*.* w IHD IA YOL I# , The Indian Forest Records on AlMzzia Lathamii. By £. :.."ole. Vol. IV. Part IV Lam on the Oil Vali >ome San TT^m»iri m TTTyT adras. :>ingh. Forest A Note on Gumhar By A.Rodger, forest Bulletin Ho. 16 1913 Note on Bija Sal or Vengai. By A Rodger. Porest Bulletin lTo.17 Hote on Sain or Sa/ By A. Rodger. Forest Bulletin ITo. 18 llote on Benteak or ICana Wood By A.Rodger. Porest Bulletin #19 ilote on Sand an By A. Rodger. Forest Bulletin #SO Note on Dhaura ortBaVli By A.Rodger 'orest Bulletin # SI ilote on Red Sanders By T.A.Tnitehead Forest Bulletin # 34 Hote on Ba"bul-Acacia ara"bica- By J.D.Haitland Kirwan. Forest Bui '"35 - '• A JT ' c . - Forestry . Main Library VOL. IV. PART !V. THE INDIAN FOREST BY R. S. HOLE, FCH..F.L.S., F.E.S. Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dan. Published by Order of the Government of ledia CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT FEINTING, INDIA Published in January 1913. Price As. 3 or 4d. FOREST RECORDS. 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Manager, Educational Book Depots, Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager, Imperial Book Depot, 63, Chandnev Chauk Street, Delhi.* Manager, East Coast News, Vizagapatam.* Manager, " The Agra Medical Hall and Co- operative Association, Limited" (Successors to A. John & Co., Agra).* T. K. Seetharama Aiyar, Kumbakonam.* Superintendent, Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, Mangalore.* P. Varadachary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell. Printer, etc., 7, South Road, Allahabad.* D. C. Anand & Sons, Peshawar.* * Agents for sale of the Legislative Department publications. 400657 Hole. Note on Alhizzia Lathamii. Frontispiece. Photo.-MechU Dept., Thomason College, Koorkee. Del. D. N. Chaudhari. ALBIZZIA LATHAMII. HOLE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. INTRODUCTION ......... 1 Description ......... 2 Explanation of Plate -*• Distribution .... .....* Notes •* Acknowledgments ........ 4 INDIAN FOREST RECORDS. Vol. IV ] 1912 [ Part IV ALBIZZIA LATHAMII, Bole, 8p. n. By R. S. HOLE, F.C.H., F.L.S, F.E.S., Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Introductio In April 1911, specimens of an Albizzia were sent to Dehra Dun for identification (from the Tinnevelly District of Madras) by Mr. H. A. Latham, Deputy Conservator of Forests. The specimens did not agree with any of the species belonging to the genus, regarding which literature or herbarium material was available at Dehra Dun. On specimens being sent to Kew, Colonel Prain, with reference to them, kindly informed the writer that they " have not been matched with any of the material in Herb. Kew." At the writer's request, Major Gage very kindly compared specimens of this tree with the material in the Calcutta Herbarium and discovered that the plant was there represented by two sheets of the Kew distribution (1866-67) of Wight's Southern Indian specimens under tha No. 898. Both these sheets have been named in manuscript Albizzia oiloratissima, Benth. One of these sheets is a mixture of the true A. odorafissimt and the present plant, the other sheet is this plant entirely. So far as the writer can discover, 94 species appear to have been described in the genus Albizzia up to date, exclu- sive of synonyms and accepting the genus as defined in the Genera Plantarum of Bentham and Hooker (Vol. I, 1865) and more recently by Taubert in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfnmilien (III. 3. 1891). Descriptions of all of these have been carefully checked and it is believed that the present plant is undoubtedly a new and distinct species. [153] 2 Indian Forest Becords. [ VOL. IV The following is the description of this tree : — Albizzia Lathamii, Sole, sp. n. Hitherto confused with A. odoratissima, Benth., from which it differs considerably in leaves, inflorescence, flowers and pod. From the description, appears to be allied to the African A. pallicla, Fourn., from which it differs in fewer, smaller leaflets and in the inflorescence. An unarmed much-branched small tree, as a rule not exceeding 25 ft. in height and 7 in. in diameter. Young shoots tawny-pubescent. Bark of branchlets purplish-red, white-lenticellate. Leaves alternate, evenly 2-pinnate, petiolate. Petiole length 0'2 in. to 1'5 in. pubescent and with a large gland at £ to \ its length from the base. Primary rackis (excluding petiole) 0'3 in. to 3'£ in., long, pubescent and with a gland below the upper 1 to 5 pairs of pinnae. Pinnae opposite, 2 to 7 pairs, 0-5 in. to 2 in. long, pubescent, with, or without, a distinct gland below the upper 1—3 pairs of leaflets. Stipules subulate, O'l in. long, pubescent, deciduous or subpersist- ent. Stipels O. Leaflets — Opposite, subsessile, 4 to 10 pairs. Length 0*1 i%. to 0*55 in., width 0'05 in. to 0*35 in., obliquely oblong, base truncate, apex retuse, rounded on acute. Subcoriaceous. At base 2 — 4 nerved, pinnately- veined above. Midrib central to i of width from upper margin. Lateral nerves 2 — 8, arcuately joined near the margin, with the reticulate venation indistinct above, prominent below. Terminal leaflets large, obovate, base cuneate on upper margin, auricled on lower margin. Easal leaflets small, often oval to elliptic with a central midrib. M'hen young, adpressed-pubescent above and below. When mature, sparsely adpressed-pubescent to glabrescent above, pale and more or less Adpressed-pubescent below, especially on the midrib. Margin ciliate. [ 154 ] PART IV ] R. S. HOLE : On Aibizzia Luthamii. 3 Flower-heads globose, 1 in. to 1| in. in diameter, on pubescent peduncles 0'2 in. to 0'9 in. long. Solitary, or fascicled and 2 — 5 together, usually at the lower leaf- less nodes (often on stunted leafless branches) , Very rarely in the axils of the lower leaves, (a) Flowers, white, distinctly pedicelled, pedicel (b) 0'03 in. — 0'05 in. Calyx tubular-campanulate, valvate, O'l in. — 0'18 in. long, mid- diameter 0 '04 in. — O'OS in., subequally 5-toothed, more or less deeply split on one side, teeth deltoid to lanceolate, 0'2 in. — 0'04 in. long, puberulous or adpressed-pubescent without, especially towards the apex. Corolla infundibuliform, 0-2 in. — 0'3 in. long, subequally 5-lobed, lobes valvate, lanceolate, 0'05 in. — O'l in. long, densely adpressed- pubescent without. Stamens 30-50, long-exserted, filaments united at base into a tube 0'07 in. — 0 18 in. long. Filaments 0'4 in. — 0'5 in. long. Anthers minute, quadrate, versatile, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary superior, shortly stipitate, stipe (above the pedicel) O'Ol in. — 0-03 in. long, glabrous to sparsely puberulous, ovules 8. Style O'4-o in. long. Pod straight or slightly curved, liguliform, compressed, dry, 2 in. — 5 in. long, | in. —1 in. wide, opening with straight valves. Apex mucronate, acute or acuminate, base cuneate, often more or less pro- longed into a distinct stipe above the thickened pedicel. Dark brown, (a) The inflorescence is characteristic and this alone appears to distinguish this plant from all the other Indian species of the genus. In the latter the inflorescence is developed on the leafy shoots, either in the axils of the upper leaves or at the apex above the leaves. In A. Lathamii, on the other hand, the inflorescence usually appears on the old wood below the leafy shoots, often on stunted leafless branches and only rarely at the lower nodes of the leafy shoots. The two following African species which belong to the same group resemble A. Lathamii more or less in this respect, viz., A. Antune slant , Harms, and A., anthelmintica, A. Brongn. Of the former the author says " pedunculis solitariis vel geminis. ex axillis foliorum delapsorum ortis " (Bot. Jahrb. Vol. XXX, p. 75). Of the latter Bentham says " pedunculi axillares v. ad nodos vetustos breves fasciculati " (Mimosea p. 564), while Oliver (PI. Trop. Afr. ii 357) notes " peduncles fascicled or solitary in the upper axils or from leafless nodes on the older wood." (b) The pedicel consists of the constricted basal portions of the calyx, corolla and staminal-tube which adhere closely to the lower part of the stipe of the ovary. The measurements of calyx, corolla and staminal-tube given in the above description do not include this basal portion which is regarded as a part of thejpedicel. [ 155 ] Indian Forest Records. [ VOL. IV thin, flexible, sparsely pubescent especially on sutures, not septate be- tween the seeds. Valves not separating from sutures in dehiscence, strongly transversely-reticulate without, reticulations uniform or more prominent near sutures. Sutures not prominently thickened. Seeds 3-8, oval to sub-orbicular, compressed, 0'2 in. — 0*4 in. long, 0*16 in. — 0-3 in. wide, testa greenish-yellow smooth. Exalbuminous. Base of cotyledons sagittate. Fig. 1, Flowering and leafy branches ; Fig. 2, Leaflets, (a] apical, (b) median, (c) basal ; Fig. 3, Pod ; Figs 1—3 X |. Fig. 4 (a) bud, (b) flower, (c) calyx, (d) corolla, (e) stamens, (/) ovary, all x 1£; in (y E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11. — On some Assam Sal (Shorea robusta) Insect Pests,by the same author. Price 1-10-0, II — LEAFLETS, Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series.-* The Sal Bark-Borer (Sphcerotrypes siwalikensit, Steb.), by E, P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. !i» Zoology Series. — The Teak Defoliator (Hyllcea, puera, Cram), by the same author, Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series.— The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyrausta macheeralis, Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 4, Zoology Series. — The Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Seolytus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series.— The Blue Pine " Polygraphus " Bark-Borer (Polygraphs major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— PAMPHLETS. famfhlet No. 1, Chemistry Series No. 1 — Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam, by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Series No. /.—The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous s on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. '-A Glos8arjr °* *•<>«•' Technical Term, for Use i . 8. Forest Working-Plans. Price 0-10-0. 2 M o -0. Superintendent of [Continued on p. 3 of cover.} &Lo. 16 191J NOTE ON GUMHAR ( Gmelina arborea, Roxb. ) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-7-1, Carter Lane, B.C. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Graf ton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. H. S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. T. Fisher Tnwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Lxizac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Orafton Street. Dubl:n. ON THE CONTINENT. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig, Germany. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, W. N., Carlstrasse, 11. IN INDIA Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta. R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sons, 75, Harrison Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S. Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge 8 Ton. 10 Do. Mandalay 1 Myitkyina . . 1 0 Do. 19 Do. Do. 6 0 Ton. Mu (Shwebo) 1 0 Do. 15 Do. Railway sta- tions. 30 0 13 0 Ton sawn. Ton round. Pyinmana 1 0 Do. 50 Ton converted , Do. ... Mandalay (Maymyo) 1 0 Do. 35 Ton round Thazi . 50 0 Ton converted . Euby Mines (Mogok) 1 0 Do. 12 Do. Mandalay . 15 0 Ton round . Toungoo . . 1 8 Do. 10 Do. Railway sta- tions . ... Shwegyin . . 1 8 Do. 12 12 Do. Do. Do. Rangoon [ 15 0 Boat. Prome .... 1 8 Do. ... ... 10 0 Ton round. Zigon .... 1 8 Do. 10 Ton converted Railway sta- tions. ... 10 Ton round Rangoon ... ... Rangoon . . . 1 8 Do. 6 Do. Railway sta- tions. 60 0 Ton converted. Henzada 1 8 Do. 20 Do. Do. 10 0 Log. 50 Ton converted ... ... Thaungyin 1 Moul West Salween j mein 1 8 Do. 10 Ton round Moulmein 45 0 Ton converted. South Tennasserim (Tavoy). 1 8 Do. 30 Do. f. o. b. Tavoy 12 0 Ton round. NOTE. — " A ton " or "ton round " being multiplied by the length, and a means 50 cubic feet in the round, the square of the quarter girth ' log " contains usually 40 to 70 cubic feet. NOTE ON GUMHAR. (ii) Eastern Bengal and Assam. Vernacular names. — Gomari, Gamhar, Gamri, Gambari, Gambhar, Bolkobak (Garo). Local distribution. — The tree occurs in the moister forests of Assam from 300 feet elevation to 1,500 feet as a rule, though it is reported at 4,000 feet in the Garo Hills. It grows in Sal, bamboo and evergreen forests but is never abundant, and only in the Garo Hills is it classed even as fairly common. . Trees 12 feet in girth have been seen 70 feet in height, but the clear bole is as a rule not more than 30 feet long and the commonest maximum girth is 6 feet. • Extraction. — Tn Jalpaiguri the tree is worked on Coppice with Standards, but elsewhere trees are selected by the permit-holders subject to a girth limit and the control of the Forest Department. Little timber appears to have been extracted during the last five years, except in the Sylhet Division where the outturn is reported to have been 69,000 cubic feet, and no large quantities of the timber appear to be available annually. Some figures to help purchasers are given in the following table : — Forest Division. Local market rates. Government royalty. Rate for delivery. it a. p. Per Ra. p Per K a. p. Per At Sibsagar CO 4 0 C6 0 0 c.ft. tree 100 c.ft. Kailway stations. Chittagong . 300 c. ft. 2 or 3 c.ft. 320 ., Chittagong. annas Sylhet 080 M 010 J5 140 c.ft. Longai. converted Cachar 080 ; 0 1 0 }1 180 j» Silchar. r 070 f c. ft. (_ round ) Chalsa. -\ Jalpaiguri . ... 020 0 13 0 ( c. ft. £ converted | 130 c. ft. Calcutta. 120 » Basugaon. Goalpara 0 14 0 C. ft. 060 » " 140 M Sapatgram. - 1 12 0 H Calcutta. NOTE ON GUMHAll. F (iii) United Provinces. Vernacular names. — Gumhar, Kamhar, Tamhar. Only in the Eastern Circle of the United Provinces is the tree reported to occur, and it is very scarce everywhere, especially in Pilibhit. It is found in mixed deciduous forest and is extracted when found in Gorakhpur for making drums &nd. pat&is, but the trade is small and local. (iv) Punjab. Vernacular name. — Ban. It is recorded from the lower hills of Kangra and Hoshiarpur between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the sea, but is very rare. It is rarely if ever felled and 110 details are known of any local uses to which it is put. (v) Hajputana and Central India Agency. In the Manoar State it is called Sewan or Sohun and is not common, being found scattered in the Godhwar forests in moist valleys. It is used for combs and musical instruments, but there is a very small trade in it, the price it commands being about one rupee per cubic foot. In Ajmer- Merwara it occurs in small numbers in the Todgarh forests where it reaches a height of 15 feet and is extracted to make musical instruments and beds. In Bikanir a few trees have been grown in the State gardens. In the State of Rewah the tree is not plentiful, but occasionally attains fairly large girth. It is called Kkamhar ox K/iamher&nd is used for agricultural implements and furniture when available. In Indore it is generally distributed but is nowhere plentiful and is seldom used, and attains good height and girth only in favourable loca- lities near the Satpuras and Vindhyas. It is occasionally used for shoulder- poles (Kamoar] and for yokes. The Bhils use the wood for drums, and cattle-bells are sometimes made of it. (vi) Central Provinces. Vernacular names. — Siwan} Shewan, Kasmar (Berar), Kharaer. 8 NOTE ON GUMHAU. Local distribution. — In none of the forests of the Central Provinces or Berar is this tree common and in many it is very rare, never being more than one to ten acres, as in South Chanda. It goes up as high as 2,500 feet above sea-level and is usually found on light sandy trap soil in deciduous forests. In Raipur a few very good trees are found in Sal forest, but it rarely attains a girth of more than 3 feet and a height of more than 40 feet in the ordinary forests of these Provinces. From the forests of South Chanda about 100 trees will be avail- able annually which can be delivered at the nearest Railway station in rough squares for la annas per cubic foot, or at Cocanada via the Godavari River at 1 0 annas per cubic foot. The royalty is 5 annas per cubic foot. (vii) Western Indict. Vernacular names. — Shiwan, Shiwani, Shivana. Local distribution. — Nowhere in Bombay is this tree at all common, never forming as much as 2 per cent, of the standing crop and usually less. It is said to be absent in Satara and very rare in the western division of Kanara and not to occur to the extent of one tree per square mile in Surat, where there are more trees in the Coppice than in the Bangs High Forest. It grows in moist forests up to 2,000 feet above sea-level, but prefers valleys with a fairly deep rich soil, where it occasion- ally reaches a height of 60 feet with a girth of 5 feet and a clear bole of 2 0 feet. In Kanara it is felled when it has reached a girth of 5 feet and in Central Thana the limit is 18 inches diameter. Extraction. — The tree is commonly extracted in Coppice fellings though, often reserved [as a standard and when sold with other species it goes with the coupe which is sold to purchasers. From the southern and eastern divisions of Kanara a small quantity of the timber may be avail- able and can be delivered from the former at eight annas per cubic foot at Haveri or Bombay and four annas per cubic foot at Honawar on the sea-coast. From Eastern Kanara it can be delivered at Hubli on the Railway for R55 per ton of 50 cubic feet. In Baroda it is very scarce and of medium size, but sells for box- making for about R3 per cart-load of 12 cubic feet. NOTE ON GUMHAR. 9 (viii) Bengal. •Vernacular names. — Garnbari, Gambhar (Hindi), Kamare (Nepalese), Kusmar (Kol), Kasamar (Ho and Munda). Local distribution. — In the lower hill forests of the Tista it is re- ported to be fairly abundant, but is scarce in the adjoining mixed plains forests and elsewhere in Bengal and Orissa, being very often classed as rare. It ascends to 3,000 feet favouring shady ravines and attains a height of 100 feet occasionally in such places in the Tista forests where the exploitable size is 7 feet. In village lauds in Singh- bhum trees of 9 feet in girth may be seen. Its greatest height is 100 feet with 60 feet of clear bole. In Orissa the exploitable size is five or six feet, and trees above that are usually unsound. Extraction. — When the timber is required trees are selected, usually in conjunction with improvement fellings for sal, according to the demand. Details of past extraction are of little value as very little has been felled and only from the Tista forests can a regular annual outturn be expected. It might amount to 60 trees, the local value of the timber being 10 annas to ftl per cubic foot or R4? per 100 running feet of £ inch planks. The timber can be delivered at Bagracote Railway station on the Bengal Dooars Railway for 1 2 annas per cubic foot and at Siliguri for 13 annas. Elsewhere in Bengal the wood sells for 8 annas O C3 to R1-4- per cubic foot and the royalty is one or two annas per cubic foot. (ix) Southern India. Vernacular names. — Summadi (Telegu), Kumisha or Pokki (Malyalam), Kumili or Gumudu (Canarese), Kumbalam, Kumalamaram, Kumulu, Kolla kattathekku (Tamil), Gombari (Uriya). Also called Gum Teak. Local distribution. — In Guntur and Nellore the tree is reported to be absent, and it is nowhere plentiful in the Madras Presidency. In a few of the forests in South Coimbatore and North Malabar it is found up to a maximum of 4 per cent, of the growing stock, but this is exceptional, and neither in numbers nor size does it assume an important position in Madras. From Madura trees 6 feet in girth and 30 feet in height have 10 NOTE ON GUMHAR. been reported, but most of the [trees found are much smaller, of poor- height growth with little clear bole. A few large trees have been seen in Vizagapatam. In this district it is usually found in the plains out- side the forests, but as a rule it grows in deciduous forests between 800 and 3,000 feet, ascending to 4,000 feet in Madura on the Palni Hills. It is fairly common in the moister portions of the hills of North Coimba- tore, and was common in 1 870 in Ganjam and Vizagapatam (Col. Heber Drury) . Extraction. — The tree is little in demand and is felled only in the- fuel coupes nor can estimates be given of the future annual amount available which will never be worth the consideration of timber traders. In Coorg the tree is known as Kuli in Canarese and is found throughout the deciduous forests attaining a girth of 4 feet. It is not often felled but is used sometimes by the villagers for rice-pounders and water-troughs. The Government royalty is 1^ annas per cubic foot. In Hyderabad it is called Shew an, GumarteJc, or Gumari, and is generally distributed but not common. It is much used for yokes, also for furniture, planking, carts, drums and cattle-bells. It rarely attains a girth of 4 feet, and is one of the timbers granted free to agriculturists. In Travancore the tree is widely distributed but not abundant between sea-level and 2,000 feet. It is rarely found larger than i foot in diameter and is not often used. The native names are MuithekM' and Kuinbil (Bourdillon). In Mysore it is very sparsely distributed in all the deciduous forests, attaining in favourable localities 30 feet in height and 6 feet in girth. A-bout 5,000 cubic feet may be obtained annually, delivered at Railway stations at Rl per cubic foot. It is called KM. r CALCUTTA : PiirXTED BY SUPDT. GOVT. PRINTING, INDIA, 8, HASTINGS STREET^ NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI (Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb. ) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S, CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 Price As. 4 or 5d. I.— BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). ffo. i—Note on the Bee-Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Sfcebbing, P.L.S., F.Z.8., T? V S Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. inNo 2.--Noto on the Qaetta Borer (Aolrtke. sartus), by the same author ™ce (MJ-O. £ JT* 3-Note on the Chilgoza (Pin*, Verardiana) Bark-Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchi, F.Z.S, F.E.S Imperial Forest Zoologist ^ ^-O * p- »***«• of Forests on the Storage -d Regu laUon of the Water to tho ^ernmeut oi . lO.-Note on the Duki Fig Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batoctr* rubus), by E. P. Stebbing, F L S F Z S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Mte No. 11.— On some Assam Sal (Shorea rolusta) Insect Pests.by the same author. Price 1-10-0. II __ LEAFLETS, Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Seriet.—The Sal Bark-Borer (Spharotrypet siwalikensit, Steb.), by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 2, Zoology Series.— Ike Teak Defoliator (Hyllaa pnera, Cram), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series.— The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyratuta machasralis, Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No, 4, Zoology Series.— the Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Seolytus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series.— The Blue Pine " Polygraphus " Bark-Borer (Polygraph™ major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— PAMPHLETS. Pamphlet No. 1, Chemistry Series No. 1. — Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam, by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Seriei No. 1. — The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous Forests on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S. , F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. Pamphlet No. S, Working-Plan Series No. 1 — A Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working-Plans. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 4, Forest Economy Series No. 1 — Note on Lac and Lac Cultivation, by D. N. Avasia, Extra- Assistant Conservator of Forests, Central Provinces. Price 0-2-0. Pamphlet No. 5, Sylviculture Serifs No. 1 — Notes on Sal iu Bengal, by A. L. Mclntire, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Bengal, Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 6, Sylviculture Series No. 2.— Note on Forest Reservation in Burma in the Interest* of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Rodger, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, Burma Price 1-0-0. Pamphlet No. 7, Forest Economy Series No. 2,— Note on Andaman Marble- Wood or Zebra Wood (Diotpyros Kurzii, Hiern.), by R. S. Troup, F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 8, Working-Plan Series No. 2.— Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-10-0. 2 [Continued on p. S of cover."} NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI (Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-7-1, Carter Lane, E.G. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. H. S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B. H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. ON THE CONTINENT. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig, Germany. B. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, W. N., Carlstrasse, 11. IN INDIA AND Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta. R. Carnbray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazav Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sons, 75, Harrison Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer &. Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S. Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Thacker & Co., Ld., Bombay. A. J. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay. Radhabai Atmai'am Sagoon, Bombay. Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig. Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. Martinus NijhofP, The Hague, Holland. CEYLON. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Ram Chandra Govind & Son, Kalbadevi> Bombay. N. B. Mathur, Superintendent, Nazir Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. A. Chand & Co., Punjab. Rai Sahib M. Gulab Singh & Sons, Mufid-i- Am Press, Lahore and Calcutta. Superintendent, American Baptist Mission Press, Rangoon. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo. Ceylon. S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students and Company, Cooch Behar. Manager, Educational Book Dep6ts, Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager, Imperial Book Depot, 63, Chandney Chauk Street, Delhi.* Manager, Fast Coast News, Yizagapatam.* Manager, " The Agra Medical Hall and Co- operative Association, Limited " (Successors to A. John & Co., Agra).* Superintendent, Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, Mangalore.* P. Varadachary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell, Printer, etc., 7, South Road, Allahabad.* D. C. Anand & Sons, Peshawar.* Agents for sale of the Legislative Department publications only. NOTE. notes regarding the lesser known Indian timbers have been J- compiled in order that all the information at present available regarding them may be easily obtainable. For some of the best forests detailed Working-Plans have not yet been made, as the demand for timber in the neighbourhood is at present very small, but full information regarding the timbers available and means of extraction can always be obtained from local forest officers. Application can also be made at any time to the Forest Economist, Dehra Dun, United Provinces, India, who will supply specimens of any timber free and put enquirers in communication with local forest officers, Notes on the following timbers have now appeared : — 1. Lagerstrcemia tomentosa (Leza — Burma). 2. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (In — Burma). 3. Pterocarpus dalbergioides (Padauk — Andaman Islands). 4. Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Padauk — Burma). 5. Carallia integerrima (Maniawga — Burma). 6. Diospyros Kurzii (Zebra Wood — Andaman Islands) . 7. Berrya Ammonilla (Petwun— Southern India and Burma). 8. Terminalia tomentosa (Saj, Sain, T auk iky an — India and Burma) . 9. Gmelina arborea (Grumhar, Siwan — India and Burma). 10. Ougeinia dalbergioides (Sandan, Tiwas — India). 11. Lagerstrcemia lanceolata (Benteak, Nana — Southern India). 12. Anogeissus latifolia (Bakli, Dhaura — India). 13. Pterocarpus Marsupium (Ronne, Vengai — India). Reference is also invited to the following : — A Manual of Indian Timbers, by J. S. Gamble, C.I.E. (Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London.) Indian Woods and Their Uses, by R. S. Troup, (Superintendent, Government Printing, India, Calcutta.) or Pterocarpus OAarsupium, Roxb. Natural Order— Leguminosae (Papilionaceae). BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. Pterocarfus Marsupium, Hoxb. Natural Order — Leguminosge (Papilionacese) . 1. General Distribution. The eastern limit of this tree is 88° longitude, and the western 72C, but it hardly occurs to the north-west of a line joining Baroda and Shahjehanpur, and is principally a tree of the Peninsula. In Ceylon the tree is stated by Prain to occur in the central parts of the island. It does not occur in Assam, Burma, and the Punjab, and was formerly much commoner in Central and Southern India than it is now. Further details are given under the various provinces. In Ceylon it is fairly common in dry and intermediate regions up to 3,000 feet, and rarer in the moist region on open grass land, and is called Gammalu. 