to keep young girls afflicted with this disease in a horizontal position, for months, and even for years, " without intermission" 26* Jr 306 APPENDIX. Stretching machines are also employed, which, by means of straps passing under the chin, and around the back of the head, keep the spine in a continued state of tension. Nearly the whole weight of the body is sus- pended by the straps, and thus are often used, until the chin becomes ulcerated, and the countenance perma- nently deformed, in consequence of their pressure on these parts. Another invention for the same purpose consists of complicated machinery fitted to the back, and which the miserable sufferer is doomed constantly to wear. With respect to one of these, Mr. Shaw says, " I could not have believed (had I not seen the fact) that with the most determined resolution to endure pain, any person would have submitted to the punishment of carrying such a machine on the back for twelve months." Of the stretching chair, another apparatus for straight- ening young spines, Mr. Shaw says, " the windlass by which the crane is elevated, and to which the patient's head is proposed to be attached, is so powerful that it might almost tear the head from the body." For the same purpose the rope and pulley is not only used, so as to raise the patients from the ground by the chin, but to keep them thus suspended for some time. " Until," says Mr. Shaw, "I saw several patients under- go this experiment, I could not believe that it was ever put into practice ;-. for it is quite obvious that while a child is suspended by the chin, the ligaments of the neck must be stretched to a dangerous degree." On exam- ining girls who had been daily swung up for months,, in this manner, the same writer found, that the muscles passing from the head to the neck, were so increased in size, as to make a new species of deformity. It ought, however to be understood, that these are the methods employed by quacks and irregular practition- ers for the cure of distorted spines, and that most of them are condemned by well educated physicians. In this country similar machines are made use of for the same purpose, and with what success the patients and their friends are the best judges. It is certain, however, that the patient, as well as her friends, are often deceived by an apparent cure, when the disease and distortion are PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. 307 only confirmed and increased by this kind of treatment. The spine it is true may be stretched into shape, by screws and pullies, but if the muscles of the back are pressed, or their action superseded by the machinery, the cure will be found to last no longer than the machine is employed, and when this is removed the curvature will gradually return, and probably become worse than before, because the muscles by inaction are still less able to support it in the erect position than when such treatment commenced. A variety of other machines besides those above mentioned, have been invented and are employed for the same purpose, both in Europe and in our own coun- try. One of these is constructed for the express pur- pose of forcing the vertebrae into their places, under the mistaken notion that in certain cases of distorted spines these bones are dislocated. There is no doubt but many a sufferer from spinal distortion, through the ignorance of herself, her family, and of the practitioner, have fallen disabled victims to the use of these machines. But perhaps enough has been said on this subject. It is not pretended that want of exercise, improper postures in sitting, and the use of excessive lacing are the sole causes of spinal distortions. On the contrary, these affections are sometimes the consequences of dis- eases which probably no prudence or foresight on the part of the sufferer or her friends could have avoided. But that the greatest proportion of these cases are ow- ing to the causes assigned, those who will examine the subject will have not the least doubt. Girls, from their organization, are no more obnoxious to these affections than boys, but with the exception of rickets, to which both sexes are liable, we may look al- most in vain for a case of spinal distortion among the latter. And besides, if we go into the country, where fashion allows nature, and not art, to mould the female form, arid where the children of both sexes take nearly the same amount of the same kinds of exercise, in the open air, there will be found but little difference in the number of spinal distortions in the two sexes, instances of either being comparatively rare. If, then, parents and school teachers would avoid the 308 APPENDIX. evils in question, they must remember that the first and grand rule in Physical Education is, or ought to be, never to interfere with, or disregard the laws of the ani- mal economy, in the treatment of their children, or pupils. We do not mean by this, that children and scholars are not to be placed under restraint, or that a proper and wholesome degree of discipline is unnecessary or improper. On the contrary, full liberty of person and action during the buoyancy arid inexperience of youth, would lead to opposite consequences, more to be dread- ed than the strictest discipline to which children have ever been subjected. But in no event should the disci- pline of children be such as to interfere with, or counter- act the physiological functions of any portion of their growing systems. And we need not repeat here what we have already spent so many pages in showing, that young animals have a natural propensity to muscular action, and without which, it is impossible they should make well formed and healthy adults. Now the muscles of the spine, in common with those of the other parts of the system, require almost constant exercise in the young, during their waking hours ; and not only so, their inaction, or unnatural contractions, as we have abundantly shown, are peculiarly liable to be attended with the most unfortunate consequences. The peculiar structure of this part, being composed of alter- nate pieces of bone and cartilage, renders it peculiarly liable to grow out of shape in youth, for the reasons al- ready assigned, and when once a distortion of this col- umn commences it is exceedingly difficult to prevent its ruining the symmetry of the form, and still more so to bring it back to its original position. Distortions of this part, indeed, are often so insiduous and gradual, that not a friend, nor even the subject herself is aware of it, until it has made such progress as to be apparent to a com- mon observer. And it will perhaps astonish some of our readers to know, that in our cities probably one in six are thus deformed. To prevent distortions of the spine and shoulders in young females, it may be inferred from the physiological principles we have explained, and the facts we have PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. 