GIFT OF G « X^_<>^[ " vJ WEST VIRGINIA FORESTRY PAMPHLETS VOL.1 .Bull. 137 — The Chestnut Bark Disease — U. ff. Oiddings, W. Va. Agri. Experiment Station. Bull. 1414 — The Rejuvenation of Old Orchards -- V/. H. Alderman, W. Va. Agri. Exp. Station. Bull. 16 — Tellow Locust — A. D. Hopkins, W. Va Agri. Experiment Station. Bull. 17 — Black Spruce — A. D. Hopkins, W. Va. Agri. Experiment Station. Lessons from the Forest — 7/. Va. School Agriculture College of Agriculture of V/. Va. University. Bulletin 56 — Report on Investigations to Deter- mine the Cause of Unhealthy Conditions of the Spruce and Pine from 1880-1893, A. D. Hopkins, >7. Va. Agri. Exp. Station, April, 1899. W A i Lib« Forerti? Bulletin 137 March, 1912 J5»tattmt MORGANTOWN, W. VA. DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY The Chestnut Bark Disease N. J. GIDDINGS The Bulletins and Reports of ; tW zen of West Virginia upon written application. Experiment Station, Morgantown', W. Va, \vi\l be mailed free to any citi- Address Director of Agricultural 399109 The State of West Virginia Educational Institutions THE STATE BOARD OF CONTROL. Charleston, West Virginia. James S. Lakin, President ..... Charleston, W. Va. John A. Sheppard, - - - - - - - Charleston, W. Va. E. B. Stephenson, Treasurer, .... Charleston, W. Va. The State Board of Control has the direction of the financial and business affairs of the state educational institutions. THE STATE BOARD OF REGENTS. Charleston, West Virginia. M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools, President, - - - - - - George S. Laidley, - .... G. A. Northcott, ... Earl W. Ogelbay, - J. B. Finley, Charleston, W. Va. Charleston, W. Va. Huntington, W. Va. Wheeling, W. Va. Parkersburg, W. Va. The State Board of Regents has charge of all matters of a purely scholastic nature concerning the state educational institutions. West Virginia University Thomas Edward Hodges, LL.D., President AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. E. Dwight Sanderson, B.S. Agr., Bert H. Kite, M.S., W. E. Rumsey, B.S. Agr., N. J. Giddings, M.S., Horace Atwood, M.S. Agr., W. H. Alderman, B.S. Agr., 1. S. Cook, Jr., B.S. Agr., L. M. Peairs, B.S. Agr., M.S., . C. A. Lueder, D.V.M., A. L. Dacy, B.Sc., Frank B. Kunst, A. B. Charles E. Weakley, Jr., - - J. H. Berghius-Krak, Kristian Hv. Knudsen, Dipl. ing. Hubert Hill, B.S., M.S., . David C. Neal, B.S., ... E. C. Auchter, B.S. Agr., L. H. Sutton, B.S.,. B.S, Agr., W. J. White, - -:t \ \ 5* : ; M.A.Stewart, -•'•*- .-V I- :• Uriah Barnes, L£..B$ .;.•»•....*.. -, • • « *•• • . . . ; .... Director Vice-Director and Chemist - - Entomologist Plant Pathologist - Poultryman - Horticulturist Agronomist . . --Entomologist Veterinarian Associate Horticulturist Assistant Chemist - - - Assistant Chemist Assistant Chemist - Assistant Chemist .. Assistant Chemist Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Horticulturist - Bookkeeper Librarian Secretary BULLETIN 137. THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE A DANGEROUS ENEMY OF WEST VIRGINIA'S CHESTNUT TREES. The blight or bark disease of chestnut seems to be, in many respects, the worst pest that has appeared in the forests of this country. It is unusual far a disease to destroy the entire growth of a plant in any section, but this blight has been found to attack practically every chestnut tree in its line of advance, leaving in its wake only dead and dying trees of that species. We should be thankful indeed that it has not been found to attack other species of our forest trees since that would ser- iously complicate matters. The chestnut timber is of very great value and importance in this state and it would seem well for us to take any reason- able and necessary steps for the prevention or control of the disease in West Virginia. /The average annual cut during the past few years is about 118 million feet, and this figure does not include poles, cross ties, or posts. \ The value of the nuts is also great, as food for man, or for fattening hogs. Shipments from one railroad station last fall aggregated 155,092 pounds. We have secured estimates from several lumbermen as to the present standing chestnut timber of the state. These esti- mates range from more than one billion feet to ten billion feet. Taking five billion feet as a reasonable average, and $3.00 per In publishing this bulletin on the Chestnut Bark Disease we have drawn freely from all available publications on the subject. We are especially indebted to Dr. Haven Metcalf of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Mr. A. B. Brooks, former State Forester of West Virginia, and Mr. S. B. Detweiler of the Pennsyl- vania Chestnut Blight Commission. 210 ... ,\y. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 thousand as.-iunipa.La- valiu-.'we have a total valuation of $15,- 000,000.-'' ''['liv-M: fibres dcj ud mean a great deal as there are many things to be considered aside from the simple lumber value of the chestnut. Our West Virginia forests deserve far more attention than th£y have thus far received, and it is hoped that the publica- tion of this Bulletin will help to bring about some definite action both in regard to the Chestnut Bark Disease and gen- eral forestry work in this State. FIG. 1. — A fine old tree, but dying from the bark disease. HISTORY. Attention was first called to this disease by Dr. H. W. Merkle, of the New York Botanical Gardens. During the summer of 1904-5 he noticed that a few of the chestnut trees in the parks appeared to be dying in a peculiar manner, and he brought the matter to the attention of Dr. W. A. Murrill, the Mycologist. In a paper on the subject given in the 1905 March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 211 report of the Zoological Society Merkel says, "It has spread to such an extent that today it is no exaggeration to say that 98 per cent of all the chestnut trees in the parks of this bor- ough are infected. The spread of this disease is so sudden that unless some radical measures are taken or a natural enemy of this fungus deve1ops, it is safe to predict that not a live specimen of the American chestnut (Castanea dentata} w?ill be found two years hence in the neighborhood of the ZOO- FIG. 2. — A beautiful grove a few years ago, but all chestnut dead now. logical Park". Valiant efforts were made to save trees which "were not yet diseased by spraying them thoroughly with Bor- deaux mixture, while many which were only slightly diseased were pruned and repruned, but all of their endeavors availed nothing, and today those great parks are destitute of the chestnut trees. During the years 1905-6 Dr. Murrill studied the disease in laboratory, greenhouse and park. As a result of his studies he found it to be new and undescribed, tho a fungus similar 212 W. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 to the one which causes this disease is known to occur in Europe. He published a careful description of the disease and its behavoir in 1906. His work was followed by a great deal of discussion as to the cause and importance of the disease, and meanwhile the chestnut trees were dying by thousands and tens of thousands. The Office of Forest Pathology at Washington, D. C., has devoted considerable time to the study of this disease, especial- ly as -'to its manner of spreading, distribution, and methods of control. Pennsylvania was the first state to, give the matter serious consideration and more will be said of their work under an- other heading. DESCRIPTION. The disease may attack a tree of any age, and any part of the tree. It is caused by a fungus, and this seems able to start its growth only in wounds of some sort, but when we consider the squirrels, insects, and birds which may make small wounds through the bark it is easy to see that there are numerous points of entrance. It finds conditions most favorable for its growth just be- tween the bark and the wood. Once started, it spreads rapidly and soon girdles the part upon which it is growing. It is this characteristic of girdling which makes it especially destruc- tive. Only a small amount of tissue is actually invaded by the fungus, but the entire tree, limb, or twig is killed beyond that point. When a twig or limb is diseased, the spores or fruit- ing bodies of the fungus are washed down toward the trunk, which soon becomes infected and girdled. The disease is most noticeable during late spring and sum- mer. During this period, the recently killed or dying limbs are easily detected from some distance, on account of their dis- colored foliage. The leaves on a diseased branch turn to a reddish brown color, and finally wither, but they have a ten- March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE 213 FIG. 3. — A diseased tree in young chestnut orchard. Note dead leaves clinging to branches. FIG. 4. — An old tree making its final efforts to live. Girdling at a lower point will soon complete its death. L'H \V. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 dency to remain on the tree for some time. The burs on in- fected branches usually remain on the tree during the winter following its girdling. Diseased trees very frequently produce sprouts or "suck- ers" in considerable numbers. These may appear on the trunk ur near the base of the tree. Such sprouts soon become infected, however, and very few survive more than two or three years. KM;. f>. — Young tree showing postules on smooth bark, and sprouts. (See also Fig. 11, page 221.) A closer examination reveals the diseased band near the ba>e MI' the affected portion. It is especially conspicuous on Miio<,t li bark, causing a reddish brown discoloration and pro- ducing nnmerons little pustules which break through the bark and MM free vast numbers of spores. These spore masses are orange colored but vary considerably in appearance accord- ing t<> climatic conditions. During warm, moist weather they arc c-prcially prominent and sometimes may be seen as long, curly, yellow threads issuing from the pustule (figure 6). March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. Fio. 6. — A very close view of a diseased portion. Note the summer spores issuing in long twisted strings from some of the pustules. 216 W. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 Such threads are composed of countless numbers of spores held together by some sticky material. Rains dissolve this adhesive material and carry the spores to lower portions of the same tree or to others standing close by. When a branch is girdled by cutting around it, there is apt to be an enlargement produced just above the wound, and a similar effect is often noted in limbs attacked by this disease. In fact many of the gross symptoms are exactly similar to those which would be produced by mechanical or insect girdl- ing. If older portions are attacked, the discoloration and pus- tule formation are not so evident, as most of the pustules are produced in the fissures of the bark. Such bark, when cut through, is found to be discolored and breaks up easily like punk. Tapping upon this bark will usually produce a pecu- liar dull sound. The fungus may continue to grow in the dead bark for some time. It was not generally thought to be capable of growth in the wood, but three investigators, Dr. Caroline Rumbold, W. H. Rankin, and J. Franklin Collins, in different sections of the country have reported finding it upon the wood during the past season. (i) Besides the common so called summer spores mentioned above, the fungus produces another kind known as the per- fect or winter spores. These are darker in color and the pus- tules are less conspicuous. They are most frequently produc- ed during the late fall, and help the fungus to survive any unfavorable weather conditions. DISTRIBUTION. As previously stated, this disease threatens the destruc- iton of all chestnut timber in the Eastern States. At the present time it is known to be present in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- (1) This statement is taken from unpublished data furnished by the parties mentioned. Rankin gives a detailed description of the fungus growth on wood and reports finding fruiting pustules on wood entirely stripped of its bark and exposed to weathering. March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 21' FIG. 7. — A view to show how bark is rotting and cracking. FIG. 8. — A more advanced stage than fig. 7. Bark peeling off. 218 W. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 vania, Deleware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. A glance at the map, figure 10, will show how general has been the spread from New York City as a center. In consid- ering this map one should remember that a diseased tree is practically doomed to die. There are numerous diseased areas, especially in Pennsylvania, which have been found since this map was plotted. FIG. 9. — A view showing complete destruction on young chestnut stand in forest area. E. R. Hodson, of the U. S. Forest Service, writing of this disease in 1908, says, "In Pennsylvania it is no where abun- dant yet, although it exists at Easton, South Bethlehem, and Morrisville, and is repprted as far north as Pocono Mountains, and as far south now as Philadelphia." In recent correspon- dence with the Pennsylvania Commission for the investiga- tion and control of this disease, they have sent us a map show- ing that the area of general infection now includes nearly one-half of the state. A similar rapid spread has been record- ed in other states and a great united effort should be made to prevent its further progress. March,. 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 219 GXPLA/VATtON'i A// -frees c/eod A //trees diseased • Loco/ d/seasec/ areas •f Former d/s eased 'areas FIG. 10. — Map showing distribution of diseased chestnut. The area of gen- eral infection in Pennsylvania is much greater than would be indicated by this map. 220 W. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 Dr. SpauldingT of 'the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has made careful notes on this disease in the Connecticut Val- ley during the past three years. In summing up his obser- vations there he states, "There can be no shadow of doubt that in the three years, 1909 to 1911, inclusive, the disease has spread so seriously as to now be beyond hopes of control in the lower Connecticut Valley." (i) In the case of New Jersey infection is already so general that there is very little hope of saving any chestnut in that state. Europe is fearful of the disease and Italy has already taken steps to prevent its introduction there. PREVENTIVE MEASURES. Numerous experiments have been conducted in the hope of finding some practical method of controlling the chestnut bark disease and some good results have been secured. Those most actively engaged in work along this line at present are the Pennsylvania Chestnut Tree Blight Commission and the Office of Forest Pathology in the U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Spraying appears to be of little value, and, of course, is entirely impractical in forest areas. The method which has finally been adopted aims to prevent the further spread of the disease from the area of general infection and to destroy all diseased trees outside this area. To accomplish the first point, it is essential to establish a line beyond which it will be extremely difficult for the disease to progress. The main, advancing front of the diseased section must come to a point where there are no more chestnut trees within easy range of infection. Large unwooded areas and forest tracts free from chestnut should form as large a part of this boundary line as (1) From unpublished data furnished by Dr. Spaulding. March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 221 FIG. 11. — Note sprout production around base of this diseased tree. L'l'i- \Y. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 practicable. In other portions it may be necessary to cut all chestnut trees both healthy and diseased, in a belt some miles wide along the line. The disease is left largely to itself in the area enclosed by this line while careful search is made for all diseased trees outside that area and they are destroyed when found. All chestnut timber in the generally diseased area should be cut and utilized as rapidly as possible but the disease will find itself checked upon reaching a boundry de- stitute of chestnut,- — -the same as a forest fire when* it comes t< > a broad river. In the case of individual trees which are quite valuable it i- ofu-n possible to prolong their lives or even to save them bv careful tree surgery. Diseased twrigs and small limbs should be removed. The larger limbs and trunk may be treated by carefully cutting away all diseased bark and into tin- healthy bark around the edges. A layer of wood should also be removed from beneath this bark and the entire wound painted over with coal tar. The tools used for removing bark and wood should be very sharp, so as to make clean, smooth cuts, and the work must be done with great care and thor- oughness, if good results are to be expected. LEGISLATION. The control of this disease is a matter which requires prompt action on the part of every state where it has been found. These states are all awakening to a realization of the danger' from the Chestnut Bark Disease and Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Xew York have already taken steps to prevent its further spread. Pennsylvania was the first state to make a definite move along this line. Her legislature passed a bill carrying appropriations of $275,000. for use in investigating and controlling this specific disease. The full title of that act is as follows : An act to provide efficient and practical means for the prevention, control and eradication of a disease affecting the chestnut trees, commonly called the chestnut tree blight; March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 223 FIG. 12. — Map showing where the disease has been found in West Virginia. The specimen from Whetsell was picked up by a tourist and the one from Lewis- burg by a summer visitor. The disease at Pickens was looked up by Mr. A. B. Brooks and the infected tree, which came from a nursery, was destroyed. 224 W. V. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 137 providing for the destruction of trees so affected; creating a commission to carry out the purpose of this act ; fixing penal- ties for the violation of the provisions hereof ; and making an appropriation therefor". Soon after the passage of the bill, in June 1911, a com- mission was appointed. At present they have a well organiz- ed staff and are preparing for a tremendous campaign against the disease this coming season. They have accomplished much work of value already, and have had a considerable number of trained men in the field all the time. Space will not permit a detailed discussion of their methods, but they would surely serve as a safe model for any other state. RECOMMENDATIONS. Since the disease is known to be present in West Virginia, we owe it to ourselves and to neighboring states to take defi- nite and immediate steps for preventing its further spread. The disease has been found in a number of chestnut nur- series and in several cases local areas of infection have been directly traced to such diseased stock. Any one contemplat- ing the purchase of chestnut trees from nurseries would do well to correspond with the Agricultural Experiment Station at Morgantown, before securing them. Any such trees should be inspected by competent authorities in this state before being accepted or paid for. Some careful inspection work should be done in the vicini- ties of the three local infections already reported for this state and in the northern and north Eastern portions of the state during the next season. The control of this disease is a matter of great economic importance to the State of West Virginia, and deserves the serious consideration and hearty co-operation of every citizen. We would urge that everyone make it a point to take care- ful note of the condition of any chestnut trees which may March, 1912.] THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. 225 come under their observation, especially during the season of 1912. Specimens may be compared with the pictures and descriptions given in this bulletin. In case there is the least suspicion that a tree is diseased, samples of bark and wood from the girdled portion should be sent to this Station. We would also be pleased to have correspondence from any one who has made observations which might be of gener- al interest or value, concerning the chestnut or other forest trees of this State. Bulletin 141 April, 1913 W £si MORGANTOWN, W. VA. DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE The Rejuvenation of Old Orchards. By W. H. ALDERMAN. The Bulletins and Reports of this Station will be mailed free to any citizen of West Virginia xipon written application. Address Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. The State of West Virginia Educational Institutions THE STATE BOARD OF CONTROL Charleston, West Virginia. James S. Lakin, President, Charleston, W. Va. John A. Sheppard, Charleston, W. Va. E. B. Stephenson, Treasurer, Charleston, W. Va. The State Board of Control has the direction of the financial and business affairs of the state educational institutions. THE STATE BOARD OF REGENTS. Charleston, West Tirginia. M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of schools, President, Charleston, W. Va. George S. Laidley, Charleston, W. Va. G. A. Northcott, Huntington, W. Va. Earl W. Ogelbay, Wheeling, W. Va. J. B. Finley, Farkersburg, W. Va. The State Board of Regents has charge of all matters of a purely scholastic nature concerning the state educational institutions. West Virginia University Thomas Edward Hodges, LL.D., President AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. E. Dwight Sanderson, B. S. Agr., Director Bert H. Kite, M. S., Vice-Director and Chemist W. E. Rumsey, B. S. Agr., Entomologist N. J. Giddings, M. S., Plant Pathologist Horace Atwood, M. S. Agr., Poultryman W. H. Alderman, B. S., Agr., Horticulturist I. S. Cook, Jr., B. S. Agr., Agronomist L. M. Peairs, M. S., Entomolgist A. L. Dacy, B. Sc., Associate Horticulturist P. B. Bennetch, B. S. Agr., Dairy Husbandry C. A. Lueder, D. V. S., Veterinarian Frank B. Kunst, A. B., Assistant Chemist Charles E. Weakley, Jr., Assistant Chemist Hudbert Hill, B. S., M. S., Assistant Chemist David C. Neal, B. S., Assistant Plant Pathologist E. C. Auchter, B. S. Agr., Assistant Horticulturist L. F. Sutton, B. S., B. S. Agr., Assistant Horticulturist Hunt, B. S. Agr., Assistant, Animal Husbandry W. J. White, Bookkeeper M. A. Stewart, Librarian BULLETIN 141 The Rejuvenation of Old Orchards W. H. ALDERMAN. INTRODUCTION. In West Virginia there are according to the last census 4,570,948 apple trees of bearing age grown on 76,122 farms, making an average of 60 trees per farm. The value of the crop in 1909 was $2,461,074 or an average of $32 per farm, or about fifty-four cents per tree. When we consider that some of the best commercial orchards yield an income of $5.00 and over per tree, we know that a great many of the orchards of the State must yield practically nothing to bring the average so low. A conservative estimate made by several people conversant with lodal conditions, places only one- half the bearing trees in West Virginia as yielding profitable crops. The other half, due to neglect, to the ravages of insects and disease, to poor locations, to ignorance or indifference on the part of the owner, are not paying for the use of the ground upon which they stand. ' ' How can I bring my old orchard into bearing ? " is the question often asked. Before answering this question, let us see why the old orchard is not already bearing. Let us first diagnose the case and then suggest the remedy. Causes Leading to the Decadence of Old Orchards. LACK OF SPRAYING. Failure to spray the trees, thereby allow- ing the various insects and diseases to ravage the orchards without restraint, has been one of the most common causes of unproductive orchards. The San Jose Scale is one pest present in practically every section of the State, and freedom from its attacks is purchased only at the cost of eternal vigilance and intelligent spraying. IMPROPER PRUNING. Careless, injudicious or ignorant pruning has ruined many an otherwise promising West Virginia orchard. 38 W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 Failure to properly form the head of the young tree has caused bearing trees to split assunder under stress of storm or load of fruit. Failure to observe the first principles of proper pruning (to cut the limb close up to the main stock and leave no stubs) has admitted the germs of decay to the heart wood of the tree and hastened a decrepit old age. Pruning enough in one season to last for the next five years has thrown the tree off its balance and set it to producing water sprouts and brush instead of fruit. Fail- ure to prune at all has produced a "back to nature" condition in some orchards that can be compared only to a hawthorn thicket or a brushy hedge. STARVATION. The ambition to make two blades of grass grow where only one grew before is laudable, but to expect apples to grow in neglected thickets of Spanish needles, Beggars' Lice, Yel- low Locust and Sassafras is the height of folly. A thrifty growing orchard must be given unrestricted use of all the land upon which it stands if profitable crops are to be expected. Whenever we see a tree making an inch or two of growth per year, the foliage yellow and dropping early in the fall the conclusion is at once reached that the orchard is being robbed of its proper nourishment. Even a sod of blue grass will rob the tree of its rightful amount of water and food. POOR LOCATION. Improper location on low grounds, in frost pockets, in shut-in coves where the air drainage and circulation are poor and the fogs hang until late in the day, are serious drawbacks to any orchard. LACK OF DRAINAGE. Poorly drained soils will not produce profit- able orchards. "Wet feet" are the forerunners of sickness, dis- ease and death, whether the subject be orchards or mankind. Mere- ly because the location is upon a slope is not necessarily proof that the soil is well drained. Hard impervious ridges or out crops of rock may dam up the flow of the ground water and produce a greater or lesser area of cold, sour, poorly aerated soil in which no fruit tree will thrive. OLD AGE. The age limits of an orchard are indefinite and with the apple, vary in different parts of the country and under different treatment from 30 to 100 years. Old age is purely a relative term in any case. Mr. Brown's orchard may be old at twenty-five while liis neighbor's is young at forty. Any one, or as is more generally the case, all the above mentioned April, 1913] THE RE.JUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 39 causes may, be directly concerned in the orchard's downfall. With the exception of two, old age and poor location, all may be remedied and the orchard saved if its condition is still good enough to justify the expense. Is THE ORCHARD WORTH REJUNEVATING? This question should first be answered before any outlay of money is made. Many among the thousands of old orchards are not worth working with, and the sooner they reach the woodpile and the land used to better purpose, the better off will be the owner. Figure 1 shows a part of such an orchard. Atrociously pruned or rather butchered with an axe, never sprayed, never fertilized, sixty years of age, lower limbs twenty-five feet from the ground, weakened by decay, ravished by disease and infested with dangerous insects, it stands a monument to neglect, too worthless to be reclaimed, a menace to its neighbors FIG. 1. — "Atrociously pruned — never sprayed, never fertilized, sixty years of age, lower limbs twenty-five feet from the ground — it is too worthless to be reclaimed." and a disgrace to the fruit growers of West Virginia. In another orchard (fig. 8) the trees have only suffered by neglect without 40 W. VA. AGE. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 undergoing the additional hardship of enthusiastic but misguided pruning. In this case the trees are still healthy and although they contain considerable dead wood and are making a very poor growth, may be brought back into vigorous production by careful manage- ment. One point that should be considered before restoring an orchard is the varieties it contains. In some of the old home or- chards, the number of worthless commercial varieties is so great that it would not pay to rejuvenate the orchard. Method of Procedure. THINNING THE TREES. The first step in the restoration of an orchard is to thin out the number of trees it they stand too thick. If the branches interlace and the lower limbs are dying it is an indication that the orchard is too closely planted and would be benefitted by the removal of part of the trees. One should first make a rough map or plat of the orchard (fig. 2) showing the miss- ing, weak or undersized trees, and then the thinning should be + X + X O MISSING TREES, ^e UNDESIRABLE TPEES. x.+GOOO TREES. —Thinning an orchard so as to take out as many undesirable or missing: ". The double lined trees are allowed to remain. arranged so that as many as possible of these trees will be removed. Trees number 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., in the first row and number 1, 3, 5, 7. etc., in the second row should be taken out, or stated in another Apri], 1913] THE REJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 41 way, every alternate diagonal row should be removed. This will remove half the trees. PRUNING. After all the superfluous trees have been removed the remainder should be carefully pruned. The winter is the best, as well as the most convenient time for this work. All the dead and diseased wood should be first removed, followed by other limbs that cross or run parallel with each other, and all long and ungainly branches should be headed back to make the tree symmetrical. In many cases this will be pruning enough for the first season. Where the tree is over twenty-five feet in height, it is best to head back the top to bring the bearing surface nearer the ground. In remodeling the trees it usually pays to make haste slowly for while severe pruning stimulates growth, overdoing the matter will start a rank growth of watersprouts and may interfere with the pro- duction of the fruit buds. With a healthy tree it is usually better to extend the pruning over two years instead of doing it all at once, but with a very weak tree it is safe and advisable to cut out all that is necessary the first season, in order to produce as great a growth as possible. The one all important fact to remember in pruning is that if Fia. 3. — If a stub is left, death and decay that reaches into the heart-wood soon follow. W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 a wound is to heal over, it must be supplied with food from the downward flow of sap returning from the leaves, the digestive organs of the plant. If a stub is left where a limb is removed, the wound can receive no nourishment for the sap ceases to circulate through the stub. Death and decay that reaches into the heart-wood soon follow. (Pig. 3). On the other hand a limb cut' off close to the main branch leaves a wound directly in the path of the decend- ing stream of plant food; new growth begins to spread over the cut and in a year or two the surface is completely covered. When limbs more than two inches in diameter are removed, it is advisable to paint the cut with a heavy lead paint to keep out the moisture. SPRAYING. After the tree is pruned the matter of spraying should be considered. Whenever San Jose Scale is present, it is absolutely necessary to apply a dormant spray. Either of two materials may be used to control the scale, lime-sulphur solution or a soluble oil. Commercial lime-sulphur solution used at the rate of one gallon to eight of water, is to be preferred because of its fungicidal properties. In fact whether the San Jose scale is pres- ent or not, it pays to apply this dormant spray because it cleans off the moss, lichens and fungi that usually cling to neglected trees. It must never be applied at this strength after the leaves come out. The subsequent sprayings should number at least two or more if necessary. The first of these should be applied as soon as the blossoms drop. Either lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 40, or Bordeaux Mixture (3 Ibs. blue vitriol, 5 Ibs. unslaked lime, and 50 gals, of water) may be used but the first named solution is now more generally coming into favor. In either case two and one half pounds of arsenate of lead should be added to a barrel of the liquid to act as a poison for the Codling Moth. This spray should be applied with considerable pressure to drive it well into the blossom end of the small apple. The second summer spray should be applied about three weeks after the last and consists of exactly the same materials. Unless these three sprays are religiously applied little profit or satisfaction need be expected from the orchard. It is usually advisable to spray a fourth time during July to catch the second brood of Codling Moth, although if the earlier sprayings have been thorough, the necessity for this last application is lessen- ed. Special diseases as Bitter Rot, Cedar Rust and others require special treatments, the details of which cannot be given here. April, 1913] THE EEJUNEVATION OF OLD OECHAEDS 43 SOIL IMPROVEMENT. Coincident with the care of the trees should come the improvement of the soil. If the orchard is not too steep, the soil should be plowed, running the plow as shallowly as possible so as not to break too many of the large roots which in an unculti- vated orchard always lie near the surface. After the plow should come the harrow, working the surface into a fine friable condition. This cultivation should be repeated after each heavy rain to break the crust that would form. In this manner the soil moisture is conserved, for the fine dust mulch formed prevents its evaporation. This clean cultivation should continue until about August 1st when a cover crop of clover, cow-peas, soy beans, or even rye, should be planted to check the growth of the trees, ripen up wood, buds and fruit and form a cover for the bare ground during the winter. The following spring the crop is plowed under and forms a valuable source of plant food, particularly if it is one of the clovers, beans or peas. The mere act of cultivation also liberates plant food heretofore locked up in the soil. If the land is too steep to allow of cultivation with safety, the next thing is to cover the soil with a mulch of barnyard manure, straw or other litter. This prevents the loss of moisture and pro- vides nourishment as well, but is more expensive than cultivation. On some soils, deep, rich and well watered, the normal growth from the sod if cut twice during the season and allowed to lie on the ground, will furnish mulch enough. FERTILIZERS. Most neglected orchards will respond to the liberal use of manure or commerical fertilizers for the first few years until they regain their health and vigor. If manure is used, from ten to fifteen tons is a fair application per acre. This should not be piled about the base of the tree where there are no feeding roots, but it should be spread evenly over the whole surface of the ground. If commerical fertilizer is used, it should be of some high grade goods like a 3-10-8 (3% nitrogen, 10%, phosphoric acid, and 8 per cent potash.) This should be used at the rate of 300 to 500 pounds per acre. Better yet would it be to buy the separate chemicals and apply a home mixed product. In this case one should mix together for an acre 80 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 250 pounds of Acid Phos- phate and 70 pounds of Muriate or Sulphate of Potash. The ferti- lizer should be applied as soon after the leaves unfold in the spring as possible. TOP WORKING. It frequently happens that several trees in the W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 ordutrd will be undesirable varieties. These may be top-worked into somr profitable sort, it' the trees are in a healthy condition. Figure 4 shows the method oi' making a cleft or wedge graft, such ;is i ; iMiiinmmly ii>ed in grafting large limbs. The cion wood, which consists of 1,-ist year's growth, should be cut during March, before the luids have briiim to swell, wrapped in damp burlap and stored in a rrlhir when- it will remain dormant. It is important that the cion w 1 be hard and well matured with the buds well ripened. Just about the time growth starts in the spring is the proper time l-'i 'i. 1. Cleft Grafting. 1. ('ions prepared ready to set; 2, Cross- Drafted stul) showing inner bark of cion and stock meeting; n proper position (one-lialf stock cut away) ; 4, A completed -;ifi showing proper vvuxiii-. ( r.mrtcxu of A'. Y. Ayr. Exp. Sta., , \ y , April, 1913] THE REJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 45 to do the grafting. It is not advisable to try and graft limbs over three inches in diameter. The grafts should be set back as near the center and trunk of the tree as possible, in order to keep the new head low and compact. Only those limbs that are to be grafted should be cut off, leaving the others to form the top during the first season before the cions have grown out. The first step in cleft grafting is to saw off the limb and carefully split the stub, taking care that the split does not encounter a knot but runs straight down the sides of the limb. The cleft should be spread by means of a wedge and it is ready to receive the cions. These should be cut from near the middle of the cion stick, for there the buds are most vigorous. Beginning on either side of the bud, cut the lower end of the cion in the form of a wedge, the edge on the opposite side from the bud being slightly the narrower. About three buds should be left on the cion which should be insert- ed into the cleft, with its narrower side towards the center of the stock. This allows the thicker portion of the wedge to be gripped firmly by the limb. The greatest care should be taken to see that the inner bark of stock and cion come in contact with each other at one or more places. By setting the cion at a slight angle, this con- tact is insured. After placing two cions the wedge should be re- moved and the entire cut surface including the tips of the cions and the cracks along the sides of the limb should be covered with graft- ing wax. If both cions start, one should be removed after the first season's growth. THE RECORD OF SIX REJUVENATED ORCHARDS. In 1910- '11, A. L. Dacy, then Assistant Horticulturist of the Ex- periment Station, undertook to demonstrate the practicability of restoring run down West Virginia orchards to profitable production. Full credit for the success of the work belongs to Mr. Dacy, who supervised the operations in all the orchards, the author of this bul- letin being associated with the work only during the past season. The orchards are fairly well distributed, being located at Letart, Grape Island, Salama, Parkersburg and Terra Alta and represent very well the general run of neglected orchards in the state. In fact some of them represented more difficult propositions than the average. This is especially true of the one at Letart. The Dayis Orchard. In the fall of 1909, Mr. B. S. Davis purchased a farm at Letart. W. VA. AGE. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 Mason County, on which were about 600 apple trees, approximately thirty years old and in a very neglected condition. It had never been sprayed and had been so thoroughly neglected for seventeen years that the trees were nearly obscured by the unrestrained growth of Sasafras, Locust and Hickory (fig. 5). During the winter following the purchase of the farm, Mr. Davis appealed to FlO. 5. — Seventeen years of neglect. Condition of the Davis ore-hard before rejuvenation. the Experiment Station for advice and assistance. It was in re- sponse to this appeal that Mr. Dacy undertook to bring order out of chaos by supervising and assisting the work of rejunevation in a veritable wilderness. The work of cleaning up the old orchard was done by Mr. Davis during the winter time when labor could be secured at a dollar a day. The brush, saplings, and dead trees were first cut and burned, after which the apple trees themselves were pruned, the dead wood taken out, and in some cases, the tops cut back. It did not seem feasible to plow the orchard, so manure and straw were hauled in as a mulch. Beginning in 1910, the trees have been sprayed three times each year. Bordeaux mixture of the 3-5-50 formula was used the first April, 1913] . THE REJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 47 ytear, but in 1911 and 1912 lime-sulphur has been applied. About fifty Nickajack trees where the Bitter Rot has been troublesome, have been sprayed three times in addition to the regular sprayings, during the past two seasons. The orchard is now in a vigorous con- dition and gives promise of being a heavy producer in the future. The orchard produced a crop the first season, 1910, of 500 barrels which were sold on the trees for $400, a price far below their real worth. Practically no crop was produced in 1911, but in 1912 the orchard yielded 833 barrels of firsts and seconds which sold for a total of $1431.75. This does not include a considerable amount of summer fruit sold locally, of which no record has been made. Financial Statement. Cost of cleaning up land $1 00 . 00 .Manure and straw applied, 200 loads @ $0.75 150.00 Cost of spraying to date 80 . 00 Cost of picking and hauling 833 barrels 150.00 Cost of 833 bbls. @ $0.37 . 308.21 Total expense $788 . 21 Cash from sale of fruit 1910 $ 400 . 00 Cash from sale of fruit 1912 1,431 . 75 Total $ 1,831 . 75 Net profit for first three years $ 1,043 . 54 The Stone Orchard. In the spring of 1910, Spencer Stone's orchard of 738 Rome trees, 22 years old, located at Vienna four miles from Park- ersburg, was taken under the advisary control of the Horticultural Department. The orchard was in a fair state of health, but had not been a good producer. In 1905 it received the only spraying it ever received, and that year produced its largest crop, 225 barrels. Mr. Stone, acting on advice from this department, gave the orchard a good pruning, and put it under thorough cultivation. The Station did some experimental spraying in a part of the orchard and Mr. Stone sprayed the remainder. The careful performance of this work was quickly and liberally rewarded with a crop the first season. A severe freeze and cold wind on May 7th killed the blossoms on about half the orchard which had a southwestern ex- posure, but the other half with a northeastern exposure set fruit and produced 488 barrels. A good cover crop of cowpeas was also grown and plowed under the following spring. The spraying, cul- tivation and pruning were carefully looked after in 1911 and a yield of 2208 barrels was secured. After two such crops as this the 1912 48 W. VA. AGE. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 crop was light as might be expected. Only 25 barrels of No. 1 fruit and 75 barrels of drops were secured this year. The orchard is now in its prime and will undoubtedly continue to produce a& long as given good care. Financial Statement. — 1909. Pruning $ 50 . 00 Fertilirer 30 . 00 Plowing and cultivation (estimated) 75.00 Spraying (estimated) 200.00 Cover crop 50 . 00 Picking and marketing 488 barrels 125.00 Total cost $530 . 00 Cash -for 488 bbls $ 1,150 . 00 Net profit in 1910 620 . 00 1911. Cultivation $ 36 . 00 Spraying 270 . 00 Picking and packing 2208 Bbls 662.40 Hauling at .05 per bbl. 110.40 Cost 2077 bbls. @ .36% 758.00 total cost $1,836.80 Cash for 1639 bbls. No. 1 @ $2.50 $4,097.50 Cash for 438 bbls. No. 2 @ $1.75 766 . 50' Cash for 131 bbls. ungraded @ $2.000 net 262.00 Cash for culls and drops 400 . 00 Total gross income $5,526 . 00 Net profit in 1911 $3,679 . 20 1912. Cultivation $ 25 . 00 Cowpeas for cover crop 15 . 00 Mowing clover for mulch 2 . 00 Manure 1 0 . 00 Spray material 48 . 30 Spraying '. '. . 1 19 . 00 Total cost $219 . 30 25 barrels No. 1 apples .".*..! $50.00 Crops 75.00 Gross income $1 25 . 00 Net loss in 1912 $ 94.30 Total expense for 3 years $ 2,586 . 10 Total income for three years '. $6,801 . 00 Net profit for 3 years $4,214.90 The Bartlett Orchard. In 1910 the orchard belonging then to Dr. Charles H. Bartlett situated at Salama, Pleasants County, was taken under the super- vision of the Experiment Station. The orchard consisted of 500- April, 1913] THE EEJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 49 trees, nineteen years of age. It had been given good attention for the first half of its existence, but had been utterly neglected for nine years. When examined by Mr. Dacy it was found to be so grown up with locust and sumac that the trees were nearly hidden. The orchard had never produced a profitable crop, its largest one having sold for $17 and the 1909 crop for $2.00. The trees were making almost no growth but were fairly free from disease. The plan of operation in the orchard was much the same as in the Davis orchard. The brush, briars, and saplings were first removed, the trees pruned and then a thorough spraying campaign inaugurat- ed. Bordeaux mixture was used three times in 1910 and lime-sul- phur solution three times each year since. No fertilizer has been applied in this orchard although it might have been benefited by an application. The trees are now in a very vigorous condition and are making a strong annual growth. • The crop in 1910 was sold for $55 on the trees. This proved to be an unfortunate sale, as 100 barrels of fine fruit were harvested worth at least $150. The crop of that year would have been much larger had it not been badly injured by a severe freeze on May 6th. The 1911 crop was much better, yielding 564 barrels, besides one hundred bushels of seconds and drops, while in 1912 a moderate crop has been harvested. Financial Statement. 1910. Cleaning out brush, etc $ 81 . 25 Pruning 18.75 Spraying materials 78 . 56 Two inch iron pipe 2.15 Labor . 6 . 00 Depreciation on spray outfit 28.00 Total cost $215 . 71 Cash from sale of fruit $ 55.00 Deficit 'at end of first year $160 . 71 1911. Spray material „. . ; $ 45 . 66 Iron pipe 30 . 97 Pruning 15.00 Depreciation on spray outfit 25 . 20 Total expense $116.83 Cash from sale of fruit $705 . 00 Drops and seconds 30.00 $735.00 Net profit on second year 's work $618 . 17 50 W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 1912. Spray material Pruning Cutting undergrowth Spraying Depreciation on spray outfit Total expense Cash for 173 barrels @ $1.00 Cash for 122 barrels @ $0.90 Gross income for 1912 Net profit for 1912 $ 37.75 24.75 24.50 18.00 22.68 $127.68 $173.00 109.80 $282.80 $155.12 Total expense for 3 years $459 . 22 Total gross income for 3 years $1,072.80 Net profit for three years $613.58 The Reynolds Orchard. The Reynolds orchard, situated about one and one half miles from St. Marys consists of 850 twenty year old Rome Beauty trees (figs. 6 and 7). AVhen taken under the supervision of the station in the spring of 1911, the orchard was in a badly run down condi- tion. Unlike the Davis and Bartlett orchards, it was not grown up FJG. 0. — Reynolds Orrliard after rejuvenation, Figure 7 shows the other half of orchard. to brush, but a heavy sod, coupled with a lack of care were rapidly sapping the vitality from the trees. They were making only an inch or less of growth, the limbs were dying back, the foliage was thin }iur(vions pruner were cut off. The ground was plowed and plant i-d tf) potatoes. The potatoes were supposed to have been heav- April, 1913] THE REJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 53 ily fertilized, but owing to a misunderstanding this fertilizer was not applied. The orchard made a good growth and threw out many new branches just below the cuts on the limbs that had been headed back. In the spring of 1912 these branches were thinned out and headed back somewhat to keep the new head as low as possible. Three sprayings were applied both in- 1911 and 1912. Large yields could not be expected the first two years from the depleted tops. From the bearing limbs that were left, however, 140 barrels of fruit were taken in 1911 and in 1912 the crop was sold on the trees for $150.00. FIG. 8. — Crane orchard before rejuvenation. These neglected trees are too brushy but are sound and uninjured by previous vicious pruning. Compare with figure 1. Financial Statement. 1911. Labor pruning 71 hours @ .15, Spraying 41.65 30.50 *Total expense $ 72 . 15 Net cash for 140 barrels $245 . 00 Net profit 172.85 *Expense of cultivation may be charged to potatoes in 1911 and to cowpeas in 1912. .-,4 W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 1912. Spraying and pruning 36 . 70 Sale of fruit on trees $150 . 00 Net profits 113.25 Total expense for 2 years $108 . 90 Gross income 'for 2 years Net income for 2 years 286 . 10 The Crane Orchard. An old orchard of 160 trees shown in figures 8 and 9, and owned by Mr. Dee Crane of Terra Alta, has been given some attention by this department for the past three years. The first year it was pruned, the rough bark scraped from the trunks and limbs and thoroughly sprayed with lime-sulphur solution, using arsenate of FIG. 9. — Crane orchard after rejuvenation. The tree in the foreground illustrates proper pruning. lead as a poison. The processes with the exception of the scraping have been repeated each year. No fertilizer has been added. The orchard yielded practically nothing of any value before it was thus partially renovated, but has produced in the years 1910, 1911 and 1912, 250 bushels, 400 bushels and 500 bushels respectively. This has sold uniformly at $0.50 per bushel. April, 1913] THE REJUNEVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 55 Financial Statement. 1910. Pruning and scraping $ 20 . 00 Spraying . JO. 00 Depreciation of spray outfit Picking and marketing 25 . 00 Total expense $ 59.00 250 bu. apples @ $0.50 $125.00 Net income in 3910 $ 66.00 1911. Pruning and Spraying ' $ 3 5 . 00 Picking and Marketing 35.00 Depreciation of Spray outfit 3 . 60 Total expense $ 53 . 60 400 bu. apples @ $.50 $200.00 Net income 1911 . $146.40 1912. Pruning and Spraying $ 15 . 00 Picking and marketing .- 40.00 Depreciation of Spray outfit 3 . 20 Total expense $ 58 . 20 500 bu. apples @ $.50 T 250.00 Net income 1912 $191.80 Total expenses for 3 years $170 . 80 Total gross income for 3 years . $575 . 00 Net profit for 3 years . $404.20 SUMMARY OF RESULTS. No. years Grofs Net Name of Orchard. No. of trees. Records Income Income. Davis 600 3 $1,831.75 $1,043.54 Stone 738 3 6,801.00 4,2]4.90 Bartlett 500 3 1,072.80 613.58 Crane 160 3 575 . 00 404 . 20 Reynolds 850 * 2 2,877.50 1,063.48 Lowther 115 2 395.00 286.10 2,963 $33,553.05 $ 7,625.80 Income. Income. Gross Net Average annual income per tree for the state $ .54 $ Averave annual income for the six rejuvenated orchards.... 1.71 .93 Highest average annual income per tree for the six orchards 3.07 1.90 Lowest average annual income per tree for the six orchards. . .72 .41 From the summary? it will be seen that the operations have been attended with success as far as the financial part has been concerned. Not one of these orchards had produced a profitable crop for several years before it was taken hold of by this Station. Several of them .->»•> W. VA. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION [Bulletin 141 vore so badly devitalized by neglect and starvation that they were on the actual verge of destruction. That some of the weakest of them failed to return a profit on the first year's operations is not to be wondered at, but let it be noted that by the second season in every c'M.sv. a crop had lx en secured that more than paid all expenses. No data is available whereby the average net income per tree for the entire state may be estimated, but it would seem that thirty cents would be a fair figure. The trees in the six rejunevated orchards have been raised immediately from no income at all to over three times the average for the state. Even in the least productive of the six the gross income is about l1/^ times the state's average and in the best yielding orchard it is nearly six times as large. Approximately one half the apple trees in West Virginia are in need of rejuvenation in one form or another. Any farmer of average intelligence can by following out the general directions given in the first half of the bulletin, place his orchard on a paying basis. The initial expense is slight and the profits are reasonably certain and prompt. If rejuvenation could be started at once in every neglected orch- ard in the state that is not already beyond repair, the crop would be doubled in two years and from two and one-half to three and one- half million dollars would be added to the annual income of the farmers of the state. VOL- "• WJ~JK4M N0- Bulletin NO- 16. OF THE "WEST MORGANTOWN, W. VA. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF INSECT RAVAGES. YELLOW LOCUST. BY A. D. HOPKINS. ENTOMOLOGIST. APRIL, 1891 CHARLESTON, W. VA. Moses W. Donnally, Public Printer, 1891. BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, District. I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9 10. n. 12. Name of Regent J. B. SOMMERVILLE, CLARENCE L. SMITH, PEREGRIN HAYES, D. D. JOHNSON, JOHN G. SCHILLING, EDWARD A. BENNETT, WIRT A. FRENCH, M. J. KESTER, J. F. BROWN, THOS. J. FARNSWORTH, JOSEPH MORELAND, JOHN A. ROBINSON, DR. W. W. BROWN, P. O. Address. Wheeling. Fairmont. Glenville. •Long Reach. Spencer. Huntington. Princeton. Union. Charleston. Buckhannon. Morgantown. Patterson's Depot. Kabletown. MEMBERS OF THE STATION COMMITTEE, JOHN A. ROBINSON, JOHN G. SCHILLING, JOSEPH MORELAND, THOS. J. FARNSWORTH, DR. W. W. BROWN. PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. TREASURER. E. M. TURNER, LL. D., JOHN I. HARVEY. STATION STAFF. JOHN A. MYERS, PH. D., Director. CHAS. F. MILLSPAUGH, M. D., Botanist and Microscopist. A. D. HOPKINS, . . . Sp'l Agt. Entomology. D. D. JOHNSON, A. M., . Agriculturist. RUDOLPH J. J. DE ROODE, PH. D., . . Chemist SUSIE V. MAYERS, : . Stenographer and Book-keeper. FOREST AND SHADE TREE INSECTS-I. YELLOW LOCUST, {Robinia Pseudacacia, Z.) PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF INSECT RAVAGES. Returning to the Station on August 7th, after an absence of about two months, I observed the locust trees all along the Baltimore & Ohio R. R., between Central Station and Morgantown peculiarly affected. The trees everywhere in the forest and field having a scorched and dead appearance. The landscape thus marred by the dead appearance of this, one of our most valuable as well as beautiful forest and shade trees, at- tracted the attention of every one, and excited their wonder and curiosity as to the cause of the trouble. Arriving at Morgantown, which seemed to be the worst affected district, I at once, by the request of the Director of the Scation commenced an investigation which was continued until August 14, when I was called away to attend to other duties. This short time only enabled me to lay a foundation for a future and more thorough investigation, which the extent and increasing value of the locust timber certainly warrants, when it may be destroyed by insects within a few years, as has been done in New England and the West. The present trouble was found to be caused by insects; and the region thus affected so far as I have since observed extends through Doddridge, Harrison and Preston Counties, from Grafton westward to near the Wetzel County line, from Fairmont through Monongalia County to the Pennsylvania line, and from Piedmont southward through Tucker, Randolph, Upshur and Lewis Counties. The trees were unaffected through Ritchie and Wood Counties, and along the Ohio River as far as was observed, the leaves being fresh and green at the time they seemed to be dying in the infested districts mentioned. This dead and scorched appearance of the locust trees at a time of year when they are noted for their beautiful green foli- age was, as far as can at present be learned, first noticed in Harri- son County about the year 1885, when a few scattering trees were observed to turn brown. The number of trees thus affected rapidly increased each year until every tree, bush, and sprout of this species looked as if it had been killed by fire. This trouble continued to spread until at present at least one-fifth of the State is affected. While over forty species of insects were found to be feeding on different parts of the affected trees, one species, the Locust Hispa, appeared to be the principal cause of the trouble. The following is an account of this and other insects so far observed- 86 EXPLANATION OF PLATE. L0CUST TREE INSECTS. Fig. i. Locust Hispa, Odontota Dorsalis. a. Under side of foot showing peculiar formation. b. Profile of foot showing peculiar formation. c. Supposed egg case. •L Longitudinal section of "c." t. Larva of Fig. i. f. Pupa of Fig. i. Fig. 2. Odontota nervosa. Fif . 3. Locust Borer, Clytus robinae. PLATE 13 r, I 3 I A J H \ '""•A r4V->£ 4**;'' ';~v *!&~-^T -?rr'"T''"^*^4 8? THE LOCUST HISPA. (Odontota dor sails, Oliver.