2. Locality and Habit. The tree is found in deciduous forests at all heights between sea- level and 3,000 feet, but is commonest between 500 and 1,500 feet and is rare at the lower levels. It prefers north and west aspects on hilly ground and grows best on a sandy or slightly clayey loam, with bamboo, Albizzias, Terminalias, Anogeissus, and Sal, reaching a height of 100 feet and a girth of 8 feet in the best localities of Chanda, and as much as 16 feet occasionally in Southern India. It is a tall tree, often not very straight, with a rather open leafy crown, the leaves being compound with five to seven alternate leaflets which are 3 to 5 inches long. The \ellow or white flowers appear towards the end of the rains, and the new leaves at the end of the hot weather, but the tree is leafless for a very short time only. Several varieties have been distinguished by Prain, described in his report written in 1900 (Inspector-General of Forests' Proceedings for September 1900). Foulkes in "Notes on Timber Trees of South Kanara" says i" Grows in laterite when there is plenty of 14 2 NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. moisture in the soil and will grow well on rocky laterite. Well suited to gneissic soils, but will not grow on the sandy soils of the coast/' 3. Description, Properties and Uses of Timber. The sapwood is narrow, soft, and white, the heartwood handsome, hard, yellowish or reddish-brown showing yellowish smooth vertical streaks on a vertical section. It is often cross-grained but takes a fine polish and seasons well. The yellow stain contained in the wood comes off when it is wet. Durability. — It is a durable timber but should be kept dry, and is not liable to split. It has been tried for sleepers on the Mysore State Rail- way, twenty out of twenty-five being found to be serviceable after seven years' use, and lasts a long time as door and window frames. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company laid down 322 sleepers in 1879-80 and reported in 1883 that those which had been cut out of heartwood lasted very well and held the spikes firmly. Edward Balfour in " The Timber Trees, Timber and Fancy Woods," as also, " The Forests of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia," 1862, says that it was much used for buildings on the Bombay side, but should not be exposed to wet, and was not attacked by white-ants for at least twenty years. It was tried for sleepers on the Rajpipla State Railway in Bombay in 1897 and lasted for three years only. Wood placed in the sea in Madras was found to be badly attacked by the teredo. Weiglit. — The average weight of the wood per cubic foot is about 55 Ibs., the highest recorded being 63 Ibs. and the lowest 47 Ibs. (Gamble) . Strength. — The value of P, which represents the strength of a bar of timber calculated from the length between supports, breadth and thick- ness of the bar, and the weight in pounds which, when placed on the middle of the bar, causes it to break, is 718, the figure for Sal being 790, Teak 600, and Shisham 796 (Gamble). Fissibility. — The wood is difficult to split as it is cross-grained, coming almost at the bottom of a list of 61 Indian woods tested by Mr. R. S. Troup. Teak, one of the easiest to split, is represented by the figure 1*75 in this list. Sain by 4'63, Sal by 9'33, and the timber under report by 11 '33. Calorific power. — Lt is used for fuel, but is not one of the best woods for the purpose, the number of British Thermal Units being about 7,324, &OTE ON BIJA SAL OR VfcNGAI. 3 Only a few of the Indian woods tested by Mr. Puran Singh come below this, and Sal, Teak, and Blue and Chir pines give much higher values. Seasoning. — In Orissa the logs are usually seasoned in tanks, and in the Central Provinces this method is also used at times or the logs are left unbarked in the forests. In Bombay the trees are sometimes girdled three years before felling. Both methods probably have their advan- tages depending on whether the gum resin, which stains yellow when damp and apparently repels white-ants, is to be removed or not. For ordinary purposes the timber can be well and thoroughly seasoned by stacking it in shady, airy places. Uses. — This timber is, after teak and blackwood, the most valuable tree of Southern India, and especially of Mysore. It is much used for door and window frames, posts and beams, furniture, agricultural imple- ments, boat and cart building, and especially spokes and felloes. When used for furniture it is heavily varnished to prevent the exudation of the strong yellow dye which may take place when wet after years of season- ing. In the Central Provinces it is also used for drums, idols, grain- measures, pit-props in the Mohpani coal-mines, and spokes and felloes of gun-carriages in the Gun Carriage Factory at Jubbulpore. In certain parts of Madras its use for building is confined to Government buildings and temples, and in Coimbatore it is not placed where it can come into contact with the feet, in deference to local superstition. In Bombay it has been used for railway carriage building, and it has been several times tried in various places for sleepers as noted above, but is not common enough to be considered as an available future source of supply. About the year 1883, 80,000 sleepers were put down in the line between Katni and Bilaspur in the Central Provinces. In 1900 a number of sleepers were supplied from Warangal to the Hyderabad-Godavery Valley Rail- way and lasted for seven or eight years though cut from unseasoned wood. In Balfour's work quoted above it is noted fifty years ago that the timber was apt to be unsound and to contain numerous faults of a coal black and charred appearance, thereby being often unsatisfactory for joists, but when these were not present it was a most valuable timber. Vessels built at that period in Ganjam were planked with it. It was evidently much more plentiful then than at the present day, especi- ally on the Nilgais and the Malabar and Kanara Ghats, large trees being common and the wood much used. Its price at Nagpur was at that date 5 annas per cubic foot. NOTE ON BIJA SAL OE 4. Minor Products. When the bark is blazed a red gum exudes which hardens quickly in brittle, black, shining angular pieces and is exported to Europe as " Kino " where it is used in medicine as an astringent, containing as much as 75 per cent, of tannic acid. The best season for collection is in the dry weather when the tree is in flower. It does not, however, appear to be collected to any great extent at the present time. Some notes supplied from North Malabar in the " Indian Forester" for July 1899 describe the method of collection. A number of short slanting cuts, about 1 inch wide, draining into a central vertical cut, are made in the bark, and the gum, which flows from them in about twelve hours, is caught in a bamboo tube. Only trees 6 feet in girth and above may be tapped, and they may only be tapped on one side unless they are over 8 feet in girth. The gum was dried in a wooden shed in shallow tin trays, about a fortnight being required in the dry weather. Artificial heat or exposure to the sun was found to spoil the quality. A tree 6 feet in girth was said to yield about 3 Ibs. of liquid gum or 1 Ib. of dry gum, and it was estimated that the trees might be tapped on alternate sides once in five years. This product is fully discussed in " Agricultural Ledger" No. 11 of 1901. In this it is noted that " the genuine Malabar kino is an important indigenous drug in India which has been recognized many years in tlie British and other Pharmacopoeias. An unlimited supply is now obtainable through the Forest Department at a price that will preclude all competition of other articles of a similar nature." Its history is traced from the year 1757, its first appearance in Europe having apparently been in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia as Gnmmi Kino. The name Kino is probably derived from an African word Kano, the name of Pterocarpus erinaceus. In the middle of the last century the gum was extracted much more extensively, and Balfour, in the work above quoted, notes that " Dr. Cleghorn sa,w two thousand trees along the roads through the "Wynaad, notched in a V-shaped form for the extraction of Kino which meets with a ready market on the coast, and is exported in wooden boxes to Bombay." According to the Ledger above quoted, in North Malabar alone about 2,000 Ibs. can be produced annually at a cost price of not more than 4 annas per pound, but there is little demand in India except from the Government Medical Store Departments. It is reported that the quantity available for extraction in the Quilon ON BTJA SAL OE VENGAl. Division, Travancore, is between 3,000 and 5,000 Ibs. per annum, but it IB not collected nor exported at present from Travancore. In October 1874 the price of Kino in London was about 8& per pound, but it rose in 1894 to 4*. 6d. and shortly afterwards to 17*., where it remained for some time. In 1896, as a result of measures taken in India through the Forest Department, the price fell to 12*. and at the end of the year 1899 to 2s. In 1900 the low price of Is. per pound was reached. Since then it appears to have remained at much the same level and is now quoted in London at 9d. to 1*. 2d. It is said to be used in Europe to a considerable extent in the manu- facture of certain wines, but from the latest figures obtainable from the Collector of Customs in Madras and Bombay and from the Conservator of Forests at Coimbatore, it appears that the demand has recently fallen off and that collection has almost ceased. The Conservator of Forests states that the gum used to be collected in North Malabar in considerable quantities, but ceased owing to the fall in prices, and the small remainder of the stock in hand was sold in June 1908. The Collector of Customs, Bombay, reports that there were no exports of the gum from that port between 1905 and 1910. The Collector of Customs, Madras, supplies the following figures which show the export of Gum Kino from the Madras Presidency : — Countries to which exported. 1907-C8. 1908-09. 1909-10. 1910-11. Cwt. B Cwt. R Cwt. & United Kingdom . .-.. 37£ 2,706 22| 945 24| 1,402 Nit. United States of America . ... ... 71 315 7* 630 Nil. Total 37| 2,706 30 1,260 32 2,032 Nil. In 1900 proposals were made that tannin should be extracted on a large scale from the bark for tanning purposes. An extract of a sticky consistency prepared in Coorg from the bark after immersion in water was found to contain 38 percent, of tannin, and the dry extract made from S NOTE ON BIJA SAL Oil VENGAI. this contained 91 per cent.; so that the product will probably command a ready sale when it can be prepared cheaply 011 a large scale. In 1907 experiments were made in Western Australia with the Kino as a means of preventing sacks from being destroyed by acid superphos- phate which was shipped as a fertiliser, and gave most favourable results, the sack which had been treated with a strong solution of the gum being intact after being stored for six months full of the fertiliser. The leaves form excellent fodder for cattle and are also in demand for manure, and the tree gives good shade for coffee. The bark contains a brownish-red colouring matter which produces reddish-fawn colour with tasar silk. It has been noted by Mr. E/ama Rao to be an associate of Sandal, but root attachments between the two have not been found. 5. Natural Reproduction and Rate of Growth. According to Gamble the seed crop is not annual but intermittent and the seeds do not always germinate well. The pods fall in the dry season and are likely to be burnt, a danger to which Burma Padauk is also liable. Fire and grazing are great hindrances to the formation of a good crop of seedlings, to which a good start would be afforded by digging the surface soil so as to enable the seeds to obtain a lodgment, as if left on the hard surface among grass they have little chance of development. Moderately good regeneration is reported from most parts of India where the tree occurs, but seedlings as well as seeds evidently suffer much from fire, being slow-growing and requiring several years to become strong enough to resist it. As with teak seedlings, small plants when examined will frequently be found to have thick gnarled stems at ground level, representing several years'" growth. The tree coppices readily. In 1895 Mr. H. C. Hill noted in the Central Provinces that this and other species formed dense thickets wherever the beneficial influence of an old Mohwa tree was felt. Mr. A. W. Lushington notes that in the hill forests of North Coimba- tore, " Veng;ai " seemed to stand^fire better than teak, and in places where the forests had been abso^tely ruined by fire there still existed in 1902 a few dilapidated-looking trees. Excellent reproduction was to be found here and there. NOTE ON BIJA SAL OB VENGAI. 7 Mr. R. S. Pearson records the following figures showing the rate of growth of " Honni " in the Kalinaddi slopes and Ankola High Forest in Kanara, Bombay :— Average diameter in inches. Age. Kalinaddi. Ankola. 10 years 1-9 1-65 20 j' 3-5 3-41 30 » ... . . 5-4 5-41 40 }! 7-3 7-44 50 9-1 9-27 60 >> 10-7 11-24 vw 70 }> i) 12-4 12-35 80 » 13-8 13-88 90 » 15-4 15-56 100 ») 16-9 17-20 110 » . . . 18-5 18-57 120 >J 19-9 19-54 130 J5 : 21-2 19-73 140 22-2 22-12 150 )J 23-3 24-32 160 M 24-0 26-30 170 » 25-3 27-20 From countings made in the Nallamalai forests, Kurnool, Madras, the average number of rings to each inch of diameter was found to be five. In the Walayar Reserve, Coimbatore, Madras, ten trees were measured annually at 4 feet from the ground, and gave the following results : — Girth in inches. 1892. 1899. 1892. ^ 1899. 34! 44! 33 43 33! 44 33! 43! 33! 47 34 44! 37! 48 31£ 41! 19 29 32! 42! In the same forest coppice growth attair d a girth of 1^ inches in one year. 8 KOTJ; ON BIJA SAL OK VENGU1. In the Begur Forests Working-Plan, North Malabar, Madras, 13 trees gave the following results : — Average age at 6 inches diameter . . 35*6 years. }, 12 ,, . , 68'8 „ 18 . . 106-1 „ 24 . 141-5 „ In the Chedleth Range forests in the same district 1UO trees gave the following results : — Average age at 6 inches diameter . . 327 years. 12 . 62-5 „ 18 . . 92-4 „ 24 „ . . 124-2 „ F. Foulkes says in " Notes on Timber Trees in South Kauara "-. — " Yields only a moderate seed crop and apparently does not yield an annually equal crop. Does not germinate well. Reproduction is moderate therefore : one reason being that the seeds, being very light, are easily blown away by the monsoon winds and washed away by the monsoon rains before they have time to anchor themselves, and the fruit falling in the fire season, and the membranous wing becoming dry and inflammable, renders the seed very liable to damage by fire. Seeds retain their vitality for a long time." 6. Artificial Reproduction. Sowings have been made in several parts of Bombay and Madras with fairly successful results. The hard bony covering of the seed often prevents germination during the first rains, and it may be hastened by cutting it sufficiently to expose the seed. The seedlings are only about 6 inches high after the first year's growth and must be protected from fire for a number of years depending on the soil covering. A tree planted in Chaibassa was 20 feet high and 10 inches in girth after ten years. Sowings in the forest are much damaged by deer, and sowing in pits is usually more successful than broadcast sowing. From Vizagapatam a note is sent of the seeds having been steeped in camphor water, after removing the husk, for 12 hours and then sown in a flower pot, germination on the fifth day being the general result. In Central Coimbatore a plantation was made some thirty years ago, and now contains about 200 trees in excellent condition up to nearly 7 feet in girth. NdTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. In the same division a small mixed plantation was made three years ago on a dry stony soil. The seedlings were put out in split bamboo baskets in pits ll'xl^'xl' aud 50 per cent, of them are thriving. In Tiune- velly vows 3 feet wide are cleared in felled coupes and one or two seeds put in patches 3 feet apart and £ inch deep. They have germi- nated readily but suffer from deer and do best when shaded from the morning sun. 7. Notes on Distribution and Extraction in different Provinces. (i) Central Provinces. Vernacular names. — Bija Sal, Bija, Dhorbiola, Bewla, Bijra. Local distribution. — In Berar the tree is very rare and is seldom extracted, and elsewhere in the Central Provinces its distribution is irregular. In Balaghat it is said to form about 10 per cent, of the growing stock, in Chauda, Saugor, and Damoh it is fairly common, and in most of the other forest districts it is found here and there. It grows in deciduous forests with teak, khair, and bamboo, usually on hilly ground between 500 and 2,000 feet, preferring north and west aspects, and a sandy or slightly clayey loam. In Chanda trees measuring 8 feet in girth and 100 feet in height are found at times, but 3 to 4 feet in girth, 20 feet clear bole, and 40 feet total height are the commoner measurements elsewhere. Extraction. — Most of the forests containing the tree are worked as Coppice with Standards, a few, as in Chanda where the best trees occur, under the Selection system as a rule, mature trees being removed when required. Purchasers remove the timber from the coupes they have acquired by dragging and carting in most cases, but from South Chanda floating is possible on .the Godavery, one log being buoyed by one teak log. Little accurate information is available regarding the amount of timber available annually, but estimates are given below as a guide to purchasers of the timber from the various forests of the Central Provinces where it is now available, or will become available when the forests are opened out. ib NOTE ON BIJA SAL OE Figures regarding Extraction. Division. Government royalty. I Local market rate. Rate for delivery. R a. p. Per R a. p. Per R a. p. Per At r 040 t ubic foot Chindwara. Chindwara 0 10 0 Cubic 100 Cubic •{ squared. foot foot L_ 130 Do. Nagpur. C 030 Cubic foot Kareli. 1 1 040 Do. | Saugor. Saugor ... 200 Cart-load •{ ^ Ganeshgauj. 100 Do. Bombay. I 080 Do. Jubbulpore. 080 Cubic foot Ry. stations. I round. Mandla 034 Cubic 080 Cubic •{ foot foot | 0 12 0 Cubic foot Ditto. [_ converted. j 020 Cubic foot Ditto. Damoh ... 0 13 0 Do. Bombay. I 050 Do. Jubbulpore. r 0 11 0 Do. Dhamtari. Raipur 030 Cubic 100 Cubic •{ foot foot ^ 0 13 0 Do. K aipur. South Chanda 050 Do. ... { 090 Cubic foot squared. Ballarshah. 0 10 0 Do. Rajahmandri near Cocaua- da. In the Working-Plan for Working Circle No. 1, Allapilli forests, Chanda, Central Provinces, in area 31 square miles, the following figures are given : — Number of sound trees above 24 inches diameter . . . 406 „ „ 18-24 „ . .1,741 The minimum limit for felling is at present fixed at 24 inches diameter. (ii) Rajputana and Central India Agency. In the Marwar State it is found scattered at 3,000 feet on the upper slopes of the Southern Aravali hills, but it is not plentiful or large as NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. 11 it is much cut over by the villagers who use it for ploughs, flag-staffs, etc. In Gwalior a few small trees occur, but it is of little importance. It is called Bija. In the Eewak State the tree forms about 5 per cent, of the crop in 3 tehsils and grows to 4 feet in girth. It is largely used and not more than 4,000 cubic feet will be available annually in future, the royalty to be paid being 4 annas per cubic foot. The market rate near the railway line is 1 2 annas per cubic foot. In Indore it is called Sea or Bija and was formerly fairly abundant, but owing to heavy exploitation few big trees are now to be seen except in inaccessible valleys near the Satpuras where trees of 6 feet in girth occur. It is well-distributed but abundant only near the Nerbudda in the Burwaha Range, in the south-west of Nimawar District and in parts of the SatpuraSj and does not often attain a girth of more than 4 feet. The timber is valued for building and poles of 2 feet girth are dressed and sold as shafts, the value of the timber being about Rl per cubic foot and of shafts 10 annas each. (in) Southern India. Vernacular names. — -Yegisey, Yegi, Vengai (Tamil), Benga, Netra honne, or Honne (Canarese), Piasal (Uriya). Local distribution. — This tree is one of the most important in Madras and Mysore and occurs scattered over the deciduous forests in most districts, but very seldom grows gregariously. In the Wynaad forests of the Nilgiris the most favourable localities have as much as 10 per cent, of the total crop consisting of this tree, and this percentage is reached in a few other forest tracts, but elsewhere it is much scarcer and is of no importance in Guntur, Bellary, Chingleput, and districts where the forests generally are poor. It grows with Sal in the north, and with Albizzias, Anogeissus, and Terminalias in deciduous forests at all heights above sea-level up to 3,000 feet, but is commonest between 500 and 1,500 feet and is rare 011 the lowest levels. In the forests of the northern part of the Presidency it very rarely attains large size, but increases in Coimbatore, Madura, and Tinnevelly. Seven feet in girth is a good tree there, but in Coimbatore it grows occasionally to 16 feet girth and 100 feet in height, with a clear bole of 40 feet, 1£ NOTE OX BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. Extraction. — The forests are worked under Coppice with Standards and Selection systems, and the districts from which constant supplies of good timber can be expected are very few. In Madura the girth limit for felling is 7 feet, about 150 trees having been extracted during the last five years, selling for R40 each on the average. In South Kanara the exploitable size is 2. feet diameter. The information available regarding the quantities available is very vague and purchasers are advised to make enquiries direct from the forest officers in charge of the divisions mentioned in the table given below. The Malabar Timber Yards and Saw Mills quote R2 per cubic foot for scantlings and R2-2 for planks free on rail at Kallai. They call it Wynaacl Padauk. In Coorg the tree is called Honn£ in Canarese and is found through- out the deciduous forests, attaining in the south a girth of 10 feet. It is locally in great demand for house-building and agricultural imple- ments, 150,000 cubic feet having been felled during the last five years. About 30,000 cubic feet may be obtained annually. The Government royalty is 8 annas per cubic foot. The market rate in 1892 was 10 annas as at present. In Hyderabad it is known under several names, Bija Sal, Bija, Pedda Yegi, Nettrani, Nettar, Hoanni, Uuggedbairu, Dorebulla, and is regarded as the most valuable timber of the State, large teak being now very scarce. It is in great demand for buildings and carts, but large trees have been destroyed in many parts for cattle fodder, and this waste is still going on, so that its disappearance, except in reserves, may be anti- cipated. Near the Godavery in the Mahadeopur, Pakhal, and Poloncha forests a fair number of good trees are still to be found, 6 to 8 feet in girth, but little extraction is now allowed as the forests have been over- worked in the past. The royalty is Rl per cubic foot and the market price at Warangal Rl-12. In Mysore it is called Honne and is much used for building and carts, being common in the Mysore and Shimoga forests. About 40,000 cubic feet may be extracted annually. Ninety-four thousand cubic feet have been extracted during the last three years. In Travancore the tree is common in deciduous forests up to 3,500 feet and stands sixth on the list of useful woods of the State. It is thought locally to be too heavy for furniture and the yellow stain from the wood prevents it being very largely used, Terminalia tomentosa, Hopea parviflora, and Artocarpus hirsuta being preferred, but it sells NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. 13 largely for export. About 36,000 cubic feet are sold annually, its value on the coast being 12 to 14 annas per cubic foot in the log (Bourdillon). Figures regarding Extraction. Division or State. Local selling rate. Rate for delivery. R a. Pei- * a. Per At Lower Goda- 1 4 Cubic foot very. to 1 10 round. Central Coim- 1 6 Do. 0 4 Cubic foot. Eailway sta- batore. toO 8 tions. South Coim- »•> 1 8 Do. Podanur. batore. f 2 14 Cubic foot Amonayanaick - Madura . . 2 0 Cubic foot squared. j 2 0 (. 3 0 squared. Do. Do. anoor. Curnbum. Madura. Tinnevelly 1 12 Cubic foot 1 12 Cubic foot Shenkottah. scantlings. in scant- lings. Travancore wood. North Malabar 0 8 Cubic foot 1 2 Cubic foot Calicut, Telli- squared. cherry, My- sore, Nangan- gode. Coorg 0 10 Cubic foot . 0 15 Do. Paschamavahini Station, My- sore. Mysore . 1 0 Do. 1 4 Do. Railway sta- to 1 6 tions. Figures from Madras Working-Plans. District. Working: Circle. Area in square miles. Number of trees Diameter in inches. REMARKS. » '/ 1-6 6-12 12-18 1 24 24-30 I " 30-36 Over 36" Coimbatore P u n a chi Anamalai Hills. 4 21,000 5,000 2,300 - 00 600 2iO 260 Annual yield 3,915 cubic feet. South Coim- batore. Thalingi 8 4,500 1,900 620 170 19 9 19 14 NOTE ON BLJA SAL OR VENGAI. From the Coorg Working- Plans the figures given below have been taken. As, however, the Working-Plans have mostly expired, the figures must be taken merely as a guide to the amount of timber that may at present be available annually, and up-to-date figures should be obtained from the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Coorg. Name of forest. Area in square miles. Quantity in cubic feet avail- able annually. Devamaohi-Mawkal ...... 28 2,400 Nalkeri-Hatgat ..... 83 20,400 Anekadu-Attoor . . . . 20 8,340 Arkeri ........ 29 2,000 (iv) Western India. Vernacular names. — Bibla (Marathi), Honne, Asana, Bio (Gujarati). Local distribution.- — Five per cent, is the highest proportion of the grow- ing stock that the species evei\occupies in Bombay, and three trees per 5 acres are reported from the eastern part of Kanara, a district where it appears to be generally plentiful. In Surat as many as ten trees to the acre are occasionally found, but in Poona and Khandesh it is very scarce, and is not found in Satara, being thus a tree principally of the southern part of the Presidency. It grows best at an elevation of 1,000 feet or so and can grow in exposed situations, but occurs in most of the deciduous forests between 500 and 2,500 feet, and prefers quartzite to black soils. It attains a girth of more than 8 feet in Western Kanara and a height of 90 feet with a clear bole of 50 feet, but smaller sizes are much more common. Extraction. — In the forests where the tree yields timber, trees are selected for felling. In Central Thana 1 8 inches is the minimum dia- meter taken, in the Eastern Divisions of Kanara 75 inches in girth, and in the Western Division 6 feet. In Kanara a good deal of extraction is done by Government agency, but coupes are sometimes sold to purchasers here as is commonly done elsewhere, most of the timber being carted from the NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. 15- forests, but dragging from the stump being sometimes necessary, and boats are employed in the south. From a few divisions timber may be ob- tained, but reliable estimates of the amount available annually have not yet been made in most of them. Some figures regarding extraction are given below. The royalty is R6 per khandy of 12^ cubic feet in Kanara. In the Rajpipla State the tree occurs in most of the hill forests, being occasionally as plentiful as 25 trees to the acre, and attaining a girth of 36 inches. During the years 1904 to 1909, 20,000 cubic feet were extracted and the quantity available annually in future is estimated at 5,000 cubic feet, the duty levied by the State being 3 annas per cubic foot. Converted timber can be delivered 'at about three times the rates quoted for rough timber in the table below. The logs are extracted by Bhils and when possible are floated down the Nerbudda, most of them finding their way to Baroda, Ahmedabad, or North Gujrat. In Baroda it is scarce, but sells for S3 per cart-load of 12 cubic feet when available. Division or State. Market rate. Eate for delivery. 8 a. Per * a. Pei- At Eastern Divi- sion, Kanara. 12 0 to 15 0 Khandy of 12£ 'cubic feet. 1 2 Cubic foot Hubli. Southern Divi- sion, Kanara. 15 0 Do. C 04 t 08 Do. Do. Honawar. Haveri, Bom- bay, Manga - lore, Calicut. Western Divi- sion, Kanara. 12 0 Do. 0 6 Do. Sea-coast. Surat 12 0 to 20 0 Do. f 0 14 1 0 C 1 1 Do. Do. Do. Tapty Valley Railway. Bulsar. Surat. Kajpipla State . 0 12 Cubic foot round. C 0 12 1 0 14 Do. Do. Nandod or Chandod. Ankleslvwar. 1 B NOTE ON BIJA SAL OR VENGAI. Figures from Bombay Working-Plans. District. Working Circle. Area in square miles. Mature trees on the area. Minimum size fixed for felling. KEMAEKS. Kanara Gund, S e r i es XI. 25 830 above 24" diameter. 24 inches diameter. Do. Supa, Block XX. 18 64 above 24" diameter. 6 feet girth. Do. Kalinaddi slopes. 42 1,200 sound trees above 24" diameter : 120 unsound. 6 feet girth. Annual yield 40 trees. Do. Mundgod High Forest. 