<9 MAHYLA1TB FORESTRY PAMPHLETS VOL. 2. Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1912 and 1913. The Fauna and Flora, The Life Zones and Areas of Allegany County. The Summer Birds of Western Maryland. By G. Hart Merriam and Edward A. Treble. The Forests of Allegany County. By Geo. B, Sudworth. 19 JO. The Forests of Cecil County. By H. M. Curran, with an Introduction by Geo.' B. Sudworth. 1902. The Forests of Barrett County. By H. M. Curran, with an Introduction by Geo. B. Sudworth. 1902. k The T.7ood-Using Industries of Maryland. By Hu Maxwell, Expert U. S. Forest Servic e with a chapter on, Maryland fs Lumber and Timber Cut and theTimber Supply. By F. W. Besley. 1910. 1 Main Lib. Forestry c. v' 338485 HUNTING CREEK, FREDERICK COUNTY (Mountain Stream from a Forested Watershed) REPORT OF THE MARYLAND STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY FOR 1912 and 1913 MEMBERS OF THE BOARD PHILLIPS LEE GOLDSBOROUGH President GOVERNOR OF MARYLAND EMERSON C. HARRINGTON . . Comptroller of Maryland WILLIAM H. WELCH Acting President of Johns Hopkins University H. J. PATTERSON . . President of Maryland Agricultural College WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK . . Executive Officer STATE GEOLOGIST W. McCULLOH BROWN . . : .; ; \; . ROBERT GARRETT F.W.BESLEY . State Forester BALTIMORE, MD. *; • ; «;' J*' • ,.•:*, JJ*^ CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 7 Educational Work 8 Co-operation with Woodland Owners ; 9 Demonstration Forests 10 Exhibits 12 Lectures 12 Forest Fire Protection 15 Forest Fires by Counties ' 18 Protective Measures 20 Forest Wardens . 20 Forest Patrolmen 21 Lookout Stations 23 Fires in 1912 24 Fires in 1913 28 State Forest Reserves 33 Skipnish Reserve 34 Swallow Falls Reserve 35 Kindness Reserve 35 Patapsco Reserve 36 Forest Investigations 38 Chestnut Bark Disease 39 Second Growth Hardwood Studies 40 Scrub Pine Study 41 Red Gum Study 42 Basket Willow Culture 43 Relation of Forests to Water Power Development 43 Taxing Woodlands 45 Financial Statement.. . 47 APPENDIX PAGE A Plan of Forest Taxation for Eastern States 49 The Relation of Forests and Water 52 Forests and Climate 52 Forests and Streamflow 54 Forests and Erosion 55 Forests and Floods 55 Conclusions .... .56 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE I. FRONTISPIECE — Hunting Creek, Frederick Co. II. FIG. 1 — Catoctin Mountains, an important watershed in Frederick Co. 8 FIG. 2 — Swallow Falls on the Youghiogheny River, Garrett Co 8 III. FIG. 1— Forestry Exhibit in Baltimore during "Maryland Week," December, 1911 12 FIG. 2 — Forestry Exhibit in Baltimore during "Maryland Week," November, 1913 12 IV. FIG. 1— Protected Woodland, near Hampstead, Carroll Co 22 FIG. 2 — Pine forest destroyed by fire in Anne Arundel Co 22 V. FIG. 1 — View along the Patapsco River, below Ilchester 36 FIG. 2— Woodland border along the Patapsco River 36 VI. FIG. 1 — Sugar Grove in Garrett Co 40 FIG. 2 — Well-managed woodlot in Baltimore Co 40 VII. FIG. 1— Original growth of Hemlock in Garrett Co 46 FIG. 2 — Virgin forest of Beech and Sugar Maple, Garrett Co 46 INTRODUCTION The work of the State Board of Forestry for the past two years has followed along much the same lines as in former years, but with the increase in the number of technical assistants it has been possible for the State Forester to carry on a much more intensive work than has been done hitherto. The powers of the Board were increased by the last Legislature by an act authorizing the purchase of lands along the Patapsco river for a State Forest Keservation. The examination, survey and acquisition of these lands have consumed much of the time of the field and office force for the past year. The system of forest fire protection has been extended and improved, with the result that the fire damage has been greatly reduced. The forest survey of the State, which was begun shortly after the Board was created in 1906, was completed in 1912. This survey has been of inestimable value in obtaining first-hand information of our forest resources and enabling the Board to conduct its work along lines that promise the greatest usefulness to the people of the State. More assistance has been given to private owners in the handling of their woodlands than ever before. In the past year 6,000 acres of woodland, mostly in small woodlots, have been examined and plans of management prepared for the owners. The educational work, through addresses and illustrated lectures, has been conducted over the entire State, so that the knowledge of forestry and its application to our local conditions has been greatly extended. A scientific study of our important timber trees, including their rate of growth and important uses, has been nearly completed. The results will be published in special bulletins. STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Improvement work has been conducted on the State reserves with the object of providing the best fire protection and placing them in the most productive condition. This report covers the main administrative activities of the Board for the past two years, as conducted by the State ForesteY. EDUCATIONAL WORK. A study of the forest conditions in the State such as has been con- ducted for the past seven years through the various lines of investi- gation, enumerated under Forest Investigations in the later pages of this report, has clearly demonstrated that the practice of forestry in Maryland is not only thoroughly feasible but it is being realized to an increasing extent. That this is so is due to certain favorable conditions for timber growing, such as : A moderate climate with an abundance of rainfall, conducive to the rapid growth of timber. Suitable soil conditions in sufficient variety to encourage the growth of many species of commercial value. This variety of soil conditions and altitude gives to the State a variety of tree species that is probably unknown in any other area of equal size in the coun- try; and, furthermore, the species that are most common are those of the greatest commercial value. All parts of the State are within comparatively easy reach of large centers of distribution, and with the excellent transportation facilities available, both by rail and by water, there is a good market for forest products of all kinds. The city of Baltimore is a lumber center of importance and carries on an extensive export trade. The rapid increase in the stumpage value of timber has empha- sized the importance of timber growing on a commercial scale, and, with the other favorable conditions that exist, those who own forest land are beginning to realize the possibility of large revenues from this source. The Board feels, therefore, that the practice of forestry in the State is largely a matter of educating the present owners of wood- lands to a realization of the possibilities in timber growing. To this STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE II FIG. 1. CATOCTIN MOUNTAINS, AN IMPORTANT WATERSHED IN FREDERICK COUNTY FIG. 2. SWALLOW FALLS ON THE YOUGHIOGHENY RIVER, GARRETT COUNTY REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 9 end various agencies have been used for disseminating information and in getting in direct touch with the woodlot and timber land owners for the purpose of showing just what can be done under the best systems of forest management that are now being practiced with success in this and other States. The State forest reservations upon which the State can practice forestry in a scientific manner 'are relatively small as compared to the 2,000,000 acres of woodland in the State, and, therefore, the main problem is to educate the private owner to a point where he will practice forestry on his own land by the most approved methods. CO-OPERATION WITH WOODLAND OWNERS. Under Section 4 of the Forest Law, the State Forester is author- ized to examine, upon request, the woodlands of private owners for the purpose of advising them as to the best methods of management and preparing plans for carrying out the work. This is one of the best ways of getting in direct touch with the owner, learning his peculiar problems on the ground, and devising a plan that will suit his local conditions and at the same time provide for forestry im- provement that will not only benefit him directly in increased yields from his woodland but will furnish an object-lesson to his neighbors, showing what practical forestry is and what it will accomplish. Dur- ing the past two years thirty woodlots and timber tracts have been examined and advice given to the owners. On page 10 will be found a list of such examinations. It will be noted that these differ- ent properties are scattered over the State, giving them greater value for demonstration purposes. 10 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY List of Woodlot Examinations Made in ] 912-1913. Name. Address. No. of Acre s. Date. James Baker Easton 100 Nov. 7, 1913 F. H. Balliere Columbia 250 Sept. 26, 1913 W. T. Brown Cliff's Landing 10 Mch. 15,1912 Elwood Balderson Colora 20 Mch. 1, 1913 Jas. W. Beecham Westminster 40 Sept. 3, 1912 Miss Emily Bishop Smithsburg 20 Apr. 1, 1912 H. B. Claggett Upper Marlboro. . . . 150 May 14,1912 Miss Esther L. Cox Union Bridge 60 May 1, 1912 Marion Duckett Mitchellville 40 Sept. 22, 1913 Chas. H. Grasty Rogers 30 Sept. 23,1913 A. P. Gorman Laurel 34 Feb. 8, 1913 Greenmount Cemetery Baltimore 10 Apr. 10, 1912 Jos. F. Johnson Joppa 40 Dec. 5, 1913 Win. M. Isaac's Est Harrisonville 100 Oct. 3, 1913 W. N. Jolliffe St. Mary's City 173 June 3, 1913 A. H. Johnson Sassafras 15 Apr. 5, 1913 John E. Hurst Woodbrook 10 Sept. 30,1912 James Lake Forest Hill 10 July 4, 1912 W. A. Larner Oldtown 3,500 Apr. 18,1912 Miss Katherine McLane. . . Cecilton 60 Dec. 14, 1912 Maryland School for Deaf. Frederick 3 Oct. 24, 1913 Marshall Marbury Upper Marlboro. . . . 30 June 12,1912 Potomac Valley Orchard Co. Pearre 800 Apr. 3, 1912 Rudolph Reimer, Jr Seaford 110 Dec. 18,1913 T. H. Renwick Easton 50 Nov. 15,1913 Dwight Serpening McDaniel 30 Mch. 25, 1913 Robert Symons Easton 30 Apr. 23,1913 Dr. E. A. Scott Galena 10 Apr. 4, 1913 John E. Street Rocks 30 Aug. 27,1912 P.K.Wright Easton 63 Nov. 7, 1913 Washington Grove Asso'n. Washington Grove. 150 Aug. 2, 1913 Charles Peltz Westminster 5 Sept. 3, 1912 Demonstration Forests. The plan inaugurated two years ago of securing forest areas in different parts of the State upon which the owners would give the State Forester an opportunity to demonstrate certain phases of forestry practice has been continued. Work is in progress on the REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 11 different demonstration forests, and as examples of the good results being accomplished, two of them may be particularly noted. The demonstration forest on the lands of Mr. DeCourcy W. Thorn, near Queenstown, comprising about 150 acres, is being cut over under a detailed plan worked out by the State Forester. The purpose of the work here is to change a mature hardwood forest, with a mixture of loblolly pine, to a forest in which the pine will predominate as being the most valuable tree adapted to this particular tract. In doing this, a model plan of logging is being carried out, and is demonstrating very conclusively that under this plan the owner, who has mature timber that should be cut and who at the same time wants to protect his young growth and provide for a new crop, can do so with the greatest safety and assurance. This will go a long way toward solving one of the most difficult problems that the timberland owner has had to face. The contract under which the work is being done is fair to the buyer of the timber and at the same time fully protects the interests of the landowner.* Another operation which has demonstrated its value is on the lands of Dr. E. E. lull near Loretta, a field of 40 acres, lying less than 16 feet above tidewater and too poorly drained for agricultural use and yet excellent land for growing loblolly pine. The field had been partially seeded in loblolly pine from the seed trees in the nearby woods, but after five years, since the field was cultivated, it was found that not more than 25 per cent, of the area was fully stocked with young trees. Thrifty trees of suitable size were dug up from the edge of the field near the woods where they had seeded in thickly and transplanted to the open places to secure a spacing of approximately 6x6 feet, which would produce a normally stocked stand. This work was done at a cost of about $1.50 per acre and has produced a splendid, pure stand of loblolly pine, the best timber tree in this section of the State. If natural seeding had been entirely depended upon, there would have been a loss in time in seeding of not less than *A copy of the contract is given in Leaflet No. 13, which may be had upon request. 12 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY fifteen years, and the results would have been unsatisfactory because of the great variation in the sizes of the trees and the consequent lower value of the product due to delayed natural pruning. Exhibits. An educational exhibit consisting of maps, charts, photographs and specimens of native woods was shown at a number of the county fairs during the past summer. The exhibit attracted much atten- tion, and has been the means of bringing many, who did not know what the State was doing in forestry, in direct touch with the for- estry work. For the past four years a large exhibit has been shown at the annual meeting of the State Horticultural Society and allied organi- zations in the Fifth Regiment Armory. ISTew material has been shown each year illustrating the different products and uses of the forest as an important natural resource. The exhibits have been the means of calling the attention of the people of the city and the State to the work that is being done by the State Board of Forestry, and showing them how they can be directly benefited by the co- operation and assistance that is offered in handling their particular forest problems. The last exhibit presented in November, 1913, was for the purpose of showing the products derived from the forest other than lumber, and included a large number of manufactured articles. The two pictures on page — show the appearance of two of these exhibits. Lectures. One of the principal reasons why forestry is not more generally practiced is that people have so many erroneous ideas as to what is really involved. The idea in the minds of many people is that forestry in practice means a large investment in improvement work and a long time to wait for returns, and is, therefore, impracticable for the man of small means. In order to correct this general impression and to spread a knowledge of the principles of forestry, the State Forester has visited all sections of the State during the STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE III FIG. 1. FORESTRY EXHIBIT IN BALTIMORE DURING "MARYLAND WEEK," DECEMBER, 1911 FIG. 2. FORESTRY EXHIBIT IN BALTIMORE DURING "MARYLAND WEEK," NOVEMBER, 1913 REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 13 past two years, giving illustrated talks on the subject of handling woodlands. Since the subject is one that is so well adapted for illustration with a stereopticon, it has been possible in this way to interest a large number of people in the forestry work. These lectures have been given before granges, farmers' clubs, colleges, schools and various other organizations, which have requested them. The usual arrangement has been to give the lecture in the evening and on the following day to give a demonstration in the woods to show how to make thinnings, improvement cuttings, and to illustrate other forest problems of the community. The lecture course in Farm Forestry by the State Forester at the State Agricultural College has been continued. It is the object of the course to fit the young men studying agriculture to handle the woodlots upon the farms, with which they may be connected, with the scientific care that they should receive. It has been the aim to secure accurate and reliable information upon the subjects relative to forestry within the State, and a large amount of valuable information has been acquired. Requests for information and advice are constantly coming in and it is gratifying, not only to this office, but to those who make inquiry, to have this first-hand knowledge upon such a variety of subjects. Such inquiries have more than doubled in the past two years and it is the purpose of the Board to develop the work along the lines which will best supply the needs of the woodland owner, the wood user and those interested in forestry generally. Many articles have been written for the county press, and other publications and bulletins relative to forestry are published from time to time on subjects of special interest. 14 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY ADDRESSES AND ILLUSTRATED LECTURES GIVEN BY THE STATE FORESTER AND THE ASSISTANT STATE FORESTER IN 1912-1913. (These are in addition to the lectures given at the State Agri- cultural College and at Farmers' Institutes.) 1912, January 12 — Pratt Branch Library No. 15. February 2— Forest Hill Farmers' Club. February 19 — Teachers' Training School, Baltimore. February 19 — Oilman Country School, Roland Park. February 23 — Bel Air Country Club, Bel Air. March 12 — House of Delegates, Annapolis. April 26 — Eastern High School, Baltimore. July 12 — Boy Scouts' Camp, Harper's Ferry. August 6 — Coopstown Farmers' Picnic, Sharon. August 9 — Elkneck Farmers' Picnic, Elkton. August 14 — Granger Picnic, Claiborne. August 24— Arcadia Farmers' Picnic, Arcadia. August 31— Deer Creek Farmers' Club, Darlington. November 1 — Teachers' Institute, Cumberland. November 11 — Peabody Heights Improvement Association, Baltimore. 1913. January 17 — Catonsville Presbyterian Church, CatonsviFIe. February 14 — Pratt Branch Library, Park Heights avenue, Baltimore. March 18 — Cumberland Public High School, Cumberland. March 19 — Oakland High School, Oakland. March 20 — Swanton Grange, Swanton. March 25— Royal Oak Grange, Royal Oak. March 26 — Patrons' Club of Public School, Cordova. March 26 — Easton Grange, Easton. March 27 — Grange, Hurlock. March 28 — Nanticoke Grange, Federalsburg. March 29 — Grange, Costen. April 1 — Kennedysville Grange, Kennedysville. April 2 — Still Pond Farmers' Club, Still Pond. April 2 — Washington College, Chestertown. April 3 — Chestertown High School, Chestertown. April 4 — Sassafras Grange, No. 272, Sassafras. April 3 — Galena Grange, Galena. April 5— George Biddle High School, Cecilton. April 8— Mount St. Joseph's College, Baltimore. liEPOKT FOE 11)12 A3D 11)13 15 April 8 — Liberty Grove Grange, Burtonsville. April 9 — Brighton Grange, Brighton. April 10 — Men's Club, Central Presbyterian Church, Baltimore. April 10 — Agricultural High School, Sandy Spring. April 14 — Grange at Silver Run. April 15 — Grange at Taneytown. April 16 — Grange at Medford. April 17 — Blue Ridge College, New Windsor. April 18 — Westminster High School, Westminster. April 23 — St. Michael's Grange, St. Michael's. April 24— Stockton High School, Stockton. April 25— Willards Grange, Willards. May 1 — Mt. Airy High School, Mt. Airy. May 2— Male High School, Frederick. May 3 — Frederick County Farmers' Association, Frederick. May 3 — Woman's College, Frederick. May 3 — Farmers' Club of Goshen, Laytonsville. May 6 — Men's Bible Class, Berwyn. May 14 — Leonard Hall, Leonardtown. May 15— Charlotte Hall School, Charlotte Hall. May 16— Grange, Gray ton. May 24 — Grange, Hampstead. August 12 — Farmers' Picnic, Taneytown. November 11— Beltsville Grange, Beltsville. Forest Fire Protection. In Maryland, as in nearly all of the States where organized forest work is being done, the fire protection problem is of the first impor- tance. It has been clearly demonstrated that where the woodlands are free from fires there is no difficulty in securing good reproduction and satisfactory growth conditions. Where fires occur it is just the opposite. The loss from forest fires is more than twice the amount annually reported when all of the factors of fire damage are consid- ered, including the merchantable timber destroyed, the young growth killed or seriously damaged, and the destruction of the forest humus, rendering the woodlands so affected incapable of producing more than one-half of a full yield. The past two years have been average ones so far as forest fires are concerned, but, while the number of fires has been almost double that reported for the two previous years, the amount of damage has 16 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY been but little less than one-third as large. The actual number of fires that may have occurred was probably no greater than in previous years, but because of the larger number of forest wardens and the fact that nearly all of the fires were reported to them, a larger pro- portion has been reported to headquarters. The forest wardens have rendered a splendid public service. These men receive no salary and are allowed only small pay for the time actually engaged. The work of fire-fighting is very trying, and the warden is often called upon for service at night as well as during the day when it means a real sacrifice. These men have often accepted the position of forest warden because of the opportunity to do good public service without regard for the remuneration offered. The Board feels that in the present force of forest wardens the State has conscientious, efficient and faithful workers whose efforts in preventing forest fires have accomplished so much in conserving our forest wealth. As long as people are careless there will be forest fires, and where such have occurred the forest wardens have done splendid service in reducing the amount of damage. There is no doubt that the whole cost of the forestry work of the State has been saved many times over by the efficient work of the forest wardens on the fire line, but the forest wardens must have the full support of the community in order to make their work the most effective. In some sections of the State the sentiment for forest protection is well developed, but in some other sections there is a feeling that any attempt to stop forest fires is useless because they have always existed. It is gratifying to know, however, that this feeling is gradually giving way to one of hopeful- ness and a real desire to co-operate with the forces now at work to prevent forest fires. The forest fire record for the past two years as shown by Table I gives a total of 113 fires in 1912 and 185 fires in 1913, but the amount of damage in 1913 was slightly less than that in 1912. KEPOBT FOE 1912 AND 1913 TABLE I. Forest Fires, by Counties, 1912-1913. 17 Acres Estimated N Counties. 19 Allegany o. Fires. 12. 1913. 29 55 3 Burned. 1912. 1913. 9,279 5,920 351 Loss. 1912. 1913. $28,229 $7,596 350 Expense. 1912. 1913. $354.90 $267.25 Anne Arundel. Baltimore Cecil 5 1 1 1 14 4 5 1 33 20 10 13 1,158 365 143 3 9,623 255 100 200 520 1,485 10.20 1.50 7.00 29.00 425.45 Charles Dorchester Frederick .... 2,176 9,828 64.40 Garrett Harford 27 1 64 2 1 6 3 7 3,256 3 253 50 127 565 8,382 45 8 152 7 369 8,835 10 2,697 300 570 3,730 18,908 250 10 920 450 1,326 • 81.25 29.75 17.20 27.60 472.50 5.00 28.50 26.50 54.80 Howard . ... Pr. George .... Somerset . . . 12 1 3 12 St Mary's Washington . . . Wicomico .... 6 1 149 90 710 800 .... .... Worcester .... 1 150 400 The State.. 113 185 15,033 25,458 $48,212 $42,443 $593.80 $1,309.00 TABLE II. Forest Fires by Counties. Per Cent, of Fires in State. Counties. 1912. 1913. Allegany 26 30 Anne Arundel 0 1 Baltimore 4 2 Calvert 0 0 Caroline 0 0 Carroll 0 0 Charles 1 3 Cecil 1 0 Dorchester 0 1 Frederick 12 18 Garrett 24 35 Harford 1 1 Howard 0 1 Kent . . . 0 0 Per Cent, of Total Wooded Area Burned. 1912. 5.5 .0 .02 .0 .0 .0 .01 .01 .0 2.2 1.1 .0 .0 .0 1913. 3.6 .4 .3 .0 .0 .0 .1 .0 .0 18.8 3.0 .05 .02 Counties (Continued.) Montgomery Per Cent, of in Stat 1912. ;•.: 0 Fires e. 1913. 0 3 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 Prince George's 10 Queen Anne 0 St Mary's . . . 3 Somerset 1 Talbot 0 Washington 10 Wicomico 6 Worcester . . 1 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Per Cent, of Total Wooded Area Burned. 1912. 1913. .0 .0 .2 .1 .0 .0 .1 .0 .1 .0 .0 .0 .8 .5 .1 .08 .1 .0 The State 100 100 .69 1.1 Forest Fires by Counties. The climatic and soil conditions in different parts of the State vary so much that there is a marked difference in the fire risk. A larger per cent, of the forest fires occur in Garrett county than in any other county in the State, followed closely by Allegany, Frederick county being third in this regard, while a number of the counties of the State, including Calvert, Carroll, Caroline, Kent, Montgomery, Queen Anne and Talbot had no fires reported for either 1912 or 1913. What are known as the Eastern Shore counties are less subject to forest fires than any other section, because of the humid climate and moister soil. Perhaps of greater importance is the per cent, of the woodlands of each county burned over by forest fires. By reference to Table II, page 17, it will be observed that in 1912 5l/> per cent, of the forest area of Allegany county was burned over. Of this over 6,500 acres were burned over by one fire on Dan's Mountain. The forest warden in the district was sick at the time of the fire, which accounts in a measure for the extent to which it burned. The wooded area burned over in 1912 represents a little less than Vw per cent., while in 1913 a little over 1 per cent, of the total wooded area of the State was burned over. The total sum expended in preventive measures and in extin- guishing forest fires in 1912 amounted to $1,474.30, and in 1913 EEPQKT FOR 1912 AND 1913 19 to $4,163.20, which latter sum includes the construction of an observation tower, telephone lines, etc. This' means that the cost of fire protection has amounted to $.0007 per acre in 1912 and $.002 in 1913 for all the woodlands of the State. Our fire protection system is less effective than it should be for several reasons: The lack of support of the public generally in forest fire protection ; the difficulty in getting suitable men for forest wardens in every community ; and the delays in paying the wardens. .An amendment has been proposed to the present law, which if adopted will increase the number of forest wardens that may be appointed, and thereby greatly increase the efficiency of the system. Public sentiment in favor of fire protection has increased very much in the last few years, since the present system of fire protection was inaugurated, and it is believed that the present campaign of education along this line, which has been carried into every county of the State, will go a long way toward removing the difficulties that have been standing in the way. The law requires that each account for expenses for fighting fires shall be paid by the County Commissioners of the county in which the expense was incurred, after such accounts are approved by the State Forester. In some of the counties ther6 has often been a delay of several months or even a year in paying these accounts, which has made it increasingly difficult to secure men for service in extinguishing fires. It is the hardest kind of work and the pay is small, so that in order to make it possible for the forest warden to secure help when it is much needed it is necessary that these men should be paid with reasonable promptness. There has been during the past two years a better co-operation on the part of the County Commissioners in this respect, and it is hoped that as the fire protection system is extended and proves its effectiveness in reducing the fire damage it will receive better recognition on the part of those who should be most directly concerned. STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY TABLE III. Causes of Forest Fires— 1912-1913. Counties Rail- roads Brush- burning Hunt- ers and Fisher- men Incend. Traction and Log. Eng. Un- known Totals 1912 1913 1912 ms 19121913 1912 1913 1912 1913 1912 1913 1912 1913 Allegany 4 8 1 6 4 12 12 1 2 1 11 6 18 1 29 55 3 4 5 1 33 64 2 1 6 2 2 | 2 5 1 1 Cecil 1 1 1 4 1 Frederick . 5 6 4 5 2 4 1 2 1 1 6 14 15 1 3 1 2 5 7 13 34 1 14 27 1 Garrett 1 1 6 Harf ord Howard 1 4 4 ? ? 6 12 1 Somerset 1 St Mary's 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 3 12 6 1 3 7 1 Washington 2 3 3 6 1 2 2 1 Wicomico Worcester The State 26 29 18 11 23 21 9 32 5 15 32 77 113 185 % Total 23 16 16 6 20 11 8 17 4 8 29 42 c'o Known Fires . 32 27 22 10 29 19 11 30 6 14 Protective Measures. Forest Wardens. — In administering the Forest law it has been the aim to develop in each county of the State where forest fires are prev- alent a system that will afford the greatest protection to forest lands. To that end forest wardens have heen commissioned by the Governor in sections where the fire danger was greatest and where suitable men could be found. These men were given authority to employ assist- ance, and to take all measures that may be necessary in controlling forest fires that they may see or that may be reported to them. KEPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 21 The efficiency of the forest wardens is greatly increased where the public sentiment in the community is strongly in favor of fire protec- tion. Under such favorable conditions fires are reported to the forest wardens and measures taken for extinguishing them before they have done much damage. In other sections where the needs of fire protec- tion are not so fully appreciated, it is often a considerable time after a fire is first discovered before the forest warden hears about it and can take measures for suppressing it. Under such conditions fires burn over the largest areas and do the greatest amount of damage. Unfortunately public sentiment favoring fire protection is less de- veloped in the mountain counties of the State, where are found the largest areas of woodland and where the fires do the greatest amount of damage. This is clearly shown by reference to the table on page IT, showing that in the mountain counties (Garrett, Allegany, Washington and Frederick) there are the greatest number of fires, the most acres burned over, and the largest amount of damage. Forest Wardens' conferences were held in the four western counties of the State during March, 1913, for the purpose of promoting a better understanding of the importance of fire protection work and methods of handling fires. Each conference was attended by the State Forester, the Assistant State Forester, and from fifteen to twenty forest wardens, patrolmen, and lookout watchmen. The chief topics for discussion were the duties, responsibilities and powers of the forest wardens, and how their work could be most effectively done and the greatest measure of co-operation secured. The meetings were notable for the interest manifested by the wardens and a real desire to do effective work. As a result, each went back to his post feeling that he was part of an organization having a tremendous re- sponsibility and pledged to a greater public service. Forest Patrolmen. — In the western part of the State, where there are large continuous areas of woodland and where fires travel rapidly, it has been found necessary to supplement the work of *the forest wardens by men whose duty it is to travel over the country and to be constantly on the lookout for fires during the dangerous season. A forest patrol has, therefore, been organized in co-operation with the STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Federal Government, which for the past two years has paid the salaries of these patrolmen from an appropriation for co-operating with the States in protecting the watersheds of navigable streams. These patrolmen are mounted on horseback, and each is assigned a district covering from 75,000 to 100,000 acres, for which he is responsible. This has been found a most effective means for re- ducing the fire damage. In addition, the fact that he is constantly on the move and observing the country from vantage points as he passes over the mountains makes people who might otherwise be careless or even disposed to set fires maliciously the more careful. He is also a powerful factor in creating public sentiment in favor of fire protection by meeting with the people, calling attention to the dangers from forest fires, and to the provisions of the forest laws which carry severe penalties for those who intentionally set out fires, and liability for damages for those who are careless. During the spring of 1912 there were 6 patrolmen on duty in the four western counties between April 5th and May 22d. During the fall fire season there were 10 patrolmen on duty, who patrolled the woodlands on all clays between November 3d and December llth, when it was dry enough for the woods to burn. These patrolmen discovered 42 fires in the patrol wTork, of which 29 were extinguished without assistance. In 1913, 11 patrolmen were on duty in the spring and 13 in the fall. During these two periods they discovered 81 fires, 46 of which they were able to extinguish without assistance. The educational value of the patrol work is one of its most im- portant features. There is a disposition on the part of many people to let the woods burn unless buildings or fences are threatened on account of a lack of appreciation of the damage done to the woods themselves, and also to a certain extent on account of a feeling of helplessness, an idea that the woods are sure to burn over in any case in dry seasons. To counteract this impression the patrolmen were provided with printed matter relating to the forest fire laws and the necessity and value of fire protection, and they were instructed to avail themselves of every opportunity to place this literature in the hands of land owners, sawmill and traction-engine operators, and STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE IV FIG. 1. PROTECTED WOODLAND NEAR HAMPSTEAD, CARROLL COUNTY FIG. 2. PINE FOREST DESTROYED BY FIRE IN ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY REPORT FOR '\\n-2 AND 11)1.:-) 23 hunters in their districts, and to talk with them on the subject of fire protection. While it is difficult to estimate the effect of such work, it has cer- tainly been instrumental in giving residents of the wooded sections quite a different view of fire protection, and in almost every case when their attention has been called to the forest laws and the deter- mination on the part of the State and Federal Government to aid them in securing fire protection, they have expressed their willingness to co-operate and their hope that the work would be pushed as vigor- ously as possible. It is just such work as this which was required to crystallize the sentiment and make it effective. The patrolmen not only visited the land owners in their districts, posted warning notices, and warned the careless, but also- visited the schoolhouses and got the teachers interested. The forest laws in Maryland are sufficiently comprehemsive to cover the situation and meet any emer- gency that might arise, but such an agency as the patrol is needed to create public sentiment in favor of the enforcement of the laws. The fact that the Federal Government is paying men to patrol the woods and enforce the forest fire laws carries with it a dignity and force which cannot fail to arouse the admiration and good will of the people and impress them with the importance of fire protection. It is certain that these results have been secured to as great an extent as could be expected, since the work has been carried on for such a short time and over such a comparatively small territory. Lookout Stations. — A. third adjunct of the fire protection work is the establishment of lookout stations at commanding points in the mountains where the observer can see a large stretch of wooded country. At two of these points towers have been erected and men are stationed constantly during the dry season to watch for forest fires. Each has a telephone at hand by which he can communicate with the forest warden who is located nearest the place of the fire, and upon notification from the watchman he gets together a force of men to extinguish it. At four other points men are employed to make regular observations not less than three times daily, but are not required to remain constantly on duty. This has greatly supple- 24 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY mented the work of the wardens and patrolmen in that many fires have been reported and extinguished before they had a chance to become large ones and do much damage. The efficiency of the look- out stations has been such as to justify an extension of the work, and within the next year other stations will be established. Fires in 1912. As usual, the fires were confined to two rather distinct seasons, the spring season from about April 10th to May 20th, and the fall season from about November 5th to December 15th. There were 113 fires reported during the year. An average of 138 acres Was burned over for each fire, with an average loss of $426.65. The average loss per acre was $3.20. Of the fires of 1912, 28 per cent, occurred in April, 11 per cent, in May, 2 per cent, in June, 2 per cent, in October, 48 per cent, in November and 9 per cent, in December. In the table below is given a list of fires by counties, their location, date, acres burned, estimate of damage, cause of each fire, and the warden who reported it. TABLE IV.