*} This beetle was extremely plentiful on the locust leaves at the time the investigation was being made, as many as eight were fre- quently found on a single leaf. The beetle is about one-fourth of an inch long, yellowish above with a black head and black stripe along the back. They are rough and ridgy above; but smooth and shining black beneath. They probably appear in May or June when they deposit their eggs on the under side of the leaf, which hatch into small grubs that burrow into the leaves and feed upon the sub- stance beneath the surface; forming blisters near the edges which usually extend to the mid-rib. When these grubs or larvae become full grown, they resemble e Fig. i, as seen in the microscope. They then change within the blister to the pupa form which the beetles soon emerge, and feed on the surface of the remaining unaffected leaves, The blisters formed by the larvae of this insect, the leaves skeletonized by the beetle, together with the blisters formed by other leaf mining larvae, cause the leaves to turn brown, wither and fall. By referring to my notes and collections, I find that this beetle and another belonging to the same genus represented at Fig. 2, were taken feeding on the leaves of the locust, at Morgantown, June roth and at Kanawha Station, June i6th. While this_ insect has been known to Entomologists for a number of years, and has been frequently reported as doing damage to locust trees in different parts of the country, especially in the Middle States; very little has been written on the subject, at least as far as is at present accessible to me. It is my intention to make a complete study of the habits of this insect the coming summer, and endeavor to find, if possible, a remedy in its parasites and natural enemies. Like the plum curculio, it is the habit of this beetle to fall to the ground when alarmed, and in the case of valued shade trees, it may be possible to destroy them by the jarring process which is so suc- cessful with the curculio. Their habit of feeding on the upper sur- face of the leaves would make it easy to treat them by spraying the trees with poison liquid. While it may be possible to successfully destroy these insects by jarring and spraying sufficient to preserve the foliage of a few valued shade trees, such a remedy could not be applied to those of the forest and field. This insect alone will prob- ably do no more harm than to mar the beauty of the locust as a shade and forest tree, yet combined with other and na ore destructive insects found preying upon the trees, may result in a complete de- struction of the locust timber, which if so, would cause a loss of not only thousands but millions of dollars to the State. It is therefore of the greatest importance that a thorough investigation should be made of the locust tree insects to find if possible a practical, natural or artificial remedy against their ravages, {Onontota nervosa, Panw, Fig. 2.} Found quite plentiful with the locust hispa feeding upon the sur face of the leaf. Nothing further has so far been observed of its habits. THE LOCUST BORER. (Clytus Robinat, Forster, Fig. j.) This beautiful "black velvet and gold beetle" is found feeding on the blossoms of golden rod in September. It deposits its eggs on the branches and trunk of locust trees. The eggs hatch into grubs which bore into the green wood where they feed, and if plentiful often cause the death of the tree. Many trees have been observed in and around Morgantown partly and completely dead, caused ev- idently by this insect. The grubs were observed early in the season within the green wood and the beettes were found quite frequent on the golden rod in September; but this insect is probably not doing much damage to the locust at present in the region infested by the Hispa. This beetle according to Harris, Packard and Riley is "by far the most destructive pest of the locust." It "has nearly extermi- nated the locust in New England" and "nearly all the locust groves in the west have been destroyed by it." Should this insect, therefore, appear in any great numbers in dis- tricts like the one mentioned, where the vitality of the trees would naturally be weakened from the loss of leaves, the locust would certainly be doomed to destruction. Shade trees could probably be protected from the ravages of this insect by spraying the trunk and branches with a strong solution of soit soap and water during the period in which the beetles deposit their eggs, which is supposed to be between the last week in August and the first week in October. Two or three applications during this time would very likely prove successful. This, like the remedy for the Hispa would, however, only be practicable to apply to a few choice shade trees. For a general remedy, we must look as before to the natural enemies of the insect. THE LOCUST-TREE CARPENTER-MOTH. (Xyleutes Robinat, Harris.} This is a large night flying moth. It deposits its eggs in July on the bark of mature but healthy trees. The worms, according to Dr. Asa Fitch, on hatching from the egg sink themselves inward and feed at fiirst on the soft inner part, until when their jaws ac quire more strength, they penetrate to the hard sap wood and finally resort to the solid heart-wood, residing mostly in and around the; center of the trunk, boring the wood here usually in a longitudinal direction, and moving backwards and forward in their burrows, en- larging them by gnawing their walls as they increase in size, where- by the excavation comes to present the same diameter through its wole length. He further says that of all the wood-boring insects in our land, this is by far the most pernicious, wounding the trees the most cruelly. It perforates a hole the size of an half-inch auger, or large enough to admit the little finger, and requires three or four years for the bark to close together over it. This hole run- ning inward to the heart of the tree and admitting the water there- to from every shower that passes, causes the decay in the wood to commence, and the tree never regains its previous soundness. These worms probably live within the burrows in the tree three years before changing to moths. When full grown, they measure from two and one-half to three inches long. They "always attack the living and healthy trees," usually at a point where the large branches are given off. These worms we found quite frequent at Kanawha Station in April in locusts cut for posts and in oak trees cut for wood and lumber, and the large trees recently cut on the University grounds here show evidence of their destructive work. This insect also attacks the Red, White and Black Oaks, and is probably the most injurious forest tree inzect known. To prevent the moths from depositing their eggs, the same rem- edy as recommended for the locust borer (Clytus Robmae) applied in July or August would probably prove efficient. THE LOCUST SPROUT AND TWIG BORER. This is a little red caterpillar, which bores into the pith of young sprouts and tender branches. A swelling or gall is formed around the point of attack, and the sprout or branch usually dies, or breaks off at this point. This lava was found to be very plenti- ful and destructive in the vicinity of Morgantown, four or five being frequently found in a single sprout or branch. Very little has so far been learned of the history of this insect ; it must, however, leave its burrow and enter the ground to change to the pupa, as I have not been able to find a pupa within the burrow. Between August yth and i4th and September i2th, to October 8th, they were found in the sprouts all sizes, frcm the very smallest or just hatched up to the mature worms. It is, therefore, possible that there are several broods and that they may become very destructive to young trees if neglected. To prevent this insect from increasing, the young sprouts affected (which may readily be found by their swelled and knotty appear- ance), should be cut out and burned while the worms are yet in their burrows. THE YELLOW LOCUST MIDGE. (Cccidomyia Robintae, Haldeman). Tkis is a minute midge or gnat. It deposits its eggs near the 90 margin of the leaf, which hatch into very small maggots. Their irritaton causes the edge of the leaf to thicken and roll up forming a kind of gall where the sap probably collects and furnishes them with food. This insect was found quite as plentiful as the Hispa, nearly every leaf having one or more of these galls on their edges containing both larvae and pupae. This insect is possibly quite as injurious to the locust trees as the Hispa, especially in marring the beauty of the foliage, as they at- tack the young and tender leaves and prevent their development. For this insect there seems to be no remedy. LOCUST LEAF MINERS. Six undetermined species of larvae were observed mining under the skin of the leaves forming blisters similar to those formed by the Hispa; different species having a preference for certain and dif- ferent points on the leaf. One species, a small green larvae, is very abundant at the present time (October 8th). Nearly every remain- ing leaf being inhabited by one or more of them in blisters formed on the upper surface over the mid rib. On September i2th, I ob- served that this species was very plentiful in Wood county, the trees turning brown as they were here in Morgantown in August. The damage to the tree from this species, however, cannot be very great from the fact that they attack the leaves about the natural time for them to fall. THE LOCUST SKIPPER BUTTERFLY. (Eudamits Tityrus, Fab.) This is a medium size butterfly of rapid flight with a large white or silver spot on the under wing, common in yards and along road- sides during the summer. They deposit their eggs singly on the leaves of the yellow locust, and the cultivated flowering variety, the eggs hatching in a few days into worms, which when young, roll up the edge of the leaves, and as they grow larger fasten two or three leaves together forming a kind of tent in which they remain through the day, coming forth to feed during the night. These worms were found very plentiful on the locust trees here, and the butterfly was found very common wherever the locust grew on our route through the State. Harris says that this worm sometimes strips the leaves from the common yellow and vicid locust trees. Spraying with poison liquids would probably preserve our shade trees from the structive attack of this insect. LOCUST LEAF ROLLERS AND PASTERS. Seven undetermined species were found rolling and pasting the leaves together and feeding on the inner surface of their covering; one or two species being very plentiful. By reference to the collection and notes, it is found that seventy- eight species of insects were observed and taken on the locust trees during the season, those mentioned above being the principal ones doing damage. Of this number, forty-five species were found feed- ing on some part of the trees. It is my intention to continue the investigation of thes^ locust tree insects during the coming summer and until a more complete report can be made. The results of which will appear in a future special bulletin. In the meantime, if those receiving this report who are interested in the investigation, will report their observations as to the amount of locust timber and its value in their respective localities or counties, the extent of the damage from injurious insects and such other observations of inter- est which may from time to time be made, it will aid very materially in making the future bulletin of special value to every one interested in the preservation of this, one of the most valuable timbers in the State. By reference to the collection and notes, it is found that seventy- eight species of insects were observed and taken on the locust trees during the season, those mentioned above being the principal ones doing damage. Of this number, forty-five species were found feed- ing on some part of the trees. It is my intention to continue the investigation of thes« locust tree insects during the coming summer and until a more complete report can be made. The results of which will appear in a future special bulletin. In the meantime, if those receiving this report who are interested in the investigation, will report their observations aS to the amount of locust timber and its value in their respective localities or counties, the extent of the damage from injurious insects and such other observations of inter- est which may from time to time be made, it will aid very materially in making the future bulletin of special value to every one interested in the preservation of this, one of the most valuable timbers in the State. °5 Bulletin NO- 17- >K THK MORGANTOWN, W. VA. PRELIMINARY REPORT. BLACK SPRUCE. — BV — A. D. HOPKINS, ENTOMOLOGIST. , Plj. D. MAY, 1891. CHARLESTON. M08K8 W. DONNALLY, 1891 BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE. WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY District, Name of Regent. P. O. Address 1. J. B. SOMMERVILLE, Wheeling. 2. CLARENCE L. SMITH, Fairmont. 3. PEREGRIN HAYS, Glenvilie 4. D. D. JOHNSON, Long Reach 5. JOHN G. SCHILLING, Spencer. 6. EDWARD A. BENNETT, Huntington. 7. WIRTA. FRENCH, Princeton 8. M. J. KESTER, Union. 9. J. F. BROWN, Charleston. 10. THOMAS J. FARNSWORTH, Buckhannon. 11. JOSEPH MORELAND, Morgantown. 12. JOHN A. ROBINSON Patterson's Depot. 13. DR. W. W. BROWN, Kabletown. MEMBERS OF THE STATION COMMITTEE, JOHN A. ROBINSON, JOHN G. SCHILLING, JOSEPH MORELAND, THOMAS J. FARNSWORTH, DR. W. W. BROWN. PRSSIDBNT OF THU UNIVERSITY. TREASURER. E. M. TURNER, LL. D., JOHN I. HARVEY. STATION STAFF, JOHN A. MYERS, PH. D., Director. CHAS. F. MILLSPAUGH, M. D., Botanist and Microscopist. A. D. HOPKINS, Special Agent Entomology. D. D. JOHNSON, A. M., Agriculturist. RUDOLPH J. J. DE ROODE, PH. D., Chemist. SUSIE V. MAYERS, . . . Stenographer and Book-keeper. 93 FOREST AND SHADE TREE INSECTS. II. BLACK SPRUCE (Pic fa Mariana}. PRELIMINARY REPORT. As stated upon another page while passing through Randolph county on our journey of observation and collection, in July, we first learned of the destruction of the spruce timber in that section of the State; the cause of which no one seemed to know; evidently some disease or insect attack was threatening the spruce forests with total destruction. On returning to the Station and reporting the fact, a special trip was ordered. Accordingly on August 25th to August 28th, inclusive, a journey was made in company with the Botanist of the Station by rail and stage, into the Spruce forests of Cheat Mountains at a point called Winchester, on Shafer's Fork of Cheat River in Randolph county, for the purpose of making a special investigation of the unhealthy and dying condition of the Black Spruce timber in that region. A portion of this forest was passed through on the West Virginia Central R. R. in Tucker county on the 25th, where great numbers of dead spruce trees were noted, and where extensive saw mills were at work converting millions of feet into lumber. We arrived at Elkins, the terminus of this railroad, late at night on the 25th. On the afternoon of the next day we proceeded to Huttonsville by stage, where we remained on account of rain and floods until the morning of the 28th. Proceeding again by stage on the Staunton pike, we entered the forests in which the investigations were to be conducted eleven miles from Huttonsville a^n altitude of 3,425 feet. The timber here along the road had been cut and converted into lumber; this cutting, however, only extended a short distance after which we en- tered the forest in its natural state. Passing through this some three or four miles it was noted that over half the timber along the road was dead and in all stages of decay. At one place along this road our driver pointed out the site of the first saw mill in this re- gion; it having been brought there by the soldiers during the late war for the purpose of sawing lumber for their winter camp; beyond this, we came to the battle field of Cheat mountain, a clear and open 94 spot on top of the mountain. Here an extended view was had of the Cheat mountains extending on all sides with the blue Alleghanies beyond. Thousands upon thousands of acres of what must have once been a magnificient black-green forest of living spruce, was now viewed as an immense waste of dead and decaying trees, pre- senting a desolate and dreary landscape. Viewing this, we began to realize the destruction of this valuable timber, and how powerless man would be in an effort to apply a remedy for such a wide spread attack. From this point, the descent of the mountain was com- menced, and Winchester or Cheat bridge — our destination — was soon reached; a postoffice, a store and a logger's camp is located here, where 45 to 50 men and 10 teams are employed by a Michigan firm to cut spruce logs, of which about ten million feet are run out each year. Seventy-five thousand acres of this spruce is here owned by this firm, fifty thousand acres of it being leased to the Sportmen Association of Cheat Mountains. The famous club house of this Association is located a mile and a half above the bridge. These are the only habitations along the river for a distance of 50 miles. The altitude at the river is 3.310 feet. Arriving here in the even- ing, nothing was attempted in the way of investigation until the next morning other than to make some inquiry as to the general supposi- tion regarding the cause of the death of the timber. Among the many opinions expressed, one was that the trees had lived their natural life and were dying from old age; another that it was some disease; but the most general opinion was that it was caused by the drought of i883(?) Some one had told them that insects were the cause but they did not credit the statement. The next morning a hatchet was procured and the investigation commenced on the first* dead tree found, a vigorous application of the hatchet revealed at the first stroke evidence of serious insect attack, which upon further search was found to be the work of Scolytidae bark and timber bee- tles; species of which were known to have destroyed extensive for- ests in Germany, France, Canada and New England, hence possibly the cause of the great destruction that had been going on this re- gion. Convincing proof, however, must be found in a tree that was dying from such an attack, none being seen, a careful search was then commenced. In tramping through the forest, over rock and logs, and tangled laurel thickets, we were forcibly impressed by the fascinating scene that surrounded us_. The timber is almost entirely spruce and in all stages of growth. The soil (?) is one continued pile of boulders and rocks covered by a dense growth of club and other large growing mosses which concealed treacherous holes in which we would sometimes sink to our knees or waists, making walking, away from the regular roads and paths, both difficult and dangerous. On this damp moss-covered rocky surface, the spruce grows, their roots extending down through the crevices where they find abundant moisture in the ever running water of thousands of mountain springs. Years ago this forest was called by travelers the 'Shades of Death," suggested perhaps by the dense black foliage of the spruce and the thick undergrowth of laurel, where old, pros- 95 trate and decaying trees were seen frequently three and four deep covered by a thick damp mantle of moss, in which other vegetation attempting to grow would soon fade and die. As we view the de- struction that had been going on here among the trees within the last few years, we see that in reality a shadow of death had passed over this region, the cause of which it was now our duty if possible to determine. Although the dead trees on every side bore abundant evidence that the timber had been killed by insects, no trees could be found actually dying from such effect, until we reached the top of a mountain where the loggers were at work, here the object of our search was found, being a small tree about eight inches in di- ameter not yet entirely dead. Procuring an ax the tree was felled and abundant and convincing proof of the cause of its death was found when a portion of the bark was removed revealing hundreds of little insects which had mined through the bark in all directions checking the flow of sap thus causing the death of the tree. Beetles were also found in the green bark and sap wood. The men who were watching the operation with evident curiosity and interest ad- mitted that they were convinced and expressed wonder that they had never discovered the fact. Sections of this tree were cut, which were kindly carried to the camp by the men who offered any further services we might desire. Mr. Steel, the foreman of the camp^ be- ing especially kind in giving us assistance and information. Farther search was made for dying trees and a number of others were found, where swarms of small gnats were observed flying around the trees and alighting on the bark. Supposing these to be parasites careful search was made in the bark, where the same insects were found in the mines of the bark borers on which they had evidently been feed- ing. Several other species of insects were also found feeding on these bark borers. We had thus found the possible and evident cause of the timber dying, and the probable natural remedy which had checked this cause and prevented further destruction. Much, however, remains to be studied out before convincing proof can be had as to which species should be changed with their death, and which should have the credit for the better condition of the forest. These trees were again visited on September ist, the bark carefully examined, and: sections of the trees cut and sent to the Station for further study. On returning to the Station, these sections were placed in large cylindrical glass jars, the mouths of which were covered with coarse muslin secured by rubber bands. I have thus been able to note the insects which have since emerged from the sec- tions. I am now in correspondence with timber men in different sections of the forest with a view of securing additional information; and with Profs. Riley and Howard of the U. S. Division of Entom- ology, to whom I sent examples of 'the insects taken in the forest, and from the breeding jars, for determination. They have kindly determined such of them as were known; several of them proving to be new species. A list of the insects taken, with cuts and de- scriptions of the principal injurious and beneficial ones, will appear 96 later in a special bulletin on this investigation. I will probably visit the forests from time to time until the investigation is completed. It is hoped and believed that with a further knowledge of the par- asites of the spruce Scolytidae and their habits, that they may be successfully introduced into forests where the trees are just com- mencing to die and thus prevent a wholesale destruction of the timber. KX1J.V1 AND DISTRIBUTION OF THK STRUCK FORESTS OF WEST VIRGINIA. Valuable information in regard to the extent of the forests was ob- tained from Col. E. Hutton, who "is an extensive land owner and dealer and is thoroughly acquainted with the land and timber of the mountain regions in this section of the State. According to his estimate, the spruce forests are distributed as follows: Randolph county, 15,000 acres on Elk and Gauley waters. 120,000 acres on Cheat River waters. 5,000 acres on Mill creek. 500 acres on Elk mountain. Pocahontas county, 20,000 acres on Shafers' Fork of Cheat. 100,000 acres on the head of Greenbrier. 100,000 acres on Gauley and Elk head waters. Tucker county, 50,000 acres on Cheat waters. Mineral county, 25,000 acres. Greenbrier county, 33,499 acres by actual survey, on Cherry Tree river, making a total of nearly 500,000 acres, or about 800 square miles of spruce forest. He thinks the actual amount will go over rather than under this estimate. .His estimate that there were 25,000 acres in Greenbrier county, was proved by actual survey to exceed that amount over 8, coo acres. INFORMATION ( ONCKRNING TIME WHEN TIMBER COMMENCED AND CKASKD DYING IN CHEAT REGION. Col Hutton stated that he observed trees commencing to die in the Cheat region about ten years ago, or between 1880 and 1882, the destruction continued for five or six years, the trouble spreading until over 300,000 acres was more or less affected. He farther stated that the timber did not die over all the forest alike; but in patches of from 60 to 1,000 acres, and that the largest and best trees seemed to be more frequently affected than the smaller trees. Mr. Hanbric, who is the game-keeper of the Sportsmen's Associa- tion, says that he has spent almost all his life in these forests as a hunter, and that he has been observing the spruce timber for the last ten years. He says that in the summer of 1882 there was a very severe drought here, that in October following the timber com- menced to die, continuing through the winter and much worse the following summer, the trees then died scatteringly until 1885. No trees to his knowledge have died here within the last three years; 97 but he observed last fall that they had commenced to die in Poca- hontas county where the timber had been heretofore unaffected. INFORMATION* CONCERNING CAUSE OF DEATH OF TREES. The general supposition by people living here is that the timber died from the effect of the drought of 1882, some claimed that the trees had come to maturity and were dying from old age, giving giving their reasons that the larger trees seemed to die worse than smaller ones, while a very few thought that it might have, been caused by insects. Col. Hutton has obrerved that at certain times in the year, while the timber was dying the air would be full of little 1 -bugs;" that from the numbers would get in one's hair and be other- wise annoying. He had cut into green logs and trees and found "bugs" in the sap wood, thus concluding that they had something to do -with the death of the trees. He supposed, however, that the other insects found in the bark only attacked the trees after they were dead. Captain Parsons, a railroad surveyor who has conducted surveys through this forest at different times, stated that he had often ob- served that in a few years after they made such a survey the timber commenced to die on either side of the path made by the hacking and cutting necessary in their progress through a forest of this kind, and that if small bushes or trees were cut and lodged -against living ones would often cause them to die. Mr. S. L. Riger, of Phillippi, who has observed the spruce for- ests before and after the trees commenced to die, stated that his theory as to the first cause of the trouble was, that the deer hunters made burnings in the forests from which the green trees would com- mence to die on all sides and the trouble would continue to spreed until checked by some unknown cause. He said that it was sup- posed by some that the trees had lived their natural life. Others supposing that their death was from drought, others that it was caused by a "bug," and still others who were confident that the trouble was caused by a fly which they had observed flying around the trees. He further stated that the trees seemed to die worse in the fall and winter than at other times. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR LETTERS. In answer to the following questions mailed to lumber and tim- ber companies operating in the spruce as to when the timber com- menced to die in their respective localities. No. i, Huling Lumber Company, Tucker County: answers within ten or fifteen years. *No. 2, Black Water Lumber Company, Tucker County, about 1887. *No. 3, Silas Sharp, Pocahontas County: In the year 1887. •"These localities are widely separate from that in which the investigations here re- ported were made; no general drought has been reported since 1882. 98 No. 4, St. Lawrence Company, Greenbrier County, 1883. As to the cause of their death: No. i, answers: Don't know; worms. No. 2, answers: Everybody gives it up. No. 3> answers: The general opinion is on account of drought. The "Pine" generally grows in rocky places, and there was not dampness enough to keep the trees alive. No. 4, answers: Two very dry summers in succession. Are the trees dying at the present time: No. i, answers: Yes, to some extent. No. 2,* answers: It is said not. Said death is checked. No. 3, answers: Not more than common. No. 4, answers: No. How long does the timber continue to die in one locality? No. i, answers: About three or four years: No. 2, answers: Generally one season. No. 3, answers: Two years: No. 4, answers: About three years. What proportion of the timber in your locality is now dead? No. i, answers: One-fourth. No. 2, answers: Twenty-five per cent. No. 3, answers: The highest points of timber. No. 4, answers: 15 per cent. What is the present value of standing dead trees for lumber, and what is the probable time in which they may yet be profitably worked. No. i, answers: - About equal value for three years: After that time it very rapidly deteriorates. No. 2, answers: It depends on time of cutting after date. No. 3, answers: The dead timber is as good for lumber as if it was green. It will be good for a year yet. No. 4, answers: About two-thirds of the value of green timber. Will be good yet for four or five years. Mr. Hugh Maxwell, of Tucker County, an observing and intelli- gent gentleman, answers as follows: "I can state two or three facts: i st. The spruce timber in the affected districts is nearly all dead. There are certain strips, however, unaffected. 2nd. They use the dead timber for pulp from which to make paper. This is now an extensive industry here. 3rd. It is the prevailing opinion here that the death of the trees is due to parasites. 4th. It seems that wild cherry is replacing the dying spruce." PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS. Trips were made in all directions from Cheat Bridge. Dead trees were examined in all stages of decay. Stumps and tops examined in cuttings of 1884, 1887, 1888, 1889 and 1890. Their condition as to insect attacks and decay and the time of year in which the tim- 99 ber was cut was carefully noted. Every species of insect which seemed to be in any way connected with the spruce as taken, and notes made on their habits as far as observed, (which will be re- ported later). Past history of the ravages of these insects in the spruce forests of this and other countries and the information that I have ob- tained from personal observation and inquiry, indicate that such wholesale destruction of timber always follows some great injury to the forest by storms, fires or drought. This we may account for in the following manner : The species of scolytid bark and timber beetles, which are supposed to be the main cause of the trouble, no doubt have a preference for injured trees or recent prostrated limbs, in which they are always more or less plentiful, and in such they may continue to breed for many generations, in- creasing or decreasing according to the supply naturally furnished by an occasional uprooted tree or broken limb, never being allowed in the natural order of events to increase sufficiently to attack and and kill the healthy trees. When, however, something un- usual occurs to injure any large amount of timber, nature is then thrown of her balance, and no longer preserves natural order, and an equal division her species. The insects which have so long been prevented from increasing to their full extent by the meagre supply of natural food, lack of favorable conditions, and occasional attack of their enemies, now furnished with abundant breeding ground, and favorable conditions in the injured forest, increase with astonish- ing rapidity. * By the third year, they will have increased to count- less numbers, taking the character of an invasion, attacking trees and continuing on their march of destruction like a victorious army through an enemies country until checked by reinforcements in the ranks of their natural enemies. It is therefore possibly a fact, as is generally supposed, that the extreme drought of 1882 and 1883 had something to do with the wholesale death of the trees which occurred in certain localities in the Cheat mountain forests between 1882 and 1886. The timber on the extreme rocky points no doubt was thus very materially injured, many of the trees dying from the effects of the drought alone, thus forming a nucleus from which an invasion of the beetles might ex- tend to and destroy living trees. This was evidently the case in the locality mentioned. Points were found here so rocky that it seemed almost impossible for the roots of the trees to find either soil or moisture. Trees that once flourished on these points were now dead, and in an advanced stage of decay. Were these dry points the only places where trees were found to be dead, we might safely infer that the drought was the cause of their death; such we found was probably not the case, as the characteristic dead trees were ob- served on river bottoms, deep and fertile soil and even in swampy places in the infested districts. These affected portions of the forest from 50 to 1,000 acres in ex- *It is estimated that these scolytid* whi increase from one female at tfcw rate ui 1. w< the first year, 8,010 the second year, and 729 million the third year, 100 tent, are located indiscriminately through the forests separated by tracts of green timber of greater or less extent. Old White Top Mountain near Cheat Bridge seems to have been the nucleus of the trouble in that region. The clearing made by a pioneer settler on this mountain, the opening of the Parkersburg and Staunton turn- pike through the forest here, the old saw mill and the camps of General Reynolds' soldiers located here in the winter of 1861, the injuries by the three engagements of September and December, 1 86 1, followed by forest fires, storms and drought in later years, fur- nished a succession of favorable conditions for the increase of the injurious scolytids, so that when the drought of 1882 impaired the health of other portions of the forest on this mountain, hosts of these beetle were ready to attack the injured trees from which they seem to have spread to those that were healthy and green, thus re- sulting in the wholesale death of thousand's of dollars worth of val- uable timber. PROBABLE EXTENT OF THE DAMAGE. Colonel Hutton stated that about a|75 per cent. 01^170,000 acres on Cheat waters and 10 per cent, of 140,000 acres on Gauley and Elk waters were dead. S. L. Riger, of Phillippi, stated that two- thirds of the 100,000 acres on Cheat waters was dead. From my own observations, I should judge that forty per cent, of the trees were dead of the 15,000 to 20,000 acres near Cheat Bridge. Col. Huttons' estimates are probably as near correct as it is possible to get them, from these we judge that at least 1,500,000 dollars worth of timber is now dead in the spruce forests of West Virginia. PRESENT VALUE Ol DEAD TREKS FOR LUMBER AND TIME THEY MAY ME PROFITABLY WORKED. Statement of Mr. George Steel, of Winchester, W. Va., foreman of an extensive logger's camp: "I have been here three years. We keep on an average 45 men and 10 teams. We cut and run into the river about ten million feet of logs each year. We have been cutting these dead trees right along, and I can not see much difference as to decay. The dead trees that we are cutting now will make very good lumber, and it is my belief that they will be good for lumber for at least three years. No large trees have died in this locality to my knowl- edge since I have been here." On visiting the extensive saw-mill belonging to the same company located at thfc mouth of Cheat river, the following statements were obtai ed from Mr. Kysor, superintendent of the mill: "The first logs we sawed here was in August, 1889, about 200,000 feet of which was felled in 1884 and 1885, only about 5 per cent be- ing discarded or thrown into the slab pile. The logs from tree.s of this cutting that were dead when felled made third-class lumber. The logs sawed last spring were from trees cut all the way from first 101 to third-class lumber; a much less per cent being discarded in this last sawing than in the first. There is now in the yard out of three million reet sawed: 2,000,000 feet of first-class lumber and above, 700,000 feet of second-class lumber (piece stuff and weather-board- ing) and 100,000 feet of third-class lumber. This lumber sells here at an average of about $12 per thousand. The third-class sells for $8 per thousand, and we sell more of it in proportion than we do of firsts and seconds. PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS. From a careful examination of the trees in the healthy and affect- ed districts and of the stumps and tops in cuttings of 1861 and 1884-1890, a tolerably correct idea of the durability of the timber was formed, from which, I should judge that where these affected tracts are accessible to a railroad or stream large enough to float out logs, that this timber may be profitably worked within eight years after it dies.* It is therefore possible that much of this timber might be saved. From the fact that large companies are now oper- ating in it, and that thousands of acres of these affected portions of the forests, together with healthy portions, may be bought very cheap, and within the next three or four years no doubt much of this timber could be worked at a profit to operators, and a great saving gained thereby. We would therefore suggest that the districts al- ready dead should be felled and converted into lumber as soon as possible. When it is considered that the scarcity of spruce and other tim- ber of the world is becoming an alarming matter, the saving of a portion of the immense amount of timber which is now dead should certainly receive the universal attention of foresters and others who are interested in the preservation of the great forests of West Vir- ginia, for practically every dead tree converted into lumber or pulp 'ere it decays saves its value. Summary. The spruce forests of West Virginia are estimated to exceed 500,- ooo acres. Isolated portions in these forests are dead, possibly to the amount of 150,000 acres. While conducting an investigation in one of these affected por- tions, all of the characteristic dead trees there bore abundant evi- dence of the attack of insects belonging to the family Scolytidae. A number of small trees were found partly dead, and dying near where trees had been cut last summer. Great numbers of bark and timber beetles were found in the bark and sap wood of these dying trees both in the green and dead portions, f *This statement applies only to this Cheat Bridge region. In other portions of the forests, especially in Tucker county, the timber rots quite soon after death. tPrincipally Polygraphes ruflpennis, Kby.; and Xloterus bivittatus, Kirbey. IO2 Three species of parasites* of these beetles were plentiful, and were noted flying around and on the bark of the infested trees. Some of them were observed with their ovipositors inserted into the bark, while others were entering and emerging from the burrows made by the beetles. Here evidence was obtained of the possibil- ity of these beetles being destroyed or reduced 'by natural mean -, to such an extent that they could no longer be destructive to trees. These same beetles were found very plentiful in the logs, stumps and tops of last summers cuttings, near these dying trees. There was very little evidence of the attack of these beetles on the stumps and tops of the 1887 cuttings, indicating that at or near the time that the timber ceased dying in this locality these insects were not plentiful. Conclusions. The conclusion arrived at from personal observation and notes leads me to believe that the death of the trees is probably due to .the combined effect of two causes. i st. The ravages of the insects primarily succeeded some injury to probably a few trees in. isolated localities. 2nd. When the conditions were no longer favorable to their ex- istence in the injured trees, and they had increased to great num- bers, the possibility of their attacking the healthy trees from sheer necessity and continuing to spread until checked by some natural cause, seems to me evident. I reach this conclusion from the fact that I have found these same scolytids working in the green, sappy wood and bark. Still further investigations will be made in the spruce forests of the State in this and other localities, and a final report will appear in a future bulletin. This bulletin will also contain a list of all in- sects taken in these forests, and such other additional facts as may be determined. *»pecies— Trlgonoderus, Helorus, and Spiutherus, a. sp. • riiool Agriculture Published monthly, September to April, at Morgantown, West Virginia, by the College of Agriculture of West Virginia University. Sent Free to all Teachers and School Officers Making Application. E. D. SANDERSON, Dean. A. W. NOLAN, Editor. Vol. II. MORGANTOWN, W. VA., NOVEMBER, 1911. No. 3. LESSONS FROM THE FOREST By A. W. NOLAN Associate Professor of Agricultural Education (Courtesy of A. B. Brooks.) "Father, thy hand Hath reared these venerable columns, Thou Didst weave this verdant roof." — Bryant. Entered as second class matter October 14, 1911, at the post office at Mor- gantown, W. Va., under act of July 16, 1894. University Woodlot in November. DOWN TO SLEEP. November woods are bare and still, November days are clear and bright; Each noon burns up the morning's chill, The morning's snow is gone by night; Each day my steps grow slow, grow light, As through the woods I reverent creep, Watching all things "lie down to sleep". I never knew before what beds Fragrant to smell and soft to touch, The forest sifts and shapes and spreads; I never knew before how much Of human sound there is in such Low tones as through the forest sweep When all wild things "lie down to sleep". Each day I find new coverlids Tucked, and more sweet eyes shut tight, Sometimes the viewless mother bids Her ferns kneel down full in my sight; I hear their chorus of "Good-night" And half I smile and half I weep Listening while they "lie down to sleep". November woods are bare and still, November days are bright and good; Life's noon burns up life's morning chill, Life's night rests feet which long have stood; Some warm soft bed in field or wood The mother will not fail to keep, Where we can "lay us down to sleep". —HELEN HUNT JACKSON. (From Barbe's Famous Poems Explained) Forestry in Schools All teachers have been reminded many times of that rather vague statement of Herbert Spencer that "Education is prep- aration for complete living." Often we misinterpret it by telling our pupils that we must go to school in order to "prepare for life". We make the school appear not as a very necessary part of life, but as a sort of a "purgatory which precedes the blessed state". Let us get on solid ground and teach that school work is as much the business of life as sell- ing goods or farming, and that education is acquainting our- selves with the field of our labors. We must have that famil- iarity with our environment which will enable us to serve our fellow men ; to meet each situation which arises with con- fidence ; and to live happily and in content. Now nature is everywhere our environment, and trees form a large and influential part of nature. I am not pre- paring to say by all this introduction that forestry is to be a separate branch in the public school. It seeks not to sup- plant any other, but to supplement almost all others. Geog- raphy, history, botany, nature-study and agriculture are all enriched by references to their forest relations. Whether we like it or not, forestry is taking a place in general education from the country schools to the universities. It is important that the teaching of it be rightly guided and properly cor- related with educational work generally. In this issue of School Agriculture, we present some ele- mentary principles and practical exercises in forestry to be correlated with the work in nature study and elementary agri- culture. LESSON XIV. TR££ STUDIES. Characteristics of Trees. Trees are the most prominent and one of the most important and most interesting features in the living vegetable world. It is their great height, their long life and their form, which distinguishes the trees from other plants. The single stem or trunk, which develops more strongly than the branches, into which it divides, and which in their aggregate make up the crown, is the tree's most char- 50 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE acteristic form. The tree is the "whale" of the vegetable world in size, and the "man" of that world in point of highest devel- opment. Identifying the Trees. Before we can go far into the study of trees, we must be able to call them by their names. We must know them at sight as we know our friends. It may not be necessary for us to be able to tell just how we know the maple from the ash when we are children, — the form, fea- tures and general appearances will guide, but later we shall need to use a "key", based on structural features of leaves or other parts of the tree. Life Processes of the Tree. The two great life processes of the tree, as well as of all plants, are to get nourishment and to reproduce its kind. The tree gets its food through its roots and its leaves from the soil and the air. The solid food from the soil must go into solution and be carried upwards from the roots through the sap-wood to the leaves. The gas food must be taken in through the leaves. All this food, the minerals from the soil and the carbon from the air, is pre- pared for the different parts of the tree, in the leaves by the aid of the sunlight. The prepared food is then carried down- ward through the inner, soft bark, to where it is needed to make root, trunk, branch, leaf, flower, and fruit. Girdling a tree, therefore, checks this downward flow of food and not the upward flow of crude sap. The trees, except those of the palm tribe, grow in girth by adding ring upon ring of wood cells to their trunks and branches, and in height, not by lifting its whole trunk and crown, but by adding on to the tips of its twigs. Trees re- produce by seeds, sprouts and sometimes by cuttings. Structure. A tree like every other living thing is com- posed of tissues made up of minute cells, varying in shape, size and thickness of cell wall. The bulk of the bole of the tree is not living, but dead tissue, composed of empty cells. It is for this reason that a tree may have its heart rotten or gone, and still live and grow. The living part of the tree trunk is on the outside of the wood, between bark and wood. The growing tissue of this live part is called the cambium. Growing cells are also grouped at the tips of the roots and at the tips of the shoots. The thick outer bark of the tree is dead tissue, which sooner or later loosens and sloughs off. In the center of a young tree and of an old tree whose heart has not rotted, is the pith, soft, thin-walled cells in which food Js stored. The pith extends in radiating rays out to the bark. LESSONS FROM THE FOREST 51 In a cross section of a tree we can see pith, pith rays, rings of growth, heart wood, sap wood, and bark. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 1. Identifying Trees. Let the class in Agriculture take a walk with the teacher among the trees. Each pupil should have note-hook and pencil. Let the teacher point out the trees and give each tree a number. Let each pupil take down the number and opposite the number, write down the kind of tree he thinks it is. After naming a dozen or more trees, return to the school house or be seated any- where and check up each of the pupil's list with the teacher's correct names. This exercise may be repeated until the pupils know all the .trees in the vicinity. 2. Reports on Individual Trees. Assign to each pupil a single species of tree and require the following table filled out, from obser- vational study: Name Size Place Condition How of and of of I know Tree form growth tree the tre "The leaves are swept from the branches, But the living buds are there, With folded flower and foli- age, To sprout in a kinder air." — Bryant. Locust Tree In Winter. 52 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 3. Determining Age of Trees. Cut cross sections of branches, as large as can be conveniently obtained and give each pupil a section. Count the rings of growth in the cross sections and note the age of the branches. Make drawings of the sections, showing bark, rings of growth, and pith rays. LESSON XV. TREE SOCIETIES — THE FOREST. Forest Conditions. Trees grow together in societies and make what is known as forest conditions. The forest has a story quite different from that of a single tree. Here they struggle with one another for the best position, like people in a crowd jostling one another to get sight of some common attraction before them. In the forests, trees struggle with each other for light, food, and foot-hold, resulting in the for- mation of forest crowns, forest trunk masses, and forest floors. The ideal forest crown has all its tree tops touching each other, so as to completely shade the ground without over crowding any single tree ; the wood-mass has clear straight boles and the maximum number to the acre; and the forest floor is rich in leaf-mould and free from grass and fire-traps. The Wood Supply. The prime importance of the forest to mankind is its wood supply. Outside of food products no material is so universally used as wood. Indeed, civilization is inconceivable without an abundance of timber. Wood sur- rounds us on every hand as a convenience or a necessity. We require wood in the construction of our homes. It serves to ornament them, to furnish them and to heat them. For every hundred tons of coal mined, two tons of mining timber are needed. For our means of transportation we rely mainly on wood. Millions of telephone poles are needed to keep up our communications. The forest furnishes the wood for all the implements of the farm, and for all the vehicles of transpor- tation there. Lumber is not the only product of the forest. There is the turpentine of the pine, the paper pulp of the spruce and poplar, the tan bark of the oak and hemlock, the sugar and syrup of the maple, and the various distilled prod- ucts from many other species. The alarming fact of this im- mense supply, is that we are using wood three times faster than it is growing. Forest Influences. In addition to serving as a great source LESSONS FROM THE FOREST' 53 of wood supply, the forest exerts certain well known beneficial influences to human interests. These are influences: 1. Upon the climatic conditions within the forest area. 2. Upon the distribution and character of the water flow. 3. Upon the mechanical condition and erosion of the soil under its cover. 4. Upon the sanitary and esthetic conditions of the peo- pie. About the only influence the forest has upon climate is to keep it more uniform within its own limits and to shelter our The Forest Prevents Excessive Erosion and Regulates Stream Flow. Courtesy of A. B. Brooks. homes from storms and winds. The forests' greatest influence is upon the distribution and character of its water flow. The forest crown and floor catch and hold the rainfall, and allow it to sink slowly into the ground to supply a uniform flow in springs and streams, at the same time preventing destructive floods and excessive soil washes. The forest air and water is pure and healthful and the tired city dweller, as well as the free country man, may find peaceful rest and happy apprecia- tion of nature, beneath the forests' kindly shelter. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 1. An Observational Study of Forest Conditions.. Go with the class in Agriculture to a forest. Let the pupils scatter out through 54 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE the forest until no two are within fifty steps of each other. With paper and pencil let each pupil make note of the forest where he is standing, as follows: 1. Condition of crown, whether open or closed. 2. Tree-boles, whether clean, straight, etc. 3. Forest floor, whether grassy or rich in leaf mould. 4. Kind of trees. 2. A "Forest Museum." Let the teacher and pupils start a little museum containing samples of forest products, collections of woods, tree-seeds and other materials derived from the forest. These speci- mens should be so arranged that they may be handled and passed about from pupil to pupil without injury. LESSON XVI. THE: NATIONAL FORESTS. "This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss and in garlands green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic." Conservation, the Policy. Destructive lumbering and wasteful use have wrought havoc with the forests. Forest fires have swept over thousands of acres of timber land, de- stroying not only the trees, both old and young1,, but even eat- ing out the rich soil, the accumulation of ages. There follows the washing away of unprotected soil on deforested slopes and destructive freshets which cover the lowlands with deposits of sand and mud. To prevent this waste of the wealth of the nation, Congress has established the National Forests. The spirit which controls the administration of these National For- ests may be set forth in the words, — "careful use." Rang- ers patrol the forests to protect them from misuse and destruc- tion. Live stock are. grazed on the forest, but the number is limited; water power is not cut off from use, and lumbering LESSONS FROM THE FOREST 55 is carried on, but under the supervision of trained foresters, who see that all trees cut are closely utilized, provision made for leaving seed trees, and the brush properly burned so as to minimize the danger from fire. In addition to these methods of careful usage, the national government is planting large areas of forest. Altogether, however, in this country we have planted only an area equal to the state of Rhole Island, where- as the area planted to trees should have been one hundred times larger. The forest is a very important contributor to our national wealth, and one of the chief reasons why our nation is so very prosperous is because we have been bountifully supplied by nature with timber. Hence it is the duty of every citizen to see that this great national heritage is not wasted or wantonly destroyed. Lumbermen and Fires Have Destroyed Forest and Soil. Courtesy of A. B. Brooks. The Forests of the United States. About one fourth of the United States is in timberland. There are two great unlike forest regions, namely the Pacific and the Atlantic regions. All the country east of the Mississippi River was originally a vast forest, of about seven hundred and fifty million acres, of which about 40% has been turned into farm lands. The area to the west, is almost twice as large* and into it stretch, like peninsulas the forest mountain ranges of the Rockies and the forests of the Sierras and Coast Ranges. The Atlantic forests are composed of a large variety of 56 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE broad leaved species, with conifers intermixed, gradually changing to the westward into the prairie country. To the west of the prairie belt lie the plains and semi-arid regions, where tree growth is almost entirely absent. Into this type of country the Rocky Mountain forests protrude. These forests are principally coniferous. Parallel to the coast from north to south extends the Pacific Forest, along the mountain slopes of the Cascades, Sierra Nevada, and Coast Range. These forests have trees of most magnificent development, with only a few broad leaved species. Here grew the famous "big trees" now rapidly vanishing before the lumberman. Scene in Forest Reeserve. From this vast forest domain the federal government has set apart nearly two hundred million acres, as great national reservations. These reserves are controlled by expert forest- ers, whose policy as here-to-fore explained, is that of careful usage of all the forest resources. All of these reserves are in the far west, but since the federal government last winter ap- propriated about twelve million dollars to purchase eastern reserves, we may hope soon to have some of the national for- ests in West Virginia. * PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 1. Map Studies of Forest Areas of the United States. Consult the maps of the United States in the School Geographies. Note the LESSONS FROM THE FOREST 57 areas mentioned above, of the great forest regions of the country. Find answers from the geographies and from other sources to the following questions: 1. Where are the great lumbering sections of the United States? 2. What are the principal commercial species? 3. In what counties of West Virginia are the greatest forest areas? 4. What influence does the forest have upon water and soil conditions? 