85 1,400 above 24" diameter. 6 feet girth. Do. Ankola High Forest. 70 1,500 above 24" diameter. 6 feet girth. Do. Yellapur above Ghat. 137 2,800 above 24" diameter. 24 inches diameter. Do. Yellapur slopes, 16 Block XVII. 350 above 24" diameter. ..- Belgaum Nagargali Series 14 30 above 24" diameter. ... (v) Bengal. Vernacular names. — Bija, Bija Sal, Paisar (Hind.), Hid (Kol), Murga (Santali), Bia (Kharw.). Local distribution. — The tree is not common in Bengal, rarely of large size in the Santal Parganas and Palamau, and absent in the Kurseong, Darjeeling, and Tista forests. It is found elsewhere in deciduous plains forests with Sal and in the dry mixed hills forests up to 3,000 feet above the sea. In Orissa, Sambalpur, and Singhbhum good trees 7 feet in girth may be found, with an occasional specimen 10 feet in girth, the height reaching 100 feet and the length of clear bole 50 feet. It is the best tree for planking in Chota Nagpur and deserves to be largely planted as the supply is very limited (H. H. Haines). NOTE ON BIJA SAL OK. VENGAI. 17 Extraction. — Trees are selected for felling according to the demand and sylvicultural requirements of the f orest, but no large supply can be expected from the forests in Bengal and little, if any, will be available for export. From Sambalpur about 2,000 cubic feet may be available annually, from Puri 300 cubic feet, and similar quantities from Chaibassa, Angul, and Singhbhum. The royalty is usually 4 annas per cubic foot dry and 6 annas per cubic foot green, and the local price varies from 12 annas to Rl-8 per cubic foot. At Lota Pehar Station the timber can be delivered from Chaibassa at 8 to 12 annas per cubic foot. From Sambalpur to railway stations the rate is Rl per cubic foot round and Rl-4 per cubic foot sawn and to Calcutta R2 per cubic foot in the log. In the Raigoda Range of the Angul Division 891 trees over 2 feet in diameter were counted on an area of 30*2 square miles, in 1907, and in the Bagmunda Range, 38 square miles, the number was 901. These trees are to be felled with the mature Sal in the annual coupes. (vi) United Provinces. Vernacular name. — Bija Sal. Local distribution. — The tree is rare in the United Provinces, only the Bundelkhand, Gorakhpur, and Pilibhit Forest Divisions reporting its presence in appreciable quantities. In Gonda three trees have been seen and in Kheri a few trees occur here and there in the alluvial areas. It does not come so far north as the Siwaliks. The largest girth it reaches is 5 feet and a small number of logs up to 20 feet long and 4 feet in girth might be obtained, the market price in Gorakhpur being about 8 annas j>er cubic foot. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 8, HASTINGS STREET V . 18 ( Terminalia fomenfosa, W. & A. ) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S, CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRIN'JING, INDIA 1913 Price As. 5 or 6d. I.— BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). Bulletin No. 1.— Note on the Bee- Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Sfcebbing, P.L.S., P.Z.S. F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. - Bulletin No. 2.— Note ou the Quetta Borer (Jlolesthes sartus), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3. — Note on the Cliilgoza (Pirnts Q-erardiana) Bark-Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4.—Ficus elastica .* its natural growth and artificial propagation, with a description of the method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 5. — Notes on a visit to sorno European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2:0-0. Bulletin No. 6 __ Memorandum on Mechanical Tests of Some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B.A., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7. — Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-i-Sulhnan, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8. — Note on the Life History of Hoplocerambyx Spinicornit (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No. 9. — Notes on the influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilmot, I.F.S., C.I.E., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. Price 1-0-0. Bulletin No. 10 — Note on the Duki Fig Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batocera rttJa»),by E. P. Stebbing F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. '•'•*• Bulletin No. 11 — On some Assam Sal (Shorea robusta) Insect Pests,by the same author. Price 1-10-0 II — LEAFLETS, Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series.— The Sal Bark-Borer (Sp\*rotrype, siwalikensis, Steb.), by E P Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 2, Zoology Series.—lhe Teak Defoliator (Syblaa puera, Cram), by the same author Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series.— The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyrausta maekaralit, Wlk ) bv the same author. Price 0-2-0. '* * b* Leaflet No .5 , Zoolooy Series. -Tte^ Pine "Polygraph™" Bark-Borer (Polygraph* Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0, No. 1, 1'ampUet No. 3, Working-Plan Series Indian Forestry, by 'A. M. * " Womng-Plans. Price 0-4-0. . 4, Forest Economy HI.— PAMPHLETS. Series No. 1 __ Not ' v Forest8 "> Bengal 1 T Impeml SuP^ntendent of Forest r Forests, Bengal. Price 0-4-0 Pamphlet No. 6, SyMculiure Series No. 2 —Note on of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Price 1-0-0. • Pamphlet No. 7, Forest Economy Series Nn <> v «. (DiosPyrosKurZii,^^l S £ *7c°H Pamphlet No. 8, WorUng-PlL Series No2' the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F Forest Working-Plans. Price 0-10-0. 2 Mcl««re, I.F.S., n Bnma in thc Intere8ts Deputy Conservator of Forests, Banna Wood Price °+°- I-rtB* to Superintendent of [Continued on p. 8 of cover. 9lo. NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ (Terminalia tomentosa, W. & A.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCTITTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, E.G. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. H. S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Luzac & Co., 4fi, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B. H. Black well, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. ON THE CONTINENT. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig, Germany. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, W. N., Carlstrasse, 11. Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig. Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. INDIA AND CEYLON. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta. R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sous, 75, Harrison . Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham &> Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarania Iyer & Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S. Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Thacker & Co., Ld., Bombay. A. J. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay. Radhabai Atmaram Sagoon, Bombay. Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Ram Chandra Govind 65 sleepers in 1899, and had to replace 852 in 1903, the remainder being removed to an unimportant branch. About the year 1880, a large number of sleepers were put down in the Bengal-Nagpur Railway between Umaria and Kutni but 40 per cent, had to be removed by 1893. In 1886, 496 sleepers were laid down in the Rohilkhand and Kumaon Railway, and 57 per cent, remained sound in 1895. frOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. 5( 4. Minor Products. The bark is commonly used for tanning skins and preserving nets and an astringent gum is also obtained which sells for 4 annas per seer in the Central Provinces and is used for incense and as a cosmetic. The ashes of the burnt wood are used by dhobies in Oudh and the bark is sometimes used to poison fish in streams. Juice of the bark is used as an astringent in making palm sugar. In Mysore and South Kanara the natives burn the bark and prepare lime from it in an elaborate manner for the use of Jains and Brahmins (Indian Forester, August 1909) and it is used in the same manner by some wild tribes in Southern India. In extracts of the bark prepared in the forest by rough methods over 70 per cent, of tannin have been found, and by an analysis of bark made in Germany the following results were obtained : — I II Percentage of tannin agents . . 52"5 23'4 Non-tanning soluble substances . . . . 27*1 33'4 Insoluble . . . . . . . . 6"8 31'6 Water . . . . . . • . . 13'6 11'6 100-0 100-0 The extracts were reported to be too dark in colour and to have no chance of finding a market until they were decolorised. The preparation of such extracts in a rough and ready way will probably not lead to the development of any trade in Europe, as up-to-date machinery is required. Method of tanning with Saj lark. — In this case the hide is usually treated with kas or liquor five times as follows : — The first Jcas consists of 3 or 4 seers of powdered bark mixed with 20 seers of water, the second of 5 seers of bark, the third of 7 seers, the quantity of water remaining the same throughout. The hide remains in the first Jcas for 3 days, in the second 5 days, in the third 6 days, in the fourth 7 days and in the fifth 8 days, it being taken out and rubbed 3 times daily as previously noted. It is then taken out of the Jcas, washed in clean water and dried, after which it is well rubbed by hand. The leather thus prepared is of a dark, brownish-red colour, of good quality and does not crack. [Tanning Materials ^lsed in the Damoli District, Central Provinces^ R. S. Hole. — Indian forester, July 1899.] 1 -.,-,,. 6 NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. The fruit has been found to contain 4 per cent, of tannic acid. In Western Bengal and Hyderabad the tree is the mainstay of the tasar silk industry, being pollarded before the rains to provide young leaves for the caterpillars. Mr. T. F. Catania writing to the Indian Forester in 1899 laid great stress on the future that probably awaited the tasar silk industry in Hyderabad, favoured by the fact that natural jungles of Terminalia tomentosa extend for miles as if they had been created for the propagation of this industry. He compared the planting of millions of mulberry trees which would have had to be undertaken to feed the Univoltine variety of the silk-worm, eggs of which had been offered to the Nizam by the Indian Government. In parts of Bombay the tree is extensively lopped for ash manure for crops, the process being continued from year to year until the hills, for example in Satara, along the line of the Ghats, are studded with huge pollards (Brandis) . Lac is occasionally gathered on the branches and in Oudh and the United Provinces the leaves are lopped for cattle fodder (Braudis). A number of experiments made in the United Provinces to determine the proportion of bark to wood by weight gave the following results : — With 6 trees of 1st and 2nd girth classes, the weight of wood fit for timber and fuel being 100, the weight of dry bark was 16'5 : with 6 trees between 4' 6" and 8' 9" in girth the proportions of dry timber and dry bark were 100 to 14'6 : with 6 trees between 3' 4" and 8' 0" in girth the proportions of green wood to green bark, which in this case included the weight of unbarkable branches, was 100 to 25. 5. Natural Reproduction and Rate of Growth. Few trees show better natural reproduction than this, both from seed and coppice shoots. Reports from nearly all districts describe it as being fair to good, and it has the advantage that young seedlings are not overcome by the coarse grass that often covers the moist flats where it attains a large size. From the United Provinces alone do the reports indicate that seedlings are not plentiful, and this may be due to the extent to which seed-bearers have been removed in order to benefit Sal. Cattle and monkeys eat it and where heavy grazing is the rule, the young trees are usually destroyed. H. H. Haines states that in the Central Provinces coppice reproduction is somewhat uncertain, especially when trees are felled in the rains, but shoots may grow to 6 feet in two NOTE ON SAIN OE SAJ. 7 years. On the other hand numerous shoots are sometimes produced which remain small and weak and may only be a few feet high after 10 years' growth. He also makes the following note : " In the Central Provinces the main stem is frequently a sympodium made up of the lower parts of repeated leaders which have bent over at the top while lateral buds have in their turn assumed leadership." In 1895 Mr. H. C. Hill noted that this and other species formed dense thickets of seedlings in the Central Provinces where the beneficial influence of an old mohwa tree was found. Mr. J. W. Best notes as follows on the growth in the Bhandara Division, Central Provinces, in the Indian Forester for November 1909 :— " Another phenomenon due to excessive grazing is the carious growth of young Saj trees. I have in many places seen considerable areas of forest, the soil of which is completely covered by young Saj trees up to 18 inches in height, very much branched and stunted in growth. On being dug up these plants will be found to have a thick and distorted stern at or just beneath the surface of the ground. It is possible to ascribe this condition of growth solely to forest fires. I think that excessive grazing has more to do with it, however, became the pheno- menon is as common inside forests which have been successfully protected from fire for a number of years as it is in forest where protection has not been attempted, and one would expect these young trees to recover after protection from fire for a number of years. Our best forests in Bhandara are always protected from fire, but with the excep- tion of the small area taken up by the high forest working circle in Gaikhuri Eange, none of our forests are protected against cattle-grazing for a greater period than 10 years. In the high forest circle, where protection from, cattle has been carried out for the last 1 1 years, this condition of the Saj regeneration although present is not common ; it must, however, be borne in mind that previous to protection the ground was probably grazed as heavily as elsewhere. In places such as steep hills where, owing to their inaccessibility, cattle never graze, stunted growth of young Saj ia absent and incidentally the regeneration of all species is in a considerably more satisfactory condition than in forests situated on level ground. 'The cause of this abnormal growth of Sqj can be ascribed not so much to the browsing of animals as to their continuous trampling. This would account for the thick stem at the surface of the ground. If steins are continually, year after year, trodden down and mutilated, they could not be expected to send out a strong leading shoot, more particularly as the soil over the roots becomes hard through continuous trampling. On the sides of steep hills where cattle seldom if ever graze there are usually a sufficient number of stones to prevent the trampling down of the seedlings as well as df the soil, hence the comparatively good regeneration on the hillsides." NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. Mr. L. K. Martin is inclined to think that the above growth is. pro- duced by the persistence of the annual shoots giving- a bushy appearance to the tree till eventually the root is sufficiently established and able to throw up a large strong leading shoot, which grows fast and straight, the previous shoots dying down. Bourdillon says the rings run about 6 to an inch. Caccia records measurements taken on 300 trees in sample plots in the United Provinces during a varying number of years, of which ] 7 was the most, which indicate that the mean annual girth increment varies from nil to 1'25 inches. The latter was recorded on trees between I| and 4 1 feet in girth and is quite exceptionally high. Experiments in coppice growth made by Mr. H. Murray in Belgaum in 1 894 gave the following results. Three or four trees were examined and the date determined for all ages, mature trees between 38 and 44 years being selected. DlAMETEB IN INCHES. HEIGHT IN FEET. Age. Number of shoots pel- stump. Length of bole. Total. Mean yearly. Total. Mean yearly. 10 4-2 •42 19 1-9 ... ... 20 6-0 •30 29 1-45 ••• 30 7-8 •26 40 1-33 ... ... 40 9-0 •225 50 1-25 ... 30 1 ... ... ... ... 9 ... 40 ... ... 1 to 2 30 These figures were obtained at Nagargali at 2,200 feet above sea- level : the rainfall was about 80 inches and the soil laterite with some humus. The rock was'laterite overlying gneiss. The crop, in density P9, had been fire-protected for six years and the other species were mostly Xylia dolalriformis, Terminalia paniculata, and Lagerstrcemia lanceolata. NOTE ON SAlN OE SAJ. Mr. D. A. Thomson records the following average diameters, in his Working-Plan for the Supa Fuel Reserves, Northern Kaiiara, Bombay : — Age 5 years diameter l'J59 inches. 10 „ „ 2-21 ,, 15 „ „ 3;23 „ 20 „ „ 4-2 „ 25 „ „ 5-23 „ 30 „ „ 6-27 „ 35 „ „ 7;265 •„ 40 „ „ 8-121 „ 45 „ „ 9-114 „ 50 „ „ 10-06 „ 55 „ „ 10-08 „ 60 „ „ 11;5 65 „ „ 11-89 „ In the Karwar Fuel Reserves he calculated that the average girth at 40 years was 28-02 inches. Mr. R. S. Pearson gives the following figures obtained in the Ankola High Forest and Kalinaddi Slopes Forest, Kanara, Bombay : — Age. Average diameter in inches. Ankola. Kalinaddi. 10 2-18 2-4 20 4'0 5-7 30 5-76 ' 8-4 40 7-46 ',' 9'9 50 9'05 12-2 60 10-55 14-2 70 11-73 15'9 80 12-8 17-6 90 14-18 18-9 100 15-51 20-4 110 16-82 21-9 120 18-1 23-2 130 19-21 24-4 140 20-75 25-6 150 21-96 26-5 160 23-10 27-3 10 NOTE ON SAIN OR SA.K Mr. N. D. Satarawala gives the following figures in his Working- Plan for the Khanapur Fuel Reserves, Belgaum, Bombay : — Average girth at 40 years, 22'95 inches. Age of coppice shoots and mid -girth in inches — 1 year 4'0 inches. 2 years 4'5 „ 3 „ 5-3 4 „ 6-8 5 „ 8'3 „ 6 „ 9-2 „ 7 „ 8-8 8 „ 9-3 9 „ 11-9 „ 10 „ 11-1 12 „ 11-1 ", 13 „ 10-6 14 „ 13-6 From countings made in the Nallamalai forests, Kurnool, Madras, the average number of rings to each inch of diameter was found to be 5. In the Begur forest, North Malabar, Madras, 25 trees were measured and gave the following results : — Average age at 6 inches diameter 28'5 years. 19, P.7-Q » J-fl » 5» «J/ O t1 » 18 „ „ 85'3 „ 24 „ „ 116-6 „ In the Chedleth Range forests in the same district 7 7 trees gave the following results : — Average age at 6 indies diameter 26'05 years. 12 „ „ 48-02 „ „ 18 „ „ 72'35 „ 24 „ „ lOO'Ol ,> Mr. H. Murray records the following measurements of Coppice shoots in Belgaum, Bombay -.— Age. Height. Diameter. Feet. Inches. 6 11 2-3 10 19 4-1 15 25 5'1 20 30 6-1 25 35 6-9 30 40 7-7 35 45 8-4 40 50 9-0 NOTE ON SAIN OE SAJ. 11 Mr. F. Foulkes in " Notes on Timber Trees — South Kanara " says : — " Except in rigidly fire-protected areas, very little of the January seed crop survives as the hot weather fires destroy it. Apart from the fact that it is a strong shade-bearer and has large annual seed crops, the exceptional facility with which this tree reproduces itself is due to the July seed crop. The rains hegin in the middle of May and culminate in July, consequently there are no fires anywhere then. The chief danger the seed runs is from rotting and not heing able to secure a lodg- ment owing to the torrents of water which come down. Cattle must be rigidly excluded from areas under reproduction, and in the plains forests, fires also. Seedlings become established in 3 to 5 years. This species coppices excellently, but unless cut quite flush with the ground, the shoots are apt to grow horizontally instead of straight up." 6. Artificial Reproduction. Sowing and planting has been tried in all provinces with good re- sults on the whole. There seems to be no difficulty in obtaining a high percentage of germination, and the seedlings may reach a height of 18 inches after the first rains. In the Bombay Presidency in order to fill up blanks in coupes, small pits have been dug and the seed sown in them has germinated well. Where transplanting of one-year old seedlings has been tried, many of them have died and white-ants have attacked the roots. In plantations made in Burma deer at once selected the young seedlings in the forests for food, and in Bombay pig did an equal amount of damage. 7. Notes on Distribution and Extraction in different Provinces. (i) Surma. Vernacular names'. — Taukkyan (Burmese), Dap (Kachin), Mai'hok-hpa (Shan), Thay-hpay-kala (Karen), Taukkran (Arakanese). Local distribution. — This tree is one of the commonest in the Province and occurs in considerable quantities almost everywhere except in the Northern Shan States, Arakan and the South of Tenasserim where it is scarcer. In Upper Burma it seems to ascend commonly to a much greater height than in Tenasserim, being reported from an elevation of 4,000 feet in the Southern Shan States and 3,000 feet from £ NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. Bhamo. In the sea-coast districts it does not appear to go beyond 1,000 feet, but on the whole it grows best at 500 to 1,500 feet above the sea. ,A stiff clay suits.it well but it grows on many other varieties of soil, stunted but in considerable numbers on laterite and in dry stony .Indaing, straight and tall on well-drained ridges with Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa polymorpha and in plains forests^ and fairly densely on moist flats. Excellent groups may be found in most of the Pegu Yoma and Upper Burma bamboo and teak forests, containing trees up to 12 feet in girth, with a clear bole of 60 feet and height up to l£0 feet, but the size of tree principally in evidence has a girth of 5 to 8 feet. Extraction. —Except in the dry zone and a few of the more remote divisions, little difficulty will be found in extraction to the Railway or a floating stream, the logs being dragged by buffaloes or elephants from the hills and thence carted. With the, aid of bamboos the timber can be rafted down the Chindwin or the Irrawaddy as well as smaller streams, and it is still to be found in Upper Burma close to the banks of these rivers in large quantities. No extraction is done by Government, and in nearly all the Government Reserves, trees will be marked to suit the con- venience of purchasers, the duty never totalling more than R6 per tree. In unreserved forests also little restriction is placed on extraction, except in some districts where the best trees in the easily accessible forests have all been felled. The amount extracted up to date cannot be correctly estimated, no separate records for this timber having been kept, but an ample supply is still available in all the divisions named in the table below. A few estimates of quantities in the forests obtained from their Working-Plans are given below. In most districts will be found traders who are well acquainted with the best method of arranging for the ex- traction of timber to a floating or railway, station and the purchaser can always get into touch with them through the divisional officers whose ad- dress is given in the table below. Divisions in which extraction is very difficult are not entered. The log referred to "in the table measures over 4' 6" in mid-girth without bark and may be of any length that the buffaloes and carts can manage. The ton represents 50 cubic feet in the round, unless " converted " is entered. The figures given under local market rates and rates for delivery are in many cases only estimates, the timber having been little extracted up to date over the greater part of Burma. The duty must usually be added, but it is hardly ever more than ••&% per ton for round logs, and R4 per ton for sawn timber. NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. 13" Govern- incut Division. duty per Local market rate. . Bate for delivery. Head- quarters of Divisional log. Forest B< *3C ft a.. £ Per S Per At omcer. Upper Chind- 1. 0 10 ton Alon . . • Kindat. win. Lower Chind- 1 0 » " ... .1. 10 ton. Alon . ,'- . Monywa. win. Myittha 1 0 14 30 ton ton Alon . Rangoon > Mingia. Bhamo . 1 0 ... '" 20 25 40 I ton j Katha Mandalay . Eangooii . >• Bhamo. Katba 1 0 10 ton 10 15 35 I ton j Katha Mandalay . Rangoon [ Katha. Mu 1 0 12 log 1" ton -) 30 ( ton (converted. 40 ton converted J Kanbalu or Wuntho. Shwebo. Euby Mines . 1 0 6 log 13 ton Mandalay . . Mogok. Mandalay 1 0 50 ton 35 ton } •\ converted . 45 f ton ( converted ) TKazi ' .- •"; > Maymyo. 35 ton Mandalay . ) Minbu , 1 0 ... 25 ton Irrawaddy bank. Minbu. Pyinmaim 1 0 35 ton 35 ton Pyinmana and Pyinmana. converted . other stations. Thayetinyo 1 8 12 15 ton ton Irrawaddy bank . Rangoon > Tliayetmyo. Promo . 1 8 6 ton Prome and otb.er Prome. stations. Heuzada . 1 8 10 log 20 50 ton ~) ( ton (.converted ) Kyangin and other sta- tions. 1 ^Henzada. 26 ton ") 1 56 C -ton i. converted ) Rangoon j Bassein . . 1 8 9 log 8 log Bassein Bassein. 14 NOTE ON SA.TN OR SAJ. Govern- ment TT ad- duty Local market rate. Rate for delivery. quarters of Division. per Divisional log. Forest officer. K a. K Per K Per At Zigon I 8 3 log Zigon ") Tharra- 14 ton Rangoon ) wad'Jy. Tharrawaddy . 1 8 7 log 40 53 ton converted, do. Letpadan and other stations . Rangoon \ Tharra- l waddy. Arakan . 1 8 75 ton 75 ton Kyaukpyu or Akyab . converted . converted. Chittagong. Rangoon 1 8 6 log 5 log Palon and other ^ stations. | 40 ton 40 ton Do. ^Rangoon . converted . converted. 1 50 do. Rangoon . J Pegu 1 8 20 ton 20 ton Pegu . Pegu. Toungoo 1 8 35 ton 8 ton Tovmgoo and Toungoo. other stations. Shwegjin 1 8 45 ton 15 ton Railway stations ) converted. >• Shwegyin. 10 ton Shwegyin ) Ataran . . 1 8 50 ton Martaban or Moulmein. converted . Moulmein. Thaungyin 1 8 ••• .. 11 ton Martaban or Moulmein. Moulmein. Figures from Surma Working-Plan*. District. Working Circle. Area in square miles. TREES ON THE AREA. REMARKS. GlETH IN FEET. Above 7. C-7. *£ 3—41. Thnrrawaddy . DC. Do. Satpok . Sitkwin . Thindawyo 8 2 10 3,158 347 762 3,023 271 779 5,881 725 906 8,756 1,250 1,509 "| The minimum | girth Jimit }- fixed for 1 felling is 6 J feet. " Do. Kangyi . 8 2,537 1 NOTE ON SAIN ok SAiK 15 (ii) Central Provinces. Vernacular names. — Am (Marathi), Saj, Saja or Barsaj (Hindi), Maddi karra (Telegu) . Local distribution. — This tree occurs in almost all the forest tracts of the Central Provinces and is often the commonest. It is inclined to be gregarious and attains large girth in the moist fertile flats and especi- ally affects nalas. Where Sal occurs it is found with it and thrives between 500 and 2,000 feet above sea-level, small trees ascending to 3,000 feet, and is also found in teak forest in some districts. It often forms 10 to 30 per cent, of the standing crop and occasionally as much as 50 per cent, and stunted trees are abundant on black cotton soil, which many species do not like. Extraction. — The forests containing this species are nearly always worked under the Coppice with Standards method, but in Mandla, part of South Chanda, part of Seoni, Chindwara, and Hoshaugabad the yield is principally derived from Improvement fellings. The sizes of timber obtainable accordingly vary much and rates for different kinds are given in the table below. At present the market value of the timber is not great enough to bear the cost of transport from the more remote forests, and roads or tramways would be able to tap rich areas still almost un- touched. The Coppice with Standards coupes are usually sold as they stand to purchasers, but departmental extraction is carried on in a few districts. From the figures given in the table will be seen the approximate amount of timber available, but no accurate returns for past extraction, and no further estimates of any value for future outturn can be given at present. 16 NOTE ON SAIN OH SAJ. Very little has been exported from these Provinces up to date. Division. Government daty. Local market. Bate for delivery. £ a. p. Per S a. p. Per K a. p. Per At Mandla 029 c. ft. 040 c. ft. 1 15 0 c. ft. ) round. 230 c.ft. *> Bombay. converted. ) 080 c.ft. J 0 12 0 round, c.ft. > Railway stations. converted. ) Bamoh . t „, 12 0 0 100 poles 020 c. ft. Railway stations. to 050 » Jubbulpore. 25 0 0 0 13 0 »9 Bombay. Faugor ... 040 pole 040 C. ft. Railway stations. to 100 Bombay. 0 12 0 Narsiugpore ... 200 100 poles 1 0 0 c. ft. Railway stations. to 60 0 0 Seoul ... ... 016 pole ... ... , to 340 S. Cbanda . 020 c. ft. ... 070 c. ft. Rajahmundri or Coca- nada. 0 11 0 » Nagpiir. 0 14 0 Cawnpore or Bombay. Nagpur Wardha ... 780 100 poles 026 c.'ft. Railway stations. to 20 0 0 Bhandara . ... 200 100 poles 060 c.ft. Railway stations. to to 10 0 0 0 12 0 Balaghat . 009 pole ... 10 0 0 100 poles Railway stations. to to 0 10 0 75 0 0 0 12 0 c.ft. Lamtha station. Raipur ... 700 100 poles 050 c.ft. Dhamtari or Rajim. to 60 0 0 080 c. ft. In Working Circle No. 1, Allapili Forests, Chanda, Central Provinces, the following figures are given, the area being 31 square miles : — Number of sound trees above 24 inches diameter . . . 7,473 „ „ 18-24 „ . 15,888 The minimum limit for felling is 24 inches diameter. (Hi) Central India Agency. In the State of Rewah the tree is common, and grows to about 4< feet in girth. It is used by the villagers for building, but little has been NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. 