FORESTRY PAMPHLETS , SILVICULTURE VOL. VIII Windbreaks Windbreaks: Their Influence and Value. By Carlos G. Bates* Bui. 86, U. S. Forest Service* Forest Planting and Farm Management. By George L. Clothier. Farmers1 Bulletin No. 2£8. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Windbreaks, Hedges, and Ornamentals for Irrigated Sandy Soils of Eastern Oregon. By R. W. Allen. Station Bulletin 125, Oregon Agricultural Col- lege. A Study of Windbreaks in their Relations to Fruit- growing. Cornell Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion. s Renewing the Shelterbelt. Cir. No. 27, Iowa Agri- cultural Experiment Station. Cooperative Shelter-Belt Development in the Nor- thern Great Plains. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agri. The Windbreak as a Farm Asset. By Carlos G. Bates. Farmers' Bulletin 788, U. S. Dept. of Agri. The North Dakota Farmstead: Its Arrangement and Adornment. By H. 0. Werner. North Dakota Agri. Experiment Station. Farm Home Grounds—Their Planting and Care. By S. W. Fletcher. Office of Experiment Sta- tions, Dept. of Agriculture. Michigan's Shifting Sands. By F. Hobart Sanford. ^Special Bulletin No. 79, Michigan Agricultural College. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Issued September 30, 1911. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE — BULLETIN 86. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. WINDBREAKS: /> THEIR INFLUENCE AND VALUE. BY CARLOS G. BATES, FOREST ASSISTANT. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE, Washington, D. C., January 5, 1911. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled " Windbreaks: Their Influence and Value/' by Carlos G. Bates, in charge of experimental work in District 2, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin 86 of the Forest Service. Kespectfully, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. Hon. JAMES CONTENTS. PART I. A synopsis of conditions 7 Purpose of the study 7 Important winds of the United States 9 The utility of windbreaks 12 How windbreaks act I 3 System of measuring influences 14 PART II. Measurements of physical factors — Physiological effects upon plants and animals — Crop yields 1 G Method of measuring factors 16 Sunlight 16 Soil moisture 17 Mechanical force of wind 18 Evaporation 18 Heat 19 Humidity 20 Results of measurements 21 I. Light— Effects of shading 21 Amount of shading 21 Crown density and branching 22 Orientation 23 Crop effects 27 Remedies 28 II. Soil moisture — Sapping ' 33 Extent of sapping 33 Conditions that influence root extent 35 Effects of sapping • 36 Orchards. 36 Grainfields 37 Remedies 38 III. Soil fertility 38 Analyses for nitrogen 39 IV. Mechanical power of winds 40 Damage to crops 41 Movement of soils 41 Drifting of snow 43 V. Evaporation 43 Importance of evaporation 44 Windbreak efficiency determined by evaporation 45 Results of checking evaporation 51 Relation to crops 52 Relation to irrigation 54 364032 3 4 CONTENTS. Measurements o/ piiy.'i'vl factors- Physic-logical effects upon plants and animals — Crop yields — Continued. Results of measurements — Continued. Page. VI. Heat 55 Measurements of air temperatures 56 Measurements of soil temperatures 62 Effects of heating on crops 65 Acceleration of growth and increased yield 65 Effect of low temperatures 68 Sensible temperatures 70 VII. Humidity 70 Summation of physical and physiological effects 71 The zone of competition 71 The zone of windbreak protection 73 PART III. Direct results of windbreak planting — Timber yields 75 Relation of windbreak formation to quality production 75 Calculation of area chargeable to windbreaks 76 Market values of timbers 77 Estimates and discussion of species 78 Cottonwood 78 Green ash 80 Silver maple 81 Willow 81 Honey locust 83 Osage orange 84 Russian mulberry '. 86 Catalpa 87 White pine 88 Scotch pine 89 PART JV. Summary 90 Calculation of the size of efficient windbreaks 90 Size of efficient windbreaks determined by their values 90 Groves and shelter belts 90 Single-row windbreaks 92 Windbreaks for various regions 94 1. The Middle West 94 2. The northern prairies 97 3. The Lake States 98 4. The Eastern States 99 5. The Southwest 99 6. The Pacific coast. . 100 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page.' PLATE I. Interior of a coniferous windbreak in northeastern Iowa. Frontispiece II. Fig. 1. — Cottonwood is preeminently the tree of sandy bottom- lands. Fig. 2. — Belts of silver maple and other species add to the beauty and value of farms 8 III. Fig. 1.— Narrow belts of eucalypts are planted about the orange orchards of California. Fig. 2. — On irrigated lands in Colo- rado the Lombardy poplar grows thriftily ' * 8 IV. Fig. 1. — The Monterey cypress makes an excellent windbreak.] Fig. 2. — Dense groves of eucalypts protect fields and orchards from the Santa Ana ' 8 V. Fig. 1. — White cedar and European larch are typical of the Lake States and the East. Fig. 2. — Monterey pine is thrifty and forms an efficient windbreak 8 VI. Fig. 1. — A north-south row has the advantage of getting light from the sides. Fig. 2. — An east- west row receives light only from above 16 VII. Fig. 1. — Corn to the north of a cottonwood grove is badly dam- aged by shade. Fig. 2. — On the east of cottonwood the shad- ing effect is not so marked 16 VIII. Fig. 1. — Alfalfa grows almost to the base of honey-locust trees. Fig. 2. — The yield even of alfalfa is comparatively small under dense shade 16 IX. Fig. 1. — The branches of ash are small and the tree does little damage by shading. Fig. 2. — Kafir corn will produce forage where corn would produce no ears 32 X. Fig. 1. — Effect of cultivation on osage orange. Fig. 2. — Large trees not only take moisture but injure by shading 32 XI. Fig. 1. — Luxuriant growth of protected orchard trees. Fig. 2. — Wheat near the trees has been benefited by drifted snow. . 40 XII. Fig. 1. — Sand dunes near the Columbia River. Fig. 2. — Sand encroaching on a railroad track 40 XIII. Fig. 1. — Lombardy poplar protecting an orchard. Fig. 2. — Dense hedges of mulberry protect orchards from wind and from sand 40 XIV. Fig. 1. — The hedge of honey locust is very loose and open. Fig. 2. — Comparative densities of honey locust and osage orange 18 XV. Fig. 1. — Effect of windbreak protection on quality of corn. Fig. 2. — Effect of favorable conditions on growth of corn 04 XVI. Fig. 1. — A thrifty cottonwood grove with possibilities for high future value. Fig. 2. — Conditions within the grove favor the production of straight sound logs cSO 5 6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. PLATE XVII. Fig. 1. — A few rows of young cottonwood make a fairly dense belt. Fig. 2. — When mature, cottonwood must be under- planted 96 XVIII. Even a very good belt of hard woods forms a poor winter shelter.. 96 XIX. Fig. 1. — In closely planted groves white pine forms straight clean boles. Fig. 2. — Even in belts of a few rows', white pine is erect and symmetrical 96 XX. Fig. 1. — Dense and thrifty young white pine grove. Fig. 2. — The addition of a few rows of white cedar on the outside reenforces the windbreak 96 DIAGRAMS. • DIAGRAM 1. Direction, origin, and season of winds injurious to agriculture.. 10 2. Amount of sunlight cut off by cottonwood groves 24 3. Amount of sunlight cut off by cottonwood rows 24 4. Amount of sunlight cut off by ash and maple belts 25 5. Amount of sunlight cut off by osage orange hedges 25 6. Amount of sunlight cut off by honey locust rows 26 7. Yield of crops north of dense groves s. 29 8. Yield of crops north of shelter belts 29 9. Yield of crops west and east of cottonwood rows 30 10. Yield adjacent to osage orange and cottonwood rows 30 11. Yield of crops east and west of osage orange hedges 31 12. Yield of alfalfa with various tree species 31 13. Yield of corn west of various tree species 32 14. Effects of shading and sapping on the growth of field crops 33 15. Reduction of mechanical force of wind 40 16. Protective efficiency of underplanted cottonwood groves 46 17. Protective efficiency of white pine belt 47 18. Protective efficiency of cottonwood row 48 19. Protective efficiency of cottonwood belt 48 20. Protective efficiency of cottonwood row reinforced with ash 49 21. Protective efficiency of dense osage orange hedge 50 22. Protective efficiency of open osage orange hedge 51 23. Protective efficiency of mulberry hedge 52 24. Protective efficiency of young honey locust hedge 53 25. Effect of dense groves on daily range of air temperatures 57 26. Heating efficiency of various windbreaks during hours of sun- dune 58 27. Heating efficiency of white pine belt during hours of sunshine. . 59 28. Influence of dense grove on nocturnal cooling of air 60 29. Influence of cottonwood belt on nocturnal cooling of air 61 30. Influence of cottonwood row on nocturnal cooling of air 62 31. Influence of white pine belt on nocturnal cooling of air (53 32. Effect of dense windbreak on temperature of the soil 04 33. Effect of windbreaks on velocity and humidity of air currents . . 72 34. Summation of windbreak influences as shown by yield of crops. . 71 35. Plan for location of windbreaks on a farm in the Middle West. . 95 WINDBREAKS: THEIR INFLUENCE AND VALUE. PART I. A SYNOPSIS OF CONDITIONS. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. When the early settlers in the Middle Western States planted trees so extensively they did so with a distinct object in view — to build up a natural barrier against the winds which then swept unimpeded across the plains, doing immense damage to their crops, intensifying the effects of both hot and cold weather upon their stock, and making their homes almost uninhabitable. The attitude of many of the present-day farmers, however, and especially the younger men who have never experienced the rigors that characterized earlier days, is quite changed. There is a common indifference to timber culture, and although there has been of late years considerable interest throughout the West in commercial plantations, there is no such extensive windbreak planting as formerly. On the contrary, there is a revulsion of feeling; an idea that all but the most productive tracts of planted timber should be done away with and their place taken by crops which will bring quick money returns. The State of Kansas, once the prey of winds, has placed itself on record as opposed to the maintenance of efficient hedge windbreaks along roadsides.1 There has also been a great deal said to disfavor cottonwood. The general observations upon which these prejudices are based are likely to be misleading, and their inaccuracy and unreliability are con- vincingly shown by the figures obtained through careful study, which prove that cottonwood is the least damaging of all the hardwood trees in its relation to field crops. Yet the common opinion is that it is the most so. There is obviously much basis for the belief that forest plantations do not yield as great a revenue from the direct forest products as annual crops wouid on the same land. The fault, however, lies quite as much with the owners of the timber as with the trees themselves ; for, while much progress has been made toward improved and more intensive methods of crop management, little has been done to increase the productiveness of the grove or belt of trees. Occasionally the farmer goes in with an ax to take out a tree for fuel, to obtain a 1 General Statutes of Kansas, 1901, sees. 3116-3118, provide that all hedge fences along the public high- way shall be cut and trimmed to not more than 5 feet high, except when protecting orchards, vineyards, and feed lots. The adoption of this statute is left to popular vote in each county. 7 8 WINDBREAKS. barn prop, or a temporary substitute for a wagon tongue, but his methods are wholly destructive, and the condition of the forest plantation goes from bad to worse. The great need is for better management; some care to secure natural reproduction to replace the old trees; underplanting, if necessary, to fill out the stand and to insure a continuous crop; and the exclusion of cattle from young groves. In general, this care has not been given to forest plantations, and, as a result, the revenue from them is only a fraction of what it would be under good management. The Forest Service has already issued a number of publications 1 which show that the revenue to be derived from plantations of forest trees properly selected and managed is considerable. The farmer's main* objection is that he can not afford to wait for his income until the trees have matured. When the protective value of timber tracts is rightly considered, however, as will be shown in the following pages, there will be in the benefit to crops, and in other helpful influences of the belt of trees, an annual income of considerable magnitude in addition to the value of thin- nings, which, in certain regions, will bring the productiveness of the forest up to that attained by field crops. The very lack of reliable information concerning the protective value of windbreaks, together with the now common argument that they do more harm than good, makes their study exceedingly impor- tant. The present study has been concerned entirely with the collection of data showing the effects of windbreaks upon field crops and with calculations of their net value to the average farm of the Middle West. The economic importance of tree planting in this region can be realized only when it is known that there are, for example, in one township in Harvey County, Kans. (middle eastern), approximately 170 miles of windbreak, mostly single rows of osage orange, with an average height of about 20 feet. In a valley county (Platte) of Nebraska there are in one township approximately 22 miles of rows, belts, and groves, mostly cottonwood, with an area of about 425 acres and an average height of 55 feet. On the uplands in the State (York County) there are in a single township about 40 miles of windbreaks. In Faribaitlt County, Minn., one township contains approximately 400 acres of cottonwood and willow groves. The Forest Service has conducted experiments to obtain a clear idea of the influences of windbreaks upon the atmospheric and soil conditions which affect the growth of plants. These influences known, it is but a step to apply these general principles to local conditions and to determine the relative values of various species and of various arrangements of windbreaks with respect to local winds, and their positive value to certain crops. 1 Miller: Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska, Cir. 45; Forest Planting in the North Platte and South Platte Valleys, Cir. 109. Kellogg: Forest Planting in Western Kansas, Cir. 161; Forest Planting in Illinois, Cir. 81 Fetherholf : Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies, Cir. 145. Baker: Native and Planted Tim- ber of Iowa, Cir. 154. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. PLATE II. FIG. 1 .— COTTONWOOD is PREEMINENTLY THE TREE OF SANDY BOTTOM LANDS IN THE MIDDLE WEST. FIG. 2.— BELTS OF SILVER MAPLE AND OTHER SPECIES ADD TO THE BEAUTY AND VALUE OF THE RIVER BOTTOM FARMS. PLATTE COUNTY, NEBR. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. FIQ. 1.— NARROW BELTS OF EUCALYPTS ARE PLANTED ABOUT THE ORANGE ORCHARDS OF CALIFORNIA. FIG. 2.— ON IRRIGATED LANDS IN EASTERN COLORADO (MESA COUNTY) THE LOMBARDY POPLAR, A CLOSE RELATIVE OF THE COTTONWOOD, GROWS THRIFTILY, AND is USED FOR THE PROTECTION OF ORCHARDS. Bui 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. FIG. L-THE MONTEREY CYPRESS IN CALIFORNIA MAKES AN EXCELLENT WINDBREAK FOR THE PROTECTION OF CITRUS ORCHARDS. FIQ. 2.— DENSE GROVES OF EUCALYPTS PROTECT FIELDS AND ORCHARDS FROM THE SANTA ANA WIND IN CALIFORNIA. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. FIQ. 1.— WHITE CEDAR AND EUROPEAN LARCH ARE TYPICAL OF THE LAKE STATES AND THE EAST. FIG. 2.— MONTEREY PINE is THRIFTY AND FORMS AN EFFICIENT WINDBREAK. IMPORTANT WINDS. 9 The work of Prof. King,1 in determining the effect of a windbreak upon the evaporative power of the wind, and that of Prof. Card,2 in evaporation, measurement of soil moisture, and effect of windbreak protection on a crop of millet, have been highly suggestive in carrying out the study. Since the need for windbreaks on the treeless plains of the Middle West is exceptionally great, and since a large number of windbreaks are there available for study within a comparatively small area, the States of Kansas and Nebraska were chosen as the chief field, though studies were carried on in southern Minnesota and in Iowa as well. The results were obtained in a plains country, in which differences of topography do not figure prominently. The necessity of eliminating from the experiments the factors of slope and aspect will be plainly seen in the following discussions. ^/IMPORTANT WINDS OF THE UNITED STATES. There is scarcely any part of the United States which is not swept by winds capable of doing serious injury to homes, cattle, orchards, or fields. The winds which do the greatest damage and from which protection is needed are (see diagram 1): (1) The sea breezes of the Atlantic coast and of the Great Lakes. These may throw up sand dunes along the coast and affect orchards and tender crops by reducing temperatures. They are sometimes augmented by coastal winds resulting from West Indian storms. (2) The anticyclonic, dry winds of the upper Mississippi Valley and the western Lake region, which, especially in the spring and early sum- mer, often blow steadily from the west or southwest for several days. (3) Anticyclonic winds of the central and southern portion of the Mississippi Valley, usually from the southwest, but more or less influenced in summer by the general continental winds from the southeast and in winter by winds from the north. These also are often very persistent in summer and are exceedingly dry when blow- ing off the plains of the Southwest. The northwest winter winds of the entire Mississippi Valley are usually very cold and dry, and are likely to injure vegetation. (4) The Chinook, which blows out of the northern Rocky Moun- tains, increasing in warmth and dryness with its descent, and, in the Canadian Provinces, Montana, and the Dakotas, doing great damage by prematurely accelerating plant growth, which later may be sub- jected to extreme cold. (5) The Santa Ana, or desiccating north wind of southern Cali- fornia, which blows from the Mohave Desert, and similar winds on the coasts of Washington and Oregon which blow from the high plains, are often destructive to vegetation by reason of their dryness. i Bull. 42, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. » Bull. 48, Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. 10 WINDBREAKS. (6) The sea breezes of the Pacific coast, usually very moderate. In summer, however, their warmth enables them to take a great deal of moisture from fields and orchards. The economic value of windbreaks is controlled not only by the prevalence of damaging winds in a region, but also by climatic factors which affect the growth of the trees themselves, and hence the pro- ductiveness of the windbreak as a forest unit. Although wind- breaks are useful and add to the comfort of living, to plant them on an extensive scale for the protection of large areas can be recom- mended only where their combined protective and timber value is equal to the value of field crops whi^h might be grown on the same .area. The relative value of the direct and indirect benefits of timber DIAGRAM 1.— Direction, origin, and season of winds injurious to agriculture. Lines of equal rain- fall controlling the use of windbreaks. 1 — Windbreaks for timber production, and special protection. 2— Windbreaks for timber production, and general protection. 3— Windbreaks for general protection, little timber value. units is determined by the moisture conditions of the climate. From this standpoint the area of the United States may be divided into three belts (see diagram 1): (1) In the plains region east of the Missouri River, even though winds are prevalent at certain seasons and the level topography per- mits their free sweep across the fields, the abundant rainfall (30 inches at Omaha, Nebr., to 35 inches in northern Illinois) and gen- erally high humidity of the air greatly decrease evaporation and its bad effects upon plants. The small value of windbreaks as protec- tion to crops, or even their positively injurious influence surround- ing land where drainage is poor, makes it necessary that they should fn Ari^lrl fJmV»AP nf si. IMPORTANT WINDS. 11 comparable to that of field crops. For special purposes, however, such as the protection of valuable orchards and the shelter of homes, the utility of the windbreak may be so great that its timber value need not be considered. In most of the eastern half of the United States the farmer's woodlot will generally take tm^lace of rows or narrow belts. Perhaps occupying a site not suited to cultivation, it will yield a good revenue from its crop of valuable hardwoods. (2) In regions with less than 30 inches of annual precipitation the conservation of moisture becomes so important that in open level country windbreaks are extremely valuable for the protection of fields, pastures, and meadows. This is also true in the more rolling lands of the South, where, even with greater precipitation, the con- stantly high temperature during the growing season accelerates evaporation. From Texas and Oklahoma to Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota, hot southerly winds, with a remarkable capacity for moisture, prevail throughout the growing season, and in years with less than the normal rainfall they have done immense damage. The past few years, however, have witnessed very little damage, and there has grown up the feeling that the climate of the region has perma- nently changed both by a decrease in winds and an increase in the rainfall. Records of the Weather Bureau for several of the stations west of the Missouri River, however, show that the recent group of wet years corresponds to a similar group about 1 880, with dry years in the early nineties. There has been no permanent change in the climate, and there is good reason to believe that a series of dry years will follow the present period of abundant moisture. The records of wind movement at several stations, for the same period, show a slight decrease in the last 15 years as compared with the preceding 15, and it seems likely that if the observations of the Weather Bureau had been made near the ground rather than at the tops of buildings an even greater difference would have been noted. It would be strange, indeed, if the thousands of barriers which have grown up where formerly no trees existed had had no general effect in reducing the velocity of surface air currents. However, there has been no change in the universal conditions which cause general winds, and the removal of the objects which have locally broken them will quickly and certainly bring about a return to original conditions. In the northern part of the Mississippi Valley, from the prairies of Montana to the Dakotas and Minnesota, and even in northern Indiana and Michigan, the anticyclonic winds of summer may blow very per- sistently, and while frequently injurious to grain, hay, and other crops, the cooler and moister quality of the air reduces their dam- aging capacity, and little provision has been made to check them. In this northern region, from eastern Washington to the Lakes, the northerly blasts of winter and the spasmodic Chinook wind of spring 12 WINDBREAKS. are considered more serious. Even in this latitude the protective value of windbreaks properly placed would warrant their more exten- sive use. In that portion of the plains region where the rainfall exceeds 20 inches tree culture has been most developed, and results show that a fair profit may be expected from the timber yield of the best adapted species. Here, therefore, the windbreak serves a double purpose — protection and production. Since the production is not comparable to that of field crops, however, and since the protection may be unnecessary in certain years, both must be considered. (3) Where there is less than 20 inches of rainfall per annum, especially in the southern portion of the plains, every drop of moisture is of value to crops, and its conservation becomes of the utmost importance. In this region "dry farming" and irrigation are being widely developed, and the checking of evaporation can not fail to be of great benefit. Little has been done in windbreak planting, but it is certain that the benefits obtained in more humid regions can be had here in even greater degree. In such regions as eastern Colo- rado, western Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico, even though the difficulty of establishing windbreaks is great and their timber value