5. Upon what kind of regions should forests be permanently maintained? Why? 6. What is the conservation policy as applied to forests? NOTE. — Send to the Forest Service for a forest map of the United States. The school library should also have The Forest Report of the West Virginia Geological Survey, by A. B. Brooks. LESSON XVII. THE FARMERS' WOODLOT. The Farmer and Forestry. Even though the national gov- ernment does own nearly 200 million acres of forest, and pri- vate and corporate interests own many millions more, the greatest bulk of forests is owned and controlled by the farm- ers. We must look to them for our future timber supply. Are they using and conserving wisely this great natural resource? It is more practical and of more general value to the coun- try, that the former practise the principles of good forestry on his woodlot, than that the government own large reservations. There are many reasons why the farmer should and could be governed by modern forestry principles in the management of his woodlot. The land is his, he has time to look after his forest, to study its needs and requirements, he 'needs the tim- ber for farm operations, he can protect it from fire, preserve the young trees, and plant more as needed. If all of the eight million farmers of this country would plant or wisely manage woodlots, the general forest conditions and the lumber supply of the country would be greatly im- proved. All non-agricultural lands, such as steep hillsides, roadsides, and stream banks, should be covered with growing trees, for these places could not be used more profitably in any other way. Planting the Woodlot. Planting forests is not a new un- heard of thing. The seedlings of such trees as catalpa, black 58. SCHOOL AGRICULTURE locust, walnut, a'sh, and poplar, may be purchased for small sums, and an acre of land will support from 500 to 1000 of these trees. The trees should be planted on land prepared as if for a corn crop, and set from six to eight feet apart each way. The young trees should be cultivated for the first four or five years, or until the crowns touch and the canopy entire- ly shades the ground. In a comparatively short time the young forest will be full of promise, even within the lifetime of one generation. University Catalpa Plantation. (3 Years Old.) Jf the farmer already has a woodlot so much the better. His scientific forestry then will consist of cleaning out worth- less, dead, misshapen or crowded trees, and giving all valuable species every advantage of root and crown space. If fire is kept out, and grass is shaded dowrn, the forest will naturally regenerate itself, and the farmer may use the mature trees, and the thinnings from his woodlot "without impairing the per- manency of his forest. The Woodlot a Source of Supply. A good timber lot is one of the best crops a farmer can raise, and it will produce good interest on his money, while he sleeps. Such supplies as farm building frames, shingle?, fence posts, telephone posts, tele- LESSONS FROM THE FOREST 59 phone poles, fuel, etc., taken from the farmer's woodlot, means a considerable saving in expenditures, when these necessities would otherwise have to be purchased. Caring for the Woodlot. The proper utilization and man- agement of the woodlot is a broad subject. I have space only to mention a few points. Protection from forest fires, is the first and greatest point in the care of the woodlot. If the fires are kept from the woods, the forest will in time renew itself. Proper cutting of only the mature trees, and careful thinnings are essential to promote the best development of desirable trees. The harvesting of the woodlot supplies, such as posts, poles, fuel, etc., should not destroy the future prospects of the forest. Grazing in the woodlot should not be allowed, for the young seedlings which are to make the future forest will thus be destroyed. The essential point which I wish to impress upon the teachers and pupils of the schools, is the importance of the consideration of trees as a farm crop, just as much as corn, and that the forest in the form of the woodlot, has its place in agriculture, which we cannot afford to overlook. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 1. Reports on Home Woodlots. The pupils should make a tab- ular report of the home woodlot, as follows: No. of acres Species of tree General condition 2. Planting a Forest Nursery. The planting and care of a forest nursery by pupils of the public schools is one of the most practical forms of garden work, because the trees are more permanent and require less attention than garden vegetables. Spade up a piece of ground about 6 feet by 12 feet in an unused corner of the school yard. Select a well drained site, not too sloping, with as rich a loam soil as possible. Work into the soil this fall, a liberal amount of well- rotted manure, and leave the ground without further preparation until spring. In the spring, as soon as conditions will permit, the ground should be thoroughly pulverized and a seed-bed prepared for the planting. Lay off the plot in rows 12 to 18 inches apart. Such tree seeds as the basswood, catalpa, poplar, beech, chestnut, locust, oak, maple, and such others as can be obtained, may be planted in the rows of the nursery plot. During this fall gather and store the seeds. Acorns and nuts are best stored by being buried in sand in a box, sunk in the ground in a well drained place. Other tree seeds may be 60 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE kept in good condition by being kept in sacks hung in cool dry places, away from rats and mice. It is strongly recommended that the schools try this exercise. 3. Setting a Catalpa Grove. Either this fall or next spring, plant a small catalpa grove on the school grounds or on a lot adjacent, which some patron is willing to loan for that purpose. Plow up about one-tenth of an acre. Lay it off in rows both ways, 6 feet apart. At the crossing of the rows, plant a catalpa seedling. The plot will contain about 100 little trees. Send to "Little Tree Farms", South Framingham, Mass., or to Ohio Valley Nursery Co., Lake, Indiana, for the catalpa seedlings. They will cost about 1 cent a tree. LESSON XVIII. NUT CROPS. The Nut Trees. We should not continue our studies of the forest without noting the importance of the nut trees. Nuts constitute a valuable part of man's food. They are rich and nutritious and are more and more coming to occupy a large- place among our articles of diet. Some of the leading varieties of nut trees are the almond, English walnut, white walnut or butternut, hickory nut, pecan, chinquapin, black walnut, chest- nut, hazel nut, cocoanut, and Brazil nut. The Hickory. The shell bark and shag bark hickories furnish our best nuts. They make excellent shade trees and bear sweet and wholesome nuts. Every country boy knows how to gather hickory nuts. The hickary trees are propagated by sprouts and seeds. As a forest tree for wood supplies, the demand for hickory is very great, and the supply is fast de- creasing. The Pecan. The pecan tree grows wild in many parts of our country and is being cultivated in many of the southern states. The Appomatox and Mantura are varieties of pecans being adapted successfully for cultivation in states as for north as Ohio, West Virginia and Pennsylvania. Pecans may be pro- pagated from seed, but budding and grafting give the best results. Pecan trees begin to bear when about six years of age. The planting and growing of pecan groves is an enter- prise worth trying, and certainly every farm should try a few trees for the sake of the shade and nuts they will afford. The English Walnut. This is a large tree which begins to bear profitably when it is about six years old, and continues for nearly thirty years. English walnuts are grown in Spain, Italy, LESSONS FROM THE FOREST 61 France, and also in California. Successful attempts to grow the English walnut have been made in many of the southern states. Several trees are growing thriftily in West Virginia, but so far as the writer knows, none have yielded profitable crops. The Chestnut. The unusually large crop of chestnuts this year encourages us to think that this nut is a profitable one to grow in this section. The chestnut bark disease, now spreading throughout the eastern states, is a discouraging fea- ture in chestnut cu'ture. Many foreign varieties of chestnuts &,*: I rt.-= — Chestnuts. &. — Black Walnuts. c. — Pecans. d. — Brazil Nuts. . e. — Almonds. /. — Hickory Nuts. the Legislature, 325. Letter to timber companies, 325. IMPORTED INSECTS DISTRIBUTED IN 1893, .... 326 Methods, of Locating Colonies of Imported Insects, . . 326 THE CARRYING OUT OF THE PRIMARY OBJECTS OF THE IMPORTATION OE THK CLERID INTO AMERICA PREVENTED BY THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE DESTUCTIVE PINE BARK BEETLE, 328. NUMBER OF EX- AMPLES OF THE CLEMD COLLECTED, IMPORTED AND DESTRIBUTED BETWEEN AUGUST 29. 1892, AND MAY 30, 1894, . . 330 Tables showing distribution and amounts subscribed, 330. State- ment of expenditures, 330. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS WITH KEFERENCE TO DYING PINE, AND THE DESTRUCTIVE- BARK BEETLES, DURING THE SUMMER AND FALL OF 1892, . ..... 332 Alarming Character of the Trouble, no Further Doubt Regarding the cause, 335. Further observations on natural enemies, 336. Dying pine and spruce in Maryland and District of Columbia, 336. Ob- servations after returning from Europe, 337. No abatement of the trouble at the close of 1892, 338. OBSERVATIONS DURING THE SPRING, SUMMER AND FALL OF 1893, 339 Conditions in Monongalia county in scrub, pitch and yellow pine, 339. Condition in Raleigh county, in white pine, 340. All the examples of the destructive pine bark beetles dead, 341. Other bark beetles threatening the timber, 342. Conditions in Kanawha county scrub pine, 343. Conditions in Greenbrier county scrub pine, 344. Conditions in Greenbrier and Pocahontas counties, white pine, 345. Conditions on William's river spruce, 346. Swarms of bark beetles, 346. Conditions in Tucker county, pitch pine, 348. White pine, 348. Conditions in Randolph county, spruce, 348. Conditions in Grant county, spruce, 349. Norway spruce, Morgantown, 350. Conclusions from observations in spring of 1893, 350. Conditions reported to owners of timber, 351. Further notes in 1893, Webster, Pocahontas and Green- brier counties, 352. Extracts from paper read at Madison, Wis- consin, 353. Observations in Tibbs Run forest, 355. In Raleigh county, white pine, 356. In the Mayfield Hill Grove, 357. CONDITIONS IN 1894, ....... 367 Conditions in the Spruce, 358. Conditions in the Mayfield Hill Grove, 358. Conditions in southern, south-western part of the State, 359. Serious trouble over, Extract from articles in timber- journals, and newspapers, 363. OBSERVATIONS IN 1895 AND 1896. . . , . .364 SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 1893-95. 365 No living examples of destructive species found, 366. Other bark beetles not exterminated, 366. Swarms of bark beetles, 366. A IV WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. new trouble threatened by the swarms, 366, Trees attacked by other bark beetles did not die, 367. The trouble ended, 367. CONCLUSIONS, ....... 367 Cause of the trouble, 367. When the destructive bark beetle dis- appeared the timber quit dying, 367. Further trouble prevented, 368. AREA INVADED BY THE DESTRUCTIVE PINE BARK BEETLE, . 368 Two KEMARKABLE FEATURES OF THE INVASION, , . 369 ON THE CAUSES OF THE UNIVERSAL DEATH CF THE INSECT, . 370 Climatic Conditions, 370. Table of Temperatures Dec., 1892, and Jan., 1893, 371. Insect Diseases, 374. Parasitic and Predaceous Enemies, 378. Conclusions, 378. SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL INSECTS As SOCIATED WITH THE PINE TROUBLE, ........ 379 The Scolytids, 379. Some general features and habits, 379. General habits, 379. Their preference for coniferous trees, 379. Grouped according to habits, 380. The mines or galleries, 381. Distribution of species, 385. Natural enemies, 386 Predaceous enemies, 386, Parasitic insect enemies, 386. Parasitic diseases, 387 Birds, 387 Unfavorable climatic and other conditions, 387. FRIENDS OF SCOLYTIDS, ....... 387 Insect friends, 388. Forest fires, 388. Climatic and other natural conditions favorable to the existance of Scolytids, 389. PREVENTITIVES AND REMEDIES. ...... 389 Preventives . . . . . .389 Meniwlii'* ... /. 390 A Knowledge of the Insects and their Habits May Prevent Serious losses from their Ravages, . . . . . 391 DESTRUCTIVE BARK-BEETLES, ...... 392 The genus Dendroctonus, 392. D. terebrans, 392. D. rnfipennis, 393. D. simplex, 394. D. frontalis, 394. THE DESTRUCTIVE PINE BARK BEETLE, .... 394 Descriptions, 394. The egg, 396. Larva, 396. Pupa, 396. Gal- leries, 897. Life history, 401. Stages of development, 401. Number of broods, 401. Habits, 403. Habits of flight, 406. Distribution, 407. Host plants, 407. Natural enemies, 408, Parasitic enemies, 408. Predaceous enemies, 409. Robbers, 410. Birds, 410. Diseases, climatic conditions, etc. 411. Friendly ele- ments, 411. Remedies, and preventitives, 412. Future outbreaks liable to occur, 412. Characteristic features of injury to forest and shade trees by Den* droctonus frontalis, ..,.., 413 THE TURPENTINE BARK-BEETLE, ..... 415 Description of adult, egg, larva and pupa, 415. Habits and life history, 416. Character of injury, 419. Kind of trees attacked, 420. Natural enemies, 42§. THE GENUS TOMICUS, ...... 421 T. Calligraphy.*, 422. T. cacographus, 422. T.pini, 422. T avul- • sus, 422. T. caelatus, 423. APPENDIX. OF INSECTS COLLECTED BY THE AUTHOR FROM SPRUCE AND PINE IN WEST VIRGINIA, 425 REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF UNHEALTHY CONDITIONS OF THE SPRUCE AND PINE FROM 1880-1893. BY A. D. HOPKINS. INTRODUCTORY. This report is on the work and results of special investiga- tions conducted by the author in the spruce and pine forests of West Virginia, to determine the causes of the unhealthy con- ditions of the timber, which prevailed between 1880 and 1893, resulting in the death and total loss ot many hundred thousand dollars worth of the finest timber in the State. The spruce investigation was begun in September, 1890, when in company with Dr. C. F. Millspaugh, (then Botonist of the Station) we found great quantities of dead spruce near Cheat Bridge, in Randolph county. The evidence obtained at the time indicated that the trouble was caused by insects. Hence, a general study of the conditions prevailing in the spruce forests of the State, and a special study of the destruc- tive, injurious and beneficial insects associated with the living and dead spruce was taken up as a special feature of the work of the Entomological Department of the Experiment Station, which received a large share of my attention from time to time until 1894. The pine investigation was commenced in 1891, when I found some timber dying in Hampshire county, in July of that year. Enormous quantities of pine and spruce died during 1891 and 1892, and every facility necessary to prosecute a detailed study of this trouble was offered, both by the Director of the Experi- ment Station and the owners of large bodies of spruce and pine timber, the latter contributing nearly all of the expense of a 198 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. trip to Europe to study the natural enemies of destructive pine and spruce insects. While the report is prepared mainly for the general reader, and especially those interested in the spruce and pine resources of the State, yet it contains some matter of a more or less technical nature, intended for persons interested in natural his- tory or systematic and economic entomology. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I wish to acknowledge in this connection my obligations and appreciation of the interest and encouragement extended dur- ing the period 1890-1893 by members of the Board of Regents of the University, and Station Committees, and the Director of the Station, Dr, John A. Myers, to whom 1 am under special obligations for the opportunity and facilities so liberally of- fered for undertaking and successfully prosecuting the inves- tigations ; also to my early associate in Station work, Dr. C. F. Millspaugh, for advice and kind recommendations when the work was commenced. It seems proper that I should make special mention in this connection of persons in Europe to whom I am under oblig- ations for the kindness, and valuable aid, so heartily extended to me during the investigations in Europe and in carrying on the experiments here. Of those who deserve special mention for favors and assistances extended during my investigations in Europe I would mention first the late Oberforester W. EichhofF, of Strassburg, Germany, who was especially kind in providing the necessary papers which gave me free access to the forests of Alsace and Loraine, as well as introductions to the principal forest officials ; also for valuable information and kind hospi- tality, and many other favors which I remember with much pleasure; to Director Camillo Schaufuss of the museum at Meissen, Saxony, I am also under obligations for many person- al favors and valuable assistance in the collection of insects, as 1 am also to Oberforester Strahrneyer, his son, H. Strah- meyer and Mr. E. Baldauf, of Hagenan, Alsace, who were ex- ceedingly kind in offering every facility for the successful pro- INTRODUCTORY. 199 secution of the work in the Hagenau forests, and especially Mr. H. Strahmeyer, who collected such a large number of speci- mens with the funds entrusted to him. I should not fail to mention also Oberforester Pittz, of Abreschwiller,Loraine, who accompanied me into the spruce forest in his charge, and was so' liberal in his efforts to further the objects of my mission there. In this country I have to mention the several public spirited companies and individuals who made it possible with their liberal contributions, to personally conduct the investigations in Europe and select the most desirable species for importation. This movement on the part of these owners of only a small portion of the threatened timber was not, as I have reasons to know, through a desire to advance personal interests so much as it was to contribute to the general welfare-of the timber interests of the State and country and to give encouragement to scientific research. The individuals of the companies who were especially interested in this matter were: Hon. J. N. Camden, President of the West Virginia and Pittsburg Railroad Company, Mr. E. L. Tunis, General Mana- ger Condon Lane Boom and Lumber Company; Robert H. Henderson, President of the Cumberland Lumber Co; E. C. Burt, President of the St. Lawrence Boom and Lumber Com- pany; E. A. Monaghan,Lock Haven, Pa., and J. R. Beatty & Company, Crow, W. Va. I should also mention the liberality of Dr. C. V. Riley, Dr. L. O. Howard, Mr. Wm. A. Ashmead, Mr. E. A. Schwarz and others of the LI. S. Department of Agriculture and the National Musuem. In the identifications of specimens and the use of material for study; also my assistant, Mr. Rumsey, for some of the excellent photograph reproduced in the report and other efficient assistance in office and laboratory work; and finally the present Director of the Experiment Station, Hon, J. H. Stewart, for liberal allowance, from the stationary and print- ing fund, for illustrations and publication. The greater part of the MS. for this report was prepared in 200 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION 1894— '95, but owing; to the lack of funds available for the pur- pose, the publication of the same has been delayed. In the meantime references have been made to the investigations and to part of the results in bulletins, annual reports and papers read at scientific societies and articles in scientific and other journals, newspapers, etc. These references may be found under the following bibliography. The pages refer, as a rule, to the entire article, and not to the references which are scattered through some of them. Apr., 1899. A. D. HOPKINS. All of the Illustrations in this report are original, except as noted under figure. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ij'txt of published titles l>y the author under which reference is made to so tin- of the work and results of the spruce and pine investigations. Preliminary Report — Black Spruce, (Investigation.) Bull. 17, W. Va. Agr. Exp, Station, May 1891. pp. 93-102. Also Third An. Rep. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station, 1891. pp. 171- 180. Notes on Destructive Forest Tree Scolytids, Science, Vol. 20, July 29, 1892, p. 64. The Pine Beetle of the Virginias, Hardwood, Vol. 2, November 25th, 1892, p. 7. First Announcement of the Importation of the European Bark- beetle Destroyer into America, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. 2, 1892, p. 353. Damage to Forests by the Destructive Pine Bark-beetle. (In- sect Life, Vol. 5, January 1393, pp. 187-189. Catalogue of West Virginia Scolytidae and Their Enemies, (Bull. No. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.. April 1893, pp. 121- 168 ;) includes list of spruce and pine scolytids and their enemies, with collecting and breeding dates. Catalogue of West Virginia Forest and Shade Tree Insects, (Bull. No. 32, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta,, May 1893, pp. 171-251. ) Including list of spruce and pine insects, with collecting and breeding dates. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 201 Notes on List of Pine Infesting Insects. (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 1893, V. 3, pp. 192-193. Destructive Scolytids and Their Imported Enemy. ( Insect Life, V. 6, December, 1893, pp. 123-129. Also in 24th Ann. Rep. Ent, Soc. Ont., p. 71.) The Relations of Insects and Birds to Present Forest Conditions. (Garden and Forest, 1894, p. 348.) Notes on Some Discoveries and Observations of the Year in West Virginia. (Insect Life, Vol. 7, October, 1894, pp. 145 151.) A Serious Trouble Over. Southern Lumberman, 1894. Timber- man, 1894. (Hardwood, Vol. 6, November, 1894, pp. 270- 271.) On the Study of Forest Tree Insects. (Proc. Assoc. Econ. Ent. . Bull. No. 2, N. S. Div. Ent. U. S. Dep. Agr., 1895, pp. 75-79. 26th Ann. Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont, 1895, pp. 80-83.) Some Notes on Insect Enemies of Trees. (Can. Entom., October 1896, pp. 243-250. Reports of the Director. (4th Ann. Rep. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1891. pp. 59-64. 5th Ann. Rep., 1892, pp. 40-46. 6th Ann. Rep., 1893, pp. 29 48. 7th Ann. Rep , 1894, pp. 34-44. 8th Ann. Rep., 1895, pp. 27-35. 9th Ann. Rep., 1896, pp. 65-164. All published in 1897. 10th Ann. Rep., 1897, pp. 42-57. llth Ann. Rep., 1898, pp. 33-34. The Director, Dr. Jno. A. Myers, also refers to the investigations in the 5th Ann. Rep., p. 8. 6th Ann. Rep., pp, 7-8. 7th Ann. Rep., pp. 9-10. 8th Ann. Rep. pp. 5-6. PART I. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. THE SPRUCE IN WEST VIRGINIA. Before entering into a de- tailed discussion of the re- sults of investigations to de- termine the cause of trou- bles, which from time to time resulted in the death of great quantities of spruce timber, it seems desirable to give a review of some re- sults of observations regard- ing the spruce, the areas oc- cupied by it in the State, and the conditions which have from time to time con- tributed to its destruction. COMMON AND TECHNICAL NAMES. As is unfortunately the case with many of our com- mon species of plants and animals, there has been much confusion, due to the many common and scientific names applied to the spruce of the Allegheny Moun- tains. It is known in differ- ent localities as pine, yew pine, spruce, spruce pine, hemlock, black spruce and red spruce. Fig. i. -A typical specimen of the Black It has also been described Spruce on left of pictnre, and , soil in which it grow§. under a number of technical 204 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. II.— Hemlock branches and cones, about one half natural size. names, and there is yet some confusion regarding the correct name of the two nearly allied species, which are believed to occur in West Virginia. The common and large species is thought by some botanists to be the red spruce, Picea rubens Sarg., while it is claimed by others to be the true black spruce, Picea mariana. (Mill) B. S. P. This confusion in common and scientific names is particularly unfortunate as applied to this timber tree which was becoming THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 205 generally recognized as black spruce b}^ manufacturers, dealers and consumers of its valuable products. Probably the sim- plest and easiest way to remedy the confusion arising from change of names, of a common timber tree, is in this case sim- ply to adopt the name of spruce, which will answer for com- Fig. HI. — Black Spruce branch and cones, about one half natural size. 206 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. IV.— Norway Spruce, (Abies excelsia.) branches and cones, one half natural size. About raercial purposes quite as well as the name black or red spruce, to indicate the only two timber spruce we have in the State, the products of which are nearly or quite alike in every respect. It must be remembered that the spruce is quite a different tree from the hemlock, (Fig. II,) which in sections where the true spruce does not grow is sometimes called spruce. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 207 DESCRIPTION. The spruce (Fig. I) is easily distinguished from all of our tim- ber trees by the following characteristics : It is a tall, straight tree, attaining a maximum diameter of two to three feet at the base, and a height of over one hundred feet. The cones (Fig. Ill) are one, to one and three-fourth inches long, occurring singly or in clusters, most abundant at the top of the tree. The leaves are short and stiff, dark green and thickly set on the young branches, the larger branches usually extend at right angles, to the main trunk and droop towards the tips, forming a conical top, resembl- ing closely in this respect the introduced and cultivated Norway spruce, (Fig. IV). The wood is light and strong, although fre- quently filled with small knots. It is used principally for frame stuff, siding, inside finish and singles, and is also largely used for the manufacture of high grade paper pulp. Whenever the condi- tions are favorable for the growth of this tree, it forms dense and nearly pure forests of fine timber, yielding from ten to fifty thousand feet, board measure, of lumber to the acre. It seems to thrive best on rocky slopes and ridges, and flat and swampy mountain plateaus. In rich, deep, limestone and clayey or sandy soils even at high elevations, the conditions are unfavorable for it to form dense forests, (Fig. V), since it is less capable of surviving in the struggle for existence with birch, maple, beech and other hard-wood trees, which usually occupy such lands. It is therefore pre-eminently fitted to occupy land which is worthless for almost any other purposes. It is seldom found growing naturally in West Virginia below an elevation of 2,300 feet above the sea, and is most abundant at and above 3,000 feet. Indeed, the various species of spruce and fir, indigenous to the eastern part of North America, occur only at high eleva- tions and in northern latitudes, becoming more abundant and forming great forests towards the sub-artic regions where ac- cording to Sargent they extend in a great belt across the con- tinent. Therefore, they are distinctly northern in their gen- eral distribution, and can thrive naturally only in a cold cli- mate like that prevailing in Central and North Canada, hence, it can only grow naturally in West Virginia at high altitudes 208 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. V.— Glimpse in a Dense Spruce Forest. where the climate is equal or similar to that of Canada. In- deed, its presence irv mixed or pure forests in the State is an in- fallable index that a Canadian climate prevails, and that the area occupied by it is in the so-called Canadian Life Zone, where other life, both plant and animal, common to a northern latitude may be found. DISTRIBUTION. It is evident that many thousands of years ago, when the great ice sheet covered the greater part of North America and extended nearly to the Northern border of the West Vir- ginia area, the spruce was widely distributed over the hills and mountains of the State wherever the soil conditions were fav- orable for its growth, but after the ice receded and the climate THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 209 moderated, it became restricted in its distribution to the higher elevations of the mountains, where in the great struggle for existence, it maintained its supremacy over large areas. When the area began to be settled by white people, a disturbing in- fluence was introduced, which resulted in the destruction of vast quantities of the timber, and as a prevalent forest tree its range has been continually reduced until at present we find only a remnant of the primitive forests which once pre- vailed. The spruce reaches its highest development and forms al- most pure forests in Grant, Tucker, Webster, Greenbrier, Ran- dolph and Pocahontas counties, where the Cheat, Valley, Greenbrier, Elk and Gauley rivers find their sources in the numerous small overflow- ing headwater streams. This remarkable area of river sources is suggestive of what is really found, namely: that the most fav- orable characteristic con- ditions for the prolific growth of the spruce, aside from a high elevation and consequent Canadian cli- mate, is the superabundant moisture in the soil and air. The soil in many ty- pical spruce forests is little else than a mass of broken stones, which is literally filled with water at almost all seasons of the year, thus rendering it possible for a heavy growth of large spruce trees to develop where there is apparently Fig. VI.— A rocky surface like that in which u'* i-i<.i ,i • ,. spruce Timber grows. but little earth in reach oi 210 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION their widely spreading roots. ( Fig. VI ). In fact I have observed many such places where, after the trees had been removed and the surface burned over, there was apparently not enough soil in a square rod to meet the ordinary requirments of a hill of corn. Through the southern portion of Hampshire county, the cen- tral and eastern and western portion of Hardy, the central and eastern portion of Pendleton, through the eastern portion of Focahontas, Greenbrier and Monroe, and in Summers, Fayette, Raleigh, Mercer, Wyoming and McDowell counties, we find areas of greater or less extent ranging in elevations from 2,400 to 4,000 feet above tide water, where it would appear that the spruce should be found in abundance, yet while it occasionally occurs here in typical forest growth over a few asres, it is, as a rule, when found at all, in this its eastern and southern limit, in the State, simply as a few scrubby individuals among the luxuriant growth of hardwood and white pine. The contrasting drier and warmer conditions of the air and soil through forest and open country of this region is, therefore, as compared with the spruce region proper, unfavorable for the growth of this tree in pure forests. It would appear, however, that when all of this Allegheny region of high altitudes was Governed with an unbroken forest, as it doubtless was just prior to its settlement by the first white people, the more abundant moisture in the soil and atmosphere attending this forest covered condition, made it possible for the spruce to occupy, as the principal growth all of these higher elevations which at present are covered with other kinds of timber. The area or belt in which the spruce was then found, probably covered all of the higher elevations of the Appalachian range that rise above 2,400 feet, which would be an area of about 2,000,000 acres, on which one-half of the timber was probably spruce. If so, there was about 1,500,- 000 acres of spruce forests here when the first white settler oc- cupied the territory. Since that time there has been a gradual reduction from various disturbing influences. (Fig. VII.) THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 211 Fig. VII.— Spruce Forest, showing destruction by fire, and the rocky condition of the surface on which the trees grow. SOME OP THE EARLY DISTURBING INFLUENCES. In a resume of the several influences which have tended to lessen this forest area to its present comparatively small pro- portion, we find that in addition to the destruction of the forests by man, insects have taken a prominent part. The changed conditions brought about by the early clearings of the fertile valleys of the Greenbrier, Potomac, James and Valley Rivers, and the rich country in the southern end of the region, probably had the effect of materially reducing the humidity of the atmosphere and soil, and of exposing the more narrow and isolated mountain ranges of the eastern por- tion to drying winds, forest fires (Fig. VIII) and fierce storms. This naturally had the effect of weakening the vitality of the spruce, and together with extensive wind falls, of which we have some early records, the most favorable conditions were offered for the increase and destructive invasions of spruce in- 212 \VEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. VIII. —Dead Spruce Timber in the Cannan Vallry. t Fig. IX.— Remnants of a Great Spruce Forest, Cannan Valley. THE SfRUCE INVESTIGATION. 213 festing insects and other enemies of the forest, which within a few years — as we have had abundant evidence in the destruc- tive invasions of the pine bark beetle — are capable of devas- tating the timber on hundreds of square miles. (Fig. IX). This natural process of destruction of timber by wind, by fire, by disease and by insects, was continued, varying in its extent with the dry and wet, cold or warm seasons. To this was added the early and continued practice b}7 Indian and white hunters, of burning over extensive areas to facilitate the procuring of game. Thousands of acres of these "hunter's burnings" may be found now in the heart of the spruce region, denuded of every vestige of timber. I have n^self observed single sections of over a thousand acres thus denuded, upon which there was not a trace, not even a stump of the dense forest that once stood on the ground, the greater portion of the surface being covered either with a thick mass of ferns, mountain black- berry or blue-grass. MOUNTAIN PASTURES. Another destructive agency has been the clearing of large tracts in the midst of the wilderness of the spruce area by means of a system known as "hacking," for the purpose of obtaining Fig. X.— Mountain Pasture with young spruce and white thorn, the latter pruned by cattle; altitude 3,000 ft.; near Pigeon Roost, Grant County, 214 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT* STATION. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 215 pasture for cattle. (Fig. X.) Farmers living fifty to seventy-five miles distant from the fertile limestone regions throughout the eastern and southern portions of Randolph and northern portion of Pocahontas counties came into this spruce wilderness and pur- chased from the original owners, large tracts of land, paying 25 to 75 cents an acre for it, usually selecting the higher plateaus where, in addition to a fertile limestone soil, the land was rea- sonably free from surface stones. They would then proceed to girdle all of the timber on the best land and leave it to die. In a few years after the timber had been girdled these hackings wefe burned over to kill the.under-growth, and feo get rid of the fallen timber: This was usually all that was necessary to make the conditions favorable for a natural growth of blue grass, which soon occupied the land. Then the cattle were driven into these mountain pastures, from -the distant farms, to be left in charge of a herder during the summer months. In the fall those suitable for beef were driven to market and the others returned to the farms. By these hunting and pastoral methods large sections where the best spruce grew have been de- nuded and a subsequent growth of timber prevented. (Fig. XL) THE ORIGINAL AREA £REATLY REDUCED. Thus, I would judge that the spruce area up to about the year 1865 has been reduced to a belt averaging about twenty miles wide and one hnndred and eighty miles long, or an area of about 3,600 sq. mi., on which not over one-half of the total forest growth was spruce, or an equivalent to perhaps 750,000 acres of nearly pure merchantable spruce timber. Within the last thirty years the spruce in this region has been greatly reduced by destructive insects, by fire, and by the lumberman until the total merchantable spruce timber now standing in the State in 1895 would not, according to my esti- mation, based upon original observations and accessible statis- tics, be equivalent to much over 225,000 acres of pure spruce forests, averaging 15,000 feet of lumber to the acre. While this may be considered a large amount of timber, it was a great re- duction from the probable original 1,500,000 acres aiicl the recent 750,000 acres. (Fig. XII.) 216 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. XII.— Spruce Forests cut over and destroyed by fire, near Davis. PRESENT CONDITION IN THE SPRUCE AREA. A study 'of the present conditions in the Spruce Area is in many respects of especial interest, furnishing as it does a typi- cal example of the influences exerted by progressive industry in the developmeut of natural resources, upon the plant and animal life, climate, etc., and the consequent disturbance of nature's law in bringing about changed condition. The virgin forests of this area are mainly restricted to the more inaccessi- ble portions of the rocky or swampy condition of the soil which has rendered them undesirable for pasture lands, unfavorable for the origin and spread of forest fires, or for the operation of lumber or timber companies. Thus, we find sections of greater orjless extent throughout the south-western portion of|Mineral, THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 217 western portion of Grant, the eastern portion of Tucker, Pres- ton and Randolph, western portion of Fendleton and the north- eastern portion of Foeahontas county, and on the higher eleva- tions of Webster and Greenbrier counties, where reasonably healthy and almost pure spruce forests occur. We also find in this same region areas from one to a thousand acres or more in extent on which all of the spruce timber has been killed by insects or other causes. Much of the timber is yet. standing, however, and that which has recently died will remain in fairly good con- dition for the manufacture of timber and pulp- for a number of years. The spruce is the principal tree in the northern! section of the area, while the other typical evergreen forest trees are hemlock, (Fig. XIII) white pine and balsam fir, and two or three other species of pines. The hemlock is abundant throughout the area, in some places occuring in pure forests, but as a rule, mixed with spruce and hardwood. The white pine is common in the southern section, while the fir occurs only in the swampy plateaus of the southern portion of Randolph county, in the north-western edge of Freston there is a small area occupied with a mixed growth of spruce, larch and an occasional red pine. Among the deciduous trees which are classed with the hardwood, the birches and beech are the most common; the black, cheery fre- quent, mixed with the spruce, and the soft and hard maples common, while the white arid red oak and tulip poplar are fre- quent on lower elevations. Within recent years extensive lumber manufacturing com- . XIII. The edge oi: a Hemlock Pore.st in Carman Valley. 218 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. panies have removed the spruce and other timber from large sections in Mineral, Grant and Tucker counties, and on Dry and Shavers Fork of Cheat in Randolph county, and are rapidly extending their operations into the remaining primitive forests. The greatly improved facilities for getting out timber and manufacturing it into lumber and pulp makes it possible for the several companies operating in this portion of the spruce belt to remove and manufacture the timber from thirty to fifty acres every day in the year. With the improvements which enable them to handle this im- mense daily cut of timber there are also improved methods of preventing waste, and of utilizing all of the spruce as well as the hemlock and hardwood, thus preventing the im- mense loss which would otherwise be caused by the almost inevitable confla- gration that follows the ex- tensive cuttings in these dense forests. It is now the practice of the principal operators to take every- thing in the way of timber in their path of operation that is of any value, and as soon as one section is thoroughly gone over, they push on to another. The logs and other rough ma- terials are often transported many miles from different directions to the central manufacturing point, by means of log trains on nar- row and broad gauge rail- roads, which are built at great expense for this pur- rig. XIV.— Log Slide, extendingjfrom top of mountain to Shaver's Fork of Cheat. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 219 pose. In some sections, notably on Shaver's Fork of Cheat, the logs are transported from mountain sides and summits by means of log slides. (See Fig. XIV.) Thus, in worked over regions we find the first year a laby- rinth of log roads, log slides, and railroads through the stand- ing laurel ; and between immense piles and windrows of spruce tops, old logs, broken trees and brush, a perfect harbor and hotbed for myriads of wood and bark infesting insects. The species of insect that would otherwise attack the ilving timber are attracted to the more inviting, recently felled, trees and tops found here and to the partly green stumps where they breed and multiply, and in turn furnish abundant food for their natural enemies. Many kinds of the bark and wood infesting species which develop broods of young the first season, migrate to fresh cutting where they are followed by their enemies, while those that are more tardy in their developments remain in the old cuttings until the follow- ing year, before they emerge, or they are caught by the fire, which sooner or later claims this mass of inflammable rubbish. Fig. XV.— Rocks on which Spruce trees had grown, near Davis. After the fire has once passed over a cutting there is often nothing left but bare rocks, charred stumps and logs, (Fig. XV.) presenting a most desolate ap- pearance in contrast with the previous luxuriant growth . 220 WE6T VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. The future condition of areas thus cut and burned over varies with the quality and condition of the land, and the fre- quency or non -occurrence of fires. In some sections where large areas present simply a mass of broken stones, no vegeta- tion, except possibly a few strangling fire weeds and brambles, or a scrubby growth of fire cherry1 can survive. In other sec- tions where more soil is mixed with the stones, and the land is undulating or level, fire or other weeds will spring up the same, or the following year, after the land has been burned over. These are succeeded by the growth of thornless blackberries, fire cherry, birch, etc., with possibly a few spruce and hemlock. If such places are protected from fire, the worthless fire cherry usually takes possession of the entire surface and crowds out everything else. Where the soil is of a better quality a growth of spruce, birch, hemlock and sugar maple will follow the weeds and briars, and if protected from fire may produce a second growth of valuable spruce and other timber. In sections where the land is of good quality and well drained, and has been burned over a few times, a luxuriant growth of blue grass ,will spring up and take possesion of the land, especially if stock is allowed to run over it. In other wet and poorer sections the land will be covered by a dense growth of large ferns. Therefore, under existing conditions there appears to be poor prospects of these worked and burned over areas ever pro- ducing, naturally, a profitable growth of timber. Witli a little care and systematic management, however, much of the land which is absolutely worthless for anything else of value, could be made to produce a dense growth of spruce ( Fig. X V I), and other timber, which would, within 25 or 30 years, begin to yield profitable returns in pulp wood, and in 50 to 100 years it could all be cut for pulp and lumber. The typical spruce or pine forests in the southern, eastern and southeastern portions of Randolph, and in 1'ocahontas, Webster, and Greenbrier counties, are in fairly healthy con- [ l Prunuft Penruylvanica If. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 221 Fig. XVI.- Young second growth Spruce, on border of Moun tain Pasture, Grant Co. dition, and have not, as yet, been invaded by the lumberman. J 'reparations are being made, however, to commence opera- tions here at an early date, when th^ same results as those we have mentioned are almost cer- tain lo follow. PROBABLE FUTURE OP THK AREA AS INDICATED BY PRESENT CONDITION. Tracing the history of the spruce from the time when it possibly held undisputed posses- sion of nearly all of the West Fig. XVII. - Log Slide and Spruce Timber. Virginia area, through its struggle along with the other hardier evergreens, to hold possession during the ice age, its efforts to 222 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. occupy the land left by the receding waters,1 its struggle for existence with the hardwoods and pine, and its final retreat to the higher elevations where it occupied the land previously held by the more hardy spruce and flrs, and while those that remained on the lower elevations were giving up the land to the victorious oak, yellow poplar, birch and hemlock, the main body of the spruce finally held its own on the higher eleva- tions until the advent of civilization, when it found a new enemy in man, and through his influences in clearing the land, in the resulting forest fires and insect invasions, we find it re- duced to its present narrow bounds and mutilated condition, it would appear that this remnant and living example of ,. the greater primitive forest is destined to follow the prehistoric races of men and animals which have long since been banished from the land. Whether or not this theory of the history and progress of the destruction of the spruce is correct it is at least suggestive of the probable truth, and will indicate what its future will be un- less the same influences, through the agency of man which have brought about the greatest recent destructions, are con- trolled and directed so as to bring about reversed results. Still further evidences of the possible future condition of the region may be had from the history of similar regions in some ol the older countries of Europe, where a continued system of destruc- tion of the forests with no attempt at systematic protection, or renewal, has resulted in the transformation of rich and produc- tive regions into desert wastes, and has, in some cases, even contributed to the reduction of powerful and prosperous nations to a condition of dependence and poverty. We also find abundant records of other examples in the forest regions of Europe, where by a judicious and economic system of management the timber on similar areas has been in- creased and its productive capacity doubled, ana at the same time has furnished continued and profitable returns in mer- chantable products. As a consequence, the country main- 1 According to Dr. I. C. White a large part of the low lauds of the State was inun- dated during the ice age. » THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 223 taining such a system has made rapid advancement in all of its industries, and become influential and prosperous. History will doubtless repeat itself along one or the other of these lines in the spruce area and other typical forest areas of our State. Which one will be followed, and what the final results will be, depends: Firsts—Upon further investigations within the near future by a commission of scientific and prac- tical observers who are especially fitted for the purpose, to de- termine biological, geological, agricultural, horticultural, com- mercial, meterorological and entomological questions which have a direct bearing upon the conditions and needs of this and other distinctive forest areas of the State; Second, — Upon the interest the owner of the land and the general public will take in an effort to introduce some practical system of forest management, and the aid and encouragement a movement of this kind will receive from them; Third, — Upon the additional aid and encouragement the State or general government will extend in furthering the objects of such movements; Fourth, — Upon the individual owners of the land and the object and in- terest they may manifest in the immediate or distant future; whether through necessity or Otherwise, they deem it important to avail themselves of present opportunties, and realize, to the fullest extent, on their investments, regardless of future conse- quences; or whether through an interest in posterity, in the welfare of their State, or in future profits, it is their object to perpetuate the wealth they possess in natural forest resources. COMMERCIAL INFLUENCE IN THEIR RELATION TO THE FUTURE OF THE SPRUCE AREA. The cutting of timber to be converted into merchantile pro- ducts, the clearing of land for the purpose of obtaining mer- chantable agricultural products, the opening of coal, iron and other mines, the improvement of streams and the building of railroads for the transportation of these various natural pro- ducts to market, is exerting a marked influence upon the dis- truction of the spruce. (Fig. XVIII.) The conversion of the forests into merchantable products ap- WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION pears to be if not a necessary evil, an unavoidable one. Capi- tal represented by corporations, companies and private individu- als has been invested with a view of realizing early profits on a greater part of the land covered by forests in this area. Numerous large manu- facturing plants have been located at differ- ent points within the area, which together, with others at a distance in this and other States are dependent upon the forests here for their raw materials. The capital invested in land and timber manufacturing plants, working force and transportation facilities is enormous, and as a necessary consequence these investments must be kept actively em- ployed in order to yield an interest and protit on the investments. Fig, XVI1L— Spruce timber, skidway and log slide Thus, tho demand upon near Cheat Bridge, Randolph county. the forest resources is correspondingly great, and under present conditions must be supplied regardless of future consequences to the land or the State. This is the existing conditions which, I believe is not fully realized by persons who are considering the subject of how the destruction of our forests may be prevented. It appears to me to resolve itself into questions of how long the timber will last, THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 2*25 how may present losses from insects, fire, and other causes be prevented, and how can the loss of these forests be best re- paired? AGRICULTl KAL INPLVRNOES. The high altitude and rough character of the land of a large portion of the mountain regions of the spruce area is such that it cannot be used in agrirultural pursuits for much else than pasture for sheep and cattle. There is, as previously stated, large sections already utilized lor this purpose, and when we take into consideration that much of the uncleared or forest land will be admirably suited to grass and to pasture ranges when the timber is removed, it is evident that as the timber is removed by the lumberman, and the fire cleans up the rubbish and destroys the underbrush, the pasture area will rapidly in- crease and finally cover a large portion of the land included in the spruce belt. If so, this will have a marked influence in preventing a second growth of spruce upon all of the best land, and in restricting the forests of this timber to extremely nar- row bounds. If these pasture areas are properly utilized and cared for, it will, in a measure, compensate for the loss to the State ot the forest wealth that is removed, since Inequality of mutton these mountain pastures are capable of producing, should make the breeding and rearing of mutton sheep a leading industry and be a perpetual source of wealth to the owners of the land, as well ns to the State, and to a limited extent and under proper management it will do so. But in this process of converting the good land into pasture and the attending consequences re- sulting from the destruction of young second growth spruce and other valuable trees, by sheep and cattle, which, together with the rocky slopes and entire mountains which have been con- verted into barren wastes by lire and water after the timber was removed, there is great danger of serious consequences to the entire region. This extensive removal of the forest, and with it its pro- tective influences and resulting exposures of such large pro- 226 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. portion of the surface to the action of the sun, drying winds and floods, would have the effect of drying up the streams and springs, and reducing the general moisture of the air and soil. This, together with the large area covered by sod, would offer favorable conditions for the multiplications of insects which breed in, and are destructive to the sod, and in connec- tion with long continued drouths, much of the sod would be destroyed by them. The dead and decayed sod would ex- pose the soil to the eroding action of heavy rain storms. The destructive floods and torrents which are inevitable conse- quences of clearing the forest growth from mountain areas, would carry the soil away from the highlands and devastate the valleys, so that the final result, so far as agriculture is con- cerned, could easily become a poverty stricken and practically irreclaimable region. Whether or not this deplorable condition will be realized, depends as we have already indicated upon the owners of the land, and the interest they will take in the future of the forest area of the State. ! do not think it will come to the worst, but nevertheless, it is a possible condition for present residents of the region to keep in mind and guard against. THE IMPORTANCE OF PERPETUATING THE FOREST RESOURCES OF THE AREA AS A SOURCE OF WEALTH TO ITS INHABITANTS AND THE STATE. While the private and incorporated owners of the land and timber in the section of the State that we have designated as the spruce area, have a perfect right to do as they like with their property, and while it is proper and advisable to develop and utilize the matured forest products, it is even more impor- tant that the present owners, their successors and the State should make some provisions for the perpetuation of the wealth of forest resources in this region, and thus prevent the disastrous results which are sure to follow a total de- structions of the forests without an attempt at reparation. It has been stated by good authority that 20 to 25 percent, of a country should be covered by forests as a necessity. It is evident, however, that the spruce area in which nearly all TtiE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 22? of the water ways of the State find their first source of supply, should, in order to preserve normal, climatic and other condi- tions, have 50 to 60 per cent, of its surface covered by perpetual forests. I would judge that not much over 25 per cent, of the area is at present bare of timber, including land utilized for agricul- tural purposes, and that denuded by the timberman and by fires. This would leave 75 per cent, covered with forest growth, including the original, or virgin forests, and that cov- ered by second growth in worked over or burned over sections. If it takes 50 years to work up, or in other words, harvest the merchantable timber of all kinds now standing in this area, and at the same time, proper attention is given to the protection of the young and second growth, it is possible to per- petuate the forests indefinitely. At the same time it can be made to yield an annual cash income that will justify the ef- fort, to say nothing of the general benefit the agricultural and other interests the State will derive from the perpetuation of this large percent, of forest covering. Yet, while it is possible to perpetuate this wealth in natural forest resources, will it be done ? This depends upon the action of the present owner, their successors, and the general public or State. As to present owners, consisting of resident farmers, resident and non-resident real estate speculators, manufacturing and transpoVtation companies, it is evident that the actions of some of them will tend to prevent the perpetuation of this wealth, especially those who intend removing to other sections of the Fig. XVIII a— Tops of Young Spruce Forest on border of Mountain Pasture. 228 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. State, or to other States, as soon as they have disposed of, or worked up present holdings. There is another class of owners, however, among; the permanently located manufacturing, min- ing and transportation industries, especially the latter, who are interested in future supplies, as well as in that of the pres- ent, and as they come to fully realize the importance to them of a future supply of timber, they will give the subject due con- sideration, and will heartily encourage any movement that will aid in the preservation and perpetuation of this, one of their principal sources of necessary supplies as well as of wealth. Fortunately, this is a class that? is capable of accom- plishing the desired end, since it has among its representatives in the State public spirited and able men like Hon. S. B. Elkins, J. N. Camden, H. Gr. Davis, and a number of others who are not only interested in the future of their personal investments, but in the future prosperity of the State as well. Thus, it would appear that this class of owners can be depended upon to con- tribute to the perpetuation of the forests upon the greater part of the area under their control. That this question of perpetuation of present forest values is of vital importance I think no one who is interested in the fu- ture welfare of this region and of the State can doubt. But as to how this desirable end is going to be accomplished is not so clear. This is indeed a complicated problem, involving as it does an economic system of harvesting the matured crop of the valu- able timber ; the preservation of the young growth in the ori- ginal forests ; the reforestation of denuded and abandoned areas with a desirable second growth, and when practicable the planting of desirable kinds of trees on the land that will not produce a natural second growth. It also includes the most serious and difficult problems of all, that of protection against forest fires and the invasions by destructive insects. It is in fact a question demanding serious consideration by resident land owners, permanently located manufacturing concerns, mining and transportation companies as well as the scientific investigations by the Experiment Station and other scientific workers, representing a number of different branches of science. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 229 It is also a matter in which the general public and the State Legislature can well afford to take some interest and extend aid towards protecting and perpetuating this, one of our richest natural resources of wealth. Whether or not this object can be best attained through a system of reservation or game preserves controlled by the Federal or State Government, by manufacturing and transpor- tation companies, sportmen's associations and private individ- uals, or by some other means, remains to be determined by further study of the conditions. It is very evident, however, that the time is at hand for the question to be agitated, and an effort made to bring about some system of concerted action that will prevent the total destruction of the forests and the consequent loss of State wealth. THE RELATION OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH TO THE PRESERVATION AND PERPETUATION OF FORESTS. Investigations for the purpose of solving the problems which have reference to methods of protecting young and old timber from injury or destruction by insects will form an important feature in any scheme for the protection and perpetuation of Fig. XIX.— Falls of Black Water, 80ft. wide, 60 ft. high; in Spruce Forest near Davis ; altitude 3.000 ft. ; described by Port Crayon in Harper's Magazine, in 1857. 230 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. the forests in this and other regions of the State. Therefore, the subjects of past and present distribution and condition of its forest trees ; the animate and inanimate influences which have affected the conditions of its plant and animal life, its wealth in forest resources, its possibilities and its probable fu- ture have all been considered and studied mainly in their re- lation to entomological research. REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF THE UN- HEALTHY CONDITION OF THE SPRUCE BETWEEM 1880 AND 1893. A preliminary report on the black spruce investigation was published in the Third Annual Report of the Station, pp. 93- 102, and in Bulletin 17, as a reprint from the Annual Report, dated May, 1891. After this report was submitted, the investi- gation was continued and a number of special trips made through the spruce region for this purpose, in the following months and years: March, 1891; July, 1891; May, June and July, 1892; May and July, 1893; May, July and October, 1894. All the principal sections of the region, where the spruce predominated, were visited, and a pretty thorough study made of the conditions of the region and its timber, which is referred to in another part of this report. Much additional information and new facts have been obtained upon the insect infesting the spruce, but as a considerable portion of it is of a technical nature, I will simply mention in this report, some of the lead- ing features of economic interest, and reserve the other for a more detailed special report on spruce tree insects. 1 am now able to bring together a chain of data and evidence upon which to base more definite conclusions than was possible when Bulletin 17 was published. DISTURBING INFLUENCES. The earliest record we have of -disturbing influences in the spruce forests, which would offer favorable conditions for the increase of destructive insects, was the hunters' burnings, pion- eers' clearings and stockmans' hacking during the first half of the present century; also that resulting from the cutting of spruce timber, (about 100 acres,) around or near the Dobbins THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 231 232 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. mansion, in Tucker county, which was built by Judge Dobbins in 1856, for a private summer and hunting resort. In 1863 there was a great forest fire in the Canaan Valley, which caused the death of the spruce timber on thousands of acres of land. Other like "burnings" started by hunters, de- stroyed large areas of timber in different sections of the spruce region up to 1885. In 1877 a great storm commencing near the Dobbins man- sion and proceeding in an easterly direction, through the heart of the spruce forest in Tucker county, cut a path 50 to 400 yards wide, and 6 or 8 miles long through the timber. Subsequent fires started in this windfall caused extensive destruction of timber. In 1881 and 1882 the timber along the survey of the W. Va. Central R. R., was cut to Fairfax, in Grant county. A cutting was also made here in 1881 to build camp Midway, which was occupied by the cutters. This was followed by dying timber in 1883 and 1884. In 1882 it is reported that the region suffered from a severe drouth, followed by a wet season in 1883. In 1883 the timber on the railroad survey was cut to Davis and the railroad finished to that point in 1885. In 1884 a cutting of about 40 acres was made near Davis, and an extensive burning was made in the windfall of 1877. In 1884 extensive timber operations were commenced in the spruce on Shaver's Fork, of Cheat, in Randolph county, which has been continued to the present time. In 1885 the timber was cut from the land where the town of Davis stands. Soon after the W. Va. Central Railroad was finished to Davis and Elkins, numerous and extensive lumber operations were commenced in Grant, Tucker, and Randolph counties, which have increased each year to the present time. In addition to all of these disturbing influences several severe drouths have occured in the region since 1882. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OP DYING SPRUCE TIMBER IN THE SPRUCE AREA. The earliest information I have been able to obtain with THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 233 reference to extensive dying of spruce timber was that from Col. E. Hutton, who stated that the timber commenced to die in the Cheat region, (Shaver's Fork of Cheat) between 1880 and 1882, while Mr. Hambric fixes the date as October, 1882, for the same locality.1 In 1883, the men that were cutting and pealing spruce timber along the survey be- tween Fairfax and Davis, found the green bark filled with little worms and bugs,- and in 1884, the timber was found to be dying along the railroad.;! It is therefore evi- dent that the timber com- menced to die in this region in 1883, and possibly in 1882.4 We have another statement, however, that there was scarcely any dead timber in the Blackwater-region in 1884 and 1885;5 and another state- ment that the first timber was observed dying here in 1886;6 while others say that it com- menced in 1887. Capt. Par- sons, however, had a better opportunity in the pursuit of his duties as civil engineer, to observe the conditions, and we are inclined to believe that he is nearer correct than the others, and that it really commenced to die here in Fig. XXI.— Dead Spruce Timber, near Cheat Bridge. 1. See also Bulletin 17. 2. Information from Capt. Parsons. 3. Information from Mr. Ruffner. 4. Col. E. Hutton. 5. Blackwater Lumber Co. 6. St Laurence Lumber Co. 234 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 1883. According to the most reliable information, the timber commenced to die in Pocahontas county, on the waters of the Greenbrier river, and in the adjoining portion of Randolph county, in 1883. All persons from whom I could procure information which was based upon their personal observations agreed that the timber continued to die for from three to four years after it first began to attract attention, after which the trouble gradually, or suddenly came to an end. The spruce timber commenced to die again during the spring and summer of 1892, and in June of that year I made a thorough examination during an extended and tortuous jour- ney on horseback and on foot, through the heart ot the spruce wilderness, from Hendricks, in Tucker county, to Traveler's Repose, in Randolph county, and on Williams river in Poca- hontas county. All through the forest from the time the first spruce was observed on the point of the mountain, near the mouth of Dry Fork of Cheat, until we emerged from the forest near Traveler's Repose, on the Greenbrier river, clumps of dy- ing trees were observed on the high points and on the eastern and western slopes of the Allegheny peaks and ranges, the east ern border of the spruce belt being affected far worse than the western portion. These clumps and patches of dying spruce trees, varied from a few trees in some places to all of the spruce trees, large and small, on several acres in other places. The same condition was also found in the spruce forests near the source of Williams river, in Pocahontas county. In May and July, 1893, the investigations were continued in the spruce area in Grant, Tucker, Randolph and Pocahontas counties, when it was found that no timber was dying except that which had been seriously injured by the trouble of 1892, and in May, July and October, 1894, the same and other sec- tions of the spruce region were visited and no timber was found dying. .Numerous reports were received from different sections dur- ing 1893-94-95 that the timber was still dyina;, but upon careful inquiry and personal examinations, I found that in every case, THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 235 reference was had to the timber that died in 1892, or that which had not recovered from the injury sustained during that year. Thus, we have a fairly complete history of the progress of the two apparently distinct troubles which caused the death of an enormous amount of spruce timber. The one starting in 1882, and continuing until about 1886, the other starling in 1890-91 and ending in 1893. CAUSE OF THE FIRST TROUBLE. The origion and cause of the unhealthy condition of the spruce during the period between 1882 and 1886 cannot be ac- curately determined, since no investigations were made during its progiess, but from such evidence as could be obtained from the dead timber, and the existing conditions at the time of the fiist investigation in 1890, and a study of the habits of the various insects found in the bark of living and dying trees, to the present time, it appears that it must have been caused by insects. The facts obtained in 1890, as recorded in Bulletin 17, seemed to warrant the conclusion that the destructive spruce bark beetle1 was the prime cause of the death of the trees, and that the trouble had been brought to an end by the influence of its parasites. The results of subsequent observations, however, have not fumished additional evidence that this would be a correct conlcusion. In fact, while I have frequently found the adult, eggs, and young of the spruce bark beetle in the living bark of injured or dying trees and recently cut logs, 1 have not, as yet, found it in the bark of a healthy vigorous tree. This failure to find it in the bark of healthy trees may be due, how- ever, to its preference for the bark of injured and recently felled trees, and that, the abundance of the latter in different sections of the forest since 18S5, has rendered it uri- neccessary that they should attack healthy trees; and in this might be found an explanation of the ending of the trouble in 1886, since the increased cutting of timber in the northern as 1. Polygraphus ruftpennis. 236 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. well as in the central section of the spruce area would have served to attract the beetles away from the living trees. The only objection to this theory that presents itself is my observa- tion in 1890, that the 1887 cuttings showed, in stumps and tops, less evidence of the abundant occurrence of the beetle during that year, than was found in the cuttings of 1884 and 1885. This may have been due, however, to the time of year the timber was cut, a fact that was not taken into consideration at the time. It would therefore appear from our present knowledge of the subject that the destructive spruce bark beetle, more than any other insect common to the spruce, may have caused the first trouble, and that the chain of circumstances which lead to its invasion of the healthy timber was as follows : The disturbing influences of the first white settlers in the region, followed by the opening of roads through the spruce wilderness, notably the Parkersburg & Staunton turnpike, through the middle of the section, and the Northwestern turn- pike through the northern section of the region; the hunters' burnings; the clearing around the Dobbins mansion in 1856 ; the influence of the opposing armies in 1861 ; the great fire in the "Canaan" in 1863 ; the windfalls of 1877 ; the hacking be- tween 1860 and 1880; the opening of the W. Va. Central Kail- road in 1881 to 1885 ; together with intervening severe drouths and storms, all contributed to favorable conditions for the mul- tiplication of the species and its numerous allies, and the conse- quent destructive invasion. It would also appear that the continued cutting of timber since 1885, together with the increase of the natural enemies of the species, with possibly sudden changes in climatic condi- tions, was the cause of the trouble ending when it did, and that the first mentioned condition served, more than any other, to prevent the re-occurrence of similar trouble from the attack of this insect. This conclusion will apply as well to any other of the same class of bark beetles which may have been the cause of the THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. . 237 trouble, except the destructive pine bark beetle, which, it ap- pears is not attracted to felled timber. CAUSE OF THE SECOND TROUBLE. While the causes of the first trouble appear to be satisfactor- ily explained, there is yet a certain degree of uncertainty, which, owing to the conditions stated, cannot be explained. It is different, however, with the second trouble, or that of 1892, which I had abundant opportunity to investigate from beginning to end. The primary cause of its starting is clearly explained and may be briefly stated as follows: In 1890, the pine timber was observed by the late Capt. Parsons, of Davis, W. Va., to be dying along W arm Springs Mountain, Virginia, for a distance ot 70 miles, and upon ex- amination it was found that no cause for the trouble was ap- parent, except that the green or living bark was filled with "worms and bugs." Subsequently, this trouble spread into West Virginia, and was the subject of special investigation, and in May, 1892, I discovered that a bark beetle, somewhat similar to the destructive spruce bark beetle, but larger, was to blame for the death of the trees in the Easter Pine and Hardwood region. In June of the same year, the spruce was found to be dying, and upon thorough examination, the trouble was found to be caused by the same beetle which hr.d migrated from the infested pine into the spruce, the attack on the spruce being made on the upper portion of the trunk, as was its habit in at- tacking the pine. A number of dying trees were felled and ex^ amined from root to top, and in every case the prime cause of the diseased condition or death of the tree was easily traced to this insect, and it was also observed in the act of mining and depositing eggs in the inner living bark on healthy^ vigorous spruce trees, leaving no doubt whatever [that it was the prime cause of the death of the timber, and the starting of this new trouble. While the spruce bark beetle was its most ready ally, and was invariably found entering .the bark of trees that had scarcely commenced to show signs of weakened vitality, there was always evidence that the destructive pine bark beetle was 238 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. its benefactor in making the first attack. This fact, together with the clumps of dying trees to be seen in all direc- tions, scattered throughout the spruce region, presented condi- tions that were really alarming. The pine beetle had already killed the greater part of the pine in Pendleton, Grant and Hardy counties. It was playing havoc with the white pine forests in Pocahontas and Greenbrier counties, as well as that in the southern section of the spruce area, and had crossed over the mountains and was spreading through the western part of the State ; thus demonstrating beyond question its destructive powers. This, in connection with the known habits and sus- pected destructive powers of the spruce bark beetle, presented a combination of destructive forces which it was easy to see would cause the death of all of the spruce timber within a year or two, if nothing intervened to prevent. A CIRCULAR LETTER TO LUMBER COMPANIES. It was this condition of affairs that led me to issue on July 14th, 1892, a circular letter to the owners of pine and spruce timber, calling their attention to the true character of the trouble, and suggesting: the importation of beneficial insects as the only move that appeared to offer any possible means of combatting the trouble and of saving the healthy bodies of timber. (See copy on another page, Part II.) Response was made to this circular letter with liberal contributions of money, from the W. Va. Central & Pa. R. R.. a company which consols or owns large bodies of spruce timber in Randolph, Webster, Pocahontas, and Greenbrier counties ; the Condon Lane Boom & Lumber Co., then owners of one of the finest and largest bodies of spruce in the State, on_the waters of Cheat, Potomac, and Greenbrier rivers ; and the St. Lawrence Lumber Co., owners of spruce on waters of Greenbrier river: which, to- gether with contributions from other companies interested ex- clusively in pine, and a like- appropriation from the Station funds, made it possible for the writer to conduct the experi- ment of importing beneficial insects, which is referred to in de- tail in the report on pine investigations. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 239 DISTRIBUTING THE EUROPEAN BARK BEETLE DESTROYER. In May and June, 1893, I located colonies of the imported beetle in the spruce forests on Williams river in Pocahontas county, and on the Dry Fork of Cheat, in Randolph county. During the first trip for this purpose, in May, I discovered that the destructive pine bark beetle, in a large number of pine and spruce trees examined, were dead in their mines, in the bark. Dead examples of all stages of the insect, from eggs to adult,were found in great numbers within the bark, but not a living ex- ample could then be found, nor have I since been able to find a single living specimen in the State, up to the present writing, (January, 1896J1 END OF THE TROUBLE. When the destructive pine bark beetle was found to be dead in all of the trees that had died the previous fall, 1892, and winter of 1893, I announced it as my belief that the trouble was over, and with the exception of a comparatively few trees which were seriously injured by the insect in 1892, and subse- quently died from this cause, there has been no pine or spruce timber killed by insects so far as I have observed within the last three years,2 Therefore the accumulated evidence seems to warrant the conclusion that, just as the destructive pine bark beetle was the primary cause of the commencement of the trouble^ so was its universal disappearance the cause of the ending of the trouble. RAPID DECAY OF DEAD TIMBER IN ONE SECTION OF THE SPRUCE AREA. In the latter part of March, 1891, I was conducting some in- vestigations in the spruce forests near Davis, Tucker county, where I had been informed that the dead timber deteroriated very rapidly and became worthless within three or four years after. It was reported by some of the timber operators here that in cutting the dead trees they often found them sound at the base, while other portions of the trees were in an advanced stage of decay ; also that the reverse is often found, decayed at 1. Up to the date of publication not a living specimen has been found. 2. Up to the date of publication, no dying spruce has been seen or reported. 240 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION the base and the remainder sound; or in other cases logs are cut out of dead trees that are sound at both ends and decayed in the middle. It had been observed by the operators that deadened trees and those killed by fire, as well as many that had died during the epidemic of 1883 to 1886, remained sound for many years, but that the majority of those which had died during recent years were the ones that were the worst affected by decay. A number of logs taken from dead trees were sawen into lum- ber at the Blackwater Lumber Co.'s mill at Davis, in order to show me the character of the trouble. Part of these logs were as sound and good for lumber as if they had been cut from liv- ing trees, while in other portions, the sap and heartwood were in an advanced stage of decay, thus rendering the entire log worthless for lumber. While I was talking to the superintend- ent and watching the operation of the mill, I observed that a log from a living tree was also affected by a kind of dry rot throughout the heartwood in one section of the log, the decayed portion being surrounded by a thin rim of living sapwood. This gave me a clue to the cause of at least one character of the trouble, but there appeared to ,be at least two distinct kinds of decay, one developing in the sapwood and extending into the heartwood ; the other developing in the heartwood of living trees and -not affecting the living sapwood, I therefore continued the investigation to determine, if possible, the prime cause and the extent and distribution of each. I soon found some dead trees that showed eyidence of having died within the past two years, and instead of the usual characteristic work of the common spruce bark beetle in the bark, I found the work of bark and sapwood borers (round and flat-headed grubs.) The character of work of these borers, the absence of bark beetles, and the recent death of the trees, indicated at once that they were serious enemies both of the living trees and the wood of the dead ones. Further search revealed the fact that the timber in this section of the forest had not, as a rule, died in large patches of one to one hundred or more acres, as was THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 241 observed in the Cheat region in 1890, but that the dead trees were scattered through the forest among the healthy ones, and that they showed evidences of having died at different times during a long series of years. One typical example of a perfect spruce tree was found which was two feet in diameter, and not less than 100 feet tall that had recently died. Upon examination it was found to be infested by a great number of the round-headed bark and sap- wood borers which had entered the sapwood, one-half to three inches, to form pupa cases in which to change to the adult, and that some of them had already changed to the adult and emerged, leaving holes in the bark and wood. It was also observed that the sapwood had commenced to decay, which was a most un- usual occurrence in a spruce tree that had not been dead one year. It was found, however, that the work of the insect offered the most favorable conditions for the premature decay of the sap- wood, especially in the peculiarly formed pupa cases, and the holes left in the bark by the emerging adult. These openings allow moisture and water to enter the empty pupa cases, thus offering the most favorable conditions for the entrance and rapid -development of the fungus that causes the decay of the wood. This explains at least one of the causes of the rapid decay of the dead trees in this section. The abundance of the insects in certain parts of the tree, and their ab- sence in other parts, resulted in the unequal distribution of the decayed condition. It was also evident that many of the living trees in this sec- tion were suffering from the diseased and partly decayed con- dition of the heartwood, as observed in the logs at the mill. Hence, the spores of the fungus must be abundant in the air and readily find their way into the openings, in the wood and bark, made by the insect. As to the cause of the trees dying in this section, it is in my opinion owing to the natural deter- ioration of some of the trees, aided by disease and insects, since they do not die in groups as they do when killed by insects, but as a rule, are promiscuously scattered through the forest. 242 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. It is evident, however that the destructive sapwood borer exerts a marked influence in hastening the death of the trees, and it is not improbable that in some cases they may cause, on their own account, the death of trees which otherwise would survive. WOODPECKERS ARE THE PRINCIPAL ENEMY OP THE DESTRUCTIVE SAPWOOD BORER. The trees that have been infested by the destructive sapwood borer are readily distinguished from those that are not, by the numerous holes in the bark and wood, made by the birds searching for the grubs. The punctures by the birds also offer additional opportunity for the lodgment and entrance of the fungus germs. The pres- ence of the woodpecker's work, especially if common, is there- fore a fairly reliable indication that such trees are more or less decayed, which evidence of unsound trees may be utilized to some advantage by timbermen. Another remarkable and in- teresting fact observed with reference to the work and pres- ence of this insect, is the absence of the bark beetle in the bark of the tree infested by the bark and sapwood borer, showing that the conditions that are favorable for the attack of the bark beetle, are not favorable for the attack of the borer, and vice versa. vVhen both were found infesting the same tree, which was rare, the bark beetles occupied one side of the trunk, while the borer occupied the other. It would therefore appear that the destructive sapwood borer is capable of doing much mischief, both in contributing to the death of the trees and the rapid decay of the wood, and that in this section, at least, it is the cause of serious loss of valuable timber. PRESENT CONDITION AS TO INSECT ENEMIES. Kecent observations lead us to the conclusion that the liv- ing spruce throughout the area is at the present time in a healthier condition and freer from damage by insecls than it has been for many years. This healthy condition of the timber is due to the recent disappearance of its greatest insect enemy —the destructive pine bark-beetle — and to the extensive and continued cutting of the timber which furnishes, in the felled THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 243 trees, logs, tops and stumps, more inviting breeding places for its next greatest enemy — the spruce bark-beetle. Thus it would appear that the present great destruction of timber- by lumber- men is at least having one good effect — that of attracting to the various fields of operation, the surplus of all those insects which may breed in dying, or storm-felled trees in the virgin area, and in this manner the living trees are protected from their at- tack. A general discontinuance of operations in the spruce area would probably be followed by fatal consequences to the living trees, on account of the swarms of the spruce bark beetle and their allies, which would doubtless invade the living tim- ber when they failed to find a supply of recently felled trees and tops in which to breed. The present serious injuries to the spruce by insects is con- fined to the timber injured by fire, recently felled, or cut into saw logs. If such timber is allowed to remain standing, lying on the ground, or in skidways, with the bark on, for a few weeks, between the first of April arid the middle of September, it will be attacked by wood boring species which may mater- ially depreciate its value for lumber. If allowed to remain thus through the summer, it may be rendered almost worth- less by the wood boring insects for anything butpulpwood. The living timber is not, it must be remembered, entirely safe from another destructive invasion of insects since a series of favorable conditions, as of succesive warm winters, excessive and long continued drouths, unusually severe hail and wind storms, together with a diminution of the parasites and other natural enemies of the destructive insects, may be the means of starting another serious trouble like that recently exper- ienced in the pine forests of this and adjoining States. Thus, the importance and necessity of owners of spruce forests keep- ing a vigilant watch for all indications of trouble, and when any- thing of the nature we have mentioned is observed, this department of the Experiment Station should be informed about it, without delay, in order that we may extend such ad- vice or assistance towards preventing the loss of timber as may be in our power. 244 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. THE PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE SPRUCE IN WEST VIRGINIA. Almost every part of a spruce tree from the roots to the ter- minal twigs, buds, leaves, and cones, may be infested by one or more insect enemies, some attacking the vital parts of the living trees, and thereby cause rapid death, while others at- tack only those which are sickly, dying or dead, and thus hasten the death of the sickly and contribute to the destruc- tion of the wood of the dead ones. Thus it is found that some may be classed as primary enemies, while others are secondary: some are destructive, while others are simply injurious. During the investigations, I found that among the large num- ber of insect enemies of the spruce, observed and studied, only a few are of special economic interest as primarily detrimental or destructive in their relation to the spruce timber resources of the State. The vast number of individuals of some of these species, however, and their power of destruction, more than makes up for what is lacking in numbers of species, and the enormous loss they have already inflicted and are capable of causing in the future, demands that they should receive espec- ial attention. The principal insect enemies of the spruce, so far as 1 have observed in this State, may be best discussed under two separ- ate heads, viz: bark miners and wood miners. BARK MINERS. The bark miners include many species which mine through the outer and inner bark on every part of the tree, some preferr- ing to infest that on some particular part, while others make no choice ; some attack the healthy bark on living trees, while others can only live in the bark after active growth has been checked by some other cause ; some mine beneath the bark in the adult stage, for the purpose of excavating galleries in which to deposit their eggs, while the adults of other species simply deposit their eggs in the crevices of the outer bark and the young enter and burrow beneath and through the inner bark or outer surface of the wood. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 245 As is well known, the newly forming or growing tissue and liquids, between the inner bark and outer wood, the cambium, is the most vital part of the iving tree. Therefore, it is plain that any injury like that resulting from insects mining beneath the bark, must result in an abnormal condition, weakened vi- tality or death of the parts so infested, and that if the attack is sufficient on certain parts of the tree to overcome the natural resistance and efforts of the injured tree to heal the wounds, the weakened vitality of the entire tree must follow. When this occurs, its recovery is prevented by numer- ous other bark and wood infesting in- sects, which on this account, are attracted to it. Thus, we find that the insect which is capable of mining beneath the healthy bark of a living cree, is the one to be especially dreaded, since it mnst be the leader in the attack and must overcome a certain decree of the re- sisting forces, before its numerous allies or dependents can render assistance in the destruction of a single tree or a forest. THE DESTRUCTIVE PINK BARK BEETLE.1 Strange as it may seem, this is the only one of the many species of bark borers observed in the spruce that was found making a primary attack on the healthy bark of living trees in such a manner as to cause their death. Therefore, it is leyond a doubt, entitled to highest rank among the insect enemies of the spruce, as well as the pine. The hundreds of dying and dead, as well Fig. XXII. -Nuptial chambers of Tomicus pint in black spruce. Dendroctonusfrontalis, Zimm. 246 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION as a large number of living spruce trees infested by this insect which were examined during a tour of investigation through the spruce forests in 1892, left no donbt whatever of its power of entering and mining through the healthy bark of vigorous* living trees* or of its being the primary cause of the death of the timber. I also found it attacking and killing Norway spruce in Morgantown, and found it in abundance in a dying spruce (See Fig. XXIII) in Washington, D. 0., in Oct., 1892. A full description and illustration of this remarkable insect and its work, and a detailed account of its life his- tory and habits will be found in an- Part °f this Fig.XXIII^Galleriesof Dentroc tonus frontaiis in spruce. Enemies of the Fine." THE DESTRUCTIVE SPRUCE BARK BEETLE.1 This is a small black beetle, .08 of an inch long and .1 of an inch broad. It is easily distinguished from all other spruce bark beetles of similar size and form by the fact that each of its compound eyes is divided by a smooth narrow space. It passes the winter in all stages within the bark of spruce stumps, logs, and tops of trees cut the previous winter or summer; also in the bark on all parts of such standing trees as may have died during the previous spring or summer. The adults emerge in May and June, and are attracted to the stumps, trunks and tops of recently felled trees and such trees as are weakened in vitality from the attack of insects like that of the destructive pine bark beetle, diseases or any other cause. They then commence to excavate their entrance gal- leries through the outer bark, their presence being indicated by the fine brownish borings in the crevices of the bark. This en- trance gallery is extended to the outer surface of the inner soft 1 Polygraphs rufipennis, Kirby. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 247 Fig. XIV.— Galleries of Polygraphus rujipennis, showing different stages, from the be- ginning of the egg gallery at a to the honey combed inner and outer bark at d, in black spruce. 248 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. bark, where a broad cavity is excavated which is utilized as a nuptial chamber. In the meantime, the female, which appears to do the greater part of the first excavating, is joined by a male which stations himself in the entrance gallery to keep out enemies and objectionable visitors, and to render assistance in expelling the borings. The female then excavates a gallery from one edge of the nuptial chamber through the inner bark to the wood, thence through the inner layer of bark, usually at right angles to the bark fibers, for a distance of one or two inches. Along the sides of this so-called brood or egg-gallery, she deposits her minute, pearly-white eggs in a succession of small notches. By the time the first female has her egg gallery iairly started, one to three other females are admitted, and each excavates a similar egg gallery in different directions from the nuptial chamber. Before all of the galleries are finished, the first egg commences to hatch into minute white grubs, which burrow through the inner bark, on which they feed. By the time all of the eggs have hatched, the surrounding bark is filled with these grubs of various ages and sizes, and soon, all of the bark from the inner to the outer layer, for a radius of two to four inches, is completely perforated with their irregular burrows. In the meantime, the male guards the entrance and the females either rest in the nuptial cham- ber or egg galleries, or emerge to enter the bark in another place to start a new brood. When the grubs and larvae have attained their full growth, they excavate a broader cavity at the end of their burrow or mine, in which they change to the pupae stage, thence to the adult and either emerge from the Fig. XXV.-Chip from Blackbark 3nd Start * SeCOnd br°°d> °F r6' ^Pio^oVblrkandinxgitdhoiesC" main tnere until tne following spring. m^runpe°nlTphU8 Probably two or three broods may THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 249 occur in one season, commencing with the first eggs deposited, in the spring, but my observations lead me to believe that owing to the shortness of the season at the high elevations occupied by the spruce in this State there is generally but one brood. Other Trees infested by it. Besides the black spruce, it has been recorded from the larch in Michigan1 and I have found it in the larch in West Virginia. I also found a single example excavating an entrance gallery in the bark of scrub pine on the mountain near Morgantown. Dr. Packard2 mentions that this species infested pitch pine, but he undoubtedly referred to a species of Dendroctonus^ certainly not to this species, although he published a good illustration of the beetle from a drawing by Dr. Bland and Miss Sullivan. Distribution. The species is evidently widely distributed over North America, and doubtless occurs where spruce is in- digenous. It has been recorded from New Hampshire to Alaska and Georgia. In West Virginia it appears to be con- fined to the Canadian Life Zone and the spruce area, since I have never met with it in the cultivated spruces in any of the other life zones. Previous Knowledge of its Habits. It appears that very little has been previously recorded with reference to the life history and habits of this insect, except such reference as the writer has made to it in the publications referred to on another page. The insect referred to by Dr. Packard, in the 5th Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, under the name "Xyloterus bivittatus" as the beetle most concerned in the ravages of the spruce forests of New England, may possibly have been this species, since his description of the habits and galleries could not have been the work of Xyloterus bivittatus* which is not a bark miner, as will be shown further on. The Abundance of the Insect and Its Economic Relations to 1. Cook and Davis, Michigan bulletin . ?. 5th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 721. 250 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. the Spruce. The spruce bark beetle is by far the most abund- ant of any of the species of the family to which it belongs throughout the spruce region in this State. It appears in enor- mous numbers in all sections in which timber cutting opera- tions are carried on. As previously stated, its occurrence in such vast numbers, together with other evidence obtained in 1890, with reference to its habits, seemed to warrant the con- clusion that it was the species of all others which was jyj(j::fl±r;ivw»;S:: i^- habitS of mining -tyjMjpf Fig xxvii.TRound-head-through the inner PIg. xxvm.-Round headed ed wood miner: a-iult wood minpr^- thp ~ of the "Sawyer." bark and WOOd is terror & J the same as that of the flat-headed miners. As a rule, how- ever, this class of round-headed borers mine in the bark until they have attained sufficient size and strength to enter the wood, when they are classed with the wood miners, but some species live entirely in the inner bark and change to the adult at the end of their burrows, either in -the inner or outer bark. WOOD MINERS. The wood mining insects which infest different parts of the spruce trees and saw logs, consist of adult beetles called tim- 1 Meianophila fulvoguttata, Harr. 2 Agrilus bilineatus, Web. 256 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION ber beetles, which excavate galleries in the wood for the pur- pose of depositing their eggs and rearing their young; also wood boring grubs which hatch from eggs deposited in the outer bark by adult beetles and wood wasps. As a rule, these wood borers contribute very little towards the unhealthy condition or death of the trees infested by them, but are exceedingly destructive or detrimental to the wood of living, dying, or dead trees and saw logs and the loss of timber resulting from their depreda- tions is far greater than is generally supposed. TIMBER, OR AMBROSIA BEETLES. Among the wood miners, some of the most destructive kinds belong to an interesting class called timber beetles, or ambrosia beetles. These belong to. the same family as the bark beetles, but instead of mining beneath the bark and gnawing the outer surface of the wood, they burrow directly through the bark into the sapwood where they excavate their branching egg or brood galleries. One species of this class of miners is exceedingly common in the sapwood °f 8Pruce trees and logs, which deserves special Spruce Timber rn ant inn Beetle. (Xyi- mention. oterus lineatus, Ratz.) THE SPRUCE TIMBER BEETLE. This wood miner is distinguished from all other species of similar form and habits, whcih infest the spruce, by its striped wing covers. The adult is .13 inches long, and .06 inch wide, the male with a narrow concave head and the female with a large head, which is convex in front. The eyes are double, as in the destructive spruce bark bee- tle. It passes the winter in all stages within the brood chambers, and the adults emerge in the spring and fly to the trunks and stumps Fig. xxx.— work of Ambrosia Beetle (Xyl- of recently felled trees, or those seriously in- oteru* uneatw, Ratz). jured by insects or other causes. They bore directly through 1 Xyloterus lineatus, Ratz. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 257 the bark and into the sapwood. The entrance is made by a single female, attended by a male. After she has penetrated into the wood, one or more females are admitted, and each excavates a gallery, branching from the first, while the male remains at the entrance to assist in expelling the borings and to guard against the entrance of their insect enemies. After each female has extended her gallery a short distance into the wood, small cavities are excavated in the sides of the gallery wails. An egg is placed in each of these, and the mouth of the cavity is closed with fine wood borings and cemented with sap and ex- crement. These egg cavities are placed at regular intervals as the gallery is extended, until each female has deposited from ten to twenty or more eggs. Before the first eggs hatch, a pecu- liar kind of fungus, the germs or spores of which are evidently carried from the old brood galleries, gathers on the bodies of the parent beetle, and commences to develop on the walls of the galleries and in the mass of borings at the mouth of the egg cavities, forming a granulated, cheesy mass, called ambrosia.1 The eggs hatch into minute, white grubs, which commence to feed on the ambrosia at the mouth of the egg cavity, and as they grow, they enlarge the cavity to accomodate the increasing size of their bodies. It appears that the young grubs are provided with a continuous supply of the ambrosial food by the parent beetle as she moves back and forth in the gallery. The walls of the gallery becomes thickly coated with the fungus, which with- out the vigilant care of the mother beetle, would completely fill the galleries and smot her the occupants. When the grubs attain their full size, they change to pupa and adults, in the cavities or cradles, which are just large enough to comfortably accom- modate their bodies. After changing to the adult, they come out into the main gallery and either excavate other branching galleries, or emerge to start new ones on nearby trees. Possi- bly two or three broods develop in a single season from the first set of eggs, the later broods remaining in the galleries over winter. 1 For further and more detailed information see the excellent paper on the subject by the late H. G. Hubbard, Year Book U. S. Dep. Agric., 1896, pp. 421^130. I 258 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. The presence of this insect may be easily detected by the fine white borings in the loose bark of the standing trees, or beneath the logs on trunks of felled ones. Often the ground under the logs in a skidway will be literally covered with these borings. If saw logs are left in the woods or in the skidway for a few weeks between the first of May and the middle of October they are often seriously damaged by this beetle which is exceeding- ly common throughout the spruce forest, in fact, the sapwood is often literally ruined, except for low grade lumber and pulp wood, by the numerous black sapwood pin holes and sap stains resulting from its attack. It also attacks the hemlock and pine, especially the white pine, but is more common in the spruce. It is widely distri- buted over North America, and like the European spruce bark beetle, is common in the spruce forests throughout Europe. Dr. Packard referred to a bark beetle under the name of this species as the most destructive pest of the spruce, the beetle most concerned in the ravages of spruce forests in Northern New England from 1878 to 1881.1 But since it is not possible for this wood infesting ambrosia feeder to change its habits to that of a bark beetle, evidently there was some mistake in the identifi- cation of the species, or else the work of a bark beetle was credited to this timber beetle, just as Say credited the work of the bark beetle Tomicus coelatus to the timber beetle Xyle- borus xylographus* owing doubtless, to a wrong reference in the original collecting notes. This is an error which is very easy to make when so many species of bark and timber beetles infest the same tree; or when a timber beetle is found excava- ting an entrance through the bark to the wood. ROUND-HEADED WOOD MINERS. The character of this class of enemies has been already de- scribed on another page, under the head of "Round-headed Bark Miners." In fact, nearly all of the round-headed, as well as the flat-headed wood miners live for a time in the bark, some 1 Fifth Report U. S. Ent. Com. 1889-90, p. 823. (The species illustrated, Fig. 276, from drawing by Gissler resembles somewhat Derdnoctonus simplex.— A.. D. H.) THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 259 of them entering the wood only when they have attained their full growth, while others enter as soon as they have attained sufficient size and strength to do so. Large numbers of apparently different kinds of round-headed wood mining larvae, were found in the spruce, but only a few species could be identified, owing to the fact that the adults could not be bred. The Destructive Spruce Wood Miner1 deserved special atten- tion, since it is the one which contributes to the rapid decay of the wood of standing trees, and since the young grub has been found mining in the living bark on living trees, it might easily contribute to the death of some trees. The trouble caused by this insect is described at length in another part of this report. It is therefore only necessary to state that it is a common in- sect throughout the spruce area, to which it is probably con- fined in its distribution in West Virginia. The eggs are deposited early in the spring, by a slender, light- brown beetle in the outer bark on the trunk of large trees, us- ually at points from near the base to the first branches. These eggs hatch into minute, white worms, which mine through the inner bark ana outer surface of the wood, until they are nearly full grown, when they enter the sapwood in which they mine until they have attained their full size, which is from 7 twelfths to 8 twelfths of an inch in length and an average width of about 3 twelfths inches. The three front segments are slightly broader than the others, and each is provided on the underside with a pair of small legs. Each example of the matured larvae exca- vates a cavity in the wood, and also an exit gallery to the outer bark. The mouth of the inner cavity or pupa case is then packed with borings and the larva trans- forms to the pupa and adult within the cavity, after which the beetle finds its way out through the exit prepared by the larva. INJURY TO TERMINAL BRANCHES BY THE WHITE PINE WEEVIL,2 This insect which has been mentioned by other writers as 1 Tetropium cinnamopterum, Kirby. 2 Pissodes strobi, Peck. 260 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. especially destructive to the white pine is a snout beetle, some- what related to the plum curculio and certain grain weevils, but with totally different habits. It is a chestnut brown bee- tle about a quarter of an inch long, with two dots on the upper portion of the front part of the body, (thorax), and with two irregular spots on the inner edges of the wing covers. It passes the winter in the larveal stage in the outer wood or in the twigs. The adult comes out in May to deposit its eggs in the terminal or main shoots of young or medium sized trees; also in the bark of logs or injured and felled trees. These eggs hatch into white footless grubs which mine in the bark at first, then in the wood or bark of the twigs until full grown, when each grub excavates a cavity in the outer surface of the wood. These cavities are just large enough to accomodate the body of the grub, and are lined and covered over with fine wood fibers, thus forming a snug cocoon in which it transforms to the adult. The injury to large trees and logs resulting from the work of this bark and wood miner is not usually of a serious character, but when it attacks the main or central shoot of a young tree, the injured part dies and this usually results in a deformed or worthless tree. It is a widely dirtributed insect in North America and I have found it common in the pine and spruce of West Virginia. In 1891 specimens were received from Mr. Hu Maxwell, of St. George, Tucker county, in branches from Norway spruce shade trees, to which it had done considerable damage. INJURY TO TWIGS BY THE SPRUCE GALL LOUSE,1 This is a minute, almost microscopic louse, which infests the tender twigs of the native and cultivated spruce, causing swell- ings and a thick cluster of needles or leaves on the twigs, and when common on a young tree, many of the twigs so affected die, and the tree is stunted in its growth. This is a common trouble affecting the spruce in different sections of the State, and was reported as especially common and destructive to 1 Chermes abietis. Linn. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 261 Fig. XXXI.— Galls and deformed twigs of the spruce gall louse on black spruce: also black spruce coues. large as well as small trees near Cranesville, Preston county, in 1894. 1 have seen it in different sections of the spruce forest from Tucker toPocahontas counties, and also on Norway spruce in Morgantown. 262 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION This trouble appears to be widely distributed over the coun- try, and has received especial attention from Professor C. H. Fernald of the Massachusetts Agricultural College in a recent paper. THE PRINCIPAL INSECT FRIENDS OF THE SPRUCE, OR ENEMIES OF THE INSECT ENEMIES. The insects which are friendly or beneficial in their relation to the spruce are those which prey upon the enemies and thus prevent their excessive increase, and reduce the amount of in- jury to the tree or its products. There are two classes of these beneficial insects, separated according to their habits. One class which includes beetles and their larvae attack and devour the adult, young, and eggs of the injurious insects. While the other class which includes the young of four- winged bees and wasps and two-winged flies, attach themselves to the young of the injurious species, or enter their bodies to absorb the liquids, thus causing the gradu- al death of their victim. The list shows that considerably more beneficial than injuri- ous species were taken from the spruce, but as a rule, the total number of individuals of the injurious species is far greater than that of their predatory and parasitic enemies, and were it not for this check, they would multiply to excessive and devas- tating numbers. PREDACEOUS BEETLES AND THEIR LARVAE.— THE CLERIDS. The Clerids are perhaps entitled to occupy first rank among the insects which prey upon the principal insect enemies of the spruce. They are considerably larger than the insects upon which they feed, and resemble the European bark beetle de- stroyer (illustrated in the pine report) both in appearance and general habits. The American Bark Beetle^ Destroyer1 is nearest related. to the European species, and is often quite common on the bark of spruce trees infested with bark beetles. It is easily distin- guished from the imported species by its red head and some- 1 Tfianasimus dubiua, Fab. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 263 what paler color, although the marking on the wing covers and the size is the same in both species. It passes the winter in all stages from larva to adult, in the bark in which it is bred, the latter sometimes in the loose bark and moss at the base of the tree. The adults appear in the spring, soon after the bark beetles commence to emerge from their winter quarters and fly to the trees, logs, or tops which are infested with bark beetles. There they station themselves beneath loose flakes of bark, awaiting an opportunity to pounce upon any bark beetle that comes near. They also move rapidly about over the bark in search of the prey, or the entrances to the bark beetle galleries in which the females deposit their eggs. The eggs soon hatch into minute active worms, which find their way into the egg and brood galleries of the bark beetles, where they feast upon the eggs and young found there until they have attained their full growth, when they leave the inner bark and excavate cavities in the outer corky bark in which they change to pupae and adults. The larvae resemble that of the European Clerid, il- lustrated on another page. Indeed, it is scarcely possible to distinguish one from the other. This Clerid attacks and feeds upon all kinds of bark beetles which infest the spruce and pine and has also been found attacking bark beetles in deciduous trees. It is widely distrib- uted over the State and doubtless has a wide range throughout North America. It is a common insect wherever the pines and spruces grow in the State, and doubtless exerts a considerable influence in preventing the undue increase and devastations of pine and spruce bark beetles. Unfortunately, it also has its enemies to contend with, since it has at least two parasites, one of which I have reared from the larva and the other from the adult. The first, which is an internal Braconid parasite, appar- ently attacks the full grown larva, when it enters the outer bark to pupate. This parasite is in turn, apparently, attacked by another parasite, which I have bred in large numbers from the larvae of the Clerid, The parasite of the adult is a two- winged fly, resembling a small house fly, which deposits an egg 264 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION on the living adult, and when the egg hatches, the maggot enters the abdomen of the beetle, where it absorbs its nutriment from the liquids of its host until it is full grown, when it emer- ges from its victim and changes to the pupa and adult prob- ably in the ground. Remarkable as it may seem, the beetle remains alive and active until after the parasite larva leaves it, although the full grown maggot almost fills the abdominal cavity of its host. Just how common these enemies of the Clerid are, and to what extent they reduce its numbers, it is difficult to judge, but since I have only bred one example of the fly, and only one or two of the Braconid, and have bred probably one hundred examples of what is, evidently, a parasite of the Bracon larvae from two of the Clerid larvae, it woald appear that these parasitic enemies of the Clerid cannot be very nu- merous. This beneficial insect has another class of enemies in insecti- verous birds, by which its numbers are greatly reduced, since they are exposed to attack while running about on the bark and are easily procured by woodpeckers from their pupa cases in the outer bark. During the early investigations in the spruce and pine forests in 1892, this insect and other enemies of the bark beetle ap- peared to be rare, but in the fall of 1892 and the spring of 1893, they were abundant. Two or three other species of Clerids, (see appendix,) have been found with the spruce bark beetles, but since their gen- eral appearance and habits are similar to the one just men- tioned, it is not necessary to discuss them further. STAPHYLINID OR ROVE BEETLES AND THEIR LARVAE. Numerous representatives of the rove beetle class or family of insects were found associated with the spruce bark beetles and their young, and since they are usually predatory in their habits, some of them doubtless feed on eggs and young of the insects with which they associate. They are small, slender beetles, with very short wing covers, and strong biting mand- ables ; are exceedingly rapid in their movements, and are usu- THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. '265 ally seen with their tails, or rather their abdomens, erect, or turned forward, over their backs. A small black species, (Homalota pontomaloto, Casy) was commonly met with in the galleries of the spruce bark beetles, in all sections of the spruce forest and in the Norway spruce near Morgontown, and while I have not observed it feeding, it doubtless attacks the eggs and young larva of the bark beetles, and if so, must destroy great numbers of them. Other species were also found in the galleries of the bark beetles, or associ- ated with them in the bark, but were not observed feeding. Indeed, all of these rove beetles are so wild that it is almost impossible to observe their feeding habits without disturbing them. HISTERID BEETLES. The Histerid beetles are easily distinguished from all other bark infesting species, by their jet-black, polished and shining wing covers, which do not extend to the tip of the abdomen. The other parts are also black and shining. Some species have short, flat bodies, while others are more elongated and cylindri- cal. The three species which were commonly met with in the egg galleries of the spruce bark beetles were evidently there for the purpose of feeding on the adults, eggs, or young. I have frequently observed one species, ( Hister cylindricus) feed- lag on adult bark beetles, and the others doubtless have simi- lar habits. One quite small species, (Paromalus bistriatus, Er.,) was found to be very common in the bark of black spruce, with the bark beetles. The larvae of these beetles are slender, flattened, yellowish, shining worms, with curved spines on the last abdominal segment. NITULID BEETLES AND THEIR LARVAE. The Nitulid beetles also have shining wing covers, which are shorter than the abdomen, but instead of being uniform black, they are usually brownish and marked with yellow or whitish spots. While some of the species of ttyis family pf injects feed upon 266 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. and breed in fungi and lichens, several of the species are known to be predaceous. Of the four species found in spruce bark, two were with bark beetles and one, (Ips fasciatus^ Oliv.) with its larvae, was with the spruce timber beetle. TENEBRION1D BEETLES. The Tenebrionids are elongated, slightly flattened, brown to black beetles, with wing covers extending to tip of abdomen. Some of this class of beetles feed on vegetable substances, such as dried seeds, grain, fungi, &c., while others are known to feed on insects. Two species were found in spruce bark, as- sociated with bark beetles, both the adult and larvae ; one species (Hypophloeusparallelus, Melsh.) was very common in the mines of spruce bark beetles. It is also common in pine and I have found it with a bark beetle in hickory bark. While this beetle and its larvae doubtless feed on the larvae and possibly the adults of bark beetles, I have no evidence to indicate to what extent it does so, except the inference drawn from their common occurrence in the galleries of bark beetles. PARASITIC INSECTS. — ICHNEUMONID PARASITES. The adult Ichneumonid parasites are wasplike insects, usual- ly with long stings, or ovipositors, which they insert in the bark and wood for the purpose of depositing eggs in or near their bark or wood mining victims. Several examples of one species of this class of beneficial insects1 were found emerging from the wood of a spruce tree, infested by one of the wood wasps,3 the larvae of which they had evidently destroyed. Another species3 was found with its ovipositor inserted in the wood of a spruce log. M umerous examples of both species were observed flying around logs and dead trees in the spruce forest during the last of August and first of September. BRACONID PARASITES. The Braconids are similar in general appearance to the Ichneumonids but are usually much smaller and have shorter 1 Rhyssa albomaculata, Cress. 