17 exported. The royalty is 2 annas per cubic foot and about 10,000 cubic feet are available annually near the Railway line. In Gwalior the tree occurs with teak and other species over a large area, but only as coppice shoots from old stumps* It is much in demand by villagers and the royalty charged is R3 per cart-load or 2 annas per cubic foot. It is called Saj in Malwa and Sader in other parts. In Indore it is abundant everywhere, but attains large dimensions only in a few favoured localities along the Satpura Hills on the borders of Khandesh, where tall straight trees of 7 feet girth are sometimes found. It grows to 4 or 5 feet in girth in the south-west of Nimawar, near the Chandgurh Reserve, Central Provinces, but such trees contain little heart- wood. The timber always commands a fair price for local building purposes and is valued for shafts. Small poles of a girth of less than 18 inches are scarcely saleable, but it is used for ploughs, agricultural implements, fuel and charcoal and the bark is valued for tanning. It is called Sadar, Saj, or Sajada. (iv) Berar. Vernacular names. — Sajar, Saj, Sadora, Ain. Local distribution. — Only in Betul, Nimar and Melghat does this tree grow to a large size, 6 to 8 feet in girth with a 50 feet bole, but individuals of this size are not common, and it is frequently stunted and shrubby owing to the poverty of the soil. It is however fairly abundant, forming up to 20 per cent, of the crop in favourable valleys. On the flat plateaux on the basalt it is little more than a shrub. Extraction. — Most of the wood is felled small in Coppice forests but large timber is removed in Improvement fellings from Betul and Melghat in the north of Berar, and it may be anticipated that a fairly large quantity of timber will be available for export from these forests when the new railway in the north of Berar has been built. Most of the extraction will be done by carts, dragging from the stump being neces- sary in the hilly tracts. In Betul an estimate has been made that 20,000 cubic feet will be available annually, two annas per cubic foot royalty being charged on the outturn, all work being done by the purchaser. From the Melghat forests timber can be delivered at Amraoti for Rll per cart-load of 6 maunds, the rate for the same to Ellichpur being ft 8. From the Betul forests timber can be carted to Itarsi in the floshangabad district for R5 per cart-load of 15 cubic feet- 18 NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. (v) Punjab and Kashmir. Vernacular names. — Sain, Assam, Local distribution. — In the Kangra and Simla forest divisions only is this tree reported to occur to any extent and even there it is not import- ant at present. From the Submontane forest of the Simla Division the cost of carriage is so high that even Sal has not so far been much exported and in the Kangra hills it is confined to scrub forests and has rarely been extracted. It can be delivered at Jagadhri for about 10 annas per cubic foot, at Jullundur for HI and at Hoshiarpur for 12 annas per cubic foot of sawn timber. In Jammu and Kashmir it is called BaJiera and is found in the outer valleys of the Jammu Province below 2,000 feet, usually scattered in cultivation and rare in forests. It attains a girth of 6 feet, occasionally more, and is used in the construction of village houses and for agricul- tural implements. (vi) Eastern Bengal and Assam. Vernacular names. — Amari, Asna, Sain, Paka Saj, Asan. Local distribution. — The tree is rare almost all over this province, and does not occur in many of the forests at all. It appears to be common only in the Jalpaiguri forests adjoining north-eastern Bengal and is there found up to 700 feet above sea-level, usually in mixed forests and rarely with Sal, trees 8 feet in girth being found with a clear bole of 40 feet. It can be extracted to railway stations for about 8 annas per cubic foot in the round, and to Calcutta for about Rl-4 per cubic foot in the round and Rl-10 sawn, but very little indeed has been sold up to date. (vii) United Provinces. Vernacular names. — Saj, Asna, Sain, Asaina, Hasna, Turha (Bun- delkhand) . Local distribution. — The Sain trees is, after Sal, one of the most im- portant timber trees of the United Provinces, and occurs in considerable numbers in almost all the Sal and many of the mixed forests and in the lower hills up to an altitude of 4,000 feet. It usually favours clayey local- ities on which it produces its best growth, and occasionally occurs pure over small areas. In the best Sal forests of these provinces Sain attains at times a girth of 13 feet with a clear bole of 50 feet, and many good trees of 6 to 8 feet in girth may be found. Under the various Working-Plans in force the exploitable size is fixed at 6 or 7 feet, the number of Sain trees NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. 19 estimated to be available being very large. They are shown in the tables^below. Extraction. — Trees are felled almost entirely under the Selection method, being chosen either specially for purchasers or in the course of Improvement fellings undertaken in order to favour the Sal. All trees marked on certain defined areas are sold annually to purchasers who pay either a lump sum only, or a lump sum combined with royalty on outturn, exporting the timber partly in the round and partly converted, by coolies or buffaloes to the nearest cart-road. Sawyers must often be imported and get RIO to 15 per month and food. It is accordingly necessary for purchasers to inspect the coupes before purchase in each case. Except Naini Tal, Chakrata, Bundelkhand, and Pilibhit, each forest division can supply a considerable quantity of Sain timber annually for some time to come, the estimated cost and amount available being given below : — A. mount Amount Forest Division. Rate for delivery without royalty. available annually. extracted during last 5 years. Per At C. ft. C. ft. Gorakhpur 4 annas 7 do. c. ft. do. Pharenda Siswa Bazar }• 1,20,000 6,00,000 8 do. . do. . Gorakhpur J Gonda . 5 do. do. . Railway stations 20,000 91,000 Bahraich 6 do. . do. . Nishangara ) 8 do. . 10 do. do. . do. . Raibojha Bahraich > 50,000 2,16,000 13 do. . do. . Bahramghat ) Kheri . 8 do. 5 do. do. do. . Sarota Phanta . Chandan Chowki } 1,00,000 5,40,000 Haldwani 3 to 5 do. Haldwani and 40,000 2,00,000 annas. I Lalkua. Lansdowne 60,000 1,00,000 Ramnagar 10 to 12 do. . annas. Nagina, Dham- pur, Seonara, 26,000 8 to 10 do. . Ramnagar. J annas. Siwaliks 8 annas . do. Railway stations 12,000 61,000 (Dehra Dun) sawn. ; 20 NOTE ON SAIN OK SAJ. Figures from Working- flans in the United Provinces. NUMBEB OF SOUND TREES ON THE AEEA. TM\ J_ Area Minimum Forest Division. Working Circle. in square miles. GlBTH IN FEET. girth fixed for felling. Annual yield. Over 6 feet. 4| to 6 feet. Haldwani . Sarkhet 37 5,094 8,350 6 feet. 141 trees. Nandhaur 65 15,847 28,709 440 „ Kalaunia 59 19,593 24,245 544 „ Kamnagar . Taria . 64 16,717 32,543 464 „ Bamganga 28 11,540 9,856 Kotah . 35 556 2,0-32 Lansdowne . Palain 44 3,817 8,504 106 trees. Sona Nadi 21 1,032 1,836 Kohtri 14 1,592 3,921 Bahraich . Motipur Sal . 64 5,040 15,101 Chakia Sal 6 544 4,292 5 feet Sohelwa Sal . 18 6,683 6,271 6 feet Siw a 1 i k s Experimental 8 464 590 ... (Dehra Dun). (viii) Western India. Vernacular names. — Matti, Sadad or Sadado (Gujarat!) , Kari-Matti (Dharwar), Ain (Thana and Kolaba) or Ains. Local distribution. — The tree is reported to be abundant in all the forest tracts except Satara and Belgaum forming up to 50 per cent, of the crop in parts of the Thana district and occurring to the extent of 30 mature trees per acre in parts of the Dangs forests in Surat. In Kolaba lopping for ash manure for rice cultivation has almost exterminated it in certain parts. Its northern limit seems to be 24° as it does not occur in Sindh and Rajputana, but in Kanara it is very plentiful. From the Dangs forests in Surat it forms the bulk of the yield of jungle-wood. Although apparently attaining its largest size, 8 feet in girth, 100 feet in height, with clear bole of 60 feet, only on flat fertile areas, it is found in almost all classes of forest from 100 to 2,500 feet above sea-level. It is generally smaller than this, and is usually much less of a timber tree near its n6rthern limit- NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. Extraction is carried on by dragging with bullocks and carting, the work being done partly by contractors and partly by Government agency. The outturn is obtained under the various methods of treatment under the Selection, Coppice, or Coppice with Standards systems, but the latter appears to be the commonest, the amount of large timber available being therefore not great. In Khandesh, Panch Mahals, Dhar- war, South Thana and Kolaba the wood is principally disposed of as fuel. From three of the Kanara divisions the annual total average outturn of recent years has been about 50,000 cubic feet. In the table given below the figures available for timber have been entered, fuel not being included. A ton means 50 cubic feet. In the Rajpipla State the tree is common, attaining a girth of 42 inches, and being at times as plentiful as 30 trees to the acre. The quan- tity available annually in future is estimated at 15,01)0 cubic feet. It is extracted by the Bhils and a good deal can be floated down the Nerbudda. The rates given for this State in the table below refer to rough logs and should be quadrupled for converted timber. It is at present exported to Baroda, Ahmedabad and North Gujerat. In Baroda it sells for S3 per cart-load of timber, and six annas per cart-load of fuel. Division Govern- ment duty. Local market rate. Bate for delivery. Outturn. or Q4-«4-n otate . R a. Per K a. Per K a. Per At Quan- tity. During W. D. Kaiiara 53 0 Ton 5 0 Kliandy Sea-coast 82,000 1 ast 4 years. c. ft. E.D. „ 24 0 Ton 40 0 j( 55 0 Ton Hubli or Hatti- 78,000 „ 5 „ keri. c. ft. S. D. 24 0 a 1 0 C.ft. 0 8 C. ft. Bombay, Cali- ... cut. 0 4 " Hanawar. N. D. „ 24 0 1 0 )» 0 4 Haveri 41,000 La-st 3 years. c. ft. Dharwar (small timber only). ... ... 2 0 0 12 Pole stack of 0 2 II Hubli 7,000 poles. „ 5 „ fuel 6' X 5'x4'. Surat ... 15 0 K handy . 11 0 Khan d y fTapti Valley 25,000 „ 5 „ 12 0 of 124 < Kail way. c. ft. VA 0 c. ft. (.Bulsar Surat. Rajpipla State 0 2 C.ft. 0 8 C. ft. 0 8 C. ft. Nandod or 83,000 1904 to 1909. 0 h a n d o d c. ft. 0 10 " Ankleshwar. NOTE ON SAIN OK SA^. Figures from Bombay Working-Plans. District. Working Circle. Area in square miles. Trees on the area. Minimum size fixed for fell- ing. Remarks . Kiinara . Gund, Series X and XI. 47 1 " to 24'' diameter . 100,000 Above 24'' diameter . 12,000 24 inches dia- meter. » • • Supa, block XX 18 10" to 24'' diameter . 57,000 Above 24" „ . 2,000 6 feet girth. un- sound, sound » .v, • Kalinadi slopes block XXVI. 42 7" to 27" diam. 84,000 15,000 Above 27" „ 3;500 1,000 7 feet „ Annual yield 110 trees. » • • Mundgod High Forest. 85 4" to 24'' diameter . 900,000 Above 24" „ . 19,000 6 „ „ un- sound, sound. >i • • Ankola High Forest. 70 7" to 27" diam. 229,000 53,003 Above 27" „ 9,900 13,300 (The value of the unsound trees is 10 to 15 per cent, less than that of the sound trees .) 7 feet on best locality, 6 feet else- where. Annual yield 470 trees. Total num- ber avail- able : 1st quality 13,732, 2nd quality 4,756. " ' Yellapur above ghat. 137 10" to 24" diameter 1,200,000 Above 24" „ 96,000 7 feet girth. » « • Yellapur slopes 37 1'' to 24" „ 140,000 Above 24'' „ 11,000 ... Belgaum . N a g a r g- a 1 i Series. 14 1" to 24" „ 23,000 Above 24" „ 600 24J inches diameter. Annual yield 24 trees. (ix) Bengal. Vernacular names.- — Paka Saj (Nepalese), Asan (Hindi), Hatana (Ho, Kol, Mundari, Santali). Local distribution. — In Bengal and Orissa the tree is not as abundant as further south. It was formerly found often with Sal but has been killed out here and there to favour the latter. There is still, however, a great deal of marketable timber available growing usually on clay soils but ascending into the drier gravelly hill areas up to 3;000 feet above sea- level. In the Tista forests the girth reaches 16 feet with a clear bole of NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. 70 feet but this is rare, and in the south of the province the girth is much less, rarely going above 3 feet in Palamau, and in Singhbhum being usually not more than 6 feet, with a bole of 80 to 100 feet. Extraction. — As in Burma, the tree has been left alone in the more remote forests, having no saleable value in the Kurseong and other forests of the north. The limit of girth to be felled has been fixed as low as five feet in parts of Orissa, rising to seven feet in the north, and at these limits trees are marked for purchasers as they are required, only a small amount being available from regular fellings of Coppice and Coppice with Standards. The logs are usually dragged by buffaloes to country cart-roads, and thence carted, but occasionally they are floated lashed to boats. The estimates given of the timber now standing in the forest are extremely vague, but when the wood becomes readily saleable, a certain amount will be available annually. Two or three days' inspection of the forests of a division would suffice to enable the purchaser to decide whether the trade was worth embarking on, in any of the divisions named in the following table : — Division. Government duty. 1 Local market rate. Bate for delivery. Amount extracted during last 5 years. K Per B Pel- R Per at Cubic feet. Angul . 9 pies to 3 annas. cubic foot 8 to 10 annas. cubic foot 8 to 10 annas. cubic foot Cuttack in the round. ! 21,000 Chaibassa 8 to 12 do. Lota Pahar . annas. i Kurseong 3 annas cubic foot ... ... 12£ annas do. Siliguri 1 ' Tista , 1 anna 6 pies to 2 annas according to locality. cubic foot 10 annas to Rl. cubic foot 14 annas to HI. cubic foot converted . Bagrakote, Dam Dim, or Mai Bazaar, Siliguri. 15,000 Darjeeling . ... ... ... 8 to 10 annas. cubic foot in the round. - Siliguri / Sambalpur . 4 annas cubic foot 12 annas cubic foot HI 1 2 annas. cubic foot, do. Calcutta Rail- way stations. 4 c 4 NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. (a) Southern India. Vernacular names. — Karimarudu (Malayam), Mattior Banapu (Cana- rese) Nallamaddi or Inamaddi (Telegu), Sahajo (Uriya). Local distribution. — In the Madras Presidency the tree is fairly well distributed, but in the south it only occurs along hills to any extent, being absent in Tanjore and Trichinopoly. Though not so common as in Bombay, it forms in some districts up to 12 per cent, of the growing stock being fairly plentiful in the Wynaad and ascending to 4,200 feet in the Nilgiris. The girth seems not to exceed 9 feet and the length of bole 50 feet, and this size is only attained on the best favourable localities, as in Bellary, Cuddapah, Nellore, Kistna and South Kanara the best trees are much smaller. In Guntur it is absent. Mr. A. W. Lushington notes that in the hills of North Coimbatore it is chiefly confined to the higher and damper localities. It was tried for sleepers but most of the trees were found to contain heart-shakes, probably caused by the devastating fires. Extraction. — In Kistna, Coimbatore and South Kanara a certain amount of the wood is felled in Coppice and Coppice with Standards forests as fuel, and elsewhere felling up to date has been confined to scattered Selection fellings as desired by purchasers. No large quantities have how- ever been extracted nor can a heavy annual outturn be expected in future. From most of the forest divisions the estimates of future outturn are too small to be worth considering, but for such as have supplied details the figures in the following table may be useful. The Malabar Timber Yard and Saw Mills Limited quote R2 per cubic foot for scantlings and ft 2-2 per cubic foot for planks free on rail at Kallai. They call it Malabar walnut. In Coorg the tree is known as Matti and is the predominant species in the deciduous forests everywhere, attaining in the south a girth of 10 feet. The timber is very largely used for house building and carts. About 20,000 cubic feet are estimated to be available annually, Government royalty being imposed at 3^ annas per cubic foot. In Hyderabad it is called Nalla muddy, Saclora, Saj, Yen, Kari Muddy >. Kari Matti and it is very largely used for house building. The bark is much used for tanning and the tree is pollarded for tasar silk cultivation by jungle tribes. It attains 6 feet in girth- in Telingana and 3 feet in Aurangabad. At Warangal railway station the market rate is about SI -4 per cubic foot. From the Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad forests : about 10,000 cubic feet have been and can be obtained annually. NOTE ON SAIN OR SAJ. In Mysore the tree is widely distributed and is called Karimatti. It i& very largely used in building, for agricultural implements, and for ships and boats, and grows to a large size in Malnad. The leaves are used for manure. About 100,000 cubic feet may be extracted annually, the price being 12 annas per cubic foot. In Travancore the tree is usually called Tliembavu and is in great demand for house building, carts, furniture, fuel, and charcoal. It is very common throughout the State between sea-level and 2,000 feet. About 150,000 cubic feet are felled annually and its value in the log on the coast is 12 to 1-1 annas per cubic feet (Bourdillon) . Division or State. Local market rate. .Rate for delivery. Amount extracted during last 5 years . K Per B Per At Cubic feet. North Malabar ... 10 annas cubic foot Calicut, Tellicherry and Mysore. 22,000 South Malabar ... ... 4 annas do. Ferok, Beypore, Calicut. Add duty on or value of timber. 84,000 North Coim- batore. 12 annas cubic foot to HI. do. 10 annas Rl do. do. Railway stations . Coimbatore, Pal- ghat, Calicut, Bangalore. South Coim- batore. 7 to 10 do. annas. Rt do. Podanur 59,000 Nilgiris 11 annas cubic foot in 1909. squared. Rl cubic foot sawn. Nanjangud 3,00,> Rl-4 . cubic foot sawn. Ferok . Vizagapatam 12 annas cubic foot round. 15 annas cubic foot Narasapatam Road. Rl-2 . cubic foot squared. Rl-2 . do. Vizagapatam Coorg . 4 annas, cubic foot 11 annas do. Paschimavahini Sta- tion. Mysore 94,000 Mysore 12 to 15 do. annas. 13 annas do. Railway stations. 250,000 (3 years) . ZO NOTE ON SAIN OE SAJ. From the Coorg Working-Plans the figures given below have been taken. As, however, the Working-Plans have mostly expired, the figures must be taken merely as a guide to the amount of timber the forest can produce, and up-to-date estimates should be obtained from the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Coorg. Name of Forest. Area in square miles. Quantity in cubic feet available annually. Devamaclii-Mawkal . . 28 3,000 83 34,100 Anekadu-Attoor . . 20 800 Arkeri ... . 29 3,000 CALCUTTA : FEINTED BY SUPDT. GOVT. FEINTING, INDIA, 8, HASTINGS STEEET. ( Lager stroemia lanceolate*, Wall) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT FEINTING, INDIA 1913 Price As, 3 or 4d, I BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). Bulletin No. L— Note on the Bee-Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Stebbing, P.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Bulletin No. 2. — Note on the Quetta Borer (^Eolesthes sartus), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3. — Note on the Chilgoza (Pinus G-erardiana ) Bark-Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan, i he same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4. — Ficus elastica : its natural growth and artificial propagation, with a description of the method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 5. —Notes on a visit to some European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Siebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2-0-0. Bulletin No. 6.— Memorandum on Mechanical Tests of Some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B.A., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7. — Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-i-Suliman, by E. P. Stebbing, P.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8. — Note on the Life History of Hoplocerambyx Spinicornis (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No. 9. — Notes on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilmot, I.F.S., C.I.E., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. Price 1-0-0. Bulletin No. 10. — Note on theDuki Fig Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batoeerarubus),^ E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist, Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11. — On some Assam Sal (Shorea robusta) Insect Pests, by the same author. Price 1-10-0. II — LEAFLETS. Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series. — The Sal Bark-Borer (Sphcerotrypes siwalikensis, Steb.), by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 2, Zoology Series. — The Teak Defoliator (Hybloea puera, Cram), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series. — The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyrausta machoeralis, Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 4, Zoology Series. — The Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Scolytus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series. — The Blue Pine " Polygraphus " Bark-Borer (Polygraphus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— -PAMPHLETS. Pamphlet No. 1, Chemistry Series So. 1. — Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam, by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Series No. 1. — The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous Forests on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. Pamphlet No. 3, Working-Plan Series No. 1. — A Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 4, Forest Economy Series No. 1.—- Note on Lac and Lac Cultivation, by D. N. Avasia, Extra- Assistant Conservator of Forests, Central Provinces. Price 0-2-0. Pamphlet No. 5, Sylviculture Series No. 1. — Notes on Sal in Bengal, by A. L. Mclntire, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Bengal. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 6, Sylviculture Series No. 2. — Note on Forest Reservation in Burma in the Interests of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Rodger, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, Burma. Price 1-0-0. Pamphlet No. 7, Forest Economy Series No. 2. — Note on Andaman Marble- Wood or Zebra Wood; (Diospyros Kurzii, Hiern.), by R. S. Troup, F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. Jfamphlet No. 8, Working- Plan Series No. 2. — Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-10-0. L Continued On page 3 of cover. 2 19 NOTE ON BENTEAK OR NANA WOOD (Lagerstr&mia lanceolata, Wall.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta. Constable & Co.v 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, E.G. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street^ New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. H. S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. T. Fisher Unwin. 1, Adelphi Terrace. London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Luzac & Co.. 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B. H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Grafton Street. Dublin. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11. ON THE CONTINENT. Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig Ernest Leroux, 28. Rue Bonaparte, France. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. IN INDIA AND CEYLON. Berlin, W. N., Paris. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta, R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sons, 75, Harrison Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S . Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Thacker & Co., Ld., Bombay. A. J. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay. Radhabai Atmaram Sagoon, Bombay. Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. * Agents for sale of the Legislative Department publications only. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Ram Chandra Govind & Son, Kalbadevi, Bombay. Superintendent, American Baptist Mission PresS; Rangoon. Rai Sahib M. Gulab Singh & Sons, Mufid-i- Ani Press, Lahore and Calcutta. N. B. Matlmr, Superintendent, Nazir Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. A. Chand & Co., Punjab. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo, Ceylon. S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students and Company, Cooch Behar. Manager, Educational Book Depots, Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager, Imperial Book Depot, 63, Chandney Chauk Street, Delhi.* Manager, East Coast News, Vizagapatam.* Manager, " The Agra Medical Hall and Co- operative Association, Limited " (Successors to A. John & Co., Agra).* Superintendent, Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, Mangalore.* P . Varadachary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell, Printer, etc., 7, South Roa<3, Allahabad.* D. C. Anand & Sons, Peshawar.* N 6 T £ . notes regarding the lesser known Indian timbers have been - compiled in order that all the information at present available regarding them may be easily obtainable. For some of the best forests detailed Working-Plans have not yet, been made, as the demand for timber in the neighbourhood is at present very small, but full information regarding the timbers available and means of extraction can always be obtained from local forest officers. Application can also be made at any time to the Forest Economist, Dehra Dun, United Provinces, India, who will supply specimens of any timber free and put enquirers in communication with local forest officers. Notes on the following timbers have now appeared : — 1. Lagerstrcemia tomentosa (Lcza — Burma). 2. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (In — Burma). 3. Pterocarpus dalbergioides (Padan/c — Andaman Islands), 4. Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Padaulc— Burma). 5. Carallia integerrima (Maniawga — Burma). 6. Diospyros Kurzii (Zebra Wood — Andaman Islands). 7. Berry a Ammonilla (Pctwun — Southern India and Burma). 8. Terminalia tomentosa (Saj, Sain, TaukJcyan — India and Burma) , 9. Gmelina arborea (Gumhar, Siwan — India and Burma). 10. Ougeinia dalbergioides (Sandan, Tiwas — India). 11. Lagerstrcemia lanceolata (Benteak,Nana — Southern India). 12. Anogeissus latifolia (Ba&li, D/iaura — India). 13. Pterocarpus Marsupium (Honne, Vengai — India). Reference is also invited to the following : — A Manual of Indian Timbers, by J. S. Gamble, C.I.E. (Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London.) Indian Woods and Their Uses, by R. S. Troup. (Superintendent, Government Printing, India, Calcutta.) ot (ttana Lagerstrcemia lanceolata, Wall. Natural Order — Lythraceae. BENTEAK OR NANA WOOD. Lagerstrcemia lanceolata, Wall. Natural Order — Lythracese. 1. General Distribution. This valuable tree is only found over a small part of the forest area of India, being confined to the southern and central parts of Bombay and the southern and western parts of Madras, and to Mysore. It is not recorded from Hyderabad or the Northern districts of Madras, and only scattered trees are found in Kolaba and Surat on the West Coast. In Satara and Baroda it does not occur and in East Khandesh it is very rare, In Coorg it is fairly plentiful and large in deciduous forests. 2. Locality and Habit. The tree occurs in mixed deciduous forests up to about 4,000 feet above sea- level and grows fast in moist localities, forming as much as 10 per cent, of the stock. It grows best as a rule between 1,000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level, but in South Malabar it is reported to be plentiful between 100 and 500 feet. It is a tall straight tree with rather an open crown of small leaves, the small white flowers appearing in the dry season at the end of the branchlets in large panicles. The bark is smooth and white and peels off in papery flakes. " Is readily distinguishable in the forest from other trees by the peculiar colour and smoothness of its bark. Young Benteak also stands out very conspicuously from the surrounding growth by the white under- surface of the leaves showing when ruffled by the wind." (Notes on Timber Trees in South Ganara — F. Foulkes.) 