309 stated, that it is necessary, first, to avoid tight lacing ; second, to avoid improper positions at school, and cer- tain modes of dress; third, that the seats in the school room should be provided with backs ; fourth, that the time usually occupied in study at school should be di- minished ; and fifth, that the students should be allowed to take abundance of exhilarating exercise, such as nature requires, in the open air. Every seat should be furnished with a back, not how- ever with a narrow strip elevated so as to come across the shoulder blades ; but a continuous support from the bench, to the height of about two feet, and not standing perpendicularly, but curved a little backwards. By such a back the spinal column is properly supported. School rooms ought to be furnished with desks at which the pupils can write in the standing posture. These need not exceed one half, or perhaps one third the number of pupils, and may be used in rotation. Four or five hours per day, spent in close study and recitations, is perhaps as much time as can be employed, to the mental and corporeal advantage of pupils from twelve to sixteen years of age. And young children ought not to be kept in their places more than an hour at a time, after which some little pleasant relaxation should be allowed, and in which the teachers should participate. Every school house for young children should, if pos^ sible, have a play ground, furnished with imple- ments for amusement, adapted to their ages. And seminaries for young ladies should be provided with a romping yard, with a high fence, and a shed on one side, for exercise in bad weather. This should be fur- nished with bows and arrows7*and such other instru- ments of exciting amusement as may be found most agreeable to the ages of the pupils ; and here they should be allowed to enjoy an hour, or half an hour, at proper intervals, several times during the day. If these suggestion are carried into general practice, we cannot but believe that the number of deformed shoulders, crooked spines, pale faces, and consump- tive diseases, would be greatly diminished among our femajes, 310 APPENDIX. Effects of stays on the size, vigor, and health of our species. — Besides the consequences ascribed to the uses of stays, in the foregoing pages, there is another effect to be noticed, which so far as we know has been entirely overlooked, or at least unnoticed, by writers on the subject of Physical Education ; but which the patri- ot and philanthropist cannot but consider as highly im- portant. We mean the effects of tight lacing on our species in a national point of view. It has been shown in the preceding pages, that when any portion of the animal system, and especially the soft parts, are pressed, nature sets herself to work, and be- cause she cannot remove the offending cause, avenges herself of the insult, by removing through the absorbent system, the parts pressed upon, and thus relieves her- self of the injury. Now the glands, or organs which secrete the fluids pe- culiar to the several parts of the system, are particular- ly sensible to injuries of this kind ; and when they occur, nature evinces her resentment by a speedy reduction, or sometimes by the entire removal of the offended organ. In case the gland happens to be one which nature in- tended should be prominent, the continuance of the pres- sure will either prevent its full development, or if al- ready developed, will reduce it to the common level of the surface where it is situated. These are well known physiological facts, of which the physician in his prac- tice, and the common observer in his observations, has undoubtedly seen numerous instances. The class of animals, called Mammalia, as already ex- plained, receives its name from the presence of certain glands, called the lactescent, which are common to all the species, and which are designed to secrete suste- nance, for the continuance of the races to which they severally give existence ; and without such an organiza- tion, no tribe of animals can claim a place in the Natural History arrangement of this most important division of the Animal Kingdom. When this class was formed, the order called Bimana, or two handed, of which order Man is the only species, there was no want of those peculiar qualifications in our race, which constitute membership in it ; but at the pres- PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. 