2 Paururus ( Urocerus) edwardsii, Brulle. 3 Thalessa nortoni, Cress. THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 267 ovipositors. They are among the principal enemies of the bark and wood mining insects, and are entitled to high rank among the friendly insects of the spruce. The eggs are deposited near or in their victims by means of their ovipositors, which are inserted through the bark. As a rule the Braconid larva at- taches itselt to the side or back of a bark or wood mining larva, which is soon rendered inactive from the loss of life sustaining liquid or blood. It then ceases to feed and soon dies. The parasite maggot continues to feast on its dead victim, and in a few days attains its full growth. It then encases itself in a thin but tough cocoon, which completely fills the cavity previ- ously occupied by its victim. In this cocoon it goes through its transformations, and when the adult i& fully matured, it gnaws its way out through the bark. CHALCID PARASITES. The Chalcids which are also four-winged insects and related to the wasps and bees, differ from the Ichneumonid and Braco- nids in having shorter and more compact bodies ; also in the color, which is usually bright shining blue, green, bronze, or black, often with hyaline or metallic reflections. The wings, instead of having numerous veins as in the two former families, are veinless or have but few. They also show a marked differ- ence in the antennae, which in the former families are long, slender, while in the Chalcids they are short, often club-like and elbowed. They are also distinguished by the form of the hind femur which is often very much thickened for leaping. The ovipositor of the female is usually concealed beneath the body and is much shorter than in most Ichneumonid and Braconid parasites, so that they are not capable of penetrating very thick bark, but usually select that on young trees or the branches of old ones, unless the insect they seek to attack works in the outer portion of the inner bark and makes its pupa cases in the outer bark, as does the destructive spruce bark beetle. The Chalcids are common parasites of the bark beetles in all kinds of trees, and especially so in spruce and pine, and as I 268 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. have often seen, literally swarm around small trees infested by this class of bark miners. The habit of the Chalcid larva is similar to that of the Braconid, that is most of them which attack bark mining grubs are external parasites, but unlike the Braconid, they rarely make cocoons, but instead, undergo their transformation in the cavity left by their victim. The adult bark beetles are also at- tacked by Chalcid parasites, in which case the Chalcid lives in the abdomen of its victim. See list of Chalcids in Appendix for reference to habits of species. TACHINID PARASITES. It is common for two-winged flies to attack caterpillars and the adults of insects which live in the open air, but it is not common for a fly to attack bark and wood raining insects. In fact there appears to be but few records of their doing so. It is the habit of this class of parasites to glue their eggs to the sur- face of the body of other insects. These eggs hatch into min- ute maggots, which burrow into their host and feed upon the liquids. The adults are not provided with horny ovipositors as are the three classes of parasites above mentioned, so it would seem difficult and almost impossible for any of this class of parasitic insects to attack the larvae of bark beetles, yet I have found the larvae and cocoons of a small fly (Medeterus nigripes* Leow) so common in the larval mines of the destructive spruce bark beetle that there appears to be no doubt of its being a primary parasite of the larvae of this beetle ; but how and where the eggs are deposited, and how the minute, slender maggot finds its way to the bark mining grub, I have not as yet. been able to determine. Another undetermined Dipterous larva was also commonly found associated with the larvae of the spruce bark beetles in such a manner as to indicate that it was an enemy of this class of bark miners. DISEASES OF INSECT EMEMIES OF THE SPRUCE. Both the bark and wood mining insects, adults as well as larvae and pupae, are subject to attack by fungus diseases, and THE SPRUCE INVESTIGATION. 269 many individuals are thus destroyed. The insects which have died trom disease are usually covered or surrounded by a snow white or yellowish mass which is the external growth and spores of the fungus which caused their death. BIRDS AS FRIENDS OF THE SPRUCE. Woodpeckers and other birds doubtless destroy vast numbers of insect enemies of the spruce, but at the same time they nec- essarily destroy many of the predatory and parasitic insects, yet I would recommend the encouragement and protection of all insectivorous birds, since they are undoubtedly of very great service in preserving a balance among the contending species of plant and animal life, and at times may render most valuable service in reducing the numbers of dangerous insect enemies. OTHER BENEFICIAL ELEMENTS. Certain climatic conditions has much to do with the destruc- tion of insect enemies of the spruce, far more indeed than is generally supposed. But since it has possibly quite as much influence in contributing to the multiplication and spread of these enemies, and in bringing about devastating invasions of the most destructive species, it would be difficult to say whether more good or harm results from this source. Unless we assume that without the favorable conditions offered for the devastat- ing invasions, there would be no need of opposite conditions to destroy them, when we must conclude that the harm resulting from such influences is far greater than the benefits. After all, such influence for good or harm is beyond the control of human efforts and need only be considered in this connection to ex- plain certain remarkable phenomena in the rapid multiplica- tion and spread of the destructive pine bark beetle over thous- ands of square miles and its sudden and complete extermin- ation over the entire invaded area ; which subject is fully dis- cussed under this head in the report on the pine investigation. To what extent the other insect enemies of the spruce are in- fluenced by a series of warm winters and wet or dry summers, 270 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. or extreme cold or heat, I have not as yet determined, but suf- ficient evidence is had to indicate that with some species it is quite marked, while with others there is no perceptible influ- ence one way or the other. While we are powerless to control the climatic conditions, except in a conservation of the forest covering of the spruce area there is much to be gained from a knowledge of the rota- tion of certain climatic conditions to the distribution or destruc tion of noxious insects generally, since we could thus 'indicate what may be expected to follow any abnormal conditions in the climate of any single year or series of years ; also we would be able to tell what insect foes or friends may be looked for within given areas of different elevation within the State. Therefore it is a subject to which I hope to devote considerable attention in the future. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 271 PART II. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. THE PINE OF WEST VIRGINIA. Five native kinds or species of pine are more or less com- mon in West Virginia, viz : the white, yellow, pitch, scrub and table mountain pine. The loblolly, or old field pine has been recorded1 from the State, and evidence is had that the red, or Canadian pine occurs in at least one locality. The White Pine1 is a large tiee with light colored bark and with narrow, soft, light-green leaves, four to five inches long, growing five in a bundle ; the cones are slender, curved and four to six inches long. This valuable representative of the pine family grows to a large tree in the sections of the State where the conditions are favorable for it, sometimes attaining a height of 125 feet and a diameter at the base of over 4 feet. It is widely distributed over the State, forming typical forests of greater or less extent in Pocahontas and Greenbrier on the eastern waters of the Greenbrier river, and in Raleigh county, on Perry creek ; in Summers and Monroe counties, on Blue- stone river; in Preston and Tucker, on the waters of Cheat river; in Pendleton and Hampshire and South Branch moun- tain on the Potomac waters; in Calhoun and Gilmer, near the Little Kanawha river; in the central part of Ritchie and north- ern portion of Marion counties along the B. ••- long to the genus Tomicus. * * The red-headed hug * * is a hene- 1 Colydium lineola. Say., Dendroctonus f>/-t:f>rans. Oliv.. J>< mlroctonnx fronhilix, Zimrn, Pityophthorusconnnis. (?) Lee.. Tomicu* <: in a perfectly green tree, they will be especially desired. * Please give me all the information you can regarding this trouble. * * On Oct. 9th Mr. Fisher wrote as follows : "SiR:— Yours of the 6th inst. came to hand last evening ; also bulletins and box of bottles. I live at the base of a mountain in full view of a large area of timber. The dead pines easily discerned. I went out this morning to a group of dead pines that were in full view of the house. They proved to be yellow pine of good size, fit for lumber. I examined about half dozen that had the appearance of being dead from a distance, and found them entirely dead and infested under the bark with numerous insects of different colors, sizes and shapes. Some had penetrated the wood, not many. The bark that I send you will demonstrace how they work. The trees of the same kind (yellow pine) that stood near were either dead or living, not half dead. The depredations on the living were slight, like an attack and aban- doned. The bark I send you will show the work of the bug, also of the small insects, which are very numerous, white ones predominating. I only use three of the bottles, reserving the others for better test. The white grub, second size, I got from the bark of a live tree. I must answer your questions in accordance with my slight examination. 'What kind of pine?' 'Yellow.' 'Is it valuable?' 'It is.' 'Does it die in patches?' 'It does.' 'What proportion is dead?' '£ or more.' 'When did it commence to die?' 'First one noticed this summer.' "If you come I will entertain you." In my reply, Oct. 14th, 1891, to this letter, I said : "I have your letter of Oct. 9th. The package of insects and bark, all of which is very interesting to me, for which, please accept my thanks. The small black beetles are probably the principal insects to blame for the death of your pines. The holes in the bark you sent were made by these beetles and the small channels on the inside of the bark were made by small grubs which hatch from their eggs. The technical name of the 1 See questions and answers in the next letter. 286 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION beetle is (Dendroctonus frontalis.) The red looking grub you sent feeds on this and other insects, therefore you made a mistake in placing it in the bottle with the other specimens, for it has devoured many of them. The large worm probably enters the bark after the tree commences to die. The one you found in the live tree is usually found in the outer bark of such trees, therefore can do no damage. There is another insect about three times as large as the small black ones which I suspect as being among the principal ones to blame for the death of the trees. They work under the bark near the root of the tree, sometimes even under the ground. I found them near Romney last sum- mer in perfectly green trees, working in the turpentine under the bark. I also found them under the bark of trees which had recently died ; there- fore, I hope you will look carefully for them and others like them in green and dying trees. Send a bottle full of each kind of the small round-bodied beetles you find in the bark of the trees. I may visit your section next month, but if I do not, I would like to ar- range to have you send me by freight some sections from small trees in- fested by certain insects. The only remedy we can think of to prevent the spread of the trouble among your timber is to introduce some kind of insect that will destroy the injurious species. I am now arranging to import some parasites from Virginia, Germany and France to put after some of our insect pests." Mr. Strayer wrote again on Oct. 18th, 1891, as follows : "I send by this mail a box containing several species of bugs, etc., found under the bark of dead, yellow pine (still standing.) The shells of bugs enclosed were all found together in a nest under the bark. The worm like larva was found near the root of the tree. I traced his passage for about four feet until I found him. He left a passage way of at least f inch. The red-headed bug was first put in a vial with the Tomicus, when it immedi- ately attacked the 'cus.' I send chip to show how the chip was literally riddled." In repl}r to this letter I said : •'I have just received yourlelter of the 10th inst., and the box of insects of same date for which please accept thanks. The large grub or larva you found in the dead pine is commonly called the Sawyer. When they are boring into the wood, the sound produced resembles that of an auger. The larvae change to beetles in the spring. The beetles then deposit their eggs in the bark of recently cut pine logs or trees, which have commenced to die. The red-headed beetle is (Thana- simus dubius) and the red larvae are the larvae of this same species. This beetle and its larvae feed upon Tomicus and like beetles. The shells which you supposed to be that of bugs found in a nest are the empty egg cases of the common wood roach. The Tomicus and like beetles are very interesting to me. Am sorry you did not send more of them, I believe that the Dendroctonus terebrans, (like the one you sent to Washington) are the principal insects to blame for the death of your pines. The more you send of each species of beetles like Tomicus and Den- droctonus, the better. They belong to a family of beetles called Scoly- tidae containing several hundred species, nearly all of which are more or less injurious to forest and fruit trees. I have a correspondent in France and one in Germany with whom I am arranging to import some live parasites of these Scolytids to experiment with in sending them after our injurious species. This seems to be the only practical remedy to be thought of to check or prevent their ravages." THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 287 From the information obtained from the above correspond- ence with Mr. Strayer and Mr. Fisher, together with what ob- servations I had made, was sufficient to convince me that a very serious trouble was affecting the pines over a large area of West Virginia. SPECIAL INVESTIGATION COMMENCED. . By the following spring the trouble was found to be of such a serious and threatening character that it was decided to make a special investigation of the trouble, and on May 23d, 1892, I entered the pine region of Hampshire county for the purpose. The first thing to attract my attention upon entering this county was the increased number of groups of dying pine on the mountain slopes, and as I drove through Hampshire, Hardy, Grant and into Pendleton county along the South Branch of the Potomac riv^r, I had an excellent opportunity to observe tfie remarkable and interesting character of the trouble. THE CHARACTER OF THE TROUBLE DESCRIBED. The conditions as they were observed in the different coun- ties gave a good idea of the commencement and progress of the trouble. In Hampshire county groups of trees from a few to fifty or more were observed upon which the foliage was turn- ing yellow, had already died, or had taken on a reddish brown hue, which is characteristic of the leaves of pine trees killed by fire. These groups of affected trees occured all through the pine forests, separated by spaces of healthy timber varying from a few hundred yards to a half mile or more. The yellow leaves of the dying trees, and the reddish brown of the dead ones, showing in marked contrast as they occured in the sur- rounding mass of green foliage of healthy trees. As I proceeded further up the river into Hardy a.nd Grant counties, this peculiar diseased condition became more com- mon. Many groups of dying and dead trees here covered one to fifty acres each, and as the central portion of Pendleton county was reached, nearly all of the pine on entire mountain ranges was found to be dead. 288 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. INVESTIGATIONS TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF THE TROUBLE. With a view of obtaining as much evidence as possible with reference to the cause of this wide spread devastation of tim- ber, I carefully examined a great number of living, dying and dead trees in all sections of the forest visited. The possibility of the primary cause of the trouble being due to the action of some bacteria or fungus disease, or some unfavorable climatic condition which would weaken the vitality of the trees and thus attract the bark beetles, led me to give this phase of the subject careful consideration, and to search for evidence that might lead to this explanation of the phenomenon. Trees Dying from a disease. A few small trees of the scrub pine1 were found in Hampshire county, and occasionally observed in other sections, which were without doubt, dying or had died from the attack of a disease which caused the rapid decay of the roots and base of the trunk, being similar in this respect to a so called root rot disease that kills fruit trees in some sections of the State. The bark on the roots and base of the trunk dies first, then the leaves gradually die and turn red, as they do when the tree is killed by fire, and remain firmly fixed to the twigs. The roots rapidly decay, and are usually coated with the mycelium (?) of a fungus which also extends beneath the bark on the roots and trunk of the tree. By the following year the sapwood of the roots is completely decayed, and the tree falls to the ground. Trees dying from this trouble, while of frequent occurrence in some localities, were rare in other sections where the greatest number ol trees were dying from the common trouble. They were not found in groups, but isolated and widely scattered through the forests. TREES DYING PROBABLY FROM NATURAL CAUSES. As is common even in the healthiest pine forests, large trees of all species were frequently met with which had, evidently, died from what is termed natural causes, such as so called old age, or more correctly speaking, from the soil being occupied 1 Pinus Virginiana, Mill.— (Pmw* inops, Ait.) THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 289 by the roots of younger and more vigorous competitors. In all such trees, as in those dying from disease, the bark at the base of the tree was dead at the same time, or before the leaves and branches commenced to die, thus indicating that the primary cause originated at the base of the tree, or in the roots. A PECULIAR CHARACTER OF THE COMMON TROUBLE. In striking contrast to the characteristic conditions of trees which had died from disease and natural causes to those which were dying in groups over large areas was that the latter were found to be living at the roots and base, while the tops were dead or dying. In fact, trees were commonly met with, the tops of which had died during the spring and summer of 1891, yet the bark on the roots and base of the trunk was at that time (May, 1892,) in a normal condition, and in rare cases, young sprouts, especially on pitch pine, were growing on the main trunk near and for some distance above the ground; thus indicating beyond all doubt that we must look for the cause of this common trouble in or near the top of the tree.1 THE CAUSE OF THE COMMON TROUBLE DISCOVERED. In every one of the large number of trees that I examined, which had commenced to die from the top, and the roots and base of the tree were living, I found the bark on the upper por tion of the trunk infested by the same species of bark beetle as the dead ones found in the trees examined in Hampshire county in July, 1891, determined by Mr. Eichhoffas Dendroc- tonus frontalis. Examples of the insect occurred in all stages from the egg to the adult, and in the bark of some trees were exceedingly abundant. Neither the pitch, scrub, yellow, table mountain, or white pine were exempt from its]attack, and the largest as well as the most vigorous and medium sized young trees were alike invaded by it. Pine trees of all species and sizes above a few inches in diameter were observed in consid- erable numbers, the leaves of which were green and in normal 1 This protracted vitality of the roots and base of the trunk was subsequently found to be one of the most common and characteristic conditions with all kinds of indigen- ous and cultivated pines and spruces in every section of the State, and all kinds of soil where the trees died from the common epidemic of 1890 to the spring of 1893. 290 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. condition, as was the bark on the trunk at the base, and from six to ten feet above. Upon close examination when felled for the purpose, and of those recently felled for saw logs, I found the bark on the upper portion of the trunk to be inlested with the same bark beetle, (Dendroctonus frontalis) together with conclusive evidence that this insect had made the primary at- tack and had mined in all directions through the living bark in which eggs had been deposited and the young grubs had de- veloped, long before any other insect had attacked any part of the tree. On some trees, the leaves of which were yet normal the bark on the upper part of the trunk was dead and infested with fully developed larvae, pupae and recently matured adults. The fact that examples of the bark beetle, (Dendroctonus frontalis,) were associated with every one of the hundreds, or I might say, thousands of the dying trees that I observed or carefully examined ; t/t«t the adults were frequently found mining in perfectly healthy bark of liv- ing trees; that they were capable of living in and manipilating the pitch that flowed into their freshly excavated galleries through the lark; tun/ that all stages of the insect occurred in the bark of trees that were not yet dead, was conclusive evidence to me that this insect icas the prime cause of the widespread epidemic from which so many trees had died and /<•<'/•(• then dying. Upon my return to the Experiment Station, I prepared the following article, a copy of which was sent to the State and county papers. It was subsequently published in a large num- ber of newspapers of this and adjoining States and extensively commented upon by some of the principal newspapers of the Eastern and Southern States. The object of this article was to call the attention of owners of pine timber to the serious character of the trouble, and to urge them to make every possible effort to utilize the dead and dying timber before it was rendered worthless by the wood boring insects which attack it the same or the following year after the trees die. While this may have had the effect of preventing the sale of some of the affected timber to innocent purchasers, and in this manner proved obnoxious to a few own- THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 291 ers of dead timber, I am confident that the good arising from this frank statement of facts more than overbalanced any harm that came from it. THE DYING PINE FOREST. (Published in Wheelim/ Daily Register May 19, 1892, and in other W. VOL. and Va. papers.} The widespread and universal death of pine timber, which has been going on in portions of Hampshire, Hardy, Grant, Pendleton and Mineral counties, West Virginia; Bath, Highland, Augusta and Rockingham coun- ties, Virginia, and also in portions of Maryland during the past two years, has been a very remarkable occurrence, exciting much curiosity and com- ment as to the probable cause. At the present time, the conditions, in the best pine timbered districts in the affected region, is really alarming, for if the trouble continues, there will not be a living pine of any value in all that pine timbered portion of West Virginia and Virginia lying between the Allegheny Range proper and the Blue Ridge, and extending at least 120 miles southwest from Maryland, a total area possibly of six thousand square miles. Between the 2d and 7th of this month, (May 1892,) I traveled about 140 miles through the counties of Hampshire, Hardy, Grant, and Pendleton for the purpose of observing the condition of the pine forests, and to in- vestigate the cause of the trouble. I examined large numbers of the healthy, dying and dead trees, and my conclusions are that their death is caused primarily by the attack of a single species of insect, a bark bee- tle, the scientific name of which is Dendroctonus frontal is, which has, under favorable conditions increased to such great numbers that they attack perfectly healthy trees, and by their operations in and under the bark on the upper portion of the trees, produce a diseased condition, which at- tracts hundreds of other species to their assistance, and the death and destruction of the trees so attacked is inevitable. The trouble begins in a healthy forest by one or two insolated trees or groups dying the first year. Countless millions of little beetles breed in these infested trees and emerge through the bark to attack other healthy ones, which die the next year in great numbers, and by the third year, as shown in the southern portion of Pendleton County, the entire forest is killed for miles around. The best and healthiest yellow and pitch pine trees seem to be attacked first ; after which, the trouble extends to the scrub pme, and later to the white pine. Flad we known of the trouble when it commenced, possibly the spread could have been prevented, to some extent, by the use of parasites or nat- ural enemies of the destructive insect ; or valuable tracts of timber might have been saved by cutting and burning the first infested. At the pres- ent time, however, it is too late to think of recommending or attempting to apply a remedy. The trouble has extended far beyond all human con- trol, and nearly all of the valuable timber is either dead or dying. There is one thing that can be done, however, to prevent a total loss of the millions of dollars worth of timber now dying ; that is, for the owners to make an earnest effort to convert all the best trees into lumber or square timber within a year after they die. The lumber can be stacked up and saved for any length of time, while the standing trees would be worthless the second year after they die, owing to the large boring grubs and decay. While the destruction of the pine timber is a deplorable fact, it is only one of the many resources of the region mentioned. There are yet re- 292 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. maining, in comparatively good health and vigor, immense forests of white and chestnut oak and other valuable timber ; the bark of the chest- nut oak at the present time, being a very important item of revenue. The region embraces some of the richest and most beautiful valleys in the world ; and a large portion of highlands now covered with dead pine, if cleared and sown to grass, and stocked with sheep, would, if properly managed, add greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the now unfortunate owners. The great mortality among the pine, spruce and locust timber of the state within the last ten years is a sad example of the millions of dollars worth of property which may be destroyed by some of our smallest forms of insects. The importance, therefore, of conducting investigations with a view of preventing like devastations in the future, can not be doubted. It has been a neglected field of study by Entomologists mainly on account of its vastness ; hence, there is much to be learned by investigation and experiments. We feel a deep interest in the preservation of our forest ; and we believe that much loss may be prevented by prompt action in utilizing some of Nature's methods ; one of which, is the introduction of beneficial insects. To be successful in this as in the application of other prevenatives and remedies, we must be notified of the first indications of trouble, and have the unstinted co-operation, and assistance of the owners of the affected timber. May, 1892. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS. On June 16th, 1892,,! started on another tour of investigation into the spruce forests, which were also reported to be affected in a similar manner as the pine. Proceeding to Hendricks, in Tucker county, where 1 procured horses and guides, I entered the spruce wilderness by the way of the Dry Fork of Cheat river, and its tributary, Gandy creek. During this investiga- tion which continued until July 6th, i passed through portions of the extensive spruce forests in Tucker, Randolph, Pendleton, Greenbrier andPocahontas counties, and the white pine forests in Greenbrier and Pocahontas counties along the Greenbrier river, returning to Morgantown via. the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Ohio River and the Baltimore & Ohio railroads, through the southern and western section of the pine and hardwood area. In all these forests I found the timber dying in greater or less quantities, the trouble has aparently just commenced in the spruce, and had not extended beyond isolated groups each composed of a few hundred trees or less scattered over the spruce area (See previous chapter, spruce investigations). In the white pine forests in Pocahontas and Greenbrier coun- ties the conditions were of a more serious character, a larger THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 293 per cent, of the forest timber having died, or was then dying. There was, however a large amount of white pine which had not been invaded. In all of the dead and dying spruce and pine trees examined during this investigation, the same conditions were found as those observed in the pine forests of Hampshire, Hardy and Pendleton Counties, during the previous May, and the con- clusions arrived at then were abundantly verified ; namely, that the death of the trees was the result of a primary attack by the destructive pine bark beetle, which richly deserves the common name I had given it, although it had proven to be destructive to the spruce as well. The following extracts from an article prepared by the writer and published in Science, Vol. XX, 1892, p. 64., soon after my return from the investigation just mentioned, will give some additional information with reference to the habits of this de- structive bark beetle and its principle allies, as had been determined up to the date the article was written. EXTRACT FROM ARTICLE IN SCIENCE. * * * It has been claimed that Scolytids never attack healthy, living trees. We acknowledge that as a rule the different species of this family have a preference for unhealthy trees or those which have been broken by storm or felled by the ax, but in this species (Dendroctonus frontalis] we cer- tainly have an exception to the rule. From the abundant evidence I have obtained during the extended and careful investigation, I am convinced that the death of large and small, vigorous trees of five species of pine and of the black spruce was caused primarily by the attack of this insect. In fact, this species seems to have a preference for the green bark on the living pine and spruce which they invade. As Entomoligist of this Station, I have conducted some investigations regarding the ravages of this beetle, and, since May 2d of this year, have traveled about 340 miles through some of the principal regions of the State where the pine and spruce are most common. The species of pine ob- served were the White Pine (Pinus alba) - [P. strobus] The Yellow Pine (P. echinata) ,th^ Pitch Pine (P. rigida), the Table Mountain Pine, (P. pun- gens), and the Common Scrub Pine (P. inops) — ( Virginiana) and also the Black Spruce (Picea mariana) which is a common and valuable tree on some 500,000 acres of the higher mountains and tablelands of this State. Trees varying from five inches in diameter to the largest, finest speci- mens of the five species of pine mentioned, and of the black spruce, were found dying in different sections from a cause which it was my duty to investigate. A large number of the dead, dying, and living trees were felled and examined. Every part of the trees from the roots near the sur- face to the terminal twigs and leaves was carefully searched for possible causes of their unhealthy condition. The trees in the bast condition to examine were those on which the leaves \yare yet green, b,ut frqrn. their 294 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION general appearance indicated that they had been attacked by the charact- eristic trouble which was shown in a few yellow leaves at the tops. The roots of such trees were found in a perfectly healthy condition for some distance beneath the surface; the bark on the trunks from a distanc of from five to fifteen feet from the base was green, full of sap, and apparently healthy; the leaves were almost free from insect attack or disease, in no case was there sufficient attack of this nature to indicate even a slight injury; the bark, however, at a point about two-thirds up from the base of the tree, was found in every case to be infested by Dendroctonus frontalis in sufficient numbers to kill all the bark for some distance above that point, and in this bark fully developed bee- tles and pupae were fonnd on May 5th, thus indicating that the eggs must have been deposited in the bark the previous summer or fall. All of the characteristic dead and dying pine and spruce trees examined showed abundant evidence that they had been invaded while yet living by this bark beetle. It would seem that the turpentine escaping into the burrows made by the beetles in the living bark would render the conditions unfavorable for the progress of their work. They have, however, the power of removing it from their burrows, and they manipulate the sticky resinous substance with seemingly as much ease and in a like manner as the crawfish does the clay it piles up around its burrow. Often a half teaspoonful of the pitch will be found massed about the entrance to the burrows made by the beetle. The}7 push the turpentine out through a hole kept open in the pitchy, adhesive mass. I have observed them backing out from the en- trance, shoving behind them a quantity of turpentine, and at the same time they would be completely enveloped by it. Trees invaded by these beetles the previous fall may remain green until spring when they are usually attacked by the large Dendroctonus terebrans, Hylurgops glabratus and Tomicus calligraphus, the-two former at the base of the tree, the latter in the green bark above. They are in turn followed by numerous species of bark and timber beetles nntil the invaded trees may be, as I have found, the hosts of at least twenty-five species of scoly- tids coming like reinforcements to the aid of D frontalis to make doubly sure of the death of the invaded trees. Later on, these Scolytids are fol- lowed by insects belonging to other families until a dead or dying tree may be the host of hundreds of species and millions of examples, breeding in and feeding upon every part of the tree from the base to the terminal twigs, rendering it worthless for lumber within a year after it dies. It will be seen that Dendroctonus frontalis may be the primary cause of not only the death of the trees but of their rapid decay. West Va. Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, West Va. , July 20, 1892. THE CONSIDERATION OF REMEDIES. As stated in a subsequent article to Insect Life, a copy 01 which will be found further on in this report, the possibility of applying a remedy against the rapidly spreading ravages of the destructive bark beetle seemed out of the question, but when it was found in June, 1892, that the insects had just commenced their attack upon the extensive forests of black spruce and white pine, it indicated that possibly some method could be THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 295 discovered by which the then healhty and more valuable port- ions of these forests could in a measure, be protected. The methods of cutting and burning the infested trees, or removing the bark, as is practiced in European forests against like troubles, was, owing to the existing conditions in our for- ests, impossible, or at least impractable. THE IMPORTATION OF NATURAL ENEMIES OF BARK BEETLES CON- SIDERED. Upon my finding, early in 1891, that the European fruit bark beetle, Scolytus rugulosus, was quite common and destructive to fruit trees in various sections of the State, which, in addition to the devastations previously observed in the spruce forests, which was believed to be the work of bark beetles, I realized that we had among the introduced and native bark beetles, some of the most destructive forest and fruit tree pests known, and that in the study of their habits, life histories, natural enemies, anTd methods of combatting them, was a great prob- lem demanding special attention. In the consideration of remedies at that time, it occurred to me that if some parasitic and predaceous enemies of bark beetles could be imported from Europe, that possibly they would render valuable service in keeping our destructive species within proper bounds, since it was then thought (Bulletin 17, p. 99,) as subsequent obser- vations demonstrated, that the bark beetles can kill trees only when occuring in excessivive numbers, and that if for any cause the excess is reduced, their destructive powers are ended, so far as attacking and killing trees is concerned, and that any- thing which will prevent their excessive multiplication, will, at the same time, prevent further death of trees from their attack. In the following July, when I found that the pine timber was dying evidently from the attack of bark beetles, I gave the subject of importation of parasites especial attention, as the following correspondence and accounts of subsequent events will show. Through the kindness of the Government Entomol - ogist, Dr. C. V. Kiley, I was, in June, 1891, placed in corres- pondence with one of the Emperor's chief Oberforesters, W. 296 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Eichhoff of Strassburg, Germany, a renowned specialist in the study of European bark beetles (Scolytidae), who desired to obtain a large series of specimens of bark beetles from this country for study. After sending him specimens of all the species I had then collected, which he kindly examined and identified for me, I made the following request which was the first active measure taken towards the contemplated importa- tion of parasites, as a means of controlling distructive bark beetles. Extract from letter to Mr. Eichhoff, dated Oct. 12th, 1891: "I regard to a further sending from you I would sa}r that if after you have named for me the beetles in both of my sendings, you desire to send me any more, I would be pleased to have some specimens of insects which are known to destroy your most injurious species of Scolytid ; in fact, I would like to arrange to have you select and send me live pupae of some of the parasites of your scolytidae, which you think might be of benefit to us in destroying some of our injurious species here. Parasites which would attack Scolytus ruyulosus, Polyyraphus rufipennis, Dendroctonus terebrans, or D.frontalis, might prove of great benefit to us, if we can succeed in propagating them." Mr. Eichhoff, in reply to this letter, kindly sent me a large number of pinned specimens of parasitic add predaceous in- sect enemies of European Scolytids. THE PINE AND SPRUCE THREATENED WITH TOTAL DKSTRUCTION. After making a thorough investigation of the spruce and white pine forests in June and July, 1892, as previously men- tioned, and having ascertained beyond all question that the true cause ot the trouble was due to the attack of the pine bark beetle, which was materially aided by numerous other species of bark beetles, 1 realized that the early and total destruction of the pine and spruce timber of the State, as well as of the eastern and southern United States, was not only possible but probable, if the progress of the invasion was not in some way abated or checked. Finding that the trouble had just commenced in the spruce, and that there were large bodies of healthy white pine which had not been invaded, I was led to believe that the previously contemplated experiment of introducing natural enemies of bark beetles from Europe was worthy of a trial, and that possi- bly such enemies, if successfully located around the borders THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 297 of the healthy portions of the forests, would attack the Den- droctonus and its principal allies, and thus, in co-operation with other native natural enemies of the bark beetles, serve to re- duce the excess and thus aid in checking the trouble. I there- fore returned to the Station on July 6th, 1892, determined to take active measures for securing a sufficient number of Euro- pean enemies of Scolytids with which to conduct the contem- plated experiment. After consulting with the Director of the Ex- periment Station, the following brief report of the conditions as I had observed them, and recommendations with reference to an experiment of introducing natural enemies from Europe was sent out under the head of "Special Correspondence to Owners of Spruce and White Pine Timber" to all of the prin- cipal companies owning pine and spruce timber in the State, so far as addresses could be obtained. Following is a copy of this report : SPECIAL CORRESPONDENCE TO OWNERS OP SPRUCE AND WHITE PINE TIMBER IN W. VA. (Circular Letter.) As Entomologist of the West Virginia Experiment Station, I have re- cently conducted extensive investigations in the pine and spruce forests of the eastern portion of the State, for the purpose of ascertaining the extent and cause of the unhealthy condition of the pine timber. I have just now returned from the second investigation of the trouble, and have found it to be of such serious consequence to the State, and especially to those having large investments in our spruce and white pine, that I feel it my duty to inform the principle owners of the conditions as I have observed them from a scientific standpoint, trusting that the in- formation mav aid you in your deliberations regarding the matter. EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE TROUBLE. From personal observation, I found the unhealthy condition of the scrub, yellow, pitch, table mountain and white pine to extend from the Maryland line on the north, through Mineral, Hampshire, Hardy, Grant, Pendleton, Pocahontas and Greenbrier counties to Summers and Raleigh counties on the south. From inqniry and correspondence, I learn that the trouble also extends through the western part of Virginia for about the same distance, including an area of possibly 10,000 square miles in both States; I should think 10% of the white pine and 75% of all other species of pine found growing in this region, is either dead or dying. In the spruce, "yew pine," from near Hendricks on the West Virginia Cen- tral, through Tucker, Randolph and Pocahontas counties to Traveler's Repose, the timber is just commencing to die in groups of from a few trees to possibly a thousand; these groups being scattered through the forest, most common near the infested pine districts of Pendleton county. The 298 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. dying trees on about one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand acres, as observed during a six days' journey through the forest between the point mentioned, would be about one per cent., possibly not over one-half of one per cent. CAUSE OF THE TROUBLE. The primary cause of the unhealthy condition of the pine and spruce. I have found to be the result of attacks of a single species of insect known to science as Dendroctonus frontalis, to which we will give the common name of destructive pine bark beetle. Heretofore this species has been a rare insect, and but very little was known of its habits and history. During the two investigations in the region mentioned, I have carefully examined a large number of dead, dying and green trees of all the species of pine and of black spruce. In every case I have found abundant evi- dence that the insect mentioned was the cause of the trouble, the trees having evidently been in a healthy condition at the time they were in- vaded by the beetle. The destructive pine bark beetle is a small black, hard-shelled "bug" one-eighth of an inch long. It is found most common in the infested trees under the bark on the main trunks at a point about two-thirds up from their base near the first branches or forks, this being the point where they make their first attack. The beetles evidently attack the tree soon after the sap goes down in August, when they bore through the bark to the outer sapwood, extending their galleries or egg chambers twelve to fourteen inches through the inner portion of the bark and just touching the sapwood. In these galleries, they deposit great numbers of eggs, which soon hatch into minute white grubs which proceed to bore through and feed upon the tender inner bark until they are full grown, (about half as large as rice grains.) They then enter the outer or dry bark where they change to the beetle or perfect form. They probably pass the winter in all stages of growth, from newly hatched to full grown grubs, and in the spring, they change to the beetles and emerge from the bark, leaving it pierced with millions of small round holes. The beetles which emerge in the spring breed in the green portions of the bark on the same trees from which they emerge, and also in trees injured but not killed by the attack of the insect the previous fall. This second brood matures and emerges in time to attack the trees in August and during the fall, as at first. Some of the earliest trees attacked may die during the fall and early winter, but by far the larger portion of them die the following spring when, on account of the unhealthy condition brought about as above stated, hundreds of other species of insects are attracted to them and their death is rapidly hastened. The yellow, pitch and white pine are rapidly rendered worthless after they commence to die, both from the blue condition, probably caused by the souring of the sap, and by numerous insects boring in the wood; the one which is especially destructive being what is known as the "sawyer." This destructive borer is hatched from eggs deposited in the bark of the affected trees by a large, gray, long-horned beetle. The grubs feed for a time under the bark, and as they attain their growth, they enter the wood, often penetrating the tree to its heart. When they are common in a tree they soon render it worthless for lumber. This large borer also at- tacks the spruce trees and logs, but seldom causes much damage. The spruce, on account of its thin sap wood, is not so liable to injury from "bluing" or from wood-boring insects, may remain sound and, all except the sapwood be profitably worked into lumber and pulp for a number of years after they die, varying from three to five or six years. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 299 POSSIBLE METHOD OP CHECKING THE TROUBLE. The fact is that the trouble has now extended over an area in Virginia and West Virginia of at least 10,000 square miles during the last three years, killing possibly 75% of all the large pine except the white pine, making the trouble appear to be beyond control, at least as far as the yellow, pitch and scrub pine is concerned. In regard to^the spruce and white pine, they are the last to be attacked by this destroying beetle, thus indicating that they are naturally more capable of resisting the attack. Therefore, any natural or artificial means that would reduce the num- bers of the beetles or prevent their increase would possibly check the trouble entirely in the spruce and white pine. It is only through the attack of great numbers of these beetles that they are capable of killing the trees, therefore, any method which would even slightly reduce their numbers might be the turning point lead- ing to their natural death from lack of proper conditions for their multiplication. It seems necessary that they kill the trees in which they breed, and, if at any time there is not enough of them to kill the trees, this-will end their destructive existence. The only apparent way to accomplish the above end is through the natural appearance or artificial introduction of some disease or insect which will prey upon the destructive beetle and thus reduce its num- bers. A species of disease has been discovered by us which is killing them to some extent in the pine, but the beetle seems to have few insect enemies in the country. SIMILAR TROUBLES CONTROLLED BY THE NATURAL APPEARANCE AND ARTIFI- CIAL INTRODUCTION OF INSECTS. A similar trouble in the spruce between 1882 and 1889, when at least 10% of the 500,000 acres of spruce in the State was evidently killed by the spruce bark beetle (Polygraphus rufipennis) was, I have every reason- to believe, reduced beyond its destructive power by the natural appearance and increase of at least six species of insects which feed upon it. It is a demonstrated fact that the introduction of a species of the "Lady Bug" from Australia for the purpose of feeding on and destroying a de- structive orange insect in California resulted in the almost total destruc- tion of the orange insect and a saving of millions of dollars to the orange growers of the State. It has therefore seemed to me very possible that if we could introduce certain insects that would feed upon the destructive pine bark bee- tle, a great saving might be effected at a comparative light expense. As I know of no insect in this country which would likely be effectual, it oc- curred to me that some foreign species known to feed on beetles similar to this one if introduced might have the desired effect. Upon my return from the first investigation in May, I wrote to my correspondent in Strassburg, Ger- many, who is one of the best informed entomologists, and the Emperor's overseer of the forest of Elsass, asking him if he would procure and send me certain species which were known to be very beneficial to their forests. His prompt reply which I have just received, informs me that old age and poor health would prevent him from aiding me in the experiment, but re- ferred me to another party in Saxony who would doubtless give me the desired information and aid. I shall make every effort in my power to secure as many friendly insects as possible from Europe, which should arrive here in time for them to be introduced into the forest by the middle of August, or^first of September. I shall communicate with the party mentioned, by cablegram in order 300 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION that no time may be lost, and if I find that the desired species can be pro- cured, it may be necessary to make a special trip to Germany and France for the purpose of making certain the securing and safe transportation of a large number and variety of such insects as might be useful to us. The law under which we are employed will not, however, allow the ex- penditure of any large amount of money upon any one department to the detriment of others ; therefore if the lumber interests of the State will agree to share the necessary expense of securing such insects, it may be speedily accomplished. Signed, A. D. HOPKINS, Entomologist, West Va. Agr. Morgantown, W. Va., July 11, 1892. Experiment Station. Each copy of the above report was accompanied by the fol- lowing letter, dated July 12th, 1892: DEAR SIR : •'Enclosed you will find a special condensed report of my investigations in the pine and spruce forests of this State, which I trust will be of inter- est and value to you. The only remedy I can think of to prevent the spread of the trouble in the spruce and white pine, is set forth in the closing paragraph." Prompt replies to this communication were received from the following persons who represented the principal owners of spruce and white pine in the State: Hon. J. N. Camden, President W. Va. & Pittsburg R. R. Co. ; Mr. E. L. Tunis, Gen'l Manager Condon Lane Boom & Lumber Co. ; and Robert R. Henderson, President Cumberland Lumber Co.; all of whom expressed a willingness to contribute to the expenses of carrying on the experiment. In the mean- time, I had received a reply to my letter to Oberforester Eich- hoff. The following extracts from this letter may be of interest: CORRESPONDENCE WITH ENTOMOLOGISTS IN GERMANY. Letter from Oberforester Eichhoff. STRASSBURG, ELSASS, \ Aarstaden, No. 3, June 26, 1892. J MOST HONORED SIR: I have received both of your last letters but through continued sickness have been prevented from writing to you sooner. I cannot now give you my personal co-operation in furthering your scheme of importing Clerus formicarius to America, however, willing I might be to assist in the matter. You will understand this when I here- with inform you that within a very short time I reach my seventieth birthday. A man so old who does not possess the necessary activity, should not engage in such investigations as yoar proposition demands. When 1 further communicate to you that I am not generally able to leave my house at all on foot, and in a carriage only during favorable weather, and, that within my house can only, with pain and trouble, go from one room to another ; you will understand what I have said above. I also feel that I have but a short time yet to live, therefore, I hope you will endeavor to have some other person assisc in the undertaking. However, I might commend to you for this undertaking Mr. Director < 1. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 301 Schaufuss, of the Museum of Meissen (Kingdom of Saxony) and transfer the request to him. I believe he will be the one to give best advice. He possesses abundant insect collectors throughout the country and would also make entomolgical exchanges with you. * * * * * * How the second of your bark beetles ( (D. frontalis) may be sup- pressed I do not know, because the life history of this insect is not entirely known to me. I possess, all told, only two specimens of this beetle, one, if I mistake not, from yoii and one from the lately deceased Dr. C. A. Don of Stitten. In conclusion, because of my sickness, I once more ask an apology for this delayed answer. Now farewell, with highest esteem besides, Your most devoted ElCHHOPF. Upon receipt of Mr. EickhhofPs letter I at once wrote to Di- rector Schaufuss as follows : Oberforester W. Eichhoff, of Strassburg, has referred me to you in a recent letter, saying that you would be one who could help me in a con- templated experiment in introduciug some live European insects to this country. * * * As Entomologist of this station, I am anxious to try the experiment of importing some live-specimens of Clerus formicarius and such other Clerids which in your judgment might feed upon D.frontalis. If you will kindly aid in the experiment, I will give you full credit for your share of the transaction and pay such reasonable expenses as may be necessary in obtaining and sending the specimens. If you are willing to do so, please answer yes, or no by cablegram the following questions: 1st. Do you know of any scolytid eating insect in Germany, France or Norway which could be obtained in numbers in the month of August? 