3. Description, Properties and Uses of Timber. The heartwood is red or reddish-brown of very uniform appearance on. a vertical section, moderately hard and close-grained. The annual rings may usually be distinguished, the spring wood being marked by JJ NOTE ON BENTEAK OK NANA WOOD. numerous large pores and pale colour and the autumn wood by its darker colour and short pale lines of tissue containing pores. It is straight-grained and easily worked. Durability. — The wood is not much attacked by white-ants, speci- mens tested being almost sound after 2| years in the ground. Weight. — The wood is not very heavy, the weight per cubic foot when dry averaging about 44 Ibs. Coimbatore and Malabar specimens have been found as heavy as 50 Ibs. (Gamble). Strength. — The value of F, which represents the strength of a bar of timber calculated from the length between supports, breadth, and thick- ness of the bar, and the weight in pounds which when placed in the middle of the bar causes it to break, is about 560 (Gamble). Sal gives 790, Teak 600 and Shisham 796. Fissibility. — The wood can be fairly easily split. The figure re- presenting its place in a list of 62 woods tested is 4, about the same as Padauk, Toon and Terminalia tomentosa. Sal is represented by 9*88 and Teak, which is very easily split, by T75. Calorific power. — No figures are available for this species, but two other species of Layerstroemia tested by Mr. Puran Singh gave fairly good results, being placed about half-way on the list of 56 Indian species tested. It makes good fuel and charcoal. Seasoning. — In Kanara the tree has been girdled three years before felling, but this has not been found very successful in preventing crack- ing. The timber is very liable to this defect and slow and careful seasoning must be undertaken to prevent it. Much better results have been obtained by felling the trees ten months after girdling and storing them for eighteen months in a depot before sale. Only 67 out of 297 trees thus treated were cracked. This was done in Kanara, Bombay (W. A. Miller). Uses. — This timber is much in request wherever it can be obtained, for buildings, ships and furniture. In Northern Bombay small timber is converted into charcoal in the forest or exported as firewood. In Kanara straight poles sell well for masts, and it has been used for railway goods wagons. In Madras it is also used for agricultural imple- ments and carts, Arabs buy it from Malabar for dhow-building, and it makes good coffee-cases. In Travancore it is used for oil casks. A small consignment was sold in London in 1878 for £2 per ton,. NOTE ON BENTEAK OB- NANA WOOD. 3 4. Minor Products. In an analysis of liquid extract obtained from the bark from Coorg the percentage of dry extract was found to be I'l, the percentage of tannin '31, and the percentage of tannin in the dry extract 28'1. It is noted by M. Rama Rao as an associate of Sandal, but root attachments between the two have not been found. 5. Natural Reproduction and Rate of Growth. Natural reproduction is reported to be generally good, though often scattered. Foulkes in " Notes on Timber Trees in South Kanara " says : — " Natural reproduction uncertain and this species must be rigidly protected from fire as the seeds fall in the middle of the fire season : the seedlings too are especially susceptible to damage from this cause. Will not germinate in poor soil exposed to the sun but requires one that is deep, moist, and stiff : owing to the minuteness and consequent light- ness of the seed it would seem to be advantageous to remove all dead leaves prior to the fruiting season in order that the seed may come into immediate contact with ,the mineral soil. The seedlings appear to require three years to establish themselves, and once established, are hardy/' Bourdillon says the growth is fast in favourable circumstances, young trees showing as much as 10 inches diameter in 11 years. Experiments on coppice growth made by Mr. H. Murray in Belgaum in 1894 gave the following results. Three or four trees were examined and the data determined for each age, mature trees between 38 and 44 years being selected. DIAMETER IN INCHES. HEIGHT IN FEET. Age. Number of snoots Length of bole. 1 Total. Mean yearly. Total. Mean yearly. per stump. 10 37 •37 19 1-9 20 5-5 •275 26 1-3 • • , 30 8-4 •28 34 118 40 9-7 •242 39 •97 27 1 • •• ... e . • •• "7 40 ... ... 2 to 3 27 4 NOTE ON BENTEAK OR NANA WOOD. These figures were obtained at Nagargali at 2,200 feet above sea- level : the rainfall was about 80 inches and the soil laterite with some humus : the rock laterite overlying gneiss. The crop, in density '9, had been fire-protected for six years and the other species were mostly Xylia dolabriformis, Terminalia tomentosa and T. paniculate. Mr. D. A. Thomson gives the following average diameters in his Working-Plan for the Supa Fuel Reserves, North Kanara, Bombay : — Age 5 years : diameter 1'182 inches. „ 10 „ „ 2-229 „ „ 15 „ „ 3-276 „ ,, 20 „ „ 4-438 „ „ 25 „ „ 5-68 „ 30 „ „ 6-75 „ 35 „ „ 7-89. „ „ 40 „ „ 8-947 „ „ 45 „ „ 9-79 „ 50 „ „ 10-8 „ 55 „ „ 11-02 „ „ 60 „ „ 12-04 „ „ 65 „ ., 12-51 „ „ 70 „ „ 13-35 In the Kanara Fuel Reserves he estimated that the average girth at 40 years was 30*72 inches, while in the KhanapurFuel Reserves in the Belgaum district Mr. N. D. Satarawala gives the average girth at the same age as 19'68 inches only. Mr. Satarawala also gives the follow- ing figures for coppice shoots in the fame forests : — Age 4 years : girth at centre of log in inches 8 „ 6 „ „ „ „ 8-3 „ 7 ,, „ „ „ 9-5 „ 8 „ „ „ „ 10-7 „ 10 „ „ „ „ 13-5 12 15-3 ON BENTEAK OK NANA #001). 5 Mr. R. S. Pearson gives the following figures showing rate of growth of " Nana " in his Working-Plans for the Kalinaddi and Ankola Forests in Kanara, Bombay : — Average diameter in inches. in years. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 Kalinaddi. 2-9 5-3 7-5 9-7 11-9 14-2 15-9 17-5 19-0 20-3 21-7 22-9 23-9 25-0 26-1 26-5 27-6 28-1 29-0 31-3 Ankola. 2-7 4-9 6-7 8-5 10-3 11-8 13-3 14-8 16-2 17-5 18-8 18'3 20-6 21-5 22-6 23-0 24-2 24-7 25-6 25-9 In the Chedleth Range Forests, North Malabar, Madras, 20 trees gave the following results :— Average age at 6 inches diameter . 27'8 years. 24 49-6 71'8 103-4 Mr. H. Murray records the following measurements of coppice-shoots in Belgaum, Bombay : — Age. 5 10 15 20 2fl 30 35 40 Height in feet. 10-5 19 23 27-5 31-5 34-5 37 39 Diameter in inches. 2-3 3-6 4-6 5-8 6-9 8-0 9-0 9-75 ON fiENTEAfc OR NANA 6. Artificial Reproduction. In South Coimbatore a small plantation made in bamboo forest shows much the same growth as teak planted at the same time. Seedlings are apparently rather tender to transplant. 7. Notes on Distribution and Extraction in different Provinces. (*) Southern India. Vernacular names. — Venteak, Venteku (Tamil), Benteak, Ventek (Malayam), Bili-nandi, Benteku (Canarese). Local distribution. — In the Madras Presidency the tree is practically confined to the eastern and southern forests adjoining Travancore, being plentiful in Malabar and occurring in fair quantities in Madura, Coirn- batore and South Kanara. It is usually found in moist deciduous forests up to 4,000 feet above sea-level, but is rare on the lower levels and from some districts is reported to be common only between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. Ten feet in girth, 100 feet in height and 60 feet clear bole have been recorded in the most favourable situations. Extraction. — Trees are selected as required by purchasers, a minimum girth being fixed which is usually about 7 feet. Felling and extract- ing is carried out by Government or by purchasers, by dragging, carting, floating, and sometimes in Coimbatore by means of a tram-line. In the table below are given such details as are available to help purchasers, further information being obtainable from the divisional officers. About 12,000 cubic feet can be extracted annually from South Coimbatore and 6,000 cubic feet from South Malabar. The Malabar Timber Yards and Saw Mills Limited quote Rl-15-6 per cubic foot for scantlings and R2-1-6 for planks, free on rail at Kallai. In Coorg the tree is called Nandi (Canarese) and is found through- out the deciduous forests, reaching in favourable localities a girth of 10 feet. During the last five years about 50,000 cubic feet have been extracted, and the amount available annually in future is estimated at 10,000 cubic feet, Government royalty being paid at 3 annas per cubic foot. It is used locally in house-building. In Mysore it is known as Nandi and is common in the Kadur and NOTE ON BENTBAK OR NANA WOOD. Shimoga forests, often growing to a large size, and being extensively used for building, carts, coffee-cases and furniture. About 60,000 cubio feet may be extracted annually, the price being 12 to 15 annas per cubic foot. Sixty-six thousand cubic feet have been extracted during the last three years. In Travaneore the tree is called Vevala in Tamil and is very common in the deciduous and drier evergreen forests up to 3,000 feet. The wood is much in demand for foreign boat-building and is usually brought out in the form of large planks. About 10,000 cubic feet are sold annually,, the value in the log being 10 to 12 annas per cubic foot (Bour- dillon). Figures regarding Extraction. Division or State. Market price. Rate for delivery. R a. Per Per At Central Coim- batore. 12 0 Candy of 12^ c.ft. 7 annas 8 annas (exclusive of value of Cubic foot Palghat, Coim- batore. timber). South Coimba- tore. 0 12 Cubic foot at forest 8 annas (ex- clusive of Do. Podanur. depots. value of timber). North Malabar 0 4 Cubic foot 13 annas Do. Calicut, Telli- squared. chery, Mysore. South Malabar 5 0 to 15 0 Candy of 13c.fi 4 annas (ex- clusive of Aralue of Do. Feroke, Bey- pore, Calicut. timber). Coorg 3g annas Cubic foot . 10| annas . Do. Paschi mavah im station, My- sore. Mysore . 12 to 15 Cubic foot . 14 annas Do. Railway stations. annas. ! 2 A 8 NOTE ON BENTEAK OB. NANA WOOD. Prom the Coorg Working-Plans the figures given below have been taken. As however the Working-Plans have mostly expired, the figures must be taken merely as a guide to the quantity of timber the forest can produce, and up-tc-date estimates should be obtained from the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Coorg. Name of Area in square Quantity in cubic feet Forest. miles. available annually. Devamachi-Mawkal . . 28 1,000 Nalberi-Hatgat . . . 83 7,500 Anekadu-Attoor ... 20 800 Arfceri .... 29 500 (ii) .Western India. Vernacular names. — Nana (Marathi and Guzrati), Nandi (Canarese). Local distribution. — In the Bombay Presidency the home of this tree is in Kanara where it is common, occurring at all altitudes up to 2,500 feet. It prefers a well- drained slope and has some of the habits of teak, with which it is often associated. Like teak too it is found sometimes in evergreen forests, where it overtops the evergreen species. Foulkes in "Notes on Timber Trees in South Kanara " says : " It prefers gneiss soils to laterite and does best in the low Ghat forests where the rainfall is fairly heavy" but in the Western Division of Kanara the finest specimens are reported to be found in dry deciduous forest on steep slopes. In the north of the Presidency it is smaller and rarer, but is reported to occur to the extent of 5 per cent, in South Thana and 2 per cent, in Kolaba, but timber is not available. , Good trees have been'seen in Kanara 10 feet in girth and 100 feet in height with a clear bole of 50 feet. It xtr action.— The size at which the tree may be felled in Kanara is usually 6 to 7 feet in girth. The forests containing the best trees are worked under the Selection system as a rule, mature trees being chosen for felling, and the trees are extracted either by purchasers or departmentally. The logs are dragged or carted from the forests, as the nature of the country allows, and are sometimes floated down to the sea-coast. The duty charged by Government in Kanara is S3 per Jchandy of 12^ cubic feet, and the local selling price is about R8 in Eastern, H9-S in Western, and RIO in Southern Kanara. NOTE ON BEXTEAK OR NANA WOOD. Details are given in the following table :— Division. Quantity available annually. fiate for delivery. * Per At Kanara Western 530 seven-foot trees 4 to 5 Khandy . Sea-coast. Division. besides others from forests near Ankola. R a. Kanara Eastern 1,500 cubic feet . I <> Cubic foot Hubli station. Division. r 8 annas. Do. Haveri sta- Kanara Southern 4 tion. Division. 4 Do. Do. Honawar. Figures from Bombay Working-Plans. District. Working Circle. Area in Mature trees square on the area, miles. ! Minimum size fixed for felling. 1 KEMARKS. Kanara Gund, Series X 47 21,500 above 24 inches dia- and Xi. 24 inches meter. diameter. Do. Supa, Block XX 18 48 above 24 6 feet girth. inches dia- meter. Do Kalinaddi slopes, 42 6,300 sound 7 feet girth . The annual Block XXVI. above 27 inch- yield is 230 es diameter, trees. 400 unsound. Do Mundgod High 85 500 above 24 6 feet girth. Forest. inches dia- meter. Do Ankola High 70 11,000 above 7 feet on best Annual yield Forest. 27 inches dia- locality, 6 feet 230 trees. meter. elsewhere. Do. Yellapur above 137 7,000 above 24 21 inches dia- Ghat. inches dia- meter. meter. Do. Yellapur slopes . 37 11,500 above ... 24 inches dia- meter. JSelgaurn . Nagargali Series 14 900 above 24 24| inches dia- Annual yield inches dia- meter. 38 trees. meter. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA- 8, HASTINGS STREET (Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 Price A«. 3 or 4d, I — BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). bulletin No. L— Note on the Bee- Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4rO. Bulletin No. 2.— Note on the Quetta Borer (JSolesthes sartus), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3.— Note on the Chilgoza (Finns G-erardiana ) Bark-Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4.—Ficus elastica : its natural growth and artificial propagation, with a description of the method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 5. — Notes on a visit to some European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2-0-0. Bulletin No. 6.— Memorandum on Mechanical Teats of Some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B.A., B.E., M.l.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7.— Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-i-Suliman, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8.— Note on the Life History of Hoplocerambyx Spinicornis (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No. 9.— Notes on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply by S. Eardley-Wilmot, I.F.S., C.I.E., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India Price 1-0-0. bulletin No. 10.— Note on theDuki Fig Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batocerarubus),}>y E. P. Stebbing F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11.— On some Assam Sal (Shorea robutta) Insect Pests, by the same author. Price 1-10-0. II — LEAFLETS. Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series.— The Sal Bark- Borer (Spharotrypes siwalikensit, Steb.), by E. P Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet^ No. 2, Zoology Series.— The Teak Defoliator (Hyblosa puera, Cram), by the same author. Price u*^*u» Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series.— The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyrausta machceralis, Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 4, Zoology Series.— The Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Scolytus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series.— The Blue Pine •« Polygraphus " Bark-Borer (Polygraph™ major, Steb.) by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— PAMPHLETS. Pamphlet No. 1, Chemistry Series No. .Z.—Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam, by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Series No. l.—The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous Forests on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P, Stebbing, F.L.S.. F.Z.S., F.E.S. Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. Pamphlet No. 3, Working- Plan Series No. l.—A. Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 4, Forest Economy Series No. 1.— Note on Lac and Lac Cultivation, by D. N. Avasia, Extra-Assistant Conservator of Forests, Central Provinces. Price 0-2-0. Pamphlet No. .5, Sylviculture Seriet No. /.—Notes on Sal in Bengal, by A. L. Mclntire, I.P.& Conservator of Forests, Bengal. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 6, Sylviculture Series No. 2.— Note on Forest Reservation in Burma in the Interests of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Rodger, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests Burma Price 1-0-0. Pamphiet No. 7, Forest Economy Series No. 2.— Note on Andaman Marble- Wood or Zebra Wood; (Diospyror Kurzii, Hiern.), by R. S. Troup, F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 8, Working-Plan Series No. 2.— Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-10-0. [ Continued on page 3 of cover. a 20 NOTE ON SANDAN (Oageinia dalbergioides, Benth.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. 7 OALCTJTtA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. Constable & Co.4 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, E.G. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Graf ton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. H. S. King & Co., 66, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B. H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. ON THE CONTINENT. Karl W. Hiersemarm, Leipzig Ernest Leroux, 28, Eue Bonaparte, Paris. France. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, W. N., Carlstrasse, 11. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. IN INDIA AND CEYLON. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta. R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-6, Chowringhee, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sons, 75, Harrison Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S . Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Thacker & Co., Ld., Bombay. A. J. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay. Radhabai Atmaram Sagoon, Bombay. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Raru Chandra Govind & Son, Kalbadevi, Bombay. Superintendent, American Baptist Mission Press; Rangoon, Rai Sahib M. Gulab Singh & Sons, Mufid-i- Ana Press, Lahore and Calcutta. N. B. Mathur, Superintendent, Nazir Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. A. Chand & Co., Punjab. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo, Ceylon. S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students and Company, Cooch Behar. Manager, Educational Book Depots, Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager, Imperial Book Depot, 63, Chandney Chauk Street, Delhi.* Manager, Hast Coast News, Vizagapatam.* Manager, "The Agra Medical Hall and Co- operative Association, Limited" (Successors to A. John & Co., Agra).* Superintendent, Basel Mission Book and Tract Depositoiy, Manga! ore.* P . Varadachary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell, Printer, etc., 7, South Road, Allahabad.* D. C. Anaud & Sons, Peshawar.* Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. * Agenta for sale of the Legislative Department publications only. NOTE, THESE notes regarding the lesser known Indian timbers have been compiled in order that all the information at present available regard- ing them may be easily obtainable. For some of the best forests detailed Working-Plans have not yet been made, as the demand for timber in the neighbourhood is at present very small, but full information regarding the timbers available and means of extraction can always be obtained from local forest officers. Application can also be made at any time to the Forest Economist, Dehra Dun, United Provinces, India, who will supply specimens of any timber free and put enquirers in communication with local forest officers. Notes on the following timbers have now appeared : — 1 . Lagerstrcemia tomentosa (Leza — Burma) . 2. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (In— Burma). 3. Pterocarpus dalbergioides (Padaiik — Andaman Islands). 4. Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Pada^l,k — Burma). 5. Carallia integerrima (Maniawga — Burma). 6. Diospyros Kurzii (Zebra Wood — Andaman Islands). 7. Berry a Ammonilla (Petwun — Southern India and Burma). 8. Terminalia tomentosa (Saj, Sain, Taukkyan — India and Burma). 9. Gmelina arborea (Gumhar, Siwan — India and Burma). 10. Ougeinia dalbergioides (Sandan, Tiwas — India). 11. Lagerstrcemia lanceolata (BenteaJc, Nana — Southern India). 12. Anogeissus latifolia (BaJcli, Dhaura — India). 13. Pterocarpus Marsupium (ffonne, Vengai — India). Reference is also invited to the following : — A Manual of Indian Timbers, by J. S. Gamble, C.I.E. (Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London.) Indian Woods and Their Uses, by R. S. Troup. (Superintendent, Government Printing, India, Calcutta.) Ougeinia dalhergioides, Benth. Natural Order — Leguminosae (Papilionaceae). SANDAN. Ougeinia dalbergioides, Eenth. Natural Order — Leguminosse (Papilionacese) . 1. General Distribution. Sdndnn is a tree of Central India, being common in the Central Pro- vinces and becoming less plentiful in each direction outwards from the centre, in Bengal, the United Provinces, Bombay and Madras. Its north- ern limit is the Dehra Dun and its southern limit, the Palni Hills in Madura. It does not occur in Ceylon, Assam or Burma, nor in the Punjab, except perhaps to a small extent near the Jumna at the western end of the Siwaliks. Further details are given under the various provinces. 2. Locality and Habit. It is found much scattered in deciduous forests between a few hundred and 4,000 feet above sea-level, reaching the latter height in the Palni Hills in Southern Madras and in the Lower Himalayas, where it goes a long way up the valleys and mixes with Chir pine. It prefers fertile loams and clays, but will grow, though small and stunted, on shallow ridges. Further details are given under the various provinces. It is a moderate- sized tree rarely attaining a girth of 7 feet and a height of 60 feet, the smaller classes being much the most numerous. The bark is thin and greyish and the trunk frequently short and irregularly shaped, but the tree, especially when in full flower, is very handsome, and is accordingly grown in gardens. It flowers between February and May about the same time as the leaves are changed, the flowers being purple, pink or white. 3. Description, Properties and Uses of Timber. The sap-wood is narrow and grey and the heart-wood reddish or pale brown, mottled. It is hard and close-grained, durable and tough, and takes a good polish. It shows vertical bands of close-grained pale brown wood, alternating with more open tissue, on a vertical section, and the cross 2 NOTE ON SANDAN. section shows numerous fine concentric lines, with pores in short pale wavy1 bands arranged concentrically. Durability.— -The wood is not usually proof against white-ants, but has been found to last as long as 9 years in the ground without deterioration . Weight.- — The wood is fairly heavy, the mean of recorded figures being 55 Ibs. From the Darjeeling terai a weight of 67 Ibs. has been recorded (Gamble). Strength. — The value of P, which represents the strength of a bar of timber calculated from the length between supports, breadth, and thickness of the bar, and the weight in pounds which when placed on the middle of the bar causes it to break, has been calculated at 835. This is a high figure as Sal gives 790, Teak 600 and Shisham 796 (Gamble). 'Fissibility. — The wood is very difficult to split being placed by Mr. R. 8. Troup at the foot of a list of 61 Indian woods tested by him, its index figure being 44-78, Teak giving 1-75, Toon 4'25, and Sal 9-33. Calorific power. — If available in quantity for fuel it would be good, as its calorific power is high, the number of British Thermal Units recorded by Mr. Puran Singh being 8,368, Shisham giving 8,312, Teak 8,560 and Sal 8,88 ! . Seasoning. — In the Central Provinces the trees of this species, with others, are usually felled during the rains and the stems left unbarked leaning against others for a month or two. A paste of cowdung is also used at times and the timber is sometimes immersed in water, but it can be seasoned very well by being kept in the shade for a few months after felling, as it is not liable to split badly. Uses. — It is in great demand for ploughs, shafts of carts and of wheels, handles of tools, bed-legs, yokes, spindles and other purposes requiring strength and toughness. The supply is not equal to the demand for these purposes and much more could be disposed of than is at present available. It has been tried at Naini Tal for casks for beer and was found to be very suitable. A small consignment was sold in London in 1878 for £3 per ton. 4. Minor Products. When blazed the tree yields an astringent red gum and a decoction of the bark is used in Chota Nagpur when the urine is too dark coloured (II. H. Haines) . The bark is pounded and used to intoxicate fish and the twigs are lopped for cattle fodder. In the Yeotmal Division of Berar lac is grown on the trees, which are soon killed by it. The fibre is NOTE Ofr SANDAN. 3 Occasionally used for making ropes. During the famine of 1896-97, the flower was in great request as food in Oudh, being eaten boiled. 5. Natural Reproduction and Rate of Growth. Seedlings are usually fairly plentiful and the tree can be readily pro- pagated by means of root-suckers. In 1895, Mr. H. C. Hill noted in the Central Provinces that dense thickets of this and other trees were to be found wherever the beneficial influence of an old Mohwa tree was felt. Suckers produce small pure patches of young growth in many parts. In the Dehra Dun seedlings and root-shoots are plentiful where slopes and banks of nullahs let light into the dense sal forests. Caccia records measurements taken on 90 trees in sample plots in the United Provinces over periods of years varying up to 19. The mean annual girth increment varied from nil to '52 of an inch, the latter figure being exceptionally high. 6. Artificial Reproduction. Sowings have been made in pits in Bombay with but moderate results. In the Central Provinces sowings in lines have been fairly successful, and broadcast sowings unsuccessful. The seed usually germinates easily. 7. Notes on Distribution and Extraction in different Provinces. (i] Central Provinces. Vernacular names. — Tinas, Tirisa, Tinnas. Local distribution. — The tree is very widely distributed in the Central Provinces but rarely attains a large size. It grows up to 2,500 feet above sea-level scattered through the Sal, Teak and other deciduous forests, oc- casionally forming as much as 8 per cent, of the crop, preferring clay and deep heavy soils, and being found at times in small pure patches. In Berar it is reported to be found often on light red soils up to 3,800 feet above sea-level, on hill-tops and abandoned cultivation, and at other times on black cotton soil. In South Chanda it occasionally reaches a girth of 5 feet, with 60 feet height and 30 feet clear bole, but this is exceptional and in many districts it rarely attains a girth of 3 feet. The largest trees are found in South Chanda, Balaghat, Bilaspur, Narsingpore, Mandla, Seoni, Betul. In the last named it is held to be quite as valuable as Teak for local purposes. NOTE ON SANDAN. Extraction. — The forests in which it grows are usually worked as Cop- pice with Standards, but in a few districts as High Forest, the mature trees beine: removed after reaching two or three feet in girth in Selection and in o c? o Improvement Fellings. The coupes are usually sold to purchasers, who remove the timber by means of carts or coolies who carry it on their heads where no cart-roads are available. From South Chanda about 100 trees over 3 feet in girth would be available annually, from Narsingpore about 5,COO cubic feet in the form of poles of varying sizes, from Mandla about 25,000 cubic feet, and from Betul 6,000 cubic feet. The royalty in South Chanda is 5 annas per cubic foot. Figures regarding Extraction. Forest Division. Local market rate. Bate for delivery. R a. p. Per R a. p. Pel- At South Chanda . 1 8 0 cubic foot in 086 cubic foot Ballarshah. log. 060 Do. Coconada. Balaghat 1 8 0 pair of shafts 10 o 0 hundred polesP] one foot in j Sirth> 'Railway sta- tions. 100 planed poles 35 0 0 hundred poles ! to 26" in 1' 6" in 200 girth. girth. J Bilaspur 0 5 0 - cubic foot . Kargi Road station. Narsingpore 100 hundred 1 0 0 Do. Railway sta- to poles. tions. 30 0 0 Mandla . . 0 1 y cubic foot . 1 15 0 cubic foot Bombay. round. 230 cubic foot L>o. converted. 080 cubic foot Railway sta- round. tion. 0 12 0 cubic foot Do. converted. Betul . 020 cubic foot . 033 cubic foot . Itarsi. NOTE ON slNDAN. 