— FIRES IN 1912. ALLEGANY COUNTY. Location. Date. Green Ridge Apr. Gilpin Twiggtown Morantown Neri " Clarysville Green Ridge May Gilpin " Gilpin Gilpin " Barton June 13 Clarysville Nov. Vale Summit " Neri " Twiggtown Keyser Acres Estimated e. Burned. Damage. Cause. Warden. 6 300 $50.00 Brush Burning. Krumbine, H. S. 9 2 2.00 Log. Engine. « 9 150 300.00 Unknown. Krumbine, Thos. 10 10 35.00 R. R. Laborers. Mayer. 11 50 75.00 Brush B. Krumbine, H. S. 12 12 135.00 R. R. Mayer. 3 1 . . . B. B. Krumbine, H. S. 4 2 4.00 « « 4-5 200 400.00 " " 5 50 100.00 Unknown. " 13 1 10.00 " Llewellyn. 5 12 50.00 R. R. Mayer. 6 2 65.00 Hunters. « 6 3 1.00 B. B. Krumbine, H. S. 6 75 100.00 Hunters. Wentling. 9 50 . 300.00 " Llewellyn. EEPORT FOR 1912 AND 1013 25 Location. Date. Vale Summit Nov. 19-20 Acres Estimated Burned. Damage. Cause. 250 $2,265.00 Hunters Eckhart " 20 6 150.00 Dan's Mt " 21-2-36,500 20,000.00 Cumberland " 22 225 500.00 " Westernport " 22 1,200 3,000.00 Unknown. Cumberland " 22 150 35.00 Hunters. Moscow " 23 1 ... Boys. Cumberland " 23 10 1.50 R. R. Twiggtown "29 1 ... Unknown. Cumberland "29 1 ... Hunters. Cumberland ...... " 29 % .25 Hunters. Barton Dec. 1 10 30.00 Unknown. Clarysville " 10 5 20.00 R. R. 9,279 ^ $28,228.75 BALTIMORE COUNTY. Orange Grove Oct. 31 1% $50.00 R. R. Cockeysville Nov. 18 3 20.00 Hunters. Orange Grove " 25 2 75.00 Ashland Dec. 9 10 50.00 Orange Grove " 10 3 60.00 R. R. Warden. Mayer. MeElfish. Llewellyn. Helmstetter. Mayer. Helmstetter. Wentling. Krumbine, Thos. Helmstetter. Llewellyn. Mayer. Wurtzer. Shipley. Wurtzer. Shipley. Wurtzer. Liberty Grove Apr. 4 Charlotte Hall... Apr. 4-5 Thurmont Apr. 24 Thurmont " 25 Yellow Springs... May 4 Catoctin Nov. 5 Thurmont " 7 Thurmont " 14 Thurmont " 15 Braddock " 15 Lewistown. ...... " 16 Foxville " 22 Smithsburg " 29 Catoctin Dec. 13-14 Thurmont " 15 Thurmont.. " 23 $255.00 CECIL COUNTY. 10 $100.00 B. B. Balderston. CHARLES COUNTY. 13 $200.30 Incendiary. Davis. FREDERICK COUNTY. 8 $20.00 Traction Eng. Fraley. 10 25.00 Incendiary. 10 10.00 Unknown. 6 9.00 R. R. 8 20.00 3 4.00 8 16.00 25 1,045.00 Hunters. Klein. 10 40.00 " Smith, V. T. 50 300.00 Unknown. Fraley. 8 25.00 750 450.00 250 200.00 12 12.00 R. R. Creager. 1,158 $2,176.00 26 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY GARRETT COUNTY. Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Friendsville Apr. 12 1 Log. Engine. Swanton " 21 6 $20.00 R. R. Swanton " 25 % Unknown. Hoop Pole Ridge. May 3 40 40.00 Hunters. Wilson 4 10 5.00 Log. Engine. Oakland 4 2 30.00 B. B. Swallow Falls. . . . 4 40 25.00 Fishermen. Deer Park " 23 5 50.00 Unknown. Wilson " 31 25 10.00 Log. Engine. Barton Oct. 30-31 200 100.00 Unknown. Swanton Nov. 4-5 75 110.00 " Swanton " 11 30 90.00 R. R. Swanton " 11 % " Swanton " 11 100 25.00 Incendiary. Swanton " 11-12 1,500 7,500.00 « Swanton " 13 3 . . . R. R. Swanton " 18 % Hunters. Swanton " 19-20 400 415.00 Incendiary. Swanton " 21 50 50.00 " Grantsville " 21 8 Unknown. McHenry " 21 200 100.00 Incendiary. Marsh Hill " 21 15 5.00 Boys. Swanton " 22 75 75.00 Incendiary. Bittinger " 22 100 25.00 Unknown. Swanton " 23 120 60.00 R. R. Swanton " 23 50 50.00 " Bittinger Dec. 15 200 50.00 Unknown. 3,256% $8,835.00 HARFORD COUNTY. Cardiff.. Fall. 3 $10.00 B. B. PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY. Ardmore ......... Apr. 6-7 Berwyn .......... " College Park ..... May College Park ..... Nov. Hyattsville ....... " East Hyattsville.. " Lakeland ........ " Branchville ...... " College Park ..... " College Park ..... " College Park ..... Dec. Lakeland ........ " 52 $2,100.00 B. B. 26 4 20.00 Unknown. 29 14 ... R. R. 13 8 40.00 <( 14 103 115.00 Unknown. 14 60 300.00 " 15 7 35.00 R. R. 17 8 40.00 H 29 % 2.00 Unknown. 30 1 5.00 u 1 2 10.00 " 16 7 30.00 B. B. Warden. Browning. Friend. Sines, W. T. Wilson. Janoske. Sines. Kimmell. Wilson. Michael. Friend. Turner. Friend. Turner. Friend. Hetrick. Sines, W. T. Friend. Ellithorp. Friend. Ellithorp. MacNabb. Benton. Bewley. Benton. Bewley. 2521/0 $2,697.00 EEPOKT FOR 1912 AND 1913 27 SOMERSET COUNTY. Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Warden. Oriole Summer. 50 $300.00 Unknown. ST. MARY'S COUNTY. Charlotte Hall. .. Apr. 6 2 $35.00 Incendiary. Davis. Drayden " 10 25 250.00 B. B. Armsworthy. Drayden June 5 100 285.00 Unknown. 127 $570.00 WASHINGTON COUNTY. Pearre Apr. 10 % ... R. R. Reel. Pearre "10 3 . . . B. B. Orleans "11 10 ... " Orleans " 12 20 $5.00 Town Hill "12 5 ..." Nr. Blue Mt. House " 24 100 50.00 R. R. Hancock May 21 5 . . . B. B. Bishop. Smithsburg Nov. 21 30 300.00 " Oswald. Chewsville " 23 300 3,000.00 Unknown. Smithsburg " 26 30 175.00 Hunters. Sideling Hill "28 1 ... " Reel. Weverton " 28 60 200.00 Unknown. Phillips. 5641/2 $3,730.00 WICOMICO COUNTY. Parsonsburg Spring. 50 $50.00 R. R. Parsonsburg " 5 10.00 " Delmar " 4 10.00 " Pittsville " 60 600.00 Unknown. Tyaskin " 10 20.00 — " 20 20.00 149 $710.00 WORCESTER COUNTY. Fruitland Spring. 150 $400.00 Unknown. 28 STATE BOAKD OF FORESTRY Fires in 1913. While fires were reported during every month of the year except January, making an unusual record, the spring fires were almost entirely confined to the period between March 1st and May 15th, and practically all of the fall fires occurred between November 5th and December 15th. Of the 185 fires reported 2 per cent, occurred in February, 7 per cent, in March, 27 per cent, in April, 39 per cent, in May, 2 per cent, in June, 2 per cent, in July, 1 per cent, in August, 1 per cent, in September, 1 per cent, in October, 12 per cent, in Novem- ber and 6 per cent, in December; 152 of the fires were in the three mountain counties, Garrett, Allegany and Frederick; 86 per cent, of them occurred during the long, dry spring season. The average area burned over by each fire was 138 acres and the average damage was $229.42, or a loss of $1.66 per acre. A tabulated list of the fires of 1913 is given in the following table: Location. Date. Corrigansville. . . . Feb. 23 North Branch Mar. 2 North Branch .... " 4 Twiggtown " 6 Song " 9 Collins Mt " 9 Lonaconing " 23 Pinto " 23 Frostburg " 30 Corrigansville.... Apr. 8 Frostburg " 8 Midlothian " 9 Piney Grove "9 North Branch.... " 10 Oldtown " 13 Twiggtown " 18 Frostburg " 18 Barton " 19 Frostburg " 20 Gilmore " 21 Frostburg " 22 TABLE V— FIRES IN 1913. ALLEGANY COUNTY. Acres Burned. 3 4 200 100 4 400 40 1 8 75 10 50 80. 12 60 100 10 45 15 55 20 Estimated Damage. Cause. $11.00 R. R. 20.00 a 400.00 Log. Eng. 200.00 Saw Mill. 4.00 Hunters. 800.00 Log. Eng. 40.00 Unknown. 1.00 R. R. 14.00 « 200.00 Steam Roller. 70.00 R. R. 45.00 Boys. 50.00 Incendiary. 20.00 Log. Eng. 35.00 Saw Mill. 200.00 Log. Eng. 15.00 R. R. 45.00 B. B. 110.00 « 54.00 R. R. 40.00 Unknown. Warden. Helmstetter. Wentling. Helmstetter. Wentling. Llewellyn. Helmstetter. Mayer. Helmstetter. Mayer. « Fletcher. Wentling. Twigg. Wentling. Mayer. Llewellyn. Mayer. EEPORT FOK 1912 AND 1913 29 Acres Estimated Location. Date, Burned. Damage Cause. Warden. Song .Apr. 22 175 $150.00 Unknown Helmatetter. Oldtown " 22-4-5 650 1,750.00 B. B. Twigg. Midlothian " 22-3 260 245.00 Unknown. Mayer. Oldtown " 22 9 25.00 Trac. Eng. Twigg. Flintstone " 24 6 1.00 B. B. Krumbine. Spring Gap " 24 600 900.00 Unknown. Wentling. Oldtown " 24-5 200 100.00 B. B. Krumbine. Frostburg " 26 1 ... Unknown. Mayer. Frostburg "26 1 ..." Frostburg "30 1 ... " " Clareysville May 2-3 10 10.00 Song " 2 15 30.00 Hunters. Helmstetter. Frostburg "3 1 ... Unknown. Mayer. Gilpin "3 1 ... " Krumbine. Eckhart Mines... " 3-5-6 100 50.00 " Mayer. Lonaconing " 5-6 400 200.00 Frostburg " 5-6 500 250.00 " " Cumberland " 5 150 325.00 " Helmstetter. North Branch "9 50 75.00 Incendiary. Wentling. Barton "9 6 50.00 Unknown. Llewellyn. Twiggtown " 9 75 100.00 Log. Eng. Wentling. Twiggtown " 9 33 63.00 Saw Mill. Gilpin " 12 75 125.00 Chimney. Krumbine. Barton " 12 4 25.00 R. R. Llewellyn. Barton " 13 45 90.00 Unknown. " Oldtown Sept. 12 100 100.00 Hunters. Twigg. Rawlings " 22 30 125.00 " Helmstetter. Colliers Mt Nov. 18 % ... " Wentling. Clareysville " 22 5 3.00 Boys. Mayer. Oldtown " 25-6 800 50.00 Unknown. Twigg. Cumberland " 25 150 150.00 Hunters. Helmstetter. North Branch Dec. 16 10 20.00 " Wentling. Cresaptown " 18 125 160.00 " Helmstetter. Cumberland " 20 40 50.00 " 5,9201/2 $7,596.00 ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY. Odenton July. 50 $50.00 R. R. Glenburnie Oct. 300 300.00 Unknown. Edgewater Nov. 30 V2 . •• Hunters. Shenkel. 350y2 $350.00 30 STATE BOARD OF FOKESTKY BALTIMORE COUNTY. Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Shamburg June 9-10 200 $200.00 Unknown. Shamburg Nov. 25 % Thistle Mills Dec. 13 15 Texas.. " 20 150 ... R. R. 20.00 300.00 Unknown. 365% $520.00 CHARLES COUNTY. Charlotte Hall. . . Charlotte Hall... Pope's Creek. . . . Apr. 22-23 Nov. 24 Fall. 40 3 50 $450.00 35.00 500.00 Unknown. R. R. 25 250.00 Unknown. Wayside M 25 250.00 M East New Market. Fall. 143 $1,485.00 DORCHESTER COUNTY. 3 ... Unknown. FREDERICK COUNTY. Warden. Cavey. Shipley. Davis, J. L. « Wilmer. Patten. Thurmont . . . . Mar. 25 300 $1,200.00 Incendiary. Fraley. Lantz . .. May 3 50 250.00 R. R. Bussard. Hauvers ... " 4 40 120.00 " " Catoctin 5 } Unknown. Fraley. Smithsburg. . . ... " 6 200 330.00 Incendiary. Sauter, Dr. Thurmont. . . . . . . " 6-10 3,000 3,000.00 Incendiary. Smith, V. T. Smithsburg. . . ... " 7 30 60.00 Incendiary. Delauter. Thurmont . . . . " 7 400 725.00 Incendiary. Fraley. Catoctin . . . " 7 1 . . . Unknown. " Smithsburg. . . ... " 8 90 180.00 Incendiary. Delauter. Thurmont " 8 600 300.00 Unknown. Creager. Smithsburg. . . ... " 8 500 1,000.00 Incendiary. Fraley. Smithsburg. . . ... " 9 150 100.00 From other fire. Delauter. Catoctin ... " 9 1 1.00 Unknown. Fraley. Catoctin ... " 9 1 1.00 Unknown. M Catoctin ... " 9 1 1.00 Unknown. " Catoctin " 10 1 1.00 Unknown. << Catoctin ... " 10 1 1.00 Unknown. " Catoctin ... " 10 1 1.00 Unknown. » Lantz. . . . . " 10 8 196.00 R. R. Bussard. Thurmont . . . . " 10 300 600.00 Incendiary. Creager. Thurmont " 11 40 150.00 Unknown. Fraley. Smithsburg. . . ... " 12 75 175.00 Incendiary. " Smithsburg. . . ... " 13 25 50.00 Incendiary. « KEPOKT FOE 1012 AND 1913 31 Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Warden. Thurmont May 13 2 $5.00 Incendiary. Bussard. Yellow Springs . . July 13 X . Mill Eng. Klein. Smithsburg Nov. 4-5 300 150.00 Unknown. Delauter. Lantz 5 y4 . Hunters. Bussard. Thurmont 7 5 5.00 Unknown. Creager. Thurmont " 25 200 400.00 R. R. " Smithsburg Dec. 13 300 325.00 Incendiary. Delauter. Garfield " 13 V4 1.00 Unknown. Bussard. Thurmont " 13-4-5 3,000 1,500.00 Incendiary. Fraley. 9,623 $9,828.00 GARRETT COUNTY. Friendsville Mar. 19 16 $32.00 R. R. Frantz. Swallow Falls " 23 150 75.00 Incendiary. Sines, A. L. Swanton Apr. 7 1 3.00 R. R. Bray. Swanton 9 1 1.00 Unknown. Oester-Friend. Bittinger " 18 100 220.00 Incendiary. Ellithorp. Swanton " 22 350 750.00 Unknown. Bray. Buckel " 22 10 10.00 " Oester-Ellithorp. Sang Run " 23 400 400.00 Incendiary. Sines, A. L. Bittinger " 23 50 50.00 " Ellithorp. White Rock Run. " 22-24 25 25.00 Unknown. Bishoff. Wilson " 23-26 100 400.00 * Wilson, D. W. Laurel Run " 24 5 5.00 " Bishoff. Frankville " 24 1 1.00 " Oester-Friend. Oakland " 24 1 1.00 " Sines, A. L. Oakland " 24 1 1.00 *" « Oakland " 24 1 1.00 " « Oakland " 24 1 1.00 « " Grantsville " 24 600 4,500.00 Incendiary. Bolden. Frostburg " 24 20 18.00 Unknown. Mayer. Friendsville " 24 50 300.00 Incendiary. Frantz. Westernport " 24 600 200.00 Fishermen. Michael. New Germany. . . . " 25 Unknown. Broadwater. Bond " 25 . . . . . . " " Wilson " 25 100 500.00 Brush Burning. Wilson. Swanton " 25 200 800.00 Incendiary. Bray. Accident " 26 1 1.00 Unknown. Hetrick. Oakland May 1-2 100 150.00 Incendiary. Sines, A. L. Oakland 2 y4 . . . Unknown. " Bloomington 2 400 2,000.00 " Bray. Sang Run 2-8 300 300.00 Incendiary. Browning. Frankville 3 14 . . R. R. Friend. Swanton 3 i/ " " STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Waden. Friendsville May 4 200 $1,000.00 Unknown. Frantz. Swanton 4 100 400.00 " Bray. Swanton 4 500 500.00 R. R. " Swanton 5 2 4.00 Unknown. " Big Savage Mt 5-6 1,000 1,000.00 M Jones. Feik Hill 9 1 1.00 M Bishoff-Browning. Oakland " 10 100 200.00 Incendiary. Sines, A. L. Oakland " 10 200 100.00 Saw Mill. Bittinger. Friendsville " 12 400 400.00 Incendiary. Frantz. Sines " 12 ... . . . Unknown. Sines, A. L. Deer Park " 12 95 300.00 Incendiary. " Oakland " 12 l Brush Burning. K White Rock Run. " 12 1 1.00 Unknown. Bishoff. White Rock Run. " 12-13 10 10.00 « Browning. Barton " 12-13 300 300.00 " Michael. Sang Run " 13 600 1,200.00 " Savage. Selbysport " 13 21 266.00 B. B. Frantz. Friendsville " 13 150 1,500.00 Unknown. " Sines " 13 3 5.00 B. B. Sines. Swanton " 13 25 25.00 " Bray. Wilson " 13 160 500.00 Fishermen. Wilson. White Rock Run. " 13 10 10.00 Unknown. Bishoff-Sines. Swanton " 13 1 1.00 « Oester-O'Brien. Bittinger " 13 1 1.00 " Oester-Ellithorp. Sines ."... June 3 50 100.00 Incendiary. Sines. Swanton 5 30 B. B. O'Brien. Sines Oct. 15 100 200.00 Unknown. Sines. Kitzmiller Nov. 6 60 10.00 M Bray. Swanton tt rr 1 5.00 " " Green Glade 7 40 104.00 Incendiary. O'Brien. Swanton 8 30 " " McHenry Fall. 8 20.00 Potash Eng. Savage. 8,383 $18,908.00 HARFORD COUNTY. Ferryman Mar. 24 25 $50.00 Fishermen. Michael. Ferryman May 2 20 200.00 Unknown. « Ellicott City, Dec. 1 45 $250.00 HOWARD COUNTY. 8 $10.00 R. R. Cavey. REPORT FOE 1912 AND 1913 33 PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY. Acres Estimated Location. Date. Burned. Damage. Cause. Warden. Branchville Feb. 6 5 . . . R. R. Barton. Lakeland "13 3 ..." College Park Mar. 20 10 $50.00 Tramps. Berwyn " 23 24 220.00 R. R. Berwyn May 23 60 150.00 Boys. Springfield Spring. 50 500.00 R. R. Belt. 152 $920.00 ST. MARY'S COUNTY. Charlotte Hall... Apr. 7 3 $25.00 Unknown. Davis. Oraville July 7 ... 375.00 Thresh. Eng. Reeder. Leonardtown Aug. 2 4 50.00 Unknown. Raley. 7 $450.00 WASHINGTON COUNTY. Bell Grove Apr. 25-26 200 $1,000.00 B. B. Reel. Bell Grove May 6-7 20 20.00 Fishermen. " Hancock " 10 21 5.00 Boys. Gapland Nov. 3 40 80.00 Incendiary. Phillips. Weverton " 4-5 60 120.00 R. R. Edgemont " 25 40 80.00 " Bussard. Edgemont Dec. 14 7 21.00 " " 388 $1,326.00 WICOMICO COUNTY. Pittsville Aug. 90 $800.00 Unknown. STATE FOREST RESERVES. When the present forest law was adopted in 1906, there came to the State by gift from Messrs. Robert and John W. Garrett three tracts of land in Garrett county to be held and managed as forest reservations. In 1907 another small tract located along the Patapsco River in Baltimore County was given to the State by Mr. John M. Glenn. The Garrett county reserves have not been added to since their acquisition, but under an appropriation from the State the Patapsco reservation has been very much enlarged. In addition, the 34 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY State has appropriated to the State Board of Forestry the sum of $8,500 to acquire Fort Frederick and the farm upon which it is located in the western part of Washington County, which, when acquired, will constitute a separate forest reservation. The extension of the forest reservations is very much needed, as there are large areas of woodland, particularly in the mountain section, on the watersheds of important streams. The merchantable timber growth has been cut from nearly all of these lands, which with destructive fires and the constant fire danger make them of little value to the present owners, so they could be acquired by the State at a very reasonable price. The development of water power on our rivers and streams is directly dependent on the maintenance of a good forest cover on the watersheds, and where lands so located have been denuded of their merchantable timber growth and are frequented by forest fires it does not pay the present owners to hold them. The State, however, can afford to hold these lands for a long period without revenue, and with adequate fire protection and proper management they would immediately serve the purpose of watershed protection in a much more efficient manner than could be expected under private owner- ship, and they would in time be important factors in timber produc- tion. In addition, such lands, well distributed and managed by the State, would demonstrate to the private owner the importance of fire protection and the principles of timber production in regions where the practice of forestry is so much needed Skipnish Reserve. The Skipnish Reserve is the northernmost of the three in Garrett County and contains 888 acres. It lies west of the Youghiogheny River 'about six miles northwest of Oakland. The Oakland-Cranes- ville road passes through the southern half of the reserve. There was a considerable amount of white pine on this tract prior to the first cutting about 40 years ago. A subsequent cutting about 10 years ago, just prior to the transfer of the land to the State, removed the last of the white pine, so that now it consists of a small seedling REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 35 and sprout growth of hardwoods, principally white oak, red oak, scarlet oak and chestnut. This young stand is in a thrifty growing condition, and has the promise of producing an excellent forest if it can be protected from fires. Extensive improvement work has been conducted on this tract during the past two years, consisting of either cutting or killing by girdling the large, spreading, defective trees that were not considered worth cutting when the land was logged 10 years ago. The young growth had reached a height where these large trees were seriously interfering with its proper development, so that a liberation cutting was required. Such a cutting has been made on about two-thirds of the tract, and the remainder is being treated in the same manner. In addition, a number of fire lines have been established, usually consisting of the clearing out of old woods roads, so that fires if they do occur may be more easily controlled. Swallow Falls Reserve. This Reserve lies about one mile south of the Skipnish Reserve and contains 823 acres. About three years ago a liberation cutting, such as that described on the Skipnish Reserve, was made on about 50 acres of the land. This cutting has brought- about such a marked improvement in the condition of the young growth that similar cuttings over the entire tract are fully justified, and will be under- taken as soon as suitable arrangements can be made. Kindness Reserve. This is the southernmost of the three Grarrett County Reserves and lies about three miles south of the Swallow Falls Reserve and about three miles west of Oakland. It is the smallest of the three, con- taining but 206 acres, and since it was located nearer the railroad the cutting was much closer than that on the other reserves. Like the other reservations, this one is well stocked with a young growth, which is being impeded in its development by a few large, worthless trees, but a liberation cutting is being made at the present time, which will place it in a much better condition. 36 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Patapsco Reserve. The Legislature of 1912 appropriated to the State Board of Forestry $50,000 for the purchase of land bordering the Patapsco River between Relay and Hollofield. Since this appropriation became available, in the latter part of 1912, the State Board of Forestry has been proceeding with the purchase of land and ac- quiring the rights in this region that will best carry out the pro- visions of the act. The purposes of the reservation are : (1) To preserve the scenic beauty of this region, which is recog- nized as one of the most beautiful in the country. Under State con- trol, the lands will be maintained perpetually as a natural forest and the stripping of hillsides by cutting will be prevented. Where the steep slopes have been cleared and are now washing badly they will be planted in trees. Forest fires, which have done so much damage hitherto, will be reduced to a minimum by careful State control. (2) The Patapsco River is exceedingly important for the water power it affords. There are nine different power developments between Relay and Hollofield, a distance of 10 miles, all within the limits of the forest reservation area, and seven of them are now in operation. This use of the river will be maintained as fully as pos- sible by protecting the forests on the watersheds which now are to a considerable extent under State control. (3) Not only is water-power development of prime importance, but since the writer in the river is used for domestic purposes it is essential that the watershed from which it is derived shall be main- tained in the most healthful condition, under State control. (4) The woodlands are typical of those found in a large portion of the State, and scientific forest management as applied here will furnish valuable object-lessons to those who wish to handle their lands according to the most approved plans of modern forestry. The open fields that are being acquired by the State will be planted with different tree species adapted to the soil and climate, serving as valuable demonstrations of practical tree planting. The large STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE V FIG. 1. VIEW ALONG THE PATAPSCO RIVER, BELOW ILCHESTER •*:* FIG. 2. WOODLAND BORDER ALONG THE PATAPSCO RIVER REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 37 number of native tree species found in this region, together with the species that will be introduced by planting, will make a forest arboretum not only of interest to the botanist but of great educa- tional value to the general public. (5) One of the ways in which this natural park will serve the people best is as a recreation ground near large centers of popula- tion, where the people may enjoy nature at its best in a region of so many natural attractions. It is proposed to offer camping sites to those who wish to take an outing here, and who probably could not afford a vacation trip to more distant sections. The idea is to make it a place where everyone in the State may realize that it is his pleasure ground. In carrying out the purposes of this act, the State Board of Forestry has at the present time acquired 288 acres of land, and the purchase of three other tracts aggregating 177 acres has been agreed upon, and the State will take possession as soon as the titles can be examined and surveys completed. Mr. William L. Glenn has offered to donate to the State for the Patapsco Reservation about 85 acres, and Messrs. Richard C. and Rollin Morris have offered to give 35 acres. Both of these gifts have been accepted, and this, with the 42-acre tract given to the State by Mr. John M. Glenn several years ago, makes 162 acres in the Patapsco valley to be acquired by gift. There are several tracts of land bordering on the Patapsco river owned by different companies, who hold them for water rights. While it has not been possible to buy any of these lands, the com- panies owning them have in almost all cases agreed to allow the State Board of Forestry to use them for park purposes under a mutual agreement by which the State will protect them from fire and trespass and handle them in such a way as to conserve the water interests. Under this agreement W. J. Dickey & Sons, Inc., have allowed the use of 800 acres of their land ; the Thistle Mills Com- pany, about 85 acres; the Consolidated Gas and Electric Company, 95 acres, and the C. A. Gambrill Manufacturing Company, 58 acres. The remaining companies in the valley are considering the same prop- 38 STATE BOAED OF FOEESTEY osition for about 200 acres of their land. The Board, therefore, has under management at the present time 1,665 acres along the Patapsco river. Other tracts are now being considered for purchase, and it is the intention of the Board to proceed with the acquisition of lands that can be purchased at a reasonable price on the Patapsco watershed. The State Board of Forestry now maintains a patrolman to protect them from fire and trespassers, and has cut a number of trails through the woods for the use of the public. In co-operation with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, a fire line 100 feet wide, in which the undergrowth has been cut out and all inflammable material raked up, piled and burned, has been constructed along the exposed portions of the woodlands between Orange Grove and Hollofield. A field party was employed almost the entire summer in surveys for the purpose of preparing an accurate, large-scale topographic map (200 feet to the inch) to be used as a base for locating property lines and all topographic features, and to serve as a working map for the entire Patapsco area. In accordance with the objects stated above, the plan of manage- ment for these lands covers three important points : (a) To put them in the best condition by removing dead and de- fective trees and in planting the open lands. (&) To make the area thoroughly accessible by construction of roads and trails. (c) To give the greatest measure of protection by maintaining a patrol to look out for fires and any depredations by the public, and the construction of fire lines to reduce the danger from railroad fires. FOREST INVESTIGATIONS. The Board of Forestry has from its organization, in 1906, carried on extensive investigations to determine the forest conditions in the State, and to devise methods for their improvement, believing KEPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 39 that such investigations must necessarily be the basis for any well- developed system of forestry. Beginning in 1906, forest surveys were carried on systematically in the different counties to determine the area of the woodland, the stand, the condition and the value of the timber, and to secure other information that should furnish a careful inventory of our natural forest resources. This work was completed in 1912, resulting in an inventory of the forest resources of the State by counties. Indi- vidual forest reports, accompanied by large-scale forest maps, have been published for four counties, and reports for five other counties are in preparation. While the large mass of data that has been collected is not fully in published form, it is nevertheless available, and furnishes the information so useful not only to the land owner but to the timber buyer as well. Subjects of particular importance have been taken up and careful studies made. Some of the specific problems now being worked out are here indicated. Chestnut Baric Disease. The investigation made by the State Forester in 1911 to determine the extent of the chestnut bark disease and the amount of damage occasioned showed that it had spread very generally over the north- western part of the State and was spreading southward and westward. During the past summer, in connection with other work, parts of the same areas were examined to determine how rapidly the blight had spread during the past two years. In one large tract of approxi- mately 10,000 acres in Cecil Qounty, containing a large per cent, of chestnut, where less than 10 per cent, of the trees were reported as dead or diseased in 1911, it was found in 1913 on the same area that approximately 90 per cent, had been killed or were infected by the chestnut blight. This is indicative of the rapid spread of the disease in the northeastern section of the State. Another large tract in the Catoctin Mountains in Frederick County, which in 1911 marked approximately the southern limit of infection, was then found to have only a small per cent, of diseased trees, less than 3 per cent. When this same area was examined again during 40 STATE BOAED OF FORESTRY the latter part of 1912 it was found that approximately 50 per cent, of the chestnut trees had either been killed or were infected by the blight, and that the infected area had moved much farther south. In 1911 no indication of the disease was found west of the Blue Ridge Mountains, but in 1913 a few scattered trees infected with the chestnut blight were found in the vicinity of Fairview Mountain along the east front of the Alleghenies. The progress westward has been much slower than southward, but it is nevertheless spreading, and unless there is a decided change in the situation very soon one of our most valuable timber trees will be doomed. Efforts made by Pennsylvania and other States to stop the spread of this disease have failed, and there appears to be no hope of saving the chestnut by any means that is known, and therefore the main problem today is to utilize the material now dead or diseased to the best advantage before it becomes a total loss. The chestnut blight does not damage the trees for timber, provided they can be used before the natural decay sets in, and under ordinary conditions the wood does not begin to deteriorate seriously for about two years. Where only green trees are accepted, such as for telephone poles and railroad ties, it is necessary to cut the trees soon after they show infection and before the bark is entirely dead. The State Forester has carried on some investigations in the areas where there are large quantities of blight-killed timber with a view to devising means for close utiliza- tion and developing a market for the product. These investigations have not reached the point where results can be shown, largely due to a failure to secure satisfactory co-operation on the part of the owners of large quantities of blight-killed material. The investiga- tion has shown, however, that unless this blight-killed material is utilized soon after the death of the trees it will become a total loss to the owners. Second-Growth Hardwood Studies. Probably less than 1 per cent, of the total wooded area of the State is still in virgin timber. This means that practically all of the woodland has been cut over at least once and some of it several STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE VI FIG. 1. SUGAR GROVE IN GARRETT COUNTY (This county produces about 250,000 pounds of maple sugar and 3,000 gallons of maple syrup annually) FIG. 2. WELL-MANAGED WOODLOT IN BALTIMORE COUNTY KEPORT FOE 1912 ASD 1013 41 times. The forest problems of the State are, therefore, those dealing with the second growth, and it is to this work that the State Forester has devoted a large part of each field season for the past four years. Each summer field parties have been engaged in taking measure- ments in even aged stands of the different types of hardwood in order to determine the yield of such stands of different ages under different soil conditions. Such studies will furnish a basis for predicting the yield of woodlands of certain types and for different periods, so that the woodland owner who is growing timber may know with some certainty what he may reasonably expect in the way of yield in a given time and also what the principal elements of cost are. The growing of timber is just as much the production of a crop as the growing of wheat or corn, the difference being the length of time required to produce that crop. The length of time that must elapse before harvest, and the lack of exact information as to what the revenue from the crop will likely be, introduces an element of uncer- tainty that has prevented many a land owner from engaging in the growing of timber in a commercial way, whereas if he had more complete and convincing information he would be less reluctant to engage in the business. Mjost of the forest area of the State is in the hardwood region, so that the investigation of the growth of hardwoods is of special importance. During the past four field seasons 364 sample plots, averaging one-half acre each, have been carefully measured and complete records taken in Washington, Garrett, Frederick, Cecil, Harford, Prince George's and Charles Counties as representative of the hardwood section of the State. Scrub Pine Study. This species of pine, also called the spruce pine, is native in the central and southern parts of the State, but most common in Prince George's, Anne Arundel, Charles and St. Gary's Counties. Up to 10 years ago this species was regarded as of very little importance, because it seldom attained suitable size for saw timber, and since cordwood, for which it was best adapted, was a low-priced product, 42 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY it occupied a very unimportant place. Since then, however, this tree has heen used extensively for wood pulp and has come into favor. The annual cut of scrub pine pulpwood in the counties named is about 200,000 cords. It is a tree that comes up abundantly in abandoned fields and occupies land that would otherwise be waste. This illustrates in a striking way the changing conditions of the timber market, showing that some of the species of trees that have held a very important place in the past are coming into prominence now as a result of the increased demand for wood, the decreased supply and new uses for wood. During the past summer a field party was engaged for several months in collecting data relative to the yield and uses of scrub pine; 133 sample plots, averaging about one-third of an acre, were measured and the yield of fully stocked, even aged pine stands for the different age classes was determined. As a result, it will be possible to predict with considerable certainty the yield of pine in the form of cordwood, pulpwood, or other products for given periods, under given soil conditions. This data is now being worked up for publication. Red Gum Study. Another important timber tree in the State is the red or sweet gum, which is found in swampy sections. This is one of our rapid- growing species and adapted to overflow lands not suited for agricul- tural use. This species, like the scrub pine, was formerly considered of little value, but has come into very general use of late years for cutting into veneer for making berry baskets and vegetable baskets, and also for pulpwood. It is a tree common only in the coastal plain section of the State, but its importance is sufficient to justify a careful study to determine its rate of growth and adaptability to certain soils and the uses for which it is best fitted. During the past summer 65 sample plots were taken in even aged stands under varying conditions. The study will be continued another season in order to complete the work. REPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 43 Basket Willow Culture. Maryland for many years has been an important producer of willow for basket making. The industry is centered in the vicinity of Baltimore, with Lansdowne, Elkridge, Laurel, Patapsco and Crowns- ville as the chief plantation areas. The States which are most prominent in the willow industry are New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio and Illinois, but for certain purposes, such as willow furniture, the Maryland stock is considered of superior quality. This is due to the fact that we have a milder climate and a longer growing season than prevail in the other willow-growing States. At the same time, the warm, humid climate prevailing here encourages certain fungus diseases and insect pests to an extent not realized in the other States. In fact, this handicap has become so serious that many of the growers are being driven out of business. It is believed that these difficulties are not insuperable and that a more thorough study of conditions would enable the growers to suc- cessfully carry on the business and develop it to a much greater extent than has been the case hitherto. To that end an investigation was made last summer of different plantations and the results of the study are now being worked up for publication. Relation of Forests to Water-Power Development. The importance of forests in regulating the flow of water and its conservation is becoming more universally recognized. The numerous rivers and streams in all except the tidewater sections of the State, reaching in their ramifications nearly every farm, have a vast potential value as power producers. It is by protecting and conserving the forests which feed the streams that water power can be made most effective. The principal coal fields are becoming rapidly exhausted of the more accessible supplies, and in consequence the price of coal is advancing. This emphasizes the need of some other means of generating power, and it is natural to turn to the immense amount of power that goes to waste in our rivers and streams. With improved methods of electrical generation and transmission, the ques- 44 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY tion of generating electric power by stream flow and transmitting it economically to distant points is the important problem for the im- mediate future. It is quite probable that in a few years electricity generated by our water powers will be utilized on many of the large farms. It is at this point that the forest performs an important function. One of the essentials of a good water power is that it must be constant. The water falling as rain on the watershed of a stream used for power purposes must be so conserved as to feed it evenly into that stream. This can only be done in an economical and effective way by having the watershed covered with forests, which are the best natural reservoirs known. Without forests on the water- sheds of our streams there will be the usual calamity of floods fol- lowing heavy rains, and extremely low water following periods of drouth, such as are common where watersheds are not protected by a forest cover. This emphasizes the importance of protecting our forests from reckless methods of cutting and destruction by forest fires. To do this properly the State should acquire considerable areas of mountain slopes to be held as forest reservations, not only for the protection they would afford to stream flow, but for the production of timber, which is already becoming scarce in many localities. Not only are the forests essential in controlling the flow of water in streams, but it has been clearly demonstrated by a study of con- ditions in different counties that in any considerable area where the forests constitute less than 20 per cent, of the land area, injurious effects are sure to follow. The forests exercise a very beneficial effect in the distribution of rainfall over the areas in which they are located. It has been found that in forest areas the rainfall may be 25 per cent, greater than that existing in unforested areas. This subject is of such far-reaching importance as to deserve the closest study. In this connection, the conclusion reached by a committee of foresters and weather bureau experts, presented to the Fifth National Conservation Congress in November, 1913, is of special significance and will be found on page 52 of the Appendix to this report. KEPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 45 Taxing Woodlands. The taxation problem has received much attention during the past year, the tax on woodlands coming in for a small share. When it is recognized that more than one-third of the total area of the State is wooded, and that this class of land will be required to bear a large part of the burdens of increased taxation, the importance of devising a better system of taxation is apparent to anyone who has given the matter a careful study. The present system of taxing woodlands under the general property tax is discouraging to conservative man- agement. Forest property is different from other property in that it does not produce an annual revenue. It takes many years to produce a crop of timber, and in the meantime taxes and interest accumulate rapidly without an income with which to pay them. Under the general property tax not only the land but the timber crop upon it is taxed annually, which is not the case in any other kind of crop. Except where the assessments are very low, this makes an exor- bitant tax and amounts in many cases to confiscation. The forest is recognized as a public necessity, and while it is not necessary to grant special favors in the matter of taxation, it is highly important that it at least should not be taxed out of existence. In this State prac- tically all of the original growth has been cut, so that our forest lands are those upon which a second, third or even a fourth growth is being produced. In order to properly encourage the production of timber crops it is necessary that a more equable method of adjusting the taxes be devised to place the growing of timber upon a satisfactory basis. With the uncertainties that exist under the present system, there is little encouragement for an investor to buy land, or for an owner to hold his land for the purpose of growing a crop of timber, when he knows that as soon as the trees get large enough to have any merchantable value the assessment will be raised, and this in- crease in the assessment will be increased with the growth of the tim- ber. By the time the forest has become mature the chances are that the taxes and interest paid on his investment will exceed the value of the timber that is cut. This is unjust and can have no other effect than placing a penalty upon forest conservation. The present agitation in 46 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY tax reform makes this subject of particular importance and is suffi- cient justification for treating it at some length. So far as producing a new crop of timber is concerned, "All sound authorities agree that the forest crop should not be taxed until harvested. They disagree somewhat as to the degree to which the land tax also should be deferred in order to insure the desired result, as to the extent to which reform should be based on conditions under which the forest owner contracts certain performance, and as to concessions of theory to expediency generally. A consensus of opinions, however, is that the following objects should be sought: 1. The perpetuation of forests in private hands by wise use. 2. Greater permanent revenue to State and county than is possible under the present system of destroying the taxable source. 