2d. Could you undertake to collect and send me live adults or pupae, I paying cost. 3d. I can and will, if necessary, visit Europe for the purpose of collect- ing these live Clerids, etc. .Will it be possible for you to direct me where I can collect them in August?" In reply to this letter I received a cablegram stating, U2d, YES," which indicated to me that the desired insects were to be had, and realizing that if they were te be introduced into the forests here during the fall of 1892, there was no time for nego- tiating in Germany by correspondence, it was decided that in order to secure as many examples as possible and insure the safe importation, it would be necessary for me to personally super* intend the collecting and shipping of the -first lot, and to en- gage collections and give instructions with reference to subse- quent shipments, whereupon the following letter was addressed to the parties who had expressed a willingness to aid in the ven- ture: LETTER TO TIMBER COMPANIES. "I have just received .a cablegram from my correspondent Entomolo- gist in Saxony indicating that the desired beneficial species of insects which we wish to import for the purpose mentioned in our previous cor- 302 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION respondent, are now to be had there. If we are to procure them, it will be necessary for me to start immediately, and I am preparing to leave here for that purpose on the 15th inst. In addition to the other two firms of whom I have advised you, the St. Lawrence Boom and M'f'g Co. signify their perfect willingness to pay their proportion of the expenses.' If, therefore,' no others come in, your proportion of the estimated expenses will be a fourth share of $600 (the estimated expense over and above the moneys available out of our funds.) If others should come in, the pro rata will be correspondingly reduced for all. If your firm still desires to share in this venture please remit your portion as stated, to Dr. John A. Myers, Director. Should my expenses prove less than the amount con- tributed we will reimburse all pro rata. Calling your attention to the earliness of the date necessary for my de- parture, which depends upon the above contributions, I remain," * * AMOUNTS CONTRIBUTED BY OWNERS OF TIMBER. In reply to this letter the following named companies promptly forwarded the amount indicated: The Condon-Lane Boom and Lumber Co., through E. L. Tunis, Bretz, W. Va $150 The W. Va. & Pittsburgh R. K. Co., through J. N. Cam- den, its President , « 150 The St. Lawrence Boom and M'f'g Co., Ronceverte, W. Va., through E. C. Best 150 The Cumberland Lumber Co., Cumberland, Md., through Robert R. Henderson, Pres 150 Contributions were subsequently received as follows: E. A. Monaghan, Lock Haven, Pa. 75 J. R. Beaty & Co., Crow, W. Va. 75 Making a total of $750, to which amount the Station Commit- tee authorized the addition of $150 from the Station funds, wherefore the following letter of instructions was handed to me by the Director of the Station : LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS. MR. A. D. HOPKINS, Entomologist : "At a meeting of the Station Committee of the Board of Regents of the West Virginia University held August llth, 1892, at the Experiment Station, the following orders were passed: Ordered 1st. "That A. D. Hopkins, Entomologist of the W. Va. Agri- cultural Experiment Station be directed to proceed to Europe in the quest of such insect parasites as in his judgment will, when introduced into the State, check the destruction of our forests by the insect pest at present causing such widespread injury to our pine and spruce timber. 2d. That to assist in paying the expenses of this trip, $150 of the funds of 'the Station be devoted to the payment of the cost of the experiment, THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 303 and that so much of the funds contributed by the respective lumber com- panies as may not be expended in the work be returned to them pro rata, should there be any remaining after the experiment has been made. 3d. Ordered, that those companies who have, or will contribute their pro rata to the expenses of the experiment shall be first considered in the distribution of these insect parasites, and that the bulk of the im- ported insects shall be distributed upon the property of these several com- panies. In accordance with these orders you will please make arrangements as soon as possible to proceed to Europe to carry out the objects of the above orders. Large latitude is given you in regard to the selection of points to be visited, the principal object of the trip being to accomplish successful results. The neceesary funds not exceeding $600 will be placed subject to your order to enable you to meet the legitimate expenses of the trip, and to employ such help in Europe and to purchase such cases, apparatus, etc., as may be necessary for you to successfully carry out the objects of the expedition. It is not presumed that the time required for you to accom- plish the objects of the trip will be more than six to eight weeks, and the necessary leave of absence from the Station is hereby granted. JOHN A. MYERS, Director. ACCOUNT OF MISSION TO EUROPE. Upon the receipt of the Director's instructions the necessary preparations for the journey were made and I left Morgantown on August 16th, sailed from New York on the 17th, and arrived in Strassburg, Germany, on the 27th, via Liverpool, London, New Haven, Dieppe, and Paris. The next day after arriving in Strassburg, I called on Oberforester W. Eichhoff at his home, and obtained from him valuable information and important official documents, by means of which 1 was to have both un- restricted access to the Emperor's forests, and the co-operation of the forest officials in furthering the objects of the mission. This, unexpected and exceedingly kind and thoughtful provision for the undelayed prosecution of the work was most encourag- ing, but Mr. Eichhoif's expressions of doubt as to the possibili- ties of finding the desired insects in any quanity, and especially in the desired condition for successful transportation to America, was equally discouraging. I told him, that I espec- ially desired to find a section in the pine and spruce forests where the trees had been recently injured by storms or other causes, and I was pleased to learn from him of two localities where the desired conditions would probably be found, one in the extensive forests of Pinus sylevstris, near flagenau, in Elsass, the other in the white spruce -forests of the Vosges 304 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. mountains, near Aberschwiller in Loraine, (Lothringen), I felt confident from my knowledge of the habits of American ex- amples of the family of insects to which the most desired species belong, that here I would meet with some success. INVESTIGATIONS NEAR HAGENAU. The Desired Beneficial Insect Found. The next morning, August 28th, I proceeded to Hagenau where I arrived at 11 A. M. and at once went to the office of Oberforester Strahmeyer, and informed him of the object of my mission, expressing at the same time, a desire to visit a section of the forest indicated by Oberforester Eichhoff. Oberforester Strahmeyer manifested his interest in the undertaking and a desire to give encouragement and assistance by detailing his son and a forest official to accompany me. After lunch, we en- gaged a cab and proceeded into the forest which was entered a few miles out of the city limits. We had only proceeded a few hundred yards along the street which led into it when I ob- served some trees which had been broken by snow during the previous winter. Upon making an examination of these trees I found that the bark was infested with bark beetles and the first cut I made into the outer bark revealed a larva of the desired insect ( Clerus formicarius.) Further search revealed an adult, and in a short time we were engaged in collecting all stages of the insect. Even the driver impelled by our enthusiasm, armed with his jack knife, proceeded to dig into the bark for the "kafer" ( beetle.) Within two or three hours we had secured 49 examples of the Clerid — 12 adults, 35 larvae and 2 pupae. In ad- dition to these, 50 cocoons and 2 adults of a Braconid parasite of the bark beetles were taken. After making some further ob- servations as to suitable localities in which to prosecute our search on the morrow, we returned to Hagenau well pleased with the results of the first few hours' work on my second day in Germany. The next morning we started out to make a general survey of that portion of the forest in which the broken timber occur- THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 305 red. We succeeded in adding 50 more examples to the collection, and in finding a number of sec- tions of the forest where the insects occurred in great numbers, but ow- ing to my supply of vials having been exhausted from the necessity of placing but a single Clerid in each1 no further collections could be made at that time. Therefore, after securing a number of good photographs of some interesting features of the forest, (some of which are reproduced, see Figs. XXXVI, XXXVII and XLIV), we returned to my hotel at Hagenau, where I was entertained during the evening by Oberforester Strahmeyer in the hearty manner characteristic of German hospitality. The next day after an exceedingly interesting exploration of the forest on the east oi the city, accompanied by Oberforester Strahmeyer and his son, I returned to Strassburg, and in the evening called on Oberforester EichhofF, to report my success. RETURN TO STRASSBURG. After dinner with Mr. EichhofF and spending a most enjoy- able and profitable evening in the company of this renowned and classic specialist in the study of Scolytidae, and in looking over his elaborate collection of bark and timber beetles and their work, I returned to my hotel and made preparations to 1 It was found that if more than one adult or larva were placed together in a bottle or box, that they would attack each other and one or both would soon die from the in- jury, or that a strong one would completely devour weaker ones placed within its reach. Fig. XXXVI.— View in cultivated forest of pinus sylvestris near Hagenau, Germany. 306 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. go on to Dresden in the morning where I hoped to be able to secure a sufficient and much need supply of small vials into which the Clerids could be placed as collected. INVESTIGATIONS IN SAXONY. I left Strassburg at noon on Sept. 1st and ar- rived in Dresden,. Sax- ony, via Frankfort and Leipzig in the evening of the same day. Here I ob- tained the desired collect- ing material,and the next day proceeded to Meis- sen, where I arrived at 3 p. M., Sept. 2d. I soon found Director Schaufuss at his museum, and we made arrangements to make an excursion into the forests the next day. In company with Mr. Schaufuss and one of the artists from the King's Porce- lain Works, who is also an Entomologist, we made an early start on the morning of Sept. 3d, and entered the King's forest near Moritzburg, where, after obtaining permission from the authori- ties, we commenced a vigorous search for Clerids. No broken or injured trees occurred here as in the Hagenau forest, but ex- amples of pine trees of various sizes were found which had died within the last twelve months. In the bark of the first one of these trees examined, both larvae and adults of the desired in- sect were found. The bark had been removed from the lower portion of the trunks of the greater number of standing dead trees for the purpose of destroying the bark beetles. Therefore, it was onlyjwhere the work had not been thorough, and a portion of the bark had been lefton the base of the trunk that we were Fig. XXXVII.— Street in cultivated pine forest: near Hagenau, Germany. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 307 enabled to find the clerids which invariably make their pupa cases in the outer soft bark, and as a rule, in that at the base of the tree. Although but few trees were found in the proper condition for Clerids, we succeeded during the day in collecting 53 larvae, 2 pupae and 2 adults. So common were they in the bark of some trees that a dozen or more were taken from pieces of bark five or six inches square. If the bark had not been removed from the trees, we would certainly have secured several hundred examples. It was evident to me that if the practice ot removing the bark from the base of the dead and dying trees was for the purpose of destroying the bark beetles, more harm than good had probably resulted, since the bark beetles appeared to have occurred in the greatest num- bers on the upper part of the trunk where the bark had not been removed; while the beneficial Olerid had either been destroyed in the bark, which had been taken from the base of the tree and burned, or they had been deprived of this, their favorite place for pupating. We arrived at Moritzburg in the even- ing, and after dining at the hotel in the village and visiting the ancient uJag- dschloss" or king's hunting castle, we returned to Meissen, where we arrived at 11 p. m., much fatigued from our long tramp through the forest. The next day being Sunday, I was enter- Fig. XXXVIII.— Six pupa cases of the European bark beetle destroyer in tained by Mr. Schaufuss at his home, and with him visited points of interest, including the Agri- cultural Experiment School, which corresponds somewhat to our Experiment Stations. RETURN TO STRASSBURG THROUGH BAVERA AND BADEN-BADEN. On Monday I returned to Dresden in company with Mr. Schaufuss. After visiting many points of interest and arrang- ing with Mr. Schaufuss to procure as many examples of the WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Clerid as possible within the next three days, and forward them to me at Strassburg, I left Dresden on the night train for Strassburg, going via Munich, Constance, and the Schwarts Wald railroad, through the Bavarian and Black Forests. Some striking features of the forest area of Bavaria, as viewed from the train the next day were the prevalence of spruce, evidently the Norway spruce (Abies excelsa), and the evidence of a most thoroughly executed forestry policy. A feature of special in- terest was the encouragement of insectiverous birds by pro- viding for them small and neat nesting boxes in the trees. These were observed by the thousands as we passed through the forest. The methods adopted for the control of the noune rnoth, which is the great enemy of the Bavarian conifers, was another interesting feature. Apparently every tree, large and small, over extensive areas in some sections, has a belt of the outer bark removed from the trunk a few feet above the base, and the smooth surface covered with a black, sticky substance to prevent the caterpillars from ascending the trees. The condition in the great Black Forest in the mountains of Baden-Baden were also of especial interest, as viewed from the car window, both in its wide expanse, and the evident care be- stowed upon it, both to preserve the timber and the land on the precipitous slopes. Upon my arrival in Strassburg on Sept. 7th, 1 received my first letters from home, informing me that great alarm was felt for my safety because of the exaggerated accounts in the American papers of the cholera epidemic in Germany, the existence of which had not given me much concern on my own account, but the possibility of my collection of Olerids being destroyed at the quarantine stations by the severe fumigation that all packages from Germany were subjected to, caused me considerable worry. INVESTIGATIONS CONTINUED NEAR HAGENAU. After a day's rest in Strassburg, I proceeded to Hagenau on the morning of the 8th, arriving there at 8 a. m. After calling on Oberforester Strahmeyer, I engaged a cab, and accompanied THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 309 by the Oberforester's first assistant, proceeded directly to the forests where we arrived at 9:15 a. m., and at once commenced a vigorous seach for (Jlerids. Although it rained incessantly and very hard, we were so successful that by 11:40 a. m., 187 living examples of the Clerids had been secured, but owing to the rain we were compelled to abandon the work. We then returned to Hagenau, and after lunch 1 called on Ober forester Strahmeyer and obtained from his son, Mr. H. Strahmeyer, 180 examples of the Clerids which he had collected for me during my absence in the Kingdom of Saxony, and after engaging him to secure as many more as possible, within the next two days, I left Hagenau by rail for Aberschwiller in Loraine. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE VOSGES MOUNTAINS, LORAINE. I hoped to find abundant material in the spruce forest near the source of the river Siar, in the central Vosges Mountains where I had learned that much timber had been broken down by heavy snows. We arrived at Aberschwiller that night, and the next morning called on Oberforester Piltz who kindly accom- panied us by carriage, narrow gauge railroad, and on foot, into the midst of the great forest of white spruce. Here was found a most remarkable and interesting feature of the forest de- struction by storm and snow. GREAT DESTRUCTION OF TIMBER BY SNOW AND WIND. It appeared from information obtained from Oberforester Plitz that on the 30th of March, 1892, while a thick and heavy mantle of wet snow was on the foliage and branches of the trees a severe wind storm corning from the east swept a path through the forest from near Shermec, in Elsass over the Donan mountains and across Loraine to Cornnauexan in France, cutting a path from four to five miles wide, and over twelve miles long, in which almost every tree was prostrated. Over a greater portion of the area the tall, straight and matured spruce trees had stood so thick that their prostration was made the more complete by the great weight of snow. In fact, when the trees commenced to fall on the border of the forest, the others against which they fell were pushed down in the same manner 310 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION as is a row of dominoes when set on end and the first one is made to fall against the second. Thus, all of the trees were prostrated in one direction, not crossed and tangled as is the case when timber is blown down by the wind alone. At the tjme of our visit all of the half million of prostrated trees had been counted, the quantity of timber estimated, and what was more surprising and interesting, every tree had been stripped of its bark from root to top to prevent the attack of a bark beetle, ( Pityogenes curvidens), and after a timber beetle Xyloterus lineatus, the larter is believed to be identical- with our spruce bark beetle, 'Xyloterus bivittatus. The bark, large branches and even the small twigs had been cut into short lengths and neatly pilled or tied in bundles to be sold for fuel. The bark was removed by contract as soon as possible after the timber fell, and the price paid being 30 phenigs (15 cents) per cubic meter. One cubic meter equals about 1-4 of a cord. One man could peel an average of about nine trees a day. While I felt very well repaid for visiting this region, in what was learned by the action of snow and storms, and of systems of forestry management under government control, I was disap- pointed in not finding the conditions favorable for the Olerids. In fact over this vast area of felled timber, there was no place for bark beetles to breed, and consequently, nothing to attract the Clerids. An earnest search was made among the standing timber for trees that were dying from the attack of the little spruce bark beetle, Pityogenes curvidens, which attacks the bark on the upper portion of the tree in the same manner as does our destructive pine bark beetle. A SPECIAL FAVOR. The Oberforester ordered a large tree that showed some indi- cations of attack, to be felled especially for my inspection. In consideration of the value of the trees and the fact that so many trees were already down was an unexpected favor, and one which was greatly appreciated. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 311 Just as we were leaving the forest, and too late to look for Clerids, a small spruce tree was observed that was evidently dy- ing from the attack of the bark beetle, Pityogenes curvidens. A hurried examination revealed a number of examples of this species. We returned to Aberschwiller at 5 p. m., wet and tired from our day's tramping through the forest in the rain. It had not only rained hard all day, but had turned quite cold which con- tributed all the more to our discomfort. RETURN TO HAGENAU. The next morning we returned to Hagenau where we arrived at 9 a. m., and after luncheon we proceeded to the forest where in four hours 1 collected 225 examples of the Clerid. Mr. Bal- douf, (the Landforestmister), my guide, and the driver together secured 175, making 400 living specimens collected in that bhort time, which is sufficient evidence of the abundance of this insect where the conditions are favorable for it. A large number, possibly 250 or more, were either killed or injured in cutting them out of the bark. Since these were of no value to us they were not taken or even count- ed. The Clerid was exceedingly common in the bark of some of the injured trees, and was frequent in all that were infested by the bark beetles. OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF Flg. xxXIX.-Adult of European bark beetle destroyer, dorsal view. CLERUS FORM1CARIUS. Small fl8ure on the right natural size. From what I observed of the relation of the Clerid to the pine bark beetles, M. pinipeda and M. minor, which are among the principal enemies of the European pine forests, it was evident 312 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. LX.— Adult of European bark beetle destroyer feeding on bark beetle. to me that they were alone capable of preventing an ex- cessive increase of the bark beetles, (see Fig. LX,) and thus prevent an ex- tension of their rav- ages beyond the in- jured and felled trees. In many in- stances noted, the Clerid has so com- pletely destroyed (he young or larvae of the bark beetles that but very few matured examples could be found in otherwise would have contained the bark of the trees which many thousands. It was also evident that had it not been for the beneficial in- fluences of the Clerid in this forest where so much broken tim- ber occurred, that the numbers of bark beetles would have been sufficient to attack and kill the uninjured trees, as our Dendroctonus was doing in West Virginia. Fig. XLI. — Mouth parts of adult of European bark beetle destroyer. The injured trees were being rapidly worked up into lumber and fuel, in order to destroy the bark beetles and thus avoid a possible invasion by them the following spring, but I was con- vinced from what 1 had seen that while this was apparently an THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 313 important precaution, it did not seem necessary; since the Clerid had demonstrated its ability, under ordinary conditions, to keep the bark beetles under complete control. With this knowledge of the capacity of the Clerid in destroying bark Fig. XLIL— Larva of European bark beetle destroyer greatly enlarged. Fig. XLIIL— Pupa of European bark beetle destroyer greatly en- larged. beetles, I felt very well sat- isfied that if it could be suc- cessfully introduced into America, and would become established in our coniferous forests, that it would, under favorable conditions, accom- plish the desired end. We returned to the hotel at 5 p. in., and after making further arrangements with Mr. H. Strah- meyer to engage a sufficient force of help to collect the Clerids in the greatest possible numbers during my stay in Germany, and to collect and forward material to me after my return to America, I returned to Strassburg, where I arrived that night. FURTHER WORK PREVENTED BY A CHOLERA EPIDEMIC. Upon going to my hotel, I found a letter which, as the follow- ing extracts will show, presented some discouraging features to my proposed prosecution of the work, and when I had procured 314 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. XLIV.— Young pine forests, road, path and peasants, near Hagenau, Germany. some newspapers and read the alarming accounts of the condi- tions at Fire Island, N. Y., and on some of the steamers that had recently arrived in the JNew York harbor; also of the meas- ures taken to prevent the spread of cholera in Europe, I real- ized the necessity of discontinuing active operations, and that if I was to get away from Germany before winter, I must pro- ceed without delay into a country which was free from the disease. LETTER FROM DIRECTOR MYERS. MORGANTOWN, W. V~A. August 27th, 1892. DEAR SIR: "Since you left here, it is evident that you have run into a country at least more or less surrounded by cholera, and at present writing, cholera is announced at most of the German seaport towns from which the prom- inent steamship lines sail for this country. The same is true of France, and will doubtless be true in a few days of England. The effect of this will be that everything and everybody coming into New York will be thoroughly funigated and subjected to very rigid inspection until after the THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 315 cold weather shall have allayed the ravages of the disease. Such being the case, it will be useless for you to attempt to bring any insects alive through the treatment to which everything and everybody will be sub- jected upon entering this country, so that it will be necessary for you to ar- range to have these insects sent here after the quarantine regulations are changed. In fact, it may be difficult and dangerous for you to sail until cold weather shall have allayed the virulence of the attack in the Eu- ropean cities. My advice to you would be to keep out of the large cities, and if the cholera should spread rapidly in Germany, which it may do for a few weeks, it would bd best for you to go to some village out in the mountains where you can live cheaply and at the same time be free from danger of infection. I am not particularly uneasy about you, as I feel that you will take pains to avoid the disease, but I am convinced that so far as your being able to import any insects at present is concerned, your trip will be a fail- ure, and that all you can do will be to arrange to have the insects sent to you later. * * * Trusting that you may be successful, and that you may avoid all dangers, I remain, (Signed) JOHN A. MYERS, Director. After due consideration of the matter I decided to go in- to Switzerland and remain for a time in the Alps, where I felt safe from the disease and at the same time, obtain much needed rest and recreation. I spent the greater part of the day, which was Sunday, with Oberforester Eichhoff, and upon re- turning to my hotel, found a package from Director Schaufuss, containing 185 examples of the Clerid. This accession to the collection made a total of something over 1058 examples of the Clerid collected to date (Sept. 11.) Some 50 examples had died from injuries, leaving a little over 1,000 living examples which were in first class condition. TEN DAYS IN SWITZERLAND. After writing to Director Schaufuss and Mr. Strahmeyer in- forming them of the change in my plans, and notifying them to cease collecting Clerids until further notice, I proceeded by rail up the valley of the Rhine to Luzerne? in Switzerland, where I arrived in the evening of Sept. the 12th. I remained in Switzerland until September the 24th, visiting the various points of interest between Luzerne and Berne, but- spending the greater part of the time in the Lauterbrunnen Val- ley in company with Dr. Hillgard, the Director of the California Experiment Station and party, including his family, which I had the pleasure of meeting at Grindlewald. Among the many interesting features of my stay in Switzer- 316 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. land, but few are worthy of mention in this connection. I made collections of such insects and interesting plants of the Alps as I could find 1 and some interesting observations were make on features of Alpine forest management and insect enemies of trees. While on the Rigi I collected a number of various species of bark beetles on the snow, to which they had been attracted in their flight from the warmer valleys. Along the path that leads up the Great Scheideck through Schwarz- wald, I found a number of spruce trees at an altitude of possi- bly 5,000 feet that had been recently felled, in the bark of which the spruce bark beetle Tomicus cembrae occurred in enor- mous numbers. In the bark of these trees, I also had the good fortune to find a few Clerid larvae, evently of the same species as the ones collected in Germany. Subsequently I found in the bark of recently felled spruce trees, in the Lauterbrunnen Valley, both adults and larvae of Clerus formicarius,in com- pany with Tomicus cembrae and Dryocoetes autographus. Thus proving that the Clerid would attack bark beetles of different species, and that it would live in the spruce as well as the pine. Also evidence was found that it could survive at as high or higher altitudes than any in West Virginia. This discovery was of special interest, indicating as it did that the Clerid would adapt itself to all of the varied conditions and require- ment of the West Virginia forests, if it could be successfully introduced and established there. RETURN TO AMERICA. Finding by the 24th of September that I could get through France to England without much trouble or delay from quar- antine regulations, 1 left Switzerland via Berne, Delle and Col- las and arrived in London on the 25th, and from London pro- ceeded via Nottingham to Liverpool, from which point I sailed on the night of the 28th in the same steamer (City of New York) that brought me over. After a stormy but safe and pleasant voyage, I arrived in New York on the 5th of October. A brief examination of the 1 In Experiment Station Collections THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 317 passengers was made at quarantine, but our baggage was not fumigated. A portion of the collection of Clerids was kept in cold stor- age during the voyage and came through in first class condi- tion, as did these kept in my stateroom. As soon as possible after landing I proceed to the B. & O. depot in Jersey City, and in a few minutes was on my way home. STOP AT WASHINGTON AND ATTEND A MEETING OF THE ENTOMOLOGI- CAL SOCIETY. Arriving in Washington, D. O. on the morning of the 6th and having a few hours to spare, I called on the Government Ento- mologist, Dr. C. V. Biley, at his office in the Agricultural De- partment, for the purpose of consulting him with reference to the possibility of any harm coming from the introduction of the Clerid into America. He manifested a deep interest in the undertaking and insisted that I should remain in the city that day and attend a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington to be held that evening. Realizing that this would be a good opportunity to get an expression from some of the leading Entomologists of the country with reference to the good or harm that might result from the importation, before any were liberated, I decided to accept Dr. Riley's kind invita- tion to dinner and to accompany him to the meeting. During the day I found a number of species of bark beetles in a dying spruce tree standing in front of the Smithsonian In- stitution, the destructive pine bark beetle occurring in the bark of this tree in great numbers, In fact, the tree was evidently dying from the attack of this insect. Securing a number of living examples of the different species of bark beetles, I placed them in bottles with living adults of the imported Clerid, and was pleased to find that the Clerid attacked them with evident relish. This was shown at the meeting during the evening, and the ravenous appetite of the Clerid and its systematic method of attacking its victims was very interesting and was evidently appreciated by the members who saw it. The following extracts from the proceedings of the Society, Vol. 11, No. 3, p. 353, and the substance of my remarks, and as 318 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION published in Insect Life, Vol. V. No. 3, p. 187-9, is here pre- sented as an important feature in the history of the work. Extract from proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, Oct. 6th, 1892: REMARKS AT MEETING OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.1 "It appears that an unhealthy condition of the pine forests in West Vir- ginia and Virginia has existed in certain points in the Allegheny Moun- tain range and adjacent foot hills since about the year 1888, but had only attracted local attention until within the last two years, when its rapid spread and increasing devastation brought the matter to public notice, and it was referred to this Station, and to me, for investigation. I have, therefore, made two extended journeys through the eastern portion of our State, one in May and the other in Julv of this year, for the purpose of ascertaining the character and cause of the trouble and the extent of the damage, and also to discover, if possible, a remedy. It was found that when this trouble commences in a healthy forest, groups of trees numbering from two to a dozen or more are noticed dying the first year. The foliage of such trees first turns yellow and then red, as if killed by fire. The second year this pecular condition will have spread until the groups of dying trees extend over one to ten or more acres, and by the third year the entire forest of pine trees of all kinds, on hundreds of acres is often found dead and dying. After studying all the conditions found, and a due consideration of all the visible and probable elements which might produce them, I was con- vinced that a single species of Coleopterous insect, Dendroctonus frontalis was to blame for the primary attack and resulting death of the trees. From personal observation it was found that the dead and dying con- dition of the pine extends from near the Pennsylvania line in Maryland on the north, through Hampshire, Hardy, Grant, Pendleton, Randolph, Po- cahontas and Greenbrier, to Summers and Raleigh counties in West Vir- ginia on the south, and from inquiry and correspondence I learned that the same condition extends through about an equal area in Virginia. Therefore, it would seem that the ravages of this beetle extends over an area of at least 10,000 square miles, including portions of West Virginia, Virginia and Maryland, on which five species of pine and the spruce are being dam- aged and killed to a greater or less extent by them. In certain sections entire forests of pine, including all species on several square miles, are dead and have been a total loss. The greatest destruction has been in the for- ests of the common pitch pine (Finns rigida, Miller) and the scrub pine (Pinus Virginiana, Mill., or inops, Ait), and in the less common but less valuable yellow pine (Pinus echinata, Mill.) The extensive and valuable forests of black spruce (Picea mariana), and white pine (Pinus strobus L.) in West Virginia are being invaded by in- sects; therefore, owners who have large interests in such timber are be- coming alarmed. The ravages of the insects in the other pines have been of such a serious character, the spread so rapid, and the destruction so complete, that there is really good cause for alarm, and should this de- structive work continue in the spruce and white pine of our State, and the invasions of this insect extend into the great pine forests of the south- ern States, many millions of dollars will be added to the great loss already sustained. "Insect Life," Vol. V, page 187, January, 1893, THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 319 KEMEDIES CONSIDERED. At first, a remedy against the rapidly spreading ravages of the beetle, seemed out of the question, but when it was found that they had just commenced their attack upon the forests of black spruce and white pine it indicated that possibly some method could be found by which the healthy and more valuable portions of these forests could be protected. The "method of cutting and burning the first infested trees to destroy the insects was considered, but it was found that it could not be generally practiced in our West Virginia forests, owing to many difficulties and con- ditions rendering this as well as other like methods impracticable. The occurrence of a similar trouble in our spruce forests between 1882 and 1889 caused evidently, by the spruce bark beetle (Polygraphus rufipen- nis), was, I have every reason to believe, brought to an end principally by the appearance of some six species of parasites and predaceous insects, which were found preying upon it. This, together with the well known success of the introduction of Vedalia cardinalis from Australia into Cali- fornia, resulting in the destruction of the 7cer?/a, led me to consider methods of combating the destructive pine bark beetle, and to carry into effect a previously contemplated experiment of introducing certain insects from Europe to feed upon some of our injurious bark beetles. By correspondence with Oberforester Eichhoff of Strassburg, Germany. I learned that a certain beetle, Clems formicarius L., was a ''great de- stroyer of Scolytids" in the forests there, and from my knowledge of the habits of the nearly-related species, Thanasimus dubius, Fab., I felt that it would be a most desirable species to introduce into our forests to feed upon the destructive pine bark beetle, and possibly check it ravages. There- fore, the experiment of introducing this beneficial European species into our State for this purpose was recommended to our Station officials and to owners of the threatened spruce and white pine forests. This propos- ed experiment was at once approved and the Station, aided by liberal con- tributions from four of the principal lumber companies, sent me to Europe in quest of such insects as, in my judgment, would when intro- duced into our forests, accomplish the desired end. I, therefore, proceed- ed at once to Germany, sailing from New York on August 17, and arriving at Strassburg on August 27, and after visiting some of the principle pine and spruce forests of Aslace, Lorraine and Saxony, in Germany, Schwyz, Lucerne, and the Oberland Bernese Alps in Switzerland, I started back to America on September 25, with over one thousand live specimens of Clerus formicarius, which was found to be especially destructive fco var- ious bark beetles in all of the forests visited. * * * The following extracts, translated from an article in German published in "Science"1 in November, 1892, by Director Camil- lo F. Schaufuss of Meissen, Saxony, will give some additional information: "ON THE INTRODUCTION OP THE EUROPEAN BARK BEETLE DESTROYER (CLERUS FORMICARIUS), TO AMERICA." * * * * "it has certainly been very plainly seen in Nature that in her domain equilibrium should be retained. She has therefore placed a limit to the excess of individual animals, in which she causes their enemies to associate. Besides birds, insects have very many other destroyers, especially 1 Science [N. Y.) Vol. XX, 1892, pp 256-257. 320 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. among themselves. There is a large number of predaceous insects in all the orders, which like highway robbers, attack other individuals. On ac- count of the particular taste of the enemy they seize only certain kinds of food. Therefore, wherever nourishment occurs for insects their enemies are also associated with them, and finally malicious sneakers, the internal parasites, which are found in great abundance in the Hymenoptera and Diptera, prey upon their hosts. * * * * * * * In July of this year Mr. Andrew D. Hopkins, of the W. Va. Agr. Exp't Station at Morgantown, communicated to the readers of Science, Vol. XX,l how in late years the bark beetle, Dendroctonus front- alis, Zimm, has appeared in such vast numbers in West Virginia that upon a territory of 10,000 sq. miles 75% of all pine trees have been either injured or killed outright. * * * Therefore. Mr Hopkins has conceived the idea, that after he had observed how Clerus dubius. F. gave trouble to the Scolytids by thinning their ranks, to place with it Clerus formicm-i/tv. L. to help in its good work in order, at least, to do what is possible to over- come the enemy of the forest. Europe and North America have had for a long time an active com- merce between both sections of country and through the similarity of climate there has been a reciprocal exchange of injurious insects. I am reminded of the introduction of the potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decimlineata, Say) into Germany, and the cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae [ropae.] L.) into the United States. Why not also introduce beneficial insects? Mr. A. D. Hopkins did very well indeed to direct his attention to Eu- rope. And as a fact we have in Cterus formicarius a beetle that not only closely resembles in its appearance, size and color its American brother, Clerus dubius, F., but also similar to the latter in its mode of living. It is, as a larva, as well as adult, a keen enemy of the coniferous bark beetles. No matter whether the bark beetles live upon the pine or fir, the Clerid occurs in considerable numbers. For this reason Mr. Hopkins chose it [C. formicarius] for importation to America. In order to carry out his plan he pleased himself in communication with the eminent Scolytid specialist, Eichhoff and myself, and in August came to Europe to study the life history of the insects and collect them. Mr. Eichhoff wrote to me while Mr. Hopkins was collecting in Alsace that he [Hopkins] worked "with extraordinary skill and great success," and I can corroborate his particular view, as I was for many days in company with Mr. Hopkins in the Saxon forest searching for Clerids. We found the larvae, the pupae, even the emerging images in their artistic winter quarters within the bark. Thus, Mr. Hopkins can look with satisfaction upon the result of his journey for he took a large number of Clerids in all the localities visited, and for safety in transportation one half was packed in one way and the other half in another. And at that time probably but a-few would succumb, since by far the greater number had arrived at their winter rest. If on account of the exaggerated cholera scare, the quarantine does not destroy Mr. Hopkins' treasures the experiment of acclimatization can be com- menced in the spring. A sufficient additional batch will be provided by me to enable Mr. Hopkins' experiment to succeed." FIRST IMPORTED CLERIDS LIBERATED IN AMERICA. After my return to Morgantown on Oct. 7th, the subject of the distribution and colonization of the examples I had brought over with me was duly considered, and it was decided that 1 Quoted on another page. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 321 probably the best results would be gained by keeping the in- sects until the following spring when the conditions would be more favorable for them to survive. A great many of the larvae had entered the cork stoppers of the bottles, and had made therein their cocoons in which to change to pupae. It was therefore thought that this was the most. favorable conditions for them to pass the winter, and that they had best be not dis- turbed. It was feared, however, that the adults would not survive, but since there was not a sufficient number of these to justify a distribution to the timber companies, I decided to place them in pine woods near Morgantown where a number of trees were dying from the attack of the destructive bark bee- tle, and on Oct. 10th, 1892, 50 adults and 25 active larvae were placed on and in the bark of a group of dying scrub pines on Mayfield Hill, about seven miles from Morgantown, this colony being the first examples liberated in America. The liberated adults were observed by myself and Prof. F. W. Rane, who ac- companied me, to attack and devour the bark beetle, as well as other species of bark beetles which occurred on the bark of the trees. LETTER TO TIMBER COMPANIES, The parties who had contributed to the experiment were no- tified of my return, and the results of the expedition in a letter dated Oct. 13th, 1892, a copy of which is here given: October 13, 1892. DEAK SIR: You will no doubt be interested to learn of my return from Europe, and my success in finding an insect, which, I have every reason to believe will prove very beneficial as a destroyer of our destructive pine bark beetle. This beneficial insect, which has been named "The European Hark Beetle Destroyer", was found very common in certain forests in Germany, where it was feeding on a pine bark beetle similar in appearance and habits to our destructive species. I had hoped to collect large numbers of the species to introduce into our forests this fall, but on account of the cholera epidemic and the strict quar- antine and fumigating precautions, 1 felt it would be impossible for me to get live specimens to America in time for them to be of any service this year. I therefore, collected only a sufficient number with which to carry on experiments in the laboratory and green-house this winter, and after arranging with parties in different sections of Germany to collect and for- ward to us many thousands of the species next spring, I proceeded into Switzerland on September 12th. to await an opportunity to return to 322 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. America. By September 24th I found that I could get through to New York by the way of Liverpool, and I arrived in Morgantown on the 8th of October with one thousand specimens of the bark beetle destroyer. As soon as possible after returning; I visited a pine woods near Morgan- town and secured some of the pine bark beetles, which I placed in a bot- tle with a live specimen of the introduced species. The European beetle at once attacked and devoured the American species with evident relish, thus proving that they are not fastidious in their tastes and indicating that they will attack and destroy the American bark beetle as readily as they do the bark beetles in their native woods. Therefore, as we have arrange- ed to procure these beetles in great numbers from Europe next spring, we anticipate some very beneficial results and a great saving of timber by their proper distribution in our infested and threatened pine and spruce forests. There is yet remaining $190.00 of the amount contributed to the ex- penses of the experiment. This amount will be expended, unless otherwise ordered, to the best advantage in paying fer collecting and shipping the insects from Germany next spring. The collectors will be required to send them as early as possible, and upon their receipt here, they will be forwarded direct to those who have contributed to the expense. We cannot hope to do much, if any, good where the timber is nearly all dead or dying, but must turn our attention to protecting that which is now healthy or just commencing to die. I will visit your forest at as early a date as possible for the purpose of giving instruction regarding the distribution of the insects in your forest when they are received from us. Therefore it is important that you should inform us as to the present character of the trouble in your best tracts of timber, and be prepared to point out to me the portions which it is most desirable to protect. At a meeting of the Washington Entomological Society to which I was invited on Oct. 6th, I placed the following question before the society — "Is there a possibility of this introduced species ever becoming injurious?" The question was discussed by Dr. C. V. Riley, U. S. Entomologist, and other prominent Entomologists, and it was the unanimous opinion that, from what was known of its habits, it could not be in any way injurious, but would likely prove beneficial. The forest officials and entomologists in Germany and Switzerland were very kind in giving me every assistance in their power towards carrying out the object of my visit, and in addition to my success in finding the desired insect, I gained much valuable information regarding the method of forest culture and protection practiced there. A detailed report will be prepared at an early date in which an account will be given of my investigations and observations. In the meantime, any information or request regarding the experiment which you may de- sire to communicate to us, will be thankfully received. Trusting that our success may continue and that the experiment, made possible by your liberal contributions, will bring rich returns to you and to the timber interests of our State, I am, Respectfully, A. D. HOPKINS, Entomologist. THE IMPORTED SPECIMENS STORED FOR THE WINTER. Upon the approach of winter the bottles containing the re- maining examples of the Clerids were placed in tin boxes and THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 323 stored in a cool, dry room in the basement of the Station build- ing, where the conditions were thought to be most favor- able for them to remain alive until spring. AN EFFORT TO SECURE LEGISLATION WITH REFERENCE TO THE CON- TROL OF FOREST INSECTS. During the winter arrangements were made to import the Clerids from Germany in the greatest possible numbers, and to distribute them throughout the infested forests in the most thor- ough manner. Realizing the importance of additional funds to that available from the Experiment Station and voluntary contributions, for the successful prosecution of the work, it was thought the State Legislature should make some provisions for more thorough prosecution of the work than would otherwise be possible. Therefore, the following letter was prepared by the Director of the Station on Nov. 26th, 1893, and copies sent to the members of the State Legislature then in session: IMPORTANCE OF HAVING MORE ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK DONE IN THE STATE AND THE DESIRABILITY OF THE LEGISLATURE MAKING PROVISION FOR IT. (Copy of letter to Legislators.) Through extended and careful investigation by the Entomologist of the Experiment Station at Morgantown, it has been ascertained that the pine timber on large areas in different sections of the State is being killed b> a certain insect, which burrows under the bark of the living trees. He has found that the white and yellow pine timber on many thousands of acres, and even square miles, in this State has died, and, in most cases become a total loss; that the insects are spreading to healthy forests of pine, and are invading the extensive spruce forests, threatening a universal destruction of the pine and spruce timber of the State. Upon the recommendation of the Entomologist in his report on his in- vestigation, it was deemed advisable by the Staton authorities to send him to Europe to collect and introduce into our forests live specimens of an in- sect which was known to feed on and destroy insects like the species found depredating on our timber. The expenses of this trip were shared by private individuals, and tim- ber companies, who are interested in checking the ravages of the insect. The desired insects were found in Germany in abundance, but owing to the cholera epidemic, he could not get them here in time to success- fully distribute them in the forests last fall. He has, however, determin- ed to his satisfaction that the European species will readily feed upon the destructive pine tree insects as well as upon many other species of injurous forest and fruit tree insects. He is confident that if this beneficial species can be introduced in sufficient numbers, and properly distributed where they will do the most effectual work, they will not only aid in checking 324 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. the devastations now going on, but will prevent similar outbreaks in the future. Heretofore, it has been deemed impossible to check widespread depre- dations of insects in the American forests by any practical methods; there- fore, the result of the introduction of this beneficial European insect into the West Virginia forests, as an enemy and natural destroyer of the in- jurious species, is being earnestly watched by scientists and practical men in this country and Europe.* The experiment has gained the confidence of some of the leading Ento- mologists in Germany, who gave efficient advice and counsel to our Ento- mologist before he went to Europe and while he was there. Upon his re- turn to this country, the practicability of the introduction of the species, for the purpose above mentioned, was placed before the members of the Entomological Society of Washington, for discussion, and it was there determined by the U. S. Entomologist and other prominent members, that the species could not be injurious, and the belief was generally expressed that it would prove beneficial. If this experiment can be properly carried out, and succeeds in checking the spread of the destructive species, it will not only prevent the loss of millions of dollars worth of timber, but will demonstrate the possibilities of this method of dealing with forest and other insect pests. We are informed by our Entomologist that it will only be by the intro- duction of the German insect in the greatest possible numbers, and their prompt and proper distribution, that we can gain the best results. It is, therefore, apparent that the work should be thoroughly organized, and every facility offered necessary to carry out the plans of the campaign against these forest tree pests during the following spring and summer. In order to carry this work on properly and effectually a larger sum of money will be necessary than can be drawn from the Station funds. As it is a macter in which all owners of timber are interested, and especially of general interest to the State, if it be possible to avoid it, we should not be forced to ask for or accept further private contributions; but the ex- penses, in our opinion, should be provided by State appropriation. The yellow locust, the different oaks, chestnut, wild cherry, poplar, maple, and other valuable kinds of timber trees are being seriously at- tacked by different destructive species of insects, which are annually causing immense loss and damage. Since 1880. the loss to the agricultural and timber interests of West Virginia, occasioned by insects, may be safely estimated at one million dollars a year. New and destructive species are making their appearance, and their depredations upon our orchard, garden and field crops and live stock, added to the ravages caused by old pests, is fully realized by farmers and others who are thus having their profits reduced to a minimum. In consideration of the fact that hundreds of millions of dollars have been saved to the agricultural and other interests of the United States within the last ten years by the prompt application of remedies and meas- ures discovered and recommended by Entomologists employed by the Government and the several States, it is evident that this branch of scien- tific work is of the greatest importance, and there is no doubt that a large per cent, of the loss occasioned by insects in West Virginia can be pre- vented at a comparatively slight expense, through systematic work carried on by a Department of Economic Entomology, supported by sufficient funds for accomplishing the work. JOHN A. MYERS, Director. Morgantown, W. Va., Jan. 26th, 1893. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 325 NO ACTION TAKEN BY THE LEGISLATURE. No action was taken by the Legislature in the matter refer- red to in this letter, and it was therefore determined to accom- plish everything that could be done with such funds as were available, and on March 29th, 1893, the following letter was addressed to lumber companies : LETTER TO TIMBER COMPANIES. "No doubt you will be interested to know how the experiment regard- ing the introduction of the European beetles is progressing. I have to say that the specimens I brought over have survived the winter and are now alive and in good condition. We have been corresponding with our German collectors and have arranged to have as many more of the insects collected and forwarded to us as the available funds will allow. I am also making arrangements to carry on the work of distributing them during the latter part of April and May. In distributing these beneficial insects, it is my desire to use special care in placing them where they will most likely accomplish the greatest good in the shortest time ; that is, in my opinion, where the destructive pine bark beetles are just commencing their attack on a body of valuable tim- ber which has heretofore been healthy. Therefore, you will aid us very materially in maturing the plans for the campaign by informing us at your earliest convenience of the points on your company's property which in your opinion would be the most desirable for me to visit for the pur- pose stated. Ill-health and accumulating duties in my department due to my ab- sence in Europe prevented my visiting the properties of any of the con- tributors last fall. However, if my health permits, I am determined to spare no pains in carrying on the work this spring and to accomplish all that is possible for us to do towards making the experiment a success. Owing to the widely separated forests to be visited in different sections of the State, much time must necessarily be occupied in travel, there- fore, any arrangements you can make which would expedite my investi- gations in your forests will contribute largely towards our carrying on the work to the best advantage. It will probably not be advisable for us to attempt to do much before the middle of April, especially in the mountain districts, but it is my de- sire to have the plans sufficiently matured that work will progress rapidly after it is once commenced. While the Legislature failed to aid in this move, sufficient contributions have been volunteered to enable us to accomplish considerable work, if all goes well. Trusting that we may hear from you at an early date, I am," Respectfully, (Signed) A. D. HOPKINS. Satisfactory and encouraging replies to this letter were re- ceived and in April, the companies were notified of the dates on which I would visit their forests for the purpose 01 placing the first colonies of the insests and giving instructions for the placing of subsequent sendings as received from Europe. 