small, they will prove profitable through their effect on the con- servation of moisture. In New Mexico, low, shrubby species like sage-brush have been used with thorough success. THE UTILITY OF WINDBREAKS. The term " windbreak" may be applied to any object which serves as an obstacle to surface winds. For the purposes of this study, how- ever, it must be limited to bodies or rows of trees. Windbreaks may be divided according to their general arrangement into three classes : (1) Rows and hedgerows; (2) belts or shelter belts; (3) groves, or, in the most extensive case, forests. A belt usually consists of three rows or more, but its width is less than twice the ultimate height of the trees. In European countries the windbreak perhaps serves its greatest utility as a check upon drifting sands along the coast, especially in France. In the interior steppes of Russia, which correspond to our middle western plains, windbreaks have been planted more or less extensively to protect fields from the desiccating winds of the region. In Schleswig-Holstein earth walls are thrown up and shrubbery is planted upon them, since forest trees can not be made to grow there. Although windbreaks are of very real benefit to the famer and fruit grower everywhere, it is in the treeless, wind-swept plains that they find their greatest utility. In addition to the esthetic benefits and the general " improvement " value to the farm, it would in many instances be almost impossible to raise crops without protection from the hot, dry winds of summer and the cold, dry winter winds. HOW WINDBREAKS ACT. 13 The early settlers realized the value* of trees for protection and attained success in tree planting under conditions which at first seemed very unfavorable. First, small groves were planted about the houses and barnyards. Gradually these were extended in the form of belts or single rows to protect the larger areas of orchards and fields. Where the soil was light it was necessary to prevent its drif ting. The farmers soon found also that a windbreak was very useful in pre- venting the drifting of snow. Railroad companies made many desul- tory attempts to protect their tracks by planting belts of trees far enough away to serve as snow traps, but more frequently loose fences were used. Orchards must be protected from the mechanical effects of the winds which strike the trees when they are laden with fruit; from their drying effect; which blights the fruit and causes it to shrink; and from the drying or " winterkilling " of the branches. This applies not only to the prairie States but also to the lake States, the fruit region of California, and the Columbia River Valley fruit region. In many sections of Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Maine, and New York, where peach growing was formerly profitable, it is now impos- sible to raise "consistent crops of this fruit because of the increased exposure that has resulted from the removal of the original forests. It is necessary to consider also such winter crops as wheat and rye. For the protection of these the windbreak serves the double purpose of causing an even distribution of the protective snow cover and of sheltering the tender plants from the wind itself, once the snow has melted. The protection of all summer crops is important. The protection of stock is a matter of no small importance in many of the Western States, where there are large ranches with no more adequate shelter for the cattle than that afforded by a grove of trees. Instances have been recorded where large herds of cattle have passed through a severe winter in the shelter of a cottonwood grove. Such a condition represents a low state of development in the economy of the stock business, but the usefulness of a windbreak for the protection of sheds and winter yards may always be considered. HOW WINDBREAKS ACT. A windbreak may affect crops or other objects near it only through the agency of the atmosphere or soil. It may furnish protection to man or beast or plant growth only by the interception of air currents and the consequent effect upon wind velocities and air temperatures. It may have both beneficial and detrimental effects upon field crops. In the narrow zone adjacent to a row of trees or to the edge of a grove, the effect of the trees upon field crops is that which results from a vigorous competition between the two classes of plants for the essen- tial elements of growth — sunlight and soil moisture. By the inter- 14 WINDBREAKS. ception of air currents over a much wider zone the windbreak may influence the growth of crops and usually the influence is for good. It reduces the mechanical force of the wind; it lessens evaporation, which is always accelerated by air currents ; it stagnates the air and thus increases the extremes of temperature both in the air and in the soil; and, finally, it changes the distribution of the moisture of the air. The constant aim throughout this study has been to painstakingly investigate the influences of both classes, and to determine to what extent the baneful effect of the trees might be reduced without destroying the ability of the windbreak to protect. The studies of physical factors in the zone near the trees were made to determine the requirements, with respect to soil moisture and sunlight, of the species which have proved successful in windbreak planting and to show how the space occupied by the trees may best be utilized to increase its yield without damage to the crops adjacent. The study of the more distant relations of windbreaks was made to determine under what conditions and to what extent benefit may be expected from the protection afforded; to show whether the aggregate benefits from protection alone will warrant the existence of the windbreak. SYSTEM OF MEASURING INFLUENCES. The general system of study has been to measure and compare the conditions existing under and near the trees with conditions for the same period at a point far enough removed from the trees to be beyond their influence. It was impossible to study simultaneously the various classes of windbreaks in various localities, but care was taken, in making comparisons between different species and different windbreak formations, to consider all essential points. In calculating the effect of a windbreak upon crops a given area must be allotted to the trees, and the study of effects must be carried on outside of this area. In the case of groves the area belonging to the trees themselves has been considered to be that lying between the outside rows, measuring from trunk to trunk. A belt of trees or a grove thus occupies a definite space, and measurements of distances in either direction from this area are made from the trunks of the outside rows. A single row of trees can not be said, in this sense, to occupy any space. Measurements of. distances in both directions are made from a common point on the line of the row. By this sys- tem it is possible to compare directly the influence of the different classes of windbreaks in the zone affected by the roots and branches and in the wider outlying zones protected by the trees without con- sidering the area which belongs strictly to them. Since the yield of a field of grain depends so much on the methods of cultivation and local soil conditions, an attempt has been made in measuring the effect of each windbreak to determine a normal, MEASURING INFLUENCES. 15 local yield for each field concerned and to express other local quanti- ties as a percentage of this yield, rather than to compare different fields by absolute yield. In the case of corn crops the normal yield of each field has been determined at a point far enough from the windbreak to be beyond its influence. For two fields on opposite sides of the same windbreak two normals must be determined. In measuring the effect of windbreaks upon orchard crops compari- sons have been made only between protected and unprotected orchards and no attempt has been made to determine a normal yield for each orchard. The orchards studied were all in the same general region and were affected by the same soil and climatic conditions, so that their chances of producing crops in the season of 1908 were equal except as the yield was affected by the presence or absence of windbreaks. Other things being equal, the influence of a windbreak is propor- tional to its height ; and as height increases so also the width of branch- ing increases, the shadows extend, and the roots grow and extend in one direction or another. In order to make the measurements under all conditions directly comparable, the height of the trees in any windbreak has been taken as the unit of measurement and horizontal distances have been expressed in terms of this unit. Thus, the terms " 1-ht.," "5-ht.," " 10-ht." indicate distances in terms of tree height, as equal to the height of the trees, five times their height, or ten times, as the case may be. The extent of branches or roots actually meas- ured in feet is everywhere expressed in the form of percentages of the height of the trees. Thus, the average height of a row of cotton- woods may be 50 feet and the average horizontal distance from the trunks of the trees to the ends of their branches on a given side may be 25 feet. The branching will therefore be expressed as 0.50-ht., meaning 50 per cent of the tree height. Similarly, it may be found that the roots of the trees extend 30 feet on a given side and this will be expressed as 0.60-ht. Again it may be found that the windbreak has an appreciable effect upon wind velocity out to 500 feet from the base of the trees, this distance being expressed as 10-ht., and the greatest yield in the field adjacent to this windbreak may be found at a distance of 200 feet, this being expressed as 4-ht. In considering areas which may be influenced by a windbreak it is assumed that the quantities determined at any point along the axis of the windbreak represent an average for the entire length of the windbreak. It is, therefore, unnecessary to consider the length of the windbreak or the length of the field adjacent to it, and instead of calculating areas on the basis of acreage or square feet, they are con- sidered to be of indefinite length and of a width which bears a definite relation to the height of the trees. The acreage involved in any case may be directly calculated if the length of the windbreak is known. PART II. MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL FACTORS— PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS UPON PLANTS AND ANIMALS— CROP YIELDS. METHOD OF MEASURING FACTORS. Before describing the influences of windbreaks through the agency of physical factors a brief description of the methods employed in measuring these factors will help toward an understanding of results. The amount of competition for sirhlight and soil moisture has been measured; the * atmospheric conditions which affect crops at some distance from the trees have been studied; and the various influences have been segregated and expressed quantitatively. This work comes within the province of plant physiology, and the methods used are those known to plant ecologists. SUNLIGHT. Of all the factors in the competition between trees and smaller forms of vegetation, sunlight is of the greatest importance, since the large stem and branches and the immense mass of foliage in a tree crown gives the tree a certain advantage over smaller plants. The object in measuring quantities of light in connection with this study of windbreaks is to determine what damage may result to crops from the interception of light rays by the crowns of the trees. Since various trees use different amounts of light and since the sev- eral crop plants require different amounts, much may be gained by a study of the light conditions in the areas occupied by different kinds of windbreaks and by the study of the crops upon which they may have an influence. The total shading effect of a row of trees is obtained by measuring the extent and intensity of the shadow for each hour of the day. The amount of direct sunlight which passes through the crowns of the trees at any point and time is measured by exposing a strip of solio paper for a given period, under the given light conditions, and by comparing the shade of color thus produced with the shade obtained by a similar exposure in full sunlight. Such exposures are made at intervals of 10 feet on either side of the windbreak and as far as the shadow extends at the time. The amount of light in the shaded area is expressed as a percentage of the full sunlight for that particular hour, and in calculating the total amount of light which reaches a given point in all of the hours between sunrise and sunset, each per- centage is reduced in the proportion of the value of the hourly direct 16 Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. FIQ. 1.-A NORTH-SOUTH Row HAS THE ADVANTAGE OF GETTING LIGHT FROM THE SIDES; DENSE BRANCHING, ALMOST TO THE GROUND. FIG. 2.-AN EAST-WEST Row RECEIVES LIGHT ONLY FROM ABOVE; LOWER BRANCHES SHADED OFF. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. FIG. 1.— CORN TO THE NORTH OF A COTTONWOOD GROVE is BADLY DAMAGED BY SHADE IN A FEW Rows ADJACENT TO THE TREES. FIG. 2.— ON THE EAST OF COTTONWOOD THE SHADING EFFECT is NOT so MARKED, BUT is FELT OVER A WIDE AREA. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S Dept. of Agricultuie. FIG. 1.— ALFALFA GROWS ALMOST TO THE BASE OF HONEY-LOCUST TREES. FIG. 2.— THE YIELD EVEN OF ALFALFA is COMPARATIVELY SMALL WHERE THE SHADE is MOST DENSE UNDER COTTONWOOD, A, from sample area in open field; B, sample area from base of trees. MEASURING FACTORS. 17 sunlight compared with that at noon. Thus, for example, light at 8 a. m. or 5 p. m. may be valued at only 25 per cent. Hence, the shading of a given point at noon means a greater loss than the same shade thrown on the point in the early morning or late afternoon. For the purpose of comparing different species under different con- ditions, the amount of light used by a given windbreak is expressed as a percentage of the total light which would fall during the entire day on a strip of ground parallel to the windbreak and as wide as the height of the trees. A row of trees may use 75 per cent of the light which would natu- rally fall upon the strip of ground 50 feet wide contiguous to the trees, and in the 50 feet next outside of this the shadow may repre- sent the use of only 25 per cent of the light. If this lesser shadow were combined with the greater and concentrated on the first strip, it might then be said that the shading is equal to 100 per cent of the light which would fall upon a strip of ground 50 feet wide. If, then, the height of the windbreak is 50 feet, the shading amounts to 100 per cent of a strip of ground whose width is 1-ht. If, however, the height of the trees in this case is only 25 feet, the amount of light used amounts to all of that which would fall upon a strip of ground whose width is 2-ht., or 200 per cent of the light on a 1-ht. strip. By this system, in comparing different windbreaks, the element of tree height may be eliminated. It may be seen that this figure which expresses the quantity of the shade produced by the wind- break may be more than 100 per cent. SOIL MOIS" UHE. The relation of trees to crops in th^1 competition for soil moisture is decidedly important. The tree roots reduce soil moisture adja- cent to windbreaks, and this effect is usually apparent in the yield of the crop growing there. A special effort has been made to deter- mine the root extent of the various species which are used for wind- breaks in order to decide which are least likely to damage crops extensively in seasons "when the rainfall is not sufficient for both trees and crops. Just as trees vary in the vigor of their stem and crown growth, they show varying root vigor. Even the so-called taproot species have some lateral roots in the well-aerated soil not far below the surface. These are the ones which compete with the cultivated plants for moisture, and the greater their length, the greater the possible damage to crops. To determine the extent of the tree roots of various species, a number of soil samples, taken at regular intervals out from the base of the trees, show to what extent, as expressed in distance and in moisture percentages, the roots have an appreciable effect in depleting the moisture supply of the soil. The samples are taken at depths of 92290°— Bull. 86—11 2 18 WINDBREAKS 10 and 20 inches or more, and at intervals of 10 or 20 feet on both sides of the trees, giving for each windbreak a complete soil survey. The amount of moisture found in any soil sample is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of that sample. Having determined the normal moisture per cent for a given field at the given depth, it is only a step to locate by graphic methods the point at some dis- tance from the trees at which the activity of the roots ceases. This distance, which may be from one-half to three times as great as the height of the tree, is expressed as a percentage of that height. MECHANICAL FORCE OF WIND. • The windbreak directly reduces the mechanical force of winds and through this reduction has several other influences. The measure- ment of velocity of surface air currents has been carried on chiefly in connection with studies of evaporation and is accomplished by the use of the standard anemometer, which expresses the wind velocity in miles per hour. As in the case of all other atmospheric measure- ments in this study, the anemometer is set up at a height of 4 feet from the ground. One instrument, in a fully-exposed situation gives the normal wind velocity for a stated period, while at the same time other instruments exposed at certain points within the area influ- enced by the windbreak show comparable velocities. The distances from the windbreak are always even multiples of the height of the windbreak. EVAPORATION. The ability of the windbreak to check evaporation must be its source of greatest benefit, since, in the region where windbreaks find their greatest usefulnessSnoisture is almost always insufficient for the best interests of agriculture. To thoroughly understand the influ- ence of a windbreak upon evaporation it should be stated that the evaporation of water from any wet surface and also the transpiration of moisture from the leaves of plants is accelerated by three condi- tions— heat, dryness of the air, and rapid air circulation. Hence, anything which reduces the movement of the air reduces the rate of evaporation and may effect an appreciable saving of the moisture supply. Evaporation has been measured in a way which shows about the same effects of windbreak protection as are felt by the plants of a field crop. In other words, the evaporating surface of the instrument responds to the same influences as do the leaves of plants. The evaporometer consists of a circular sheet of filter paper resting on a thin glass plate and continually moistened by a supply of water which is fed onto the center of the paper. The moist paper is exposed to sunlight, and the circulation of the air above it is MEASURING FACTORS. 19 perfectly free, so that it responds readily to changes of temperature and to changes in wind velocity. In this case, as in measuring wind, the normal evaporation for the period in question has always been obtained by exposing an evaporometer at a point where it could not be affected by the wind- break. Other evaporometers were similarly exposed on both sides of the windbreak at distances from the windbreak which were one, two, and five tunes its height, and, in addition, on the leeward side at ten and twenty times the tree height. These distances practi- cally cover the entire range of the windbreak's influence upon evapo- ration. The instruments show the quantity of water evaporated, and the amount evaporated in the open is taken as the normal, or 100 per cent. Amounts evaporated at other points are reduced to percentages of the normal. HEAT. While the windbreak affects evaporation by checking the move- ment of the surface air currents, it may also affect the temperature of the air. A body of trees modifies the temperature of the air within it. In the daytime direct insolation is prevented and the air is cooler than it is outside. At night the heat waves radiated from the ground are intercepted and the air under the trees is warmer than outside. Comparative uniformity of temperature is further secured by the fact that the boles and branches of the trees store certain quantities of heat and that this heat is only very slowly radiated. These effects of forest cover are, however, confined to the forested area and its immediate neighborhood. Windbreaks are much more important for their effects at a distance. The following general principles should be borne in mind in considering what effects windbreaks may have upon temperatures and in comprehending the methods used to measure these effects: (1) The earth is warmed daily by insolation and the heat so received is dissipated very soon after the heat of the sun is withdrawn. (2) The lower strata of soil are heated by conduction of the warmth from above. Conduction is increased by a moderate amount of moisture in the soil, yet evaporation of moisture may reduce the sur- face temperature and thus reduce also the amount of heat to be conducted downward. (3) The ah* is heated only very slightly by the rays of the sun passing through it. As it comes in contact with warm or cold objects, however, it is heated or cooled. By convection or circulation of the air thus heated or cooled there is a constant tendency to reestablish uniformity of air temperature. 20 WINDBREAKS. (4) The air is heated or cooled in direct proportion to the length of time that it remains in contact with warmer or colder objects, or, in other words, in inverse proportion to its rate of movement over such objects. (5) The air moves in a horizontal direction over the ground unless so heated and expanded that it is caused to rise. At night there is very little vertical movement of the air currents, but when their horizontal movement is rapid there is a constant mixing of the upper and lower strata of air. When the earth is radiating heat any object which, like a wind- break, checks air currents raises the temperature of the surface layers of air by increasing the length of their contact with the soil. The presence of this warm blanket of air over the ground increases in turn the temperature of the soil. In like manner a windbreak cools the air by holding it in contact with the ground when late at night or in cloudy weather the earth has practically ceased to radiate heat. Such arrest of air currents, commonly called "stagnation," is known to have an appreciable influence on day temperatures and on the liability to frosts at night. Its effects may be felt by anyone who passes quickly into the zone protected by a windbreak, where in the daytime the air feels more sultry and at night more chilly than in the open. These influences of windbreaks upon temperatures have been studied by means of simple thermometers located with respect to the windbreak as were the evaporometers. In every case the normal temperature was obtained outside the windbreak's zone of influence, but in other respects the control thermometer has been exposed to the same local influences as were the thermometers on both sides of the windbreak. To measure air temperatures during the day, thermometers at 4 feet above the ground were read at each hour between sunrise and sunset. At night the minimum temperature at the same points was obtained by a minimum-registering thermometer. Soil tem- peratures were obtained at the same points by inserting a very deli- cate thermometer into a small hole bored to a depth of 1 or 2 feet and kept covered between successive readings. HUMIDITY. It has been assumed that the greatest effect of a windbreak upon the humidity of the air over grain fields arises not so much from the possibility of the trees adding to or detracting from the moisture con- tent of the air as from their disturbing influence upon the movement and direction of air currents. To determine how great this effect might be the amount of moisture in the air at several points on both sides of the windbreak and at a height of 4 feet from the ground was RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 21 determined in a single case by numerous and successive readings of the ordinary cog-psy chrome ter. The amount of moisture in the air is determined by this instrument and by the use of tables which show the absolute and relative humidity corresponding to any simul- taneous readings of the wet and dry bulbs of the psychrometer. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. The pages immediately preceding have been given up to a discus- sion of the methods and principles involved in the measurement of the physical and physiological effects of windbreak. This informa- tion is for the benefit of those who may be somewhat unfamiliar with work of the character undertaken in this study. The next succeeding pages take up the results obtained and the conclusions which may be drawn from a careful analysis of the effects of windbreaks on each factor which influences plant growth. I. LIGHT EFFECTS OF SHADING. Complete sunlight surveys have been made in the areas adjacent to a number of windbreaks in order to determine the density of the shade cast by different species and the aggregate amount of light re- quired by different windbreaks. The aggregate amount of light used by a windbreak bears a close relation to the amount of damage which results from its presence along the edge of a field. The amount of shade cast by any tree in a windbreak, or, in other words, the amount of light used by the tree, depends upon the density of its crown, the extent of its branches, and the orientation of the windbreak. The extent of branching is of most importance in the selection of species to compose the windbreak, or, at least, in the selection of the trees which shall stand next to the field crops. The tolerance of the tree, as expressed by the density of its crown, is also to be considered. AMOUNT OF SHADING. Table 1 shows the total amount of light cut off by various species in both orientations and, roughly, the location of the heaviest shade as influenced by the position of the greater mass of branches. This latter point is determined by computing the percentage of the total shade that falls within a zone immediately adjacent to the trees, which has a width on either side equal to one-half of the tree height. 22 WINDBREAKS. TABLE 1. — Amount and distribution of shade cast by various species. Orientation east-west. Orientation north- south. Species and class. Percentage of light cut Percentage of total shade Percentage of light cut Percentage of total shade off north within off east within and south 1-ht. zone and west 1-ht. zone sides. north and sides. east and south sides. west sides. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Cottonwood row, open 48.08 89.20 Cotton wood grove 53 10 87 55 Do • 55. 31 75.50 Cottonwood grove and ash 52.46 83.96 Cottonwood row, narrow 79.34 57.05 Cottonwood row spreading 71.32 64 00 Soft maple belt, 3 rows. 1 88. 75 82.15 Green ash belt, 2 rows 89 77 57 29 Honey locust row . . 1 125.89 65.02 98.91 73.53 Osage orange row U13.88 71.65 U16.97 65.10 i Where the percentage exceeds 100 it means that the amount of light cut off is greater than that which would fall xipon a strip of ground as wide as the height of the trees. Crown density and branching. — Tables 1 and 3, taken together, show that the value of the light absorbed by the trees and cut off from the crops adjacent to them is proportional to the density of the crowns. In the order of their tolerance, or ability to endure shade and thus to maintain heavy crowns, the trees may be listed as follows, with the most tolerant placed first: Osage orange, soft maple, green ash, honey locust, cottonwood. Honey locust, however, must be classed as the most severe shader of all except osage orange, and the reason is at once seen by reference to Table 2, which shows honey locust to have the most extensive branches. In this table the species are arranged in the order of their branching extent, those with shortest branches first : TABLE 2. — Branching extent of various trees. Species. Direction. Basis windbreaks measured. Average height. Average branching distance. Relation of branching distance to height. North Number. 125 Feet. 57.26 Feet. 23.12 Per cent. 40.39 South East West 98 84 96 55.02 55.00 59.74 19.92 19.80 20.86 36.22 36.05 34.92 All 403 56.84 21.12 37.15 North... 28 26.33 10.58 40.25 South East West 20 26 28 24.80 27.20 24.82 10.70 11.98 10.39 43.16 44.07 45.90 All 102 25.84 11.18 43.30 Soft maple North... 19 35.83 16.93 47.25 South East West 13 3 15 36.08 40.67 33.20 16.97 23.33 14.37 47.07 57.38 43.30 All 50 35.40 16.56 46.77 RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. TABLE 2. — Branching extent of various trees — Continued. 23 Species. Direction. Basis windbreaks measured. Average height. Average branching distance. Relation of branching distance to height. North Number. 79 Feet. 17.02 Feet. 9.32 Per cent. 54.75 South East.. West 63 85 76 17.45 18.36 18.51 8.98 10.01 9.47 51.46 54.50 51.20 All 303 17.86 9.48 53.10 Mulberry North 22 18.23 11.00 60.36 South East West 15 12 16 19.27 21.25 20.56 10.20 12.08 9.87 52.95 56.87 48. 03 411 19 60 10 74 54 80 Willow North 48 28.11 16.58 58.97 South East 42 36 28.57 26.50 14.74 16.28 51.60 61.41 West 47 29.23 14.49 49.60 All 173 28.20 15. 50 55.00 Box elder North 47 22.49 12.41 55.20 South East... West 33 33 36 22.85 23.90 24.03 12.14 14.29 12.72 53.12 59.75 52.97 All 149 23.26 12.84 55.22 Honey locust . ... North. ... 22 24.95 14.41 57.73 South East 21 14 23.35 24.64 12.91 13.72 55.30 55.67 West 17 26. 65 15.12 56.86 All 74 24.83 14.01 IN 56. 45 \J The relative shading qualities of the several species are iMre clearl^ shown by the curves on diagrams 2 to 6, inclusive. The^shaded ai of the diagrams show the entire volume of light cui-^ff froi ground. It will be seen that the high branching of cotton woo< maple permits the entrance of considerable light to the ground4it base of the trees, while the low, spreading branches of locust and os* orange create under the tree a zone in which the growth of smaller plants is quite impossible. This difference between species is especi- ally marked in north-south windbreaks, for the morning and after\^ noon sun may shine under the branches unless the}r are very low. Orientation. — Of greater importance than the difference between the various species in their shading effect is the difference between orientations. Table 1 shows that the amount of light used by the trees in the north-south row is considerably in excess of that taken up by the trees in a row whose orientation is east-west, and the diagrams show that this shading is not only greater in volume, but greater in extent. This is, of course, due to the fact that the north-south wind- break receives sunlight from one side or the other during about two- thirds of the day, while in the east- west row, especially in midsummer, the shadows fall little outside the area covered by the branches. Crops adjacent to a north-south windbreak will, therefore, suffer more from the shading than those adjacent to an east-west windbreak. 24 / O / 0/STAHCE f/?OM MM0ff/f£Afi' EXPRESSED IN TEAMS OF HE/ GMT' 30U7H fi NORTH DIACRAM 2.— Amount of sunlight cut off by cottonwood groves. Expressed in percentages of total sunlight on September 3. DIAGEAM 8.— Amount of sunlight cut off by cottonwood rows. Expressed in percentages of total sunlight on September 3. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 25 O 0/STAMCZ •VEST & £AST I 2 2.3 0.6 W/VD8ffEAK £Xf>X£S3££ tH T&TMS SOUTH S NORTH DIAGRAM 4.— Amount of sunlight cut off by ash and maple belts. Expressed in percentages of total sunlight on September 1 . DIAGRAM 5.— Amount of sunlight cut off by osage orange hedges. Expressed in percentages of total sunlight on September 18. 26 WINDBREAKS. A corresponding difference in the growth of the trees is also to be ex- pected. The cotton wood windbreaks shown in Plate VI, figures 1 and 2, have thoroughly adapted themselves to this difference in the source of light. The east- west row (fig. 2) is almost devoid of lower branches and has a dense mass of foliage near the tops of the trees, while the north-south row has an even distribution of branches from the top to the bottom. The yield tables given on pp. 79-87 show the north- south rows to be proportionately larger producers of timber.. In shading, honey locust again forms an exception to the general rule, since its wide branches shade an unusually large area on the north and south sides. 424 tyesr % CAST SOUTH £ NORTH DIAGRAM 6.— Amount of sunlight cut off by honey locust rows. Expressed in percentages of total sunlight on September 19. The ground south of windbreaks is, of course, less shaded than that to the north. It might be expected that the branches of trees would extend more toward the sun, but the southerly winds which blow during the growing season do not favor this, and the branches are to some extent bent to the north. That this is because of wind and is not a case of negative heliotropism, as some authors have suggested, is shown by cottonwood. In Kansas the greater growth of branches to the north is very marked; in Nebraska it is less marked, while in Minnesota, where southerly winds are neither prevalent nor especially drying, the deflection is much less. Willow, which is especially sus- ceptible to this influence, shows about the same deflection in Nebraska and Minnesota, and in the latter State quite as much to the east as to the north. An exception is green ash, whose branches are not flexible. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 27 The loss of light is found to be greater on the east than on the west sides of windbreaks, and this is in part due to wider branching on the east side. Part of the difference may also be ascribed to the greater intensity of afternoon light. The greater amount of moisture in the air in the morning has a tendency to absorb and diffuse the sunlight. CROP EFFECTS. Diagrams 7 to 13, inclusive, show graphically the results of the measurements of various field crops in relation to shade, and demon- strate the absolute dependence of these crops on sunlight. Table 3 expresses this in figures, which show the amount of light and the yield of various crops growing immediately adjacent to windbreaks. TABLE 3. — Amount of light cut off and loss to crops.1 [In cornfields the moisture factor is apparently eliminated.] Kind of windbreak. Direction from windbreak. Cases meas- ured. Light cut off. Kind of crop. Cases meas- ured. Damage to crop. Osage hedge Side. North Number. 1 Per cent. 79. G2 Corn Number. 7 Per cent. 70. 16 Do... South 1 34. 26 ...do... 3 56. 73 Do East 1 71 08 do 2 90 07 Do do 1 71 08 Wheat 1 2 121 04 Do West .. 1 45.89 Corn 2 77.97 Do do 1 45 89 Wheat 4 * 135 31 C ottonwood row North 1 40.74 Corn 3 63.90 Do do 1 40 74 \lfalfa 3 64 7? Do ... South 1 7.34 Do East 2 44 86 Corn ] 58 30 Do do 2 44.86 Oats . 5 2 111. 85 Do... West. . . 2 30.47 Corn 2 74.08 Do ..do 2 30.47 Oats 2 95.45 Do do 2 30 47 Mfalfa 4 74 59 Cottonwood belt North 1 47.91 Corn 1 67.70 Do do 1 47 91 Oats 4 79 30 Cottonwood grove . .do . .. 1 44.52 Com 1 68.38 Do do ] 44 52 Oats 2 67 10 Maple belt .do.. . . 1 60.46 Corn 61. 43 Do Mar»le grove South... North .. .. 1 0 28.29 do........ .do 62.90 51.50 Do do 0 Whent 2 146. 30 Ash belt... South. . o Corn 54.68 Do . East 1 46 28 Do West 1 43 49 Corn 2 103 30 Honey locust row North 1 89.18 Alfalfa 84.00 Do do 1 89 18 Timothy 46 60 Do... South. 1 36. 71 Do East 1 56 3S Do West 1 42.53 Alfalfa 1 56.25 1 Results of studies made in cooperation with the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station. 8 Where the per cent of damage exceeds 100 it means that the loss of crop was greater than the yield of a strip whose width is equal to the height of the trees. If the damage to crops on the several sides of the cottonwood or osage orange windbreaks is compared, it is found that the loss to the crops is about proportional to and in the same area as the shadows thrown by these windbreaks. The damage is greater on the north than on the south side, and about equally extensive on the east and west sides. Although some other factor may change this relation, the shading generally does more damage to crops on the east side of the windbreaks than on the west side. In spite of this, farmers 28 WINDBREAKS. usually think that the east side is more favorable for crop growth. That reason for this belief exists is shown in the discussion of heat, page 65. A comparison of various crops shows that corn and alfalfa are the most tolerant of shade, and, therefore, the best producers near a windbreak. This is hardly the result to be expected, since both wheat and oats make their earlier development at a time of the year when the sunlight is less intense than that demanded by corn, and it is quite probable that the measured damage to these smaller grains represents the combined effects of shading and sapping. The impor- tance of the latter factor is shown in the case of alfalfa (diagram 14) during a period when no rain fell and strong competition for moisture is known to have existed. It should also be remembered that wheat and oats develop at a time when the apparent position of the sun is a good way to the south, and when, therefore, the shadow on the north side of the windbreak Vould be much wider than at midsummer. In many cases it was found that crops immediately beyond the shaded zone derive a benefit from the protection afforded by the trees. This resulted from the greater warmth in the area protected from wind and may, to a very slight extent, offset the damage from shad- ing at the outer limit of the shadow. The zone of damage is appreci- ably less in the case of a dense grove than in that of a belt or row of trees which does not have so strong an effect upon temperature. A remarkable case of crop growth very close to trees is illustrated in diagram 13, where the growth of corn on the west side of various tree species is compared. This shows very clearly the value of the narrow, conical crown of coniferous trees as exemplified in Austrian pine, which shades a lesser area than one which becomes larger toward the top. REMEDIES. The loss to crops from shading may be reduced by any of the following means: (1) By planting, in a strip including all of the shaded zone, crops whose value is not dependent upon the production of seeds, such as blue grass, timothy (see Table 3), clover, alfalfa, Kafir corn, and fodder corn. The production of seeds in any plant requires more favorable conditions than does the growth of the vegetative parts. In Kansas an area 34 feet wide next to a row of cottonwood trees (illustrated in PL IX, fig. 2) gave a yield of 3 tons of Kafir corn fodder, worth $6 a ton, or about 1 J tons to the acre. Practically all of this strip would have been wasted had the owner of the land planted corn or any other grain crop upon it. (2) By planting in windbreaks, or at least in that portion nearest the field crops, narrow and light crowned trees. Cottonwood is both RESULTS OF MEA 29 in percentages of yield at three time* DIAGRAM crops north of shelter belts. Expressed in percentages of yield at three height. 30 WINDBREAKS. DIAGRAM 9.— Yield of crops west and east of cotton wood rows. Expressed in percentages of yield at two and one-half times height. Normal yield in open — Osage orange. Normal yield at two and one-half times height— Cotton wood. DIAGRAM 10.— Yield adjacent to osage orange and cottonwood rows. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 31 DIAGRAM 11. — Yield of crops east and west of osage orange hedges. Expressed in percentages of yield at three times height. DIAGRAM 12.— Yield of alfalfa with various tree species. Expressed in percentages of yield at two* and two-tenths times height. 32 WINDBREAKS. narrow crowned and light foliaged. Maple has a narrow crown. Green ash is to be recommended. Conifers, especially Scotch and Austrian pine, white pine, and white cedar, which have narrow, conical crowns, are very desirable. (3) The outer rows of a belt may consist of slower-growing "tol- erant" trees which, unless they are of exceedingly slow growth, can be planted after the main body of trees has attained a good height. Spruce, fir, maple, and ash are good examples. Even osage orange will grow in considerable shade. (4) The ground under the branches of tall trees may well be used for roads. Secondary roads, used only in summer, should be on the north and east sides of windbreaks. DIAGRAM 13.— Yield of corn wost of various tree spreu-.--. K\t. :•••--•••! in percentages of yield at three times height. (5) In the Middle West, where most of the winds are southerly or northerly, the east-west orientation should be established wherever possible. In the northern prairies and Lake States the north-south orientation will be found most useful. While the damage to crops may be greater from a dense and wide- crowned species, such as osage orange, the protective value of the windbreak may be greatly enhanced by such a crown. That the protective value of a species is not necessarily proportional to its shading power, however, is brought out later under the subject of evaporation (p. 45) in the discussion of windbreak efficiency. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agricultu PLATE IX. FIG. 1.— THE BRANCHES OF ASH ARE SMALL AND SHORT, AND THE TREE DOES LITTLE DAMAGE BY SHADING CROPS. FIG. 2.— KAFIR CORN WILL PRODUCE FORAGE WHERE CORN WOULD PRODUCE NO EARS. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE X. FIQ. 1.— EFFECT OF CULTIVATION ON OSAQE ORANGE. Left side, no cultivation; height, 13 feet; root extent, 35 feet; value in posts, $121 per mile. Right side, cultivated one side; height, 16 feet; root extent, 17 feet; value in posts, $296 per mile. FIG. 2.— LARGE TREES NOT ONLY TAKE THE MOISTURE AWAY FROM THE NEAREST TREES IN THE ORCHARD, BUT ALSO INJURE THEM BY SHADING. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 33 II. SOIL MOISTURE — SAPPING. It is very commonly stated that the damage done by windbreaks is due to the "sapping" of the soil by the roots of the trees, which are said to take not only large quantities of the moisture needed by crops, but also the soil fertility. The matter of soil fertility is con- sidered separately in this bulletin. That the importance of sapping is usually overestimated was very apparent in the season of 1908, when moisture was abundant even in the root zones of windbreaks, O .2 D/S7XA/CE f#OM / 2 EXPRESSED W TERMS FAST, DIAGRAM 14.— Effects of shading and sapping on the growth of field crops. Relative importance of two factors on north and east sides. when the effects of shading were perfectly clear. The effects of these two factors are easily confused and difficult to separate. EXTENT OP SAPPING. No attempt has been made to determine what quantity of soil moisture is taken by trees in a windbreak, since it may bo supposed that in exceedingly dry years this may be sufficient to practically prohibit the growth of field crops in the zone permeated by the well- established roots of the trees. Such being the case, it is of greatest 92290°-jBull, SS-H - 3 34 WINDBREAKS. interest to determine the extent of these roots and the area which may be so seriously affected in the driest years by different species. The soil surveys previously described indicate the limits of the tree roots, in some instances by the depression of the moisture curve at the tips of the roots and in all cases by the sudden increase in moisture when the ends of the roots are passed. The point farthest from the trees, where there was appreciable depletion of the moisture, has been accepted as the limit of the tree roots. Table 4 indicates the root extent of all species studied in distances at right angles to the windbreaks concerned. TABLE 4. — Average root extent of Carious species in windbreaks. Species. Direction. Cases meas- ured. Average height. Average sapping. Distance. Propor- tion to height. Osage orange North. . . Number. 28 20 8 12 Feet. 19.11 20.70 18.38 19.50 Feet. 31.21 25.25 33.37 37.25 Per cent. 163.3 122.0 181.5 191.0 Green ash South East... West All 68 19.56 30.78 157.3 North 3 5 2 22.67 45.00 50.00 33.33 42.80 60.00 146.9 95.1 120.0 Cotionwood . . ... . South East West All 10 23~ 17 10 10 39.30 43.40 110.4 North 58.16 60.94 59.00 55.00 73.61 61.59 61.50 49.00 126.3 101.0 104.2 89.1 Mulberry South East West Ail 60 58.60 64.08 20.00 32.00 49.00 45.00 109.3 166.7 228.5 215.0 321.4 North 2 1 5 12.00 14.00 22.80 14.00 Honey locust South East West All 9 3 18.44 35.00 40.22 38.00 218.0 108.6 North White pine North. . . 1 1 20.00 20.00 9.00 15.00 45.0 75.0 Scotch pine . South All 2 3 3 20.00 24.00 30.00 12.00 40.00 50.00 60.0 166.7 166.7 West do. . . . Austrian pine From the data given it is evident that, contrary to the common opinion, cottonwood has the least extensive roots of any of the broad- leaf species, and hence has the least power for damage to crops in dry years. Next in order come green ash, osage orange, and mul- berry. The data given for honey locust are too meager to form the basis of any good estimate of its sapping powers. Of the conifers, white pine shows a distinctly compact root system, while Scotch and Austrian pines are, in the situations studied and habitually, much longer rooted. The figures given for the last two species are RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 35 doubtless magnified by the effects of competition, since the roots were necessarily one-sided. The importance of this is shown later. CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE ROOT EXTENT. While each tree species has a distinct root form — tap or lateral — each shows more or less adaptability to the moisture conditions under which growth is made. Lack of moisture induces long roots. Hence, to compare cottonwood, which is invariably planted on moist situa- tions, with osage orange, which is commonly found on the drier ones, is not quite fair to the latter. A careful study of the original data on which Table 4 is based indicates that there are a number of con- ditions which reduce the amount of moisture available for the trees and hence stimulate root growth into the good soil of fields, where it is undesirable. The causes of extensive roots are as follows: (1) Lack of rainfall. Where the rainfall is light the roots will go far in search of moisture. (2) Light and infertile soils. (3) An impermeable subsoil. Stiff clays and gumbo can not be penetrated by the roots, nor do they permit moisture from lower strata to reach the roots. (4) Lack of capillary water. This is greatest when the water table is very low. (5) A heavy soil cover of grass or other deep-rooted plants. Cul- tivation in the root zone conserves the moisture and hence reduces the necessity for long roots. The effect of cultivation on the root extent of osage orange is clearly shown by Table 5. TABLE 5. — Effect of cultivation on root extent of osage orange. Average root ex- tent. Amount of cultivation. Cases measured. Average height of trees. Propor- Distance. tion to height. Number. Feet. Feet. Per cent. None 8 20.0 43.7 218.7 One side of trees 25 17.2 28.9 167.8 Both sides of trees . 35 21.7 29.2 134.5 It must be seen from these figures that where the ground adjacent to windbreaks is not cultivated at all the roots will gain possession of a much larger area than where one or both sides are cultivated. (6) The presence of other trees competing with those on the edge of the windbreak for the soil moisture. Trees on the edge of a grove will have practically a one-sided root system, and this, of course, must be more extensive, in the direction in which moisture is easily found, than the roots of trees in a single row, which extend freely in both directions. 36 WINDBREAKS. TABLE 6. — Effect of competition on root extent of cottonwood. Average root ex- tent. Kind of windbreak. Cases measured. Average height of trees. Propor- Length. tion to • height. Number. Feet. Feet. Per cent. Single row 16 27 57.0 52.1 53.6 56.3 94.1 108.1 Two or three rows. . . . Groves 17 70.5 86.3 122.5 (7) Coppicing or cutting back $>f hedges. Coppicing does not directly increase the length of roots, but leaves the new shoots to grow with roots of the same length as those possessed by the original trees. In the case of osage orange this is seen to have a very important effect. TABLE 7. — Effect of coppicing on proportionate root extent. Average root ex- tent. Average Kind of windbreak. measured. height of trees. Propor- Length. tion to height. Number. Feel. Feet. Per cent. Seedling growth. . 31 6 15.6 13.0 30.2 33.0 193.5 254. 0 Coppice growth The conditions stated above will, singly or collectively, account for the unusual length of roots in almost every instance where they are found to be longer in proportion to the height than is given in Table 4. These conditions should be avoided as far as possible. EFFECTS OF SAPPING. As already stated, the effect of a lack of moisture in the zone next to the trees will be felt most strongly by plants which begin life anew each year; that is, by annual crops. Frequently seeds will fail to germinate, or the young plants will die from lack of moisture before their roots can be developed. It is believed that the ability of perennial crops, like alfalfa and clover, to grow in the shade of trees is in a large measure due to their extensive roots. Orchards. — Fruit trees on the edge of the orchard where they must compete with forest trees are usually small in size. Doubtless this is partly due to shading. Even if the trees attain to good bearing the fruit in dry years is likely to be small and of poor color. In California trenches are dug to cut off the roots of eucalypts and other large trees surrounding orchards in order to prevent their taking moisture from the fruit trees. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 37 A case measured in Edwards County, Kans., shows that while sapping by forest trees may be appreciable, it need not, in a young orchard, result in any damage to the fruit trees. The windbreak consisted of two rows of cottonwood 15 feet high and 10 feet apart. Ten feet to the north was a row of 22 peach trees and 15 feet farther was a second row containing the same number of trees. The results of tree and soil measurements are shown in Table 8. TABLE 8. — Relation of orchard and forest trees. Average soil moisture Average height of at depth trees. 40 inches. Per cent. Feet. Cottonwood rows 14.65 15.00 First row peach trees 9 62 7.36 Second row peach trees 11.75 a 36 Although moisture was not abundant and the cottonwoods had to some extent robbed the first row of fruit trees, the shading effect was not felt and no damage had so far resulted. Instead, the trees nearest the windbreak seemed to be doing better than those in the second row. Grainfields. — In grainfields the effect of sapping is shown by the smaller size of the plants and smaller heads of grain. Even if there is abundant moisture when the plants are young, and they attain good size, a late drought will parch them badly. The fields first become " burned " or " fired" along the edges where there are trees or heavy sod. With small grains the result is usually the premature ripening of the heads and loss of the grain by shelling out. With corn, the ears are reduced in size and the kernels do not fill out. In an instance examined in the fall of 1908, immediately after the first frost, it was shown that the effect of the tree roots (green ash) had been to cause the earlier ripening of the corn, especially that growing near the tips of the roots. The advanced ripening was evident not only in the kernels of corn but also in the plant. With one or two exceptions, the effect of sapping was not apparent in corn yields, which increased very steadily once the limit of the shaded zone had been reached. In the exceptional cases there is a sudden checking of the rise of the yield curve, indicating the zone of activity of the tree roots. With oats and wheat, however, the influence of tree roots was much more apparent in all cases (see diagrams 7 to 13). Both of these small grains suffered from lack of moisture early in the spring before corn had been planted. In a field of wheat north of a grove of soft maple (see diagram 14) the grain was notably poor for about 45 feet from the trees, which were 29 feet high. 38 WINDBREAKS. Beyond this there was a sudden increase in the size and number of the plants, which were, for a short distance out, larger than the normal for the field. The total loss was 146.3 per cent of the possible yield on a strip as wide as the height of the tree. If there is deducted from this the 51.5 per cent lost in cornfields, where there is damage only from shading, the 95 per cent left represents the sapping damage of soft maple roots extending to the north. A similar effect was found in the case of alfalfa east of an osage orange hedge (see diagram 14). No rain fell during the month in which this (the second) crop matured, and at its end the dearth of moisture in the root zone was quite marked. In this case the sapping damage was 20 per cent in addition to the normal effects of shading on the east side of osage hedges. The season was too moist to furnish examples of the most severe damage from sapping. It is safe to say, however, that in cases of extreme drought, the loss of annual crops may be complete to the outer limits of the tree roots. REMEDIES. Damaging competition for moisture between forest trees and smaller forms of vegetation may be greatly lessened in any of the following ways: (1) By thorough cultivation of the soil adjacent to the trees, increasing the moisture of the lower soil, and decreasing the necessity for wide root extension on the part of the trees. With rows and hedges along roads a strip between the trees and the road should be cultivated in order to induce root growth on that side. (2) By very deep plowing each year alongside of shallow-rooted species, such as osage orange and mulberry, in order to cut off the surface roots. (3) By deep plowing or even dynamiting of the subsoil in extreme cases, before planting 'the trees, to encourage deep rooting, and to facilitate the upward capillary movement of moisture. (4) By the use of seed crops, such as timothy and other grasses, clover, and alfalfa, next to the trees. This should not be done until the trees have attained the height desired for, protective purposes, since the competition of these crops will in a large measure check the growth of the trees. (5) By planting tap-rooted species like white pine, Norway pine, oaks, hickories, and maples on the edge of the grove or belt adjacent to crops. III. SOIL FERTILITY. Farmers often lay much stress upon the fact that the trees in a windbreak seem to sap the fertility of the soil along their borders. Careful studies of the requirements of various forest trees have shown RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 39 that there is little basis for such an opinion, for, while all trees, and especially some of the hardwoods, require a certain amount of soluble salts, almost all of this material is returned to the soil when the leaves fall. The matter of soil fertility has received veiy little attention in this study. A few samples of the surface soil (depth 1 foot) were taken, however, to determine the effect of the tree roots upon the quantity of the essential salts at various distances from windbreaks. No single element is more essential to all forms of plant growth than nitrogen, though phosphorus and potassium are very essential to the formation of seeds. Nitrogen is an important component of salt- peter, of manure, and of many commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is present in the soil in many chemical combinations, but is available to plants only in the form of nitrates. The quantity of nitrates available in any soil depends not only upon the total amount of nitrogen which may be present, but also upon the physical properties of the soil, its moisture, warmth, and porosity, all of which limit the activity of the microorganisms . ANALYSES FOR NITROGEN. Soils were analyzed for their total nitrogen and their available nitrates in three fields adjacent to cottonwood windbreaks and in three adjacent to honey locust. Cottonwood is usually considered the most severe drainer of the fertility of the soil. Honey locust, being a legume, should have a decidedly different effect upon the supply of nitrates. The results of analyses for both trees show a smaller amount of available nitrates in the zone permeated by their roots, but do not show any decrease in the total amount of nitrogen in the soil. In other words, there has been no drain upon the store of those substances which go to make up the nitrates for plant food. On the north side of a belt of cottonwood trees, the smallest pro- portion of nitrates and the lowest amount of water are found in the same position relative to the windbreak. The conclusion is that the smaller quantity of nitrates is not an indication of their use by the trees, but is due to a deficiency of the moisture on which the activity of nitrifying bacteria is dependent. Exactly the same relation holds in the case of honey locust. In each instance the amount of nitrates is least at the point where the activity of the roots has most markedly reduced the amount of moisture. It can not be said, then, that forest trees reduce the fertility of the soil in nitrogen, although their use of soil moisture may reduce the activity of the nitrifying bacteria and cause temporary sterility in the zone of root influence. 40 WINDBREAKS. IV. MECHANICAL POWER OF WINDS. A Russian experimenter 1 has shown that the air which strikes a body of trees is to some extent deflected upward; some of it leaks through between the leaves and branches and some of it may pass under the trees. The amount deflected upward is greatest in the case of trees which are not too rigid. Willows are typical of the class of trees which have this effect. These are very unimportant considerations. In general, there is a mass of more or less calm air in the lee of the windbreak which in time is set in motion by contact with the rapid-moving strata above. Where a strong current of air passes under the trees (see diagram 33) it gradually loses its velocity through friction with the ground and with a calmer stratum of air above, so £ ro\ jL * s i d $ 0 S /O /S *0 MM y&oc/rr /M r#£ ofie/v (#/t£s rs/r /tots/?) DIAGRAM 15.— Reduction of mechanical force of wind. tnat the wind velocity at the ground may be greater near the trees than somewhat farther away on the leeward side. Distances at which the calming effect of the windbreak may be felt will depend upon the depth of the mass of the air so calmed (which will, of course, be equal to the height of the trees), and also upon the mean velocity of the air in the area of calm (determined by the leakage through the windbreak). Actually the average dis- tance was found to be not more than twenty times the height of the windbreak, and at that distance almost the same velocities were experienced as were found on the windward side of the windbreak. When planting windbreaks for the protection of buildings or fields from violent winds the farmer is most concerned with the effect upon wind velocity in the immediate vicinity of the trees. A com- 1 Nesterov, N. S., "The Influence of the Forest on the Force and Direction of the Wind.' Trade Journal, Moscow, 1908, Vol. X, Nos. 8 and 9. Lumber Bui. 86. Forest Service, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE XI. FIG. 1 .—LUXURIANT GROWTH OF ORCHARD TREES IN CENTRAL KANSAS; INCLOSED BY COTTONWOOD GROVE AND PROTECTED FROM MECHANICAL AND DRYING POWER OF WIND. FIG. 2.— WHEAT NEAR THE TREES HAS BEEN BENEFITED BY THE COVERING AFFORDED WHERE SNOW DRIFTED IN THE LEE OF THE WINDBREAK. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. FIG. 1.— DUNES OF SAND BLOWN OUT OF THE BED OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER, SHERMAN COUNTY, OREQ. FIQ. 2.— SAND ENCROACHING ON A RAILROAD TRACK, HELD IN CHECK BY PLANTING OF WILLOWS. NEAR THE DALLES, OREG. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. FIG. 1.— LOMBARDY POPLAR PROTECTING AN ORCHARD. FIG. 2.— IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY DENSE HEDGES OF MUL- BERRY AND OTHER WINDBREAKS PROTECT ORCHARDS FROM WIND AND FROM DRIFTING SAND. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 41 parison of the wind movement at a point in the open with that at a point 5-ht. in the lee of the windbreak shows that a wind which reaches a velocity of 25 miles per hour in the open will in the shelter of a good windbreak have a velocity of only 20 per cent of this, or 5 miles per hour (see diagram 15). DAMAGE TO CROPS. In August, 1908, an opportunity was afforded for observing the effect of a violent wind upon a field of corn in the shelter of a wind- break which consisted of three rows of willows, 80 rods long, with a mean height of about 28 feet. With a wind velocity of at least 50 miles per hour about half of the corn in unprotected portions of the field was blown to the ground, while the remainder was bent about halfway to the earth. Since the ears were "in the milk" at the time, the field, in its damaged condition, could not mature more than one- third of a normal crop. In the shelter of the windbreak there was no damage. This held true to a distance of about 6-ht., or 10 rods. Between 6-ht. and 8-ht. there was very slight damage to the corn, perhaps 10 per cent loss. From 8-ht. to 12-ht. there was a loss of perhaps one-fourth of the crop, while beyond the latter point, the benefit from the wind- break was not appreciable. Assuming a normal yield of 45 bushels per acre, the protective value of the windbreak in this storm may be valued at 260 bushels. In addition, the windbreak has more than paid for the ground occupied through its present value in posts and fuel. The posts alone are estimated at $317. Mr. O. B. Galusha,1 of Illinois, writing in 1869, describes a storm in 1862 which struck the northern part of Illinois and did so much damage to standing corn that the monetary loss would be almost sufficient to pay the expenses of planting 4 miles of shelter belt on every section of land in the region affected. MOVEMENT OF SOILS. The effect of winds in moving loose soils has often proved disas- trous to farmers. There have been many instances of great damage from this source, but in years when winds are not prevalent and when moisture is abundant, they are likely to be forgotten. Prof. F. H. King 2 described in detail the effects of a strong north- east wind in the northern part of Wisconsin in moving the soil of cultivated fields. The wind occurred immediately after a heavy rain, and in a very short time the surface soil was dried out, the smaller particles being carried off the fields and deposited wherever the velocity of the wind was checked. The value of fences, hedges, 1 Report on Forestry, 1877; F. B. Hough. 2 Bulletin 42, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 42 WINDBREAKS. groves of trees, and other factors which prevent this movement of the soil, is described in detail, and a systematic planting of wind- breaks for the protection of fields is very strongly urged. The sand hills of Nebraska furnish another striking example. In years of plentiful moisture many fields in that section can be culti- vated profitably, yet at any time winds may begin to move the soil and the "blow-out" may continue until the water table is reached. Unfortunately, the farmers in this region have never fully appre- ciated the value of windbreaks, and are again cultivating areas which, in dry years, will prove to be valueless without protection from winds. Damage of this sort does not stop with the taking up of the soil from one field, but may be quite as great in another field where the soil is deposited. The sand hills south of the Arkansas River in Kansas have been built up, it is said, from sand blown out of the bed of that river at times of low water. Similar conditions exist in the Columbia River Valley in Washington and Oregon, where the sands from the river are picked up and carried on to adjoining fields, with the result that crops are completely buried and much damage is done to fruit (PI. XII). In a case of this sort the larger particles of sand are rolled along the ground rather than lifted into the air. In the Columbia River Valley a simple strip of grain planted near the bank of the river has sometimes been found to be very efficient in catching the sand. Of trees planted in this region the Lombardy poplar has been found best adapted to the situation, and very soon forms a protective barrier about orchards and grain fields. Railroads are compelled to construct numberless "hurdles" or low board fences to check the moving sand which threatens to bury their tracks. Willows have in some cases been planted successfully and serve the purpose as well as fences (PL XII, fig. 2). In the Arkansas River Valley, where there are extensive orchards, it was early discovered that they must have the protection afforded by hedges and belts of trees. Russian mulberry has proved very valuable for this purpose, at the same time baiting the fruit-eating birds, which would otherwise destroy the more valuable crop. It is commonly supposed that heavier soils are not likely to be moved by winds to an extent to damage crops. In Marion County, Kans., however, the movement of the soil, a moderately heavy fine loess, 25 or 30 years ago threatened the usefulness of the farm lands of that section. Soil drifts several feet deep can still be seen in lanes and along roads, which were at that time protected by low hedges or fences, wThich formed traps. With the planting of many hedges of osage orange the movement of soils ceased. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 43 DRIFTING OF SNOW. A shelter belt may be so placed as to act as a "snow trap/' since the snow will be dropped in the lee of the windbreak, where the force of the wind is slight. On this account objection is often made to windbreaks which stand on the north or west side of roads and which cause a large amount of snow to be deposited in the road. This may to some extent be prevented by placing the windbreaks on the side of the road opposite to that from which the prevailing winds come, or, better still, by making the windbreak on the wind- ward side of the road wide enough to completely check the wind and to collect the greater mass of snow under the trees. Kailroads are particularly interested in windbreaks for snow pro- tection, since even a light fall of snow, if blown into a railroad cut, may stop traffic. To protect their tracks from snow, railroads have, in mountainous regions, constructed many miles of snow sheds, and in the Plains region have placed artificial windbreaks in the form of board fences, often in series, at some distance from the track, on the windward side. A few desultory attempts have also been made to protect railroad cuts with bodies of timber, but in most cases the wrong species were selected, little care was given the trees, and the windbreaks are a practical failure. Yet this scheme of protection, if properly carried out, would not only save the railroad companies large outlays for the construction and maintenance of their fences, but would utilize the land within their rights of way for the production of posts and ties, and prove of esthetic value as well. The practical objection to this would be the necessity for acquiring wider rights of way on the windward sides of the cuts. V. EVAPORATION. Except when it is completely saturated, the air1 is constantly taking up moisture from the surface of ponds, from the soil, from the foliage of vegetation, and even from bodies of snow and ice, and this evapora- tion is always enhanced by any movement which has the effect of distributing the aqueous vapor as it is formed, and thereby pre- venting local saturation. The change to the vaporous state requires a great deal of heat. This heat is in part supplied by the air and partly by the object which is losing its moisture. 1 The term "air" is used in the popular sense throughout this and other discussions. It is well under- stood that the formation of aqueous vapor is independent of the air, and that this gas is only mixed with the gases of the air— not a part of it. The temperature and dissemination of aqueous vapor are so entirely dependent upon the temperature and movement of the air, however, that the two terms become insepa- rable in common usage. 44 WINDBREAKS. IMPORTANCE OF EVAPORATION. Evaporation of moisture from the soil is considerable in amount, but depends more upon capillary action, which brings moisture to the surface, and upon the direct heat of the sun, than upon the rate of wind movement. The chief part played by the wind is to carry off the moisture as rapidly as it is evaporated from the surface. Only when the surface is wet from a recent rain is the action of wind apparent in drying out the uppermost crust of the soil, but this influence is so slight that it is not appreciable in soil samples taken at a depth of 4 inches. The upward capillary movement of soil moisture may be reduced by from 80 to 90 per cent by a covering of loose soil or other mulch. In checking evaporation from the soil, therefore, protection from wind will be an unimportant item, except in the effect upon the evaporation of rain water, or irrigation water, before it has oppor- tunity to soak into the ground. Evaporation or " transpiration " of moisture from the leaves of plants, whether grasses, field crops, or trees, is much greater than the direct evaporation from the soil, which, when the soil is covered with vegetation, as in fields, becomes comparatively unimportant. Transpiration or loss of moisture from the leaves of plants is a natural function and is going on constantly, but is only in a moderate degree necessary to the vigorous growth of the plant. It is always a source of great loss of moisture, is greatly increased 'by unfavorable atmospheric conditions, and may easily become so excessive as to be very injurious to the plant. Normally there is an unavoidable loss of moisture through the pores or "stomata" and a slight loss through the epidermis of the leaves. Usually when evaporation exceeds the supply of moisture to the leaf the stomata are closed. Many cases have been observed in which the evaporative or desic- cating power of the wind has had a most marked effect upon the growth, or even the very existence of vegetation. The most extreme cases were in the Middle West a few years ago, when, after long periods during which the rainfall had been hardly sufficient for crop growth, hot, dry winds blew across the prairies of Kansas and Nebraska, bringing almost complete destruction to the field crops of the region. Often in a day or two crops which had given fair promise of success were parched to crispness. The same effect is produced upon the half-dormant plants in a field of winter wheat, when, their protective covering of snow removed, they are subjected to a desiccating wind. In all such cases a windbreak is very bene- ficial to vegetation, not only because it checks the mechanical force of the wind, but because the stagnation of the air permits the forma- tion of a more or less complete blanket of humid air or, in other words, the rapid dissemination of the moisture is stopped. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 45 The loss of moisture by evaporation is the crucial feature of the effect of winds upon crops. A fair estimate could be made of the effect of the windbreak in modifying those atmospheric factors which cause transpiration, by the use of evaporometers, exposed to the same conditions as were the plants in the fields.1 The distance to which a windbreak may protect objects on its lee- ward side has been variously estimated at from ten to fifty times its height. While some experiments have been carried on to determine this point (see diagram 18), it has in general been assumed that the influence, if any, was not of great importance beyond ten times the height of the trees. WINDBREAK EFFICIENCY DETERMINED BY EVAPORATION. The object of the evaporometer readings was to determine the effect of a windbreak upon the amount of evaporation in the area which it protects. If this evaporation is expressed as a percentage of the evapo- ration in the open during the same period, the figure may be used as a measure of the degree of efficiency of the windbreak at the particular point where the instrument was exposed, and the simultaneous measurements of evaporation at several points in the affected zone will form a basis for a curve which may be called "the efficiency curve" for the windbreak, under the given conditions of wind. Tests have been made on a large number of windbreaks of various kinds and of different degrees of density or thickness, to determine the comparative efficiency of windbreaks of the several classes and to discover, if possible, how large a mass of trees is needed to form a barrier against the most powerful winds. The results obtained for windbreaks of the same class have been averaged to show the efficiency of the windbreak with all wind veloci- ties which occurred during the period of observation. In order to simplify the demonstration only the efficiency figures with wind velocities of 5 miles per hour or a multiple thereof have been used. These are given as "efficiency curves" for the various classes of wind- breaks, on diagrams 16 to 24, inclusive. The conclusions to be derived from the curves representing the protection afforded by a single windbreak against winds of various velocities, and from comparison of the curves which show the efficiency of different kinds of windbreaks, are as follows : ( 1 ) The efficiency of a windbreak in checking evaporation is pro- portional to its density. It may save at a single point in extreme cases 70 per cent of the moisture ordinarily lost by evaporation. 