5 (ii) Rajputana and Central India Agency. In the Mar war State in Rajputana it is known as Tinash or Tanach, but is rare and does not grow to a large size. It is much in demand locally at about one rupee per cubic foot for tool handles, etc., but there is little available. In Gwalior it is found, but as a small and unimportant tree. In the State of Rewah it is called Sand/tan and occurs to the extent of 8 per cent, in the Bondi and Singrouli forests, not being often found of greater girth than two feet. It is useful for agricultural implements and house-building. In Indore it is found throughout the State, generally crooked and seldom attaining a great height or more than 2 feet in girth. In some of the best mixed forests, especially on the Satpuras, it attains occasion- ally a girth of 4 feet, but straight trees are the exception. From the more remote forests on the Khandesh borders, etc., most of the best trees have been extracted, generally illicitly. No timber is so much valued locally, and cultivators will pay any price to secure it for shafts, carts and agri- cultural implements. A pair of poles will sell for R8 to RIO dressed to IS" girth 12 feet long, in the Khargone Division. In the Indore Division poles sell for Rl-8 to R7. It reproduces itself profusely by root-shoots in old fields, etc., and the forests are full of young growth. (Hi) Southern India. Vernacular names. — Bandhano (Uriya), Kallu Mokke (Tamil), Betta- honrte (Canarese), Asavuni or Manimuthu (Madura). Local distribution. — This tree is not common anywhere in Madras and does not occur in many of the districts. In Central and North Coimbatore, Ganjam and Madura it is reported to be scattered, occurring to the extent of 4 trees over 3 feet in girth per hundred acres, and reaching a girth of 4 feet and a height of 30 feet in Ganjam. In Madura the girth is sometimes as large as 6 feet, and the tree usually occurs at 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea, on the Palni Hills. Else- where it grows in mixed deciduous forests between 500 and 3,000 feet above sea-level. Extraction. — From the hills of Madura about 500 cubic feet may be extracted annually, delivered at Kodaikanal Railway station at Rl-12, and at Madura at Rl-14 per cubic foot. 6 NOTE ON SANDAN. In Ganjam the wood is sold for hubs of wheels and carriage poles at 8 annas per cubic foot. In Hyderabad it is known as Tewas, Dargu, Tunuz, Talla-Modgu or Kodi-Mudsu and is reported to be common at Aurangabad and in the Reserves along the Godavery. It is rarely large enough to yield a 9- inch plank, but is much used for agricultural implements and poles, being granted free to agriculturists. In Coorg the tree is called Male Honne and grows to a small extent in the eastern zone of the Southern forests, attaining a girth of 4 feet. It is not used locally and is not an important tree. The Government duty is 1^ annas per cubic foot. In Mysore the tree is not plentiful and attains occasionally 30 feet in height and 5^ feet in girth. It is little used, but 500 cubic feet can probably be obtained annually, delivered at Railway stations at Rl-4 per cubic foot. It is called Kal-honne. (iv) Bengal. Vernacular names. — Bandhan, Pandan, Ruta (Kol), Rot (Santali), Sandan (Hindi). Local distribution. — The tree does not occur in the Kurseong, Santal Parganas, Darjeeling and Tista forests, and small trees only are found in Sambalpur, though apparently it was at one time a useful tree there. It is common in the hills of Chota Nagpur but is seldom larger than 3| feet in girth (H. H. Haines). In Orissa it is commoner in Angul than in Puri, and trees 7 feet in girth with a total height of 50 feet and a clear bole of 25 feet are met with in the dry hill forests in open spots up to 3,000 feet above the sea. It is also found less often in the mixed sal forests of the plains. Extraction. — In Angul the exploitable size under the Working-Plan is 4£ feet girth and in Puri 5 feet, but few sound trees above 3 feet in girth are obtainable. It is in considerable demand in Bengal for cart- wheels, selling in Cuttack and Puri at an average price of Rl per cubic foot and in Chaibassa for rather more. Trees are usually selected when required by purchasers. In Chaibassa about 100 trees per annum would probably be available and the timber can be delivered at Lota Pahar for 8 to 12 annas per cubic foot. NOTE ON SANDAN. 7 (v) Western India. Vernacular names, — Tiwas (Marathij, Tanach (Gujarati), Karimuttal (Canarese). Local distribution. — Only in Surat is this tree reported to be at all common, and elsewhere it is irregularly scattered as in Madras, being re- ported from Central and South Thana, the eastern and southern divisions of Kanara and both divisions of Khandesh. In West Kanara and Satara it is said not to occur. "When found it is in deciduous forests up to 3,000 feet above sea-level, usually in open spots, rarely attaining a girth of more than 3 feet and frequently being much stunted. In the eastern division of Kanara and in Surat 5 feet trees are sometimes found with a 35 ft. bole, but the ordinary trees are much smaller. Enumerations were made for 8,600 acres in Central Thana and gave the total number of trees over 18| inches in diameter as 172, and of trees 12 to 18| inches in diameter as 1,545, the exploitable size for these forests being fixed at 18' 5 inches. Extraction. — Little annual outturn can be expected except from the Bangs and Mandvi forests in Surat where it pays to extract almost any kind of this timber as the worst logs fetch over RIO per khandy and good timber commands a high price. The future annual supply from. these forests will be about 500 khandies yearly, a khandy being 12^ cubic feet. The cost of delivering the timber to the Tapti Valley Railway stations will be about Rll per khandy, to Bulsar R12 and to- Surat R13. The local price in Kanara is R15 per khandy, and in Surat it varies from R16 to R30. In Baroda it is scarce and of medium size and sells for about R6 for 12 cubic feet. In the Rajpipla State it is fairly common in the hill forests, attaining a girth of 3 feet, and being estimated to be available in future to the extent of 4,000 cubic feet annually. 30,000 cubic feet were extracted between 1904 and 1909, the State duty being 5 annas per cubic foot and the local price about Rl-8 per cubic foot in the round. It is extracted by Bhils and a good deal is floated down the Nerbudda. It can be delivered at Nandod or Chandod for Rl-8 per cubic foot and at Ankleshwar for Rl-10, the rates for converted timber being double^ 3 A NOTE ON SANDAN. Figures from Bombay Working-Plans. District. .Area in Working Circle. square miles. Trees on the area. Minimum size fixed for felling. Kanara . Supa, Block XX 18 Do. Do. Belgaum . Thana Yellapur above Ghat, 35 Blocks XIII and XIV. Yellapur Slopes, 16 Block XVII. Nagargali Series . 14 Talasri 29 6,200, 10'' to 21" ! 6 feet girth, diameter. Above 21" diameter, nil. 24,700, 1" to 21" I 5 feet girth, diameter. Above 21" diameter, 360. 540, 1" to 21" dia- meter. Above 2i" diameter, 36. 2,800, 1" to 21" dia- meter. Above 21" diameter, 85. 680, 18i" diameter and over. 2,600, 12"— 18" dia- meter. 18 inches dia- meter. (vi) Northern India. Vernacular names. — Sandan, Chanjan or Panan (Oudh), Tinsa (Bundelkhand). Local distribution. — It occurs in the Dehra Dun, outer Himalayas and Oudh forests with Sal and ascends the valleys up to 4,000 feet growing with Chir pine, preferring good soil in the valleys and becoming crooked and stunted at the higher elevations. In Pilibhit and Bundelkhand the trees are small and of little value at present. Five feet is the largest girth attained, with a height of 40 feet and a clear bole of 15 feet, but the smaller classes are much commoner, and it is quite a common tree in many parts. Extraction. — Most of the forests in which it occurs are under the Selection system and the tree is often removed in Improvement Fellings carried out to favour Sal, a small quantity also being cut out in coupes of Coppice with Standards. No large quantity of timber is available, the most important estimate of 5,000 cubic feet per annum being supplied NOTE ON SANDAN. 9 from the Siwalik Division. Timber can be delivered at Railway stations from the Dehra Dun forests for about 4 annas per cubic foot roughly converted, the market price at the stations being 7 annas. In Kheri billets 3 feet long and 3 feet in girth are sold at the Railway line for 12. annas or one rupee each for bed-legs, delivery at the Railway station from the forest costing 8 annas each. In Grorakhpur delivery to Railway stations costs 8 to 13 annas per cubic foot, the market rate of the same being 8 to 10 annas. In Jammu and Kashmir it is called Samman and is found in the lower ranges of hills below 300 feet. It rarelj attains a girth of more than 2 feet and is much lopped and browsed but not much used otherwise. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 8, HASTINGS STREET . 21 NOTE ON DHAURA OR BAKU (Anogeissas latifolia, Wall.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. Price As. 4 or 5d, 1 BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). bulletin No. L— Note on the Bee-Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4rO. Bulletin No. 2. — Note on tlie Quetta Borer {Moletthes gartus), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3. — Note on the Chilgoza (Pinus Gerardiana ) Bark-Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan, by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4. — Ficus elastica : its natural growth and artificial propagation, with a description of the method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. -Bulletin No. o.~ Notes on a visit to some European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2-0-0. .Bulletin No. 6. —Memorandum on Mechanical Tests of Some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B.A., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7. — Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-i-Suliman, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8. — Note on the Life History of Hoplocerambyx Spinicornis (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No. 9. — Notes on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilrnot, I.F.S., C.I.E., Inspector- General of Forests to the Government of India. Price 1-0-0. Bulletin No. 10. — Note on the Duki Fig Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batocera rubus), by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11.— On some Assam Sal (Shorea robusta) Insect Pests, by the same author. Price 1-10-0. II — LEAFLETS. Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series. — The Sal Bark-Borer (Sphterotrypes siwalikensis, Steb.), by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 2, Zoology Series. — The Teak Defoliator (Hyblcea puera, Cram), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 3, Zoology Series. — The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser ( Pyrausta machceralis, Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0. Leaflet No. 4, Zoology Series. — The Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Scolytus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series. — The Blue Pine " Polygraphus " Bark-Borer (Polygraphus major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— PAMPHLETS. Pamphlet No. 1, Chemistry Series No. 1. — Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam, by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Series No. 1.— The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous Forests on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P, Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. Pamphlet No. 3, Working-Plan Series 3To. 1. — A Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F, Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Plans. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 4, Forest Economy Series No. 1.— Note on Lac and Lac Cultivation,, by D. N. Avasia, Extra-Assistant Conservator of Forests, Central Provinces. Price 0-2-0. Pamphlet No. S, Sylviculture Series No. 1. — Notes on Sal in Bengal, by A. L. Mclntire, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Bengal. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 6, Sylviculture Series No, 2. — Note oa Forest Reservation in Burma in the Interests of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Rodger, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, Burma. Price 1-0-0. Pamphlet No. 7, Forest Economy Series No. 2. — Note on Andaman Marble- Wood or Zebra Wood, (Diospyros Kurzii, Hiern.), by R. S. Troup, F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. pamphlet No. 8, Working- Plan Series No. 2.— Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working-Plans. Price O-IO-O. [ Continued on page 3 of cover 2 21 NOTE ON DHAURA OR BAKLI (Anogeissus latifolia, Wall.) BY A. RODGER, I.F.S. OALrTTTtA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent Government Printing, India, Calcutta, Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, B.C. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Graf ton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. Luzac & Co., 46, Great Eussell Street, London, W.C. B. H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ld., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. H. S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. ON THE CONTINENT. Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig. Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. France. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. IN INDIA AND CEYLON. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, W. N., Carlstrasse, 11. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta, R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Labiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Calcutta School Book and Useful Litera- ture Society, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta. Butterworth & Co. (India), Limited, Calcutta. The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee, Calcutta. M. C. Sircar & Sons, 75, Harrison Road, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Madras. G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. S . Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. Combridge & Co., Madias. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Thacker & Co., Ld., Bombay. A. J. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay. Radhabai Atmaram Sagoon, Bombay. Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Ram Chandra Govind & Son, Kalbadevi, Bombay. Superintendent, American Baptist Mission Press; Rangoon, Rai Sahib M. Gulab Sirgh & Sors, Mufid-i- Am Press, Lahore and Calcutta. N. B. Mathur, Superintendent, Nazir Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. A. Chand & Co., Punjab. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo, Ceylon. S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students and Company, Cooch Behar. Manager, Educational Book Depots, Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager, Imperial Book Depot, 63, Chandney Chauk Street, Delhi* Manager, East Coast News, Vizagapatam.* Manager, " The Agra Medical Hall and Co- operative Association, Limited" (Successors to A. John & Co., Agra).* Superintendent, Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, Mangalore.* P . Varadacbary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell, Printer, etc., 7, South Road, Allahabad.* D. C. Anand & Sons, Peshawar.* * AgentB for sale of the Legislative Department publications only. NOTE. fPHESE notes regarding the lesser known Indian timbers have been -*- compiled in order that all the information at present available regarding them may be easily obtainable. For some of the best forests detailed Working-Plans have not yet been made, as the demand for timber in the neighbourhood is at present very small, but full information regarding the timbers available and means of extraction can always be obtained from local forest officers. Application can also be made at any time to the Forest Economist, Dehra L)un, United Provinces, India, who will supply specimens of any timber free and put enquirers in communication with local forest officers. Notes on the following timbers have now appeared :— 1. Lagerstroemia tomentosa (Leza — Burma). 2. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (In — Burma). 3. Pterocarpus dalbergioides (Padauk — Andaman Islands). 4. Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Padauk — Burma) . 5. Carallia integerrima (Maniawya — Burma). 6. Diospyros Kurzii (Zebra Wood— Andaman Islands). 7. Berrya Ammonilla (Petwun — Southern India and Burma). 8. Terminalia tomentosa (Saj, Sain, T auk ft y an — India and Burma) . 9. Gmelina arborea (GumJiar, Siwan — India and Burma). 10. Ougeinia dalbergioides (Sandan, Tiwas — India). 11. Lagerstroemia lanceolata (Benteak, Nana — Southern India). 12. Anogeissus latifolia (Bakli, Dhaura — India). 13. Pterocarpus Marsupium (Bonne, Vengai — India). Reference is also invited to the following : — A Manual of Indian Timbers by J. S. Gamble, C.I.E. (Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London.) Indian Woods and Their Uses, by R. S. Troup. (Superintendent, Government Printing, India, Calcutta.) aura or Anogeissus latifolia, Wall. Natural Order — Combretaceae. DHAURA OR BAKU. Anogeissus lati folia, Wall. Natural Order — Combretacese. 1. General Distribution. This tree occurs principally in Central and Southern India, and is absent in Burma and Eastern Bengal and Assam. It is most numerous between 76° and 84° longitude running from Dehra Dun in the north through the Central Provinces to Tinnevelly and Ceylon in the south, and extends through Chota Nagpur and the northern part of Madras. In Bombay it is not so plentiful on the whole, and in Sindh it is absent, but a few trees grow in Ajmer-Merwara. Further details are given under each province. In Ceylon it is found on open grass lands in the dry country, and is plentiful in certain localities, but not on the whole. It is called Dawu, . 2. Locality and Habit. This species is able to grow at all altitudes between 200 and 4,000 feet and attains its largest size in deep loams at the foot of hills as in Ganjam and Madura, Madras, where specimens 10 feet in girth occur. It is more commonly found on slopes between 1,500 and 2,500 feet where it grows 011 laterite and granite soil, not demanding much from them and standing exposure, though remaining much smaller than at the lower levels. On such localities it forms at times as much as 50 per cent, of the crop. In the Central Provinces it is also found on deep trap soil. Its companions are usually Sal, Terminalia tomenfosa, Bnteaf rondos a, Diospyros Melanoxi/lon and similar trees, and occasionally Teak. It is a tall straight tree with smooth mottled bark and numerous moderate-sized leaves which become red or brown in November and December and fall in February, the new leaves appearing in May and the flowers during the rains. A variety called Anogeissus tomentosa is reported by H. H. Haines from parts of Chota Nagpur. 3 A 2 NOTE ON DHADRA Oil BAKLI. 3. Description, Properties and Uses of Timber. The wood is grey or yellowish in colour with numerous very small pores, and close-grained. It shows handsome shining horizontal bands on a vertical section and is sometimes cross-grained. The heart-wood is small, irregular, hard, and purplish in colour. It often contains small knots and flaws and is accordingly unsuitable for such purposes as the manufacture of fishing rods. Durability. — It is not durable unless kept dry and is very apt to split when seasoning. It has been tried for sleepers but large trees are not plentiful enough to make it very useful for this purpose. Eighteen sleepers were tried on the Mysore State Railway and 14 of them were found to be serviceable after 7 or 8 years. It is often attacked by white-ants so that it must be treated with antiseptics when it is wanted for house posts, etc. Some rafters used in a bungalow at Surada in northern Madras are quite good after 20 years' use. The wood was found when tested in Madras to have little power of resistance to the attacks of the teredo, and it proved unsuitable for sleepers on the South Indian Railway in 1899. Weight. — The weight given in Gamble's " Manual of Indian Timbers " is 62 Ibs. per cubic foot dry, and 75 to 80 Ibs. when green. This is calcu- lated from specimens collected all over India. Strength. — The value of P, which represents the strength of a bar of timber calculated from the length between supports, breadth and thick- ness of the bar, and the weight in Ibs. which when placed on the middle of the bar causes it to break, is for this timber about 900, the figures for Sal being 790, Teak 600 and Shisham 796 (Gamble). Very varying results have been recorded, one being as high as 1/220, but 850 to 900 is probably correct, this high figure accounting for the toughness and con- sequent great usefulness of the wood. Fissibility. — The wood is not very easy to split, experiments made by Mr. R. S. Troup giving the figure 6'33, the corresponding figure for Teak being 1*75, for Acacia Catechu 2>'9S, and for Terminalia tomentosa 4'63. Calorific power. — The wood has been tested by Mr. Puran Singh, Forest Chemist, and his results placed it rather low on the list, beside Bael, and a long way below Sal, Teak, and Blue and Chir pines. The number of British Thermal Units is given for the last-named as 9144, and for dhaura as 7481. It is commonly however used as fuel and gives good charcoal. Seasoning. — In the Central Provinces the people usually prefer to cut ttOTE ON DHAURA Ofe BAKLI. it during the rains, as in the case of Sain, and it is often left unbarked in the forest to season during the rains, or put into water for a month or two. It is also sometimes barked and plastered with cow-dung, and in parts of Bombay it is steeped in salt water after felling. It must be seasoned very slowly as it is very apt to split and warp. Uses. — It is a favourite wood for shafts and especially axles of carts, plough and tool handles and yokes, and is also used by the poorer class of cultivators for building. In Madras it is used in the Kolar Gold Mines, and in Orissa for sugar-cane presses. It is very largely used for fuel, being sold in Bombay for R4 to 116 per Ichandy of 784 Ibs. and is a, very popular wood for charcoal. It polishes well, without absorbing much polish. 4. Minor Products. The most important minor product is the gum which is collected in many parts of India and sold at from one to two annas per Ib. It is used for native sweatmeats, as an adhesive in cloth printing and by the Santhals in Chota Nagpur for cholera. The gum is reported from northern Madras to exude in appreciable quantities only once in 5 years, not every year, and not to be obtainable from the largest trees. It forms the bulk of the Gum Ghati sold in Bombay, the prices at the beginning of 1912 being as follows : — K R TJncleaned . . . 10 to 18 per cwt. according to quality. Cleaned . . . 18 „ 25 do. do. The leaves are largely used for tanning, the skin usually being made into a bag and the leaves placed inside with water. The leaves have been found to contain 15 '5 per cent, of tannic acid. A number of liquid extracts were roughly prepared in the forest and analysed by Mr. D. Hooper, Curator of the Economic Section, Indian Museum, in 1898 and 1899. The extracts prepared from the bark and leaves from the Central Provinces gave the following results : — Part used. Percentage of dry extract. Percentage of tannin. Percentage of tannin in the dry extract. Bark ...... 6-0 3-08 51-3 Leaves ...... 34-2 10-0 34-4 4 NOTE ON DHAUKA Oil BAKU. The methods of tanning principally employed in Damoh, Central Pro- vinces, are as follows : — Method of tanning with ghaunt (Zizyphus xylopyra] and dhaura leaves. — The first liquor or kas is prepared from 5 to 6 seers of ghaunt, which has been dried and powdered, mixed with 20 seers of clean cold water in a nand (wide-mouthed jar) . This is left standing for about one hour, when the colour of the ghaunt diffuses into the water. The hide remains in this liquor for 3 days, it being taken out twice to thrice every day and rubbed with the hand for about one hour. At the end of the third day the hide is taken out of the nandj rubbed, wrung out, and spread to dry for about 3 hours. The second kas or liquor is prepared from 7^ to 8 seers of ghaunt mixed with 20 seers of clean water, in which the hide remains for four days, it being taken out, rubbed and worked three times daily. After 4 days it is taken out, wrung out and dried as before and is then put into the third has. This consists of 6 to 7 seers of dhaura leaves mixed with 20 seers of water and the hide remains in this for 2 days, being rubbed daily as before and on the third day it is wrung out and dried. Some Ghamdrs mix dhaura leaves with the ghaunt in the second kas, the proportions being 3 seers of dhaura leaves or kaspatti, 3 seers of ghaunt and 20 seers of clean water. In this case a third kas is not always necessary. A piece is cut from the edge of the hide to see if the colour has passed right through the skin, and if it is found that the hide is whitish in the interior, it is considered to be insufficiently tanned and a third kas is accordingly given, it being a repetition of the second. Other Chamdrs again mix no ghaunt in the second kas which consists of 5 to 6 seers of dhaura leaves or kaspatti, and 20 seers of water ; and in this case no third kas is given. In all cases, however, after treatment with the kas (or liquor) as described, the hide is sewn up like a bag with the bark of kulu (Sterculia nrens) root of chheola (Bute a f rondos a) or leaves of khajuri (Phcenix sylvestris and P. acaulis], leaving an aperture of about a span's width at one end. It is then hung up on a pole, the opening being uppermost, and is filled half with dhaura leaves and half with water. The quantity of leaves used depends on the size of the skin and kind of leaves used. About 4 or 5 seers are necessarv for a goat's skin and from 16 to 17 seers for half a hide of a buffalo or cow. Also if the leaves are young, more is used than is the case if the leaves are old. A nand is placed NOTE ON DHAURA OR BAKLI. 6 below the hide so that the solution which filters through the skin is collected in it. The contents of this nand are poured back into the hide 4 times during the day and 4 times during the night. This continues for 2 days, when the aperture is sown up, the bag reversed and an open- ing made in the bottom of the bag, which is now uppermost, and the process continues as before for one day and a night, the object of this being to get both the upper and lower portions of the skin thoroughly impregnated with the solution. The hide is then taken down, opened, washed in clean water and dried. It is then rubbed well for about half an hour, with ^ seer of salt mixed with one seer of curds, when it is left to dry and the operation is complete. The leather produced by this method is of a yellow colour. Method of tanning witli dhaura leaves alone. — The process is much the same as described above in the ghaunt-dhaura method. The first has in this case consists of about 6 seers of dhaura leaves and the second and third of 8 seers, the quantity of water used being the same in each, i.e., about 20 seers. The hide remains in the first Jcas for 3 days, in the second 4 days and in the third 2 days. After treatment with the kas the hide is hung up and filled half full with dhaura leaves and half with water and is treated just as described above. The leather produced by this method is of a greenish yellow colour and is very liable to crack. To prevent this the leather is rubbed with the tilli oil. Method of tanning with dhaura leaves and harra (myrabolans). — This is exactly the same as the last with the exception that half the quantity of dhaura leaves is used mixed with an equal quantity of harra. The leather produced is of a brighter yellow than the last, but is also liable to crack. [Tanning materials used in the Damoh District, Central Provinces, by R. S. Hole—Indian Forester, July 1899.] The tasar silk- worm is sometimes fed on the leaves. The white wax insect ( Ceroplastes ceriferus } has been reputed as found on this tree. It has been noted by M. Rama Rao to be an associate of Sandal but root attachments between the two have not been found. 5. Natural Reproduction and Rate of Growth. Natural reproduction is reported to be fairly plentiful in most forests. Heavy grazing and fire do much to keep it back, but it responds to 6 NOTE ON DHAUEA OR BAfeLl. fire-protection as may be seen on the slopes of the Siwaliks, the outer Himalayan slopes and similar localities in Central and Southern India (Gamble) . The tree usually coppices readily. Mr. R. S. Pearson wrote a detailed reported in the Indian Forester for May 1907 on a good crop found in the Pa,nch Mahals in Bombay. He decides that well-drained situations and good light are necessary, and records his opinion that the tree, though producing seed yearly, rarely produces great quantities of fertile seed except under special conditions which depend on the tempera- ture and rainfall of the year. Mr. A. K. Desai, Ranger, Godra Range, Panch Mahals, notes that dhaura seedlings were found in great abundance in his forests after the dead timber killed by the drought of 1899-1900 had been removed. A great opening out took place, the seeds accumulated in the soil during the drought, and the young plants filled up many of the blanks when the rain came. Bourdillon and Gamble say the rate of growth is moderate, about 7 I'ings per inch of radius. Caccia gives measurements taken on 52 trees in sample plots in the United Provinces, some of which extended over 17 years, which indicate that the mean annual girth increment varies from '14 to '63 of an inch. From countings made in the Nallamalai Forests, Kurnool, Madras, the average number of rings to an inch of diameter was found to be 7. 