326 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. IMPORTED INSECTS DISTRIBUTED IN 1893. Leaving Morgantown on the 20th of April, I proceeded to the southern-most localities first, and commenced the distribu- tion of the Clerids in the white pine forests of Raleigh county. 100 examples were placed here in two colonies of 50 each; one on property owned by J. R. Beaty & Co., the other on proper- ty owned by E. A. Monaghan. From Raleigh county I pro- ceeded to Ronceverte, from which place I was taken in a buggy by Col. Driscol, who represented the St. Lawrence Lumber Co., and Mr. Dixon, who represented the Cumberland Lumber Co., up the Greenbrier river, through the extensive white pine for- ests owned by these two companies in Greenbrier and Poca- hontas counties. Two colonies, one numbering 30 examples and the other 70 were placed in the timber owned by the St. Lawrence Co., and one colony numbering 100 specimens was placed in timber owned by the Cumberland Co. From the white pine forests on the Greenbrier river, 1 pro- ceeded into the spruce forests owned by the West Virginia & Pittsburg R. R. Co., near the head of Williams river, in Poca- hontas and Webster counties, where a colony of 100 examples was placed. From this point, I returned on horse to Welch Glade, in Webster County, and thence by rail to Morgautown, where I arrived on May 12th, and on May 19th I went on to the spruce forests in Randolph county, where I placed three colon- ies in timber owned by the Condon-Lane, Boom & Lumber Co. and returned to Morgantown on May 26th. METHODS OF LOCATING COLONIES OF IMPORTED INSECTS. In locating the colonies of Clerids, careful search was first made for localities in which the conditions were most favorable for the Clerids to obtain necessary food, and the adults to de- posit their eggs without having to wander away from the colony. The fact that all stages of the destructive pine bark beetle were found to be dead in all of the dying trees examined, indicated that the Clerid would have to depend upon other species of bark beetles than the destructive species, upon which it was intended to feed, the failure to find trees infested by living examples THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 327 of the destructive pine bark beetle ( Dendroctonus frontalis}^ while encouraging in indicating the possibility of the trouble coming to an end, was at first discourging so far as the success of the experiment was concerned, since the habits of this bark bee- tle correspond more nearly to that of the bark beetles upon which the Clerids fed in Europe, and would thus have offered better conditions for its multiplication than any other of our native bark beetles. It was found, however, that both in the pine and the spruce, living examples of many other species of bark beetles occurred in enormous numbers in the bark of injured, dying and felled trees, and although none of these offered the best conditions for the attack of the Clerid, it was thought that with proper precautions, it would attack them and become es- tablished in the localities in which colonies were placed. Where trees were found that died last fall, as well as those which were then dying from previous injuries by the destructive species, fairly good conditions were found for the Clerid to survive, as also in the bark of recently felled trees. Therefore, where such conditions were found near or in the best tracts of living timber, a tree or log was selected which had coarse flaky bark in which the pupae and larvae could be secreted, and a colony of from 25 to 100 were placed on it. When the desirable con* ditions were not found, one or more trees were felled and oth- ers girdled so as to attract the bark beetles to them. The im- ported insects were then placed in the moss or loose bark at the base of the girdled trees, or on the trunks of the felled ones. If colonies were placed some distance from where the timber was being felled for logs, instructions were given to girdle or fell some more trees in the same locality in August and the follow- ing spring, in order to provide a constant supply of bark beetles which would thus be attracted to them. Careful and detailed instructions were given to a responsible representative of each of the companies with reference to subsequent location of col- onies from the specimens which would be forwarded to them from time to time, as received from Germany. During the fall of 1893, adults that came in the packages, and as many as could be brscl from pupa were placed together 328 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. in large glass jars with pieces of bark, where they were left for a sufficient time for the females to become fertilized. They were then placed in vials and forwarded to the distributors with orders to place them on the infested trees with the least possible delay. This method of liberating fertilized females offered the most favorable opportunites for the species to estab- lish itself in the localities into which they were introduced, and if all other methods failed this one certainly must have suc- ceeded. THE CARRYING OUT OF THE PRIMARY OBJECT OF THE IMPORTATION OF THE CLERID INTO AMERICA PREVENTED BY THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE DESTRUCTIVE PINE BARK BEETLE. The primary object of the importation of the beneficial Cler- ids was to experiment with it as an enemy of the destructive pine bark beetle, and to secure, if possible, its co-operation with other enemies, in reducing the numbers of the bark bee- tle so that it could no longer overcome the insistence to its at- tack exerted by living trees, and thus bring the trouble to an end. The sudden death or disappearance of all examples of the bark beetles throughout the infested area in 1893, and the almost as sudden ending of the trouble which had been caused by this insect, rendered it impossible to continue the experiment as originally intended. The best opportunity of establishing the Clerid in our forests was thus lost, since the conditions found in the enormous amount of standing, dead and dying timber which was infested by countless millions of examples of the de- structive species and many other species of bark beetles were as favorable for the breeding and multiplication of the Oierid as could possibly have been desired, With the sudden change in the conditions, however, it became necessary to avail our- selves of the next best opportunity for establishing the species in our forests, and attain, if possible the secondary object of the introduction — namely, to get it to feed upon the bark beetles common to the bark of injured, dead, or felled trees. By this means it was thought that it could multiply and be ready to meet any subsequent invasion of destructive bark beetles. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 329 There was suitable and abundant material of this kind in the felled trees in lumbering regions, and, during the first season, in the standing trees which succumbed from the effects of pre- vious injuries by the destructive bark beetle, in both of which numerous other surviving species of bark beetles occurred in great numbers. The trees that died from injuries by the de- structive species were not common in 1893, and became rare in 1894, and since my observations with reference to the habits of the insects clearly points to the fact that the Clerid prefers to breed in the bark of standing trees to that of logs, or felled timber, 1 fear that the liberated examples have met with some difficulty in establishing themselves, and since no abso- lute evidence1 of the species having become established in any locality in which they were introduced is had, we cannot say positively that the secondary object has been attained, but I am quite confident that if the pine and spruce timber should commence to. die from the attack of the bark beetles, that the Clerid will make itself known and become common. The secret habit of the adult of this Clerid and the close re- semblance of its larvae and pupae to that of our native species of Clerids, together with the wide expanse of the pine and spruce forests of the State, would render it necessary for the species to become quite common before any one would be liable to meet with and recognize a single example. Therefore, while we have no absolute evidence that it is established in this country, the fact that it has not been frequently met with, is bat little evidence that it is not established or even quite com- mon in favorable localities. Time and subsequent events alone will prove whether or not any good will come from the intro- duction. At any rate, the investigations made possible through the liberal contributions by the owners of the threatened timber, towards the expenses of the trip to Europe, both in the study of natural enemies of European bark beetles and the forest 1 I have been informed by parties both in the pine and spruce forests, who assisted in placing the first and subsequent colonies and were familiar with the distinctive character of the insect, that they ha.d observed adults of the species the ijext season, after they were liberated. 330 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. ditions in Europe, together with the impetus given to the study of forest tree insects in this country with a view of determin- ing methods of preventing loss from their ravages, will not be devoid of results of some value to the forest and timber inter- ests of this State in the future. NUMBER OF EXAMPLES OF THE CLERID COLLECTED, IMPORTED AND DISTRIBUTED BETWEEN AUGUST 29TH, 1892, AND MAY 30TH, 1894, Collectors. Date. No. Col. A. D. Hopkins .... 1892. i60 C. F. Schaufuss . . . 1892 210 gantown. H. Strahrueyer and others 1892. 388=1058 1000 Schaufuss 1893. 1920 1257 Strahmeyer, 1893. 3023 970 Schaufuss 1894. 62 Total 6063 collected. 3260 living. DISTRIBUTIONS. Companies. Separate consignment Amt. of Colonies. Sub. W. Va. & Pa. R. R 100, 66, 75, 75, 100—416 $150. Con. L. B. as was thought probable, the destructive bark beetle was destroy- ed by diseases, we have in this class of enemies the most effi- cient destroyer of Scolytids. Birds. Great numbers of bark beetles are destroyed by wood- peckers; but so far as 1 have observed, very little ultimate good is accomplished by them. During the great invasion of the de- structiue bark beetle (D. frontalis), 1 found that while the wood- peckers fed upon the adults, pupae and larvae of this species, they usually confined their attention to a single imfested tree, among hundreds of other trees that were likewise infested, and while they would often strip the outer bark from the entire trunk and larger branches, and destroy many thousands of the insects, all that were thus destroyed would not be apparently in the proportion of more than one to many thousands that emerged from the other trees. Unfavorable climatic and other conditions. In this class of enemies, or opposing forces, Scolytids are often de- stroyed in great numbers, or are prevented from breeding and increasing. With the predaceous and parasitic insects, diseases, birds, and other enemies and unfavorable conditions all combined against the Scolytids, it would appear that the destructive species would be kept in complete subjugation. Yet, as has been frequently shown, great outbreaks and invasions occur from time to time. Insect and other friends of scolytids. Scolytids have friends as well as enemies in insects, birds, and in man, to say nothing of many favorable climatic or other conditions which 388 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. contribute to their welfare and help counteract the damage done to them by their enemies. INSECT FRIENDS OF SCOLYTIDS. The principal friends of Scolytids consists of parasites, of their predaceous and parasitic enemies, which are known as secondary parasites. These are principally minute, four winged gnats belonging to the family Chaicididae. They deposit their eggs in or on the adults, larvae or pupae of the enemies of the Scolytids and destroy them in the same manner as the Scoly- tids are destroyed by their parasites This class of insects are among the best friends of the Scolytids in preventing the rapid increase of their enemies. Caterpillars which defoliate trees and thus weaken their vitality, offer favorable conditions for attack by Scolytids and may thus be classed among their insect friends; as may certain plant lice which attack the foliage of pine and other trees; and also certain wood-boring caterpillars and grubs which kill the twigs and branches on living trees, or cause a diseased condi- tion of the entire tree. Man as a friend of scolytids. Man, especially civil- ized man, is among the best friends of Scolytids in causing favorable conditions for their multiplication. In the primitive forests of this country all but a few species of the Scolytids necessarily depend upon occasional outbreaks of destructive species and other natural conditions for their supply of suitable material in which to breed; but upon the advent of civilized man, suitable material is furnished in the greatest abundance in the girdled trees in the settlers' clearings or in the logs, stumps, and tops of trees felled at first for building material and subsequently for commercial products. In opening up clearings and highways in and through the primitive forests of conifers the most lavorable conditions were offered for the starting of invasions of destructive bark beetles. FOREST FIRES. Forest fires, directly or indirectly due to man's influence offer both favorable and unfavorable conditions for the exist- THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 389 ence of Scolytids. Since the trees killed by fire may offer fa- vorable conditions for their multiplication, while vast numbers are destroyed by forest fires; so that as lar as forest flres are concerned, the favorable and unfavorable conditions are about equally balanced. BIRDS AS FRIENDS OF SCOLYTIDS. Birds may be friendly in their relations to Scolytids both in destroying their predaceous and parasitic enemies, and, as in the case of the yellow-bellied woodpecker, may be so injurious to trees as to offer favorable conditions for the attack of bark and timber beetles. The punctures in the bark made by the birds are also often utilized by bark and timber beetles for -their entrance into the bark and wood; thus they are saved the labor of boring through the hard outer bark. Birds are especially useful to Scolytids in feeding upon their worst ene- mies— the Clerids, since both the adults and larvae of the Clerids are doubtless destroyed in great numbers by wood- peckers and other insectiverous birds. (See enemies of Olerids on another page.) CLIMATIC AND OTHER NATURAL CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE EX- ISTENCE OF SCOLYTIDS. Besides the favorable conditions for the existence and multi- plication of Scolytids through the influence of man, there are many natural conditions which contribute to their welfare: trees broken or felled by storms or broken by snow offer most excel- lent conditions for the attack and multiplication of numerous species of Scolytids, as does the small and large shrubs and trees, and the twigs and branches, which are weakened or killed by natural causes. A warm, rainy season is also sup- posed to be especially favorable for the breeding habits of cer- tain Scolytids, since a certain amount of moisture in the bark and wood infested by them, is necessary for their rapid de- velopment. PREVENTIVES AND REMEDIES- PREVENTIVES. The best preventives against attack of injurious and even 390 % WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. destructive Scolytid enemies of forest and fruit trees, is a vig- orous and healthy condition of the kinds of trees which it is de- sired to protect. In the cultivated forests of Europe, and in the orchards, parks, and lawns of this country this is possible; but in the American forests, except where a thorough system of forest management is practiced, the difficulty of preventing losses from these ravages is much greater. In the case of cul- tivated forests this end is accomplisned by a system of thin- ning out the inferior, unhealthy and matured trees, in order to give the young and vigorous ones the best opportunity for healthy growth. In the indigeneous forests and farmers' wood lots an attack on healthy trees, by Scolytids which are capable of attacking and killing such trees, but prefer to infest injured or recently felled ones, may often be prevented by providing a supply of such material as will be attractive to them.1 This may be done by felling or girdling a few inferior trees, or cull- ing out useless or objectionable trees during the winter and early spring, and leave them on the ground until the adults of the Scolytids have entered the bark and deposited their eggs, which as a rule, will be accomplished by the middle or last of May, when by removing the bark from the trunks, and burn- ing the branches and tops, they are all destroyed. This method is practiced at present in our forests on an enor- mous scale; in fact, nothing in the cultivated forests of all Europe can compare with it in its magnitude. It is not done however, with the intention of preventing the ravages of Scoly- ticjs or to destroy them, but instead, is part of the system of forest destruction practiced here. I refer to the enormous quantity of tops, logs, stumps, and broken trees and branches which occur in lumbering regions. These are invaded by countless hosts of Scolytids and serve as traps in which they are destroyed by forest fires. REMEDIES. After a tree is once invaded by Scolytids, there is seldom any hopes of its recovery. The only method which appears to be 1 Recommended by Eichhoff and other German writers. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 391 worthy of recommending, is that of a Frenchman, M. Robert. 1 who found that by removing the coarse outer bark, and cutting: narrow strips of bark from the .trunk of infested elms, the Scolytids were either killed or driven out by the increased vig- or of the tree and the greater quantity of sap which it is well known will result from this treatment. The same result I have myself found may be accomplished by simply scoring, with a penknife, the trunk and larger branches of fruit trees suffering from what is termed "bark bound." In such cases, the cut edges of the bark will rapidly separate, and a vigorous growth of the tree will follow. This method can not be practiced how- ever, except on fruit and shade trees, 80 far as an invasion by the destructive species which prefer to attack the healthy trees of a forest is concerned, there is no remedy except the possible introduction or encouragement of such enemies as will reduce their numbers or prevent an ex- cessive increase. In fact this is all that is necessary to check the ravages of this class of insects, on healthy trees since they can only overcome the resistance exerted by the living wood and bark when the attack is made in great numbers. A KNOWLEDGE OF THE INSECTS AND THEIR HABITS MAY PREVENT SERIOUS LOSSES FROM THEIR RAVAGES. A knowledge of the habits of this class of insects, the char- acter of their work, and the conditions favorable and unfavor- able for their attack and increase may prevent serious loss of timber, since by this knowledge trie owner of the attacked or threatened timber may make preparations as soon as the in- vasion commences, to work up, and as far as possible utilize the timber as last as it dies, or even before it is attacked. In- formation as to the ending of a trouble caused by them may al- so be of especial service to the owners of valuable tracts of timber, since it would prevent them from disposing of it at a sacrifice. Thus, in many respects, it is of especial importance that owners of forest, shade, and fruit trees should learn as much as possible about the habits and character of this class of \. 5th Bep't U. S. Ent. Com. p 39 ; quoted from Miss Qrmerod, 392 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. little pests, in order that proper measures may be promptly adopted to prevent as far as possible the serious losses they are capable of causing. DESTRUCTIVE BARK BEETLES. Order OOLEOPTERA ; Family SCOLYTIDAE. The, Genus Dendroctonus. The genus Dendroctonus, which is represented in America, north of Mexico by six well recognized species,1 is of especial economic interest, since it includes probably the most destruc- tive enemies of the pine, spruce and larch, that is known The genus is also of interest on account of the remarkable habits .fig. LVIII. — Species of Dendroctonus: a, D. terebrans: 6, D. rufl pennis; c, simplex; d, D. similis; e, D. approximate; /, D. frontalis. and wide distribution of its representatives. Only four well defined species have as yet been observed in West Virginia, but the fact that some of the others may, from time to time, make their appearance here and prove destructive to our coniferous forest or shade trees, seems to warrant a brief reference to the distinctive characters, distribution, and habits of each of the common eastern species. The species vary so much in size, color and markings, and are so nearly allied to each other, that the larger ones are exceedingly difficult to correctly identify Dendroctonus terebrans^ Oliver, Fig. LVIII, a. This is the 1. Sinceythis was written a large series of specimens from all parts of the country have been submitted to me for study from the National collection, and I have under taken a complete revision of the genus, to place a number of new species and varieties which will be the subject of a special paper which I hope to publish at some future time. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 393 largest of North American Scolytids. it varies in length from 5.2 — 8.5 mm. or .20 — .34 inch, color light reddish brown to black. It has been recorded from Canada and Florida in the east, and from Washington to Mew Mexico in the west, and is a common enemy of the pine in West Virginia, therefore, it evi- dently occurs throughout the United States wherever the pines grow. It attacks living and injured pines probably of all species; also the native and cultivated spruces. Dendroctonus rufipennis* Kerby ; Fig. LVII1, b. This is next in average size to the preceding species; varying in length from 6—7.5 mm., or .25— .30 inch; color light to dark reddish brown. It is distinguished from terebrans by its smaller average size, more slender form, narrower in front, and smoother body which is usually thickly covered with long reddish hairs. If the pub- lished records are based on correct identifications, this is a most remarkable insect in its distribution. It has been record- ed from Alaska, Utah, and Colorado in the western part of North America, and from Anticosta, Pennsylvania and Florida in the East, so that it may occur throughout North America where coniferous trees are found. According to Prof. Peck,1 it is destructive to the spruce, and was associated with a trouble in the spruce forest of New York in 1879, similar to that caused by D. frontalis in West Virginia and adjoining states in 1890 to '92. Dr. A. 8. Packard mentions 2 that he found it in its burrows under the bark of white pine at Providence, R. L, and I have identified as this species, examples received from Dr. J. A. Lintner who states that they were found in the bark of the larch at Stockbridge, Mass.3 I have one example collected in the bark of a spruce stump near flor- 1 28th and 30th Rep't N. Y. State Museum of Natural History. 2 5th Rep't U. S. Ent. Com. p.722 under the name Polygraphus rufipennis, which was .evidently meant for Dendroctonus rufipennis, since the latter species is described. 3 Since the above was written much spruce timber has been reported as dying in New Hampshire ani Pennsylvania from the attack of scolytids which are supposed to be D. rufipennis, but those I have seen appear to belong to an undescribed species closely allied to it, the work of which was described in a paper by Prof. C. M. Weed and Mr. W. F. Fisk, read by the latter at the Boston meeting of the association of Economic Entomologists and published in the proceedings. Bull 17, new series, U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. pp §7-69, and is also referred to by Mr. Qhittenden in Bull. 18 of the same Division, p 96, - ' 394 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION ton, Randolph county, which is closely allied ii' not identical to this species. Dendroctonus simplex* Lee This species was thought by myself and Mr. Schwarz to beideniical with D. rufipennis^ but I am now convinced that it is a distinct species. It is uni- formly smaller than D. rufipennis. It varies from 5—5. 5 mm. or .20 — .22 inches in length and from light to very dark brown. This species is also widely distributed, but is evidently re- stricted in its range as a destructive species to the so-called Canadian life zone. Examples identified as this species were observed in great numbers in larch by W. H. Herrington, in Canada and by Hub- bard and Schwartz in Michigan. It was thought by Herring- ton that the death of a large amount of larch was due to the primary attack of this insect. It is also recorded from Lake Superior, Colorado and California. 1 observed it in great num- bers in the bark of standing and felled larch trees near Cranes- ville, Preston county, W. Va. Many large trees had died and the prevalence of the beetle and its presence in the bark indi- cated that they were largely to blame for the trouble. It was also found in the bark of recently felled spruce trees and logs. Dendroctonus frontalis, Zimm. This species is easily recog- nized from those previously described, by its small size, dark color, and broad head and thorax. It is recorded from Lake Superior, the Virginias, Georgia, and Florida in the East, and from Colorado, Arizona, and Californin in the west. It infests and is destructive to indigenous and introduced pines and spruces. Following will be found a more detailed description of this species and D. terebrans, together with an account of what 1 have observed with reference to their habits and life history. THE DESTRUCTIVE PINE BARK BEETLE. Dendroctonus frontalis, Zimm. DESCRIPTION. Adult: Length, 2.2-4.2mm. or .8-.17 inches ; color, light brown to black ; antennae and legs, yellowish to light brown ; head, with front corsely punctured and channeled in both sexes, but THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 395 Fig. LIX— -Dendroctonus frontalis* ', adult, larva and pupa, a, front of head; b, elitra, enlarged: c, pupa; d. larva: e, young larva just out of egg; /. egg; g, mandbile; h, front of head. rougher and the frontal turburcles more acute on male than on female; while the middle front of the female is usually more convex and shining; back of head thickly covered with very fine punctures ; antennae as in illustration; club in female slight- ly broader and front surface more concave (dry specimens) than in male; prothorax shining, but slightly narrower in front; surface thinly covered with punctures of different sizes, Dendroctonus frontalis* Zi m m . Dendroctonus brevicornis, Lee. * BIBLIOGRAPHY. Zimmermann, Dr. C. Le Cont, Dr. John L. Dietz, Dr. W. G. Hopkins, A. D. tion. Chittenden. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. Sept., 1868, p. 149; Ibid, p. 173, Proc. Amer. Phila's Soc. Vol., X, 1876, p. 386, D. bremcornis described; further description of D. frontalis; cor- rection with reference to Bostrichus frontalis, Fab. mentioned by Zimmermann which=P/iloeo(ribus frontalis. Fab. North American Coleoptera. [author's extra] p. 32; further de- scription and connections with reference to D. bremcornis', Lee. which=Z>. frontalis. In Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash.; Vol. 11, 1892, p. 353. Reference to habits. In Science. Vol. XX, July 29, 1892. p. 64. Reference to de- structive habits. Insect Life. Vol. VI. 1893, p 123; also 24th. An. Rep. Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1893; pp. 71-76. Account of investigation, importa- tion of enemy, and disappearance. Bull. 31. W. Va. Exp. Agr. Sta., 1893; p 143. No. 77. Habits. Host plants, Parasites, collecting and breeding notes. Bull. 32. W. Va. Exp. Sta., 1893; p. 213. Host plants. Insect Life. Vol. V. 1893; p. 187. Account of investigation. Garden and Forest. Vol. VII, 1894; p. 348. Canadian Entomologist. Vol. XXVI, 1894. p. 288. Sexual characters. Southern Lumberman, 1894. Hardwood. Vol. VI. No. 5, 1894 pp. 270-271. Timberman, 1894. State and county papers. Notice of disappearance and ending of the trouble. Canadian Entomylogist. Vol. 28, 1896; p. 24. Reference to its disappearance and the probability of disease being the cause. Bull. No. 7. New Series, U, S. pep. Agric. Div. Ento., 1897 pp 72 73. Fig. 43. Brief accouut of information from correspondence and observations by Mr. E. A. Schwarz. 396 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. and smooth dorsal line usually distinct; elitra, with obscure rows of punctures, the interspaces rough- ened with irregular, transverse, shining elevations, coarser and more oblique at and near the base. In some examples the inter- spaces are nearly smooth; and in some the sur- face is clothed with long and short hairs, while in others the hairs are obscure or absent. Easily recognized from ., ., . , Fig.L'K.—Dendroctonusfrontalis. a, tibia: b. tar the Other Species Dy Its sus;c, antanna;rf, club lateral view; e, dab front surface ; /, mentum ; g, maxilla. smaller size. The egg. Fig. LIX/, — Length 7 mm.; width, 5 mm.; pearly white and shinning. The larva. Fig. LIX d. Directly after emerging from the egg, the body of the larva is much curved so that the outline forms a circle about 5 mm in diameter, Fig. LIX, e ; the head is large and the mandibles stout and dark. The head and last abdominal segment are clothed with a few long white hairs. The matured larva is from 5-7 mm. long; the body nearly straight; head, large, reddish, with frontal elevation or tubercle and a few long hairs; mandibles reddish black and with ob- scure antennae in depressions just above the base. The body is divided into thirteen segments, the first three or thoracic segments, large, especially the ventral portion which extend beyond the tip of the mandibles; last segment truncate and clothed with a few long hairs. Described from alcohol speci- mens and sketched from life. Pupa. Length, 3 - 4.2 mm. Distinguished by I he large head and prothorax which closely resembles that of the adult ; also by the fleshy tubercles and spires on the posterior edges of the 2d to 7th abdominal segments as viewed from above or the side; also by two long fleshy spires on the rounded ventral THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 397 segment. Described from alcohol specimens and drawings from life.1 THE GALLERIES. Preliminary galleries These are usually in the form of short curved excavations made by the beetle in the living or healthy bark, which are either abandoned before completion, further excavation is checked by the death of the beetle. They are easily distinguished Iroin brood galleries by the fact that Fig. LXI.— Preliminary and brood galleries of Dendroctonus frontalis. they are packed with borings and hardened pitch gum, attended in living and partially dead bark, by discolorations in both the bark and wood; also by the absence of egg cavities or larval mines. In dead trees, the bark and wood adjoining the prelim- inary galleries is the last to decay. One or more inches of the entrance end of a brood gallery when presenting this condition may be termed preliminary galleries. The main entrance is located in the crevices or cracks in the outer bark, and if it is an entrance to a preliminary gallery takes an upward or a lateral course through the inner or liv- ing bark, often extending for some distance through the outer portion of the living bark before the inner layer is penetrated. If it is an entrance to a brood gallery, which has been excavat- ed after the vitality of the tree had been weakened and when there was little flow of turpentine, it extends directly through the bark to the outer layer of the wood. The entrance to the 1. The failure to take descriptive notes of the larvae and pupae when living mate rial pould be had, makes their descriptions incomplete. 398 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig LXIL— Galleries of the destructive pine bark beetle in pine bark THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 399 preliminary galleries and often those of brood galleries, are marked with masses of hardened or semi-liquid turpentine through which a hole is kept open as long as this entrance is utilized by the insect, Fig. LXXII. Side entrances or exits- These occur at intervals along the line of the primary or brood gallery; and are usually concealed by projecting flakes of bark. When not in use, these openings are tightly packed with borings. Nuptial chambers There appears to be nothing at the entrance end of the gallery to correspond to the so called nuptial chamber, but numerous pits occur in the roof of the gallery which may be util- ized for this purpose. Primary* secondary and brood galleries. These are very characteristic in form and are easily recognized, although it is seldom Fig. Lxm-Gai possible to trace a finished gallery lery of Dendroc- . ... , rn. tonm frontaiis from the beginning to the end. Ihey showing side en- trance and cav- are long, serpentine tracks through ities. the inner bark and crossing each other at : Imost all angles or directions, and when num- erous form a confused tangle. As near as I can make out the preliminery galleries vary from two or three inches to twelve inches in length, and may nave one nr more secondary galleries branch ing off' at irregular angles, and from one-half to four or five inches in length. Both the primary and secondary galleries are utilized for brood gal- leries. Terminus of the main, or one of the secondary galleries, is usually of a peculiar form as shown in Fig. LXIV. No two arejust alike but all have a general resemblance, which would indicate that Fig Lxiv-Term- they are excavated for a special purpose; either l™*Den$ncfowu* for food, or as a kind of residence for the parent frontalis- 400 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. gallery. beetles after their work of excavating the brood galleries has been completed. Egg cavities, Fig. LXV, are excavated in both sides of the galleries at irregular intervals of from one-eighth to one or more inches. Larval mines. These extend at right angles from the brood galleries, and vary greatly in size J and form. The normal form is shown in Fig. LXVI. brood and an abnormal form in Fig. LXVI11. The fact that they extend through the outer as well as the middle and inner lay- ers of bark, prevents any- thing like re- gularity in form Fig. LXVI.— Gallery and larval mines of Dei 38 Ob- droctonus frontalis, normal. o Fig. LX VIII.— Gallery of Dendroctonns frontalis, showing abnormal larval mines. Fig. LXVIL— Nor mal larval gallery of Dendroctonus frontalis. a, exit of larvae; ft, egg cavity. served in the inner surface of the bark. Pupa cases.— Width, 1-5 mm; length, 4-5 mm. These are usually in the outer, corky bark, but ma}* occur in the widened larval mines in the inner bark. The normal position however, appears to be in the outer bark as reprecented in Fig. LXIX. Brood exits. Diameter, 1 to 1.6 mm., occur promiscuously through the bark and in the surface exposed to view, and resemble shot holes. They extend direct from the pupa cases to the surface. Hibernating burrows. These haye^^j^'"^ not been observed but evidently occur inbarkof Plne- THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 401 the outer bark. The largest number of adults however, pass the winter in the pupa cases. Food burrows. The preliminary galleries, may possibly be, in some cases, excavated by the adults for the purpose of ob- taining food, and the peculiar excavations at the terminus of the brood galleries may be simply food burrows. No further evi- dence of food burrows have been observed. LIFE HISTORY. The sudden disappearance of this species prevented a thor- ough study of its life history, but enough was learned to enable me to give a fairly complete outline of it. 'Hibernation. The winter is passed in ail stages, both in the inner and outer bark in which broods developed. The adults, pupae and matured larvae in the pupa cases in outer corky bark, the young larvae and eggs1 in the inner bark, STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. The egg. Tne exact time it takes the egg to hatch, iias not been determined; but it is less than eight days and probably not more than three or four, since in breeding experiments 1 found young larvae in eight days after the female had com- menced to excavate her gallery. The larva, under normal con- ditions, develops from the egg to pupa in from thirty to forty days. Thepupa. The duration of the pupa stage has not been ac- curately determined, but the evidence obtained indicates that it is from ten to twelve days. The average duration of all stages from egg to adult 1 have found from breeding experi- ments and observations under natural conditions, to be from forty to sixty-five days, and have concluded that under normal conditions, the adult may develop and emerge in about sixty days from the time the egg is deposited. NUMBER OF BROODS. The adults of the hibernating broods commence to emerge 1. Eggs were observed November 7th and the following May. The latter in galleries evidently excavated the previous fall. 402 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. L.XX "Diagram showing delopment and generations from hibernating series of Dendroctonus frontalis. near Morgantown in April, and the first eggs are deposited about the 20th. The hibernating pupae, larvae, and eggs con- tinue to yield adults until about the 20th of June; by which time adults of the first series of broods commence to emerge, and continue emerging until about the 18th of August. By this time adults of the second series of broods commence to emerge and continue to come out until about the 18th of Octo- ber, when adults of the third brood commence to appear. The adults of this series deposit eggs for the hibernating broods, eggs and nearly matured larvae of which pass the winter in the brood galleries and larval mines in the inner bark ; so that there is, under average conditions, three broods each year.1 The foregoing diagram, based upon an average of sixty days from the egg to the emerging of the adult, will illustrate the number of broods or generations from the hibernating eggs to adults, which may developein a single season. Those de- veloping from the first eggs deposited by the hibernating adult females are shown in line 1, from hibernating pupa and matur- ed larvae, in lines 2 and 3; from nearly matured to very young larvae, in lines 4, 5 and 6; and from eggs, in line 7, Thus the hibernating individuals may represent seven series, each separ- ated by a period of ten days. The 1st to 4th developing three generations each between April 20th and November 16th and the 5th to 7th developing two generations each between 1. This has reference to the Upper Austral area In West Virginia. There is probably not over two broods in the Transition and possibly not over one in the Canadian; and under the most favorable conditions it is possible for more than three broods to de- velop at low altitudes audin the southern part of the State. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. May 31st and October 31st, making a total of 48 generations from the seven different stages between June 20th and October 18th. HABITS. The hibernating adults emerge from the infested trees about the middle of April, and those which emerge between that time and the middle of July, evidently do not attack the healthy, living trees, but excavate their brood galleries in the living bark of trees injured but not killed by the attack of late broods during; the previous fall. By the last of July, as indi- cated by the diagram, a brood of adults has developed from five hibernating stages, and since each adult probably lives a month or more, they occur at this time in great numbers; and as the flow of liquid sap is becoming less profuse under the bark at this season, they begin to attack the living trees. The first, or preliminary attack, HS I have observed, usually fails in killing the tree if it is not followed up by successive and subse- quent attacks. By the middle of August, however, all seven of the separate hibernating broods have developed into adults ; and since by this time the conditions beneath the bark of living trees are most favorable for their operations, they invade the previously attacked, as well as the healthy trees, in enormous numbers, entering the bark first near the top, and later further down the trunk.. The process of excavating the galleries as in- dicated by their form and peculiar characters is as follows : The adults (probably both sexes) select a crevice in the outer bark of a living tree, and commence the excavation of the main entrance. The outer or dry bark, is soon penetrated and the more difficult operations of boring through the inner or living bark is continued as the conditions will permit, until the outer layer of wood is reached. If, as is usually the case in a pre- liminary attack on healthy pine trees, there is a profuse flow of sap or turpentine, the burrow is extended laterally through the outer and middle layers of the living bark for some dis- tance (one or two inches) before the inner layer is pene- trated. If there is only a moderate flow of turpentine, the 404 WESt VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. LXXI. — Completed primary and secondary galleries of Dendroctonus frontalis. beetles bore directly through the bark to the wood and proceed to excavate the preliminary gallery through the inner bark. In this operation in healthy, living bark filled with turpentine, it is necessary for one of the beetles to continually move back and forth in the burrow, in order to keep it open and push out and dispose of the borings and inflowing turpentine, as shown in Fig. LXXII. Thus the excavation of the entrance through the living bark is a slow and tedious process. In fact, a pair of beetles must often spend their lives under the most unfavorable conditions, affecting an entrance and the excavating of a gallery one or two inches in length. From the time they penetrate the outer layer of living bark, there must necessarily be an incessant struggle with the sticky, resinous mass which is constantly flowing into the burrow and threatening to overcome them. It is often the fate of the leaders in the attack to be imprisoned in their borrows and killed in this manner, or if not killed, may be compelled to abandon their work before the condition of the bark is favorable for them to deposite eggs. While these ad- vance forces may fail in their object of depositing eggs and perish in the effort to overcome the resistance of the invaded trees, they make the conditions favorable for the success of THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 405 Fig. LXXII pentine tube at entrance of gal- lery of Dendroc- tonus frontalis . their followers, that find, in the weakened vitality of the tree and lessened flow of turpentine, but slight obstruction to the prosecution of their work to completion. In the formation of the brood galleries, the same process is followed as that just described, and may often have the sairie character as pre- liminary galleries, but as the flow of turpentine ceases, the course of the gallery is changed or reversed, and is extended to completion in a more or less longitudinal direction, forming graceful curves to the right and left, so that the long fibers and cells of the inner layer of bark are severed at intervals of every one or two inches Tur along its track, as shown in Fig. LXI1. In the excavation of the gallery, the beetles utilize the main entrance only so long as it is convenient for them to eject the boring and turpentine through it, since as soon as they have proceeded one or two inches through the inner bark, they commence the excavation of a side entrance in the roof of the gallery and fill the main en- trance and gallery to that point with the borings, which, being mixed with turpentine, form a hard impenetrable mass. These side entrances are excavated at intervals of one-half to one or more inches, Fig. LXII1. The first is usually filled with the borings from the second, and so on ; so that there is an opening to the surface at all times near where the beetles are at work. Pits varying in depth, but not extending to the surface, are often excavated at intervals of one-fourth to one-half inch be- tween the side entrances, which are evidently occupied by one sex while the other is at work excavating. These are also fill- ed with borings when not in use for other purposes. After the excavation of the entrance and preliminary gallery is accomplished, and about the time the first side entrance is commenced, the female commences to deposite her eggs in small cavities in each side of the gallery, at intervals of one- eight to one or more inches until the brood gallery is complet- ed. In each of these cavities a single egg is deposited, and se- 406 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION curely protected by a thin wall of cemented borings between it and the main gallery, If the conditions of the bark are favor- able when the larva emerges from the egg, it commences to feed, and extend a short, gradually widening mine at right angles to the brood galleries and just above, or barely through the inner layer of bark for a distance of about one-fourth of an inch, or three to four millimetres, when it cuts through the in- ner layer and gnaws out an irregular cavity two to eight mil- limetres wide and eight to ten millimetres, long, Fig. LXViI,in which it undergoes the greater part of its development. When nearly matured, it bores through the outer layers of the inner bark, and as soon as it is fully developed it enters the outer corky bark and excavates, an oblong pupa case, Fig. LXiX, in which it changes to the pupa, and finally to the adult. When the adult is fully developed, it bores directly out through the bark, leaving a clear cut and exposed hole in the surface. Should the conditions of the bark from any cause, be distasteful to the young larvae, or not in proper condition for its nourishment, which is often the case, it continues to bore for a long distance through the inner layer or through the in- ner portion of the bark, without increasing in size, as is indi- cated by the uniform width of the mines as show in Fig. LXV1II. HABIT OF FLIGHT. From such observations as I was able to make with reference to the flight of this insect,and finding examples in electric light globes, it would appear that it flies at night as well as during the day. It would also appear from the character of the attack, that at certain times during the invasion, probably from July to September, and possibly in May, great migrating swarms oc- curred which ascended high in the air and were evidently car- ried long distances by strong winds and storms.1 This is indi- cated by the fact that the first groups of trees that died from its attack in a newly invaded locality, were usually on high exposed points and mountain slopes, where the swarms would 1. The wings which are exceedingly long as compared with the size of the insect, are particularly favorable for the action of the wind in carrying them'long distances. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 407 come in contact with the timber and commence their operations on the living trees. It also appeared from the conditions found that no choice of trees or locality was made by the swarm, but they attacked and killed those trees upon which they happen- ed to settle in sufficient force to overcome the natural resistance met with in the living bark. DISTRIBUTION. The fact that this insect has been recorded from the Lake Superior region,and occurred from central Pennsylvania through Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, District of Columbia, and North Caioliua in destructive numbers, and that it has been collected in Georgia, Florida, Colorado, Arizona, and California is good evidence that it may occur at any part in the United States where the pines and spruces grow. In West Virginia it was found by me to be exceedingly com- mon and destructive wherever the pine grew or was common, at elevations varying from less than 500 to more than 4000 ft. Up to the time, July, 1891, when I found it so common in Hampshire county, W. Va., it was conceded one of the rarest species of the family and was represented in but a few of the largest collections. Mr. Eichhoff, of Strasburg, Germany, had but one specimen in his great collection of Scolytids of the world,when I sent my first specimens to him for indentification, and I have since found that there were but few examples in any of the collections of this country. It was exceedingly com- mon from Pennsylvania to Florida in 1891-2, but since the spring of 1893 it has been exceedingly rare north of North Car- olina. In fact, I do not know that a single living example has been observed in this region since the fall of 1892.. Mr. Schwarz, of the Division of Entomology, at Washington, informs me that he observed it in Florida in 1894 (?) and I received it from North Carolina in 1895, with a report that groups of pine trees were dying. HOST PLANTS, I have observed this insect jn all af ppr native species of pine 408 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. and spruce and also in the cultivated Norway spruce, to all ot which its attack proved fatal. The list is as follows: W hite Pine Pinus strolus L. Scrub Pine Pinus Virginiana Mill. Yellow Pine Pinus eohinata Mill. Table Mt. and Hickory Pine . . .Pinus pungens Mich. Pitch Pine Pinus rigida Mill. Black Spruce Picea mariana (Mill.)B.S.P. Red Spruce(?) Picea rubra, (Lamb) Link. Norway Spruce . . Picea excelsa, Link. It will doubtless attack any species of n-ative or introduced pine and spruce upon which it may happen to settle when it occurs in great swarms as it did in 1892. Hence, this insect may be considered one of the most dangerous enemies of this class of forest and shade trees. NATURAL ENEMIES. I have discovered a number of natural enemies of this spec- ies; but it appears that none of them are specific enemies of it, since they are all known to attack other species. of bark beetles or other insects which infest the pines or spruces. These which are parasitic on the larva or pupa are as follows: PARASITIC ENEMIES. jBracon pissodes Ashm — Both sexes reared from cocoons found in larval mines and pupa cases of D. frontalis in scrub pine near Dellslow, Monongalia county, November 7th, 1892. This, as the name indicates, is also a parasite of a curculionid of the genus Pissodes. Heydenia unica Cook and Davis.1 — Reared from larvae fo'ind in larval mines and pupa cases of D. frontalis in scrub pi ae near Dellslow, West Virginia. This species was also rear- ed by Professors Cook and Davis from larch infested with Polygraphus ruftpennis and Dendroctonus (similis ^simplex. I have also reared it from cocoons found in the larval mines of Pissodes strobi in scrub pine at Ronceverte, Greenbrier county, W. Va. on April 30th, 1893. 1. Bull. 73. Michigan Agr. Exp. Station, 1891. p. 15, THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 409 Doryctes sp. — Reared from pine bark infested with D. fron- talis. Bark taken in July, 1892. This must be conceded a doubtful parasite since it was not reared direct irora cocoons or larvae found in the galleries of D. frontalis. No other beetle was bred from the bark however. Cecidostiba dendroctoni (n. sp.) Ashrn,1 Adults collected on bark of spruce infested with D frontalis, Allegheny Moun- tains, 4000 feet alt. June 22d, 1892, and reared from pine bark infested with D. frontalis. Bark taken in July, '93. This is a common parasite of the spruce bark-beetle, Polygraphus ruti- pennis', and has also been reared by me from pupae found in the liirval galleries of Tomicus cacoqraphus. Roptrocerus ecceptogastri Ratz. — Reared from larvae asso- ciated with larvae of Heydenia unica in larval mines and pupa cases of D. frontalis, in scrub pine at Dellslow, W. Va., No- vember llth, 1892. I have also found it to be a common par- asite of Tomicus pini in white pine, Tomicus cacographus in scrub pine, and Tomicus caelatus in Norway spruce. There are doubtless many other Hymenopterous parasites of other pine bark-beetles which would quite as readily attack D. frontalis. Of the parasites mentioned, Cecidostiba dendroctoni and Roptrocerus ecceptogastri were met with most commonly, and doubtless rendered considerable service in reducing the num- bers of the destructive pine bark beetle. Thanasimus dubius Fab. — Common. Adults on surface of bark, and larvae in galleries and mines in bark of trees infested with D. frontalis and other pine and spruce bark-beetles. Th3 adult feeds on the adults, and the larva on the larvae, pupae, and immature of soft adults of the bark beetles. This is the commonest enemy of all Scolytids which infest conifers. Thanasimus ( Clerus) formicarius, L. — Imported from Ger- many to feed upon D. frontalis, which it was observed to do when liberated on trees infested with this bark beetle. 1. Trigonoderua sp. Bull, 17, W. Va, Exp, Sta. 189L p. 102. LoQhites sp. a and d, in Bull. 31, W, Va. Exp, Sta., 1893, pp, HM48f 410 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Hypophloeus cavus Lee. — Frequently met with in the brood galleries of D. frontalis \ but no observations were made as to the habits of the adult and larva. Hypophloeus parallelus Welsh.— Found in pine bark with D frontalis, and is a common species in the galleries of 8col>- tids in bark of coniferous and deciduous trees. It is recognized as an enemy of bark beetles. ROBBERS. Under this head D. frontalis has a few enemies, especially in the large, bark-boring grubs, the larvae of Monohammus species, and Rhayium lineatum Fig. LXXXV. The latter cuts a wide swath through the inner bark, which, if infested with Scolytids must be destroyed in great numbers both by being robbed of their food supply, and killed outright by the grubs in their operation of excavating their mines. BIRDS. Mumerous trees were observed during the investigation which had the outer flaky bark removed by the birds from the entire trunk ; giving the bark of such trees a conspicuous, reddish ap- pearance by which they could be easily detected from a con- siderable distance. Upon examination, it was found that the birds had removed the outer layer of dry bark in order to se- cure the larvae, pupae, and young adults of D. frontalis from the pupa cases, which as has been shown, Fig. LX1X, often occur in great numbers quite near the surface. It was a no- table fact however, that while one tree would be completely stripped of its outer layers of bark, hundreds of other trees in the same section of the forest, or in the same group of infested tr«>es, showed no indication of the work ot birds. It appears that if a woodpecker commences on ;i tree in the bark of which thsre is an abundant supply of insects, it confines its attention to that tree alone, and that all the other woodpeckers in the same locality are attracted \\\ pine. 9. Rhyssa albomaculata Cress. Emerging from wood of dead spruce tree infested with Paururus edwardsii Bayard, July 9th, 1891; frequent, flying in spruce forest, Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1st, 1890. 266. 10. Thalessa nortoni.Ciess. Ovipositing in freshly cut spruce logs in which no trace of Siricid or other larva could be found, 266. Order HYMENOPTERA: Family BRACONIDAE. 11. Bracon mavoritus Cress. Adult on bark of dying pine tree infested with Dendroctonus frontalis and Cerambycid larva near Brushy run, Jun 23, '92. 12. Bracon pectinator Say. A common parasite of Bupestid and Cerembycid larvae in hemlock, spruce, oak and elm. Widely distributed in the State. 13. Bracon pissodes Asm. Bred from cocoons in larval mines and pupa cases of Dendroctonus frontalis in pine bark. Near Dellslow, Nov. 7th, '92. 14. Bracon simplex Cress. A common parasite of Buprest- id and Cerambycid larvae in bark of spruce, oak and beech. Widely distributed. Very common in spruce forest. 15. Bracon sp. a. Larva feeding on larvae of Asemum moes- turn, in spruce, Bayard, July 7th, '91. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 427 16. Braconid, n. genus, Ashm, near LysitermMs. Bred from cocoons found in pupa cases of Pityogenes plagiatus in scrub pine bark, on Mayfield Hill, near Dellslow, Oct. 14th, '92. 17. Caenopfianes pityophthori Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in larvel (?) mines of PityophtJiorus cariniceps in young dying spruce. Cheat Mountains, Aug. 29, '90, collected on gooseberry flowers, Kanawha Station, May 2d, '91. 