1 No claim is made for the accuracy of the comparison between the quantity of water evaporated from this instrument and that transpired from a leaf under similar conditions, but that the two are subjected to the same conditions and governed by much the same laws of evaporation can not be doubted. Admit- ting this, the quality of the evaporation under different conditions will be indicated quite as accurately by this instrument as by any potometer or similar device. 46 WINDBREAKS. (2) The area protected is proportional to the height and density of the windbreak, and the distance to which protection is felt increases with wind velocity. The protection is appreciable for a distance equal to five times the height in the windward direction and fifteen or twenty times the height leeward. DIAGRAM 16.— Protective efficiency of underplanted cottonwood groves. For wind velocities of 5, 10, 15, and 20 miles per hour. Average height, 75 feet, 70 readings. (3) The distance from the windbreak of the area of greatest protec- tion depends upon the position of the mass of foilage which affords the protection. With a dense grove, it is immediately in the lee of the trees ; with a narrow belt of trees that lack lower branches, it may be as far from the trees as five times their height, and it moves outward as the velocity of the wind increases. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 47 (4) If a windbreak is dense enough to resist the strongest wind, the protection which it gives to any point in its lee increases with an increase in wind velocity. In the case of a moderately dense wind- break, the efficiency remains about the same under all conditions, because the leakage through the windbreak is about the same pro- 95 X ZQ\ 7 /A/ OF #E/6ftr DIAGRAM 17.— Protective efficiency of white pine belt. For wind velocities of 5, 10, and 15 miles per hour, Height, 20 feet; width, 25 feet; 50 readings. portion of the total amount of wind. With a very open windbreak, the efficiency decreases with an increase in wind velocity. The final test of a windbreak is the point in wind velocity at which it reaches its greatest efficiency. Of the windbreaks examined, the 48 WINDBREAKS. 2 / O / 2 tUNQHAttD 3 ICCHA/tOf DIAGRAM 18.— Protective efficiency of cottonwood row. Natural density. For wind velocities of 5 10, 15, and 20 miles per hour. Average height, 50 feet; 100 readings. fQQ 3456789 W/NOBftEAK EXPffESSEQ /A/ TERMS LEEWA/tO DIAGRAM 19.— Protective efficiency of cottonwood belt. For wind velocities of 5, 10, 15, and 20 per hour. Height, 70 feet; width, 100 feet; 83 readings. I. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV. FlG I.—THE HEDGE OF HONEY LOCUST is VERY LOOSE AND OPEN. FIG. 2.— ON THE LEFT, HONEY LOCUST; ON THE RIGHT, OSAGE ORANGE. COMPARE DENSITIES. KESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 49 dense grove of cottonwoods, the belt of coniferous trees, the dense hedge of osage orange, the mulberry hedge, the single row of cotton- wood when growing with its greatest density and when reinforced with ash are all to be classed as efficient windbreaks; the belt of cotton- woods and the trimmed osage hedge maintained about the same mod- erate efficiency to a velocity of 20 miles per hour; the single row of honey locust, though as dense as possible for this species, and the widely spaced row of cottonwoods show a decreasing efficiency with an increase above 5 miles per hour, and can not be considered efficient. /o Of HE/GHT DIAGRAM 20. — Protective efficiency of cottoiiwood row reinforced with ash. For wind velocities of 5, 10, 15, and 20 miles per hour. Height of cottonwood, 100 feet; ash, 45 feet, 5o readings. Considering that the zone of economically important protection is between the point 2-ht. windward and the point 10-ht. leeward, the average efficiency over this area, which in the case of a 50-foot wind- break would be 600 feet wide, has been calculated on the basis of each of the curves on diagrams 16 to 24, inclusive. The mean values are given in Table 9. 92290°— Bull. 86—11 -- 4 50 WINDBREAKS. TABLE 9. — Mean efficiency of windbreaks in area of greatest protection. Diagram No. Kind of windbreak. Moisture saved in area twelve times as wide as height of trees at different wind velocities. Miles per hour. Period of observation. 5 10 15 20 Hours. Month. 16 Cottonwood grove (un- derplanted). White-pine belt Per ct. 23.3 31.1 12.3 11.7 12.8. 15.1 21.5 26.0 Per ct. 31.9 33.3 18.6 13.9 20.2 11.3 23.2 27.2 21 2 Per ct. 38.7 35.8 26.6 15.5 23.7 Per ct. 40.1 ""ss.T 17.0 25.8 70 50 100 83 50 13 173 275 16 6 29 July and Septem- ber. November. June, July, Au- gust. August, Septem- ber. September. August. June, July, Au- gust. Do. August. Do. Do. 17 18 Cottonwood row, natural density. Cottonwood belt (no low branches). Cottonwood row, rein- forced with ash. Cottonwood row, widely spaced. Osage - orange hedge, dense. Osage - orange hedge, open (lower branches trimmed). Mulberry, two rows. . . 19 1 20 No diagram 21i 26.4 27.2 221 27.5 23a 23b Mulberry, single row 28.7 22.9 24 Honey-locust hedge 29.6 Results of studies made in cooperation with the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station. /oo \ 0/23456789/0 0/S7~/IA/C£ f/fOAf tr/W08/f£AX /TXP/fASSED /A/ Tf/PJ/J Of rt&GM 7 It* LEEWAffD DIAGRAM 21. — Protective efficiency of dense osage orange hedge. For wind velocities of 5, 10, and 20 miles per hour. Average height, 17 inches; 173 readings. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. RESULTS OF CHECKING EVAPORATION. 51 The percentage of evaporation in a field sheltered by a windbreak, as compared with the evaporation in the open, having been calcu- lated, it will be interesting to determine what this may mean quantita- tively wjiere the loss of moisture by evaporation is an important item in farm economy. Observations l have shown that the amount of water evaporated from a free water surface in the States of Kansas and Nebraska is between 40 and 50 inches per annum, or about 45 inches for the central WINDWAffO DIAGRAM -2.— Protective efficiency of open osage orange hedge. For wind velocities of 5, 10, 15, and 20 miles per hour. Height, 23 feet; 275 readings. portion of those States. The amount evaporating during the growing period for corn, May to October inclusive, is about 73 per cent of the total, or 33 inches. It has also been computed that the evaporation from a field of grain is about 1.7 times as great as that from a free w.3 60.J // DIAGRAM 29.— Influence of cottonwood belt on nocturnal cooling of air, under various conditions of sky and wind movement. Wind in miles per hour; temperature in degrees F. (9) The daily superheating of the air amounts to about the same number of degrees whether the temperature outside the protected zone be high or low, but as expressed in percentages of the total heat available for plant growth, it is most important in the spring and fall, when the supply is lowest. (See diagrams 26 and 27.) 62 WINDBREAKS. Obviously, the heating of the air in the protected zone will increase its capacity for moisture, and this will in part counteract the reduc- tion of evaporation due to the checking of wind. But the effect of superheating will never equal that of the reduction of wind velocity. MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES. A study of the effect of windbreaks upon soil temperatures leads to exactly the conclusions that have been drawn from the study of J /0 DIAGRAM 30.— Influence of cottonwood row (reinforced with ash) 011 nocturnal cooling of air in cornfield and unplanted fields. Temperature lines in cornfield marked "C." their effects upon air temperatures. In addition, however, there is the effect of shade on the ground in the immediate neighborhood of the trees; whereas the effect of shade upon rapidly moving air cur- rents is barely appreciable. Studies have been made of the temperature of the soil 'at a depth of 20 inches (5 decimeters), which is probably about the mean maximum depth of the roots of annual crops. Nearer to the surface the conditions are probably very similar to those of the atmosphere. EESULTS OF MEASUKEMENTS. 63 Throughout the period, June 17 till August 5, the relation of tem- peratures at various points in the zone of windbreak influence remained constant. In the zone of perpetual shade there was an area in which soil temperature was low. This extended to J-ht., north, where shadow fell only during part of the day. Immediately beyond this the temperature of the soil was higher than in the open. The highest soil temperature was recorded at 2-ht. north, which corresponds to the point of maximum windbreak efficiency and to 27.2 26.2 25.2 , 242 37.3 36.3' 35.3 34.3 33.3 DIAGRAM 31.— Influence of white pine belt on nocturnal cooling of air, with wind velocities of 1 to 4 miles per hour. the point where the air temperatures are highest in the daytime and lowest at night. This, it must be remembered, was the relation existing during the period when the temperature was constantly increasing. On the other hand, when the ground is radiating, in the autumn, the relation of temperatures in the sheltered and unsheltered areas is reversed. Moving air, having retained its warmth longer than the surface of the earth, is then constantly bringing new supplies of heat. Stagnant air, however, imparts no heat to the surface over which it is standing, but, on the contrary, is soon cooled to the tempera- 64 WINDBREAKS. ture of the ground surface. Hence at this season the air and the soil of a protected zone are cooler than they are in the open, while under the trees radiation is retarded and the temperature is higher than in the open. Table 11 presents in the first two columns the average of 17 daily readings of soil temperature during the period of increasing warmth, DIAGRAM 32.— Effect of dense windbreak on temperature of the soil at depth of 20 inches and in the last two columns the averages of 13 hourly readings dur- ing two days in the period of rapid cooling of the earth. The same results are expressed graphically in diagram 32. TABLE 11. — Effect of windbreak on soil temperatures at a depth of 20 inches. Position with respect to windbreak (wind from south). Soil temperatures dur- ing period of increase.1 Soil temperatures dur- ing period of cooling. Actual tem- perature. Variation from open. Actual tem- perature. Variation from open. South: 10 height . 0 C. 21.98 0 C. 0.00 0 C. 0.00 4.14 4.63 4.28 4.63 5.73 6.17 2.79 2.12 3.49 4.24 4.55 0 C. O.OC - .51 - .02 - .37 - .02 + 1.0* + 1.52 -1.86 -2.53 -1. 1C - .41 - .10 5 height 2 height 22.35 + .37 \\ height 1 height 22.52 22.94 18.66 20.50 22.26 + .54 + .96 -3.32 -1.48 + .28 i height Under trees North: } height 1 height 14 height . 2 "height 22.71 + .73 5 height 10 height 22.26 21.98 + .28 Open 4.65 i Eesults of studies made in cooperation with the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station. The temperature of the ground in the spring and summer is affected by a windbreak as it affects the air temperatures during the hours of insolation; and during fall and winter the effect of the windbreak upon soil temperatures is the same as its effect upon nocturnal air. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. FIQ. 1.— EFFECT OF WINDBREAK PROTECTION ON QUALITY OF CORN. 1, In rows shaded by trees; £-7, Average maximum ears from protected rows; 8, Ears from unprotected portion of field. FIQ. 2.— EFFECT OF FAVORABLE ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS ON GROWTH OF CORN PLANTS AND YIELD OF FODDER. On right, in protected zone (weight, 81 pounds); on left, in unprotected zone (weight, 42 pounds) RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 65 During most of the growing season the summation of diurnal and nocturnal effects is a positive quantity, since a windbreak conserves tin' heat of the protected zone. During the late fall and winter the windbreak ass is is radial ion, and a general, more rapid cooling of the soil results in the protected /one. EFFECTS OF ni;.vn\(; ON cuors. Acceleration of growth and increased yield. — The effect of the super- heating of air arid soil in the /one protected by a windbreak is favor- able to crops which must begin, their growth at a time when the heat is barely sufficient for germination, and it probably continues in a decreasing degree throughout the growing season. In other words, a windbreak produces hothouse conditions on a large scale, and since- it reduces evaporation at the, same time, its total influence is clearly favorable to vegetation. On the other hand, a windbreak may bo disadvantageous in spring if a drying out of the soils is de- sired. The season of 1!H)S was especially favorable for noting the effect of heating; it was apparent, in cornfields early in the season. The higher temperatures in the protected /one caused earlier germina- tion and more rapid growth than in the open. The following figures on the height of plants in a cornfield to the north of a hedge of usage orange, we.ro obtained on July S in western Kansas. The height of the hedge was about 20 feet. The spring winds up to that time had been mainly from the south. TA I;I,K \'2.—Kli.m/:uit/ effect of windbreak protection in accelerating growth. Distance Distance Distance Distance from II«MKht from Height from Height from Hetgbt wind- of coin. wind- of corn. wind- of corn. wind- of corn. break. break. break. break. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 9 <>. 10 39 <;. 15 69 4.60 99 \. !».-, 19 5. 80 49 r>. 85 79 4.62 150 4. 05 29 (1. 55 4.88 89 •\. '.',:> 200 4.1,5 A similar cornfield was noted on the north side of a dense, mixed grove in Nebraska. The grove, which was about 38 feet high, formed a complete harrier to the wind. The effects were here even more marked. Late in June the average height of the corn in the first is rows next to the windbreak was 4J feet, while beyond this it was only about 2£ feet. At the close of the growing season the luxuriance of the vegetative growth next to the windbreak was still markedly greater than in the open. At harvesting the weight of the corn at the point of greatest protection was about 18 bushels per acre greater than in the open, or 59 bushels per acre as against 41. 92290°— Bull. 86—11 5 66 WINDBREAKS. From this point outward the gain diminished, and at 10-ht. it amounted to about 6 bushels per acre. The net gain for the entire area out to 10-ht., including the strip damaged by shading, and cal- culating for a windbreak 1 mile long, was 423.86 bushels, or 9.22 bushels per acre; that is, as much corn as could be grown on an area as long as the windbreak and as wide as twice the height of the trees. The grove in question was wider than this, but need not have been in order to have furnished almost equal protection. It will, therefore, be seen that the benefit to corn, in this case, paid for all of the ground needed for an efficient windbreak, so that the tim- ber value of the trees was a clear gain to the farmer. In many other cases the benefit was equally marked on the north side of windbreaks, as shown in Table 13. The gain in bushels has been figured to show the width of strip for which the benefit pays (above all damage from shading). The benefit is about proportional to the density of the windbreak, and the point of greatest benefit corresponds to the crests of heat and evaporation curves. In the case of the dense grove, the crest is very near the trees and just beyond the shading zone. TABLE 13. — Showing benefit to corn arising from protection afforded by windbreaks — North side. Kind and number of windbreaks. Average height of wind- break. Average maximum benefit. Total benefit ex- presse I as width of strip which windbreak might occupy. Yield per acre. Proportionate distance from windbreak in terms of height. 7 osage-orange hedges Feet. 21.6 60.0 29.0 44.0 Bushels. 16.9 20.5 22.8 25.3 1.87 1.37 1.26 1.22 1. 0253 X height 1. 1 783 X height 1. 5625 X height 1.934 X height I cottonwood row 2 shelter belts 2 dense groves Similar but not so great benefit was measured on the south side of four osage-orange hedges. Other measurements on the south side are lacking, but it is safe to assume that the benefit would be propor- tionately greater with denser windbreaks. The average of the cases mentioned showed a maximum benefit of 12.11 bushels per acre at 1.99-ht. from the trees, which were 20 feet in height. The net increase out to 10-ht. is equal to the yield of a strip 0.8821 times as wide as the height of the trees. It will, therefore, be seen that the osage-orange hedge, by the benefit on both sides, has brought a net increase in corn yield equal to the yield of a strip 1.9074 times as wide as the height of the trees, in addition to the value of the tim- ber produced. With an osage hedge one-half mile long and 25 feet high, and with corn at 45 bushels per acre and 50 cents per bushel, the increased revenue from the corn would be $65.05. RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 67 In only one case was there measureable benefit to corn crops on the east side of north-south windbreaks, and in this case it was offset by the damage from shading. No measureable benefit was noted on the west side of windbreaks. These results were to be expected since the measurements were taken in a region where there is very little wind from either the east or the west. Southwest winds may, to some extent, test the usefulness of the north-south windbreak, but the east winds nearly always occur in cool and cloudy weather. While the increase of both the weight and size of the ears is marked (see PL XV, fig. 1), it is the increased height and luxuriance of the vegetative growth which at once attracts attention (see PL XV, fig. 2). As has been said, seed production can not be very greatly increased by improvement of atmospheric conditions alone; the es- sential chemical elements must be abundantly present in the soil. Fodder production, however, is more dependent upon moisture, light, and heat, and the influences of the windbreak greatly increase the amount of fodder in a field. Fodder is not considered a valua- ble asset in the Western States, where hay is plentiful, but there are many regions in which it is closely utilized. Table 14 shows the amount and percentage of fodder and grain increase at various points in a cornfield north of a tall cottonwood grove. At the point of greatest growth the increase in fodder and stalk amounts to 95.2 per cent of the normal, while the increase in grain amounts to 37.8 per cent. TABLE 14. — Proportionate increase in fodder and grain due to windbreak influence in heating air and soil. Distance Weight of ears. Weight of fodder. Distance Weight of ears. Weight of fodder. from from wind- wind- break in terms of height. Pounds per row. Increase over nor- mal. Pounds per row. Increase over nor- mal. break in terms of height. Pounds per row. Increase over nor- mal. Pounds per row. Increase over nor- mal. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 0.73 47.7 None. 42.0 None. 1.40 64.5 35.3 76.2 81.5 1.00 65. 2 36.7 56.0 33.3 1.70 62.7 31.5 64.6 53.8 1.20 65.7 37.8 82.0 95.2 2.00 62.9 32.0 62.3 48.4 Wheat and other early grains, because of their smaller heat require- ments, do not respond so readily to these more favorable " hothouse" conditions. Orchards may be affected both favorably and unfavorably by the increased temperatures due to windbreaks. The rapid ripening of the fruit and of the wood of the trees in late summer is just about offset by the danger of accelerating the growth of buds and the blossoms in spring. On the other hand, where warm spring winds, like the Chinook, or where breezes from bodies of water are involved, the effect of the windbreak will be beneficial in spring by preventing this warm air from striking the trees. 68 WINDBREAKS. EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURES. The lowering of the minimum temperature, and probably also of the mean temperature at night, would partly tend to offset the beneficial superheating in the shelter of the windbreak during the day, especially with such crops as corn, which, when the temperature is propitious, are said to grow as much at night as in the daytime. Diagram 30 shows that the effect of the plants themselves in stagnating the air in a field of mature corn is almost great enough to obliterate the influence of the windbreak on the temperature at 4 feet from the ground, the point at which records were made. On the windward side a uniform temperature more than 1 degree lower than the normal prevailed, while on the leeward* side, during a rain, all the tempera- tures were so much lower as to make the curve appear negative. That positive benefit resulted here, however, is shown by the direction of the curve as it leaves the windbreak, the lowest temperature being at the farthest point where the wind again gained force. But under any circumstances the activity of most plants is very much lessened at night by the absence of sunlight, and the few degrees difference in temperature would have very little effect on most cereals, especially upon wheat, which grows thriftily at the time of the year when the usual night temperature is below freezing. The influence of this depression of the minimum can not, however, be overlooked in the case of orchards, since fruit trees are very susceptible to the least frost, especially at the time of blossoming. A lowering of 4 or 5 degrees in the minimum temperature might mean the difference between a mere chilling of the tender fruit blossoms and actual freezing. On this account orchardists are usually of the opinion that a windbreak is quite as likely to bring damage as benefit to fruit crops. Damage from slight, dry freezing, however, is not apt to lead to a complete loss of the fruit crop, such as occurs when the blossoming trees are subjected to a storm of rain, sleet, or snow accompanied by wind. The Middle Western States during the season of 1908 furnished a striking example of damage to unprotected orchards. The possibil- ity of a crop in a very large number of unprotected apple orchards was destroyed and the crop in but poorly protected orchards was greatly reduced. Near David City, Nebr., where the results of the storms at the end of April and the beginning of May were perhaps most severe, there was early promise of an unusually good fruit crop, following a very poor season in 1907. The storm which did the most damage to blossoming fruit trees came from the northwest on the night of April 27, when a wind of about 10 miles an hour was blowing, a small amount of rain and snow fell, and a minimum temperature of 28 degrees was registered at the weather station. At the time there was very little foliage either on the fruit trees or on the forest RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 69 trees which in some cases served as a partial protection to the orchards. This storm was followed on the night of April 29 by a brisk north- west wind and a temperature of 31 degrees, but no precipitation. On May 2 a killing frost again occurred with wind from the south- east and a temperature of 26 degrees. On May 6 and 7 there were "clear frosts," with wind in the northeast. The character of these several nights is of special interest in showing that only the storm from the northwest, which was accom/panied by precipitation, had any marked effect upon the orchard trees. Throughout Nebraska it was noted during the summer that orchards protected by windbreaks were .bearing more heavily than unpro- tected ones, in many of which there was, in fact, no crop at all. Before the later apple harvest a careful study was made of the orchards in the vicinity of David City, where there are both protected and un- protected orchards growing under otherwise very similar conditions and offering excellent opportunities for comparison. In wholly unprotected orchards it was found that the trees were bearing little or nothing on the northwest branches and in the exposed tops, though the south and east branches of the same trees were bearing moderately. This indicated that most damage had been done by the storm from the northwest, and that the trees were, in a measure, a shelter for themselves in this storm. Similarly the trees on the exposed north and west sides of the orchard, as a whole, frequently bore less heavily than the parts of the orchard which had had the protection of these trees. Some wholly unprotected orchards, that is, orchards without the protection of taller forest trees, were almost entirely devoid of fruit. Most important of all, none of the trees in orchards well protected by a belt of forest trees showed marked declines from a normal crop. Twenty-eight out of thirty unprotected orchards gave a yield ranging from less than 1 to 3 pecks of apples per tree, though one orchard of this class yielded from 2 to 3 bushels per tree. Partially protected orchards gave an average yield per tree of from one-half bushel to 3 bushels. Five well-protected orchards gave an average yield per tree of 4.9 bushels. Of the latter, one yielded 5.4 bushels per tree and another one 10.9 bushels. The benefit of a windbreak is here conclusively shown, and there is little need to figure it out in dollars and cents. If the orchard is worth $100 per acre per year, it could easily be shown that the value of a windbreak in such a year as 1908 is at least $80 per acre over a belt ten times as wide as the height of the windbreak. Storms of the kind described above, are not at all unusual in the northern fruit belt; in the Middle West they have occurred several times during the past 10 years at the critical period in the blooming of orchard trees. In fact, any lowering of the temperature at this 70 WINDBREAKS. season of the year is very likely to be accomplished by precipitation, and it will undoubtedly be found that the influence of the windbreak at the tune is beneficial more often, and in a much greater degree, than it is detrimental. SENSIBLE TEMPERATURES. It is a well-known fact that the same temperatures as registered by thermometers may very differently affect human comfort owing to differences in the quality of the air, its humidity, or, most of all, its rate of circulation. Low temperatures which cause no discomfort when the air is calm become unbearable when a wind springs up. This is so widely appreciated tnat windbreaks are, perhaps, chiefly valued for the protection they give against strong winter winds. That there is considerable saving of fuel in heating a house so pro- tected requires no proof, though exact determination of the amount would be difficult. A good windbreak grove may reduce wind velocity as much as 80 or 90 per cent immediately to the leeward, and, at the same time, provide the required fuel without loss of efficiency. If located with due regard for the direction of the pre- vailing winds, such a grove need not be more than a few acres in extent to serve the double purpose admirably. Conifers are obviously much superior to deciduous trees where only winter protection is desired. A narrow belt of white pine, consisting of only two rows planted close together and 20 feet high, reduces the wind velocity at 100 feet to leeward by four-fifths. In other words, if a 25-mile wind was blowing the velocity in the shelter of such a windbreak would be only about 5 miles per hour.. This reduction in wind velocity is equivalent to a reduction of 19° F. in the cooling effect of the wind upon the skin.1 \ VII. HUMIDITY. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that large areas of forest ap- preciably increase the humidity of the atmosphere above them by rea- son of the excessive transpiration from the trees as compared with that from fields of grain or the evaporation from bare surfaces. This fact, however, is of no economic importance in considering the influ- ences of windbreaks consisting of a row or relatively small body of trees. A windbreak may more seriously affect the humidity of the air by its disturbing influence upon air currents. The air obtains its mois- ture by evaporation from the ground and from the plants on the ground. There is more moisture, consequently, near the ground than in the upper strata. A windbreak -which deflects the air currents i A French experimenter, Vincent, has calculated that the cooling effect of a wind upon the skin is about 1.2° C. for each increase in wind velocity of 1 meter per second. This, reduced to our terms, is 0.966° F. for each mile per hour increase in wind. ( J. Vincent: La Determination de la Temperature Climatologique, Bruzelles, 1890. Reprinted from Annuaire de 1'Observatoire Royal pour 1890.) RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 71 upward will have little effect upon the humidity of the air in the zone which it protects, except as the stagnation of the air in that zone may permit it to accumulate more than the normal amount of moisture. An inefficient windbreak, however, which permits the wind to pass under the trees, may have a deleterious effect upon the crops in the protected zone by bringing down from the higher strata air which is not saturated to the normal degree. This effect of wind- breaks of both classes in deflecting air currents is shown in diagram 33. The results of an experiment conducted September 7, 1908, as ob- tained from a large number of psychrometer, anemometer, and evaporometer readings, are given in table 15. A careful study of these figures shows that the wind near the trees on the leeward side was almost as great as in an open situation on the windward side. The lower absolute humidity of the air at this point indicates that the air current measured must have comprised air from a higher stratum mixed with that of the normal surface current. While greater efficiency is obtained at a point some distance from the windbreak, the figures furnish sufficient proof of the undesirability of a wind- break of the open character of the one tested. TABLE 15. — Showing the relation of an open windbreak to humidity and other atmospheric factors. Wind velocity. Evaporation. Weight of Station relative to windbreak. Per hour. Per cent of velocity Air tem- perature. aqueous vapor per cubic foot. deficit in inches mercury. Amount. Per cent evapo- rated of open. of open. Miles. 0 C. Grams. Inches. c. c. In tbe open 11 48 100 29.39 5.474 0.697 18.5 100 2 X height to windward 29 58 17.25 93.2 IX height to windward 29 53 16.65 90.0 At windbreak I IX height to leeward 10.76 93.8 29.49 5.090 .743 17.75 96.0 2 X height to leeward 29.81 30.35 16.00 15.00 86.5 81.1 5 X height to leeward 7.24 63.0 5.284 .788 lOXheight to leeward 30.545 5.324 .776 16.70 90.3 On the whole, it must be admitted that the windbreak has no important effect upon the humidity of the air. The reduction of evaporation may be slightly affected by the increased or decreased humidity due to the deflection or stagnation of the air, but will be much more affected in all cases by the reduction of wind velocity. SUMMATION OP PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS. A summary of the influences of windbreaks upon the physical factors which affect the growth of plants shows that — (1) The zone of competition. — In a narrow zone or belt adjacent to the trees there is competition which results unfavorably to the annual crops by reason of— 72 WINDBREAKS. o 1 ? | Q _. ^ i cj I • 8 ^^— V £ o * ^5S£ * ^>^>)»))V £ KF I ' ^ ^ ' 1 D O I 1 , | °L RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. 73 (a) Loss of sunlight. This amounts to from 50 to 125 per cent of the light which might fall on an area as wide as the height of the trees. This loss is greatest in the case of north-south windbreaks. It is : accompanied by a somewhat greater loss of crops on an area of about the same extent as the shadow, the increase arising from the inability of plants to form seed with a limited amount of light, which might be sufficient for vegetative growth. This shaded area should be utilized for forage crops or for trees which are able to subsist on partial light. (b) Loss of moisture. A zone varying in width from one to five times the height of the trees is affected according to the species and situation. The width of the strip may be greatly reduced by cultiva- tion. This loss of moisture may, in years of drought, result in a com- plete loss of annual crops in the zone affected. The damage to deep- rooted crops need not be so great. (c) Temporary reduction of soil fertility. This accompanies and is due to the loss of moisture in the root zone. (2) The zone of windbreak protection. — In the wider zone of wind- break influence the protection afforded results in a marked benefit to crops, because of the creation on a large scale of conditions similar to those which obtain in a hothouse. These conditions, all of which result from the ability of the windbreak to check the circulation of air currents, are as follows: (a) Less wind movement. As a result there is less damage by lodg- ing of grain, movement of soils, and uneven drifting of snow. (&) Less evaporation. This results in the ultimate conservation of the moisture of the soil. In dry years this may mean a partial crop instead of a complete loss. (c) Greater heat during the hours of sunshine and lower air tempera- tures at night. In the aggregate this stimulates plant growth during the spring and summer. The value of this factor in the season of 1908, on the north side alone, was more than sufficient to offset the damage due to shading, and left a net surplus equal to the yield of a strip from one to three times as wide as the height of the trees. (d) Less extreme cold at night, if the windbreak can serve the pur- pose of checking the evaporation of moisture from objects upon which it falls as rain, sleet, or snow. In such case a benefit to blossoming fruit trees was obtained in 1908 which amounted to as much as 10 bushels per tree in the subsequent crop of apples. (e) A slight increase in the capacity of the air for moisture, because of its greater warmth in the daytime. This increase is not sufficient to increase evaporation where the wind has been checked. The absolute value of any of these influences will increase with the degree of efficiency of the windbreak, and their total amount on any side of the windbreak will depend upon the direction, velocity, and desiccating power of the prevailing winds (see diagram 34). 74 WINDBREAKS. III. DIRECT RESULTS OF WINDBREAK PLANTING— TIMBER YIELDS. RELATION OF WINDBREAK FORMATION TO QUALITY PRODUCTION. Before deciding what is the best form for a windbreak, the actual timber value of the available species, and the comparative value of the timber produced in single rows, in belts, and in wider tracts should be carefully measured. A large number of estimates of the products of different species under various conditions have been made with such comparisons in view. Quality production in the case of the best forest trees depends primarily upon the length of rotation or length of time taken to mature the forest crop. In the production of any forest crop a point is sooner or later reached where the interest on the investment becomes greater than the annual increase in value. This stage, which is known as the " financial rotation/' is often reached before the forest has reached its greatest value, especially with species whose value is dependent on the large size and clear quality of the logs. The financial rotation is, of course, reached earliest when the interest on money is high. The measurements of indirect benefits through protection must have an important bearing upon the profits from forest planting, and especially upon the growing of valuable forest products in long rota- tions. If the indirect benefits pay the first cost of planting, or at least the interest thereon, an important item of economy is added to the management of woodlots. The method of planting — whether in rows, belts, or groves — will have a strong influence on the quality and value of the products. Trees in rows, like trees standing alone in open fields, will put a large amount of their growing power into branches. Trees in belts may grow in somewhat better form than those, in rows, but if a belt is composed of only two or three rows the trees tend decidedly to spread in both directions. This tendency results in the production of large branches on one side, and frequently of stems which are bent, espe- cially at the base of the tree, where the most valuable timber might be produced. Trees in a grove or forest put most of their growth into the bole; their branches are small and gradually drop off from the base of the tree. 75 76 WINDBREAKS. In the following estimates of timber products distinction is made between groves in which close competition between the trees existed and narrow belts or rows in which the trees had free access to light and unlimited root space on at least one side. CALCULATION OF AREA CHARGEABLE TO WINDBREAKS. In many instances estimates in groves and wide belts were made onlv for the inside rows, because they alone were growing under true forest condition. It is not difficult to calculate the actual area which such trees occupy. With narrow belts and single rows, however, allowance must be made for ail of the space occupied by the branches. As far as possible the -figures in Table 3 have been used for this purpose. Since damage to corn is, on the whole, the least marked the calcula- tion of acreage necessarily chargeable to single-row windbreaks is in most cases based on the greatest damage which results to cornfields. This represents only the area shaded by the trees, and not the area in which damage from sapping might be felt in very dry years. The area chargeable to a row of trees on account of damage to crops is about proportional to the height of the trees. But the row can not be charged with this area for all of the years the trees have been growing. On an average, approximately one-half of the area has been damaged during the whole life of the trees, though, to be safely conservative, the factor of three-fifths has been used. This estimate is amply liberal, because damage during the first few years was very slight. The debt of the trees was at first small and the interest car- ried through the full period of years was much less than that from damage done in later years. A comparison with equal annuities from field crops is, therefore, not quite fair to the trees. The following is the equation for determining the acreage occupied by a row of trees a mile long, when A represents acreage and OF the factor of loss to corn as expressed in percentages of the height of trees, H: 43560 When the acreage must be figured from a shading factor, SF, the equation becomes — £.FxiXgX|X528Q 43560 If the acreage occupied by a belt is to be calculated, the distance D, between the outside rows must be added. The equation then becomes — A 43560 MARKET VALUES OF TIMBERS. 77 The shading factor and the resulting damage to crops are usually greater with north-south windbreaks than with east-west ones. MARKET VALUES OF TIMBERS. If the value of the timber in the windbreak is to be compared with the value of field crops as based on market prices, the cost of harvest- ing the crops need not be considered, since it may be assumed that the cost is approximately the same for forest and field crops. Since, however, the major portion of the forest crop, and particularly posts, will be utilized on the farm, the expense of hauling these forest products to market would be saved. Cottonwood or other saw stuff may usually be disposed of at a net stump age price. The stump age value of $10 per M, b. m., which has been placed upon cottonwood lumber is probably too low to represent fairly a comparison with field crops; but since this price may not always be obtained it is pei'haps the safest to use. The value placed upon cottonwood and maple fuel ($2 per cord) is also decidedly low when it is considered that a large share of the material will be used on the farm without the expense of a long haul. In assigning values to fence posts of the different species it has been attempted to construct a just scale based upon the strength and dura- bility of each and to compare the native-grown products with the imported products, such as cedar, which are sold in the lumber yards. The figures given in Table 16 may be a trifle high for Iowa and Min- nesota, where native timber is close at hand, but they are correspond- ingly low for the treeless States of Kansas and Nebraska. TABLE 16. — -Average values for fence posts — Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota. Species. • Value per post. Class I. Class II. Class III. Class IV (stakes). Cottonwood $0.10 .11 .16 .16 .22 .24 .20 .12 .20 $0.08 .08 .12 .12 .17 .18 .16 .09 .15 $0.05 .05 .08 .09 .12 .12 .08 .05 .08 $0.02 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .03 .02 .03 Willow Oreen ash Black locust Osage orange Russian mulberry Soft maple Catalpa The posts have been classified according to the following specifica- tions: Class I — Length, 7 feet; 4 inches at small end, round, or 3J quartered; free from crooks. Class II — Length, 7 feet; 3 niches at small end if straight, or proportionately larger if moderately crooked ; bad crooks culled to thirds. Class III — Length, 7 feet; 2 inches at small end if straight, or proportionately larger if crooked. Class IV (stakes)— Length, 5 feet ; 14- inches at small end ; free from bad crooks which would prevent driving. 78 WINDBREAKS. ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION OF SPECIES. COTTONWOOD. Cottonwood is not a long-lived tree, but grows very rapidly when young, so that at the end of a few years it yields a good rental in fuel. The lumber from cottonwood is relatively much more valuable, but can not be harvested profitably until the tree attains a breastheight diameter of at least 12 inches. The larger cottonwood trees contain a very large proportion of merchantable lumber — about 80 per cent of the total volume. The wood is used for coarse lumber. Its tough- ness fits it for bridge planking and it is also used to some extent for pulp. In the prairie States, cottonwood brings about $10 per thous- and board feet on the stump, an,d $2 per cord for fuel. A large part of the volume of cottonwood could be utilized for posts which can be made very serviceable by preservative treatment.1 In the following estimates logs are used for lumber down to a diame- ter, outside bark, of about 8 inches, and allowance is made for very large or loose knots. Fuel has been estimated with the bark on at the rate of 90 cubic feet per cord, taking all limbs and unmerchantable parts down to a middle diameter limit of 2 inches. All of the cottonwood stands for which figures are given have been produced on Class A situations; in Kansas, on the sandy bottom lands of the Arkansas River; in Nebraska, on the Platte and Loup River bottoms, and in Minnesota, on low, continually moist, and fairly rich land, The height of trees in Minnesota is strikingly greater than in Kansas or Nebraska for groves of the same age. The acreage chargeable to cottonwood rows has been computed on the basis of the damage to -corn crops. Table 3 shows that with north-south rows this amounts to 132.38 per cent of the crop which might be grown on a strip as wide as the height of the trees. Supply- ing this factor 1.3238 for CFin equation (1), we have, for a cotton- wood row 1 mile long — 1. 3238 XffXjX 5280 43560 where H is the height of the trees in feet. In a case like No. 3 (Table 17), consisting of 5 rows, 3 feet apart (total thickness 12 feet), we get, by equation (3)— ' _ (12+1.3238 X//X|) 5280 43560 No measurements of crops south of cottonwood have been made, On the basis of the amount of shade on that side it may be estimated that the damage to crops will not exceed 20 per cent. Adding this to the measured damage on the north side, 63.9 per cent, gives for th( east-west row CF= 0.839 and the equation for acreage, 0.839 X/7x}X 5280 A ~ 43560 i Forest Service Circular 117, "The Preservative Treatment of Fence Posts." ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 79 TABLE 17. — Cottonwood estimates — lumber and fuel. d fc 3 CQ "Cl .3 ^ *-, c3 O ~~ l!i 11 i&i 1... 2.... 3.... 4 5.... 6 8:!1 9... 10... 11... 12... 13... 14... 15... 16... 17... 18... 19... 20 JVb. of rows. 1 4 5 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 Grove. Grove. Grove. Grove. Grove. Grove. Grove. Grove North-south do do. Yr,^ 26 30 35 40 40 24 31 88 40 10 14 16 20 20 21 25 28-34 34 40 Feet. 70 65 65 83 100 100 43 85 88 97 50 71 65 60 70 60 70 69 80 85 Acre f<. 1. (iS4 .027 .146 . 09 12 .1822 .519 1.917 . 219 . 101G .506 .0492 . 662 . 0536 .403 .805 1.000 .1205 .100 .200 .327 Ca. ft. 3,539 1,177 241 154 219 312 4,258 461 350 771 143 1.567 2,114 1,008 2,217 3.409 '221 351 426 189 Ft. b. m. 7,236 5,231 1,222 1,426 3,677 6,441 (*) 1,475 2,314 6, 808 None. P.ct. 29.0 47. 1 51.4 64.9 77.1 79.8 S604. 00 706.00 931. 00 933. 00 2,193.00 3,270.00 189. 20 799. 00 1 , 634. 00 2,296.00 ?S9. 62 140. 90 120.70 187. 50 228. 25 238. 80 49.35 113.90 304. 50 282'. 60 64. 70 52.62 87.30 55. 60 113.10 75-75 147. 40 221. 10 191.00 303. 00 C4. 48 5.42 4.02 5. 36 5.71 5.97 2. 64 3. 67 8.01 7. 00 6.47 3.76 5.46 2. 78 5. 66 3.61 5.90 7.90 5.62 7.58 ?3.011 3.18 12.15 2. 546 2.403 2 2. 513 U.263 1.922 3. 55 2.97 5.39 s 2. 88 4.00 s 1. 866 3.802 7 2. 27 3.54 84.42 !» 2. 73 10 3. 19 do do do East-west... do do 39.0 56.9 61. 33 do None. None. None. 4,074 "26." 7" 1,277 1,431 2,880 2,919 53.6 44.9 57.5 73.7 Grove. Grove. 1 Ten cubic feet of ma~>le cordwood mixed with cottonwood. 2 Four rows ash on east, which are partially suppressed; value added to that of cottonwood. s Not estimated. 4 Some fuel removed in past. 5 Carolina poplar. 6 Soil moist, but rather light, sandy. 7 Contains considerable saw stuff which was not estimated. 8 Burned out at age of 5-6 years — hence has value of coppice. 9 Some fuel remove'! from time to time. t° Three thousand feet of lumber per acre removed two years prior to estimate — value calculated to date.. The points in Table 17 which bear upon the method of planting for windbreak purposes are — (1) The value per mile of the north-south row is strikingly greater than that of the east-west row of the same age. (2) With these figures reduced to acre values, the discrepancy practically disappears, except in the youngest windbreaks. In the latter it seems that the north-south row gains in diameter and in value more rapidly than the east-west row. (3) The percentage of volume merchantable for lumber is about the same at all ages in the north-south row and in the grove, but at the same ages is much lower in the east-west row. (4) The high annual value of groves is maintained by their rapid increase in quality after the trees attain log size and there is every indication that the maximum would not be reached for several years after the age of 40. The relative value of rows and groves in this respect is not clearly shown by any of these figures because from the start the grove has been charged with the same area, which is not increasing in size, while the row was at first charged with only a narrow strip. Hence a sustained mean annual value per acre indi- cates a much greater current value in the old grove than in the row. (5) The revenue has been slightly increased, and the efficiency of the windbreak very greatly increased by underplanting the grove with ash about six years after the first planting (No. 20). 80 WINDBREAKS. GREEN ASH. Green ash is one of the slowest growing trees planted in the Middle West, but because of the high value of the wood, and of the ability of the trees to resist drought, it has been considerably used in wind- breaks, especially in Nebraska. The tree grows better on upland situations than any others except osage orange and honey locust, and has in some instances survived drought which was fatal to almost every other kind of tree. The wood of green ash compares favorably in strength with that of the other ashes of the eastern hardwood forests, but the plantations in the West have not yet begun to yield saw timber. Green ash is one of the most useful trees of the western woodlot, for farm repairs, but has so far been principally used for fence posts. Quartered posts are strong and durable if well seasoned, but they are less durable than^osage orange, black locust, mulberry, or catalpa. Green ash loses its lower branches at an early age, and the foliage is not dense enough to form a barrier to the wind except as the tree is planted in wide belts or groves. 'As it is essentially a forest tree, it will be found to yield the best returns when planted rather closely in groves. It is a good auxiliary to cottonwood, either for under- planting or side planting, since its slow growth leaves it much below the cottonwood and permits it to fill up the openings left by the death of the cottonwood limbs. Ash grows moderately well in the partial light under cottonwood, but its roots are not so deep as might be desired for a tree in this position. Table 18 gives the value of ash posts. The measurements have all been made in the interior of belts and groves. TABLE 18. — Green ash estimates — posts. Serial No. Quality of situa- tion. Age. Height. Value of posts per acre. Firsts and sec- onds. Spac- ing- number of trees per acre. Total, Per annum. Without interest. 4 per cent interest. 1 A B B A B A A Years. 19 23 23 25 35 40 40 Feet. 28 30 22 49 25 53 45 $147. 10 272.50 137. 20 270. 90 135. 00 240. 45 250.60 $7.74 11.85 5.97 10.84 3.86 6.01 6.26 $5.32 7.44 3.75 6.51 1.83 2.53 2.64 Per cent. 25.5 39.3 41.6 49.7 42.7 67.5 70.5 1,000 1,274 90?- 680 436 500 535 2 . .. .. 