6. Artificial Reproduction. Sowing and planting have been tried in Bombay, the former when done in patches giving the best results. Broadcast sowing is more uncertain, but dibbling has given a fair number of seedlings, about 20 per cent, of the seed producing plants. Mr. H. H. Haines states that the fruits should not be gathered until they begin to separate from the heads. The seed requires a perfectly clean soil for germination and is excessively impatient of weeds or water-logging. The best results were obtained on mounds of gravel. Broadcast sowing has been tried in a number of forest divisions, almost always without success. NOTE ON DHAUKA OR BAfc.LI. 7. Notes on Distribution and Extraction in different Provinces. \ (i) Central Provinces. Vernacular names. — Dhamora, Dhaura, Dhawa. Local distribution. — Over the greater part of the Central Provinces the tree is not very plentiful, but in the west it occurs to a larger extent than elsewhere, being reported from Raipur to form sometimes 20 per cent, and from Jubbulpur 15 per cent, of the whole crop. It grows best on low-lying land up to 1,500 feet but occurs up to 2,500 feet in smaller sizes. Very exposed dry slopes do not suit it but it thrives on the lower slopes on north and west aspects in mixed deciduous forests. On plateaux and high slopes it is dwarfed, much branched and early becomes hollow. In South Chanda girths of 6 feet are recorded with a total height of 90 feet and a clear bole of 60 feet, but two or three feet is a much more common girth measurement, with 40 feet height and in some divisions 25 feet is more usual. In Berar the tree produces chiefly fuel being felled in Coppice with Standards and sometimes pollarded. In parts of Nimar it produces timber. In 1892 and 1897 the tree suffered greatly in the Damoh forests from the ravages of a small caterpillar which devoured the whole leaf. New leaves were produced in July (R. C. Thompson) . Extraction. — The forests containing the tree are almost everywhere worked under the system of Coppice with Standards so that large timber is not available as a rule, except in the more remote forests of a few districts. Extraction is done almost entirely by carting by the purchasers of the annual coupes, who undertake the whole of the work in most cases. Government has to cut back the unmarketable stems left on the ground. The coppice is largely used for fuel, but the larger stems are very useful in cart-building. When some of the inaccessible forests are opened up by roads, a large quantity of this timber will be available and will be in good demand on account of its strength and toughness. In the following NOTE OK DSAU&A OR BAKLI. table figures are given for each district from which timber may become available : — Forest Divi- sion. LOCAL MARKET BATE. GOVERNMENT BOYALTY. BATE FOE DELIVERY. * a. p. Per * a. p. Per 8 a. p. Per At Saugor . 006 to 060 pole 020 c.ft. 2 to 6 annas 100 066 c.ft. c.ft. c f c. B a i 1 w ay stations. Bombay. ( Cawnpore. (.Agra. Mandla . 019 c.ft. 009 c.ft. 1 15 0 230 c.ft. round c.ft. con- verted 1 ^-Bombay. J 080 0 12 0 c.ft. round c.ft. con- verted I Railway Y stations. I J Raipur . 400 to 34 0 0 hun- dred poles. 2 ani;as c.ft. 050 070 c.ft. Dhamtri and Bajin. Raipur. South Chanda 2 annas c.ft. 076 c.ft. Ball arshah. 056 040 in rough squares B a j a h - m a n d r i , Cocanada. Damoh . 3 to 20 hun- dred poles. 2 annas c.ft. 020 0 13 0 c.ft. B a i 1 w a y stations. Bombay. 050 '• Jubbulpore. (U) Central India. In Gwalior the tree is common, being called DJiaJcri or Safed D/ian, and frequently occurs as underwood in TSoswellia forests. It does not often exceed 3 feet in girth but is extracted for shafts, poles, etc. The royalty is R2 per cart-load or one anna six pies per cubic foot. In the State of Rewah the tree forms about 2 per cent, of the forest NOTE ON DHAU11A OR BAKU. 9 growth in most parts, but does not grow larger than 2 feet in girth. It is a useful fuel and is used for axe-handles, etc. In Indore it is widely distributed but seldom grows tall and straight or attains any great girth, except in the Satpuras and in the south-west of Nimawar where it grows to 4 or 5 feet in girth. It is usually crooked and stunted, but is much in demand as poles for agricultural imple- ments and tool handles, and as fuel and charcoal. The leaves are used for tanning and the gum is collected for sale. It is called DJiauva. (Hi) Western India. Vernacular names. — Dhauda, Dindal, Dindiga, Dhavada, Dhaura, Dhamodo (Gujrati). Local distribution. — This species is fairly common in the northern forests of Bombay being reported to form about 10 per cent, of the crop in parts of South Thana, and a considerable proportion in Nasik, Khandesh, and the Panch Mahals. In the southern forests it is very local being abundant for example in the Eastern Division of Kanara and almost absent in the Western and Southern Divisions. It is found in deciduous forest and ascends as high as 2,000 feet, preferring the higher slopes as a rule and disliking flat lands and black soils. A tree of five feet in girth with a height of 50 to 60 feet, is considered large, the majority of trees growing rather crooked with short poles, and being felled at 3 feet in girth or less. Large trees are frequently hollow. Extraction. — Trees are felled under the system of Coppice with Standards in most divisions and the coupes sold standing to purchasers who remove the timber or fuel in carts, but almost the whole outturn seems to be converted into fuel so that figures for delivering timber will not be of value. The fuel sells easily in Bombay for R4 to R6 per khandy of 784 Ibs., and the charcoal sells for R15 per khandy. The cost of delivering 50 cubic feet of poles at Hubli in Kanara from the forest is R40. In Surat axles sell in the towns for Rl to Rl-8 each, and are in good demand, the duty in the forests being 3 annas per axle, no tree below 18 inches in girth at breast-height being felled, and the trees yielding one to three axles each. 10 NOTE ON DHAUBA OR In Baroda it was formerly abundant but little is now available, Cart-axles sell for one anna six pies each. (iv) Southern India. Vernacular names. — Tamil. — Nawai, Velnagai, Vekkali. Telugu. — Chirimawe, Chirimamidi, Chirumanu, Chiriman, Yelama, Elama. Canarese. — Bejjal, Dinduga, Dindal, Dindu. Malaiyalam. — Vella-naga. Uriya. — Dhau. Local distribution. — The Madras Presidency appears to be the most important home of this tree, only a few districts, among which are Guntur, Anantapur, and South Kanara, reporting it to be scarce. It is pre-eminently a tree of south-eastern India, being abundant in Madura, and in Tinnevelly, where it forms as much as fifty per cent, of the forest growth on the dry upper slopes. It is not exacting as regards elevation being found at from 200 feet to 4,000 feet. It is reported at the latter altitude in the southern portion of the Presidency. It descends lower on the East than on the "West Coast. Dry deciduous forests are usually its home, and it can grow in poor soil and on exposed slopes, on laterite and on granite soil, though its largest dimensions are attained in the deep loams at the foot of the hills, as in Ganjam, where trees 6 feet in girth, 70 feet in height with a 40 feet bole are found, but the tree is considered as "inauspicious," and is not used for building. In most of the favourable localities the girth is 3 to 5 feet, but small stunted trees, coppice shoots, or poles are the commonest in Nellore, Kistna, West Kurnool, Cuddapah, Trichinopoly, Coimbatore, Tinnevelly, Bellary, South Salem and Guntur. From Madura trees 10 feet in girth and 60 feet high are reported and 8£ feet girth is recorded from South Salem. Mr. A. W. Lushington notes that the tree forms large patches all over the hills of North Coimbatore except in the parts which contain Acacia Sundra. It grows to 6 feet in girth, but is usually met with as a pole. NOTE ON DHAURA. OR BAKLI. 11 In few localities is it sound, the constant fires having made it knotty externally and full of heart-shakes and dry rot internally. Extraction. — Where fuel is much in demand in Madras the forests are usually worked as Coppice with Standards. In the more remote hill timber forests the tree is selected as required by purchasers who drag the logs to the nearest cart-road. From most of the forests little timber will be available for some time to come and figures are given below for those divisions which will be able to provide it. In Coorg the tree is called Dindiga and is found extensively in the eastern forests, attaining a girth of six feet in favourable localities. It is not used locally but is exported for use as props in the Kolar Gold Mines. The Government royalty is 2| annas per cubic foot, and about 10,000 cubic feet will be available annually, 30,000 cubic feet having been extracted during the last three years. In Hyderabad the tree is called Dhaura, Tiruman, Dhamora, Sirriwal, Dhounda, Sirward, Gondi&nA is one of the most useful trees of the State. Good poles sell readily for R2 each, and are used very largely for cart axles and ploughs. Smaller poles are much used as props in sugar-cane plantations. Near Hyderabad city it is made into charcoal. It is generally distributed but does not attain any size in the southern or western divisions. In the Telingana forests near the Godavery it some- times attains a girth of 4 feet but it is seldom that a sound log of more than twelve inches in diameter is obtained. About 500,000 poles have been and can be extracted annually from the Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad forests. In Mysore it is called Dindiga and is common and often gregarious in the forests of the Mysore, Kadur and Shimoga districts. It is used for axe-handles, axles, furniture, etc., and in the Kolar Gold Mines. About 75,000 cubic feet may be extracted annually. During the last three years 192,000 cubic feet have been extracted. In Travancore the tree is called FeJckali or Maru KancJiiram and is very abundant in parts of the southern portion of the State, on the Cardamon Hills, and elsewhere in the drier deciduous forests up to 4,000 feet, always avoiding the wetter parts of the country. It attains a diameter of two feet, yielding axe-handles, poles, etc., and is much cut for fuel and charcoal in South Travancore where it rarely attains a large size on the dry slopes (Bourdillon), 12 NOTE ON DHAURA OR BAKL1. In the following table are given the figures available : — Division or State. LOCAL PEICES. KATE FOE DELIVEEY. & a. p. Per a£ a. p. Per At Madura 080 c.ft. squared. 1 10 0 c.ft. A m m a y a naicka- noor. Vizagapatam 0 12 0 c.ft. round. 0 15 0 c.ft. Narasapatam Road. 120 c.ft. squared. 1 2 0 c.ft. Vizagapatam. South Coimba- tore. North Malabar . 0 ID 0 c.ft. at Kolar. 080 0 11 0 c.ft. c.ft. Podanur. Nangangode. Coorg 046 c.ft. 0116 c.ft. Paschima v a h i n i station, Mysore. Mysore 10 to 12 annas c.ft. 12 annas c.ft. Railway stations. Figures from Madras Working-Plans. District. Working Circle. Area in square miles. NUMBER OP TBEKK. Diameter in inches. 1"— 6" 6"— 12" 12"— 18" 18"- 24" 24" -30" 30"-,C6" Over 36' Coimbatore . Punachi, Ana- malai Hills. 4 44,000 19,500 14,000 5,000 900 140 22 ?onth Coim- batore. Thalingi 8 59,000 22,i 00 5,000 400 9 (v) Punjab. Vernacular names. — Dhau, Chhal. Local distribution. — This tree is abundant in the Kangra and Simla Mills Divisions but is not reported from any other. It grows between NOTE ON DHAUKA OR BAKLI. 13 1,500 and 3,000 feet above sea-level in mixed forests and forms some- times 50 per cent, of the crop, and is as plentiful in places as 10 trees to the acre. It is however nearly always stunted, with girth rarely exceed- ing- three feet and trunk often hollow, so that it is of little commercial importance, but yields a certain amount of small timber for local villagers' use, the rate they pay being 8 annas per tree. In the Marwar State it is called Goria Dliau or Golia Dliao and is found throughout the higher zone of the Aravali Hills at 2,000 to 3,000 feet, where it is one of the most important species and grows with Boswellia serrata and Odina Wodier, and sometimes pure on plateaux and gentle slopes. Towards the north it occurs to a less extent. It is much used by the villagers for agricultural implements, tool-handles, etc. The Government royalty is about 7 annas per cubic foot and the market rate about 14 annas. Timber is not available for export. In Ajmer-Mcrwara it is called Golia dkau and is found in small numbers in the Todgarh forest where it reaches a height of 15 feet and is extracted for fuel. In Bikaner a few trees have been grown in the State garden. (vi) United Provinces. Vernacular names. — Bakli, Dhau, Dhura, Dhon, Dho. Local distribution. — Dkau is very local in the United Provinces, being absent from Pilibhit and Kheri, and fairly plentiful in the sab- montane tracts and plain forests elsewhere. It grows in the mixed deciduous forests and at times as an associate of Sal, where it has like other trees suffered in operations carried out in order to favour the more valuable species. Sound trees up to 6 feet in girth are not uncommon, and logs 40 feet in length and 4 feet in girth can usually b^ obtained. In Bundelkhand the trees are usually smaller. Small trees are found in great numbers on the lower slopes of the Himalayas near Dehra Dun, forming at times a pure forest, but these do not grow to a large size. Mr. T. Can- reports a tree in the Sarda Eange, Haldwani Division, measuring 9' 3" at breast-height and quite sound, with a straight bole 24 feet long. Extraction. — Most of the trees felled come out in Improvement fellings or are specially selected for traders in the most accessible parts of 14 NOTE ON DHAURA OR BAKLI. the forests. In Gonda the tree is considered mature on attaining a girth of six feet. Logs are exported in the round as it is difficult to saw by hand, the coupes being sold to contractors, as usual in these Provinces. The following table gives the available details : — - Division. ROYALTY, BATE FOB DELIVERY. /? a. p. Per * Per At Haldwani . ... 3 to 5 c. ft. annas. Haldwani or Lal- kua. Bahraich . 020 c. ft. 7 annas. do. Bahraich. Gonda 030 040 c.ft. round, c.ft. rough squared. 5 annas. do. Railway stations. Siwaliks (Dehra Dun). ... ... 6 annas. do. Railway stations. (vii) Bengal. Vernacular names. — Dhoura, Hesel (Santal Parganas), Dhau, Dhaunta, Saia. Local distribution. — The tree is fairly common in all the forests of Bengal and Orissa except in Kurseong, Tista and Darjeeling in the north where it is not found. It favours the drier hills forming a large propor- tion of the growing stock in Chota Nugpur, and ascending as high as 3,000 feet growing usually with Sal, Terminalias and other deciduous trees, in Orissa trees 7 feet in girth are occasionally found, but further north the limit is usually 5 feet and the commonest size 3 to 4 feet. Its greatest height is 60 feet with a clear bole of 40 feet. Extraction. — In Sambalpur, Santal Parganas and Puri Coppice fellings are carried out and elsewhere trees are selected as required, a ON DHATJRA OB BAKtI. limit of girth usually being observed: Purchasers buy the marked trees and extract them usually with carts, occasionally also by dragging and floating, slung to boats, as in Orissa. The following table shows the figures available : — Division. KOYALTT. MARKET VALUE. BATE FOB DELIVERY. K Per K a. p. Per Jt a. p. Per At Aiigul . Ito3 annas. 9 pies to 2 annas. c. ft. green, o.ft. dry. 040 c. ft. 060 o.ft Cnttaok. Chaibassa ... ... 0 10 0 o.ft. Lotapahar. Puri 1 anna c. ft. 050 c. ft. fO 4 0 10 6 0 c. ft. c. ft. Balugam. Cuttack. Sambalpur . 2 annas c. ft. green. 0 10 0 c. ft. E a i 1 w a y stations. 1 anna c. ft. dry. 1 10 0 c. ffc. Calcutta. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 8, HASTINGS STREET cB-w/Wetin* 0Lo. 34 NOTE ON RED SANDERS Pterocarpus santalinus, Linn. f. BY T. A. WHITEHEAD, I.F.S., District Forest Officer, East Cuddapah. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1917 Price As. 9 or IQJ. I BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). Bulletin No. I.-Note on the Bee-Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Stabbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Bulletin No. 2.— Note on the Quetta Borer (tfoletthes sartus), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3.— Note on the Chilgoza (Pinus aerardiana) Bark- Boring ^Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan, by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4.—Ficus elastic* : its natural growth and artiflcial propagation, with a description of ^ method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. S.-Notes on a Visit to some European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Stebbmg, F.L.b., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2-0-0. Bulletin No. 6. -Memorandum on Mechanical Tests of some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B. A., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7.— Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-i-Suliman, by E. P. Stabbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8.— Note on the Life History of Soplocerambyx spinicornis (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No S.-Notes on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilrnot, C.I.E., I.F.S., Inspector- General of Forests to the Government of India. Price 1-0-0. Bulletin No. 10.— Note on theDuki Fig-Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batocerarubut^y E. P. Stebbuig, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11.— On somo Assam Sal (Shorea robutta) Insect Pests,.by the same author. Price 1-10-0, II — LEAFLETS. Leaflet No. 1, Zoology Series.— The Sal Bark-Borer (Spharotrypes siwalikemii, Steb.), by E. P, JSlebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 2, Zoology Series.— The Teak Defoliator (Hyblcea puera, Cram.), by the same author. Price Leaflet 'NO. 3, Zoology Series.-The Teak Leaf Skeletoniser (Pyrautta macharali*. Wlk.), by the same author. Price 0-2-0, Leaflet No. 4, Zoology Series.- -The Larger Deodar Bark-Borer (Scolytus major, Sseb.), by the same author. Price 0-4-0. Leaflet No. 5, Zoology Series.— The Blue Pine " Polygraphus" Bark-Borer (Polygraphs major, Steb.), by the same author. Price 0-3-0. HI.— -PAMPHLETS. PampUet No. 1, Chemistry Series No. I.— Note on Utilization of Khair Forests in Eastern Bengal and Assam by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Forest Chemist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 2, Forest Zoology Series No. J.-The Attack of Bark-Boring Beetle in the Coniferous Forests on the Simla Catchment Area, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-8-0. Pamphlet No. S, Working-Plan Series No. 1 .-A Glossary of Forest Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working- Flans. Price 0-4-0. (Revised and issued as Bulletin No. 4, New Stries.) Pamphlet No. 4, Forest Economy Series No. J.-Note on Lac and Lac Cultivation, by D. N. Avasis, Extra-Assistant Conservator of Forests, Central Provinces. Price 0-2-0. Pamphlet No. *, Sylviculture Series No. I.-Notes on Sal in Bengal, by A. L. Mclntire, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Bengal. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 6, Sylviculture Series No. 2.-Note on Forest Reservation in Burma in the Interests of an Endangered Water Supply, by A. Rodger, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, Bur, ,* p«J2Sj£°V. Forest Economy Series No. S.-Note on Andaman Marble-Wood or Zebra Wood, (Dio*p«ro» Kurzii, Hiern.), by R. S. Troup F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. Pnmohlet No 8, Working-Plan Series No. 3.-Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to The Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O, F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working-Plans. Price 0-10-0. [ Continued on page 3 ofeovtr. 34 NOTE ON RED SANDERS Pterocarpas santalinus, Linn. f BY T. A. WHITEHEAD, I.F.S., District Forest Officer, East Cuddapah, CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1917 Agents for the Sale of Books published by the Superintendent of Government Printing, India, Calcutta. IN EUROPE. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, E.G., and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, Kew Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Sons, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, West- minster, London, S.W. H. 8. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, B.C., and 9, Pall Mall, London, W. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G. T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. B. H. Blackwell, 50 & 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Deighton Bell & Co., Ltd., Cambridge. Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. E. Ponsonby, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. IN INDIA AND CEYLON. Thacker, Spink A Co., Calcutta and Simla. Newman & Co., Calcutta. R. Cam bray & Co., Calcutta. S. K. Lahiri & Co., Calcutta. B. Banerjee & Co., Calcutta. The Indian School Supply Dep6t, 309, Bow Bazar Street, Calcutta, and 226, Kawabpur, Dacca. Butterworth & Co. (India), Ltd., Calcutta. Rai M. C. Sarcar Bahadur « 2 3 i a ^~s >. ~ .13 « C 03 as RED SANDERS (Pterocarpus santalinus). 9- 12. Points of Interest. The following extract from the "Dictionary of the Economic Products of India " by Dr. George Watt, is of some interest : — " According to U. C. Dutt, Sanskrit writers describe several varieties of sandal or chandana. Of these, srikhanda, white; pitachandana, yellow; and raktachandana, red; are best known. The first two are simply the wood of the true sandal, Santalum album, of different shades. It has long been a matter of question, how woods differing so entirely in character as Sandal-wood and Red Sanders wood should have come to bear the same Sanskrit name of chandana and the same English appellation. On this subject Dutt remarks, ' I am inclined to think that the name is owing to the similarity in the uses to which Hindus put both these articles. Both Sandal wood and Red Sanders wood are rubbed on a piece of stone with water and the emulsions are used for painting the body after bathing and in religious services." Kodur Red Sanders plantations. — Red Sanders seedlings were planted by Mr. H. H. Yarde, Deputy Conservator of Forests, in 1865 on an area of 38 acres along the banks of the " Gunjana " stream close to the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway line near the Koduru station. The plants were put out in rows as nearly as possible 8 feet by 9 feet. From the year of planting to the year of 1883, no information was recorded in regard to this plantation. In 1883, a sample area of f of an acre was selected and the girth measurements of all the trees on this plot were recorded. From 1883, reference has been made to the plantation in various Administration Reports with reference to creeper-cuttings and thinnings. The trees are now 51 years of age and average about 26 inches in girth and 50 feet in height. The largest tree is 52" in girth and about 60' in height. The dead and dying trees are now being taken out. The expenditure on this plantation since 1865 up to date has been nearly R6,000. Some R2,000 revenue has been derived from a few thinnings during the past 5 years and the value of the growing stock at present will not be far short of Rl,00,000. 10 RED SANDEES (Pterocarpus santalinus). APPENDIX A. Statement showing the quantity of Red Sanders timber and fuel extracted from the forests of the Cuddapah District. 1912-13. 1913-14. 1914-15. 1915-16. Division. TimVier Fuel Timber Fuel Timber Fuel Timber Fuel KKMABKS. (tons.) (tons.) (tous.) (tons.) (tous.) (tons.) (tons.) (tons.) B B B B B B B B East Cuddapah Divi- 164 14,839 601 12,433 1,092 17,074 2,171 57,596 sion. A B A B A B A B West Cnddapah Divi- 1,840 9,974 908 7,819 643 9,727 640 6,494 sion . NOTE : — A. Red Sanders species. B. No information is available to show what quantity of Red Sanders timber and fuel was extracted. The figures represent the total quantity of timber and fuel extracted during these years. At least 50 per cent, will be Red Sanders. As the Forests are being worked under the Im- provement system the bulk of the produce extracted is fuel, being Red Sanders and other species mixed. CALCUTTA : PRINTED BI SUPDT. GOVT. FEINTING, INDIA, 8, HASTINGS STREET. MAP SHOWING THE RED-SANDERS AREA IN CUDDAPAH DISTRICT Sail 1 1nch = 16 Milet Miles 8 6420 4 8 12 16 Mile* do. Forest Division do. Reserved Forest Railway 5'0"Gauge Main Road Stream & River. . Red-Sanders area Drawn in the Forest Map Office Dehra Dun, from » trace supplied by B.B, Osmaston Eaqr. President Forest Research Institute 4 College. Dehra Dun Reg No 685 ODD. 1916 (F.M.O.) S.M100 Published under the direction of Colonel Sir S.G.Burrard, K.C.S.I., R.E., F.R.S , Surveyor General 1916 Z1NCOG8APHED ATT SB-w/Metw 9lo. 35 NOTE ON BABUL Acacia arabica, WillcL BY J. D. MAITLAND KIRWAN, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, AND Instructor, Forest Research Institute and College, Dehra Dun. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1917 Price As. 5 or 6d. 5.— BULLETINS (OLD SERIES). Bulletin No. 1. — Note on the Bee-Hole Borer of Teak in Burma, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-4-0. Bulletin No. 2. — Note on the Quetta Borer (dSolesthes sartux), by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 3.— Note on the Chilgoza (Pinus &erardi0na) Bark- Boring Beetles of Zhob, Baluchistan, by the same author. Price 0-8-0. Bulletin No. 4. — Ficus elastica :i ts natural growth and artificial propagation, with a description of tbe method of tapping the tree and of the preparation of its rubber for the market, by E. M. Coventry, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 5.— Notes on a Visit to some European Schools of Forestry, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 2-0-0. Bulletin No. 6.— Memorandum on Mechanical Tests of some Indian Timbers, by W. H. Everett, B.A., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sibpur Engineering College. Price 0-2-0. Bulletin No. 7. — Note on the Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takbt-i-Suliman, by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-12-0. Bulletin No. 8. — Note on the Life History of Hoplocerambyx tpinicornis (The Singbhum Sal Borer), by the same author. Price 0-9-0. Bulletin No. 9. — Noteo on the Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply, by S. Eardley-Wilmot, C.I.E., I. F.S., Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India. Price 1-0-0. Bulletin No. 10.— Note on the Duki Fig-Tree Borer of Baluchistan (Batocera rubus], by E. P. Stebbing, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Imperial Forest Zoologist. Price 0-7-0. Bulletin No. 11.— On some Assam Sal (Shorea robuita) Insect Pests, by the same author. Price 1-10-0. II — LEAFLETS. 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Troup, F.C.H., Imperial Forest Economist. Price 0-4-0. Pamphlet No. 8, Working-Plan Series No. S.— Note on the Collection of Statistical Data relating to the Principal Indian Species, by A. M. F. Caccia, M.V.O., F.Z.S., Imperial Superintendent of Forest Working-Plans. Price 0«10-0. IContinued on page 3 of ccvtr. 2 NOTE ON BABUL Acacia arabica, Willd. BY J. D. MAITLAND KIRWAN, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator of Forests, AND Instructor, Forest Research Institute and College, Debra Dun. CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOYERKMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1917 Agents for the Sale of Books published by the Superintendent of Government Printing, India, Calcutta. IN EUROPE. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 68-74, Carter Lane, B.C., and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C. Bernard Qaaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. P. S. King & Sons, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, West- minster, London, S.W. H. S. 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The Weldon Library, 18-5, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta. Standard Literature Co., Ltd., Calcutta. Lai Chand & Sons, Calcutta. Higginbotham & Co., Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Madras. 6. A. Katesan & Co., Madras. 8. Murthy & Co., Madras. Thompson & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. Vas & Co., Madras. E. M. Gopalakrishna Kons, Madura. Thacker & Co., Ltd., Bombay. A. 3. Combridge & Co., Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala, Sons & Co., Bombay, Mrs. Radhabal Atmaram Sagoon, Bombay. Sunder Pandurang, Bombay. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay. Ram Chandra Govind & Son, Kalbadevi, Bombay. A. H. Wheeler & Co., Allahabad, Calcutta and Bombay. N. B. Mathur, Supt., Nazir Kanun Eind Press, Allahabad. Rai Sahib M. Gulab Singh & Sons, Mufid-i-Am Press, Lahore. Rama Krishna & Sons, Lahore. Supt., American Baptist Mission Press, Rangoon. Manager, the " Hitavada," Nagpur. S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students & Co., Cooch Behar. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Ceylon. Manager, Educational Book Dep6ts. Nagpur and Jubbulpore.* Manager of the Imperial Book Dep6t, 63, Chandney Chauk Street, Delhi.* Manager, " The Agra Medical Hall and Co-operative Association, Ltd." (Successors to A. John & Co., Book and Tract Depository, Agra.) Supt., Basel Mission Mangalore.* P. Varadachary & Co., Madras.* H. Liddell, Printer, etc., 7, South Road, Allahabad. Ram Dayal Agarwala, 184, Katra, Allahabad.* D. C. Anand & Sons, Peshawar.* Manager, Newal Kishore Press, Lucknow.* * Agents for the sale of Legislative Department publications only. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION ....'....... 1 I. DISTRIBUTION 1 II. SILVICULTURE AND MANAGEMENT — (a) Locality 2 (6) Shape and Development . . . . . . * . 3 (c) Reproduction .......... 4 (d) Management f 5 III. TIMBER — (a) Description and Properties of the Wood — Heart-wood and Sap-wood ....... 5 Durability .......... 6 Weight 6 Strength 6 Possibility 6 Calorific power ......... 6 Seasoning power ......... 6 (6) Felling and Extraction 7 (c) Size of Timber obtainable ....... 7 (d) Outturn and Price 7 (e) Uses of Timber '8 IV. MINOR PRODUCTS — (a) Leaves ........... 9 (6) Pods 9 (c) Gum . . . 10 (d) Bark- Properties .......... 11 Method of Tanning ' • 11 Quality of .Bark • 12 Outturn and Price 13 (e) Lac ... 