18. Cosmophorus hopkinsii Ashm. Bred from spruce in- fested by Polygraphus rutipennis. Also taken on bark in- fested by same species, Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29th, '90. Later found to be a common parasite of the adult of Polygraphus rutipennis in spruce. Also bred from cocoons found in gallery of Pityophthorus n. sp. in Norwaj7 spruce, Morgantown, 1898. Mr. Ashmead refers to this species, in a letter dated March 7th, 1893, as follows:" * * * It belongs to the genus Cosmo- phorus Ratzeburg, described in his 'Die Ichn'd. Forstins. Bd. II, 71, (1848) and the only specimen known is the type, C. klu- gii, Ratz., figured in detail on plate 2, fig. 37. * * * Ratzeburg reared his species from Hylesinus polygraphus" (Polygraphus poylgraphus Linn). "The genus belongs in the sub-family Euphorinae and all the genera in this family are parasitic on Coleoptera, some even preying upon the perfect beetles." 19. Helcon occidentalism Ashm. Bred from cocoon taken in pupa chamber of Tetropium cinnamopterum in black spruce. Bayard, July 8th, ;91. 20. Spathius abdominalis, Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in larval mines of Dryocoetes autographus in Norway spruce. Morgantown, Mar. 15th, '91. 21. Spathius brachyurus As'm.(= Spathius brevicaudws Ashm.) Parasite of Pissodes strobi in pine; Dryocoetes autographus in spruce, bred from cocoons. Kanawha Station and Morgantown. 22. Spathius canadensis(? ) , Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in mines of lomicus cacogravhus in white pine, Nuzums March 31, '91; also reared from cocoons found in larval mines of Oopturus longulus in bark of dying scrub pine, near Berke- ley Springs, Mar. 10, '97. 428 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 23. Spathius claripennis Ashm. Collected and bred from cocoons in galleries of Polygraphus rufipennis in black spruce. Cheat Bridge and Davis, Mar. and Sept. 24. Spathius pallidus Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in larval mines of Tomicus cacographus under bark of scrub pine. Kanawha Station, June 23. 25. Spathius simillimus Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in larval mines of Chrysobothris pusilla, in spruce, Davis, Mar. 26, '92. 26. Spathius tomici Ashm. Bred from cocoons found in larval mines of Dryocoetes autoQraphus in bark of Norway spruce log. Morgantown, March 15th, '91. 27. Ithyssalus pityophthori Ashm. With Pityophthorus n. sp. in bark of dying twigs 01 yellow pine. Kanawha Station, July 29, '91. 28. Rhysipolis biformis Ashm. In mines of Cerambycid and Buprestid larvae in spruce bark. Cheat Bridge, Sept 1, Bay- ard, Mar. 31. Order HYMENOPTERA: Family CHALCIDIDAE. 29. Cecidostiba dendroctoni A8hm(=Triyonoderus sp., Spinth- erus sp., Lochites sp. c., Lochites sp. d., in Bull. 32, W. Va. Agr. Expt. Station.) A common parasite of Polygraphus ruiipennis in black spruce, observed and bred in 1890, '91 and '92. Also found in spruce bark infested with Dendroctonus frontalis. Lochites sp. d (?) taken in larval mines and pupa cases of D. frontalis in scrub pine Nov. 7, and Oct. 10, 92. Common. Bred from pupa found in mines of Tomicus caco- graphus, July 15th, '93. 30. Cecidostiba polygraphi(=Ashm. Trigonoderus sp. Spintheruss]). Bull. No. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station). A common parasite of Polygraphus rufipennis. Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1,'90. Bayard June, '91, near Edra, Williams River, May 6, '93. Frequently bred from larvae and pupae found in larval mines of Polygrayhus rufipennis. 31. Cepha'lonomia hyalinipennis Ashm. Reared fro m spruce twigs infested with Pityophthorus n. sp. and Pityophthorus n. sp, q. taken at Cranesville, May 10th,'97. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 429 32. Decatomidea polygraphi A.shm.(=£ecatoma sp., in Bull. No. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station). Common on spruce logs in- fested with Polygrapfius rufipennis near Bayard, July 12th, 1891. 33. Diomorus zabriskii Cress. (?) In burrow ol Hymenop- terous insect in outer bark of pine. 34. Eupelmus cleri Ashm. Reared from 25 or 30 larvae in- festing a larva of Thanasimus trifasciatus the latter found in pupa cases of Arhopalus fulminans Fab., in white pine bark, near Crow, April 26th, ?93. Also bred from hemlook bark in- fested with Aulacus abdominalis and Melanophila fulvoguttata near Davis, Mar. 31, '91. 35. Eurytoma cleri Ashm. Bred from pupae lound in larvae mines of Pissodes stroll in scrub pine, near Charleston, April 30th, '93. (The name indicates that there was some error in the note on this species, when sent to Mr. Ashmead.) 36. Eurytoma tomici Ashm. Bred from larvae found in pupae cases of Pityogenes plagiatus in pine bark. Tibbs Run, near Dellslow, Oct. 14, '92. 37. Eurytoma sp. f. Taken in larval mines of Polygraphus ntfipennisi Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90. (My accession number 58 in National Museum). 38. Heydenia unica C. & D. Bred from larva taken in lar- val mines of Dendroctonus frontalis near Dellslow, Nov. 7, '92, from pupa found in mines of Pissodes strobi in scrub pine near Charleston, April 30, '93, aud Berkeley Springs, Mar. 10, '97. 39. fioptrocerus ecceptogastri R>&\.z.(=Lochites sp. b & e, Bull. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station, 1893.) Reared from larvae and pupae taken in larval mines and pupa cases of Tomicus calliqraphus and T.pini in white pine bark, Moundsville, July 20th, '91; lomicus cacographus in yellow pine, Kanawha Sta- tion, Aug. 12,'91; Tomicus caelatus in Norway spruce, Morgan- town. July 13,'92; Dendroctonus frontalis in pine, Jan. '93; also reared from pine twigs taken at Dellslow, Nov. 7th, '92. 40. Roptrocerus xylophagorum Rl&\,z.(=Lochites sp. a. Bull. 430 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION 31, W. Va. Expt. Sta., 1893.) A very common parasite of the larva and pupa of Polygraphus rufipennis throughout the spruce forests. Mr. Ashmead refers to the two last mentioned species in a letter dated Jan. 13, 1894, as follows: "The recognition of the two European species of Roptrocerus- R. ecceptogastri and R. xylophagorum Ratzb.-is of special interest. They were originally described by Ratzeburg in Vol. I. Die Ichneu'd Forstinsectin (1844) p, 218. under the generic name Pachyceras. "The following are the hosts of these insects after Ratzeburg, but unfortunately I do not possess a late catalogue of the Euro- pean Coleoptera and so can not give the names of the hosts as changed by a later nomenclature." Parasite Roptrocerus xylophagorum Host. Bostrichus bicolor " bidens 11 curvidens 11 laricis " piceae Pityographus " typoyraphus l" villosus Roptrocerus ecceptogastri Later nomenclature. [ Taphrorychus tricolor. ] \_Pityogencs bidens.~\ [ " curvidens] [Tomicus laricis] [ Cryphalus piceae'] \_Pityopkthorus p ityogra- phus.] [Tomicus typographies] [ Dryocoetes villosus] [Polygraphus polygraphus] ' polygraphus 41. Tetrastichus thanasimi A.shm.(=Tetrastichus sp. a. Bull. 31, W.^Va. Agr. Exp. Station.) Bred from larva of Thanasimux dubius in bark of black spruce taken near Davis, Mar. 29, '91, probably a secondary parasite. 42. Tomicolia tibialis, n.g.,n. sp. Ashm,MS. Parasite of adult Tomicus. Reared from adults of Tomicus calligraphus, taken near Berkeley Springs, Mar. 10, '97; also from adults of Tomicus pini, taken in bark of larch at Grand Forks, North Dakota, July 17, '97, and from Tomicus cacographns taken in pine bark near Dellslow, 1895 ; evidently a common parasite of THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 431 43. Zapachia copturi Ashra, MS. Reared from larvae found in the larval mines of Copturus longulus Lee, in bark of small dying scrub pine near Berkeley Springs, Mar. 10, '97. Order HYMENOPTERA: Family PROCTOTRYPIDAE. 44. Scleroderma macroff aster Ashm. Adults in mines of Xyletinus peltatus in seasoned pine board. Galleries also in- fested with guest bee. Kanawha Station, July 12, '94. Order HYMENOPTERA: Family FORMIC1DAE. 45. Camponotus pennsylvani- cus. Large colony working in heartwood of spruce tree about eight inches in diameter. The tree had been living when at- tacked and the wood had been so completely destroyed that the tree fell. Fig. LXXX1II is from a photograph of a portion of the wood taken from the stump. Order COLEOPTERA: Family CARABIDAE. 46. Cychrus ridingsii Bland. One specimen collected under bark of spruce log near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 2d, 1890. 47. Tacky s nanus Gyll. Col- lected under bark of spruce log, near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90. 48. Pterostichus honestus Say. Fig. LXXXIII— Work of black ants (Camponotus pennsylcanicus) in black spruce wood; the living tree slightly injured which gave entrance to the ants, and the heart wood was completely destroyed by them, and the tree fell. Hiding under bark of decay ing spruce log, near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90. 432 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 49. Pterostichus adoxus Say. Hiding under bark of decay- ing spruce stump near Cheat Bridge, Sept., I, '90. 50. Platynus angustatus Dej. Hiding under dead bark of spruce stump near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90, and near Bayard July 11,'91. 51. Platynus sinuatus Dej. Hiding under dead bark on spruce log near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90. 52. Dromius quadricollis Lee. Collected under bark of spruce log near Bayard Mar. 30,'91. 53. Chlaenius tricolor Dej. Hiding under bark of spruce log near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90. Order COLEOPTERA : Family SCYDMAENIDAE. 54. Cholerus zimmermanni Schaum. Adults common under decaying bark of pine tree with ants ; Tibbs Run, April 3, '97, (" * * * lives under old bark of trees in company with ants.'1' — Schwarz) Order COLEOPTERA: Family PSELAPHIDAE. 55. Cedius spinosus Lee. Adults under decaying pine bark with ants. Tibbs run, April 3, '97, ( "* * * lives under old bark of trees in company with ants." — Schwarz.) Order COLEOPTERA: Famiiy STAPHYLINIDAE. 56. Placusa sp. Common in brood galleries of bark beetle in pine and spruce bark, CheatBridge, Dellslow, Davis, Kanaw- wha Station and Petersburg. Probably feeds on eggs of the bark beetles. 57. Quedius peregrmus Grav. Adults with Polygraphus rufipennis under bark on dead spruce tree near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 28, '90. 58. Xantholinus cephalus Say. Adults in bark of dead spruce infested with Polygraphus rutipennis, near Davis, Mar. 29, '91. 59. Xantholinus emmesus, Grav. Reared from pupa found in galleries of Tomicus calligraphus near Evans, Oct. 6, '94. Adults common in galleries of same scolytid in pitch pine near Dellslow, Dec. 12, '96. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 433 60. Baptolinus longiceps Fab. Collected under bark of spruce log cut in '87, near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 30, '90. 61. Omalium pusillum Grav. In dead pine bark, Tibbs run, April 3. ("Very common under pine bark, but hardly insec- tiverous." — Schwarz.) 62. Olophrum oUectum Er. Hiding under pine bark near Kanawha Station, Oct. 17, '90. 63. Siagonium americanum Melsh. Under bark on roots of spruce stump, probably in galleries of Dryocoetes autographus. Order COLEOPTERA: Family PHALACBIDAE. 64. Olibrus bicolor Gyll. Adults hiding in spruce bark near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29, '90. Also collected near Kanawha Station, May 21, '90, and Glenville, July 9, '90. Order COLEOPTERA: Family COCCINELLIDAE. 65. Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls. Feeding on Leeanium sp. on scrub pine near Romney, May 7th, '94. Order COLEOPTERA: Family ENDOMYCHIDAE. 66. Phymaphora pulchella Newn. Adults on spruce stump, Cranesville, June 23, '97. 67. Endomychus biguttatus Say. Under pine bark near Nuzums, Oct. 15th. '91. Order COLEOPTERA: Family COLYDIIDAE. 68. Coxelus guttulatus, Lee. Under bark of pine tree near Romney, May 6, '92. 69. Lasconotus referen darius Zirnm. Adult in white pine killed by girdling, Anthony's Creek, Greenbrier county, Oct. 10, '93. 70. Aulonium tuber culatum Lee. With scolytids under yellow pine bark near Romney, July 13, '91. Also in galleries of Tomicus cacographus in living bark of scrub pine, Charleston, April 28, '93, 71. Colydium lineola Say. With scolytids under bark of dead yellow pine tree, near Romney July 13, '91. 72. Philothermus glabriculus Lee. Found with scolytids under spruce bark near Cheat bridge, August 29, '90. 434 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION * Order CLEOPTERA: Family CUCUJIDAE. 73. Laemophlaeus testaceus Fab. With lomicus cacographus under pine bark, Tibbs Run, April 4, '97. 74. Dendrophagus glaber Lee. Under bark of spruce log cut in 1887, near Cheat Bridge, August 30, '90. Order COLEOPTERA: Family HISTERIDAE. 75. Hister lecontei Mars. Adult collected in galleries of Tomicus calligraphus in dead yellow pine tree, Jackson, Oct., 6, '94. Al- so in galleries of Dendrodonus simplex, under bark of larch stump near Cranesville, May 9, '97. 76. Hister parallelus Say. With Dryocoetes autograplms in Nor- way spruce bark, Morgantown, Nov., '90, with Gnathotrichus ma- teriarius in scrub pine wood, Kanawha Station, May 18th, '90, with lomicus cacographus in pine bark, Kanawha Station, June 24, '91 ; Moundsville, July 20, '91 and in galleries of Xyloterus lineatus in wood of spruce log near Bayard, May 25,'93. 77. Hister cylindricus Fayk. A common predaceous enemy ot Tomicus cacographus and Tomicus calligraphus in white, scrub and pitch pine, near Kanawha Station, May 8, and Aug. 12, '91 ; near Petersburg, May 5,?92 ; Finey creek, Raleigh county, Apr. 26, '93 ; Charleston, Apr. 28, '93 ; near Morgantown, July 15, '93 ; Apr. 24, '96, and May 6, '95. I also collected it in galler- ies of Tomicus caelatus in white pine bark in the Middlesex Fells, Maiden, Mass., Aug. 20, '98. 78. Paromalus Ustriatus Er. Adult taken feeding on pupa of Polygraphus rufipennis in dying spruce tree near Edra, May 6th, '93 ; also taken with same bark beetle near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 30, '90 and Davis July 11, '91. 79. Paromalus difficilis Horn. With Polygraphus rufipenms and Dryoeoetes granicollis in bark of spruce logs near Cheat Bridge. Sept. 1, '90, and near Bayard July 8, '91. 80. Plegaderus transversus Say. With Tomicus cacographus in pine bark, Kanawha Station, June 24,'91, and Moundsville, July 20, '91. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 435 Order COLEOPTERA: Family NITIDULIDAE. 81. Colastus unicolor Say. With Pityopfithorus conftnis and Tomicus calligraphus under bark of dead pine near Petersburg May 4, '92. 82. Epuraea avara Rand. Adult under dead bark of spruce logs near Bayard, July 8, '91. 83. Epuraea truncatella Mann. Adults with Polygraphus ruftpennis in spruce bark near Davis, Mar. 26, '90, and Bayard July 9, '91. 84. Ips fasciatus Oliv, With Xylolerus lineatus in sapwood of recently cut spruce logs near Bayard, May 8, '92. 85. Ips conftuentus Say, Common in galleries of Tomicus calligraphus in partly Jiving bark of pitch pine, Tibbs Run, near Dellslow, Mar. 20, '97. 86. Ips vittatus Say. Frequent in galleries of Tomicus caco- qrapJius containing adults and young in partly living bark of white pine tree, Crow, Apr. 25, '93, also with same bark-beetle near Dellslow, Mar. 20, '97. 87. Rhizophagus cylindricus Lee. Two adults under dead pine bark infested with Curculionid larvae and Scolytids, Tibbs Run, Apr. 3, '97, ("The largest and rarest species of the genus, known only from Georgia, North Carolina and Virginia; an enemy of Scolytids." — Schwarz.) 88. Rhizophagus dimidiatus Mann. With Polygraphus rufipennis under spruce bark near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90, and Bayard, Mar. 26, '91. Order COLEOPTERA: Family LATHRIDIDAE. 99. Corticaria elongata Hum. Adults under bark on pine slabs with Tomicus calligraphus, Elizabeth, July 27, '91. Order COLEOPTERA: Family TROGOSITIDAE, 90. Nemosom,a cylindricum Lee. Adults in pine branches with Tomicus cacographus^ near Kanawha Station, May 20, '92; Tomicus caelatus, Sept. 5, '92, and with bark beetles, Charles- ton, Apr. 28, '93. 344. 91. Trogosita virescens Fab. Adults under bark on dead and 436 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION dying white and yellow pine trees, Moundsville, July 20, '91 ; Romney, May 4, '91, and with Tomicus calligraphus in bark of yellow pine, Tibbs Run;, near Dellslow, Apr. 3d, 93. Order COLEOPTERA : Family ELATERIDAE. 92. Melanotus communis Gyll. In decaying wood of pine stump and under bark of pine log from tree cut in '89, near Kanawha Station, June and Dec., '90. 93. Elaterid larvae. Found feeding on larvae, pupae and young adults of Dendroctonus terebrans near Dellslow. Order COLEOPTERA: Family BUPRESTIDAE. 94. Chalcophora virginiensis Drury. Adult collected on dy- ing scrub pine near Charleston, Apr. 12th, '93. Fig LXXXIV.— Work of large Buprestid larvae (Chalcophora liberta) in heart wood of living white pine. 95. Chalcophora liberta Germ. The destructive heartwood borer. Larvae and fragments of adults supposed to be this species found in heart- wood of living white pine trees, doing great damage to the wood, near Crow, Dec. 1, '97. 96. Dicerca punctulata Schoenh. Dead adults in outer sap- wood of small pitch pine tree that had apparently been dead THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 437 two years, Tibbs Run, Dec. 12, '96. ("One of the-rarer species of the genus, lives exclusively in conifinerous trees." — Schwarz.) 97. CJirysobothris pusilla Lap. & Gory. Collected on spruce logs near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90, and reared from larvae found in spruce bark near Bayard, Mar. 26, '91. 98. Chrysobothris azurea, Lee. Adult taken from bark and wood of branches of dead pine trees near Kanawha 8tati,on May 15, '91, and Romney, May 3, '92. 99. Agrilus bilineatus Web. Adult collected on pine needles, Tibbs Run, near Dellslow, Oct. 6, '97. 255. Order COLEOPTERA: Family LAMPYRIDAE. 100. Lucidota atra Fab. Adults under dead bark on spruce log near Davis, Mar. 29, '91. 101. Ellychnia corrusca Linn. Adults common on bark of spruce trees and logs near Davis. Mar. 29, '91. Order COLEOPTERA: Family CLERIDAE. 102. Cymatodera inornata Say. Adult in outer bark of liv- ing pine, Nuzums, Oct. 15, '91. 103. Clerus quadrisignatus Say. var nigripes Say. Adults and larvae with Tomicus cacographus and Pityophthorus cribipen- nis in pine bark near Petersburg, May 9, '92, and Kana'wha Station, Apr. 29, and May 4, '91. 104. Clerus quadriguttatus Oliv. Near dying white pine trees infested with bark beetles, Focahontas county, May 3, '93. 345. 105. Thanasimus trifasciatus Say. Adults and larvae with Polygraphus ruiipennis under bark of spruce log near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 20, '90, Bayard, Mar. 28, '91, Williams river, near Edra, June 25th, '93. 343. 106. Thanasimus dubiusFab. A common predaceous enemy of ail the bark beetles which infest the spruce and pine. Wide- ly distributed in the State. 262. 107. Phyllobaenus dislocatus Say . Adults with Polygraphus ruiipennis in spruce, and larvae with Pityophthorus, n. sp. 1, and n. sp. q. in dead twigs of Norway gprqce, JVJorgantown, Apr. 5th, '97. 438 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Order COLEOPTERA ; Family PTINIDAE. 108. Xestobium squalidum Lee. Adults bred from larvae collected in dead wood of spruce, near Bayard, Mar. 31, '91, and May 9, '92. 109. Xyletinus peltatus Harr. Very common in seasoned pine lumber and timber in old barn near Kanavvha Station, July 13, '94. Order COLEOPTERA : Family SCARABAEIDAE. 110. Valgus canaliculatus Fab. In decaying wood of pine stump, near Kanawha Station, Feb. '90. Order COLEOPTERA : Family CERAMBYCIDAE. 111. Prionus laticollisTtrury. Reared from pupa taken in yellow pine stump near Kanawha Station, June 20, '90. 112. Asemum moestum Hald. Larvae, pupae and adults taken from sapwood ol yellow pine stump near Kanawha Sta- tion, Apr. 20, '91. All stages common in sapwood and outer heartwood of white pine trees near Greenbrier river, May 3, '93, in spruce, Bayard, July 7, '91. Common wherever the pine grows. 345. 113. Tetropium cinnamopterum Kirby. Adults common emerg ing from wood of spruce trees that died in the summer of '95, Horton, May 20th, '96 ; collected from spruce at Bayard, May 8, and 31, '91, Mar. 31, '91 ; near Davis Mar. 29, '91. A common and serious enemy of the sapwood of dying and dead spruce timber, often causing rapid decay of the wood. 114. Phymatodes dimidiatus Kirby. Bred from larva found under bark on spruce log, on banks of Cheat River, near Ice's Ferry, June 12, '92. Adults flying, Spruce Mt., June 23, '92, Also common flying in spruce forest in Randolph county, June 21, '92. Bred from larva found in spruce tree that died from the attack of Dendroctonus Jrontalis in the summer of '92, Will- iams river, May 6, '93. 346. 115. Callidium antennatum, Newn. Common in wood of dead and dying pine trees, causing rapid decay of wood. Adults and larvae near Romney, May 3, '92. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 439 116. Rhagium lineatum Olive. Very common bark borer in dying and dead pine trees wherever the pine grows. Adults collected May 9, Apr. 8, Oct. 7, and Dec. 19. 117. Monohammus titillator Fab. Adults on pilch pine cut in May '95,, Tibbs Run, near Dellslow, May 2, '95. Collected on dying scrub pine trees in same locality, July 15, '93. Fig. LXXXV— a, Galleries and larva, of buprestid in bark of black spruce, showing destruction of colonies of Poly- graphus ruftpennis. b, Galleries of Callidium antennatum in outer surface of pine wood: Colonies of Scolytids de- stroyed by it. 118. Monohammus scutellatus Say. A common and destruc- tive wood borer in dying and dead white pine. Brushy Run-. May 5, and June 24, '92, Nuzums, Oct. 15, '91. 119. Monohammus confusor Kir by. Common on spruce logs in Skidway, Fig. XV11I, near Cheat bridge, Aug. 29, '90. 120. Graphisurus pusillus Kirby. Adult collected on spruce log, near Cheat Bridge, Aug 30, '90. 121. Acanthocinus obsoletus Oliv. Bred from larva in outer bark of pitch pine tree, killed by Dendroctonus frontalis, Tibbs 440 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Run, Nov. 7, '92. Adults emerged in breeding jar Jan., '93. Adults collected on spruce stump near Bayard, July 9, '91. Order COLEOPTEKA: Family CHRYSOMELIDAE. 122. Glyptosckis pubescens Fab. Collected on pine leaves near Kanawfaa Station, June 2, '91. Order COLEOPTERA : Family TENEBRIONIDAE. 123. Tenebrio castaneus Enoch. Adult under dead bark of dy- ing pine tree, Tibbs Run, Dec. 12, '96. (''Common under old bark of all sorts of trees." — Schwarz). 124. Hypophloeus parallelus Melsh. Very common, and an enemy of bark beetles in pine and spruce, and widely distri- buted. 266. 125. Hypophloeus tennis Lee. With bark beetles in white pine bark, Anthony's Creek, Oct. 10, '94; common in brood galler- ies of Tomicus calligraphus^ feeding on adults; also with adult Tomicus in winter galleries in outer bark. (k'Not often seen in collections; an enemy of scolytidae." — Schwarz). 126. Hypophloeus thoracicus Melsh. With Polygraphus rufipen- nis in bark of spruce logs, near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29, '90. Order COLEOPTERA : Family MELANDRYIDAE. 127. Xylita laevigata Hellw. Adult in sapwood in dead spruce tree, near Davis, Mar. 30, '91. 128. Serropalpus bar batus Sc hall. Adult collected on spruce stump near Davis, July 10, '91. 129. Eustrophus tomentosus Say. In decaying bark of dead pine, Tibbs Run, April 3, '97. ("Common in tree fungi. "- Schwarz.) 130. Canifa pallipes Melsh. In pine 'twigs (?), June 27, '90. ("Common on old twigs of all sorts of trees." — Schwarz). Order COLEOPTERA : Family PYTHIDAE. 131. Pytho niger Kirby. Adults in chip cocoons under b^rk of white pine logs cut the previous year: Common. Nuznm's Apl. 1, '90; adults under dead bark of spruce logs, Bayard, May 9, '92. THE PINE'lNVESTIGATION. 441 132. Pytho americanus Kirby. Adults common under bark of pine tree cut the previous winter near Kanawha Station, Feb. 20, '90. Adults under bark of white pine tree killed by Den- droctonus frontalis, Crow, Apr. 26, '93. Order COLEOPTERA : Family CURCULIONIDAE. 133. Pissodes strobi Peck. The white pine weevil. Common in the terminal twigs of spruce and pine, and in bark of living, dead and dying pine and spruce trees, Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, in spruce; Bayard. July 8, in spruce, emerging; Spruce Mt., al- titude 4860, June 23, '92, pupa under bark of spruce tree; Poca- hontas county, June 27, in white pine; Moorefield, July 13, pupa in yellow pine ; St. George, Tucker county, July 11, in Norway spruce, terminal branches of living tree; Greenbrier county, in scrub pine bark ; Kanawha Station, June 29, pupae under bark uf yellow pine: Green Springs, adults, July 14; Romney,*May 3, in scrub pine, side of living tree. 259, 345. 134. Hyhbius pales Herbst. Common in pine bark near Kan- awha Station, May, '90 and May 18, '91, near roots of dying tree ; near Romney, July 14, on bark of injured pine tree ; near Tibbs Run, adult at root cf pine: Kanawha Station, Apr. 19, '91, flying at night. 135. Gopturus longulus Lee. Reared from larvae which were common under bark of small scrub pine; the larvae making short mines in the inner bark and surface of wood and entering the wood to pupate; near Berkeley Springs, Mar. 10, '97. ("Widely distributed the larva is inquilinous in the galls of Podapion gallicola^—Schwarz). Order COLEOPTERA : Family CALANDKIDAK. 136. Himatium conicum Lee. Adults common under bark on spruce logs near Cheat Bridge, Sept. 1, '90; in bark on dead spruce tree top and dead tree near Davis, Mar. 26, '91 ; and un- der bark on dying pine tree, Brushy Run, May 4, '91 ; flying near Kanawha Station, Apr. 17, '91. 137. Himatium errans Lee. Adult under, bark of dying spruce tree, Williams River, May 6, '93. 138. Cossonus corticola Say. Adults very common under bark 442 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. of dead pine and spruce trees, Moundsville, July 20, '91 ; near Kanawha Station, June 24, July 27, and Aug. 12, '91; Romney July 13, '91, near Morgan town, July 13, '92; Nuzums Apr. 1, '91, Oct. 10, '91. Evidently feeds on dead bark. Order COL^OPTERA : Family SCOLYTIDAE. 139. Monarthrum fasciatum Say. Adults under bark and in sapwood of young dead yellow pine, near Kanawha Station, May, 18' 91. (Since this is the only note I have of this species oc- curring in pine, there is a probability of an error in the original note, but 1 think not.) 140. Monarthum mail Fitch. With specimens received from Virginia, said to have been taken from white pine wood; taken in dead scrub pine near Kanawha Station, July 25, '91; Crow, Apr. 26, '93, in white pine. 347 141. GnatJiotricJms materiarius Fitch. Arery common in sap- wood of dead and dying pine and spruce trees, logs and stumps; widely distributed. 142. Pityoplithoruz pulhts, rL'\mm(= Pityophthorus sp. g. Bull. 31, W. Va Agr. Exp. Sta.) Common under partly living bark on dying branches and tops of pines. Two or three species may be included under this name, but with our present knowl- edge of the genus they can nol be easily separated. 143. Pityophthorus - cribripen w is Eic h h . Kanawha Station, Apr. 30, '91, in bark Fig. LXXXVI— Work of PVyopJithorus pulchellus in black spruce bark. white pine top brok- en by snow. 144 Pityophthorus pulchellus }^\c,\\\\.(=Pityophthorus hirticeps^ Bull. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Station.) Adults in bark of twigs of dead young spruce near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29, '90; Romney, May 6, '94, in bark of twigs of scrub pine; also taken at Middle- sex Fells, Mass., Aug. 12, '98, in bark of pitch pine twigs. 145. Pityophthorus pulicarius 7Amm.(= Pityophthorus sp. f, Bull. 81, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.) Common in dying and dead twigs on living and felled pitch, yellow and scrub pine trees. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 44$ 146. Pityophthorus cariniceps Lee. (= Pityophthorus sp. c, Bull. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.) Adults in bark of dying spruce trees, Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29, '90. Also in bark and wood of terminal twigs of young dying spruce in same locality. Fig. LXXXVII— Galleries of Pityophthorus confinis in bark of yellow pine. 147. Pityophthorus confinis (?). Lee. (May=P. Usulcatus Eichh.) Very common in bark of dying dead and injured pitch, scrub, yellow and white pine. 148. Pityophthorus n. sp. (= Pityophthorus lautus Eichh. Bull. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.) Common in dying and dead twigs of scrub, yellow and white pine. 149. Pityophthorus n, sp. e, near P. lautus. In bark and wood of dying twigs on healthy scrub pine trees; adults, pupa and larva, Kanawha Station, June 29, '91. 150. Pityophthorus n. sp, near Pityophthorus lautus. Eichh (=P. sp. e., Bull. 31, W.Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.) Adults pupae and lar- vae in bark and wood of dying twigs on living scrub pine tree ; near Kanawha Station, June 29, '91, and Crow, Dec. 1, '97, in white pine twig, larvae half grown. 151. Pityophthorus puberulus Lec.(=P. sp. d. and Hypothene- mus sp. d. Bull. 31, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.) Common in dying twigs of yellow, scrub and pitch pine. 152. Pityophthorus tuberculatus ( f) Eichh. In bark of small dead spruce near Cheat Bridge, Aug. 29, '90. Pityophthorus n. sp. s. Adults in dead twigs on Norway spruce; galleries in bark and surface of wood. Morgantown, Apr. 5, '97. 153. Pityophthorus n. sp. q. Common in small dead and dy- 444 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. ing twigs on living, dying and dead, black and Norway spruce. Eggs and matured larvae at Cranesville, May 10, and June 23, '97; adults, pupae and larvae in Norway spruce, Morgantown, Apr. 5, and Oct. 14. 154. Pityophthorus n. sp. 1. Very common in the bark of small dead twigs on dying and dead felled black and Norway spruce trees. Adults depositing eggs, Cranesville, May 10, '97; adults in Norway spruce twigs, Morgantown, Apr. 5, '97. 155. Pityophthorus n. sp. m. Adults and half grown larvae in bark of small twigs of pitch pine cut in fall of '96. Tibbs Run, June 1, '97. 156. Pityophthorus n. sp. r. Adults in dead twigs of Norway spruce, Morgantown, Apr. 5, '97. 157. Hypothenemus n. sp. h. Adults common under bark and in outer wood of dead Norway spruce twigs, Morgantown, Apr. 5, '97. 158. Hypothenemus n. sp. i. Colony of adults in bark oi dead Norway spruce twigs, Morgantown, Apr. 5, '97; in dead twigs of black spruce cut in 1895, Morgantown, Nov. 6, '96. 159. Xyloterus lineatus ~R&iz.(—Xyloterus bivittatus Kirby.) Very common wherever the pine and spruce grows, attacking partly living sapwood of dying and felled trees, often causing serious injury to the wood. 160. Xyloterus scabricollis Lee. Not common. Found in partly living sapwood of dying and felled pitch, yellow and white pine trees. Romney, May 3, '92, Brushy Run, May 4, '92; Moot-field, May 3, '92, in yellow pine, near Huntersville, May 2, '93, in white pine, Tibbs Run, Apr. 29, '96, and June 1, '97, in pitch pine. Eggs, larvae, pupae, and young adults, June 1, '97, in sapwood of stump and log of pitch pine tree cut in August, 1896. 161. Xyloterux politus Say. Adults in black spruce near Davis, Tucker Co., May 9, '94. 162. Cryphalus piceae Ratz. Frequently met with at high elevations in the bark of dying or dead spruce trees. Williams River, May 6, '93; Horton, May 28, '93; Cranesville, June 23, '97. Eggs, May 23, adults entering bark June 23. THE PINE INVESTIGATION 445 163. Xyleborus pubescens Zimra. Larvae, pupae and adults common in wood at base of dead scrub pine trees, near Dell- slow, July 24, '92. 164. Dryocoetes autographus Ratz. Very common under partly living and dead bark of black and Norway spruce. More commonly met with at or near the base of stumps and dying trees, also found in pitch pine. 165. Dryocoetes granicollis Lee. Very common in partly living and dead bark of dying, dead and felled »iative and introduced spruce. 166. Tomicus calligraphus Germ. A very common bark beetle where- ever the pine grows in the State, at- tacking partly living and dying standing and felled trees. 167. Tomicus cacographus Lee. Very common under partly living, Fig. LXXXVIII-Galleries of Dryocoetes granicollis, in black spruce. Fig. LXXXIX— Galleries of Tomicus cacographus in pitch pine. dying^and dead bark of living, dying and dead standing and felled pine and spruce trees. Infests all of the pines and the native and introduced spruces. Widely distributed. 168. Tomicus pini Say. Very common under partly living, dying and dead bark of living, dying and dead standing and felled trees. Infests all of the pines, the larch and spruces. Especially common in white pine. Widely distributed. 169. Tomicus avulsus Eichh. Mot common. Found in part- ly living and dead bark of scrub, pitch and white pine; Kan- awha Station, May 8, and June 23. '91, in scrub pine, near Rom- ney, May 6, '92, in yellow pine; Brushy Run, May 4, '92, in white pine. 446 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT* STATION 170. Tomicus caelatus Eichh. Very common in partly living bark on living, dying and dead standing and felled trees. In- fests all of the pines and the native and introduced spruces. Widely distributed. 171. Pityogenes sparsus Lee. Very common in partly living Fig. XC— Galleries of Tomicus pini in white pine: a, surface of wood : b, inner bark, Fig. XCI— Galleries of Tomicus avulsus in bark of large scrub pine, which had recently died. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 447 and dead bark on branches and small twigs of standing and felled trees. Infests the white pine. 172. Pityogenes playiatus Lee. Very common in partly living and dead bark jfp;ii;;;-'.>|| on small injured or dying trees, and branches Of large Fig. xciI-Species of the genus Pityogene,. trees, Infests the scrub and yellow pine. 173. Polygraphus rufipennis Kirby. The destructive spruce bark beetle. A very common species wherever the black spruce grows in West Virginia, but only a single example has been found in pine. Appears to be confined in its distribu- tion to the Canadian Life Zone. It has not been found in culti- vated spruce in the Upper Austral Life Zone. 174. Dendroetonus terebrans Oliv, Very common 1890, -94, attacking all of the pines and Norway spruce near the base of living and dying trees and stumps. Widely distributed. 175. Dendroetonus sp. near Dendroetonus ruftpennis Lee A single specimen found ex- cavating gallery and deposit- ing eggs in living bark of black spruce stump, near Horton, May 21, '93. 176, Dendrootonuq $imple% J^ec. n Adult founcj w bark of Fig. XCIII— Galleries of Pityo- genes sparsus, in white pine twigs. 448 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION spruce log, Cranesville, May 9, '97. Abundant in bark of larch stumps and dead trees; same locality and date. Fig. XCIV— Galleries of Pityogenes plagiatus in bark of scrub pine. 177. Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm. Exceedingly abundant in 1891 to winter of '92 and '93; apparently extinct in this State since the spring of 1893. Infested living and partly dead bark of living trees. Destructive to all of the pines and the native and cultivated spruces attacked by it. Most destructive bark beetle of which we have any record. Fig. XCV— Galleries of Pityogenes plagiatus in outer surface of wood of seasoned scrub pine twig. 178. Crypturgus pusillus Gyll. Very common in dead bark of pitch, scrub, yellow table mountain pine, occupying; galler- ies of other bark beetles, see Fig. XCVI. 179. Crypturgus alutaceus Sz. Common in dead bark of black and Norway spruce. 180. Hylastes porculus Er.(=Hylastes sp. Bull. 31. W. Va, Agr. Exp. Sta.) Rare. In bark at base of dying tree; taken in scrub, yellow and white pine, and occurring in swarm of Scoly* tids,3May 4, '93. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 449 181. Hylastes tennis Zimm.(=/7. gracilis Lee.) Rare. Taken in swarm, May 4, '93, and breeding in bark of pine twigs kept in basement of W. Va. Exp. Station building in '94. Fig. XC VI— Galleries of Crypturgus pusillus in pitch pine. 182. Hylurgops glabratus 7iM.(=Hylurqops pinifex Fitch.) Very common in living, dying or dead bark at base of dying trees and stumps. Infests yellow, scrub, pitch and white pine. 183. Fig. XC VII— Pitch pine needles, deformed by the pitch pine needle gall fly, also perfect needle. Order DIPTERA : Family TACHINIDAE. Immature adult bred, from larvae which 450 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. emerged from adult of Thanasimus dulius Aug. 12, '92 ; chang- ed to pupa,- Aug. 13, '92. Adult emerged Aug. 28, '92. Beetle collected on scrub pine near Dellslow, Aug. 10, '92. Fig. XCVIII,— a, Work of the pitch pine twig tortrix. 6, tube of the pine tube builder. Order DIPTERA : Family DOLICHOPODIDAE. 184. Medeterus nigripes Loew. Common in larval mines of Polygraphus rufipennis in black spruce, near Edra, May 6, '93. Also common in mines of same species in Randolph, Tucker, and^Grant^Counties. Evidently an enemy of the larva of the bark ^beetle. THE PINE INVESTIGATION. 451 Order DIPTERA : Family CECIDOMYIIDAE. 185. Diplosis pini-Tigidae Packard. The pitch pine needle gall fly, (See Fig. XOVII), common on pitch and yellow pine, near Kanawha Station, 1890-94; also near Morgantowu. Order LEPIDOPTERA : Family TORTRICIDAE. 186. Lophoderus politanus Haw. The pine tube builder. The work of this insect frequently observed on yellow and pitch pine near Kanawha Station, 1890 94. Order LEPIDOPTERA : Family GRAPHOLITHIDAE. 187. Retinia frustrana (?) Scudder. The pine moth of Nan- tucket. What was evidently this species had been very com- mon along Allegheny Front, Mineral county, as indicated by the great number of dead twigs on the table mountain and pitch pines as observed Jul> 7, '98. The characteristic mines were found, but scarcely any larvae and chrysalids; also ob- served near Morgantown in pitch pine. A tew larvae were found, but the adult was not i eared. 188. Retinia comstockiana Fernald. The pitch pine twig tortrix. (See Fig. XOV1II.) Common in living twigs of pitch pine near Kanawha Station; larvae June 27, '91; also in twigs of table mountain pine, May 7, '94. Frequently observed wherever pitch pine grows, forming pitch, gall-like objects on the twigs. Order LEPIDOPTERA: Family GELECHIIDAE. 189. Gelechia pinifoliella, Cham. Pine leaf miner. Com- mon in yellow and pitch pine leaves, causing tips to turn brown, Kanawha Station, May 20, '92; near JJellslow, Apr. 4, '92. Also common in other sections of the State. 190. Dakruma coccidivora. Common, feeding on undeter- mined Lecanium sp. near Romney, May 7, '94. Adults reared from larvae. Order HEMIPTERA : Family ANTHOCORIDAE. 191. Anthocoris sp. Frequently found attacking adult Scoly- tids. inserting its beak through the suture of the elytra decliv- 452 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION ity. Found attracking Tomicus, Pityophthorus and Gnathotri- chus, Order HEMIJ^TERA : Family CERCOPIDAE. 192. Aphrophora parallela (?) (Spittle insect.) Nymphs very common on pitch pine, near Bruce- ton Mills, June 22, '97. This or other species common in pine, spruce, hemlock and balsotn fir. Pocahontas, Greenbrier and Ran- dolph counties, July,'93. Common on black spruce near Davis, July 11, '91. On yellow and scrub pine, Kanawha Station, May 20,'92. Order HEMIPTERA : Family APHIDAE. 193. Chermes abietes Linn. The spruce gall louse. Common on na- tive and cultivated spruce. Ob- served in the southern, middle and northern sections of the spruce area on black spruoe, and at Morgan- town on JNorway spruce. Order HEMIPTERA : Family cocci- DAE. 194. Chionaspis pini folia (?) What was evidently this species was very common on white pine at Nuzums in 1891, causing the foliage to turn yellow and the tree subsequently died. 195. Lecanium sp. (?) Very common on a small scrub pine near Romney May 7, '94. 196. Rhizococcus sp.(?). Observed frequently on pitch, scrub and white pine and on spruce in different sections of the State. Fig. XC1X. Common on small spruce near Cranesville, June 23, '97. Fig. XCIX.— Ehizococcus sp. on black spruce. THfi PINE INVESTIGATION. 453 Order NEUROPTERA : Family TERMITIDAE. 197. Termes flavipes Kallor. Common in old pine logs and stumps. Often injurious to wood work in buildings. The above list includes 134 species of insects taken from the pine, of which 9 may be classed as destructive, 61 as injurious, 42 beneficial and 22 neutral or accidental. Eighty-four species were taken from the spruce, including 5 destructive, 24 injurious, 37 beneficial and 21 neutral. Some of the species infest both pine and spruce. The list also includes 24 species of Hymenoptera which were determined by Mr. Ashmead, as new to science. 8 species of Scolytids were found which are believed to be undescribed, and one new fungus disease of the bark beetle was described by Prof. Peck. There are doubtless many more species of insects which in- fest the pine and spruce of West Virginia, but this list includes only those which have been observed by the author. 454 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Owing to technicalities regarding the funds appropriated for printing the bulletins of the station, the printing of this report was all done while the author was conducting investigations for the U. S. Department of Agriculture in the forests of the North- west; hence it was not possible for him to see the proof. ERRATA. Page 197, line 13 from the top for "botonist" read botanist. " 2<)6, explanation of Fig. 4, for "excelsia," read excelsa. " 212, " " Figs. 8 and 9, for "Cannan," read Canaan. " 217, " " Fig. 13, " " 240, line 9 from top, for "sawen11 read sawed. " 258, line 13 from bottom for "coelatus," read caelatus. " 258, foot-note, for "Derdnoctonus," read Dendroctonus. " 272, explanation of Fig. 33, for "Pin,'1 read Pine. " 293, line 17 from bottom, for "entomoligist," read entomologist. " 296, line 11 from top for "I," read In. " 305, explanation of Fig. 36, for "pinus," read Pinus. " 307, line 4 from bottom for "Bavera" read Baveria. " 309, lines 12 and 13 from top, for "Loraine," read Lorraine. " 311, line 2 from bottom, for "pinipe&a," read piniperda. " 315, line 4 from bottom, for "Hillgard," read Hilgard. " 402 Explanation of Fig. 70, for "delopment" read development. " 409, just proceeding line 9 from bottom insert the heading "PRBDACEOUS ENEMIES." ' 425 line 2 from top for "pinf" read pine. " 433, line 11 from bottom for " Lasconotus" read Lacconotus. INDEX. 455 INDEX. Abatement of trouble at close of 1892, No, 338. Abies excelsa, 206, 308. Acanthocinus obsoletus, 439. Acknowledgements, 198. Agrilus bilineatus, 255, 437. Ambrosia, or timber beetles, 256. America, Return to, 316. American bark beetle destroyer, 262. Anthocoris sp., 451. Aphrophora parallela, 452. Area invaded by destructive bark beetle, 368. Arhopalus fulminans, 343, 429. Asemum moestum, 345, 426, 438- Aulacus abdominalis, 429. Aulonium tuberculatum. 344, 433- B Baptolinus longiceps, 433. Bark miners, 244. Beaty, J. R. 302, 340. Beneficial elements, 269. Bennett, Frank. 347. Best, E. C. 302. Bibliography, 200. Birds as friends of the spruce, 269. Bracon mavoritus, 426. pectinator, 426. pissodes, 426. simplex, 426. sp. a, 426, Braconid new genus, 427. parasites, 266. C Caenophanes pityophthori, 427. Callidium antennatum, 438. Camden, Hon. J. N., 228, 300, 302. Camponotus pennsylanicus, 431. Canaan Valley, 232. Canifa pallipes, 440. Cecidostiba dendroctoni, 428. polygraph!, 346. 428- Cedius spinosus, 432. Cephalonomia hyalinipennis, 428. Chalcid parasite, 267. Chalcophora liberta, 436. virginiensis, 344, 436- Chermes abietis, 260. Chilocorus bivulnerus, 433. Chinch bug, 376. Chittenden, F. H., 393. Chiomaspis pmifolia, 452. Chlaenius tricolor, 432. Cholera epidemic, 313. Cholerus /immermanni, 432. Chrysobothris azurea, 437. pusilla, 428, 437- Clerids, 262. Clerus dubius, 320. formicarius, 300, 304, 316, 320 observ'son habits of, 311. quadriguttatus, 345, 437. quadrisignatus,var. nigripes, 437. Climatic conditions, 370. ('lover leaf beetle, 376. Colastus unicolor, 435. Colydium lineola, 284, 433- Condon Lane Boom & Lumber Co., 302. Copturus longulus, 427, 431, 441. Corticaria elongata, 435. Correspondence with German en- tomologists, 300. Correspondence with owners of spruce and pine timber, 297. Cosmopolitian spruce bark beetle, 252. Cosmophorus hopkinsii, 427. klugii, 427. Cossonus corticola, 284, 441- Coxelus guttulatus, 433. Cremastus n. sp., 246. Cryphalus piceae, 444. Crypturgus alutaceus, 448. pusillus, 346, 448- Cumberland Lumber Co., 302. Cychrus ridingsii, 431. Cylindrocola dendroctoni, 374. 456 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION Cymatodera inornata, 437. D Dakruma coccidivora, 426, 451- Davis, Hon. H. G., 228. Decatomidea polygraph!, 429. Dendroctonus, genus of, 392. Dendroctonus frontalis, 245, 283, 284, 286, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296, 298, 301, 320, 327, 344, 346, 350, 394, 426, 429, 448. Bibliography, 395. Characteristic features of injury of, 413. Cause of death of, 470. Description of, 394, eggs, larva and pupa, 396. Distribution of, 407. enemies, Predaceous and parasitic of, 378. Friendly elements,411. Galleries of. 397. Brood exits, 400. Hibernating, 400. Egg cavaties, 400. Larval mines, 400. Main Entrance, 397. Nuptial chambers,399. Preliminary, 397. Primary, secondary and brood, 399. Pupa cases, 400. Habits of, 403. Habit of flight of, 406. Host plants of, 407. Life history, 401. Natural enemies, 408. Birds, 410, Diseases, climatic conditions, etc., 411. Parasitic, 408. Predaceous, 409. Robbers, 410. Remedies and preven- tatives, 412. Dendroctonus rufipennis, 349, 393- simplex, 394,434,447- terebrans, 284, 294, 296, 333, 342, 344, 347, 392, 415. 447. Character of injury of, 419. Description, 415. D. terebrans — Continued. Adult, 392, 515, Egg, 515. Larva. 515. Pupa, 416. Habits and life his- tory of, 416. Kinds of trees attack- ed by, 420. Natural enemies, 420. Destructive bark beetles, 392. Destructive pine bark beetle, (Den- droctonus frontalis) 237, 239, 245. All examples of, dead, 431. Destructive spruce bark beetles, (Polygraphus rufipennis), 235, 246. Abundance of, and its economic relations to the spruce, 250. Distribution, 249. Imported enemy of, 251, Method of combatting and preventing future loss by, 250. Natural enemies of, 251. Previous knowledge of habits of, 249. Trees infested by, 249. Destructive scolytids and their im- ported enemy , 353. Destructive sapwood borers, 242. spruce wood miner, 250. Destruction of timber by snow and wind, 309. Destruction. Total, of pine and spruce threatened, 296. Dicerca punctulata, 436. Diomorus zabriskii, 429. Diplosis pini-rigidae, 451. Diseases of insect enemies of the spruce, 268. Dobbins, Judge, 230. Don, Dr. C. A., 301. Dromius quadricollis, 432. Dryocoetes autographus, 252, 316, 346, 427, 433,^445- granicollis, 251, 346, 445- Dryophanta gemmula, 426. E Elaterid larva, 436. INDEX 457 Elkins, Hon. S. B., 228. Ellychnia corrusca, 437. Endomychus biguttatus, 433. Entomological Soc. Wash. 317. Attended meeting of, 317. Remarks at, 318. Eichhoff, W., 284, 296, 300, 303, 305, 315. Eichhoff' s five-toothed pine bark beetle, 353. Epuraea avara, 435, truncatella, 435. European bark beetle destroyer, 239. distribution of, 239. Eupelmus cleri 343, 429- Euphorinae, 427. Eurytoma cleri, 345, 429 tomici, 429. sp. f. 429. Eustrophus tomentosus, 440. Expenses of importing clerids, 330. Fisher, Mr. Adam. 285. Fisk, Mr. W. F. 393. Five-toothed bark beetle, Eichhoff' s. 253. Flat headed spruce bark miner, 254. Gelechia pinifoliella, 451. Glyptoscelis pubescens, 440. Gnathotrichus matenarius,344, 346, 347, 434, 442- Grant Countv, Conditions in, spruce. 349. Graphisurus pusillus, 439. Greenbrier county, Conditions in, scrub pine, 344. H Hambric, Mr., 233. Helcon occidentalis, 427. Henderson, Robt. R., 300, 302. Heydenia unica. 345, 429- Hilgard, Dr. E. W., 315. Himatium conicum, 441. errans, 441. Hister cylindricus, 2G5, 343, 344, 434. lecontei, 434. parallelus, 434. Hpmalota pontomaloto, 265. Hutton, Col. E., 233. Hylastes cavernosus, 345, 347, 356. gracilis, 347. Hylastes porculus, 448. tennis, 345, 449 Hylesinus polygraphus, 427. Hylobius pales, 441. Hylurgops glabratus, 294, 242, 347, pinifex, 449. Hypophloeus parallahis, 266, 440- tenuis, 440. thoracicus, 440. Hypothenemus n. sp. h. 444. n. sp. i, 444. Icerya, 319. Ichneumonid parasites, 266. Imported insects, Methods of locat- ing colonies of, 326. distribution of, in 1893, 326. Importation of natural enemies of bark beetles considered, 295. Insects associated with the pine trouble, 379. Insect diseases, 374. friends of the spruce, 262. enemies of the spruce in W. Va., 244. Introductory, 198. Investigations near Hagenau, 305. continued near Hagenau, 308. in Saxony, 306. in Vosges Mt's, 309. Invasion, Two remarkable features, :{(!!). Ips confluentus; 435. fasciatus, 266, 435- sanguinolentus, 343. vittatus, 343,435. K Kanawha county, Conditions in, scrub pine, 343. Kirkpatrick, Mr., 359. Lacconotus referendarius, 433. Laemophloeus testaceus, 434. Lecanium sp., 452. Le Conte's spruce bark beetle, 251. Legislation for insect control, 323. Leptinotarsa decimlineata, 320. Letter of instruction, 302. to Legislators, 325. to lumber companies, 301, 321, 325. Lintner, Dr. J. A , 393. 458 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Lochites, sp. a., 429. sp. c and d, 428. sp b and e. 429. Lophoderus politanus, 451. Lophyrus pini-rigidae, 425. Lucidota atra, 437. Lumber Company, Black Water, 233. St. Lawrence, 233. M Maxwell, Mr. Hu. 260. Mayfield Hill Grove, conditions in, 358. Observations in, 357. Medeterus nigripes, 268, 450- Melanotes com munis, 436. Melanophilia fulvoguttata, 255, 429- Millspaugh, Dr. C. F,, 374. Mission to Europe, account of, 303, Monaghan, E. A., 302. Monarthrum fasciatum, 442, mali, 347, 442- Monohammus confusor, 439, scutellatus, 439. titillator, 439. Money contributed by owners of timber, 302. Monongalia Co., conditions in, scrub, pitch and yellow pine, 339. observations in, Tibbs Run forest, 355. Mountain pastures, 213. Myelophilus minor, 311. piniperda, 311. Myers, Dr. Jno. A., 303, 314, 323. N Natural enemies, further observa- tions on, 336. Nemosoma cylindricum, 344, 435- Nitulid beetles and their larvae, 265. Notes in 1893, Further, 352. Number of clerids collected, im- ported and distributed, 330. Observations after return from Europe, 337. during summer and fall, 1892, 232. during spring and summer, 1893, 339. in spring, 1893, conclusions Observations — Continued. from, 350. in 1895-6, 364. on habits of C. formicar- ius, 311. Olibrus bicolor, 433. Olophrum obtectum, 433. Omalium pusillum, 433. Pachyceras, 430. Packard, S. A., 393. Parasitic insects, 266. Paromalus bistriatus, 265, 434- difficilis, 434. Parsons, Capt., 233, 237. Paururus ;llrocerus) edwardsii, 266, 425, 426. pinicolus, 425. cyaneus, 426. Peck, Prof., 374, 393. Perpetuation of forests, Relation of entomological research to, 229. Philothermus glabricuius, 433. Phylloba^nus dislocatus, 437. Phymaphora pulchella, 433. Phymatodes dimidiatus, 346, 438- Picea mariana, 293. Pieris brassicae, 320. Phytonomus punctatus, 376. Piltz, oberfoster, 309. Pimplid, 426. Pine of West Virginia, 271. Commercial products of, 276. Comparative value of, to that of other kinds of forest trees, 281. Conditions of, 276. Influences causing destruction of, 278. Investigations, 271. Investigation of, History of, to determine cause of trouble, 282. Cause discovered, 289. Character, discovered, 2&7. Correspondence, 284. First observations, 283. Further investigations, 292. Peculiar character of com- mon trouble, 289. Special investigation com- menced, 287. Trees dying from a natural cause, 288. Trees dying from a diseas^,, 288. Loblolly, 274. Original distribution of, 276. INDEX. 459 Pine of West Virginia — Continued. pitch or black, 272, 293. Present distribution and condi- tions of, 277. Principal enemies of, 281. Rate of consumption to that of natural increase of, 280. Red or Canadian, 274. Relation in amount and value to that of other kinds of forest trees, 280. Scrub or Virginia, 273, 293. Table mountain, 273, 293. White, 271. Yellow. 271. Pissodes strobi. 259, 284, 345, 427, 429. 441- Pinus echinata, 271, 293. inops,293. pungens, 273, 293. resinosus, 274. rigida, 272, 293. strobus 271, 293, sylvestris, 308. Virginiana 273, 293. Pityogeties-curvidens, 310, 3U. plagiatus, 342, 427, 429, 447- sparsus, 446. Pityophthorus cariniceps, 427, 443- confinis, 284, 344, 443- cribripennis, 437. lautus 344. puberulus, 443. pulchellus, 442. pulicarius, 442. piallus. 344, 442- tuberculatus, 443. n, sp. 443. n. sp. e. 443. n, sp. 1, 444. n. sp. n., 444 n. sp. q., 443, n. sp. r. 444. n. sp. s. 443 Piacusa sp , 432. Platynus angustatus, 433. sinuatus, 432. Plegaderus transversus, 434 Podapion gallicola, 441. Poly graph us poly graph us, 427. ruflpennis, 235, 246, 296, 299, 319,349, 346, 427, 428, 429, 44?. Power, J R., 341 Predaceous beetles and their larvae, 262. Primary object of importation of clerids prevented, 328. laticollis, 438 Pterostichus odoxus, 432. honestus, 431. Pytho americanus, 441. niger, 440. Quedius peregrinus, 432. Raleigh county, conditions in, white pine, 340. observations in white pine, 356. Randolph county, Conditions in, spruce, 348. Remedies considered, 294, 319. Retinia comstockiana, 451. frustrana, 451. Riley, Dr. C. V. 317. Rhagium lineatum, 439. Rhizococcus sp., 452. Rhizophagus cylindricus, 435, dimidiatus, 435. Rhysipolis biformis, 428. Rhyssa albomaculata, 266, 426- Rhyssalus pityophthori, 428 Roptrocerus ecceptogastri, 429, 430. xylophagorum, 429* 430. Round headed spruce miners, 255, wood miners. 258. Ruffner, Mr. 233. S Say's pine bark beetle, 253. Schaufuss. Director Camillo, 300r 301, 307, 315 Scleroderma macrogaster, 431. Scolytids, 379. Birds destructive to, 387. Distribution of species, 385 grouped according to habits, 380 Insects and other friends of, 387 Habits of 376. Knowledge of habits of, may prevent ravages, 391. Mines or galleries of 380. Brood exits, 384. Brood galleries, 383* Egg cavities. 883. Food burrows, 384. Hibernating burrows, 384, Larva mines, 383 Larvae and pupae cham- bers. 383. 460 WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Scolytids — Continued. Main entrance, 381. Nuptial chamber?, 381. Preli m inary burrows, 384. Primary galleries 383. Pupa cases, 384. Secondary galleries, 383 Side entrances and exits, 381. Natural enemies of, 386. Parasitic diseases of, 387 Parasitic insect enemies, of, 386. Predaceous insect ene- mies of, 386 Preferance of, for coni- ferous trees, 376. Preventives and remedies 389. Robbers of, 387. Unfavorable climatic and other conditions for 387. Science, extracts from article in, 293 Scolytus rugulosus, 295, 296. Scrub Pine, 293 Serropalpus barbatus, 440. Shaw, Mr. 347, Siagonium americanum. 433 Sirex (Urocerus) cressoni, 425. Sparhius abdominalis, 427. brevicaudus, 427. brachyurus, 427. canadensis, 427 claripennis, 428. pallidus, 428 simillimus. 428. tomici, 428. Spintherus sp 428 Spruce in West Virginia, 203 Agricultural influences of, 225. Causes of first trouble of, 235. Cause of second trouble of, 237, Circular letter regarding, 238 Commercial influences in their relation to the fu- ture of the area of, 223. Common and technical names of, 204. • Description of, 207 Distribution of. 208. Disturbing influences of 211, 230. End of the trouble to, 239. Spruce in West Virginia — History and progress of dv- ing, 232 Investigations of, 204. Original area of, greatly re- duced, 21 V Present condition as to in- sect enemies of. 242 Present conditions in area of 26. Probable future of the area as indicated by present conditions of, 221. Rapid decay of dead timber in one section of the area of, 239. Report of investigation to determine the cause of the unhealthy condi- tion of, between 1880 and 1893, 230. Spruce gall louse, 260. Norway, in Morgantown, 350. and pine in Md. and D. C. dy- ing. 336 timber beetle. 256. Staphylinid or rove beetle and their larvae. '264. St. Lawrence Boom & Lumber Co., 302. Stored for the winter, imported clerids, 322 - Strahmeyer, Mr H 309. Strayer, Mr. J. S. 284. 286. Strassburg. Returned to, 305, 307. Swarms of bark beetle, 246. 266. Table mountain pine, 273 293. Tachina sp. 449. Tachinid parasites, 265. Tachys nanus. 431. Taylor, Andy 316. Tenebrionid beetles 266. Tenebrio castaenus. 440. Termes flavipes 453. Tetrastichus thanasimi, 430. Tetropium cinnamopterum, 259, 427. 438- Thalessanortoni. 266 426- Thanasimus dubius 262, 334, 343, 344.437. trifasciatus/343. 429,437 Timber or ambrosia beetles, 56. Tomicqbia tibialis. n. g., n. sp. 430. Tomicus, genus of, 421. avulsus, 344, 422, 445. INDEX 431 Tomicus— Continued. caelatus 258, 342, 423, 446, cacographus, 252, 284. 344, 347. 422,427,428 445 calligraphus 284, 294, 342, 422, 445 cembrae, 316. pini 2 3 342 344422, 445. Trichodes simulator, 345. Trigonoderus sp 428. Trogosita virescens, 435. Trouble, alarming character of, 335 Cause of. 33), 367. End of, 367. Extent and distribution of, 297. Further, prevented, 368. over, A serious, 363. threatened by swarms of bark beetles, 366. Tucker county, conditions in, spruce 358. pitch and white pine. 348. Tunis. Mr. E. L, 300. 302. U Urocerus abdominalis. 425. cyaneus. 425. pinicolus, 425. sp. a, 426. sp. d. 425. V Valgus canaliculatus. 438. Yedalis cardinalis, 319. Weed. C. M. 393. West Virginia & Pittsburg Rail- road,^. White pine, 293. White pine weevil. 259. White, Dr I C., 222. Williams River, Conditions on, in spruce, 346. Woodpeckers enemy of heartwood borers, 242. Wood miners, 255. Xantholinus cephalus, 432. emmesus, 43*?. Xestobium squalidum. 438. Xyleborus pubescens, 445. xylographus, 258, 347. Xyletinus peltatus, 431, 438. Xylita laevigata, 440 Xyloterus bivittatus 349, 444- lineatus 256, 310, 444, 446. politus, 44^. scabricollis, 444. Yellow pine, 293. Zapachia copturi, 431. 399109 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IvIBRARY