3 4 5 6 7 The following points are brought out by Table 18: (1) The highest annual returns from posts will be obtained from green ash at the end of about 25 years, after which the growth will not keep pace with tLw increasing interest. (2) Ash posts of the best quality can be obtaine only at a much greater age, and this indicates that a longer rotation i Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 81 desirable. (3) The best posts are obtained with the closest spacing in groves. Without close spacing the trees are crooked, branchy, and knotty. (4) Dry situations greatly retard the growth of ash, and since its rotation is long on the best situations, it should not be planted on the poorer ones unless needed for protection. SILVER MAPLE. The silver or soft maple is a native of the river banks and well- watered lands of the Middle West. It is a moderately rapid grower, but its wood is not durable, and for posts is no more valuable than cottonwood and willow^. The timber is principally useful for fuel. Soft maple is a fairly vigorous rooter and succeeds on moderately dry uplands. The tree supports a rather large and dense crown, which makes it especially valuable for protective purposes. The lower branches persist, with their foliage, as long as they can obtain any light, so that even a single row of soft maple makes a fairly dense windbreak. The tree has been chiefly planted in belts and groves. The area charged to maple on the edges of belts and groves is calcu- lated on the basis of the damage to corn. This was found to be 61.43 per cent for the north side and 62.90 per cent for the south side. The estimates of silver maple given in Table 19 include the entire volume usable for fuel. TABLE 19. — Silver maple estimates — cordwood. Serial No. Orientation and class. Quality of situa- tion. Age. Height. Volume per acre. Value of cordwood per acre. Cubic feet. Cords. Total. Per annum. Without interest. 4 per cent interest. I... East- west belt do A A A A A B Years. 19 24 25 26 26 34 Feet. 33 45 58 44 44 45 1,333 2,708 2,605 2,735 2,497 2,275 14.81 30.09 28.94 30.39 27.74 25.28 $29. 62 60.18 57.88 60.78 55.48 50.56 $1.56 2.57 2.32 2.34 2.13 1.48 $1.07 1.54 1.39 1.37 1.25 .72 2 3 Grove 4... East-west belt... do 5 6... Grove WILLOW. Willow is not a valuable tree, but on good, moist soil it grows very rapidly at the start, and in a few years will furnish an immense amount of material, of which most has some usefulness in the form of posts and all may be used for fuel. Willow posts of the commonly planted species are not durable, but are somewhat more valuable than cotton- wood posts. "Diamond willow" (Salix cordata madcenziana Hook), on the other hand, a native along the banks of some of the streams in Nebraska, is very durable, and surpasses almost any of the native species for posts and fuel. The willow commonly planted in northern 92290°— Bull. 86—11 6 82 WINDBREAKS. Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota is the white willow (Salix alba Linn) of Europe. This is very short-lived and attains its greatest annual value at the end of 10 years. Because of its early rapid growth it must be considered a useful tree. It makes severe drains on soil moisture, and as its roots are almost wholly laterals and close to the surface, it does considerable damage along the edges of fields. On this account farmers in Iowa and Minnesota have to a large extent removed the rows of willows which formerly surrounded their fields. In Tables 20 and 21 the area charged to single rows of willow has been calculated on the basis of the damage to a crop of oats in the season of 1908. The damage was apparent out to about twice the tree height, and amounted on either side of the north-south windbreak to the complete loss of grain in a strip almost exactly as wide as the height of the trees. TABLE 20. — White willow estimates — posts. (All on quality A situations.) Serial No. Orientation and class. Age. Value per mile. Height. Area charged. Value per acre. Posts- firsts and seconds. Total. Per annum. Without interest. 4 per cent interest. 1 North-south row. do Years. 14 15 17 18 20 23 25 14 14 18 18 25 $1,401.79 1, 139. 38 1, 119. 38 909.21 707. 95 1,314.92 1,060.79 2,637.00 3,109.00 Feet. 30 33 38 38 31 42 42 42 40 36 32 48 A ores. 4.85 4.835 5.531 5.531 4.512 6.112 6.112 9.51 11.27 $289. 15 235. 70 202.40 164.45 156.95 215. 15 173. 55 277. 40 275.80 317.00 316. 90 508.00 20.65 15.71 11.91 9.14 7.85 9.35 6.94 19.81 19.70 17.61 17.61 20.32 15.81 11.77 8.54 6.67 5.27 5.88 4.17 15.17 15.08 12.36 12.36 12.20 Per cent. 63.5 55.1 «;. i 58.8 56.3 57.8 69.0 61.4 56.8 58.6 52.1 64.3 2 3 .do... 4 do 5 do. 6 do 7 do 8... 9 10 East-west belt *.. do.* Grove . 11 do 12 do Three rows, 14 feet apart. 2 Four rows, 15 feet apart. TABLE 21. — White willow estimates— fuel. Serial No. (refer to last table). Orientation and class. Age. Height. Volume per acre. Value per acre. Total. Per annum. Without interest. 4 per cent interest. 2. . North-south row do. Years. 15 17 18 25 14 18 £ 31 Feet. 35 38 38 42 40 36 32 48 58 Cu. ft. 2,142 2,802 2,276 2,484 1,856 3,212 2,384 2,586 1,930 Cor da. 23.8 31.13 25.3 27.6 20.62 35.7 26.5 28.73 21.44 $47.60 62.26 50.60 55.20 41.24 71.40 53.00 57.46 42.88 $3.17 3.66 2.81 2.21 2.94 3.97 2.94 2.30 1.38 $2.35 2.63 1.47 1.32 2.25 2.78 2.07 1.38 .72 3 4 do 7 .do 9 East- west belt 10 Grove < 11 . ..do 12 do 13 ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 83 Tables 20 and 2 1 indicate the following points which are of interest to windbreak planters : (1) The value of willow posts is five or six times as great as that of the same material used for fuel at the price of $2 per cord. (2) The annual acre value of young willow which may be used for posts is very high, by reason of the vigorous root growth and stem development in early age. (3) The short-lived character of white willow and the importance of the factor of interest makes the growing of willow to old age unprofitable. In post production, the value of single rows seems to decrease steadily after the fourteenth year. (4) The financial rotation of trees in the interior of groves and belts is not reached so soon, because their claims on land remain stationary and because the development is not so rapid when the trees are crowded on all sides. HONEY LOCUST. Honey locust grows with fair rapidity. Its wood is fairly hard and strong and the heartwood is durable in contact with the soil and compares favorably with green ash, but is not equal to mulberry, catalpa, black locust, or osage orange. The tree should be handled on a short rotation. It grows equally well in closely planted groves and in hedge rows, but to obtain effi- cient protection groves or wide belts will be found necessary. Mix- ture with a more tolerant deep-rooted species is desirable, since honey locust appears to lack any special ability for extending its roots in search of water. The tree does well on moderately dry uplands where the soil is heavy. Table 22 gives the results of examinations of groves and rows of this species. The cases have been grouped according to the quality of the situation in which they were found. The «,rea charged to single rows of this species was calculated on the basis of the damage to alfalfa west of a honey-locust hedge, and the damage on other sides was considered proportional to the amount of light cut off on these sides. The damage to alfalfa west amounted to 56.25 per cent, while the value of the shade on that side was 42.53 per cent. The value of the entire shade for a north-south row is 98.91 per cent, and the probable total shading damage - 42 53 "—=130.8 per cent. The value of the shade of an east- west row was found to be 125.89 per cent. The probable damage to crops is therefore 166.5 per cent. 84 WINDBREAKS. TABLE 22. — Honey locust estimates — posts. 0 & 73 1 Quality of situation. Orientation and class. oi bo •< Yrs. 10 22 34 34 25 40 11 31 28 20 24 30 30 29 Value per mile. ,d tr "53 w Acreage charged. Value per acre. Posts— firsts and sec- onds. Remarks. 1 Per year. ll 23 £.2 ±^+l ~.gg Sal 1 2 3 4 5 <5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 34 15 16 17 A A A A A A B B B B B B B A B C D North-south row .do $587. 49 349. 44 853. 76 608. 00 324.80 1,057.92 915. 89 926. 37 469. 83 373. 44 364. 89 197. 76 182. 40 Feet. 22 30 35 35 35 32 33 40 25 18 25 26 27 »2 093 2.854 3.330 4. 235 4.235 3.872 3.142 3.807 3.026 2.178 3.026 3.146 3. 267 5280.90 122. 50 256. 45 143. 62 76.70 277. 30 291.60 243. 35 155. 30 171.45 120. 60 62.88 55. S3 287.40 167. 10 102. 52 98.90 §28. 05 5.57 7.55 4.23 3.07 6.84 26. 50 7.85 5.55 8.58 5.03 2.10 1.86 9.91 6.43 4.46 3.53 S23. 35 3.57 3.67 2.06 1.84 2.87 21.60 4.10 3.11 5.76 3.09 1.12 1.00 5.42 3.77 2. SO 1.98 P.ct. 35. S 13.5 45.9 37.1 29.5 49.3 53.7 51.9 50. fi 21.2 20.7 43.1 46.3 45.3 50.3 34.2 28.9 Coppice. Underestimated . Do. Do. Do. Good; no cultivation. Coppice. Normal . Do. Good; coppiced young. Good row. Underestimated. Do. Bottom land. Upland. Do. Upland; very dry. do East- west row... do ..do North-south row ..do East- west row... do ...do... .do do Grove do 26 25 .. .do ?3 14 East-west belt . . 28 15 Examination of Table 22 shows the following points which are of interest to the windbreak planter: (1) The value of rows of both orientations and of groves is about the same when calculated on an acre basis and amounts on first-class situations to $3.50 to $5 per acre per annum. On very dry situa- tions it will not exceed $2 per acre per annum. (2) The quality of posts produced increases with the age. It is not greater in the case of groves than in rows. (3) The annual acre value of coppiced honey locust is very high. But since this remarkable growth is made upon the roots of old trees, whose sapping effect is apparent over a wide area, it is neces- sary to calculate the acre value on the basis of the area sapped. It is impossible tcf do this except in a most general way. From the data at hand it is believed that the annual acre values of Nos. 1 and 7 should not be placed higher than $8 and $7, respectively. OSAGE ORANGE. The osage orange or "hedge" has been very extensively planted throughout the southern portion of the range of this study. It is primarily a tree for hedges and when so used makes a highly efficient windbreak. The main objection to osage orange, that it tends to extend its roots very widely, is well grounded. It is partly because of this remarkable root vigor, but more because of the very high value of the post material yielded by osage orange that the returns are so large. The wood is more durable in contact with the soil than that of any other tree cultivated in the West. The presence of ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 85 thorns on the trees makes it very difficult to cut them, but adds greatly to the value of the hedges. In Table 23 the hedges are grouped first according to orientation and then according to quality of situation and age. Under " Re- marks" attention is called to the influences that bear upon the final value and to the comparisons which most forcibly demonstrate that value. The factor for computing the acreage devoted to an osage orange hedge is obtained from Table 3. The sum of the areas used on the north and south sides is 1.2691 and on the east and west sides 1.7402 times the height of the trees. TABLE 23. — Osage orange estimates — posts. 6 fc •a 1 | 'w "o £> •a § A A B B B B B B B B B B B C C D Orientation of hedge. ft < Value per mile. 1 w Acreage per mile. Value per acre. Proportion of first and second grade posts. Remarks. 3 1 Per year. Without interest. 4 per cent interest. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 North-south. . . ...do.... YT8. 25 31 20 21 22 23 23 25 30 31 20 30 31 21 21 3t $1,! 011. 84 869. 76 1,130.88 445.44 960.00 1,153.02 836. 22 579.84 698. 88 1,284.48 785.64 777.60 828. 18 121.50 292. 2f 126. 66 Ft. 26 22 24 24 25 21 20 23 25 28 25 20 30 13 16 15 3.290 2. 783 3.037 3.037 3.163 2.658 2.530 2.910 3.163 3.542 2.308 1.846 2.769 1.200 1.477 1.384 $307. 50 312. 70 372.35 146.70 303.60 433.80 330. 60 199. 30 221.00 362.65 340.50 421.50 299.25 101.25 197.90 91.50 $12. 30 10.09 18.62 6.99 13.80 18.86 14.37 7.97 7.37 11.70 17.02 14.05 9.65 4.82 9.42 2.54 $7.39 5.27 12.51 4.59 8.86 11.85 9.02 4.79 3.94 6.11 11.43 7.52 5.04 3.17 6.19 1.18 P.ct. 56.3 31.4 39.6 20.9 45.7 49.6 36.3 18.8 33.3 50.5 47.4 25.6 49.6 11.1 38.3 14.9 Cultivated both sides. No cultivation. Very good soil; cultivated both sides; compare No. 11. Coppice; cultivated one side. Do. Very good soil; cultivation one side; compare No. 3. Pasture one side. Coppice. Cultivated one side. Cultivated both sides at present. Cultivated both sides; compare No. 3, north- south. Cultivated both sides; compare No. 5, coppice. Lately cultivated one side; compare No. 10, north- south. No cultivation; compare No. 15. Cultivated one side; com- pare No. 14. Cultivated both sides at present. do do do do do do do do East- west do do .do.... do do . The following points bear especially upon the windbreak problem: (1) The mile value of north-south hedges is considerably greater than east-west hedges. Even when reduced to acre values, the area charged having been calculated from the loss to corn crops from shad- ing, the north-south windbreaks are still found to have a slightly higher value. This is to be accounted for by slight error in arriving at the reducing factors for the two orientations. (2) The post value of osage is higher than that of honey locust and other species which grow on situations of the same quality. This is 86 WINDBREAKS. partly due to the wider root extent of osage, and, in dry years, when sapping was pronounced, it would be necessary to charge this species with use of a greater area than that demanded by the shorter-rooted trees. (3) The effect of cultivation, especially in the poorer situations, is as marked in increasing the growth and post value of hedges as it was found to be in reducing the root extent. (4) The cutting back or coppicing of osage orange does not bring especially rapid or heavy returns, although sprouts are produced in abundance, and they grow thriftily for several years. Examination of the last column of figures in the table shows that these sprouts do not produce first-class posts. More heavy thinning should be resorted to. Measurements have shown that coppice osage has the same power for sapping as did the larger trees from which it originated. This energy can be made to produce merchantable stuff if the proper methods are used. RUSSIAN MULBERRY. The Russian mulberry has been planted extensively in Nebraska and Kansas, and on account of its very vigorous and rapid growth yields a good revenue from posts at an early age. Mulberry posts are very durable, especially when they contain a large proportion of heartwood, and they compare favorably with catalpa in all sizes. They are more lasting than green ash or honey locust, but inferior to black locust and osage orange. Russian mulberry is not hardy in the North, and freezes back each winter so severely as greatly to reduce its value. Even in western Kansas it is likely to be winter- killed where moisture is not abundant. In good situations the damage to the smaller branches in winter does not prevent its yielding profit- ably. Very valuable mulberry has been found on rather dry situa- tions, where sheltered by other trees. The tree is fairly drought- resistant, having very extensive roots, and it is a very vigorous sprouter. It is considered a severe sapper when planted next to field crops, but as a shelter for orchards it is not likely to be harmful from this attribute. Besides forming a dense and almost impenetrable windbreak, mulberry has the additional value, when planted about orchards, of furnishing an inferior fruit, which is eaten by birds in preference to the more valuable orchard products. It has its great- est value in this respect in protecting cherry orchards. The area charged to mulberry rows has been calculated on the basis of its branching extent as compared to osage orange, since it is prob- able that the amount of damage in the shaded zone will be approxi- mately the same for both. ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 87 Table 24 gives the results of the estimates of posts in seven mul- berry hedges, all but the last two being single rows. No. 7 represents a row on the south side of a belt of ash, maple, and willow, and No. 6 is two rows 5 feet apart. TABLE 24. — Russian mulberry — estimates of posts. Serial No. Qual- ity of situa- tion. Orientation and class. Age. Value per mile. Height. Acreage charged. Value per acre. Propor- tion of first and second grade posts. Total. Per year. With- out in- terest. 4 per cent in- terest. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A A A A A A B North-south row do Yrs. 11 12 8 10 12 12 22 $1,028.07 727. C5 369. 49 696. 99 467. 51 1,039.01 475. 20 Feet. 23 25 22 18 25 24 28 2.885 3.135 2.1C8 1.773 2.465 2.972 1.637 $356. 70 232. 00 170. 50 393.05 189. 70 349. 60 290.30 $32. 42 19.33 21.33 39.30 15. 81 29.13 13.20 26.52 15. 45 18.50 32.75 12.63 19.91 8.48 Per ct. 42.9 34.6 31.3 29.1 34.2 28.6 33.8 East- west row do do East-west, 2 rows East - west, r o w i n grove The points especially worthy of note are: (1) The acre value of young mulberry is very high and in nearly every case is greater than the highest value of white willow on A-class situations. This is due to the tremendous root vigor of mulberry. If it is planted adjacent to field crops, a much larger area would be chargeable to the trees in dry years than has been used in these calculations. (2) Even on moderately dry situations mulberry produces a good revenue from posts when protected by other trees. An outer row, in No. 7, was exposed to south winds and was much poorer than the inside row; in fact, many of the trees had died. (3) In spite of the low value assigned to the smaller posts of mulberry, which are almost wholly sapwood, the immense number of shoots from the same root stock makes these an important item. The most valuable hedges are those with a large proportion of third- class posts. (4) The wide root system of mulberry, supporting numerous stems and a dense mass of foliage, gives it unusual value for protection purposes. CAT ALP A. The hardy catalpa, although a valuable tree for post and pole production in the Middle West, can not be considered a good tree for windbreak planting, unless the probable revenue from a grove may be made to compare favorably with the income from field crops on the same ground. The catalpa is essentially a forest- tree. It does not succeed in unsheltered situations because of its slight power of resisting the influence of dry winds. Hence, unlike several of the 88 WINDBREAKS. other species which produce only posts, it is not adapted to single- row planting. On the other hand, the height attained by catalpa is not sufficient to make the use of wide belts or groves justifiable. Unless planted in wide belts, catalpa can not form an efficient wind- break, because it is an intolerant tree and its lower branches are lost at an early age, leaving clean boles, which offer little resistance to the wind. A single grove of catalpa, growing on land of the finest quality in Nebraska, at the age of 18 yeare had a value in posts of $289.30 per acre, or an annual value with 4 per cent interest of $11.28 per acre. Without interest, the value of the grove is $16.17 per acre each year, exclusive of the cost of planting and tending. The posts in this grove numbered about 2,820 per acre, of which 42 per cent may be classed as firsts and seconds. The height of the grove was about 25 feet. This is somewhat less tall than groves on first-class land, but is fairly characteristic of the tree. WHITE PINE. Of the conifers which may be planted on good soils in Iowa and Minnesota, and perhaps also in the best sheltered situations in Ne- braska and eastern Kansas, none promises so much in the way of vigorous growth and profitable yield as white pine. The thrift and quality of the tree, the usefulness of its lumber, and its protective and esthetic values will all lead to a greater utilization of white pine throughout the Eastern and Lake States, and as far west as the tree may be grown without danger of winterkilling. There is every reason to believe that if planted on moist, fertile soil, and protected from the direct effects of drying winter winds, this tree will succeed to middle western Nebraska and central Kansas. Young trees of this species are doing well on the Platte River bottomland at Grand Island, Nebr., and trees about 30 years old are growing at Ilutchinson, Kans., in the valley of the Arkansas River. The extension of the box-board industry by means of small portable sawmills will make the harvesting of white pine at an early age both possible and profitable. Forest-grown white pine can not be cut profit- ably for ordinary heavy lumber before it is about 60 years old. But it has been very clearly shown that white pine grown in narrow belts or even single rows in northeastern Iowa produces good straight boles, fairly free of branches, and attains log size much sooner than trees in groves. In Fayette County, Iowa, an orchard owner planted belts of about three rows of white pine at intervals of 40 rods, run- ning east and west. At the age of 40 years many of the trees contain logs 16 to 20 inches in diameter, from which a large amount of con- struction timber has been sawed. The trees of the middle row in these belts are much smaller than those on the outside, but their ESTIMATES AND DISCUSSION. 