3. Assurance that the total burden of taxation will have a fair relation to the income obtained, making the tax burden on forest growing as nearly as possible proportional to the burden borne by other kinds of useful industry. 4. Assurance that the owner will do his share to make and keep the land productive. 5. Assurance to the owner that future action by the community will not confiscate any property resulting from his effort. 6. Division of risk, so both owner and community will seek highest production and safety from fire. 7. Simplicity in adoption and operation.* In order to carry out this purpose, probably the best plan would be a combination of a land tax and a yield tax, the land to be assessed for about one-half of the prevailing rate for denuded land, and a yield tax of about 10 per cent, on the net value of the timber when it is cut. This would help to stabilize local revenues, and the yield tax, to be paid in a lump sum, would come at a time when the owner is best able to pay it. The total tax realized would probably be about the same as under the present system, but as a yield tax there would be less hardship to the man who is holding his land for timber production with the revenue long deferred. New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and Louisana have already enacted laws upon this subject and other States are seriously con- sidering it. Under conditions existing in Maryland this form of *Report of Committee on Forest Taxation of the Fifth National Conserva- tion Congress. STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY PLATE VII FlG. 1. ORIGINAL GROWTH OF HEMLOCK IN GARRETT COUNTY FlG. 2. VIRGIN FOREST OF BEECH AND SUGAR MAPLE, GARRETT COUNTY (These magnificent first-growth forests that once covered fully 90 per cent, of Maryland now represent less than 1 per cent, of its total forest cover) EEPORT FOR 1912 AND 1913 47 taxation would be especially applicable. The present tax on cut over lands for timber production would be a decided advantage. The plan that has been worked out for Eastern conditions, such as in Maryland, by the Committee of the Fifth National Conservation Congress is such a clear, concise presentation of the subject that it is printed on page 49 of the Appendix to this report. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Balance, October 1, 1911 $910.61 App. for 1912 (Chap. 429, Acts of 1910) 4,000.00 App. from Apr. 15 to Sept. 30, 1912 (Chap. 348, Acts of 1912) 4,583.33 Special app. for publications (Chap. 348, Acts of 1912) 6,000.00 Sale of wood and timber on State reserves . . 44.00 $15,537.94 Expended as per vouchers: October, 1911, to April 1, 1912— Salaries $1,176.77 Field expenses and travel 113.97 Office supplies 292.07 Miscellaneous services 344.39 1,927.20 Balance, April 1, 1912 $13,610.74 April 1, 1912, to October 1, 1912— Salaries $1,541.95 Field expenses and travel 631.27 Office supplies , 745.02 Miscellaneous services 147.48 Fire accounts 137.21 Printing 454.19 3,657.12 Balance, October 1, 1912 , . . . $9,953.62 App. for fiscal year 1913 10,000.00 Receipts from fines imposed (Chap. 294, Acts of 1910) 25.00 $19,978.62 48 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Expended as per vouchers: October 1, 1912, to April 1, 1913— Salaries $1,935.29 Field exp. and travel 413.86 Office supplies 482.27 Miscellaneous services 309.24 Fire accounts 156.32 Printing 51.50 3,348.48 Balance, April 1, 1913 $16,630.14 April 1, 1913, to October 1, 1913— Salaries $3,091.16 Field exp. and travel 1,066.70 Office supplies 741.03 Miscellaneous services 350.39 Fire accounts 636.88 Printing 764.20 6,650.36 Balance, October 1, 1913 $9,979.88 App. for purchase of Fort Frederick (Chap. 794, Acts of 1912) 8,500.00 App. for Patapsco Reservation (proceeds of $25,000 bond sale) 24,325.06 Total balance, October 1, 1913 $42,804.94 REPORT FOR 11)12 AND 1 !)!:•} 49 APPENDIX. *PLAN OF FOREST TAXATION FOR EASTERN STATES WHERE MATURE VIRGIN TIMBER Is NOT THE DOMINATING TYPE. 1. Lands Subject to Special Taxation. — The special forest tax should apply to all lands on which forests are growing and which are handled and protected in accordance with the methods of practical forestry as defined in general in the law, which should be adminis- tered by the commission, board or officer entrusted with the direction of State forest work. Lands subject to the special tax shall be valued at not over dol- lars per acre. (This value should be fixed so low as to exclude lands better suited for other uses than forestry. ) Lands shall be separately classified and brought under the system at the owner's option. Owners desiring special classification may make application to the State Forester, accompanied by a certificate of the local assessor stating the value of the land, valuing separately the different parcels if so desired by the State Forester. The State Forester shall examine the forest and, if he finds it meets the legal requirements, shall certify the forest for separate classification and taxation. Lands thus separately classified shall remain so as long as the forest is properly conserved as determined through inspection by the State Forester. Lands may be withdrawn from such classification at the option of the owner on paying the tax provided below. 2. The Tax. — Forest lands when separately classified for taxation shall be subject to a special method of taxation. Two methods are proposed, depending on whether the forest is a "new forest" or an "established forest." By a "new forest" is meant lands stocked with forest trees, the majority of which are not over 10 years old, provided that the older * Extract from report of Committee on Forest Taxation of the Fifth Na- tional Conservation Congress. 50 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY trees do not add to the assessed value of the property, and that the forest meets with the other requirements of the law. This may in- clude land fully stocked with trees under 10 years of age, but contain- ing also scattered older trees, or lands partially stocked with trees under 10 years of age when planted with a sufficient number of additional trees to bring the forest to the standard set by the law, or open land planted with trees to meet the standard of the law. Such forests, when accepted and classified, shall be taxed by the following method : The land shall be assessed by the local assessors at its value as bare land, no account being taken of the value of the trees. This assessment shall be repeated at intervals of 20 years until the pre- vailing age of the trees reaches 70 years. Upon the value thus de- termined the land shall be taxed annually at a rate equal to one-half of the rate of the general property tax of the locality, but in no case to exceed 5 mills. This limit of 5 mills is chosen on the assumption that 10 mills is probably slightly in excess of the average rate of the general property tax upon true value throughout the United States. In any State where it appeared that the prevailing rate of the general property tax was appreciably higher or lower than 10 mills this rate might be correspondingly changed. This explanation applies equally to the limit of 10 mills proposed below for the tax upon forests over 70 years of age and upon "established forests." Whenever any timber is cut or other forest product taken from the land a yield tax of 10 per cent, of the stumpage value of the timber cut or the actual value of other forest products shall be paid to the State, Forest products cut for domestic use, which shall be limited to fuel and the construction of fences, buildings, and other improve- ments upon the property of the owner, or of a tenant with the per- mission of the owner upon property subject to taxation in the same town as the timber land, shall be exempt from taxation. Whenever trees are cut before reaching the age of 70 years, and provision is made for planting new trees or otherwise perpetuating the forest according to the standard fixed by law and to the satis- faction of the State Forester, the land may continue separately classi- REPORT FOR 1012 AND 1913 51 fied and subject to the special tax indefinitely until the timber reaches the age of 70 years. When the timber reaches the age of 70 years there shall be an assessment of the value of both land and trees, which assessment shall be repeated every 10 years (or oftener), and upon this assess- ment an annual tax shall be imposed at the rate of the general prop- erty tax in the locality, but not to exceed 10 mills, which tax shalL continue until the trees are cut. When the trees are cut the yield tax of 10 per cent, shall be assessed. From the amount of the yield tax shall be deducted the amount of the previous payments of the annual tax upon land and trees since the trees reached the age of 70 years. If the amount of such previous payments equals or exceeds the yield tax upon the timber cut, no such yield tax shall be due. If after- cutting provision is then made for planting or otherwise satisfactorily reproducing the forest, the lands may remain under special classifi- cation and taxation, as previously provided for "new forests." If the owner desires to clear off the timber before it has reached a profitable age for cutting, he shall be at liberty to do so upon paying- a tax determined as follows : The value of timber shall be assessed and a tax computed amounting to 1 per cent, of said value multiplied by the number of years since the forest was classified and made sub- ject to the special tax. To this shall be added an amount equal to the total taxes paid upon the land alone during the period since the land was separately classified, and this sum shall be the amount due from the owner. The property shall then become subject to the ordinary property tax. The same procedure shall be followed in any case where the owner fails to maintain the forest according to the standard set by law as determined by the State Forester. 3. Administration. — Under this system the collection of all taxes on land and trees except the yield tax would naturally be in the hand& of local officers and the revenue would go into the local treasury without further concern on the part of the State. The yield tax, on the other hand, and the tax collected as a penalty for removal of the land from classification or abandonment of the forest should be administered so far as possible by State officers, presumably by the 52 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY State Forester and the State Tax Commissioner in co-operation. The proceeds of the yield tax and the penalty tax go into the State treasury, either to remain there or if thought best to be distributed back to the towns and counties where the timber lands are located. This distribution might be made according to any one of four or five possible plans. (See Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the National Tax Association, pp. 385-389). Your committee recommends, as probably best suited to the conditions of most States, that the distribution be based upon the areas of forest lands separately classified for taxation in the several local jurisdictions respectively. In all cases the owner should be required to furnish a sworn state- ment annually of the amount and value of forest products cut during the year. It might also be well to require advance notice of all cutting. Large owners, lumbermen, loggers, sawmill owners, and so forth, should be required to keep regular books giving a record of their cuttings. Their books and accounts should be open to State officers and more elaborate reports could be required of them. In the case of small farm woodlots it would probably not be worth while to require special books or elaborate reports. The sworn statement of the owner would ordinarily be sufficient. In all cases there should be some examination of logging operations, either by State or local officers, to check up the accuracy of reports and to prevent fraud. In the case of all large cuttings the owner or operator should be re- quired to furnish a bond sufficient to cover the amount of the tax that will become due. The tax should also be a lien upon the land, but not upon the timber cut. THE RELATION" OF FORESTS AM) WATER. ^FORESTS AND CLIMATE. The forest lowers the temperature of the air inside and above it. The vertical influence of forests upon temperature extends in some cases to a height of 5,000 feet. •Extract from Report of the Committee on Forest Taxation of the Fifth Na- tional Conservation Congress. REPORT FOB 1912 AND 1913 53 Tlie forest lowers the temperature of the soil in summer and in- creases the temperature of the soil in winter. This influence extends to a depth of at least four feet. The relative humidity of the air during the summer is higher in the forest than in the open. Forests increase hoth the abundance and frequency of local precipi- tation over the areas they occupy, the excess of precipitation as com- pared with that of adjoining unforested areas amounting in some cases to more than 25 per cent. The influence of forests upon local precipitation is more marked in the mountains than in the plains. The reason for an increase in the total amount of precipitation over wooded areas as compared with that of barren and deforested ones is due to : 1. The tendency of moisture-bearing currents to precipitate their moisture more readily above or near the forests than over bare or cultivated fields at the same elevation because of the dampening and chilling effect of the forests upon the atmosphere, which induces a greater condensation of the water vapor. 2. The air from forests contains a much larger amount of moisture than that over bare or cultivated fields. 3. The mechanical action of the trees themselves. When a cloud in the mountains passes through a forest, the branches and the leaves of the trees retard its movement. It comes, therefore, into a state when it can no longer retain its moisture in suspension, just as a river carrying sediment deposits part of it as soon as the rapidity of its flow is diminished. The moisture from such clouds is intercepted by the forest in the form of mist or drops of dew or crystals of hoar- frost on the branches and foliage of the trees. Forests in broad continental valleys enrich with moisture the pre- vailing air currents that pass over them, and thus enable larger quan- tities of moisture to penetrate into the interior of the continent. The destruction of such forests, especially if followed by weak, herbaceous vegetation or complete baring of the ground, affects the climate, not -54 STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY necessarily of the locality where the forests are destroyed, but of the drier regions into which the air currents flow. While they have a marked influence upon local precipitation, the influence of forests in the mountains upon the humidity of regions lying to the leeward on the whole is not very great. FORESTS AND STREAMFLOW. The effect of forests upon streamflow in level countries differs from that of forests in hilly or mountainous regions. In a level country where there is no surface runoff, forests, in common with other vegetation, act as drainers of the soil. Hence the importance in draining the marshy lands and improving hygienic conditions. In such countries the effect upon streams is unimportant. In the plains and in level country the forest : (1) Constitutes a-n effective means of draining and drying up swampy lands, the breeding places of malaria, and swamp fevers. The reforestation of the Landes, Sologne, the Pontine marshes, and a hundred other examples prove this. (2) Draws moisture from a greater depth than does any other plant organism, thus affecting the unutilized water of the lower horizontal strata by bringing it again into the general circulation of water in the atmosphere and making it available for vegetation. (3) Lowers to some extent the subterranean water level, but it has no injurious effect »upon springs, since these are practically lacking in the level countries with horizontal geological strata, where its lowering influence has been chiefly noted. (4) Refreshes the air above it and increases the condensation of moisture carried by the winds, thus increasing the frequency of rains during the vegetative season. In hilly and mountainous country forests are conservers of water for streamflow. In the mountains the forests break the violence of rain, retard the melting of snow, increase the absorptive capacity of the soil EEPOKT FOR 1912 AND 1913 55 cover, prevent erosion, and check surface runoff in general, thus in- creasing the underground seepage and so tend to maintain a steady flow of water in streams. Forests in hilly and mountainous country, even on the steeper slopes, create conditions with regard to surface runoff such as obtain in a level country. The steeper the slope the less permeable the soil, and the heavier the precipitation the greater is the effect of forests upon streamflow. FORESTS AND EROSION. Forests are the most effective agency for protecting the soil from erosion, because : ( 1 ) The resistance of the soil to erosive action is increased by the roots of the trees, which hold the soil firmly in place, and (2) at the same time the erosive force of the runoff is itself reduced because the rate of its flow is checked and its distribution over the surface equalized. FORESTS AND FLOODS. The total discharge of large rivers depends upon climate, precipita- tion, and evaporation. The observed fluctuation in the total amount of water carried by rivers during a long period of years depends upon climatic cycles of wet and dry years. The regularity of flow of rivers and streams throughout the year depends upon the storage capacity of the watershed, which feeds the stored water to the streams during the summer through underground seepage and by springs. In winter the rivers are fed directly by precipitation, which reaches them chiefly as surface runoff. Among the factors, such as climate and character of the soil, which affect the storage capacity of a watershed, and therefore the regu- larity of streamflow, the forest plays an important part, especially on impermeable soils. The mean low stages as well as the moderately high stages in the rivers depend upon the extent of forest cover on the watersheds. The forest tends to equalize the flow throughout the year by making the low stages higher and the high stages lower. v „ v«v^ \l -;| (N$ STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY Floods which are produced by exceptional meteorological condi- tions cannot be prevented by forests, but without their mitigating influence the floods are more severe and destructive. CONCLUSIONS. The extent of forest land necessary for the regulation of stream- flow and the protection of the soil against erosion must be not less than from one-fifth to one-third of the total area of the country. Forests must be protected, not so much in localities which already suffer from lack of moisture, as in regions which lie in the path ot prevailing winds and are still abundantly supplied both with ground water and precipitation. In the dry regions large bodies of forest may have an unfavorable effect upon the available water supply. There rows of trees or wind- breaks surrounding fields and orchards, by preventing the drifting of the snow and increasing the activity of the wind, will act more as conservers of moisture in the soil than solid bodies of timber. The care with which forests should be protected in the eastern half of the United States must increase from north to south and from west to east. In the Atlantic plain and southern Appalachians, which are the gateway for the prevailing winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, forests must be especially conserved if the humidity of the Central States and the prairie region is to be maintained. If the clearing of the forest in the Atlantic plain and southern Appalachians is a necessity, it should be done only under condition that the cleared land is to be devoted to intense cultivation, as, after forests, crops contribute most to the moisture of the air. The highest organic production is in harmony with the safeguard- ing of the humidity in the regions which lie in the path of the pre- vailing winds. Cleared land which becomes waste or poor pasture or grows up to weak vegetation means so much evaporation lost to the piassing air currents. i MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST. THE FAUNA AND FLORA THE LIFE ZONES AND AREAS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY THE SUMMER BIRDS OF WESTERN MARYLAND BY C. HART MERRIAM and EDWARD A. PREBLE, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. Agriculture (Special Publication from Allegany County Report.) THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, Baltimore, November, 1900. BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. THE FAUNA AND FLORA THE LIFE ZONES AND AREAS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY C. HART MERRIAM The best guide to the agricultural capabilities of a region is afforded by the distribution of the native animals and plants; for experience has shown that areas characterized in a state of nature by the presence of particular species are adapted to the cultivation of particular varieties of agricultural crops. The importance of this fact is so great that the national government has been engaged for years in a biological survey of the United States with a view to determining the boundaries of the areas inhabited by different associations of animals and plants. It has been found that North America may be divided primarily into two vast regions : a northern or Boreal, and a southern or Austral, according to the sources from which the native animals and plants were derived. The boundary between these areas lies, in the main, north of the United States, but disconnected arms or tongues of the Boreal area push far southward into the United States along the sum- mits of the higher mountain ranges — the Alleghanies in the east and the Rocky Mountains and Sierra-Cascade system in the far west. The state of Maryland, owing to its southern position, is in the southern or Austral region, but the high mountains in the western part of the state are so much colder than the lower lands on the east that their summits are in places inhabited by species characteristic of the northern or Boreal region. Excepting these small mountain summits, the total area of which is insignificant, Maryland lies wholly 292 THE FAUNA AND FLOKA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY within the Austral region. This region is commonly divided into several belts, known to naturalists as Lower Austral, Upper Austral, and Transition. The Transition, as its name implies, is a belt of overlapping of northern and southern types. The Lower Austral, or Austroriparian, belt begins on the east coast at the mouth of Chesa- peake Bay and takes a southerly and westerly course around the south- ern end of the Alleghanies. The Upper Austral, or Carolinian, belt extends from the neighborhood of New York City southerly along the coast to Chesapeake Bay and includes the whole state of Mary- land except the mountains. The mountains fall mainly within the Alleghanian division of the Transition zone, and, as already remarked, a few of their higher summits are strongly tinged with Boreal forms. While the Boreal region has too cold a climate for successful agri- culture, all of the Austral zones are of agricultural importance. The whole of the state of Maryland, therefore, so far as its climatic con- ditions and life zones are concerned, is an agricultural state — no part being too cold for the cultivation of crops. The rainfall and humidity also are neither too scanty nor too excessive for agriculture; hence, except where unfavorable topographic and soil conditions prevent, the whole state may be made productive. A very hasty examination of Allegany and Garrett counties recently made by my assistants, Yernon Bailey and E. A. Preble, at the request of Professor William Bullock Clark, Director of the Maryland Geological Survey, shows that Garrett county and the western part of Allegany county (west of Piney Mountain and the Potomac valley) are mainly in the Alleghanian area of the Transition zone, and that the eastern part of Allegany county (east of Cumber- land) is mainly in the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral zone. Tongues of the Carolinian fauna, characterized by the tulip tree, sycamore, red bud, sassafras, sweet gum, dogwood, and scrib pine/ occupy the narrow valleys of the North Branch of the Potomac river, Wills Creek, Jennings Run and Bradclock Run, and reach up, ' Among the characteristic animals of the Carolinian area of Maryland are the opossum, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Carolina wren, tufted titmouse, gnatcatcher, Carolina chickadee and summer tanager. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 293 as a rule, to an altitude of 1200 or 1300 feet. Above this, the whole county, except the warmest slopes, which are tinged with Carolinian forms, belongs to the Transition zone. In Garrett county, in the upper part of the Transition zone (above 2600 feet altitude) cold sphagnum and alder swamps abound. These swamps contain a strong admixture of high Transition and even Boreal species, such as the Junco, or Slate-colored Snowbird (Junco liyemalis), Solitary Yireo (Vireo. soliiarius), Magnolia Warbler (Dendroica maculosa), Canadian Warbler (Wilsonia canadensis), Kedbreasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), Hermit Thrush (Hylocichla aonalasclikae pattasii), Redbacked Mouse (Evotomys gapperi), Canadian White-footed Mouse (Peromyscus canadensis) , two species of Jumping Mouse, or Jerboa (Zapus hudsonius and Z. insignis), Varying Hare (Lepus americanus virginianus), and the northern Sooty Shrew (Sorex fumeus), all of which were obtained by E. A. Preble at Finzel post- office, six miles north of Frostburg. Still farther west the Boreal tinge is even stronger, and in some very extensive swamps between Accident and Bittinger (mainly on the west side of the wagon road) Mr. Preble found spruce trees common. The cutting off of the spruce and hemlock from these small boreal islands lets in the hot sun and results, in numerous instances, in changing the fauna and flora from Canadian to Alleghanian. The fauna of Allegany county is a mixture of Carolinian and Alle- ghanian species and comprises, so far as known, no boreal islands. The Potomac valley, and valleys of the principal streams, are Caro- linian; the uplands, Alleghanian. THE SUMMER BIRDS OF WESTERN MARYLAND BY EDWARD A. PREBLE During the summer of 1899 three short trips were made to west- ern Maryland for the purpose of studying its fauna and flora in the joint interests of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the Mary- land Geological Survey. The time spent in the field aggregated about a month. Special attention was paid to birds and mammals — the plants, for lack of time, being merely noted incidentally with reference to their bearing on the different life areas of the region. A short preliminary trip was made in May. Reaching Frostburg, near the western border of Allegany county, eleven miles west of Cumberland, a suitable place for a few days' work was found in Finzel, a postoffice near the northeast corner of Garrett county, about a mile and a half west of the main ridge of Great Savage Mountain, at this point having an altitude of nearly 3000 feet. Finzel lies some 400 feet lower. About midway in distance and altitude between Finzel and Great Savage lies Little Savage Mountain. These ridges are covered with a rather sparse growth of oaks and chestnuts. In the shallow depression between them is a dense swamp, the main source of Savage river. This swamp is densely grown up to hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), black spruce (Picea mariana), tamarack (Larix laricina) and several other species, with a dense undergrowth com- posed mainly of Rhododendron maximum. To the west of Finzel the country is cut up by numerous ridges mainly covered with oak and chestnut, the intervening valleys being rather swampy and tra- versed by small brooks, and usually clothed with heavy forest, hem- lock and rhododendron predominating and often extending nearly to the summit of the ridges on their western slopes. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 295 After spending several days about Finzel, mainly engaged in trap- ping mammals; having obtained a fair knowledge of the mammalian fauna, it seemed desirable to ascertain the conditions in other por- tions of the county. The turnpike road was traversed westward from Frostburg across Great Savage, Meadow and Negro mountains to Keyser Ridge, and thence, leaving the turnpike, the country was examined southward to Accident, across Negro Mountain to Bittinger, thence by a circuitous route to Grantsville, and back to Frostburg. Several large tracts of coniferous woods were located and gave promise of interesting results if visited later in the season. Beginning June 17th, 5 days were spent in studying and collect- ing the birds about Finzel, among which were several species not be- fore recorded as breeding within the state. On June 22, the point of study was shifted westward to Grantsville in Garrett county, a small town situated on a ridge overlooking the valley of the Castleman, about two miles south of the Pennsylvania line, and a point of de- parture was located at a farmhouse about two miles east of town from which the valley of the Castleman and the ridges to the eastward could be easily worked. Most of the country is covered with a rather heavy growth of deciduous trees, oaks and chestnuts predominating. A good-sized tract of hemlock stands near the turnpike three miles east of Grantsville and a considerable quantity also remains on the western slopes of the ridges near the Castleman, where red-berried elder and rhododendron abound. At this point the valley of the Castleman lies at an altitude of about 2100 feet, while the ridges in the vicinity rise four or five hundred feet higher. White pine was formerly found in this region in great abundance, but has now almost entirely disappeared. The axe of the lumber- man has latterly been directed to the hemlock and spruce, which in turn are fast disappearing. On June 27 the field of observation was transferred to Bittinger, a postofiice about nine miles south of Grantsville on the plateau be- tween the north and south branches of the Castleman. Its altitude is about 2600 feet. Considerable tracts of hemlock and spruce occur in the vicinity, and in their shade were found Taxus minor, Dirca 296 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY palustris, Oxalis acetosella and other northern plants, and also many interesting birds to be mentioned later. On July 1 another change was made to Mountain Lake Park in the southern part of Garrett county. Here, as throughout the county, the face of the country is traversed by numerous chestnut ridges having a general northeast and southwest trend, but coniferous for- ests are entirely absent. In the vicinity of Kearney, some hemlock woods still remain and there are several species of birds not observed at Mountain Lake Park. A considerable quantity of hemlock occurs on the western slopes of Great Savage Mountain in the vicinity, with an undergrowth of Rhododendron maximum, Taxus minor, and Oxalis acetosella. Study and collecting trips were also made to Rawlings, Dans Moun- tain, Oldtown, and Little Orleans, where short stops were made to ascertain what birds were common in the vicinity. Following is a list of the birds observed during the several trips. They were all seen between June 17 and July 24 (with the exception of Otocoris), and while of course the nests of all the species were not found, there is no doubt that all were breeding in the vicinity. A male horned lark in full song, observed near Accident on May 18, was doubtless breeding. Several olivebacked thrushes were seen near the borders of the tamarack swamp near Finzel on May 15 and may breed there, but since they may have been migrants, and since they were not found there in June, the species is not included in the following list. The wild turkey occurs throughout the wilder parts of the region but was not observed. The number of species recorded would doubtless have been considerably increased had it been possible to devote the time entirely to birds. LIST OF SUMMER BIRDS IN WESTERN MARYLAND. Ardea virescens. GREEN HERON. — Though doubtless occurring elsewhere in the region, Green Herons were observed only along the Potomac and its tributaries. One was seen near Rawlings and a number of adults and young were observed at Little Orleans and Old- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 297 town. At the latter place two broods of young, which had left the nests and were climbing about among the branches, were seen. Philohela minor. WOODCOCK. — The tracks arid borings of a Wood- cock were seen at the edge of a swamp at Finzel, and several were seen at Grantsville and Mountain Lake Park. Actitis macularia. SPOTTED SANDPIPER. — Several were noticed on the shores of the Castleman, near Grantsville, and also a number along the Potomac at Oldtown and Little Orleans. Aegialitis vocifera. BJXLDEER PLOVER. — A pair of Killdeer Plovers were seen in a field near Rawlings on July 21. Colinus virginianus. QUAIL. — This species seemed to be fairly common throughout the region. It was heard several times near Grantsville, where they are said to be abundant some seasons. Sev- eral were heard between Grantsville and Bittinger, and the species was also noted at Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings, Oldtown, and Little Orleans. Bonasa umbellus. RUFFED GROUSE. — This species was abundant in the higher parts of the region. Three females each, with a brood of young, were observed near Finzel and the birds seemed equally abundant near Grantsville, and were also observed at Bittinger and on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Zenaidura macroura. MOURNING DOVE. — The Mourning Dove was noted in small numbers at Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. It was abundant near Rawlings and Oldtown. Cathartes aura. TURKEY BUZZARD. — This species was seen in small numbers at Bittinger, Swanton, Dans Mountain, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Accipiter velox. SHARP-SHINNED HAWK. — A pair seen at Moun- tain Lake Park, and one in deep woods near Swanton. Its actions seemed to indicate that it had a nest in the vicinity. Accipiter cooperi. COOPER'S HAWK. — One was seen perched in a dead tree on a partially cleared hillside near Swanton. I decoyed it quite near by imitating the cry of a bird in distress. Buteo borealis. RED-TAILED HAWK. — Only seen once, a few miles north of Rawlings. The bird was sailing about over the valley. 