14 Bntml. a arahica, Willd. Natural Order. — Leguminosae ({Mimoseae). BABUL JJcada arabica, Willd. Natural Order. — Leguminosae (Mimoseae). Vernacular names. — Babul (Hind.); Kikar (Pb.); Babur (Sind); Gabur bakar (Sonthal) ; Babola (Mai Pahari) ; Karuvelam (Tarn.) ; Tuma, tamma, nella tuma (Tel.) ; Gobli, gobalu, jali, karrijali, jaligida (Kan.) ; Bamura (Jubbulpore) ; Babli (Hyd.) ; Karu velagum (Mai.) ; Babulo, khoiro (Vinya). Introduction. The data, on which this note is based, are those collected by the Forest Economist, and consist chiefly of reports from Divisional Forest Officers, and extracts from works of reference, and from articles which have appeared from time to time in the " Indian Forester." The subject will be dealt with under four heads : I. — Distribution, II. — Silviculture and Management, III. — Timber, and IV. — Minor Products. As the series of bulletins, of which this note forms a part, is designed to treat of forest trees, chiefly from a commercial point of view, the silviculture of the tree will be dealt with as shortly as possible. L Distribution. Babul is indigenous in Sind, Rajputana, Berar and the Central Provinces, Gujarat, and the North Deccan, but it is also cultivated and grown in the drier parts of India and, to a small extent, in Upper Burma. It occurs as far north as Jammu, etc., where it is found at the lower elevations, especially near cultivated lands, and extends to the very south of the Peninsula. This does not mean that there are large Babul forests all over India. On the contrary, a large proportion of the growth occurs in Revenue lands in the form of small patches of isolated trees. The District Forest Officer, Guntur, Madras Presidency, for instance, states that " isolated trees are everywhere met with "; and he estimates the Babul-bearing area in his district at 19,093 acres, of which only 4,817 acres are reserved forest — a state of affairs which must be typical of many Indian districts. NOTE ON BABUL. The only Provinces in which Babul forests of any extent occur are Bombay (including Sind), Berar (Central Provinces) and Madras. By far the finest and most extensive forests are found in Sind which may, in fact, be termed the home of the Babul. The Hyderabad Divi- sion alone contains 90,000 acres of Babul forest and the Jerruck Divi- sion follows close with 80,000 acres. Several divisions of the Bombay Presidency proper contain fairly large tracts, notably Poona with 12,440 acres, and East Khandesh, 4,220 acres. Three of the four Berar districts, namely, Amraoti, Buldana and Akola also furnish substantial Babul-bearing tracts, while important tracts also occur in some Madras districts. The following statement gives roughly the areas of Babul forest in the provinces above referred to : — Bombay .... Sind Circle Central Circle 172,000 acres. 22,000 acres. Central Provinces .... Berar . 15,000 acres. Madras ..... All Circles 77,000 acres. It does not seem necessary to give detailed information regarding the numberless small areas of Babul occurring in the various provinces. Enough has been said to indicate where the tree is at present growing on a commercial scale, and further details regarding its distribution would no doubt be gladly furnished by the Conservators of the various Circles. II. Silviculture and Management. (a) LOCALITY. Babul is seen at its best on alluvial soil in riverain areas which are subject to annual inundation. The truth of this is very evident from an examination of the Sind forests. These forests fringe the banks of the Indus, and areas which benefit by the inundation, and of which the soil is not too salty, produce excellent crops of Babul ; whereas areas which are too high or too far from the river to benefit from the inundation either bear no forest at all or forests of other species, such as Prosopis spicigera, in which Babul is largely or wholly absent. Next to alluvium — black cotton soil is most favoured by the tree ; Babul may, in fact, be said to be the tree most typical of black cotton soil areas. It is also very generally found growing in tank beds,1 in NOTE ON BABUL. •> cultivated land, and along ravines, and it is also a common road-side tree. As a rule, Babul requires the subsoil moisture to be near to the surface, as it is a shallow-rooted species, and it is no uncommon sight in Sind to see crops of Babul dying of drought, owing to the river having changed its course, thus depriving the trees of the moisture to which they had been accustomed. The tree is, however, satisfied with a very moderate rainfall, and can of course dispense with rainfall altogether if subject to annual inundation. Babul prefers very low elevations and rarely grows above 2,000 ft. above sea-level. (6) SHAPE AND DEVELOPMENT. Babul is a small to moderate-sized tree with a large spreading crown and a comparatively short bole. Its dark brown bark is much fissured, its leaves are bipinnate, and its flowers, which appear in the rains in axillary globose heads, are yellow and fragrant. A distinctive feature of the tree is its straight, white, sharply pointed spines which are often half an inch long and sometimes even longer. It is, generally speaking, a shallow-rooted tree and, as such, subject to danger from wind-fall. Although reliable figures are not available, Babul may be said to be a fast growing tree, at any rate during the first twenty years or so of its life. The Divisional Forest Officer, Hyderabad, Sind, states that in less than 5 years the tree, under favourable conditions of soil and moisture, attains a girth of 1 J' at breast-height, while its average girth at 35 years is about 4'. It attains its highest development in Sind, where trees often reach a height of between 50 and 60 feet, with a clear bole of 20 to 25 feet, in favourable localities, and where girths of from 8 to 10 feet are not uncommon. Berar and some of the Deccan divisions also contain well-developed Babul, but the height-growth is on an average considerably less than that in Sind ; while in Madras the growth is much poorer, the height being rarely over 30 feet, and usually considerably less. The above remarks apply to localities suited to the tree ; in un- suitable localities such, for instance, as stony shallow dry soils, the development is very poor, the tree having a stunted appearance and being of very slow growth. It may here be stated, on information kindly supplied by the Forest Botanist, that the three following varieties of Babul are commonly recognized : — (1) Telia or Godi. Bark blackish brown, slightly cracked, spines short, pod distinctly constricted between the seeds. (2) Kauria or Vedi. Bark grey brown, deeply cracked, spines long, pod very little constricted between the seeds. 4 NOTE ON BABUL. (3) RamJcanta, Kdbuli Kikar, Kikari, a broom-like tree with close ascending branches, somewhat like a cypress. In this note Babul is, however, treated as one species, the question of varieties being ignored ; because although these varieties are commonly recognized, their constancy and detailed botanical characteristics have not yet been finally determined, and consequently precise information regarding the distribution and relative economic importance of the different forms is not yet available. At the same time, it may be noted that Brandis states that the wood of Telia is prized while that of Kauria is only fit for firewood. The matter is, however, under study by the Forest Botanist. (c) KEPRODUCTION. In localities favourable to the growth of Babul, the question of its regeneration presents little difficulty. Although natural regeneration is said to be excellent in some districts, yet it is generally found that to collect and sow seed which has passed through cattle, sheep or goats (which eat the pods greedily), gives the best results ; or the animals may be fed on the pods and stalled on the area which it is wished to regenerate. The frequent failure of green seed to germinate is believed to be due to insect damage. In favourable areas such, for instance, as the best Sind forests, it is quite sufficient to broadcast the seed, but in localities which are not so suitable, sowing in pits and patches and on ridges and mounds have all been tried with more or less success. In places where broadcast sowing is not successful, however, some form of ploughing before sowing, where this is feasible, will usually give the best results. The area may be full ploughed, ploughed in single lines, or cross ploughed, and the seed broadcasted (in the case of full ploughing), or sown in the furrows ; provided that the seed used has passed through cattle, this method should ensure success. The agri-silvicultural method of regenerating Babul has been tried with great success in various districts, and especi- ally in Berar. According to this method, Babul seedlings are raised with field crops, and thus obtain all the advantages of ploughing, while the latter is carried out without expense to the Department. Many forest officers look on Babul as a non-coppicer, and it is a fact that, in most of the important forests, the tree is, for all practical purposes, a non-coppicer. In several districts, however, among which may be mentioned several Madras districts, notably Anantapur and Guntur, the Jhansi district of the United Provinces, the Surat district of Bombay, and the Aimer- Merwara district, the tree is said to coppice well, but it does not appear to send up good shoots after it has passed about 15 years of age. NOTE ON BABUL. 0 It may here be mentioned that the tree pollards well. Young Babul .seedlings are fairly hardy, and it is never necessary to raise them in a nursery. They suffer a good deal from frost in districts where this occurs, but more often than not, put out fresh shoots. Another foe to young plantations is a Lamiid beetle, Ccelosterna scabrata, Fab., commonly known as the Babul root-boring longicorn. The Forest Zoologist states that this is a pest of the first importance, since it is capable of obtaining a complete mastery over a young plan- tation. It attacks the stems- and roots of young plants, usually in the second or third year, and plants seriously attacked are certain to die. The Sind forests do not appear to suffer from the attack of this insect, details of whose life-history together with instructions for pre- servative and remedial measures, can be obtained from the Forest Zoologist, (d) MANAGEMENT. Seeing that Babul tends to form pure even-aged crops, and that the regeneration of the species, as has been explained above, usually presents no difficulty, the management of such forests is quite simple. Typically, the clear felling method, with a rotation of 30 or 40 years, followed by artificial regeneration, is applied, and this gives excellent results. In cases where the primary object of management is the pro- duction of bark for tanning purposes, the rotation should be much less, say, 10 or 15 years. In districts where the tree coppices well, the coppice-with-standards method has been adopted with varying success. Surat and Anantapur are examples of such districts, and the Guntur and Tinnevelly forests were also worked according to this method, for some years, on a 20-year rotation, but the treatment was found unsatisfactory, and abandoned in favour of selection fellings. III. Timber. (a) DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTIES OF THE WOOD. Heart-wood and Sap-wood. The heart-wood is pink, and turns reddish-brown on exposure, being mottled with dark streaks. It polishes well without absorbing much polish. The sap-wood is yellowish white in colour, and, in mature trees, forms a small proportion, say, less than 20% of the total volume. The annual rings are not very distinctly marked. 6 NOTE ON BABUL. Durability. The heart-wood is hard and very durable ; if well seasoned, it is: tough and somewhat difficult to work. It is said to be not readily attacked by insects ; whereas the sap-wood is soft, is readily attacked by insects, and decays rapidly. Weight. The average weight of the timber is 54 Ibs. per cubic foot. Strength. The value of P., which represents the strength of a bar of timber, calculated from the length between supports, breadth, and thickness of the bar, and the weight in pounds, which, when placed in the middle of the bar, causes it to break, is from 875 (Cunningham) to 884 (Skinner). As the same coefficient for teak is 600, for Sal 790, and for Shisham 796, it will be realized what a very strong wood Babul is. Fissibility. No experiments, as regards the fissibility yet been made. of Babul timber, have Calorific Power. The following table gives the calorific value of Babul charcoal and fuel :— Charcoal prepared in Calorics. Br. Thermal Unit. Water evaporated at 212°F. by 1 Ib. of charcoal or fuel (a) Open kilns (6) Closed kilns Fuel .... 6,675 6,831 4,814 12,015 12,295 8,665 12-47 12-71 8-95 Seasoning Power. The timber seasons well without much warping or splitting. Various- methods of seasoning, such as immersing in water and burying in the- NOTE ON BABUL. I ground, have been tried, but natural seasoning in the air seems to be quite satisfactory. The bark should be removed first in order to minimise the chances of insect damage, and large logs should be roughly squared. (6) FELLING AND EXTRACTION. Babul coupes are, as a rule, sold standing to contractors, who usually fell small trees with the axe, and sometimes use the saw for larger ones. As the tree typically grows on comparatively level land, its extraction presents no difficulty ; carts or camels being the usual means employed in conjunction with carriage by boat, where, as in Sind, a suitable river is available. (c) SIZE OP TIMBER OBTAINABLE. The wood forms such an excellent fuel, and is, therefore, so extensively used for fire- wood that Babul forests are worked under a short rotation, usually roundabout 30-40 years, which is long enough to produce the class of material most in demand, such as, in addition to fuel, small timber pieces for agricultural implements and the like. The consequence is that the only large logs available (and many of these are unsound) are those cut from the old trees which are gradually being removed, and whose place will be filled by much smaller stuff. The supply of large Babul timber is thus being rapidly exhausted, and it is significant of this that, in discussing the uses to which the timber may be put, the Divisional Forest Officer, Jerruck (Sind) states that while his Division used to supply timber for the Gun-Carriage Factory, timber of the necessary dimensions is not now available. Should, however, a supply of large Babul timber be required, there would be no difficulty in growing it, and selected areas could be set apart for that purpose. (d) OUTTURN AND PRICE. It is not possible to give figures of outturn in any detail, as these are generally either not available or unimportant. The table below contains statistics supplied by the officers in charge of the divisions, in which the most important Babul-bearing areas are situated. These statistics are entered as received, and no attempt has been made to convert them to a uniform standard of measurement ; they are merely intended to indicate roughly the quantities of Babul wood available from Government forests at these centres. No details are to hand as regards the outturn in Revenue lands, but it may be remarked that neither from forest nor from Revenue lands does there appear to be any appreciable quantity of timber available for export. 8 NOTE ON BABUL. Outturn and Prices of Babulin different localities. OUTTURN DURING IAST FIVE YEARS. ESTIMATED FUTURE ANNUAL DIVISION. OUTTURN. Price. REMARKS. Timber. Fuel. Timber. Fuel. Bombay and Sind. Hyderabad . 141,979 60,000' 1,640,000 Average price (c. ft.) (c.ft.) • (c. ft.) of timber 0-11-0 per c.ft. -Jerruck 150,058 31,611 Average price Estimated out- (c. ft.) ; (C.ft.) of timber turn of fuel not 0-14-0 per c.ft. stated. Pooua . 1,777 ,980 300,000 Us. 12-0 to Rs. Figures give (c. ft.) (c. ft.) 14-0 per gross outturn Berar. Khandy of 20 maunds. of timber and fuel. Amraoti 7,157 1,450 Rs. 17-0 per Figures pr o- (tons.) (tons.) ton for split bably include Buldana 92,809 14,605 fuel. Rs. 10-0 per fuel. Figures pro • (c.ft.) (C. ft.) ton green. bably include Rs. 13-0 per fuel. Akola . 366,209 73,242 ton dry. Rs. 9-0 to Not sold as (c. ft.) Rs. 15-0 per timber. ton of fuel. Madras. •Guntur 6,23,320 Rs 15-0 to No estimates of Rs. 20-0 per future outturn ton. have been made. Tinnevelly-Kamndd 9,000 Rs. 10-0 to Pieces useful for (tons.) Rs. 14-0 per agricultural ton. implements sell at higher rates. (e) USES OF TIMBEE. The timber is used chiefly for firewood, and a good deal of it is made into charcoal. It is also used for a large variety of agricultural and domestic purposes, such as the following : — Posts, rafters, beams, door- frames and other parts of houses, bodies of carts and carriages, yokes, axles, shafts, naves, spokes and felloes, solid wheels, boat-building, oars, sugar and oil-presses, rice-pounders, ploughs, harrows, clod-crushers, Persian wheels, well-curbs, cattle-yokes, tent-pegs, boat-handles, bed- steads, cooperage, packings of buffers of railway rolling-stock, carving and turning, including carved dies for cloth-stamping, etc. The Divi- •sional Forest Officer, Sukkur, states that it is used as pit-props in the Khost coal-mines in Baluchistan. As explained above, the timber was formerly used in the Gun-Carriage Factory, and it has also been tried as a Railway sleeper wood, but in NOTE ON BABUL. 9- small quantities only. The sleepers are reported to have had a life of about ten years, if laid in places where they are not liable to attack by white-ants, and to have been supplied by contractors at the rate of Ks. 2-12-0 each. The Port Engineer, Karachi, states that in Karachi Babul sleepers, measuring about 10'xlO"x5", were laid down for the Port Trust yard Kail way lines, but as they were found to be subject to eiarly destruction by white-ants their use was discontinued. IV. Minor Products- (a) LEAVES. The leaves form a useful cattle-fodder and are sometimes farmed out, together with the pods, for the purpose. They also yield a dye. (6) PODS. The pods form an important item of cattle-fodder, and the late Mr. C. S. McKenzie, when he was Divisional Forest Officer of Jerruck, wrote that, in that Division, they were almost solely used for that purpose. He says : '.' The pods are sold annually as they stand on the trees .... Cattle eat Babul pods in their green state, and, in years of very plentiful pod crops, the seed is sometimes stored, to be used as fodder at a later date. When their use is so postponed the pods are usually boiled before being given to the cattle." In some divisions, the sale of pods for fodder forms an important item of revenue, but in others, notably in Madras, their collection is allowed free. The Divisional Forest Officer, Poona, writes that, in that division, the right to collect pods is sold with the condition attached that a proportion of the undigested seed is returned for sowing purposes ; while the Divisional Forest Officer, Tinnevelly, states that though the collection of pods is now allowed free, they fetched as much as Rs. 6,800 per annum before the privilege was granted. Babul pods also form a tanning and dyeing material, but Mr. McKenzie writing from Jerruck stated that " they yield an inferior tan, and Babul bark is preferred for this purpose." According to Watt's Commercial Products of India " Babul pods impart a beautiful colour to leather, and mainly on that account enjoy a certain local reputation as a weak tanning and dyeing material, useful in conjunction with other substances. At the Cawnpore tanneries, the pods are em- ployed almost exclusively for the purpose of removing the lime from skins and hides, before the leather is tanned with Babul bark or other substances. The dyers of India often use Babul pods to obtain certain shades that are admired in calico-printing." 10 NOTE ON BABUL. The following is the result of an analysis of these pods made by the Technical College in 1913 :— Whole pod. Husk only. Per cent. Per cent. Tannin matter absorbed by hide powder 12-6 21-0 Soluble non-tannin matter . . . 15-4 25-6 Moisture >. . . . . . 18-0 Insoluble ..... 54-0 100-0 Since the seeds were said to form 40 per cent., and the bark 60 per cent, of the whole pod, it will be seen that, according to this analysis, 60 per cent, of the bark contains 21 per cent, of tan. (c) GUM. The gum of Acacia arabica is an important minor product. It is not the true gum arabic, which is obtained from Acacia Senegal, but is the Indian gum arabic of commerce or " gum ghati." The gum exudes spontaneously, or is procured by incisions in the bark in the form of small lumps varying inform and size. A good tree is stated to yield about 2 Ibs. of gum in a year. The gum is extensively used for calico printing and sizing paper, for fixing paint and whitewash, as a mucilage, and to a limited extent in medicine. It is also eaten, and used in preparing sweet-meats. The price varies according to quality and colour : large light coloured tears from Sind Babul fetch the highest prices, a fair average being about 4 annas per lb., while the fine qualities fetch as much as 8 annas per Ib. The gum is not, as a rule, collected departmentally, but by contrac- tors, as in Tinnevelly, and can generally be purchased in large Bazaars. In the latter case, however, it will very likely be mixed with that of other species, for, as the Dictionary of Economic Products states, " the gums designated ' gum Ghati ' would embrace very possibly a wide range of gums (besides those obtained from species of Acacia), and very often it is believed degrees of quality must denote the extent of admixture rather than the nature of specific variations. There is a considerable export trade in Indian gum arabic, and the latest figures available, those for the year 1913-14, show that 44,691 cwts. valued at £62,485, were exported from India to the United Kingdom and various foreign countries. Practically the whole of the amount came from Bombay. NOTE ON BABUL. 11 (d) BARK. Babul bark is used to some extent as a dye, and, according to Dyes and Tans of Bengal by H. McCann, the following is a recipe for dyeing cloth a dark brown colour : — " For dyeing a yard of cloth, a pound of the bark is cut or broken into very small chips, and is boiled in about 5 Ibs. of water until about 3 Ibs. of water remains. The solution is then allowed to cool. A pice weight of alum (about -g- oz.) is then pounded and mixed with the solu- tion. The cloth to be dyed is washed in pure water, and the moisture well wrung out of it. It is then steeped in the above solution, and is afterwards put to dry in the shade. This steeping and drying is re- peated two or three times." It is, however, chiefly as a tanning agent that the bark of Acacia arabica is of value. Properties. Although Babul bark is a good tan bark, it is stated that it can only be used alone for certain purposes, such as for the soles of boots, for it is a " harsh " bark, that is, it produces brittle leather. If, however, the bark of Cassia auriculata is added to the Babul bark this brittle- ness is overcome. The following figures, from the analysis made by an English firm on raw hides sent home, are of interest as showing, in the case of Babul and other well-known tan bark trees, the amount of tannin matter absorbed by a hide, or, in other words, the percentage of tannin in the bark which can be utilized : — Acacia arabica „ leucophloea Shorea robusta Cassia auriculata Terminalia Chebula Trunk bark. Twig bark. Per cent. Per cent 17-1 11-7 15-6 5-8 8-2 9-0 18-7 30-0 Method of Tanning. Mr. Pethe, Extra- Assistant Conservator of Forests, Bombay, gives an interesting account of the method of tanning adopted in Poona, of which the following is the substance : — The bark of the best, or " Godi," variety of Babul only is used for tanning, and this bark is removed from the tree as soon as possible after felling, and before it has had time to dry up. The only instrument used for removing the bark is a wooden mallet which loosens it until 12 NOTE ON BABUL. it is easily stripped from the tree. After removal the bark is allowed to dry, and is then beaten up into small pieces by the same mallet , it cannot be kept in this state for more than a year ; for, if kept longer than this, it begins to lose its tanning colour. The prepared bark is then mixed with myrabolans, which have also been broken up into small pieces, in the proportion of 160 Ibs. of Babul bark to 100 Ibs. of myrabolans. The object of this mixture is stated to be to ensure a good colour, since if Babul bark alone is employed the resulting colour is deep yellow instead of brown. A sufficient quantity of water (exact proportion not stated) is added to the mixture, and into this prepara- tion the skin to be tanned, which has already been soaked in lime for about 15 days, is dipped. It remains immersed for three or four days, and is then taken out and sewn into a sort of bag with aloe fibres. It is then filled with the same preparation and hung up for four or five days, by the end of which time the tanning process is complete. Quality of Bark. Mr. Pethe states that bark from the branches, trunks and roots are all valued for tanning, but bark from the branches is the best. This does not agree with the analysis given above, in which trunk bark is shown to contain the largest percentage of tannin. Probably Mr. Pethe had in mind large trees with very thick trunk bark, for it is generally agreed that young trees yield the best bark for tanning purposes. The late Mr. C. S. McKenzie writing from Sind says : " although the quantity of tannin in the bark increases with the size and age of the tree, old bark yields a darker coloured tannin, and for this reason the barks of younger trees and branches is preferred." Mr. Pethe says : " young trees of 5 to 10 years old give the best bark for tanning." In contrast with these statements, the author of an article entitled " Tannin Materials " in Volume XXI of the " Textile Journal " writes : " the larger the tree, the greater the tannin contents of the bark become, and it also becomes a little darker in colour, and consequently in some districts, where Babul is very plentiful, the local tanners only use the bark of the larger branches, as they get a better coloured leather from this than the trunk bark." Both Messrs. Gamble and the author of the Dictionary of Economic Products, however, agree that eight to ten years would probably be the most profitable rotation under which to grow Babul for tanning purposes ; and Messrs. Cooper Allen & Co., of Cawnpore, who probably have more experience in the matter than any other firm, state, in a note on Babul planting drawn up by them, that " the best age for a tree from which bark is to be taken is ten years." Their opinion may be accepted as final. NOTE ON BABUL. 13 Outturn and Price. That there is a large demand for Babul bark in India is evidenced by the fact that the Cawnpore tanneries alone are stated to consume 500,000 maunds annually, and, since the local supply is declining, the establishment of plantations within an economic radius of Cawnpore has been mooted. It is also stated that in Hyderabad and Kotri, which are the chief centres of the bark trade in Sind, some 115,000 maunds of Babul bark are sold annually for tanning purposes and also for making country liquor. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain any reliable figures regarding outturn and price ; for Babul trees are, as a rule, sold standing to con- tractors, and the bark trade is therefore not in the hands of the Depart- ment. The Chief Conservator of Forests of the Central Provinces in 1913, however, gave it as his opinion that arrangements could be made to sell the bark separately, if necessary. The price will obviously depend largely on the local labour supply and the distances from the Railway. Although no general figures can be quoted, the following statistics may be of interest : — Forest Division. Amount of bark available annually (in maunds). Cost of extraction to rail per maund. Central Provinces. Amraoti Akola ...... Buldana ...... ' 204 1,400 Rs. A. p. 0 14 0 1 2 0 1 12 0 Sind. Jerruck ...... Sukkur Hyderabad 15,000 300 7,000 to 8,000 0 12 0 0 10 0 040 to 070 From an experiment carried out in the Berar Circle of the Central Provinces it was estimated that the cost of collection alone, without carriage to rail, or railway freight, would be Rs. 0-10-6 per maund in the Amraoti Division, and Rs. 0-13-8 per maund in the Akola Division. In his Forest Economic Products of India published in 1912, Mr. Pearson states : " The prices vary in different localities from 10 annas to Re. 1-4-0 per maund of 82 Ibs. In Cawnpore the ruling prices at B 14 NOTE ON BABtJL. present are from 13 to 14 annas per maund. Watt states that the bark fetches from 8 annas to Us. 2-4-0 per 100 Ibs." No statistics collected since the publication of the above materially alter the statement quoted. (e) LAC. In conclusion, it may be stated that the Babul tree forms an excellent host tree for the lac insect, and the Sind Babul forests, particularly those of the Hyderabad Division, constitute one of the chief lac-pro- ducing areas of India. CALCUTTA : PRINTED BY SUPDT. GOVT. FEINTING, INDIA, 8, HASTINGS STREET. LOAN PERIOD HOME USE ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW FORM NO. DD6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 Lndia. ',.3 r v.l