311 ent time, this order, at least in many parts of our coun- try, has lost, in a lamentable degree, and in some speci- mens entirely, those marks by which its individuals once claimed aprominent rank among Mammiferous animals. And if the use of stays, corsets, steel busks, and their ad- juvants, continue to inflict their marks on future genera- tions, as they do on the present, the order Bimana will undoubtedly deserve to lose its place in the Mammalia class : since there will ensue an entire extinction of those natural organs, which form the chief characteristic of this class, and from which its name is derived. The loss of membership among the Mammalia, it is true, is of little importance, except to the naturalist ; but to the patriot, and moralist, the extinction of those prom- inent traits which once distinguished the gender of our species, cannot but create feelings of commisseration, and regret, since such a deformity not only involves a violation of the laws of nature and morality ; the first by suppressing the growth of important parts of the animal system, and the second by the hazard of health and life as a consequence ; but it also inevitably leads to a dete- rioration of the species, with respect to statue, form and constitution. It is true that stays are no recent invention, having been known to the nations of Europe before our fathers and mothers came to these shores ; and therefore it per- haps may be objected that the consequences we have attributed to them, may with the same probability have happened formerly as now. But the construction of this article of dress, though called by the same name, is materially different from what it formerly was, as any one may convince herself by hunting up, and examining those worn by her grandmother. These will be found so constructed, as not in the least to interfere with the expansion of the upper half of the bust ; while those of the present day, it may be presumed from the forms moulded into them, are so made as either to present a barrier of whale bone, and steel, to any unequal expan- sion of the parts which they encompass $ or if any such provision is allowed, it must be rather in the region of the shoulder blades, than in that of the anterior portion of the bust. 312 APPENDIX. The fact, that the female form has undergone a very material change within the last 20 years, and that this change has been caused by the pressure of stays on parts of the system which are of the utmost importance to the nutrition, and consequent growth, and health of our spe- cies, cannot, and will not, be denied by any competent witness. And that we shall become a stinted, puny, and short lived race, -in consequence, it requires no more in- spiration to predict, than it does to foretell that starvation will produce dwarfs in infancy, and emaciation in adults. The effects, indeed, are already visible in the number of pale, dwarfish, and crooked children, which may be seen in the schools and streets of all our cities, and ma- ny of our smaller towns and villages. And whoever, having been interested in the welfare of the rising gen- eration, will contrast, so far as she can recollect, the as- pect of a school composed of both sexes, at the present day, with the appearance of the same number and ages, 15 or 20 years ago, cannot, we think, but be convinced, that there has been a great deterioration in our youth, both in respect to form, size, and healthy looks. And who, we enquire, would not expect to see such a Fig. 136. Fig. 137. Veniis de Medicis. A Modern Lady. change in our race, when they behold such a metamor- phosis in the better half of our species, as to have produ- ced from a stock like that represented by Fig. 136, a PREVENTION OF SPINAL DISTORTION. 313 progeny like that shown by Fig. 137. In the first, the parts which are essential to the nutrition and growth of incipient respiratory beings, are so developed as to in- sure a full supply of lactescent secretion ; while in the second, the corresponding parts present a mere pre- tense, a nullity, a source of starvation, rather than one of sustenance, to the nascent beings, who are so unfortu- nate as to be thrown upon such cotton wool resources of existence. But what possible motive could have induced the fe- males of the present age, and especially those of these United States, (where ultraism in respect to this deform- ity is carried to a much greater extent than in any other country,) what, we ask, could have moved those among us, who have the first care of the species, and who ought to be our examples in moral rectitude and conservative discretion, to have thus deprived themselves of the power of fulfilling one of the very first of nature's laws ? Can it be for the purpose of making themselves more agreeable, and more acceptable to the lords of creation ? Then certainly their motives ought to meet with the law of kindness, and the tortures through which they are willing to pass in order to arrive at perfection — the sym- pathy and commiseration of those for whom such perils are encountered. But whatever motives might have led to a deformity so unnatural, it is certain that the Crea- tor intended, that the " noblest work of his hands," should possess the most perfect forms ; and therefore, except to a depraved and vitiated taste, such forms will ever be most admired, and most acceptable to those for whom they were designed. It is true, that there are parts of our country where the practice of excessive lacing, and therefore its degen- erating consequences, do not exist ; and from whence we are happy to know that many of the daughters of unso- phisticated nature, are transplanted into our cities, there to become the fostering angels of a renovated species. And were it not that such resources still remain, the con- sequences of fashion in all our cities, would have been by far more degenerating than they are at present. Indeed we cannot but believe, that were our large towns walled, and their inhabitants under the necessity of depending 27 314 APPENDIX, on each other for the continuance of our species, that un- der the dominion of the present code of fashions, the human race within their walls would finally, not only be- come perfect Lilliputians in size and mind, but that they would be known to future ages only as a fossil race, the types of which would no where be found on our earth in the recent state. But we must at present leave this subject, we hope, to resume it again in a treatise more particularly directed to Mothers ; and containing a de- tail of facts and circumstances, calculated to enlighten the minds, and touch the feelings of those who have the welfare of their country and their species at heart. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ___ ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS • 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 . 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF • Renewals and recharges may be mad days prior to due date. ^ JUN 2 7 2003 12,000(11/95)