298 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Buteo lineatus. RED-SHOULDERED HAWK. — A very noisy pair seen daily at Finzel, and the species was also noted near Grantsville. A nest in a large birch in deep woods near Bittinger had probably been occupied by a pair of these birds, which were several times observed in the vicinity. Buteo latissimus. BROAD-WINGED HAWK. — One was taken on the summit of the ridge about three miles east of Grantsville. Falco sparverius. SPARROW HAWK. — This species was noted at Grantsville, Bittinger and near Mountain Lake Park, only one being seen at each place. Megascops asio. SCREECH OWL. — The familiar notes of this species were heard several times during the night of June 24, at Grantsville. Though doubtless found throughout the region, the bird was not elsewhere noted. Bubo virginianus. GREAT HORNED OWL. — The remains of a brood of full-grown young were seen in the woods near Finzel. I saw one near Bittinger, one evening about dusk, perched on a high dead tree, at the edge of the forest. It soon started off in search of food. Coccyzus americanus. YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO. — Several were seen and heard at Finzel and one was taken on June 20. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus. BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO. — One was taken near Grantsville on June 26. Ceryle alcyon. KINGFISHER. — One was seen near Oldtown on July 23. Dryobates villosus. HAIRY WOODPECKER. — Fairly common over the higher portions of the region. One was taken at Finzel and several seen in oak and chestnut woods near Grantsville. A pair, accompanied by young, were seen in deep woods near Bittinger. Dryobates pubescens. DOWNY WOODPECKER. — Evidently not com- mon. The species was noted at Grantsville, Bittinger, and near Rawlings, only a single individual being noted in each case. Sphyrapicus varius. YELLOWS-BELLIED WOODPECKER. — Rather common and generally distributed over the higher portions of the region. A few were noted near Finzel. A pair seen near Grants- ville June 23 evidently had a nest near by. Old birds, accompanied MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY • 299 by young not long from the nest, were seen at Bittinger and Moun- tain Lake Park, and later both old and young birds were observed at Swanton. Ceopliloeus pileatus abieticola. NORTHERN PILEATED WOODPECKER. — A bird of this species was seen in heavy mixed woods near Swanton. It doubtless occurs sparingly throughout the region, as it was heard in several places. Melanerpes erythroceplialus. RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. — Quite generally distributed and common throughout the greater part of Garrett county traversed. It was fairly common about Grantsville and abundant at Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. The birds seemed to delight in the tall dead oaks and chestnuts left in the clear- ings. They paid frequent visits to the cultivated cherry trees which are common throughout the region. Colaptes auratus luteus. NORTHERN FLICKER. — Very common and generally distributed throughout the region. Antrostomus vociferus. WHIPPOORWILL. — Whippoorwills were heard nightly at Finzel and near Grantsville. I also heard several at Swanton during the night of July 18, but did not note the species elsewhere. Chordeiles virginianus. NIGHTHAWK. — A few were seen at Bit- tinger, Mountain Lake Park, Swanton, Rawlings and Oldtown. Chaetura pelagica. CHIMNEY SWIFT. — This species was very gen- erally distributed throughout the region and was everywhere common, and in the vicinity of the towns, abundant. Trochilus colubris. RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD. — The ruby- throat seemed to be uncommon. Only one was seen at Bittinger and one near Rawlings. A number were noted at Swanton and along the roadsides near Oldtown. Tyrannus iyrannus. KINGBIRD. — Rather common and generally distributed throughout the region, being noted at all the places visited. Myiarchus crinitus. CRESTED FLYCATCHER. — Rather common near Grantsville, Mountain Lake Park, Swanton and about Rawlings and Dans Mountain. 300 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Sayornis plioebe. PHOEBE. — Generally distributed but rather rare. With the exception of Mountain Lake Park, it was seen in small numbers at all the localities visited. Contopus wrens. WOOD PEWEE. — Fairly common and very gen- erally distributed, being noted as more or less common at all the localities visited. Empidonax virescens. ACADIAN FLYCATCHER. — This species was seen on only one occasion, at Oldtown. Empidonax traillii alnorum. ALDER FLYCATCHER. — A number were seen in alder thickets in the meadows and springy places near Mountain Lake Park, and two males were taken July 3 and 4. They were rather active and frequently uttered their characteristic note, but were shy and generally kept concealed on the opposite side of a thicket of alders, and the specimens taken were secured with some difficulty. fimpidonax minimus. LEAST FLYCATCHER. — One was seen and taken in an apple orchard near Grantsville. Otocoris alpestris praticola. PRAIRIE HORNED LARK. — While driving through Garrett county on May 18, I saw a male bird of this species. He was on a rail fence singing lustily and was not at all shy. It was near the town of Accident, about ten miles from the northwest corner of the county. There can be little doubt that the bird was breeding. Cyanocitta cristata. BLUE JAY. — This bird was noted as common at all the places visited except Oldtown and Little Orleans. Young, not long from the nest, being fed by their parents, were observed at Bittinger on June 28. They had notes very similar to those of young crows. Corvus corax principalis. NORTHERN KAVEN. — A pair of ravens were seen on several occasions at Finzel. They were said to have a nest in a large hemlock near that place which they had occupied for several successive seasons. Corvus americanus. COMMON CROW. — Fairly common and gen- erally distributed, being noted at all the localities visited. Young birds not long from the nest were seen at Grantsville and Bittinger late in June. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 301 Daliclionyx oryzivorus. BOBOLINK. — A pair of Bobolinks were observed in a field near Grantsville on June 23. The bird is said to be a regular summer visitor, but is not common. Xo others were seen. Molothrus ater. COWBIRD. — A small flock of Cowbirds was seen in a field near Rawlings on July 22. Agelaius phoeniceus. REDWINGED BLACKBIRD. — Quite common in the meadows and low fields in the valley of the Castleman near Grantsville. A few were also seen at Mountain Lake Park, Bit- tinger and Oldtown. Sturnella magnet. MEADOW LARK. — Common and quite gener- ally distributed throughout the region. Numbers were seen at Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings and Oldtown. Icterus galbula. BALTIMORE ORIOLE. — During my stay near Grantsville I saw several in a cherry tree near the house. At Moun- tain Lake Park, I took one, which was feeding on the berries of the " Service Tree " (Amelanchier). Several individuals, evidently a family, were seen in the oak woods near the base of Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Quiscalus quiscula. PURPLE GRACKLE. — Several bands, consisting of old birds accompanied by young not long from the nest, were seen at Bittinger. They seemed interested mainly in the cherry trees, which at the time were loaded with ripening fruit. They were very noisy, and except when feeding, were quite shy. Specimens taken were intermediate between quiscula and aeneus, as might be expected. The species was also noted at Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. Astragalmus tristis. AMERICAN GOLDFINCH. — This species was common and very generally distributed throughout the region, being seen almost daily at all the places visited. Pooecetes gramineus. VESPER SPARROW. — This species was abund- ant in the fields about Finzel, Grantsville and Bittinger and was also noted at Rawlings. Ammodramus savannarum passermus. GRASSHOPPER SPARROW. —A number of these birds were seen along roadsides in the vicinity of Rawlings. 302 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Spizella socialis. CHIPPING SPARROW. — This familiar species was common and very generally distributed throughout the region. A nest containing four fresh eggs was found at Finzel on June 21. Spizella pusilla. FIELD SPARROW. — This species was noted in con- siderable numbers at all the places visited, excepting Oldtown and Little Orleans. Junco Jiyemalis carolinensis. CAROLINA JUNCO. — Fairly common about the open portions of the hemlock woods in the vicinity of Finzel. It was also seen in the vicinity of a hemlock forest about 3 miles east of Grantsville on June 22. During my stay at Bittinger the species was observed daily and young, apparently just from the nest, were seen June 29. During a drive through Garrett county, on May 18, I found a nest of this species near Bittinger, containing four apparently fresh eggs. The site was beneath the edge of a mossy bank within a few feet of the highway. Melospiza fasciata. SONG SPARROW. — This bird was noted as common at all the places visited. Pipilo erythropJithalmus. TOWHEE. — *N"oted in considerable num- bers in scrubby oak woods in the vicinity of Finzel, Grantsville, Moun- tain Lake Park, Swanton, and on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Cardinalis cardinalis. CARDINAL. — This species was rather com- mon in the valley of the Potomac near Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. In the higher portions of the region it was observed but once, in the valley of the Castleman about three miles northeast of Grantsville. Zamelodia ludoviciana. ROSEBREASTED GROSBEAK. — Rather com- mon in mixed and deciduous woods about Finzel. I saw a pair in mixed woods near Bittinger, and one near Swanton. Cyanospiza cyanea. INDIGO BUNTING. — Common and very gen- erally distributed throughout the region, being noted at all the places visited excepting Bittinger and Swanton, where it was probably over- looked. A nest found near Grantsville on June 23 contained young just hatched. Piranga erythromelas. SCARLET TANAGER. — Fairly abundant at all the places visited excepting Oldtown and Little Orleans. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 303 Progne subis. PURPLE MARTIN. — Several colonies were observed about Mountain Lake Park, and a colony at Frostburg in the north- western part of Allegany county. Petroclielidon lunifrons. CLIFF SWALLOW. — This familiar species noted in the vicinity of nearly every farmhouse throughout the higher part of Garrett county. It was common near Finzel, Grantsville, Bit- tinger and Mountain Lake Park. Great numbers of their nests were seen beneath the overhanging portions of the old-fashioned barns. Hirundo erythrogaster. BARN SWALLOW. — Generally distributed and common throughout the region, being noted, usually in large numbers, at every place visited, excepting Oldtown. They nested in nearly every barn through the country. In the vicinity of Grants- ville, June 22-27, great numbers of young birds just from the nest were observed. Clivicola riparia. BANK SWALLOW. — A single bird was seen at Little Orleans on July 24. Ampelis cedrorum. CEDAR WAXWING. — Noted in abundance at Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. A nest found at the latter place on July 19 contained three eggs. A few individuals were also seen at Oldtown. Vireo olivaceus. RED-EYED VIREO. — This species was very abund- ant and generally distributed throughout the region, being observed at all the places visited. Vireo flarifrons. YELLOW-THROATED VIREO. — A number were observed in thickets bordering the Potomac at Oldtown. Vireo solitarius. SOLITARY VIREO. — This species was fairly com- mon in hemlock and mixed woods near Finzel, Grantsville and Bit- tinger. I took a specimen near Kearney, a few miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park, and the song of one was heard at Swanton. I also saAv several on Dans Mountain. Specimens taken at Finzel and near Kearney show some slight approach in measurements and color of upper parts to V. s. alticola, but, on the whole, seem much nearer to the typical form. Minotilta varia. BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER. — Common and quite generally distributed. It was seen at all the places visited ex- 304 THE FAUX A AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY cepting Grantsville and Little Orleans, where it was probably present, but overlooked. About the base of Dans Mountain, near Eawlings, a number were seen searching for food on the rail fences, often at a considerable distance from the roads. Helmitherus vermivorus. WORM-EATING WARBLER. — One was taken about half-way up Dans Mountain, near Eawlings, on July 21, and a day or two later I saw one at Oldtown. H elminthophila chrysoptera. GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER. — A num- ber were seen and one taken in young growth near Swanton, and I saw several on Dans Mountain near Eawlings. ComposMypis americana. PARULA WARBLER. — One was seen at Oldtown on July 23, and another the day following at Little Orleans. Dendroica aestiva. YELLOW WARBLER. — A pair observed near Grantsville late in June, and several at Oldtown and Little Orleans, were the only ones noted during my trip. Dendroica caerulescens. BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER.— Eather common at Finzel and Bittinger, where deserted nests were noticed and at Swanton. I also took an individual near Kearney, a few miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park. Several specimens taken exhibit considerable black on the back, supposed to be indicative of subspecies cairnsii, but which seems more likely to be an indication of high plumage increasing in intensity as the bird grows older. Dendroica maculosa. MAGNOLIA WARBLER. — Common in the hemlock and spruce forests throughout the higher portions of Garrett county. It was noted in considerable numbers at Finzel, Bittinger and Swanton, and several seen in a grove of hemlocks near Kearney several miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park. A nest found near Bittinger on June 27 contained three fresh eggs; another was depos- ited the next day. The nest was situated in a small hemlock about four feet from the ground, a characteristic situation. The late date would seem to indicate a second litter, though I saw no young birds. Dendroica pennsylvanica. CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER. — A com- mon bird over most of the higher portions of Garrett county. Many were observed at Finzel, and a newly-built nest was seen. It was also common at Grantsville and Mountain Lake Park, and young birds were taken on Dans Mountain, near Eawlings, on July 21. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 305 Dendroica blackburniae. BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER. — Rather com- mon in the hemlocks about Finzel. I saw one near Bittinger on June 30 and took one on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21. Dendroica virens. BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER, — A female was seen at Finzel on June 18. Dendroica discolor. PRAIRIE WARBLER. — Several were seen in bushy woods at Oldtown July 22-23. Seiurus aurocapillus. OVEN-BIRD. — A very common species throughout the region. Seiurus noveboracensis. WATER-THRUSH. — This species was fairly common about Finzel, especially in a swamp between Big and Little Savage Mountains. Nearly every small stream flowing through low woods had a pair or two. A single bird was observed at Swanton. Seiurus motacilla. LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH. — Though normally affecting low altitudes, this species frequently follows small streams up to their source. One was thus observed near Finzel along a brook flowing through a dense hemlock forest, whose undergrowth of Rhodo- dendron and Kalmia also afforded a congenial shelter to 8. novebora- censis. Several were seen along Crabtree Run, near Swanton, and I took a specimen on Dans Mountain July 21. Geothlypis trichas. MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT. — Noted in rather small numbers at Finzel, Grantsville, Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Icteria virens. YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. — A pair or two noted in the vicinity of Finzel. It was rather common about Mountain Lake Park, Swanton, Rawlings, Oldtown, and Little Orleans. Wilsonia mitrata. WILSON'S WARBLER. — In thickets of young growth on the lower slopes of Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, this species was rather common. Wilsonia canadensis. CANADIAN WARBLER. — This was the most abundant warbler at Finzel, where old birds were seen feeding young just from the nest about June 20. The species was rather common in the rhododendrons, which abounded in favorable situations in the valley of the Castleman near Grantsville. It was also rather com- mon about Swanton. 20 306 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Setophaga ruticilla. AMERICAN REDSTART. — A pair observed at Finzel, and a number seen at Swanton, Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Galeoscaptes carolinensis. CATBIRD. — A very abundant breeder throughout the region. Harporhynclius rufus. BROWN THRASHER. — -A few were seen near Finzel, Grantsville and Bittinger. Thryothorus ludovicianus. CAROLINA WREN. — One was noted in a garden near Oldtown. Thryomanes bewickii. BEWICKS WREN. — I saw one by the road- side near Bittinger on June 30, and found both old and young birds rather common on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21. Troglodytes aedon. HOUSE WREN. — A male in full song was seen several times about Little Orleans on July 24. Certhia familiaris fusca. BROWN CREEPER. — A female was taken in heavy hemlock woods near Bittinger on June 28. Sitta carolinensis. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. — Very common and generally distributed throughout the region. Sitta canadensis. RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH. — A small flock of these birds, evidently a family, was seen on the branches of a tall dead tree, in the deep woods near Bittinger. It was also seen near Finzel about the middle of May, when it was doubtless breeding. Parus bicolor. TUFTED TITMOUSE. — A number were seen in thickets beside the Potomac near Oldtown on July 23. Parus atricapillus. BLACK-CAPPED TITMOUSE. — Rather common about Finzel, Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. Hylocichla mustelinus. WOOD THRUSH. — A very common bird about Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. Its song was also heard on Warrior Mountain about 4 miles north of Old- town. Hylocichla fuscescens. WILSON'S THRUSH. — Generally distributed over the higher portions of Garrett county, being common about Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. A few were also seen on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Hylociclila aonalaschkae pallasii. HERMIT THRUSH. — Several of MARYLAND GEOLOOICAL SURVEY 307 these birds were heard in the " oak barrens " near Finzel. Its song was also heard once near Grantsville and once at Bittinger. In the white oak woods near Mountain Lake Park, several were heard and two taken. Merula migratoria. ROBIN. — A vey common breeder throughout the region. Sialia sialis. BLUEBIRD. — Common and generally distributed throughout the region. A brood of young, accompanied by their parents, was seen near Finzel on June IT. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST. THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY GEO. B. SUDWORTH, Dendrologist, Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept, Agriculture. (Special Publication from Allegany County Report.) THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, Baltimore, November, J900. Company BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A. CONTENTS PAGE THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. BY GEORGE B. SDDWORTH 263 INTRODUCTION 268 LOCATION 264 TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES 264 SOIL , 265 WATER FLOW 265 WOODED REGIONS 267 CHARACTER OP THE FORESTS 267 COMPOSITION OF FORESTS 268 GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TREES 269 Distribution of Principal Timber Trees 270 Distribution of Subordinate Timber Trees 272 Distribution of Occasional Timber Trees 274 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES : THEIR ABUNDANCE AND USES 275 RELATION OF LUMBERING AND MINING TO REPRODUCTION .. 279 FOREST FIRES AND THEIR RELATION .TO REPRODUCTION 282 MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF FOREST RESOURCES 285 PROTECTION OF FOREST LANDS FROM FIRE 286 EXCLUSION OF GRAZING FROM FOREST LANDS 287 REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE CUTTING 288 REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE CLEARING , 290 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY GEO. B. SUDWORTH INTRODUCTION. An explanation of the circumstances under which this investigation took place seems proper. The earnest desire of Professor William B. Clark, State Geologist of Maryland, to develop all the economic resources of the state, naturally led to a consideration of the forests. The writer was detailed to examine the forests of Allegany county as a beginning of this work. The co-operation of the U. S. Division of Forestry in this work was deemed proper on the ground that the information obtained would be of mutual value both to the Division of Forestry and the Maryland Geological Survey. With the exception of the photographs taken, all expenses attend- ing this field work were defrayed by the Maryland Geological Survey. These photographs, some of which are reproduced for the present paper, number about ninety, and remain the property of the Division of Forestry. The purpose of this investigation was to supply information as to the condition, composition, character and uses of the forests of this county. The relation of timber-cutting, grazing, and forest fires to reproduction were also subjects of special study, with a view to pointing out a means of abating their evil effects, and thus increasing the productiveness of Allegany forests. The examination of this county was accomplished by personal travel either on foot, by rail, or by team and wagon. As only the southern and western boundaries of the county are accessible by rail, most of the necessary travel was performed on foot and by team. The county is well provided with private and public wagon-roads 264 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY and trails, giving abundant opportunity for thoroughly exploring the region from east to west and from north to south. The method of examining the county was, briefly, to gain first a general impression of the topography and location of the wTooded portions by inspection from the summits of the highest mountains or hills. A careful study of the various forest growths, the effects of fires, timber-cutting, and mining was then carried out by actual travel over representative portions of the wooded sections, including all of the larger mountains. The photographs taken illustrate the main features studied. Several county officials and other residents of the county identified with railway and mining interests have kindly supplied important data on the local prices of lumber and the amount of timber con- sumed for mining props. Thanks are due for such information to Mr. Somerville of Lonaconing, Messrs. Davidson, Armstrong, and B. S. Randolph of Frostburg, and to Mr. J. W. Cook of Cumberland. Special thanks are due Mr. B. S. Randolph for his cordial attention to the writer while visiting the mines and timberlands of the Con- solidation Coal Company. LOCATION. Washington, Allegany and Garrett counties form the western, tongue-like portion of Maryland. Allegany county constitutes the middle or narrowest section, with Garrett on the west and Wash- ington on the east. The south boundary of Allegany county is defined by the Potomac river; the east boundary, by Sideling Hill Creek; the north boundary, by Pennsylvania (roughly between longi- tude 78° 20' and 79° 55'); while the west boundary is formed by a straight line from the crest of Savage Mountain at the Mason and Dixon Line to the mouth of Savage river. The area of this county is 477 square miles, or 305,280 acres. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES. The surface of this county is uniformly broken into low moun- tains and hills, trending mostly in a northeasterly and southwesterly MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY. PLATE XXIV. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 265 direction. The intervening valleys are, for the most part, narrow, merging into low foothills which form the lower slopes to the higher mountains. The salient features in the topography are the long high ridges known as Town Hill, Warrior Ridge, Wills Mountain and Dans Mountain. Sideling Hill and Savage Mountain are equally promi- nent barriers on the east and west, but are mainly outside of Alle- gany county. The west boundary of the county lies on the east slope of Savage Mountain, while the east boundary lies at the bottom of the west slope of Sideling Hill. The elevation of these mountains ranges from 1,000 to 2,900 feet. Most of the larger mountains have long and gradual slopes, in- cluding also broad flat benches at elevations of 800 to 1,200 feet Less commonly, the mountain slopes are precipitous, notably on the south border of the county. The surface of the mountains and higher hills is often broken by exposed boulders of quartzite and sandstone. The summits of the mountains are marked by mostly bare rocky cliffs. SOIL. The soil of nearly all the hills and mountain slopes is thin, being composed largely of fine slaty shale. Cultivated portions are rap- idly worn out, and even where the timber grows the soil is often poor in humus. This poor top-soil under forest cover is due partly to a necessarily slow disintegration of the substratum of pure shale and broken rock which lies close to the surface and partly to the fre- quent forest fires which continually destroy the enriching leaf mould. The soil of the lower hills and valleys is rocky, but deeper and richer. The best agricultural lands are, therefore, situated mostly in the valleys and on low adjacent hills (Plate XXV, Fig. 2). Con- siderable land has been cleared on the higher mountain slopes, but it is far less productive than the lower areas. WATER FLOW. The county is well watered by numerous rocky streams fed by innumerable cold springs among the low hills and on the higher 266 THE FOEESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY mountain sides. All are tributary to the Potomac river. The most important of these streams are Sideling Hill Creek, Fifteen-Mile Creek, Flint river, Town Creek, and Georges Creek. They vary in width from twelve to twenty-five feet and carry from six to fifteen inches of water. At high water their volume is increased to two or three times the normal flow. The water of most of these streams is pure and wholesome. That of Georges Creek and several of its tributaries is, however, so strongly impregnated with iron, sulphur and drainage from coal and fire-clay mines as to be unwholesome. ISTo fish exist in these waters. In earlier days these streams supplied waterpower for small saw- mills and flour-mills throughout this region. Few of these mills are in existence now. The flow of streams is chiefly important to farmers in affording an abundant and convenient supply of water for stock. The small transient steam sawmills also depend on this source of water supply. The maintenance of the numerous springs peculiar to this region is of prime importance to nearly all farmers and residents of the smaller towns, many of which depend on this source of water supply. At present these resources are well protected by forest cover, as are also the headwaters of all the streams draining the county. As indicating the close relationship, however, between water flow and forest cover it is interesting to note in this connection that the oldest inhabitants of this region assert the existence of a greater rush of water in the spring and fall of recent years than was formerly observed, when the country was more continuously wooded. In earlier times the larger streams are said to have carried a uniform flow, with little or no sudden increase during spring and fall. The heavy rains and melting snow under present conditions, however, occasion an immediate and often dangerous rise of water in the larger streams at certain points. The rise of water sometimes prevents farmers crossing fords for a week or more, thus cutting off their communication with markets, etc. To obviate such difficulties, the county has built a few new roads to avoid impassable fords. The explanation of this rush of water is simple. Increased, indis- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXV. FIG. 1.— THIN FOREST COVER, POTOMAC RIVER. FIG. 2.— FARM AND FOREST LAND, MARTIN MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 267 criminate clearing of woodland, especially on the larger slopes, brings about a more direct and rapid drainage than was permitted by the original close forest cover of the county. WOODED EEGIONS. With the exception of a few treeless swampy meadows of small size, the entire county was once a continuous forest. The heaviest timber existed in the coves, on the low hills, and on the lower slopes and benches of the mountains, where the soil is deepest and most porous. The rocky upper slopes and summits appear to have borne a forest of small stunted trees. The wooded portions of the county are now confined to the larger hills and mountain ridges, with irregular extensions into the valleys. Most of the streams also bear fringes of forest growth. Koughly estimated, the agricultural land of this county is about thirty per cent of the entire area, the remainder being mostly in forests with a small per cent of brush land. The latter, however, contains forest tree species of brush size, and is, therefore, to be classed strictly as reforested land. The forests of the mountains form for the most part a continuous cover down to the usually cleared valleys (Plate XXV). Only occa- sional clearings and worn-out, abandoned farms are seen on the mountain sides; but wherever these cleared lands have been long neglected, they are already reforested, or are rapidly becoming so as shown in Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1. CHARACTER OF THE FORESTS. The character of the forests, changeable throughout, varies especi- ally from north to south. The prevailing growth is deciduous, but this is conspicuously mingled with patches, and often large areas of conifers, the latter being somewhat more abundant in the central and southern parts of the county. Small detached hills in these regions bear a pure growth of conifers as seen in the region of Pine Hill and Piney Grove, while portions of surrounding slopes are covered largely with deciduous forest. In 268 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY other cases similar hills bear a growth chiefly of conifers on their north slopes and a deciduous forest on their south slopes. As a, rule the larger mountain slopes bear a variously mixed growth of conifers and deciduous trees, sometimes evenly mingled or with the conifers in alternating vertical belts. The slopes near the larger waterways also bear conspicuous fringes of conifers, which give way to the hardwoods higher up on adjacent slopes. COMPOSITION OF FORESTS. The peculiar position of Western Maryland, intermediate be- tween the North and the South, gives Allegany county a forest flora rich in species. The higher summits, coves and valleys exhibit a climate and soils closely similar to those of the more northern states, while the climate and soils of the lower valleys, glades and hills are characteristic also of the adjacent southern states. As a result, there is a conspicuous association of northern and southern tree species. This association is of more than passing interest, since the kinds represented are of economic importance. Conifers and hardwoods of the middle South and North mingle here almost on the same ground. The following is a complete list of coniferous and hardwood trees of Allegany county: CONIFERS. 1. White Pine Pinus strobus. 2. Pitch Pine Pinus rigida. 3. Scrub Pine Pinus virginiana. 4. Table-Mountain Pine Pinus pungens. 5. Shortleaf Pine Pinus echinata. 6. Hemlock Tmga canadensis. 7. Red Juniper Juniperiis virginiana. HARDWOODS. 8. Butternut Juglans cinerea. 9. Black Walnut Juglans nigra. 1.0. Bitternut Hickory Hicoria minima. 11. Shagbark Hickory Hicoria ovata. 12. Mockernut Hickory Hicoria alba. 13. Pignut Hickory Hicoria glabra. 14. Small Pignut Hickory Hicoria odorata. 15. White Willow Salix alba. 16. Large-tooth Aspen Populus grandideniata. 17. River Birch Belula nigra. 18. Sweet Birch Betula lenta. 19. Hornbeam Ostrya virginiana. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 269 20. Blue Beech Carpinus caroliniana. 21. Beech Fagus atropunicea. 22. Chestnut Castanea dentata. 23. White Oak Quercus alba. 24. Post Oak Quercus minor. 25. Chestnut Oak Quercus primis. 26. Swamp White Oak Quercus platanoidex. 27. Red Oak Quercus rubra. 28. Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea. 29. Yellow Oak Quercus velutina. 30. Pin Oak Quercus palustris. 31. Barren Oak Quercus pumila. 32. Slippery Elm Ulmus pubescens. 33. American Elm Ulmus americana. 34. Hackberry Celtis occidentalis. 35. Red Mulberry Jforus rubra. 36. Cucumber-tree Jfagnolia acuminata. 37. Tulip-tree Linodendron tulipifera. 38. Pap aw Asimina triloba. 39. Sassafras Sassafras sassafras. 40. Witch Hazel Hamamelis virginiana. 41. Sycamore Platanus occidentalis. 42. Sweet Crab Pyrus coronaria. 43. Serviceberry Amelanchier canadensis. 44. Cockspur Crataegus crus-galli. 45. Scarlet Haw Crataegus coccinea. 46. Pear Haw Crataegus tomentosa. 47. Small-leaf Haw Crataegus uniflora. 48. Wild Plum Prunus americana. 49. Wild Red Cherry Prunus pennsylvanica. 50. Sour Cherry Prunus cerasus. 51. Black Cherry Prunus serotina. 52. Redbud Cercis canadensis. 53. Honey Locust Oleditsia triacanthos. 54. Locust Robinia pseudacacia. 55. Ailanthus Ailanthus grandulosa. 56. Staghorn Sumach Bhus hirta. 57. Dwarf Sumach R7ius copallina. 58. Mountain Maple Acer spicatum. 59. Striped Maple Acer pennsylvanicum. 60. Sugar Maple Acer saccharum. 61. Silver Maple Acer saccharimtm. 62. Red Maple Acer rubrum. 63. White Basswood Tilio heterophylla. 64. Dogwood Cornus florida. 65. Black Gum Nyssa sylvatica. 66. Mountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia. 67. Rhododendron Rhododendron maximum. 68. Persimmon Diospyros virginiana. 69. Black Ash Fraxinus nigra. 70. White Ash Fraxinus americana. 71. Green Ash Fraxinus lanceolata. 72. Nannyberry Viburnum prunifolium. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TREES. The limitation of certain trees to particular areas forms somewhat conspicuous features in the composition of the forests of this region. There are, of course, no very sharp lines of separation between the 270 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ranges of tree species, but within general limits, at which there is more or less overlapping or mingling of two or more species, it may be noticed that finally one kind of tree disappears and another ap- pears. For example, in ascending one side of a mountain, Beech, Maple, Basswood, etc., may appear at the base of the mountain. Above these a succeeding zone may contain Chestnut, Sweet Birch, etc.; and the next higher zone, Chestnut Oak, Table-mountain Pine, Wild Red Cherry, etc. These zones blend into each other more or less by the mingling of the trees peculiar to each zone. Similarly defined areas of tree growth of still other species may be met with on the opposite slope of the same mountain. Or in passing from deep valleys on a mountain side to adjoining ridges or benches at the same altitude, often there may be found an assemblage of trees peculiar to each of these dissimilar localities. The explanation of these phenomena is believed to lie in the fact that certain trees have become so completely adapted to a given kind or condition of soil (dry, moist, loose or compact), or climate, that they cannot exist where the required soil and climate are wanting. Thus the presence of a northern climate in portions of this region appears to account for the presence, by extension, of northern trees into this county which are prevalent in their wider northern range under the same conditions. The more cosmopolitan trees of this region are conspicuous over a greater area, while the less widely adapted kinds appear within narrower limits. The part also which some trees and shrubs play by taking first possession of denuded lands, thus rendering the soil favorable by protection of moisture for the introduction of still other trees, is a most interesting and practical consideration in the distribution of trees. This is especially true where fire and the axe have destroyed a part or the whole of an original forest. The full value of all the trees in a region cannot be determined without a knowledge of the relationship of species in their natural succession. DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL TIMBER TREES. The most conspicuous of the timber species are the White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Eed Oak, Chestnut and White Pine. They form MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVI. FIG. 1.— WOODED HILL IN SOUTHWESTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. FlG. '2.— NARROW AGRICULTURAL VALLEY IN SOUTHEASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 271 forests in which, according to exposure and altitude, the one or the other predominates; in fewer instances areas occur with mixtures of all five species, together with other kinds which do not form forests. The White Oak occurs on all the low hills and on the lower and middle slopes and benches of the high mountains. Originally it also occupied the high valleys now cleared. Its presence usually indi- cates the deeper, richer, and less rocky soils. The Chestnut Oak appears commonly on all the upper, rocky, gravelly slopes and summits of the mountains and hills. It grows persistently even on precipitous slopes where the surface consists en- tirely of broken quartzite and sandstone ; but here the trunks are short and gnarled. The larger and better formed trees are found where the rock is broken and carries a thin cover of soil. The White and Chestnut Oak often occur together, but in most cases the one or the other prevails under the peculiar conditions which suit it best. Few and scattering White Oaks are found on the rocky sites chosen by the Chestnut Oak, and vice versa. Chestnut is confined chiefly to poor, dry, gravelly, southern, east- ern and western slopes. It is sometimes mingled with Chestnut Oak, but more often constitutes the principal growth over a consid- erable area, giving way in richer moist coves and on benches to White Oak and other hardwoods, and appearing again on the thinner soils. As with Chestnut Oak, the best growth occurs on the middle and lower slopes; that found on and near the summits of the moun- tains is short and of small diameter. The Red Oak is a constant associate of the White Oak, Chestnut Oak and Chestnut, but far less abundant than these species. In stands of 60 to 80 trees to the acre the Ked Oak forms only from five to ten per cent. It is a tree singularly well adapted to a variety of soils, often producing well-formed trunks even in the deep crevices of almost bare rock. The largest trees occur in rich coves and sinks where the underlying rock is broken. The White Pine occurs almost entirely on northern and eastern slopes, ascending to the summits of the highest mountains (Mt. Savage, Warrior Eidge and Dans Mountain). It is especially con- 272 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY spicuous along the rocky north slopes of streams, often forming dense, narrow belts of pure growth down to the water's edge (Fig. 14). Higher up on the slopes it is usually mingled with hard- woods. The White Pine forest shown in Fig. 14 is composed chiefly of young timber (25 to 75 years old), ranging from 6 to occa- sionally 15 inches in diameter, and under 60 feet in height. A much older, scattered growth of this pine is found among hardwoods. Under these conditions the trunks are 18 to 30 inches in diameter FIG. 14. — Pure growth of white pine, near Flintstone. and 80 to 100 feet high. The White Pine of this county grows best in moist, well drained, clayey loam soils, such as produce the finest White Oak. DISTRIBUTION OF SUBORDINATE TIMBER TREES. The next most conspicuous timber trees are, among conifers, the Pitch Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Table-mountain Pine a-nd Scrub Pine. Of hardwoods, the principal remaining species are Sugar Maple, Red Maple, Shagbark Hickory, Tulip-tree, White Ash, White Basswood, Locust, Black Gum and American Elm. The pines commonly pass MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 273 for one species. Together, they constitute an important element in the forest cover of very exposed, bare, rocky, southern slopes. The Scrub Pine forms a dense cover in the poorest shaly soils on the lower southern slopes of the high ridges, or more frequently on the south side of low hills throughout the middle and southern sec- tions of the county (Plate XXYII, Fig. 2). It is peculiarly adapted to exposed, sterile soils, often taking possession of abandoned, worn- out fields to the exclusion of all other species. In richer soils and less exposed localities it gives way to patches of hardwoods. Most of the Scrub Pine now standing is of small size, ranging from two< to six inches, with occasional trees eight to fourteen inches in diameter. The largest trees which grow on least exposed sites have straight clear trunks twenty to thirty feet long. The growth found on the most exposed, precipitous sites is usually low, crooked, and much branched. At higher elevations, comprising the middle benches and summits of the mountains, Pitch, and Table-mountain Pine occupy sterile, rocky situations on southern, southeastern and southwestern ex- posures. Scattered individuals also occur mingled with hardwoods on the low shaly hilltops adjacent to the mountains (Plate XXIX, Figs. 1, 2). Where these pines form the principal growth, the two species are usually mingled in about equal numbers. Not infre- quently, however, the Table-mountain Pine forms pure open stands of ten to fifty acres on narrow, rocky benches high up on the moun- tain sides. In exceptional instances also, stunted Shortleaf Pine is to be seen among these mountain groves, notably on Town Hill. Little merchantable timber is produced by the Pitch Pine and Table- mountain Pine, as their principal growth is low and much branched and the wood coarse-grained and knotty. The hardwoods of this group appear more or less scattered among the deciduous species already mentioned as forming forests. One of the most abundant of these is the Sugar Maple. It occurs in all the moist rocky coves and in the vicinity of streams throughout the county. Its ability to thrive in the seams of almost bare limestone and quartzitic rock is remarkable. Well-formed large trees were 18 274: THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY frequently met where only a scanty deposit of soil had filled the narrow crevices in the rock. Closely associated with the Sugar Maple, but in fewer numbers, are the Red Maple, White Basswood, White Ash, Shagbark Hickory, Locust, Tulip-tree and Beech. These scantily represented species form open forests in which none occur abundantly or continuously, but at irregular and often long intervals. These trees were doubtless more abundant in former years. The present economic value of this growth is small, except for fuel, as no considerable yield of any one kind can be secured without very wide culling. DISTRIBUTION OF OCCASIONAL TIMBER TREES. Still less prominently represented are a few other valuable timber trees, notably the Black Walnut, Butternut, Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, Swamp White Oak, Cucumber-tree, Black Cherry, Syca- more, Black Ash and Red Juniper. Excepting the Black Ash and Swamp White Oak, which are peculiar only to swampy glades of the high valleys, all of these trees are found as stragglers among the preceding more abundant kinds. Very probably the original forests of this region contained much larger numbers, as the special conditions favorable to their growth are prevalent. The other trees enumerated are nearly all small and of little im- portance. They are generally distributed among the more conspicu- ous forest growth. A few only are confined to certain localities, and interesting because of their rarity in this region, or special usefulness in establishing a cover under which better kinds may grow. Among those species are the Sweet Birch and Wild Red Cherry, which occur only on the highest summits. The latter is not a tree of economic value and is mentioned only on account of its rarity. The Sweet Birch supplies an important furniture wood in mountainous parts of the adjacent states where the rocky soil is deep and rich. The timber produced is of large size. In Allegany county, however, this Birch is necessarily small on account of the present extremely sterile soil. The Barren Oak is the most conspicuous of small trees in the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVII. FIG. l.-SCRUB PINE, NEAR OLDTOWN. FIG. 2.— DEFECTIVE LARGE WHITE PINE IN YOUNG HARDWOOD, FIFTEEN MILE CREEK. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 275 region. It forms low, dense, brushy thickets high up on the moun- tains and ridges wherever the original deciduous forests have been entirely cut or burned off. Being partial to the poor, shaly soils of these high elevations, it serves a useful purpose in establishing a ground cover, which prevents violent washing of the soil. Useful timber species soon follow under the protection of the more hardy Barren Oak. Finally, the Hackberry, Sweet Crab, Thorny Haws, Wild Plum, Serviceberry, Kedbud, Nannyberry and Sumachs are small fore- runners in the natural reforestation of abandoned cleared lands in the valleys on the lower hills. Together with briars and other shrubs, these small trees take complete possession of such lands in from ten to fifteen or more years. Following this growth may be seen the slow, sure introduction of the better kinds of forest trees. IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES: THEIR ABUNDANCE AND USES. The most abundant and commercially important timber trees of this region are White Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Hemlock, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Eed Oak, Chestnut, Shagbark Hickory, Sugar Maple, White Ash, Tulip-tree, Basswood and Black Walnut. Other species represented supply much useful timber, but occur too sparingly to afford large supplies. The original forests of this county produced considerable White and Shortleaf Pine and large quantities of White Oak, Yellow Poplar and Hickory timber, together with an abundance of Chestnut Oak and Hemlock tan-bark. The timber was large and of excellent quality, and is estimated to have frequently given an acre yield of from 8,000 to 10,000 board feet, over large areas, or possibly more in some localities. The old, slow water sawmills made but small inroads upon this supply; but evidence is everywhere present of the nearly complete culling made later by portable steam sawmills (Fig. 15). The latter have so completely lumbered out the large sound timber on all the principal streams, in the once heavily wooded coves and on the rich mountain benches and gentle slopes, that at present sizable timber of good quality is scarce and distant from public roadways. 276 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Most of the large White Pine is now gone. Defective old White Pines are frequently seen scattered over slopes now covered with young hardwood forests (Plate XXVII, Fig. 2); only an occasional sound White Pine is to be found. Shortleaf Pine is similarly exhausted. Small groups and scat- tered single trees are to be found in patches of hardwoods on farms in the lower hill country, or forming thin belts skirting the lower slopes of the higher, wooded mountains. Only occasional large FIG. 15. — Portable steam sawmill. trees are to be found (Plate XXX, Fig. 1). The majority are now too few or of too small size to furnish any considerable amount of timber. The saw timber now available consists chiefly of White Oak, Chest- nut Oak, Red Oak and Chestnut, with only occasional logs of second growth White Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Pitch Pine, Basswood and Shag- bark Hickory. The approximate acre yield of timber now standing amounts to from less than 500 to about 2,000 board feet; exceptional, isolated small bodies would cut from 3,000 to 6,000 feet per acre. These supplies occur, however, at long intervals, and, as already MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 277 stated, are profitably reached only by small portable sawmills, which find employment mostly for only a few months in one place. Siz- able timber is especially scarce near railways and the principal wagon-roads, over which the original stock has largely been taken. A few portable sawmills are cutting small quantities of the above- mentioned timber at various points through the northern and middle portions of the county. In some cases the output is a mixed cut of hardwoods and pine, while in other localities the cut is principally either oak or pine. The best quality of lumber produced is oak. The pine cut is very knotty and of second- or third-rate quality. Owing most likely to the absence of convenient railwray connections, a comparatively low price, $8.00 to $12.50 per 1,000 board feet, is received for the average local output of lumber. The demand for mining props and railway ties is apparently large and relatively more profitable to the producer than lumber. The output of this material is, however, confined chiefly to localities near the coal and fire-clay mines and the railways in the western part of the county, and' to the region of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Poor roads and high hills render it unprofitable to haul such heavy material from the more distant interior sections lying to the north. The mining props cut show that nearly all the trees of the region contribute to this material. The species commonly cut are "White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Scarlet Oak and Red Oak, Shagbark Hickory, Pignut Hickory and Mockernut Hickory, Chestnut, Red Mulberry, Locust, Sugar Maple, Red Maple, Black Gum, White Ash, Black Cherry, White Pine, Pitch Pine, Scrub Pine, Table-mountain Pine and Shortleaf Pine. All are used without distinction, but those most highly prized for their strength and durability are White Oak, Chestnut and Locust. The props range from five to seven inches in diameter at the butt, and are nine feet long. It is rare, therefore, that a tree furnishes more than three props. The present stand of young timber fit for this purpose affords a yield of 35 to 50 props per acre. Where the stand is largely Chestnut and Locust, which is often the case, such cuttings may be made approximately every 278 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ten to fifteen years. For young forests containing mixtures of the other species mentioned, a cutting for mining props can be made in from fifteen to eighteen or more years. Excluding the conifers, much of this material is supplied by coppice sprouts, the Chestnut and Locust far outstripping the other hardwoods in growth. The remainder of the props comes from pole stock, grown from seed, 25 to 30 years old. The annual consumption of mining props in the coal and fire-clay mines of western Allegany county is roughly esti- mated at about 1,000,000. This represents an annual culling of about 28,000 acres. The wastefulness of cutting such timber as White Oak, Hickories, Maples, White Ash and White Pine at the short interval of fifteen to eighteen years should be apparent, and will be discussed later. The use of the other less valuable timber species, and especially the rapid growing Chestnut and Locust is more advisable. This county has produced large quantities of Chestnut Oak tan- bark and considerable Hemlock in the western part. The sources of supply are, however, now greatly diminished or exhausted. Ko bodies of Hemlock exist in the county. The small quantity of young timber scattered along rocky north slopes of streams in west- ern Allegany, is insufficient to supply tan-bark. The once abundant stand of Chestnut Oak has likewise been nearly exhausted by bark peelers. The comparative lightness of this product has enabled producers to secure bark from even the steep, rocky slopes of the highest mountains, from which the hauling of heavier saw-timber would have been unprofitable. The large tanning establishment which continued for many years at Gilpintown, in the north central part of the county, had to be abandoned a number of years ago for lack of tan-bark. With scarcely an exception, the exploitation of tan-bark in the past W7as attended by a total waste of the timber, and most of the bark peeling of the present time leaves the trunks unused. The only exception observed by the writer was in recent work on the lands of the Consolidated Coal Company in the western part of the county. Here all peeled Chestnut Oak is being sawed up for mining timber with the other timber stripped from coal-bearing land. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 279 RELATION OF LUMBERING AND MINING TO REPRODUCTION. It would be difficult to find a region in which the useful timber has been more general!}7 removed than in this county, and at the same time, one in which so much forest cover has been left intact. Doubtless only the non-agricultural nature of the greater part of the original forest-bearing regions has prevented an almost complete deforestation. In cutting the timber no pains were taken to assist the reproduction of original timber species. The purpose of all cut- tings was the same, whether for sawlogs, tan-bark, ties, or mining props; the largest amount of useful material, regardless of conse- quences, was the prime object. That all but the twenty-five or thirty per cent of arable land in the county has continued to bear a forest cover, is evidence of the greatest natural persistence in reproduction, which often takes place under very unfavorable conditions. The reforesting of denuded land in this humid region is, therefore, one of the easiest problems. In spite of abusive methods of lumber- ing and other cutting there is no evidence of the disappearance of any of the original timber species. A careful study of the young tim- ber and seedlings shows all the old species to be present in the young growth. The absence, however, of large-sized trees of certain species, in fact, sometimes of any but small seedlings, usually sug- gests to the casual observer that once prevalent trees have perma- nently disappeared from a region. The fact also that the commer- cial supply of such timber as White and Shortleaf Pine appears to remain exhausted, may add to the impression that these trees can never again produce the original abundance of timber. But the natural reproduction of these trees in this region is peculiarly good. It required one to two or more hundred years to produce the supply of large White and Shortleaf Pine found in this county forty years ago; and the various stages of struggle between the contending hard- woods and pines for the possession of this ground were unseen by those who cut off the finally dominant pines. Much of the area thus wooded now bears a principally young deciduous forest with only scattered remnants of the once abundant pine; trees which at the time the larger timber was taken escaped the axe either because they 280 THE FOEESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY were too defective for use or of undersize. The old defective trees have continued to exist, and the undersized are now large enough for saw-timber, but generally too few to claim attention. The establishment of another growth of pine like the one removed can be accomplished only by another long struggle. The seed trees left standing are centers of reproduction. But each of the pines must spread under conditions best suited to its reproduction. The White Pine of this county will establish itself in pure growth on cleared land on exceptionally moist, protected, portions of northern slopes, and elsewhere only under the moderate shade of young hard- woods. Once established, however, the young pines do not require further protection; but, as a matter of fact, they must remain sup- pressed till accident or design removes enough of the hardwoods to allow the pines to grow up. The Shortleaf Pine must spread from the few seed trees left here and there by pushing into sunny, partly shaded openings among the hardwoods. It makes a successful stand in such places, if it outstrips or keeps up in height growth with the hardwoods. This reproduction of pine, which is going on now, would, if unin- terrupted, require so many years that the generation of settlers who saw and helped to remove the original crop of pine could not witness the perfection of the returning crop. Moreover, the commercial condi- tions of the region are now greatly changed from those attending the former growth. The present increasing and constant demand for small-sized timber in this region prevents the White or Shortleaf Pine and many other useful timbers from reaching mature growth. Thousands of pine props are made from very young trees, thus cut- ting off all chance for the production of the more valuable mature timber. In conclusion, it may be restated that while the present and past cutting of saw-timber, ties, mining props and timber for tan-bark has locally depleted or entirely exhausted the supply of timber, it has not materially changed the composition of the forests now standing. The original species remain, and the harchvoods promptly increase wher- ever the axe, fire and grazing are withheld; the conifers come back MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVIII. FlG. 1.— NEGLECTED FARMLAND, EASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. FIG. 2.-SHORTLEAF PINE AND PITCH PINE, TOWN HILL. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 281 more slowly. Moreover, as already shown, where cleared agricul- tural land is long abandoned, this land quickly reverts to the original forested condition. It is not to be presumed, however, that with a widespread and complete removal of existing species a serious change would not be made in the composition of the subsequent forest growth. The reproduction of all trees, as with other plants, depends emphatically on the presence of seed trees, be they far from or near the cleared land. But the lumbering and other timber-consuming industries of previous years have by chance left enough seed trees to assure the perpetuation of all species for the present. The removal of large deposits of coal from beneath wooded areas may permanently change the surface, kill the existing timber and retard subsequent reproduction. As is well known to those familiar with these coal-mining opera- tions, as much as possible of the big coal-veins, about 6 to 9 feet thick and lying in a horizontal position, is taken out before aban- doning the mines. In agricultural regions these worked-out coal- beds may doubtless be left sufficiently shored up by pillars of coal to prevent any collapsing of the surface. In the rougher hill country, however, mostly with brush or forest cover, such expensive precau- tions are not likely to be taken. The coal is taken out and the sur- face left to sink or retain its position, as circumstances permit. When coal-beds lie over one hundred feet below the surface, the unsup- ported cavity seems not to result in any but an irregular depression in the surface. Where the removal of deposits is nearer the surface (30 to 75 feet), the final dropping of the surface is usually violent. Cavernous pits are produced which engulf the forest growth in min- gled masses of variously tilted, fallen and upright trunks; but much of this continues to grow. The timber thus involved is almost en- tirely inaccessible. These breaks in the surface are gradually much smoothed in their more abrupt portions by the washing and sliding of soil and rocks. Smaller vegetation covers the bare spots, and the undermined rough surface is finally overgrown with brush and forest trees. 282 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Wherever coal lands bearing considerable useful timber are con- trolled by ownership, the usual plan is to remove all usable timber before the coal is mined. This takes all sound trees down to about three inches in diameter. If uninterrupted, the final recovery by original species is well assured. For when carefully examined, the forest floor of such denuded lands is found to contain well established seedlings of the principal timber species from two to ten years old. In addition to these, much of the sapling growth comprising the same kinds survives the destructive lumbering methods employed and also the caving-in of the surface. The much greater value of the coal deposit must always properly have precedence over the present timber crop lying alpove, and also over that which would have been possible during the term of years necessary for the land to recuperate from the effects of the under- mining. It only remains to be said, therefore, respecting the rela- tionship of coal-mining operations and forest reproduction that there is an appreciable loss in timber production on undermined forest land. The period of this loss will vary, according to the purpose for which the timber rotations are taken, from twenty to one hundred or more years. The actual annual loss of timber growth for the species represented could not be accurately stated without an ex- tended study of the productiveness of abandoned coal lands. Some permanent damage is also to be mentioned as a result of a fixed change in the surface of undermined forest lands. The inac- cessibility of such lands for future lumber operations is greatly in- creased. In many places the timber is likely to be difficult to get at, and the building of roadways is expensive on so broken a surface. FOREST FlEES AND THEIR RELATION TO REPRODUCTION. Forest fires have been widely prevalent in this county, but their effects are not strikingly evident. Types of the widespread and long- enduring devastation so common in the more western timbered states are nowhere seen in this region. However severe the damage done may be, the ravages of Allegany county fires are soon greatly con- cealed by rapid and abundant reproduction. Moreover, very little large timber appears to have been killed by fire. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 283 Two factors explain the rapid recovery and small injury to large timber. The largest areas of timber land are comprised in the prin- cipal mountain ranges. The most prevalent fires have occurred in these localities. Now the principal reason that destructive fires do not occur, is in the fact that there is no deep humus and little accumu- lated debris to feed a deep burning fire. In its present condition, the soil and humus cover in these forests is only from one to two inches deep and lies on bare rock and shale. Large areas bear no soil or humus at all, except in the crevices of the rock, while elsewhere the bare soil is composed largely of slaty shale. With very little dry, fallen timber or brush, the fires occurring in these sections are fed mostly by the heavy fall of leaves. The ex- posed rock and shale immediately beneath permits only a surface fire, which almost never reaches the tree roots lying deep in crevices or beneath the shale. The ordinary effect upon the larger timber trees is a noticeable but harmless scorching of the thick bark from two to six feet up ; the resin-covered trunks of the Table-mountain, Pitch and Shortleaf Pine bear the higher fire marks. The greatest damage to large timber observable within recent times resulted from a fire which occurred about six years ago. Considerable dry, down timber in some locali- ties where selective cutting for saw-timber had been done, attended by a dry season, resulted in an unusually severe fire. Few large trees were killed, but many were badly burned in spots at the collar, evidently from the burning of unused logs and treetops lying near or in contact with green trunks. While these burney trees sur- vived the fire perfectly, the trunks are, as a result of burning, with- out an exception, decaying at the heart and deteriorating for saw- timber. The effect of surface fires on seedlings and coppice sprouts is disas- trous in killing most growth from one to ten feet high. The thin- barked stems of all species are severely scorched so that they die down to the ground. An encouraging feature is, however, that the roots of seedlings over one year old are rarely killed. They pro- duce vigorous sprouts the following season. The scorching of Chest- 284 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGAXY COUNTY nut and Oak sprouts is often so slight as to kill only the thin bark, leaving the sapwood uninjured; a few immature leaves are then put forth, but the stems finally die down to the ground. While in general the damage by fires in this region appears not to be great, especially since there is little or no apparent decrease in the forest cover, nevertheless, the combined effects upon all ages of growth are very appreciable. The greatest damage is done in the periodic destruction of from one to ten or more years' growth of seed- lings and coppice sprouts. A few very young seedlings are also killed. Clearly, therefore, the productiveness of these forests is much reduced; in fact, where fires run through this young growth at short intervals it is practically held at a standstill for many years. Actual growth is confined only to such saplings and older trees as are, from their size, capable of withstanding light fires. The direct effect of retarded reproduction would be much more apparent to consumers of timber in the region than it is now, if these forests were systematically cut over for the fullest utilization of timber. The present timber- producing stock would eventually be exhausted. Wooded areas which now give the impression to many of being constantly stocked and improving would soon be reduced to an unproductive state. Many acres of woodland are thus to be found which yield practically noth- ing, from the fact that all small stock is periodically destroyed. Closely related to this retardation is the fact that constant destruc- tion of humus reduces the productive power of the forest soil, both in point of richness and in the power of retaining moisture. A loss of the latter directly affects all agricultural lands below the wooded mountain slopes. For with all small vegetation and absorbing humus burned off, a large percentage of rain- and snow-water rushes over the clean surface to wash and erode the tilled lands below. The common belief expressed by many people in this region, that the frequency of forest fires is beneficial in rendering each succeed- ing fire less and less dangerous is a pernicious fallacy, overlooking the damage just recited. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXIX. FIG. 1.— PITCH PINE, NEAR PINE PLAINS, EASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. FlG. 2.-TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE, DANS MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 285 MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF FOREST RESOURCES. Without a much more detailed examination than was possible in the brief time given the work by the writer, it would not be possible to formulate an adequate plan of management for the various forest types and conditions of this county. The needs of different sections of the county are not the same, and would, therefore, require special study. It is believed, however, that a statement of some of the general needs of Allegany county forests in point of treatment and utilization will not be out of place, and may even prove of consid- erable practical value to intelligent owners of woodlots. Indeed, it is gratifying to state in this connection that the farmers and other owners of woodlands, and officers in charge of forest lands in this region are remarkably well informed upon the condition and com- position of their forests. The average intelligent farmer is per- fectly familiar with the location and character of the principal timber trees of his region, and recognizes most of them even in their younger stages of growth. Such information is of great practical value, and with the suggestions to be given, will, for the time being, enable thoughtful men to improve their woodlots considerably.1 Nearly sixty years of constant drain upon the forests of this county has reduced them to a state of the lowest productiveness, which has in turn led to an impression among many people that this resource is irretrievably gone. As already pointed out, however, the rapid natural reproduction in this region is most encouraging for a recupera- tion of these depleted forests if the latter can be placed under a con- servative management. Moreover, it is believed that the large per- centage of rocky hills and mountain land now in forest can be most profitably held in this condition; in fact, much of the hill and moun- tain land, once cleared and now abandoned, was evidently neglected because of low agricultural productiveness. In conclusion, attention is called to the following general recom- 1 For careful improvement and utilization of their forest lands owners, are especially recommended to apply to the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for Circular 21, entitled " Practical Assistance to Farmers, Lumbermen and Others in Handling Forest Lands." (1898.) 286 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY mendations which are believed to be important in the management of woodlands in this county, both as looking to increased production of timber and to the protection of agricultural lands from erosion and the consequent deterioration. Discussions of these recommenda- tions follow in detail : 1. Protection of forest lands from fire. 2. Exclusion of grazing from forest lands. 3. Regulation of indiscriminate cutting. 4. Regulation of indiscriminate clearing. PROTECTION. OF FOREST LANDS FROM FIRE. Sufficient has been said as to the injury to forests by fires. Fires in this region are commonly believed to be caused through the carelessness of pleasure parties, hunters, woodsmen and other peo- ple in the forests. The penalty imposed by the Maryland law * for wilfully or care- lessly setting forest fires appears to be adequate, but it is believed will never completely control the evil. The great difficulty under 1 By an early statute in this state, it was forbidden to maliciously set on fire any woods, fences, marshes, lands, leaves, or rubbish thereon, within the counties of Baltimore, Anne Arundel, Frederick, Montgomery, Allegany, Queen Anne's, Harford, Cecil, or Prince George's, so as to occasion any loss, damage, or injury to other persons, under penalty of a fine not exceeding $100, one-half to the informer and the other half to the county, besides the costs; or, if unable to pay this fine, by imprisonment not over six months. A slave thus convicted might be punished by whipping, not exceeding thirty- nine lashes, on the bare back, unless his owner chose to pay a fine not exceeding ten pounds. The owner of property injured or destroyed by such fires might recover its value from the party who caused it. By an act passed March 29, 1838, entitled " An act to repair injuries done by fire from railroad engines," it was provided, that if any woods, fields, or other property, real or personal, be burned or injured by fire from engines, the company should pay the loss. Actions for damages under this act were to be tried at the first term of the court in which they are brought, if process be served on the defendant ten days before the court convenes, or, if not, then at the court next following. Service might be had upon any director, officer, attorney, agent, or servant of the defendant. Upon failure to appear, the court might, after the second term, upon proof of service by the sheriff's return, or by affidavit, enter a judgment by default against the defendant, by a jury impanelled at bar, as in cases of writs of inquiry. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 287 the present status of securing conviction must always render this law an inadequate protection unless special provision be made to enforce rt This can be accomplished thoroughly only through the services of special officers. Protection from forest fires in other states has been secured by the appointment of fire-wardens, whose duties are to enforce the fire law and exterminate forest fires. Chief fire-wardens are now regularly appointed by state authority in New York, Pennsylvania and Minne- sota. In other states, where, as yet, these officers are not provided, local officers of the law (constables, etc.) have been made fire-wardens. The benefit of these systems of fire service in states, counties and townships possessing woodland is unquestionably great. As an example of this, it may be stated that the work of fire-wardens in the Preserve counties of northeastern New York has resulted in a recent very marked control and reduction in the number of forest fires. In addition to the special state fire-warden of New York, over two hun- dred supervisors in these counties are appointed deputy fire-wardens. The state provides that a compensation of two to two and one-half dollars a day be paid to deputy fire-wardens for actual time spent in fighting fires. In special cases of need these officers may hire a tem- porary force of men to assist in subduing fires; and for such service a per diem rate of two dollars is paid. The establishment of a fire service for Western Maryland seems imperative. This section combines the most heavily wooded coun- ties— Washington, Allegany and Garrett — and should, therefore, very fitly form the basis for establishing such protection. It is be- lieved that the plan of combining the duties of fire-wardens with those of supervisors of these counties would be thoroughly feasible. EXCLUSION OF GRAZING FROM FOREST LANDS. The damage done to forest land by grazing is in the destruction of seedlings, by tramping and browsing, and in laying bare the surface, which is afterward dried out and washed. Under these con- ditions reproduction is either seriously checked or prevented. A well-managed forest cannot serve for two purposes — good pas- 288 THE FOKESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ture and the fullest production of timber. If woodland affords good grass pasture it is proof that the ground is not fully stocked with trees; and if trees are wanting in grassy places, most likely it is be- cause the incoming seedlings have been trampled down from season to season by grazing cattle and so crowded out by the hardier grasses. A properly stocked forest managed for short rotations of small tim- ber, such as mining props, ties, etc., should afford no forage for stock. Grazing should be relegated to cleared lands or to brush and wood- lands intended only for grazing. REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE CUTTING. The injuries resulting from indiscriminate cutting are: removing needed seed trees of the most useful species, the leaving of old trees which are suppressing valuable young growth, and neglecting to lop waste tops and trunks which otherwise fail to rot and supply fuel for fire. Timber-cutting in the past has not left a sufficient number of seed trees of the valuable species. The loss of a proper number of seed trees is a disadvantage to the forest in depriving it of immediate means of reproducing the kinds thus taken out. The return of species from distant sources is slow and involves a loss of valuable time. Care should be taken, therefore, in marking trees to be cut out, that three to four seed trees of all the original useful timber species of a locality be left evenly distributed on every acre. The timely removal of old trees which are suppressing and dam- aging young timber is urgent. The need of such discriminative cutting is very apparent in the forests of this county. As an example of this need may be mentioned the suppression caused by a single large White Oak standing on the lower east slope of Warrior Moun- tain. Eight large sapling White Pines, four White Oaks, two Hick- ories, two Walnuts, and one Shortleaf Pine were all entirely over- topped by the heavy crown of the old White Oak, and were becoming stunted and twisted in their efforts to reach the needed light. The removal of the White Oak would have allowed these saplings to advance. Failure to relieve them at the proper time has already pre- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXX. FlG. 1.— SHORTLEAF PINE AND HARDWOOD, NEAR PINEY GROVE. FIG. 2.— CUT-OVER HARDWOOD FOREST, SAVAGE MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 289 vented five to six years of profitable growth. Suppression of this kind is easily recognized and remedied by any intelligent farmer or woodsman. In the majority of cases where timber is cut for sawlogs, ties and props, from 10 to 30 per cent or more of the trees is left on the ground as waste tops; and in the case of timber cut for tan-bark, the entire trunks are commonly left unused. The danger of neglecting unlopped, waste treetops, especially of hardwoods, is that the timber is usually braced up from the ground where it seasons thoroughly and rots very slowly, affording additional fuel for forest fires. The burning of this material was observed to have done severe damage to large trees standing near or in contact with it. Strict economy would not allow hardwood tops to be wasted when they can be cut into fuel. But if circumstances are such as to make this entirely impracticable or unprofitable, the refuse should be cut and disposed on the ground so that it will decay as rapidly as possible. The essential point is to bring it all in contact with the ground, where it will decay. To accomplish this properly it will be necessary to lop all large limbs which stand above ground. Precaution should be used in felling large timber so as not to drop a big top, which must be left unused, near or in contact with large standing trees. Such refuse tops should be placed, in felling, in open places distant as far as possible from standing timber in order to avoid burning the latter in case of fire. The labor of properly reduc- ing waste hardwood tops will often be considerable, while the lopping of the much smaller branches of unused conifer tops can be done more quickly. Most farmers can easily carry out these precautions when doing the cutting themselves or superintending it. It will be difficult, however, to enforce this extra work in contract cutting, except under the most rigid insistence. In the case of timber stolen, which not infrequently occurs in the mountain forests, attention to waste tops will of course be entirely neglected. 10 290 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE CLEARING. 'Examples of injudicious clearing are to be seen in many sec- tions of this county, and include the instances where narrow hill- tops, mountain ridges and steep slopes have been stripped of their forest cover. Heavy surface washing and deep trenching follow these clearings not only on the high slopes thus cleared, but also on the better lands lower down. The result is a constant impoverish- ment of the soil. The rapid deterioration of these naturally thin hill soils under constant surface washing is abundantly attested in the fact that many acres are now abandoned. Reference has been made also to the increased rise of water in streams during the spring and fall as a result of indiscriminate clearing. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXIV. CHARCOAL BURNERS' CAMP. THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY BY H. M. CURRAN. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY GEORGE B. SUDWORTH INTRODUCTION. The following report on the " Forests of Cecil County " is made under the auspices of the Bureau of Forestry in cooperation with the Maryland State Geological Survey. This cooperation dates from 1900, when the Division of Forestry furnished a report on the " For- ests of Allegany County." It is gratifying to state in this connection that, with its greater force of assistants, the Bureau of Forestry has been able to carry on a much larger amount of forest work in Mary- land during the season of 1901 than was previously possible. Follow- ing Allegany county, three of the best wooded counties of the State were thoroughly explored; these comprise Cecil, Garrett, and Calvert counties. As planned by Professor Clark, each of these reports will be published separately. Mr. H. M. Curran, Agent in the Bureau of Forestry, Division of Forest Investigation, has efficiently prosecuted this work. He was assisted in making valuation surveys of the various types of forests by Messrs. J. E. Keach, A. O. Waha, and F. R. Miller. Special credit is due, also, to Mr. John Foley, of the Division of Forest Management, for the excellent photographs from which half-tone illustrations were made for the Cecil, Garrett, and Calvert county reports. Acknowledgments are due the Kenmore Pulp and Paper Com- pany, of Elkton, and the Principio Forge Company, at Principio Fur- 296 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY nace, for their courtesy in furnishing information in regard to the manufacture of pulpwood and charcoal. The Maryland Geological Survey bore the expenses of all the field work and travel connected with these investigations, while the Bureau of Forestry contributed the services of the necessary experts. The purpose of these investigations is to give a comprehensive view of the forest resources of the counties named and finally of the entire State. The scope of the work includes a study of available timber supplies, their character, extent, and relationship to dependent wood- consuming industries, and of causes which have deteriorated the quality and greatly depleted Maryland forests. While the space and time devoted to this report would not permit the presentation of a technical working plan applicable to the various types of forests studied, yet a special effort has been made to point out the abuses and neglect to which the forests have long been subjected. Emphasis has been laid also upon the necessity and importance of a conservative management and improvement of existing woodlots and timber tracts. To this end the author has given some general instructions which, if followed, it is believed would prove widely beneficial in the improve- ment, extension, and maintenance of a more regular supply of com- mercial and other timber. In addition to observing these general precautions, the owners of woodlots and timber tracts may avail them- selves of the expert advice and cooperation 1 offered by the Bureau of Forestry both in tree planting and in the conservative management of woodlands and timberlands. LOCATION. Cecil is the most northern of the Eastern Shore counties of Mary- land. It is situated at the head of Chesapeake Bay, which forms part of its southern boundary. The Susquehanna river is the western boundary and separates Cecil from Harford. On the north and east the county is bounded by Pennsylvania and Delaware. 1 Outlined in Circulars 21 and 22, copies of which may be had gratis by applying to the Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXV MAP OF CECIL COUNTY * SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SHORE AND BARREN TIMBER MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LEGEND /far/Ten Timber I I Slum- Timber MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 297 TOPOGRAPHY AND SOIL. The most marked topographic features of Cecil county are the broad necks of land separated by tidal rivers (Plate XXII). These necks are found in the southern part of the county and often bear the name of the adjacent river. The principal necks, beginning at the south, are, Sassafras, Middle, Town Point, Back Creek, and Elk. Sassafras and Elk are the largest necks, being 12 miles long. The greatest width of Sassafras Neck is seven miles, and of Elk, five. With the exception of Elk Neck, these divisions are level or roll- ing areas of clayey or sandy loam, as shown in Plate XXII, Fig. 2. Their general elevation above tide-water is never more than 80 feet. They slope gradually to the bay-shore or end abruptly there in steep cliffs. Elk Neck differs from the other necks in having a ridge or back- bone of high land for the greater part of its length (Plate XXII, Fig. 1). The high points of this ridge reach an elevation of 300 feet. Its soil, too, varies with its topography, being poor, rocky, or of a gravelly nature, especially in the north. The slopes along the bay-shore are good farming lands, though hardly equalling in fer- tility the deep soils of the eastern necks. The northern and main portion of the county reaches an elevation of 400 feet for the greater part of its area. The lower half is broken and hilly, with poor gravel soils similar to those of Elk Neck. North of this is a belt of good soil from three to five miles wide ex- tending across the county from east to west. This section is rolling, with its lowest depressions along the streams, and ends abruptly to the west in steep cliffs along the Susquehanna river. DRAINAGE. Chesapeake Bay receives the entire drainage of the county through numerous sluggish streams in the south and through swift-flowing, shallow creeks (Plate XXIII, Fig. 2) in the north. The creeks are from 30 to 100 feet in width and usually carry less than two feet of water. 298 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY In the southern part of the county wide tidal rivers (Plate XXIII, Fig. 1) receive the water from the creeks and form waterways for the Bay shipping. The principal rivers of the county are, Northeast, Elk, Bohemia, and Sassafras. Their greatest width is two miles, and all have ship channels. The Susquehanna river, receiving the drain- age of the western portion of the county, enters the Chesapeake at Perryville. WOODLANDS AND FORESTS. The total area of Cecil county is 375 square miles, or 240,000 acres. The area of the included water (ponds, rivers, etc.) is 10,300 acres, and of the marsh, 3600 acres. This leaves for the farm-lands and forest 226,100 acres. The wooded portion of the county is 15 per cent of this, or 35,000 acres. FOREST TYPES. The wooded areas comprise two types of forest. The first type (Plate XXYI) — Barrens Timber — is found on the poor gravel soils of Elk Neck, and on similar soils of the region north and east. It is a young hardwood growth, with areas on which Scrub Pine occurs. The second type (Plate XXVII) — Shore Timber — includes the thin fringe of trees found along the streams, rivers and bay-shore. The growth is mainly hardwood, of both mature and young trees. BARRENS TIMBER. This type of forest has an area, of 20,000 acres, distributed as shown on the map (Plate XXV), and covers the region locally known as " Barrens." The term " Barrens " is applied to this re- gion because of the poor soil found there and the fact that large areas are constantly covered with brush (Plate XXVI, Fig. 2). When fire kills this brush, the burned areas are indeed barren. The timber of the Barrens is not virgin, but a sprout growth of Chestnut and Oak. In age it varies from one to forty years. The periodical removal, by the charcoal-burner, of all sound material one inch and over in diameter has resulted in rather even-aged stands of MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXVI. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 299 Chestnut and Oak, which sprout readily. In regions where fires occur the stands are very thin and open (Plate XXVI, Fig. 1), allow- ing Scrub Pine and Mountain Laurel to come in. The character of this timber is shown in the following table : TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SPECIES IN THE BARRENS TIMBER. Average of 43 acres. Trees 5 inches and over in diameter breast high. Chestnut. . White Oaks Chestnut Oak Tulip-tree Other species Red and Black Oaks include Average number of 'ecies. trees per acre. lack Oaks 49 Percentage of each species. 31 Average diameter breast high. Inches. 12 Averasre stand per acre. Cords. 2 56 36 23 10 2.10 ;S 30 19 10 .94 )ak 22 14 8 60 ;ies 21 13 9 85 ! all species. . 158 10.3 100 7.05 NOTE. Red, Scarlet, Yellow, Spanish, Pin, Black Jack, Willow, and Bartram Oaks. White Oaks include : White and Post Oaks. Other species include : Red Cedar, Scrub Pine, Mockernut and Pignut Hickories, Locust, Beech, Red Maple, Largetooth Aspen, Black Gum, Sweet Gum, Dogwood, Sassafras, Mountain Laurel, and Blue Beech. The total stand on the 20,000 acres of the Barrens is 141,000 cords. Most of the wood cut here is made into charcoal. A cord of wood properly burned yields 25 bushels of coal; so that, reduced to the charcoal burner's unit, the total yield would be 3,525,000 bushels. This amount of coal can be made from the Barrens timber, but the thinness of the stands over the greater part of the area so increases the cost of hauling and cutting as to make the work unprofitable. The thinness of the stands is due to fire, and the fires are due to carelessness. The normal wood production for the Barrens is in the neighborhood of 30 cords per acre. Burnt areas yield less than ten cords per acre. The difference, 20 cords, worth $1.00 per cord, represents the loss per acre from fire. The burning of 100 acres of 300 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY fully-stocked brash lands means a loss to the owner of from $1600 to $2000. SHORE TIMBER. This second type of forest has an area of 15,000 acres distributed as indicated on Plate XXV. It occupies the depressions along the streams, or occurs as thin fringes on the bay-shore (Plate XXVII). The greater part of this shore-timber is found in the best agri- cultural regions of the county, and the soils upon which it grows are often similar to those of the surrounding farm-lands. The fact that these timbered areas are at certain seasons too wet for grain crops, or so steep that they gully when under cultivation, accounts for their remaining in forest. These forests, mainly hardwoods, have been constantly culled by the farmers and others for all kinds of material for domestic use and for sale. We find here defective old Oaks and Chestnuts (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1), remnants of the virgin forest, and associated with them, sprouts and seedlings of many species. The sides of the depressions and the moist bottoms, where the drainage is good, are capable of supporting a very vigorous tree growth (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2). Chestnut and White Oak do well on the slopes, while Tulip-tree and Black "Walnut thrive nearer the streams. The growth of all these species is especially good in the southern part of the county, where the greater part of the shore- timber is found; the streams in the north (Plate XXIII, Fig. 2) have little or no timber along their courses. The varied character of this type and its distribution over the county in small patches make the cost of gathering sufficient meas- urements for an estimate of the present stand, prohibitive. The fol- lowing table is the result of the measurement of a number of the better stands (Plate XXVII, Fig. 1) and may not be applied to the 15,000 acres of the type. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. CECIL COUNTY, PLATE Xxvll. FlG. 1.— A GOOD STAND, SASSAFRAS NECK. FlG. 2.— INTERIOR VIEW OF ABOVE. SHORE TIMBER. Species. Average number of trees per acre. 24 Percentage of each species. 18 Average diameter breast high. Inches. 14 Average stand per acre Cords. 3 64 lack Oaks . . 18 14 15 2.76 )ak 10 8 16 2 04 ;S . 8 6 17 1 81 8 6 14 .81 ies . . 65 48 11 3.93 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 301 TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES IN THE SHORE TIMBER. Average of 32 acres. Trees 5 inches and over in diameter breast high. Chestnut Red and I Chestnut Oak, White Oaks Tulip-tree Other species Average of all species 133 100 13 14.99 NOTE. Red and Black Oaks include : Red, Scarlet, Yellow, Spanish, Pin, Black Jack, Willow, and Bartram Oaks. White Oaks include : White, Post, Swamp White, and Cow Oaks. Other species include : Red Cedar, Pitch Pine, Scrub Pine, Black Cherry, Mockernut, Pignut and Bitternut Hickories, Basswood, Locust, Beech- Sycamore, River Birch, Red Maple, Black Gum, Sweet Gum, White Willow, Red Mulberry, Persimmon, Butternut, Dog- wood, Sassafras, Laurel, Blue Beech, and Redbud. The grouping of commercial trees with inferior species in the tables is due to the fact that they occur in such small numbers on the areas measured as to be of little importance. The above table shows an average of 15 cords per acre for the better stands. If this wood were of a quality to make lumber, the yield would be 12,000 board feet per acre. Little lumber is ever cut from these stands, as most of the good material is cut before it reaches timber dimension. The material left year after year to grow to large size (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1) is usually defective and unfit for lumber. The table also shows the effects of culling. The inferior species in the stands measured are 48 per cent of the total number of trees. The constant removal of the Oaks, Chestnut, and Tulip-tree, and the leaving of other species results in an ever-increasing proportion of what may be termed the weeds of the forest. When the best stands show 48 per cent of weeds, one may expect the poor stands to show 302 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY even a larger proportion. In many observed cases the entire stand is weed growth. In the forest, as on the farm, knowledge and in^ dustry bring good crops; ignorance and neglect, weeds. The shore woodlands are well adapted to the growth of trees suit- able for lumber. The land, though unsuited to agriculture, is well suited to tree growth. The principal commercial trees, Oaks, Chest- nut, Tulip-tree, Black Walnut, Hickory, and Ash grow rapidly and reach large sizes when properly treated. Cheap water transporta- tion to the principal eastern markets, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, as well as to the local markets in the county, is possible. The large farming population could be employed in the winter, when work is slack, to cut and manufacture the product. The fire danger is small, owing to the position of the timber, with cultivated land on one side and water on the other. Taxes, though high, are being paid by the owners on lands producing poor wood crops, and the rates would not be increased if full crops of good material were produced. Every condition is favorable to the profitable production of forest crops on the shore woodlands. The future should see every acre of the 15,000 in this type producing at least 12,000 feet of lumber, the equivalent of the 15 cords of wood found on the best stands to-day. This would mean 180 million feet of lumber for the shore-timber, an amount far below its producing capacity. FOREST TREES. The trees found in the county are principally hardwoods. Ked Cedar and Pitch, Shortleaf and Scrub Pines are the only conifers found, and only two, Eed Cedar and Scrub Pine, are common. The mingling of northern and southern species in this locality accounts for the large number present. The following is a list of the native trees of Cecil county: CONIFERS. 1 Pitch Pine Pinus rigida. 2 Scrub Pine Pinus virginiana. 3 Shortleaf Pine Pinus echinata. 4 Red Cedar Juniperus virginiana. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 303 HARDWOODS. 5 Butternut Juglans cinerea. 6 Black Walnut Juglans nigra. 7 Bitternut Hickory Hicoria minima. 8 Mockernut Hickory Hicoria alba. 9 Pignut Hickory Hicoria glabra. 10 White Willow Salix alba. 11 Largetooth Aspen Populus grandidentata. 12 River Birch Betula nigra. 13 Sweet Birch Betula lenta. 14 Blue Beech Carpinus caroliniana. 15 Beech Fagus atropunicea. 16 Chestnut Castanea dentata. 17 White Oak Quercus alba. 18 Post Oak Quercus minor. 19 Chestnut Oak Quercus prinus. 20 Swamp White Oak Quercus platanoides. 21 Cow Oak Quercus michauxii. 22 Red Oak Quercus rubra 23 Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea. 24 Yellow Oak Quercus velutina. 25 Spanish Oak Quercus digltata. 26 Pin Oak Quercus palustris. 27 Black Jack Oak Quercus marilandica. 28 Willow Oak Quercus phellos. 29 Bartram Oak .• Quercus heterophylla. 30 Slippery Elm Ulmus pubescens. 31 White Elm Ulmus americana. 32 Hackberry Celtis occidentalis. 33 Red Mulberry Morus rubra. 34 Sweet Magnolia Magnolia glauca. 35 Tulip-tree Liriodendron tulipifera. 36 Papaw Asimina triloba. 37 Sassafras Sassafras sassafras. 38 Witch Hazel Hamamelis virginiana. 39 Sweet Gum Liquidambar styraciflua. 40 Sycamore Platanus occidentalis. 41 Serviceberry Amelanchier canadensis. 42 Scarlet Haw Crataegus coccinea. 43 Black Cherry Prunus serotina. 44 Redbud Cercis canadensis. 45 Honey Locust Oleditsia triacanthos. 46 Locust Robinia pseiidacacia. 47 Ailanthus Ailanthus glandulosa. 48 Staghorn Sumach Rhus hirta. 49 Holly Hex opaca. 50 Silver Maple Acer saccharinum. 51 Red Maple Acer rubrum. 304 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY HARDWOODS — Continued. 52 Boxelder Acer negundo. 53 Basswood Tilia americana. 54 Dogwood Cornus Jlorida. 55 Black Gum Nyssa sylvatica. 56 Mountain Laurel. Kalmia latifolia. 57 Persimmon Diospyros virginiana. 58 Black Ash Fraxinus nigra. 59 White Ash Fraxinus americana. 60 Red Ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica. 61 Nanny berry Viburnum prunifolium. DISTRIBUTION. The trees of Cecil county may be arranged in two groups, based on their commercial importance and their abundance. I. — Important Commercial Trees. II. — Inferior Commercial Trees. The first group contains those species which furnish lumber, posts, ties, or telegraph poles. The second grooip consists of those species which yield cordwood. IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL TREES. The abundant trees of this group are Chestnut, Tulip-tree (Yellow or "White Poplar), and White, Ked, and Black Oaks. They are found in all parts of the county in varying quantities. The tables on pages 299 and 301, based on a careful measurement of seventy-five acres of the two types of forest, show the abundance of the species, the relative proportion of each, and their average diameter. Under White Oaks are included White, Post, and Swamp White Oaks. Chestnut Oak has been separated from the other White Oaks be- cause it furnishes tan-bark. The Black and Ked Oaks comprise the remaining species of Oaks found in the county. Chestnut predominates on the better soil of the shore-timber, while in the Barrens Red and Black Oaks are the most abundant species. The shore-timber has 52 per cent of commercially important trees and the Barrens 87 per cent. Tulip-tree is not found in measurable quantities on the poor soil of the Barrens, but is uniformly distributed through the moister shore woodlands, which are especially adapted to its growth. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXVIII. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 305 Black Walnut, Black Cherry (Plate XXIX, Fig. 1), White Ash, Red, Ash, Beech, Basswood, the Elms, and the Hickories, which are present over the greater part of the county, reach large sizes, and would, if properly grown, produce merchantable timber. Black Walnut is especially at home in the moist bottoms along the streams. The three pines of the county, Pitch, Scrub, and Shortleaf, are found in greatest numbers on Elk Neck. The Pitch and Shortleaf Pines occur only as scattered individuals, while the Scrub Pine forms pure stands (Plate XXIX, Fig. 2) on areas once cultivated. Red Cedar is found in all parts of the county as a tree of fence rows (Plate XXIX, Fig. 1) and is a distinct feature of the agricultural regions. Locust, with Red Cedar and Sumach, occurs as a roadside tree and is also associated with these and Scrub Pine on areas formerly culti- vated. On good soil Locust is a rapid grower, and, if in the open, soon reaches a size suitable for posts. INFERIOR COMMERCIAL TREES. The abundant species of this group are, Sweet Gum, Black Gum, Red Maple, Persimmon, Dogwood, Sassafras (Plate XXX, Fig. 1), Sycamore, River Birch, Red Mulberry, Willow, Blue Beech, Laurel, Staghorn Sumach, and Witch Hazel. They are common in all parts of the county, but never form pure growth. They occur as scat- tered individuals in the forest, or form clumps or fringes (Plate XXIII, Fig. 2) along the streams. The less abundant species of the group are, Sweet Birch, Black Ash, Silver Maple, Boxelder, Holly, Papaw, Honey Locust, Red- bud, Hackberry, Serviceberry, Nannyberry, Ailanthus, Butternut, Aspen, Sweet Magnolia, and Scarlet Haw. These species, though not found throughout the county, are often quite common in certain localities. USE OF MATERIAL. The principal uses of wood in the county are for charcoal, building material, pulpwood, ties, telegraph poles, fencing, and firewood. The 20 306 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY local demand for these products, with the possible exception of char- coal and firewood, is greater than the supply. BUILDING MATERIAL. Only a smal] portion of the lumber used for building in Cecil county is manufactured there. The absence of timber suitable for lumber is very noticeable and is emphasized by the fact that there FIG. 23. Cordwood for pulp. Elkton. is not a sawmill of any size operating in the county. Even portable mills are very rare, and can find work for only a few months in the year. Although the population of Cecil county is large and thrifty, and the demand for lumber constant, no attempt is being made to increase the local supply of timber. PULPWOOD. The large pulp mill at Elkton (Fig. 23) consumes annually 12,000 cords of wood, but can obtain only a small amount of it in the county. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 307 The wood of the Tulip-tree (called White Poplar) is the principal pulp material used by the mill. No attempt is being made to grow wood for this industry. The present treatment of the Tulip-tree in Cecil county will decrease rather than increase the future supply. The trees are cut when, they have reached a diameter of 6 or 8 inches (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2). The cutting usually takes place in the spring or early summer, when the bark is easily removed. Stumps cut at this season often refuse to sprout or the stumps decay so rap- idly as to make the sprouts unthrifty or short-lived. Very often thick stands of yo-ung Tulip-trees are cut and every tree removed. When the stumps fail to sprout a second crop is lost, as no seed trees have been left. TIES AND TELEGRAPH POLES. Most of the timber used for these purposes is Oak or Chestnut. Telegraph poles are made from Chestnut, while both Chestnut and Oak are used for railroad ties. The White Oaks are preferred by the tie-makers, but the Red and Black Oaks are often used. There is always a good market for ties and poles in the county and fair prices are paid. Farmers owning stands of younk Oak and Chest- nut often sell them to contractors. A given price per tie or pole is paid or the stand is sold as a whole and the contractors cut what they can from it. This method of disposing of the timber is seldom satis- factory to the farmers, because they are not well-informed as to what a given tract will yield, or what the materials are worth. They are thus the prey of unscrupulous contractors. FENCING. Farmers have for some time been troubled by the gradual disap- pearance of fencing material. The use of hedges and wire has les- sened the demand for Chestnut, the principal material for rails. This material is still plentiful, owing to the rapid growth of the Chestnut from sprouts, and the lessened demand. For posts the farmers pre- fer the White Oaks and Locust. The scarcity of these materials often forces them to use Chestnut. The county's supply of Locust 308 THE FOKESTS OF CECIL COUNTY was never large and the White Oaks are so constantly drawn on for various uses that the supply is always low. CHARCOAL AND COKDWOOD. Cordwood is the principal forest crop of the county. Owing to the cheapness of coal and its greater convenience for domestic use, the amount of wood used for fuel (Fig. 24) is small. The greater part of the cordwood cut is made into charcoal, for use by the Principio FIG. 24. Cordwood for domestic use. Elk Neck. Forge Company. This company's annual consumption is from 325,000 to 350,000 bushels. Charcoal burning has been practiced in this region for over fifty years (Plate XXX, Fig. 2). Whether the local supply of timber for charcoal will keep pace with the de- mand is mainly a question of protecting the forest from fire. FOREST FIRES. Forest fires are responsible for the present poor condition of the Barrens timber. The charcoal burner, in cutting over a tract, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 309 removes all material an inch or more in diameter as shown in figure 24. The kilns are built on the tract, and during the process of burning, or soon after, fire catches in the dry tops and refuse left on the ground and spreads over the cutting. If condi- tions are favorable, fire often spreads to the surrounding woods. Few of the cut-over areas escape fire, and many are repeatedly burned. The sprouting stumps are either killed or injured, and the resulting stand is very open. Many inferior species axe thus allowed to come in, noticeably Mountain Laurel and Scrub Pine, neither of which makes good charcoal. The Barrens are capable of producing 25 cords per acre. Where good stands of Oak and Chestnut are found that much is cut. The present average production is seven cords, or less than one-third of what it should produce. This is the result of fires. If thinning by fire goes on, it will be impossible in the near future to burn charcoal profitably in the county. Although fires are not common in the shore-timber, they are espe- cially noticeable where ties and telegraph poles have been cut. The slash left from such cuttings on these areas usually catches fire and results in great damage to the future crop. FIRE PROTECTION. The only measure to insure fire protection to the forests of the county is the awakening of a sentiment among the farmers that will not tolerate carelessness in regard to fire. Measures for the protec- tion of these forests can be easily devised, but it will be useless if the Cecil land-owners do not care to see them enforced. The owners of forest lands seldom realize their loss when a fire occurs. This is the reason for their indifference. If a crop of hay is burned, the owner appreciates his loss. The crop represents to him the money value of his labor. If the woodland, in young sprouts, is burned and the crop is so thinned that at the time of cut- ting 100 acres yield $1000 instead of $3000, the owner's loss of $2000 is a future one and is not appreciated.. The growing crop requires no outlay of time or money, and is 310 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNT Y therefore considered valueless until the trees reach cordwood size. The wood crop is more often considered a lucky find or a gift than a constant source of revenue to be cared for and protected. The man who sets fire to a field crop is considered a criminal and is punished by law. He who burns a wood crop may boast of it openly without censure. The loss in the first case may be $200, in the second, $2000. As soon as the farmers realize their loss from forest fires they will protect their lands and enforce fire laws. FUTURE OF FORESTS. The present condition of Cecil county forests is the inevitable re- sult of long abuse and neglect. The better soils of the county were once covered with magnificent forests of White Oak and Chestnut on the uplands, and of Tulip-tree, Black Walnut, and Hickory along the streams. To-day there are only a few defective remnants of these forests. EARLY CONDITION. The steady decline of the forest resources of Cecil county is easily explained. The earliest settlers cleared small areas of level land near the shores of the Bay and millions of feet of choice Oak were cut and burned. Year by year new settlers came and cleared forest land ; the older settlers enlarged their fields, and so the forest receded from the more desirable fanning regions. As the population of the county increased, timber for ships, for buildings, and for export was demanded, and the choicest trees con- venient to the watercourses were removed. Consumption and prices increased, and the lumbermen went farther and farther from the water for their logs. Soon even the remoter parts of the county were stripped of their best timber, and as prices continued to rise the material left by the first loggers was finally consumed. The in- crease of population resulted in the clearing of all good agricultural land in the county, and the only timbered areas left were strips along the streams and bay-shore, or on the high hills and poor soils unfit for cultivation. These are the lands now occupied by forests. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY- CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXIX. FIG. 1.— BLACK CHERRY, RED CEDAR, AND SASSAFRAS. FlO. 2.— SCRUB PINE ON LAND ONCE CULTIVATED. ROADSIDE TREES. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 311 Only the growth of the vigorous Chestnut and Tulip-tree, persist- ent under the harshest treatment, makes it possible to obtain desirable material. These species sprout readily from the stump and grow rapidly (Plate XXVIII), and have therefore, in a measure been able to hold their own. The fact that the Tulip-tree bears seed at an early age has also been an important factor in its survival. White Oak has practically disappeared from the greater part of the county, being replaced by the faster growing Red and Black Oaks. The gums, Red Maple, and Scrub Pine are creeping in, in ever-increasing proportions, and writh them many other undesirable species. PRODUCING CAPACITY. Before suggesting a treatment for the improvement of Cecil county forests, the present capacity of the different sections for timber pro- duction should be discussed. The slow growth and small size of the trees of the Barrens (Plate XXVI) limit that region to the production of cordwood. The trees of the shore-timber, however, grow rapidly and reach sizes suitable for 1 amber. The depleted condition of the shore forest makes it impossible to determine by measurement their possible acre yield. The following table gives the present possible yield of the better stands if the material produced were fit for lumber. The figures in the column under "board feet" are the lumber equivalents of the figures under " cords." These cord figures are taken from table on page 299. TABLE SHOWING POSSIBLE YIELD OF SHORE-TIMBER. Average stand Stand on 15,000 per acre. acres. Species. Cords. Board Feet. Cords. Board Feet. Chestnut 3 . 64 3,151 54,600 47,265,000 Red and Black Oaks 2.76 2,395 41,400 35,925,000 Chestnut Oak 2.04 1,751 30,600 26,265,000 White Oaks 1.81 1,503 27,150 22,545,000 Tulip-tree 81 693 12,150 10,395,000 Other species. 3.93 3,417 58,950 51,255,000 Average of all species 14.99 12,910 224,850 193,650,000 312 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY This table shows a stand of 193 million feet of lumber for the shore woodlands if the better stands were present over the entire area. Substract from this the 51 million feet of inferior material under " Other Species " and the total merchantable stand would be 142 million feet of lumber. It is probable that, if the better stands were made to produce full crops and these full crops were found over the entire area of the shore-timber, the merchantable stand would be over 200 million feet of lumber. The possible yield for the Barrens timber, if we consider 30 cords a full crop, would be 600,000 cords. Twenty-five cords per acre are now cut from unburnt areas, so that the estimate of 30 cords per acre is not high. IMPROVEMENT. There are three questions of prime importance to Cecil forest owners : 1. Improvement of the composition of existing stands. 2. Improvement of quality and quantity of material produced. 3. Growth of improved stands on all forest-producing areas unfit for agriculture. To improve the composition of the stands, they must first be pro- tected from fire. At the time of cutting, seed trees of the desired species should be left to reproduce their kind. These trees should be selected from the best found on the area and should, if possible, be in seed-bearing when the cutting takes place. Five to ten trees of each species desired should be left and they should be distributed evenly over the areas and not in groups. In cutting desirable spe- cies which sprout readily from the stump, care should be taken to insure a good sprout growth. The cutting should take place in the fall or winter and the surface of the cut should be slanting to pre- vent a rapid decay of the stump before the sprouts are well estab- lished. An opposite course may be taken with undesirable species. If the cutting takes place in the summer and the tops are piled on the stumps and burned, no sprouts will appear. All defective trees (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1) should be classed with inferior species and MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ii i CECIL COUNTY, PLATE XXX. FIG. 1.— MAKING A KILN. FlO. 2.— BURNING A KILN. CORDWOOD FOR CHARCOAL. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 313 removed with them, their place to be taken by thrifty young sprouts or seedlings. The trees to remain for a crop on the Barrens are Chestnut, and the Red, Black and White Oaks. The main crop of the shore-timber should come from Tulip-tree, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Chestnut, White Ash, Black Walnut, and Mockernut Hickory. A supplemental crop may come from the other Oaks, Ashes, and Hickories, the Elms, Locust, and Dogwood. After the composition of a stand has been improved by the re- moval of the weeds and the starting of a good crop, the quality and quantity of the desired crop must be considered. This is simply de- ciding on the cultivation necessary to produce the largest possible amount of good material. If a cordwood crop is grown, each acre should have enough trees to shade the ground and prevent its dry- ing; surface fires must be kept out, as the litter helps to retain the moisture of the soil. The shade and litter are essential to the best growth of the trees. FOT the cordwood crop the stands should be even-aged, maturing, like grain crops, at one time, giving a clean cut, and thus lessening the cost of production. The cordwood crop may be compared to the grass or small grain crops, both are started and left to themselves until the time for cutting. A lumber crop, like a special agricultural crop, tobacco, for instance, requires con- stant care from planting to maturity, in order to produce the desired quality and quantity of material. Only the general needs of a lum- ber crop may be mentioned here. Litter and shade are as important for the lumber crop as for cord- wood. Tall trunks, clear of limbs, make the best lumber, and to produce these the trees must stand very close in their youth (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2). The lower limbs die in the shade and drop early r and the young trees grow tall and straight. After the clear boles, or trunks, are secured, the stands must be thinned to allow the trunks to increase in diameter. Several thinnings may be neces- sary during the life of a crop. If we start with 1000 small trees per acre, there may be room for only 200 large trees when they are ready to cut. In thinning, the 800 trees must be re- moved. The early thinnings will furnish fuel, posts, and rails, and 314 THE FORESTS OF CECIL COUNTY the later ones, ties, telegraph poles, pulpwood, and some lumber. It will thus be no longer necessary to destroy entire woods (Fig. 24) to obtain these materials, as is common to-day. These suggestions for growing and cultivating a. crop of timber are easily followed on lands where a good forest growth is found (Plate XXVII). On areas with only a scattered growth of inferior trees or brush the problem of growing an improved stand is often a difficult and costly one to solve. There are thousands of acres of land in the county suited to forest growth and un- suited to agriculture. These lands, producing less than a cord of wood per acre, represent idle capital which should bear interest in the form of wood crops. To establish a crop, many of these areas will have to be seeded or planted. This method of starting forests is expensive if undertaken on a large scale. Most of the untimbered areas of Cecil county are small and are scattered through the farm lands. If, each winter, when the work is slack, the farmers would plant a portion of their waste lands with trees, a good crop could be started with but little loss of time and money to the owners. Locust, Tulip-tree, "White Ash, Black Walnut, and White Oak are suggested as suita.ble for this planting. Either seed or young trees may be used. The area of the shore-timber would be doubled if all areas unfit for cultivation were planted with forest trees. It is believed that if the forest land in Cecil county were properly treated it would yield annually a neat sum from the sale of material and each succeeding year see its value increased; the wood-consuming industries of the county could be supplied with home-grown material ; money which now leaves the county would remain and add to its wealth; lumber industries would spring up and give employment to men in the winter months when work is scarce; and the county would thus be able to support an increased population and add materially to the resources and prosperity of the State. THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY BY H. M. CURRAN WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY GEORGE B. SUDWORTH INTRODUCTION. The following report on the " Forests of Garrett County " is made under the direction of the Bureau of Forestry, in cooperation with the Maryland Geological Survey. For the history of this coopera- tion and a statement of the .special purposes of these forest investiga- tions, the reader is referred to the reports on the " Forests of Allegany County," ' and the " Forests of Cecil County." 2 Mr. H. M. Curran, Agent in the Bureau of Forestry, Division of Forest Investigation, has prepared the present report, which is based on a careful personal study of the forest conditions of the county. He was assisted in making valuation surveys of the several types of forest by Messrs. J. E. Keac'h, A. O. Waha, and F. R. Miller. Credit is due, also, to Mr. John Foley, of the Division of Forest Management, for the very excellent photographs from which the half-tone illustrations for this report were made. A very important feature of Mr. Curran's report is the develop- ment of the fact that Garrett county still possesses considerable tim- ber, and that, with fire protection and regulated cutting, the forests of the county can be expected to yield a steady supply of timber, which is greatly needed for the development of local mines and other industries. As a means of securing a constant supply of timber and also of increasing and preserving the natural beauty of the region, the recommendation that the state acquire as rapidly as possible, as 1 Md. Geol. Survey, Allegany County, 1900, p. 263. 2 Md. Geol. Survey, Cecil County, 1902, p. 295. 304 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY much non-agricultural land as is available for the establishment of a forest reserve, is worthy of serious consideration. In the same man- ner that the adoption of a national forest policy is necessary and is becoming more and more possible, it is the duty and to the interest of every forest-bearing state to give support to the general move- ment and at the same time to determine a policy for the fullest development and the best management of its forest resources. Gar- rett county has a large area of rough, untillable mountain land suit- able only foT forest growth. It is believed that this land should be concentrated in a state forest reserve. While the general advice given in the present report for the care of woodlands is not intended to take the place of a detailed forest working plan, nevertheless, observance of this advice will go far to improve the present condition of Garrett county forests. It is hoped, also, that the present report will pave the way for a more detailed study of Garrett county forest lands and stimulate the owners of both large and small woodlots to apply the principles of practical forestry. GENERAL CONDITIONS. Garrett, as has been described in the preceding pages, is the largest and most western of the counties of Maryland. Within its roughly triangular shape, it has an area of 680 square miles, or 435,200 acres. The northern boundary of the county is formed by Pennsylvania, the southern by the Potomac river, and the western by West Virginia. Allegany county lies to the east of Garrett. The dividing line is straight and extends in a southwesterly direction from the crest of Savage Mountain at the Mason and Dixon Line, to the confluence of the Savage and Potomac rivers. The only irregular boundary of Garrett county is the southern, where the county line follows the windings of the Potomac river. The most marked topographic features of the county are four high, flat-topped mountain ridges, which extend from Pennsylvania into the county in a southwesterly direction. The two central ridges which are known as Negro and Meadow mountains, converge near Thayer- ville, whence they extend southwestward in a single but less distinct MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXI MAP OF GARRETT COUNTY SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TYPES MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK CLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST 1902 LEGEND Swamp Forest Stap&Forest ggS RLdg&Forest ~^\ CWletLancL cat-over Forest A.Hoen *• Co. lath.BalHrr MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 305 ridge of which Roman jSTose is the highest peak. The eastern and longest ridge extends entirely across the county and bears the names of Savage and Backbone mountains. Savage river breaks through this ridge in the eastern part of the county, the northern portion of the ridge being known as Big Savage Mountain and the southern as Great Backbone Mountain. Winding Ridge, which is the fourth and most western, extends parallel to Negro Mountain from the Pennsyl- vania line to a point near Sang Run. Here its distinct ridge-like character is lost in an irregular group of peaks and table-land on both sides of the Youghiogheny river. These four main ridges have a general elevation above sea-level of from 2500 to 3400 feet. They often rise abruptly to elevations above the river beds of from 1000 to 1800 feet. The river channels through the mountains are deep, narrow ravines, with sides so steep and strewn with boulders as to be difficult of ascent. The agricultural valleys between the ridges and along the streams have a general elevation of 2500 feet above sea-level. They are seldom moTe than 500 feet below the crests of the highest ridges and are usually 500 to 1000 feet above the river beds. Garrett county is well drained. The streams start on the high mountain slopes and flow rapidly to the rivers below. The principal streams of the county are, the Youghiogheny, Potomac, Savage, and Castleman rivers. The Youghiogheny and Castleman rivers unite in Pennsylvania and join the Monongahela. Their waters, through the Ohio and Mississippi, finally reach the Gulf of Mexico. The Savage and Potomac rivers unite and send their waters to Chesapeake Bay. The rivers are from thirty to one hundred feet in widthj and their beds are usually filled with a mass of rounded stones and boulders. The depth of water varies with the width of the stream and the season of the year, from a few inches to three or four feet. The boulders in the stream beds make navigation of any kind impos- sible. It is therefore necessary to remove the timber along the streams by means of railroads following the watercourses. The area of Garrett county is 435,200 acres. The agricultural 20 306 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY valleys include forty-six per cent of this, or 199,900 acres. It is not probable that the farming areas of the county will be materially in- creased in the future, as the best lands are now occupied, and many areas once cultivated are being abandoned on account of their poor soil. The tilled lands often extend up from the valleys over the foot- hills and high on the ridges themselves. The soils of the valleys are deep and vary from a clay to sandy loam. The soil of the higher slopes is shallow and rocky, but fertile, producing good grain crops. FOREST LANDS. Fifty-four per cent, or 235,200 acres, of Garrett county is wooded. Of this wooded area, 210,200 acres are cut-over or culled forest lands, and 25,100 acres are in virgin forests. CUT AND CULLED FORESTS. These areas are found in all parts of the county and include the principal types of timber discussed later. The best or all of the timber on these lands has been taken. The present growth varies from low brush of Mountain Laurel and Barren Oak to mature forests from which only the best material has been removed. The largest portion of the culled and cut-over lands bears a sprO'Ut growth of oaks and chestnut, 5 to 30 feet high. Scattered singly or in groups through these sprout forests are old defective or inferior trees left by the lumbermen. The soil of these forest lands varies, but is mainly poor, shallow, and rocky, unsuited to agriculture other than pasture. The map (Plate XXI) shows the area and distribution of these lands with reference to the agricultural lands and virgin forests. VIRGIN FORESTS. The present area of the virgin forests of the county is 25,100 acres. The timber is, however, rapidly disappearing. The local mills cut annually from 1000 to 3000 acres. The acreage of these forests may be divided among three types, as follows: Type. Acres. Ridge Timber 20,220 Slope Timber 4,1$3 Swamp Timber 733 Total 25,146 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 307 At present the greater part of the lumbering is in the Slope and Swamp forests, but unless the ridge timber is also cut, most of the mills will be idle in a few years. The character of the virgin forests may be best understood by a study of them by types. The distribution of the types is shown on the map (Plate XXI). Ridge Timber. This forest type occupies the benches and broken, rocky crests (see Plate IX, Fig. 6 and Plate XXY, Fig. 1) of Backbone, Meadow, and Negro mountains. It is essentially a chestnut for- est. The soils upon which it occurs are shallow and sandy, or very rocky. The acreage of this forest (20,220) is four times the combined acreage of the other two types. Commercially it is the least important of the three. This is due to the inferior character of the Ridge Timber. The trees have short trunks, and are often stunted in exposed situations. The Chestnut, which is the principal commer- cial tree of the type, is usually defective. The trunks are first in- jured by repeated fires, and finally rendered unfit for lumber by the entrance of fungi and insects. The defectiveness of the Ridge Timber is the principal reason for such large areas remaining unlum- bered. It is probable that, with the exhaustion of the timber of the Slope and Swamp forests, and the development of the mining inter- ests of the county, the Ridge Timber will be lumbered and thus added to the cut and culled area of the county. The character of this type, in which Chestnut predominates, is shown in Table No. 1, on follow- ing page. Slope Timber. The Slope Timber is commercially the most important of the three types. It contains the largest number of species, and, with one exception (Table No. 6), the heaviest growth of timber. The compo- sition of the slope forest varies between two extremes. On the steep slopes above the Youghiogheny river it is often pure Hemlock, and in the richer coves almost pure White Oak. Between these extremes we have slopes upon which Hemlock and hardwoods mingle, while 308 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY on other slopes Chestnut predominates, there being but little Hem- lock or White Oak present. TABLE NO. 1. Average of 33 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Species. Average number of trees per acre. Chestnut 29.45 Red Oak 12.47 White Oak 6.68 Chestnut Oak 4.00 Red Maple 3.30 Sweet Birch 2.42 Hemlock 18 Basswood 15 Beech 06 White Pine Spruce Sugar Maple Yellow Birch Other species 3.50 Average of all species 62.21 Percentage Average Average of each diameter stand species, breast-high, per acre. (Doyle Rule.) Inches. Board Feet. 47.34 20.04 10.73 6.43 5.34 3.88 .29 .24 .09 5.62 100.00 18.6 17.9 18.1 16.7 16.6 15.8 24.4 15.5 15.1 14.1 17.5 10,034.59 2,170.28 1,582.23 843.19 914.40 331.31 149.25 18.09 9.57 354.03 16,406.94 NOTE. — "Other species" include the occasional and inferior trees occurring with the merchantable species. The Slope Timber may be divided into the following sub-types, which are determined by the abundance of the principal species: Sub type. Acres. Chestnut 2,290 Hemlock and hardwoods 1,280 White Oak 480 Hemlock 143 Total 4,193 CHESTNUT. — This sub-type is found in two bodies, one on the Youghiogheny river, near Sang Run, the other on Monroe Run, a tributary of Savage river. These bodies occupy steep slopes above the streams and represent the best hardwood growth of the county. The following table shows the composition of these forests : MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXII. FIG. 1.— HEMLOCK AND HARDWOODS, NEAR BEVANSVILLE. PlG. 2.— WHITE OAK AND HEMLOCK, NEAR BEVANSVILLE. FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TABLE NO. 2. SUB-TYPE: CHESTNUT. Average of 15 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. 309 Species. Chestnut Average number of trees per acre. 22.29 Percentage Average of each diameter spec i es. breast-high . Inches. 36.06 19.7 20.51 18.2 9.16 22.9 8.75 16.6 3.99 15.6 3.34 16.5 2.83 16.4 2.51 23.5 .23 19.4 12.62 15.2 Average stand per acre. (Doyle Kule.) Board Feet. 8,906.09 4,355.25 2,571.90 851.06 344.63 331.36 366.69 988.37 29.12 946.93 Sugar Maple 12.68 Red Oak 5.66 Basswood 5.41 Yellow Birch 2.47 Sweet Birch ... 2 07 Beech 1.75 White Oak 1.55 14 Hemlock White Pine Red Maple Other species , , 7.80 Average of all species 61.82 100.00 18.6 19,691.39 WHITE OAK. — There are only three small bodies of this sub-type in the county, and the preservation of this timber is accounted for by the fact that the owners do not wish to sell. White Oak was one of the first timbers cut. in the county and is still eagerly sought. The best of this oak is found in coves, or on moist, gentle slopes along streams. The soil which it occupies is usually deep, and makes good farming land. With the removal of this timber and the clearing of the land, it is hardly probable that there will ever be a second growth of pure White Oak in the county. The character of the White Oak stands is shown in Table No. 3, on following page. HEMLOCK AND HARDWOODS. — The forests of this sub-type were once quite extensive, occupying the gradual slopes along the rivers and other streams. Recent lumbering operations have rapidly reduced these areas. There are three small tracts in the county, two on Castleman river and one on Bear Creek. The Castleman tracts are being lumbered, while the Bear Creek tract remains uncut. The 310 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY largest operations in the county have had for their principal object the removal of Hemlock. Extensive stands on the Youghiogheny river, Bear Creek, and Cherry Creek have been recently cut. Except in the recent cuttings on Castleman river, fire has followed lumber- ing, killing the reproduction and small trees left by loggers. In many places the fire has been so severe as to completely destroy all vege- tation on the area; the abundant humus, and even the top layers of the soil have also been burned. !N~o reproduction of Hemlock can be expected on these areas. The probability of a future stand of this species in the county is practically destroyed, unless artificial planting is done. (See Plate XXIII, Fig. 1.) TABLE NO. 3. SUB-TYPE: WHITE OAK. Average of 25 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Species. White Oak Average : number of trees per acre. 46.80 Percentage Average of each diameter species, breast-high. Inches. 81.12 17.7 10.75 18.7 4.03 17.4 2.29 15.4 1.11 18.6 .21 15.3 .14 16.1 .35 14.7 Average stand per acre. (Doyle Rule.) Board Feet. 10,110.08 2,134.72 448.00 271.44 169.08 29.84 11.88 22.16 Chestnut 6 20 Red Oak ..... 2 32 Red Maple . . . . 1.32 Chestnut Oak 64 White Pine , , 12 Sweet Birch 08 Hemlock . . . Spruce Sugar Maple , Yellow Birch Beech Basswood Other species 20 Average of all species 57.68 100.00 17.6 13,197.20 The principal hardwood of this sub-type is Sugar Maple. The sugar groves of the county are small areas of the type from which the Hemlock and all hardwoods, except the Maple, have been re- moved. These sugar orchards are neither numerous nor extensive except in the Castleman valley. The farmers show but little interest MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 311 in the maple sugar industry or in the orchards; the old trees are often defective and there are many dead trees throughout the groves. Nothing is being done to improve old groves or to produce new ones, and as the lumbering operations are taking the principal areas con- taining Sugar Maple, the future production of sugar and syrup will probably be small. The character of the stand of this sub-type is shown in the follow- ing table : , : •"• TABLE NO. 4. SUB-TYPE: HEMLOCK AND HAED WOODS. Average of 29 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in Species. Average number of trees per acre. Hemlock 23.37 Sugar Maple 20.57 Beech 7.72 Basswood 5.54 Yellow Birch 4.34 White Oak 2.58 Chestnut 2.21 Red Oak 1.89 Sweet Birch , 1.62 Chestnut Oak 15 White Pine Spruce Red Maple Other species 2.72 Average of all species 72.71 diameter breast-high. Percentage Average Average of each diameter stand species, breast-high, per acre. (Doyle Rule.) Inches. Board Feet. 18.8 32.14 28.29 10.62 7.62 5.97 3.55 3.04 2.59 2.23 .21 3.74 100.00 18.5 14.9 17.1 17.7 24.6 19.1 21.1 17.6 22.9 17.1 18.3 9,194.55 7,209.05 1,177.04 707.50 801.45 1,583.28 823.87 665.96 330.80 76.84 603.70 23,374.14 HEMLOCK. — The last stand of practically pure Hemlock is found on the Youghiogheny river near Muddy Creek. This, with the excep- tion of the White Pine of the Swamp Timber, is the heaviest stand in the county. The trees are large and grow on steep, rocky slopes above the river. A dense thicket of laurel covers the ground under the trees and adds to the difficulty of lumbering. However, the cost of logging on this tract has not prevented the lumbermen from attempting the removal of the timber. A railroad is being built 312 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY along the foot of this slope and with its completion logging will commence. (See Plate IX, Fig. 2.) The character of the stand is shown in the following table: TABLE NO. 5. SUB-TYPE : HEMLOCK. Averag'e of 25 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Species. Average Percentage Average Average number of of each diameter stand, trees per acre, species, breast-high. per acre. (Doyle Rule.) Hemlock 54.72 Yellow Birch 4.20 Sugar Maple 1.56 Beech 1.00 Basswood 76 Red Maple 40 White Oak 20 White Pine 16 Sweet Birch 12 Chestnut 08 Red Oak 04 Chestnut Oak Spruce Other species 36 Average of all species 63.60 Inches. Board Feet. 86.04 20.0 27,483.41 6.60 16.2 681.92 2.45 19.8 673.16 1.58 14.9 154.56 1.18 17.2 149.28 .64 14.8 74.12 .33 22.4 84.92 .25 21.0 77.88 .19 13.1 9.52 .12 l&O 8.00 .06 17.0 7.00 .56 100.00 16.3 19.6 62.52 29,466.29 Swamp Timber. This is the last of the three principal types of virgin forest. The other two, Ridge Timber and Slope Timber, have each a much larger acreage than this. The Swamp Timber has fewer species than any of the types of forest, and yet contains the most valuable timber of all. The principal species are Spruce and White Pine, with a varying amount of Hemlock. The areas occupied by this type surround and extend into the swamps and sedge-covered tracts along the streams, known as Glades and mountain meadows. The wetter portions of these areas are covered with herbaceous plants and alder brush, and the drier portions are heavily wooded. The timber growth is mainly Spruce, with occasional groups of excellent White Pine. The last of this Swamp Timber is found in the depressions between Negro and Meadow mountains at the head of Cherry Creek. It is being MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXIII. FIG. 1.— HEMLOCK AND HARDWOODS, CASTLEMAN RIVER. FIG. 2.— RIDGE TIMBER. EFFECT OF FIRES ON CHESTNUT, BACKBONE MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 313 rapidly lumbered, and will be removed within two years. (See Plate XVIII, Figs. 1, 2.) Two sub-types of the Swamp Timber are distinguishable; the first has White Pine as the predominant species, and the second, Spruce. WHITE PINE. — White Pine was once quite a common tree along the streams and rivers of Garrett county, and was one of the first timbers removed. It reached the best development and grew in almost pure stands on the moist level lands surrounding the swamps and mountain meadows. The areas occupied by this growth were never more than a few acres in extent, and the number of such areas was small. As a scattered tree along the streams and mountain slopes it was fairly common and reached large sizes. The reproduc- tion of this pine is fairly abundant, considering the numbers of old trees and the treatment it has received. Young seedlings are found throughout the county and are making a good growth. (See Plate XVIII, Fig. 12.) The last group of pure White Pine in the county was cut recently. The following table is the result of the measurement of three acres of this sub-type: TABLE NO. 6. SUB-TYPE WHITE PINE. Average of 3 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Average number of trees per acre. White Pine 40.30 Hemlock 11.66 Red Maple 7.66 Spruce 7.65 Yellow Birch 4.00 Chestnut 33 White Oak .33 Red Oak 33 Basswood Sweet Birch Beech Sugar Maple Chestnut Oak Other species Average of all species 72.26 Percentage Aveiage of each diameter Average stand species, breast-high, per acre. (Doyle Kule.) Inches. Board Feet. 55.76 25.9 33,473.6 16.13 20.6 7,285.3 10.60 14.6 1,898.9 10.57 16.0 1,369.3 5.53 15.4 533.0 .47 17.0 79.3 .47 18.0 71.6 .47 12.0 16.6 100.00 5.1 44,727.6 314 THE FORESTS OF GAKRETT COUNTY SPRUCE. — The winter of 1902 will probably see the last large stand of Spruce in the county removed. It is at the head of Cherry Creek, between Negro and Meadow mountains. The best of the Spruce occurs on the level or gradually sloping land surrounding the swamps. As the land rises, and becomes drier, oak and other hard- woods prevail. The stand of Spruce is good; the trees have grown rapidly, are tall, and the trunks are clean. In all respects it seems well adapted to this locality, and but for the fact that the lands upon which it grows are valuable for agriculture, it would seem wise to encourage the growth of Spruce. The reproduction here is fair, and except for the fires which follow logging, would insure a good second growth. Spruce, like White Pine, sometimes occurs as one of the lesser components of the moist slope forests. On Backbone Mountain, near the West Virginia line, it occurs with Hemlock in considerable abun- dance, but is being rapidly removed. The following table is from measurements taken in the stand of Spruce at the head of Cherry Creek: TABLE NO. 7. SUB-TYPE: SPEUCE. Average of 20 acres. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Species. Average number of Percentage of each Average diameter Average stand trees per acre. species, breast-high. per acre. (Doyle Rule.) Inches. Board Feet. Spruce 41 10 63.81 17.0 13,341.75 Hemlock 15 40 23 91 21 7 10 097 15 Yellow Birch . 4 50 6 99 16 4 708 40 Red Maple 1 50 2 33 17 6 474 55 Beech 1 05 1 63 15 8 mfiO Sugar Maple . 50 77 20 2 236 40 White Pine . . . 20 31 19 1 69 25 Basswood .... Sweet Birch . . Red Oak Chestnut Oak . White Oak . . . Chestnut Other species 15 25 -in q 40 70 Average of all species ....64.40 100.00 18.1 25,162.80 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 315 The Stand. The figures for the present stand of timber in Garrett county were obtained by multiplying the acreage of each forest type by the aver- age acre yield obtained from measurements of typical areas within the type. In the table no allowance is made for defective timber. The Ridge Timber has been excluded from the merchantable class on account of its general defectiveness. The following tables show the present stand of virgin timber by types and the merchantable stand by types and species: TABLE NO. 8. TOTAL STAND. Type. Sub-type. Area. Acres. RIDGE TIMBEE. Chestnut 20,220 SLOPE TIMBEE. Chestnut 2,290 White Oak 480 Hemlock and hardwoods 1,280 Hemlock 143 SWAMP TIMBEE. Spruce 730 White Pine . 3 Average stand per acre. Board Feet. 16,406 19,691 13,197 23,375 29,467 25,163 44,728 Total 25,146 17,330 Total stand. Board Feet. 331,729,000 45,092,000 6,334,000 29",920,000 4,213,000 18,368,000 134,000 435,790,000 TABLE NO. 9. MERCHANTABLE STAND. Type. Sub-type. SLOPE TIMBEE. Chestnut Area. Acres. 2,290 Average stand per acre. Board Feet. 18 744 Total stand. Board Feet. 42 923 000 White Oak 480 13,175 6 324 000 Hemlock and Hardwoods . . .1280 22 771 29 146 000 Hemlock 143 29 404 4 204 000 SWAMP TIMBEE. Spruce 730 25 119 18 336 000 White Pine 3 44,728 134 000 Total 4,926 20,517 101,067,000 316 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY TABLE NO. 10. MERCHANTABLE STAND. Species. Total Stand. Board Feet. Hemlock 23,092,000 Chestnut 22,475,000 Sugar Maple 19,469,000 Spruce 9,745,000 White Oak 9,154,000 Bed Oak 6,958,000 Basswood 3,132,000 Beech 2,509,000 Yellow Birch 2,432,000 Sweet Birch 1,188,000 Ked Maple 491,000 Chestnut Oak 246,000 White Pine 176,000 Total 101,067,000 FOREST TREES. Composition of Forests. The forests of Garrett county, like those of Allegany county adjoin- ing on the east, are rich in species. The following list includes most of the trees found in Allegany county1 and has, in addition, a few trees not found there: Conifers. White Pine Pinus strobus. Pitch Pine Pinus rigida. Tamarack Larix laricina. Black Spruce Picea mariana. Ked Spruce Picea rumens. Hemlock Tsuga canadensis. Hardwoods. Butternut Juglans cinerea. Black Walnut Juglans nigra. Bitternut Hickory Hicoria minima. Shag-bark Hickory Hicoria ovata. Mockernut Hickory Hicoria alba. Pignut Hickory Hicoria glabra. 1 See " The Forests of Allegany County," by Geo. B. Sudworth. Allegany County Report. Maryland Geological Survey, 1900. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXIV. FIG. 1.— VIRGIN FOREST NEAR GRANTSVILLE. FlG. 2.— CULLED FOREST NEAR GRANTSVILLE. FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 317 White Willow Salix alba. Aspen Populus tremuloides. Large-tooth Aspen Populus grandidentata. Yellow Birch Betula lutea. Sweet Birch Betula lenta. Hornbeam Ostrya virginiana. Blue Beech Carpinus caroliniana. Beech Fagus atropunicea. Chestnut Castanea dentata. White Oak .Quercus alba. Chestnut Oak Quercus prinus. Red Oak Quercus rubra. Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea. Yellow Oak Quercus velutina. Barren Oak Quercus pumila. Slippery Elrn Ulmu$ pubescens. White Elrn Ulmus americana. Eed Mulberry Morus rubra. Cucumber-tree Magnolia acuminata. Tulip-tree Liriodendron tullpifera. Papaw Asimina triloba. Sassafras Sassafras sassafras. Witch Hazel Hamamelis virginiana. Sycamore .Platanns occidentalis. Sweet Crab Pyrus coronaria. Mountain Ash Pijrus americana. Serviceberry Amelanchier canadensis. Scarlet Haw Crataeyus coccinea. Black Cherry Primus serotina. Redbud Cercis canadensis. Locust Jf-obinia pseudacacia. Stag-horn Sumach Rhus Mrta. Dwarf Sumach Rhus copallina. Mountain Ma.ple Acer spicatum. Striped Maple Acer pennsylranicum. Sugar Maple Acer saccharum. Red Maple Acer rubrum. Basswood Tilia americana. Angelica-tree Aralia spinosa. Flowering Dogwood Cornus florida. Blue Dogwood Cornus alternifolia. Black Gum Nyssa sylvatica. Great Rhododendron Rhododendron maximum. Persimmon Diospyros (viryiniana. Black Ash Fraxinus nigra. White Ash Fraxinus americana. Red Ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica. Sheepberry Viburnum lentago. 318 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY Distribution of Forest Trees. The trees of the county may be divided into two groups, the mer- chantable and the unmerchantable. The first group includes all trees reaching a suitable size for timber and furnishing material for manufacture. The second group includes the remaining smaller trees of the county, their principal use being as props, charcoal, or cordwood. MERCHANTABLE SPECIES. — This group includes the six conifers found in the county and 38 of the hardwoods. The trees that occur in measurable quantities (as shown in the preceding tables) and fur- nish the bulk of the merchantable timber are: White Pine, Black Spruce, Red Spruce, Hemlock, Yellow Birch, Sweet Birch, Beech, Chestnut, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Eed Oak, Sugar Maple, Red Maple, and Basswood. The common trees of the upper slopes and ridges are: Chestnut, Red Oak, White Oak (Plate XXII, Fig. 2), Chestnut Oak, and Sweet Birch (Plate IX, Fig. 1), on the lower slopes and along the streams, Hemlock (Plate XXII, Fig. 2), Basswood, Beech, Sugar Maple, and Yellow Birch predominate, while in the swamps and mountain meadow lands Red and Black Spruce, White Pine and Red Maple are common. Of the better class of timber trees occurring in the county, but not in measurable quantities, Black Walnut, the hickories, the elms, Cucumber-tree, Tulip-tree, and White Ash are found on the richer slopes and along the streams; Red and Black Ash and Black Cherry in the mountain meadow lands; and on the ridges and drier upper slopes Yellow Oak, Scarlet Oak and Black Locust. The latter occurs as a seedling growth following fire on cut-over lands. A third class of merchantable trees of lesser importance (partly due to their poor development here) includes Pitch Pine, Tamarack, Butternut, White Willow, Aspen, Large-tooth Aspen, Sycamore, Flowering Dogwood, Black Gum, and Persimmon. With these may also be included Red Mulberry, Sassafras, Hornbeam, and Blue Beech, which are of slight importance and are used only by farmers and woodsmen for special purposes. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 319 The Pitch Pine is a low, knotty tree of the cut and burned ridges, valueless as a commercial timber. The Tamarack is found only in the swamps in small quantities and poorly developed. The Sycamore occurs only on the larger streams and seldom reaches a large size. The other trees are more widely distributed and have a fair develop- ment. UNMERCHANTABLE SPECIES. — The trees of this group include seven- teen species, and all are hardwoods. They are small trees, or in many localities merely shrubs. The common trees of the group found on the ridges and dry slopes are Barren Oak, Mountain Ash, the Su- machs, Angelica-tree, and Mountain Laurel; along the streams Papaw, Witch Hazel, Sweet Crab, Serviceberry, Scarlet Haw, Red- bud, and Blue Dogwood occur; the Striped and Mountain maples are found on the steep river slopes and the Rhododendron and Sheep- berry in the swamps. The dense undergrowth and thickets in many parts of the county are formed by trees of this group. The Mountain Laurel and Rhodo- dendron often make almost impenetrable thickets in the swamps and along streams. On the ridges and dry slopes the Barren Oak and Mountain Laurel have frequently taken complete possession of the ground after fire and form low, dense thickets. The Sweet Crab and Scarlet Haw also form thickets from 10 to 20 feet high in the moist level glade land along streams. LUMBERING. Garrett county has lumbering interests second to none in the state. Their rapid growth in the past few years is due to the activity of the mills cutting Hemlock. Three large mills are at work in the county, one is building (Plate XXYI, Fig. 2), and there is prospect of another. One of the mills has finished cutting its Garrett county holdings and brings logs from West Virginia. Two West Virginia companies secure part of their material from the slopes of Backbone Mountain. These large mills cut the hard and soft wood with the Hemlock, and thus lengthen their operations. Unless the mills acquire and cut the defective ridge forests, they will have to be closed within the next ten years. 320 THE FORESTS OF GABKETT COUNTY The present annual cut of the mills of the county is about 25 mil- lion feet. The small portable mills, of which there are a number in the county, cut less than one-fifth of this annual output. The bulk of the lumber cut is Hemlock, while Spruce, White Pine, Chestnut, Oak, Maple, Beech, and Basswood furnish the remainder. The -nrin- cipal manufactured product is lumber and with it large quantities of lath, shingles and barrels are produced. The object of the large companies is to cut and market as rapidly as possible all material on their tracts. The mills are located on streams and the logs are brought from the woods over logging rail- roads. In one case the haul is over 15 miles. The mills are con- nected with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad by means of spurs and load their product for shipment direct from the yards. The small mills do not run steadily and the quality of lumber pro- duced is generally poor. Their cut is mainly hardwood and is, in many instances, from culled forest or small isolated bodies of fair timber. The logs are brought to the mills by teams and the manu- factured lumber is hauled by wagons to shipping points. A few small mills are making soft-wood shingles, but find it difficult to obtain material for a continuous run. The present unconservative methods of lumbering in the county are rapidly denuding the best timber lands, Xo attempt is being made to- insure a future supply. The cut is as close as possible, and includes all material that can be marketed. Little care is exercised to prevent fires after lumbering and the greater part of the slashings are burnt over. The fires have been so severe in places as to com- pletely kill all timber and other growth left on the land. This is espe- cially noticeable on the Spruce and Hemlock slashings. FOREST FIRES. The future of Garrett county as a lumber producing region is not bright. This is due to the severe lumbering and to the prevalence of forest fires in the county. The problem of protecting the cut-over and culled forest lands is here, as in all the principal lumber regions p of the United States, one of paramount importance. No single prob- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXV. FIG. 1.— RIDGE TIMBER, CHESTNUT AND OAK, BACKBONE MOUNTAIN. FlO. 2.— CUT AND CULLED FOREST, HEMLOCK LANDS, CASTLEMAN RIVER. FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 321 lem confronting timber production in the county outranks this. Fires in the forest are usually the result of carelessness. In sections where logging companies employ locomotives, fires from carelessness are very common. The condition of the cut-over lands on the Youghiogheny river, Bear Creek, and Cherry Creek is a good illustration of the indifference of the lumber companies of the county to damage by fire. Thousands of young Spruce and much good material cut and skidded were destroyed or injured by fire last year in the cutting between Negro and Meadow mountains. Fires on the ridge have rendered the trees there defective and in places even the humus and thin layers of soil over the rock have been destroyed. A similar damage is also noticeable on the Hemlock cuttings along the Youghiogheny river and Bear Creek. Large areas of culled Chestnut and Oak lands in all parts of the county have been burned over and thrifty young sprouts and seedlings were killed and in many cases the stumps also. Repeated fires in some sections have completely destroyed the valu- able trees, especially on the ridges where the burns are now waste tracts covered with only a low growth of Barren Oak, Mountain Laurel, and scattered patches of scrubby Pitch Pine. Through neglect and indifference one of the county's chief sources of revenue is rapidly disappearing. Its growing industries will be seriously crippled if some action is not taken to prevent the cutting off of the local supply of wood materials. USES or WOOD. The wood of Garrett county reaches the market in two forms, either as a manufactured product or as a raw material. The manu- factured products are, lumber (including plank and square or dimen- sion stuff), shingles, lath, barrels, and excelsior. The raw material marketed includes pulpwood, mining timbers, spars, railroad ties, fencing material, fuel and tanbark. In value and amount the manu- factured products exceed the raw material. LUMBER. — Most of the timber cut in the county goes to the mills and is sawn into boards, plank, or dimension stuff. The combined daily cut of the mills averages about 100,000 feet, board measure. 21 322 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY The coniferous lumber comes from Hemlock, Spruce, and White Pine. Oak and Maple furnish most of the hardwood lumber, while smaller amounts of Beech, Birch, and Basswood are manufactured. LATH, SHINGLES, BARRELS AND EXCELSIOR. — Some of the large lum- ber mills also manufacture lath and shingles from their softwood slabs, while a few small mills in the county make nothing: but shingles. The annual output of the shingle mills is small compared with the lumber produced and the run of the mills is irregular owing to the scarcity of suitable material. * A barrel factory operated in connection with one of the large mills uses all of the good White Oak on the company's tract. A small mill at Blaine is engaged exclusively in the manufacture of excelsior. Small but entire logs are used. PULPWOOD. — The trees commonly used for pulpwood are Spruce, Basswood, Cucumber-tree and Tulip-tree. There is, however, no extensive cutting in the county for pulpwood alone. Only small inferior trees and tops reach the pulp mills. Softwood slabs from the saw-mills are sometimes used for certain grades of pulp. The annual cut of pulpwood varies and is never large. The nearest market for this material is at Luke, Allegany county, on the Potomac river. MINING TIMBERS. — The demand for these materials is a growing one and of considerable importance. The mines of the Georges Creek valley in Allegany county and those surrounding Piedmont are the principal users of mine timbers. Savage Mountain is being stripped of its timber to furnish these mines. Any sound tree six inches in diameter may be used for props. The culled forests and other sprout- lands yield a fair amount of prop timber. Further growth of the mining interests of the county will probably create a large demand for mine props and lagging, so that in the future the production of this timber is likely to be an industry of great importance to the county. SPARS. — Spruce is the only timber in the county used for spars. Formerly in cutting a tract of Spruce the spars were the first material removed, as only the very best of the trees could be used. The spar MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 323 industry, however, is practically at an end. The last body of Spruce fit for this purpose is being cut now, and the land from which the timber is being taken will probably be used for agriculture, so that it is not likely that a second crop of Spruce will be grown. TIES. — The timber used for ties is mainly of small size, or of inferior quality. The logging and coal roads use most of the ties cut. Hemlock, Beech, Birch, and Maple are used by the logging roads, while a better class of ties are cut from White Oak, Chestnut Oak, and Chestnut for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The cutting is done by farmers or small contractors during the winter or other dull seasons. The ridge and culled forests furnish most of this timber. FENCING MATERIAL. — Farmers readily obtain plenty of good fenc- ing material from the large areas of culled or virgin forests surround- ing the agricultural valleys. Second growth Oak, Chestnut and Locust may be had on many of the culled areas, while the ridge forests furnish plenty of Oak and Chestnut for this use. Chestnut is pre- ferred for rails, while White Oak, Chestnut Oak, and Locust are used for posts. FUEL. — The use of wood for fuel is probably less in Garrett than in any other county in the state. Coal is very cheap and many farmers dig a supply on their lands. Coal is commonly used for all heating purposes and even for burning lime. This general use of coal for all domestic fuel makes it impossible to dispose of the waste hardwood tops left left by lumbermen. Thousands of cords of good Oak, Chestnut, and other hardwoods are left to rot in the woods, and this large amount of slash always adds to the fire danger. The future will probably see but little increase in the demand for fuel, and unless some industry using small and inferior material is introduced, the fullest utilization of the hardwood cut is impossible. Charcoal kilns, acid factories, and tool handle or spool mills, would be able to use the wood now going to waste in the county. TANBARK. — All of the Hemlock and Chestnut Oak bark peeled in the county finds a ready market at the tanneries of neighboring counties. The nearest market is just across the Potomac in West Virginia. While the amount of Chestnut and Oak bark produced is 324: THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY small, the lumber companies annually peel large quantities of Hem- lock bark from the timber cut on their tracts. The following table will give an idea of the yield of bark per acre of the types producing Hemlock. The present stand for the county is also shown: TABLE NO. 11. HEMLOCK BAKK. Trees 12 inches and over in diameter breast-high. Sub-type. Area. Average Stand per acre. Total yield. Acres. Cubic Feet. Cords.1 Cubic Feet. Cords. Hemlock 143 853.86 9.49 122,102 1,357 Hemlock and hardwoods 1,280 312.27 3.47 399,706 4,442 Spruce 730 287.86 3.20 210,138 2,336 White Pine 3 176.45 1.96 529 6 Total 2,156 339.73 3.77 732,475 8,141 FUTURE PROTECTION AND UTILIZATION. Thus far only the present condition of Garrett county forests and the present crop and its removal have been considered. With the removal of the original stand of timber the owner of forest land usually ceases to consider a further yield. It is believed that this conception of a lumbered forest as a " dry well " is largely respon- sible for the poor condition of Garrett county forests. Fires are allowed to sweep across cut-over lands, killing sprouts and seedlings because the owner does not fully realize the amount of damage done. Therefore, if he endeavors to prevent fires on his lands it is chiefly because his fences, grain crops, or buildings are in danger, or he fears a law-suit, should the fire spread to a neighbor's land. As long as this view is held by forest owners the principles of practical forestry will never be seriously considered. Possible Timber Production. That the cut-over lands are, in most instances, capable of producing a never-failing amount of timber if properly managed is readily seen. If a given tract of land has in the past produced a forest and has not XA cord of piled bark equals 90 cubic feet. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. GARRETT COUNTY, PLATE XXVI. FlG. 1.— HEMLOCK LOGS ON SKIDWAY, CASTLEMAN RIVER. FlG. 2.— NEW SAW MILL, CASTLEMAN RIVER. FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 325 been subjected to fire which may destroy its capacity to support, or delay the establishment of, tree growth, it is reasonable to suppose that it will again produce forest trees. The belief of the farmer in the crop-producing power of his land leads him to continue to plow, plant and cultivate a crop. The forester's belief in the continued productiveness of soil leads him to start and tend a crop of trees, using methods different from the farmer's methods only in the length of time needed to mature the crop. The axe, instead of the hand or hoe, is used in thinning and weeding, and the saw and wedge, instead of the scythe and reaper, at the harvest. The difference is in degree rather than in kind, Management of Forest Lands. If it is admitted that the lumbered areas are capable of again sup- porting tree growth, we have but to start a new crop (in many cases it is already started) and care for it until maturity in order to harvest a second crop. With care this process may be carried on from gene- ration to generation and the land need never be idle. The thought, however, of tending a crop that takes from thirty to sixty years to mature is one that seldom appeals to private indi- viduals. The farmer gets returns from his crop in a few months, the orchardist in from five to ten years, while the forester seldom harvests a crop under thirty years. Although this may keep many from plant- ing trees for timber, it need not prevent owners of forest lands with timber well along toward maturity from caring for and improving their growing crops. The small holder should never allow his forest to be completely cut over, if he is unwilling to wait a long period for the second crop. It is best for him to practice a selection system in which a certain amount of material is marketed every year and the cutting so regulated as to improve the condition of the remaining trees. For instance, if a farmer owns 100 acres of young Oak and Chestnut in a dense stand, thirty to forty feet high, he may remove some of the trees that will make posts, rails, or ties ; these trees should be selected from different places in the stand not be taken from one spot. Single trees of suitable size 326 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY which are crowding others may be removed, giving the remaining trees a better chance to grow. If there is a sale for cord wood , mine props, or small material, the crooked, decayed, least desirable species, or injured trees may be removed, leaving the thrifty, straight, and more merchantable kinds for future cuttings. By following this method forests that are now full of broken, decayed, and stunted trees and undesirable species may later become woods of only steadily growing merchantable trees, with tall, clean stems. This improve- ment can be made with but little cost to the owner, and in many cases the thinnings will yield a revenue. If in the farmer's lifetime the remaining crop does not mature, he still has had abundant mater- ial for home use and for sale year by year, and the forest, worth perhaps $400 when he began to care for it, will when he dies have 200 to 400 trees per acre that will cut two ties per tree, and the crop at ten cents per tie will be worth $40 to $80 per acre. Instead of leaving to his children $400 worth of inferior woodland, he leaves them $4000 to $6000 of merchantable tie timber, which they may sell or further improve by caring for the trees until they reach larger timber sizes. In this calculation taxes may be disregarded, as the farmer seldom sells his wood land, but pays the taxes year after year on land producing poor timber crops, or none at all. Fire Damage. If a farmer decides to systematically improve his woodlands, con- sidering them as an interest bearing investment, he should protect his forest crop. The greatest danger to which Garrett county forests are subjected is fire. The damage due to fire is never fully realized by the majority of forest owners, unless mature timber is killed out- right. But every light surface fire running through the woods injures the growing crop. The fallen leaves are essential to the best develop- ment of the trees, for by their decomposition they return food mater- ial to the soil, form soil over rocky places, and prevent the evapora- tion of soil moisture by acting as a close covering or mulch in periods of little rain. Surface fires burn the leaves and in very dry seasons the partially decomposed leaves and twigs also that constitute the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 327 upper layers of the soil, and, in rocky places, the only soil. Besides this damage, seedlings up to a few feet high are killed by surface fires, and, as in many cases, these are the trees which should furnish a new crop when the older ones are removed, the damage is a very serious one. Often the litter of leaves, branches and fallen trees is so great as to enable surface fires to injure the boles of the larger trees; the bark is killed on one side, decay enters, and later the whole tree becomes worthless from the spread of rot in the stem. Where sprout lands are burned, the damage is often even greater than in the older forest. Here the sprouts are killed, putting back the growth five or ten years, and often the stumps and young seedlings among them are destroyed, and the future stand, instead of being a dense one of Chestnut and Oak, is an open one or a low thicket of Mountain Laurel and Barren Oak. Eepeated fires, especially on rocky, shallow ridge soils, destroy every vestige of tree growth, burn the humus from the soil, and leave the land in such a condition that for years it refuses to produce a forest cover. Fire Protection. To produce the best wood crops fire must be kept from forest lands. This is best done in the case of woodlands of a few hundred acres by surrounding the timbered area, if possible, with a belt of cleared land to prevent fires from reaching it from adjoining woods. By keeping the roads and trails through the woods free from brush and weeds and by cutting and burning along them once a year it is pos- sible to confine surface fires started within the forest to small tracts, and to back-fire if necessary to check fires with much headway. After these precautions are taken, watchfulness during the dry season when fires are most prevalent will reduce the fire danger to a minimum. With the danger from fire removed, the wood crop of Garrett county is practically assured. Care of the Forest Crop. Besides fire protection, the amount of time and care spent by the owner on a forest property must be determined by his object in grow- 328 THE FORESTS OF GARRETT COUNTY ing trees. If lie desire simply cordwood or fencing, but little care will be needed beyond the removal of trees that are crowding and stunting the main crop. Work in the forest should be done gradu- ally, as the material cut can be utilized and at a season of the year, as in winter, when farm work is light. If the farmer desires better material from his woodlands than cordwood more care and attention will be necessary. To produce ties or lumber careful thinnings must be made and only those species allowed to reach maturity which yield such materials. The stem should be tall and free of limbs, necessitating a thick stand in youth to kill the lower limbs. As the trees mature thinnings must be made to induce a good diameter growth. A little thought and care on the part of the small forest owner will result in a much improved forest crop.1 The treatment of larger tracts not held in connection with farm lands or other revenue producing areas, as mines or quarries, should be similar to that for woodlots. The necessary annual expenditure for protection and taxes on large tracts of land, from which, owing to their burnt and cut-over condition no return can be expected for a long period of years, is the greatest drawback to this form of investment. For this reason large lumber firms and individual owners usually dispose of the better portions of their cut-over lands to adjoin- ing property owners. The unsalable portions are neglected and often revert to the state through unpaid taxes. Michigan, Pennsylvania and New York have found it wise to pur- chase and set aside as forest reserves large areas of these abandoned lands. The object of the reservation is to preserve the beauty of cer- tain regions, furnish breeding grounds for game, prevent erosion and floods, and to furnish the wood consuming industries of the state 1 If a more detailed plan of management is desired for the woodlot, the Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, is prepared to supply such a working plan, the terms of arrangement for which are out- lined in Circular 21. The Bureau also offers tree planting plans, the terms of which are set forth in Circular 22. Copies of these circulars can be had by applying to the Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D. C. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 329 with the necessary materials. The state rather than an individual can afford to hold and protect large areas of forest land from which no immediate revenue is obtained because of the indirect as well as the direct benefits derived. Pleasure resorts, game preserves, and protected watersheds are benefits for which the state is or should be willing to pay, while the individual is interested chiefly in the direct money returns from his investment. MARYLAND STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY WM. BULLOCK CLARK F. W. BESLEY Executive Officer State Forester THE WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF MARYLAND BY HU MAXWELL, EXPERT United States Forest Service WITH A CHAPTER ON MARYLAND'S LUMBER AND TIMBER CUT AND THE TIMBER SUPPLY BY F. W. BESLEY PREPARED IN COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF F. W. BESLEY, STATE FORESTER, AND H. S. SACKETT, IN CHARGE OF WOOD UTILIZATION. UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE BALTIMORE, MD. 1910 CONTENTS PAQB Introduction 5 Wood-manufacturing in Maryland 9 Kinds, Quantities, and Cost of Wood 10 Industries 12 Wood Used by Different Industries 13 Boxes and Crates 14 Interior Finish 16 Furniture 18 Cooperage 21 Baskets 23 Ships and Boats 25 Horse Vehicles 28 Tanks and Silos 30 Cigar Boxes 31 Brushes 32 Store and Office Fixtures 33 Musical Instruments 34 Miscellaneous '. 36 Amounts by Counties 38 Lessening the Waste 39 Forms in Which Wood Reaches Factories 40 Reported Sources of Woods 41 Uses by Species 43 Wood Manufacturers 47 Baskets 47 Boxes and Crates 47 Cigar Boxes 47 Cooperage 47 Furniture 48 Horse Vehicles 48 Interior Finish 48 Musical Instruments 48 Ships and Boats 49 Silos and Tanks 49 Store and Office Fixtures 49 Miscellaneous 49 Maryland's Lumber and Timber Cut and the Timber Supply 53 Introduction 53 Cut of Lumber, Lath and Shingles for 1908 54 Lumber and Timber Cut 55 CONTENTS PAGE Timber and Wood Consumption for 1908 55 Cut of Miscellaneous Forest Products for 1908 56 The Timber Resources 56 Wooded Area, Amount and Value of Standing Timber in Maryland ... 57 Relation of Present Stand of Timber to the Demand . . 58 INTRODUCTION The Bureau of the Census, in cooperation with the United States Forest Service, compiles and publishes statistics annually showing the output of sawmills by States and for the whole country. The cut in Maryland in 1908 was 168,534,000 feet, board measure, reported by 384 sawmills. This was one-half of 1 per cent of the total cut in the United States for that year, and was a falling off of more than 21 per cent from Maryland's lumber cut for 1907. The decline was general throughout the country in that year, and for the United States was 171/2 per cent. The lumber output as shown in these figures does not include pulpwood, tanbark, tanning extracts, cross-ties, telegraph and telephone poles, or cooperage and veneer stocks. After lumber leaves the sawmill it serves many useful purposes. Some of it passes through no additional process of manufacture but goes into buildings with only the cutting and fitting which carpenters give it. Another part is further manufactured before it is used. Wood-working machines of many kinds change its form, and it is cut and fitted by skilled labor, and the rough lumber is converted into finished products, such as boxes, frames, doors, sash, vehicles, boats, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, brushes, toys, handles, novel- ties, and many more. This study has to do with that part of the lum- ber only which passes through further process of manufacture after it leaves the sawmill. Heretofore, lumber has not been very carefully followed after leav- ing the saw, to ascertain what becomes of it, what new forms are given it, and into what commodities it enters. It has been known in a gen- eral way that some of it is used in its rough form, while some passes through additional processes of manufacture. The present study of the wood-using industries of Maryland was undertaken to supply in- formation concerning the lumber which is not used in its rough form. The work has been done by the United States Forest Service in co- operation with the State of Maryland. Industries which manufacture 6 INTRODUCTION commodities partly or wholly of wood were asked to furnish data along their special lines, and this report is based on their replies, supplemented by independent investigation in all parts of the State. Statistics thus collected and published are expected to be useful to both the growers and the manufacturers of wood. It is shown what part of the total demand, and the demand for each species, is met by forests and woodlots of the State, and what part is supplied from with- out. The kinds of wood demanded by the various industries are shown, together with the quantity of each species used, the prices paid at the factories, and into what commodity each wood is manufactured. With this information before them, the woodlot owners who are looking to the future can determine what kinds of timber promise best returns, and they can give preference to those kinds. Owners of timber can form an intelligent opinion as to where the best markets may be found for what they have to offer. On the other hand, the manufacturer who is in the market for woods of certain kinds will have the means to determine whether he can buy near home or whether he must look be- yond the State ; and a study of average prices paid by others will show whether or not he has been buying on an equal footing. A closer ac- quaintance between buyer and seller, with a better understanding of what one has to sell and the other wishes to buy, will be of mutual benefit. The utilization of factory waste is an important problem, and it was duly considered in this study. An attempt was made also to ascertain and note the smallest sizes of lumber that the various in- dustries can profitably use. A history of lumber operations and markets, and of past uses of wood in the State was not undertaken, though it would have brought out many interesting facts. It was deemed sufficient if present con- ditions were shown, thereby making it possible to formulate an intel- ligent policy for future operations. MARYLAND'S WOOD-MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES WOOD-MANUFACTURING IN MARYLAND Maryland manufacturers converted 284,346,895 feet of rough lum- ber into finished products in 1909. These figures do not show the total quantity of wood of all kinds and for all purposes used in the State, perhaps not half of it. They deal only with that portion of the cut of sawmills which, after it leaves the saw, is further worked by machinery, or, at least, by the expenditure of considerable labor upon it before it takes its final form. Lumber which goes into what is gen- erally known as rough construction is not included, nor are railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles, mine props, wharf piles, fence posts, shingles, and clapboards. The mere cutting off or mortising of beams and planks to fit them in frames, trestles, and bridges, does not constitute sufficient manufacture to bring them within the scope of this study. Many finished commodities are shipped into the State ready for use, and these, too, are excluded from the tables which fol- low, because the manufacturing was not done in Maryland. Much furniture and woodenware fall in this class, and many vehicles. The distinction between commodities manufactured in Maryland and those made elsewhere and shipped in to be sold, excludes large quantities of planed and matched flooring which comes from mills in the South and West, and much interior finish and turned work. The cost at the factory of the wood used by the Maryland manu- facturers was $5,878,631, or an average price of $20.67 per thousand feet board measure. The average cost of state-grown wood was $14.44 per thousand, and of that shipped into the State from the outside, $22.25. The State supplied 57,530,500 feet, and the balance, or 226,- 816,395 feet, came from other States, and to a small extent from for- eign countries — 20 per cent being state-grown — at a total cost of $830,- 679.66, and 80 per cent from the outside at a cost of $5,047,952. No attempt has been made to ascertain or estimate the value of the fin- ished commodities made of wood in the State. The market for these products is world-wide. In many instances a single manufacturer 10 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF MARYLAND ships to every continent, and there are few important commercial cities in the world to which articles wholly or partly of wood, and made in Maryland, do not go. The principal primeval forests of the State were culled or cut out long ago, but new growth has been extensive and valuable. The cut TABLE 1. — Kinds of Wood used, Quantity of Each, with Total Cost, and the Per Cent grown in the State and out. Species. Feet used. B. M. Cost at factory. Grown in Maryland. (Approximate per cent.) Grown outside of Maryland. (Approximate per cent.) 130,699,500 $1,886,355 25 75 Longleaf pine 27 899 000 702,212 100 White oak 22 030 800 844,000 15 85 19 274 500 519 465 100 Scrub pine 17*000*000 173,500 65 35 Yellow poplar . 11 107 000 278 661 10 90 Tupelo 10*416000 162 597 4* 96 White pine 8*71l'000 277 129 5 95 Red oak 5*597 500 48 985 26 74 Basswood . ... . 5*490*050 148,143 1 99 Chestnut 3 719 000 78 096 37 63 Red gum . .... ... 3*133 000 46,240 77 23 Sweet birch 2 434 000 68 980 4 96 Hemlock 2*002 000 48,082 100 Sugar maple 1 924 000 48,779 9 91 Beech 1,672,000 31,332 3 97 Sugar pine 1 360 000 53,950 100 Cottonwood 1 015 000 17 470 100 White elm 1*010 000 18 990 30 70 Locust '936*000 16,200 100 Ash 897 675 35 246 7 93 871 000 26 030 100 Spruce 713 000 23 990 " " 100 Pitch pine 626 000 9 235 98 2 Hickory 557 000 25 227 50 50 Black walnut 548 500 48 210 1 99 Circassian walnut 506 500 101,125 100 Mahogany 483,500 76,775 100 Douglas fir . 262 000 13,840 100 White cedar 252,000 10,660 100 Chestnut oak . . . ... 220,000 4,400 75 25 Cherry 209 500 11,591 3 97 Yellow buckeye 200,000 4,000 100 Svcamore 160 000 2,350 62 38 White birch 152,000 3,090 100 85,000 2,450 70 30 Red cedar 61,000 2,570 100 Balsam fir .... 50,000 1,000 100 Dogwood 16 000 390 100 Teak 10,200 2,540 100 Live oak 10,000 400 100 Lignum-vitae 7,070 3,300 100 Hackmatack 5,000 250 100 Rock elm 4,000 104 100 Cucumber 3,000 120 67 33 Red mulberry 2,000 56 100 Pin oak 2,000 60 50 50 Butternut 1,000 15 100 600 220 100 French walnut 500 125 100 Holly 350 36 100 Ebony 100 50 100 Tulip wood 25 5 100 Boxwood 25 5 100 Total 284,346,895 $5,878,631 20 80 * It is not improbable that some of the wood reported as tupelo was black gum. WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF MAR YI, AND 11 of loblolly pine is larger than that of any other two species, and the greater part of the loblolly is second growth. Of the fifty-four woods reported by the Maryland manufacturers, twenty-seven were supplied wholly or in part by the State, while the country at large and the world were drawn upon for the twenty-seven others. Nine of the woods reported do not grow in commercial quantities in the United States. They are boxwood, tulipwood, ebony, French walnut, rosewood, lig- num-vitae, teak, mahogany, and Circassian walnut. Of the Mary- land-grown pines, the largest use after loblolly was scrub pine (Pinus virginiana), a wood which was formerly seldom used for anything except fuel. The important place which it now occupies shows that efforts to utilize waste have been successful to an encouraging extent. In compiling this report, a painstaking effort was made to keep species separate as far as it was practicable to do so. They were not grouped as " pine," " oak," " hardwoods," etc., but as white oak, red oak, live oak, longleaf pine, red gum, etc. The identification and listing were probably not successful in all cases, and in other instances, where use is confined almost exclusively to one species, though the genus includes others, a common term as " ash," or " hickory," was deemed sufficient. In Table 1, which follows, all the kinds of wood reported are brought together. In another part of this report, be- ginning on page 43, all the species are listed alphabetically, and the various uses reported for each are given. The State produces two woods in sufficient amounts to meet the requirements of its manufacturers. These are locust and dogwood. They are not timber trees of first importance, yet they are of con- siderable value in Maryland. An exceptionally large use of locust was reported, the total being 936,000 feet, costing $16,200, while in 1908 all the mills in the United States reported an aggregate cut of only 1,327,000 feet. This should not be taken to mean, however, that Maryland produces and uses 70 per cent of the locust of the whole country. The figures are probably explained by the fact that the mills of the country reported only what they sawed into lumber, while the Maryland manufacturers included all the locust that came to them, only a very small part of which had ever been in a sawmill. Locust generally goes to the shop or factory as logs, billets, or treenails, and for this reason the report of sawmills includes only a small part of the country's total output of the wood. The sawmill output of dog- 12 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF MARYLAND wood in the United States in 1908 was 261,000 feet, and in 1909 the Maryland manufacturers used 16,000 feet, or 6 per cent of the re- ported total for the year before. The same explanation should per- haps apply to dogwood as to locust, namely, that much of the output goes to factories without passing through sawmills to be listed as lumber. INDUSTRIES. Maryland manufacturers put more lumber into boxes and crates than into any other industry, and if interior finish for houses is ex- cluded, the quantity required for crates and boxes exceeds the com- bined demand for all other industries that manufacture wood. A smaller amount is made into interior finish, but it is of higher grade than the box lumber and costs more. Nearly 48 per cent of all the wood is made into packing cases of various kinds, and the total cost exceeds $1,800,000. Interior finish takes 28 per cent, but its total cost exceeds $2,200,000. Box lumber is the cheapest, basket material next, while the most costly is for musical instruments, $50.90, while that required for tanks and silos is only a little less, $48.13. Manufactures are grouped under thirteen headings, shown in Table 2. These might have been subdivided, but by so doing the amount of wood used by each would have been reduced, and no corresponding advantage would have resulted. Cooperage and baskets are very closely related in some of their features, and in others they are far apart. The chief reason for making a separate division for cigar boxes, rather than include all under the heading of boxes and crates, was that cigar box making is a distinct business, certain woods are used almost exclusively, and those who make boxes for cigars seldom make any other kind. The average price of lumber that went into ordinary boxes was $13.31 per thousand, while cigar box wood costs more than twice as much. Table 2 sets forth in condensed form the comparative amount and value of the lumber that was required by the different industries. The quantity used by all was 284,346,895 feet, and the average price was $20.67 per thousand. If these figures are borne in mind the table will show at a glance which industries paid more and which less than the average, and the comparative as well as the absolute quantity of lumber used by each one will be shown. A second part of the table WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF MARYLAND 13 , os «o If 1 * I 1 -e — ' bOo5