89' are clearer. According to the owner, the white pine causes very little damage to crops growing adjacent to it. A small grove of white pine in the same county, 37 years old, now~ contains 1,030 trees to the acre, with a total volume of 7,785 cubic foot, or an annual increment of 210 cubic feet. The trees are growing on first-class upland loam soil, and are very thrifty and well formed. The present average breast-high diameter is 7 inches. It is impossible to estimate the present value of this grove, because there are no industries near that might utilize to the best advantage the products of the trees. It is fairly safe to say, however, that 70 per cent of the volume of the grove might be utilized for box boards, cutting to a diameter of 4 inches. This material may be valued at $6 per cord, on the stump, while the remainder will be worth $2 for fuel. On this basis the present value of the grove is $415.20 per acre, which represents an annual income, with interest at 4 per cent, of $5.08 per acre. SCOTCH PINE. The Scotch pine, a native of Europe, and the most important conifer in the lumber trade of Europe, has been considerably planted throughout the Middle West, where it grows rapidly and is extremely useful for ornamental planting. Although it produces well in Europe, examples of successful plantations in this country are extremely rare, and the tree has gained a bad name because of its rather branchy habit and poor development. In view of its hardiness and high protection value, it is fortunate that the possibilities of Scotch pine for commercial purposes have n demonstrated in at least one instance. There is a good grove of otch pine on rich dark clay loam in a poorly drained situation in atonwan County, Minn. The trees were from 35 to 38 feet high at the age of 19 years from seed. The stand contained 1,775 trees per acre, having been planted with about 4,000 trees to the acre. The average diameter breast high was 4.73 inches. The greatest height growth had been made between the ages of 7 and 14 years, when it averaged 29.4 inches per year. The volume of the grove was 4,122 cubic feet per acre, or an aver- age annual increment of 217 cubic feet per acre. While the trees at the time of measurement were too small to be of use for anything but fuel, it may readily be seen that the growth of this grove is very promising. In a few years it may be expected to yield a heavy cut of material suitable for box boards. Calculating the fuel value at the present time at $2 per cord, the return is $91.60 per acre, or an annual income, with interest at 4 per cent, of $3.31 per acre. There can be no doubt that when planted closely on moist situa- tions Scotch pine will grow rapidly and in good form, and may readily compete with any of the native conifers in volume increment. tna Wa PART IV. SUMMARY. CALCULATION OF THE SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS. The protective value of an osage-orange hedge in the season of 1908 was equal to the yield of a strip twice as wide as the height of the trees. The protection afforded by the most efficient grove wind- breaks amounted to the yield of a strip three times as wide as the height of the trees. This means that the farmer in the Middle West can afford to maintain a windbreak running through the farm from east to west, and having a width of 240 feet in the case of mature cottonwoods 80 feet high. On a farm of 160 acres this would give approximately 15 acres of timber, or about 10 per cent of the area. There should be at least two such strips, however, to protect the entire farm from both north and south winds. This is the recommendation made by European agricultural economists, that 20 per cent of the farm should be in forests. Such windbreaks as these, by protection alone, will pay a rental on the ground which they occupy equal to that from grain crops. In addition to the protection it has been shown that windbreaks of nearly every species planted in the Middle West have a high timber value at maturity. SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS DETERMINED BY THEIR VALUES. GROVES AND SHELTER BELTS. The figures which represent the protective value of windbreaks apply only after the windbreaks, or more properly the trees within them, have become mature, and do not take into account the fact that the protective value of a belt of young trees is much less in pro- portion to its width than the protection afforded when the trees have attained their full height. In most cases it would not be practi- cable to gradually increase the width of the windbreak as the trees become taller, and it is, generally speaking, more profitable from the lumberman's standpoint to make a clean cutting when the timber is harvested; it is, therefore, necessary to calculate the total protec- tive value of the windbreak from the time of planting to maturity, and to balance this against the total value of crops which might have been grown on the land occupied by the trees during the same period. Roughly, the average protection given by the belt of trees is one- half as great as that given at maturity, since it increases directly 90 SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS. 91 with the height of the trees. But in most cases the height growth of the trees is much more rapid in the first half of the period than in the second half. This is especially true of cottonwood. Table 25 gives the height at different ages and under varying conditions. TABLE 25. — Height growth of cottonwood. Age. Kind of windbreak and qual- ity of situation. Grove. Class A. Class B. Feet. 20.0 39.0 52.4 62.0 69.3 75.5 81.1 86.2 Feet. 10.8 19.5 27.5 35.5 42.7 49.4 55.2 60.5 Row or narrow belt. Class A. Feet. 15.0 25.6 35.7 45.7 55.8 65.9 76.0 86.1 This shows that the height growth in groves is very rapid at the outset, but that the rate of growth decreases after the trees begin to crowd each other for root space. In rows and narrow belts there is less incentive to rapid height growth at the start, because the trees may develop more fully their side branches. But the rate of growth is maintained very uniformly up to the fortieth year, at which time the height of the trees in a row will be almost the same as in a grove. Beyond this age, which represents maturity for cottonwood, it is probable that the rate of growth falls off rapidly in both cases. If the benefit is calculated for each year from the time of planting, on the basis of the height of the trees, and if these annual incomes are carried with compound interest to the time of maturity of the timber at the end of a 40-year rotation, the protective value of a good cotton- wood windbreak a mile long amounts to $35,585.50. Against this must be balanced the value of the grain crops which might have been grown each year. Using $22.50 per acre, or 45 bushels of corn at 50 cents, the gross grain value taken for calculating benefit, these successive crops at the end of 40 years, with interest to the end of the period, may be valued at $2,138. To this must be added the initial cost of planting an acre, $10, with interest, making $48.01. There- fore the total cost of the windbreak has been $2,186.01 per acre, and its protective value has been sufficient to pay the entire cost of 16.28 acres. Even supposing that the windbreak has no timber value, or that it can not be cut without endangering the adjacent crops, then the protective value up to 40 years has paid a full crop rental on all the land occupied by a belt of trees with a width of 134 feet, which is equal to 1.55 times the height of the mature trees. 92 WINDBREAKS. But on the basis that the timber crop is to be cut at 40 years, and that the value of this, if not burdened with interest, is comparable to the net value of field crops, the annual protective value may be balanced against the accrued interest on the initial cost of planting and on the crop value of the land. Using the same figures and simply deducting the crop value (40 X $22. 50) and initial cost, $10, it is found that the interest amounts to $1,276.01 . With only this interest to pay, the belt may profitably contain 27.88 acres, and may be 230 feet wide, or 2.67 times the hejght of the trees. Whether the high efficiency of the cottonwood windbreak, with a width of only 150 feet, can be maintained when the trees become very old, depends on the quality of the ground on which it is growing, and upon the feasibility of introducing smaller trees which will form an understory and fill up the gaps left by the loss of the lower branches. On poor ground the aggregate protective value up to 40 years is less than on good soil, and it is therefore obviously unprofitable to plant so large an area. With a decreased width and decreased density of stand upon the poorer situations, it becomes necessary to substitute for cottonwood some species of more dense foliage, or one which by reason of greater root vigor and tolerance will form a more compact windbreak. -Green ash, osage orange, and several of the drought- resistant conifers, such as Austrian pine, red cedar, and jack pine may be recommended. Mixtures of hardwoods and conifers are desirable wherever winter protection is needed. (See diagram 33.) In order to make profitable the use of wide windbreaks which have the quality of groves, there must be selected for the main body of the shelter a species which will make rapid height growth at the outset, If necessary, it may be underplanted with a slow-growing, dense- foliaged tree, or the latter may be used along the sides of the grove, and may be planted either at the outset or when the main trees of the grove begin to prune themselves rapidly. Under any circum- stances, the total width of the grove (from outside trunk to outside trunk) should not exceed one and one-half or two times the expected height of the trees at maturity. SINGLE-ROW WINDBREAKS. In the use of single-row hedges an entirely different and much simpler problem is met. Windbreaks of this class can not, at the outset, be charged with any more space than would be occupied by a fence, and as they increase in height, their beneficial influence will each year increase proportionately. This will at all times far exceed the damage from shading and sapping, so that there will never be any debt to be charged to them. It is only when the hedge is cut back, and entirely robbed of its protective value, that the sapping effect may be seriously felt. With osage orange, this effect may extend over an area three times as wide as the trees were high before SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS. 93 , they were cut. If, however, the aggregate benefit up to the time of i cutting is calculated, there is in favor of the hedge a considerable surplus which may be used to tide over the few years before the sprouts again become efficient. Table 26, on which the calculations of benefit are based, shows the height growth on moderately moist to dry situations. TABLE 26. — Height growth of osage hedges. Situation. Situation. Age, years. (A) mod- erately moist. (B) slightly moist. (C) dry. Age, years. (A) mod- erately moist. (B) slightly moist. (C)dry. 3 Feet. '8 0 Feet. 6.5 Feet. 4.4 21... Feet. 29.3 Feet. 22.9 Feet. 14.5 Q 15 0 12 0 7 3 24 30.6 23.7 15.2 9 20 0 15 8 9.6 27 31.7 24.3 15.6 1° 23 2 18 3 11 3 30 32.6 24.6 15.9 15 25 7 20.3 12.6 33 33.3 24.8 16.0 18 27.6 21.8 13.7 Calculating the value of an osage hedge on the basis of an annual net benefit equal to the yield of a strip of ground twice as wide as the height of the trees, there is at the end of 20 years a surplus in favor of the windbreak on B class situation, of $1,980. This is sufficient to pay for the total loss of crop in the area occupied by the old roots, 68 feet wide, for 12 years after the cutting. As a matter of fact, the height growth of osage coppice is so rapid that in a very few years the hedge will again be paying for itself. The single-row hedge or windbreak must be primarily for the pro- duction of posts and small timbers in which freedom from knots is not an essential feature. Protection and high quality timber pro- tion can be secured only in the wide windbreak, where forest editions are obtained, and where the body of the trees, as a whole, forms a barrier to the wind. The previous discussion has been based on the idea that the most efficient protection is desirable, as for grain crops, for the protection of houses and cattle sheds, and for the purposes of a snow trap. There are situations, however, where a dense windbreak is not desira- ble, and where the complete stagnation of the air would be injurious. Orchards may sometimes be rendered colder, in the case of a frost on a clear and relatively calm night, and again the danger from fungous diseases is greater in the more humid air behind a windbreak than in the open where the surfaces of leaves and fruit are kept dry by the wind. These fungi are sometimes injurious to grain crops as well as to fruits, and the damage arises during a period of wet weather. The "rust" of wheat and "smut" of oats are of this character. It is reasonable to suppose that the presence of a windbreak favors the growth of these fungi. 94 WINDBREAKS. Throughout a region, as in all the northern and western parts of the United States, where drying winds are prevalent, where atmospheric moisture is not superabundant, and where the danger from cold storms at the critical time of year is great, it is safe to say that the benefit to be derived from windbreaks of forest trees planted about orchards will at all times far exceed the possible damage from " still " frosts, from fungi, from insects, and from the dwarfing of trees on the edge of the orchard. The storm of 1908 was typical of the storms which occur in some portion of the northern United States nearly every spring. It must be remembered, also, that even when the storm consists of only a dry wind, the tender leaves and flowers may be injuriously cooled by evaporation or blighted by drying out. WINDBREAKS FOB VARIOUS REGIONS. Windbreaks may profitably be used in six principal regions of the United States. It is important to know what is the ideal windbreak and what methods are necessary to obtain and maintain it in each of these regions: (1) The Middle West, including southeastern South Dakota, west- ern Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and eastern Colorado. (2) The Northern Prairies, including eastern Montana, the Dako- tas, and southern Minnesota. (3) The Lake States, including also southeastern Minnesota and northeastern Iowa. (4) The Eastern States, north of the thirty-ninth parallel. (5) The Southwestern States, including southwestern Kansas^ western Oklahoma and Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. (6) The fruit-growing regions of the Pacific Coast States. 1. THE MIDDLE WEST. (a) Cottonwood is the tree best suited for windbreaks in the Middle West when these are planted on good, moist situations, on river bottoms, or, in the extreme eastern part of the region, on rolling uplands. The trees should be planted in belts from 125 to 150 feet wide, running east and west, and should not be cut until about 45 years old, when their height will be approximately 90 feet. If practicable, not all of the grove should be planted at the same time, but a narrow strip which will form the center of the final belt should first be set out, and the belt widened as the first planted trees become taller. The range of ages should not be more than 10 years, and the youngest trees should be on the outside, where their effects on crops will be least deleterious. In a windbreak of cottonwood in which the trees are approxi- mately the same age, underplanting with a tolerant hardwood or SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS. conifer will be necessary to insure the continued efficiency of the belt. Green ash succeeds fairly well when planted a few years after the cottonwood. Red oak should be given a trial. On good ground this species grows rapidly, and will yield post material of about the same value as green ash; or the trees may be retained after the cottonwood is cut, and grown to a larger size. FO/? LOCAT/O/V OF OAfA /so ffoas ( ALFALFA (/S - PASTV/?£ CftOPS CO/fM (4O -A Off £5) CO ft A/ 0/f 0475 /.LY re/pr/t/z (SO-JCfftt) SVffL/C ffOAO DIAGRAM 35.— Plan for location of windbreaks on a farm in the Middle West. Of the conifers adapted to use as an understory to cottonwood,, the spruces are the most promising. Norway spruce, very successful in the East, will not thrive where moisture is lacking. The same is true of the native eastern spruces. The Black Hills spruce stands the test of summers and winters on the plains of South Dakota. 96 WINDBREAKS. A modification of underplanting that offers greater possibilities is to leave the cottonwood belt incomplete; that is, not to use the entire area allowed for it and to supplement the cottonwoods, when they begin to thin themselves, with three or four rows of evergreens on either side. Austrian pine should be used on the north side, since it is hardy, dense, and fairly rapid growing, and white pine should do well if planted along the south side where it will not get the full force of drying winter winds. Both of these species will retain their outside branches until the end of the 45-year rotation, and at the same time their shading of adjacent crops will be the least damaging. White cedar or arborvitae has been successfully- grown in Nebraska when not exposed to winter winds. One or two rows of this species would be a valuable auxiliary outside of the white pine on the south side of the belt. Diagram 35 shows the ideal arrangement for a 160-acre farm in the Middle West. It includes, besides the main belt of cottonwoods, two full length hedges of Russian mulberry and a third protecting the orchard from south winds. It shows the arrangement of windbreaks, which with slight revision will be practicable for any quarter section. The essential features are these: (1) The house and barn are sheltered from northwest, north, and northeast winds, but not from the summer winds, which are, on the whole, cooling. The width of the grove, 10 rods, is sufficient to make it a snow trap. (2) The orchard is protected on the north by a dense grove and on the south and west by a mulberry hedge which will thoroughly protect the outer trees and at the same time do little damage by shading or sapping. The fruit of the mulberry will entice the birds from the more valuable orchard products. (3) The large field to the north of the high cottonwood grove is to be used principally for corn, since the cottonwoods will afford summer protection mainly. If desired, oats or a soiling crop may be used in rotation. (4) The middle field of 40 acres may well be used for such crops as wheat, rye, and barley, since it is protected from both winter and summer winds. (5) The north field may be used for hay crops and for pasture. For both of these purposes it will be benefited by the protection from hot south winds. (6) The use of this combination of species will furnish posts for fencing from the osage, ash timbers for farm repairs, an unlimited supply of cottonwood fuel, and eventually a good revenue from cottonwood lumber. The evergreens used" are ornamental, useful for protection of the home, and finally useful for split posts or fuel. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. FIG. 1.-A FEW Rows OF COTTONWOOD, WHEN YOUNG, MAKE A FAIRLY DENSE PRO- TECTING BELT. FIG. 2.— WHEN MATURE, COTTONWOOD MUST BE UNDERPLANTED IF THE BELT is TO RETAIN ITS EFFICIENCY. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII. Bui. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XIX. FIG. 1.— IN CLOSELY PLANTED GROVES WHITE PINE FORMS STRAIGHT, CLEAN BOLES. FIG 2 —EVEN IN BELTS OF A FEW Rows, THE GROWTH OF WHITE PINE is ERECT AND SYMMETRICAL, BUT THE OUTER TREES WILL RETAIN THEIR LOWER BRANCHES FOR MANY YEARS. THE BREAK IN THIS Row SHOWS WHERE A SMALL TORNADO PASSED THROUGH IT. 5ul. 86, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX. FIG. 1.— THIS YOUNG WHITE PINE GROVE is DENSE AND THRIFTY, AND BRANCHY ENOUGH TO FORM A GOOD WINDBREAK. FIG. 2.— THE ADDITION OF A FEW Rows OF WHITE CEDAR ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE BELT REENFORCES THE BASE OF THE WINDBREAK. SIZE OF EFFICIENT WINDBREAKS. 97 (6) On the uplands and poorer situations of the Middle West, two classes of windbreaks are recommended; they may well be used on different parts of the same farm. The osage-orange hedge will serve in the driest situations, because of its drought resistance. Its sphere of influence can not be very wide; nevertheless, it will probably be inadvisable to have these windbreaks at more frequent intervals than 40 rods. Four osage-orange hedges, 25 feet high, will greatly reduce the general wind velocities on a quarter section and will give efficient protection to a large proportion of it. The windbreaks should, of course, extend from east to west across the farm. The post material should be cut before the end of 25 years, except on very dry situations, where it will require more time to grow first-class posts. It will be preferable to remove the larger trees from time to time rather than to destroy the hedge. If the hedges are to be cut to the ground, only one of the three or four on a farm should be taken in a single year. While the osage hedge will furnish all of the posts needed, it will be best in most cases to have one wide belt of trees more nearly of a forest character. Green ash, honey locust, and Scotch and Austrian pines will produce a much larger volume of wood than can be obtained from osage orange. On situations not too dry, honey locust may profitably be planted in belts 44 feet wide if retained to the age of 30 years. Green ash has about the same capacity for height growth and furnishes more protection. Neither of these species alone makes an efficient windbreak; they should be supplemented with conifers. About eight rows of these hardwoods, 4 feet apart, should be planted at the outset, to be supplemented in a few years with three rows of Austrian pine on the north side. Scotch pine grows equally well, but on medium situations where severely exposed it will not make good form and will be fit only for fuel. A belt of this sort should be so located as to protect the house, barn, and orchard from north winds. Because of its narrowness, all of the snow which it checks will not be deposited within the belt, so it should not be located too close to the north side of buildings or roads. 2. THE NORTHERN PRAIRIES. (a) Primarily, in all of the northern prairie region the protection is needed against cold and dry winter winds and, secondarily, against the occasionally dry westerly winds of summer. The warm chhiook, occurring in early spring, may also have very damaging consequences. To meet all of these, windbreaks of both orientations must be used, with about two of the north-south to one east- west. On good situations many conifers will succeed, about the most desirable being, in the order of their desirability, Scotch pine, red or Norway pine, Colorado blue spruce, and Black Hills spruce. Scotch pine develops well only when planted closely. 92290°— Bull. 86—11 7 98 WINDBREAKS. For Scotch and red pines, the maximum width of a belt, if the trees may be kept to the age of 40 years, should be about 75 feet. About 12 rows of the pines, 4 feet apart, should form the basis of the wind- break, these to be supplemented after about 15 years, when the trees will begin to prune themselves, with three rows of blue or Black Hills spruce on either side. There should be one such belt along the north border of every 160-acre farm, another along the west border, and two extending from north to south, at intervals of 60 rods from the west side. This will mean about 36 acres of timber for the farm, will not reduce the total productivity in crops, and will yield at the end of the rotation a large amount of material suitable for box boards, or at least for fuel. (6) For Class B or poorer situations, very hardy species must be selected. Of these, western yellow and Scotch pines deserve most consideration for the basis of the windbreak, to be supplemented with blue and Black Hills spruces. The same arrangement should be made as on better situations, but on account of the slower height growth, the belts may not be so wide as before. A total width of 60 feet should not be exceeded, and an additional north-south row will be of value to the farm. 3. THE LAKE STATES. (a) On almost any situation in the Lake States region, unless the soil be extremely poor and dry, white pine is preeminently the tree for windbreaks. It should be planted only in belts extending from north to south. The prevailing and damaging winds of this section are from the west, both winter and summer. White pine grows rapidly enough so that it may well be planted in belts from 80 to 90 feet wide if it may be held for 40 years, or even greater widths if it is held to the age of 50. Even though the pro- tective value is not so great as in more southerly regions, the increased quality of the products will warrant these wide belts. White pine should be grown for high-quality products, which will have an immense value. Close spacing, about 4 by 6 feet at the outset, is conducive to good form and rapid height growth. A few rows of white cedar on either side will augment the value of the white pine windbreak, and will yield a crop of very valuable fence posts. The white cedar may be planted very closely — about 2 by 4 feet. Because of its slow growth, it should be planted simul- taneously with the pine. Orchard protection is generally more important than field-crop protection in the Lake States. Two north-south belts on a 160-acre farm will greatly modify the effects of dry westerly winds. The orchard should be adjacent to one of these belts and, as an additional precaution, should be surrounded by a double row of white cedar, spaced about 4 by 4 feet, with the trees in one row opposite the SIZE OF EFFICIENT WlKD&^fiA^f 99 middle of the space in the other. White .c£Mr #<& yer^drBciem low windbreak, and is also very inoffensive in relation to crops, both as regards shading and sapping. (b) On very poor, sandy soils, red and Scotch pines may be used in belts of the character described for Class B situations on the northern prairies. The spruces may be supplanted by jack pine as an auxiliary, but this species should be used sparingly, as it is extremely aggressive in competition with other forest trees on raw soils. 4. THE EASTERN STATES. In the northern portion of this region, where the winter winds chiefly are to be feared, white pine may be as fully recommended as in the Lake States. The native white spruce, Norway spruce, or white cedar may be used with equal advantage as an auxiliary, but, in small quantities. The last will probably find the most ready market, since the spruces will be valuable only for pulpwood. A double row of Norway spruce forms an excellent windbreak when timber values are not to be considered. The ideal spacing seems to be about 8 by 8 feet. The north-south windbreak will here act as a barrier to nearly every wind, since all are of westerly origin. Toward the south in this region, where, because of the greater summer heat the conservation of moisture becomes more important, chestnut and tulip poplar may be recommended as the most profitable hardwoods, and may be used even on rather barren or worn-out soils. Both grow thriftily and may be managed as coppice. As an auxiliary, short-leaf pine may be suggested for use on soils too poor for white spruce or white cedar. The common red cedar, which is such an im- portant feature of natural hedgerows, should not be allowed to exist in the neighborhood of apple or pear orchards. 5. THE SOUTHWEST. Very little windbreak planting has been done in the poorly watered region of the southwestern United States, although it is evident that here, of all places, protection from wind and conservation of moisture are most needed. Artemisia or sagebrush has been used to some extent in New Mexico. Because of the low height attained by these shrubby species, the hedges must be very close. With a height of 4 feet, hedges should be placed at intervals of from 80 to 100 feet. The east-west orien- tation will best obstruct the continental winds blowing ofT the Gulf and the anticyclonic winds, usually from a southwesterly source. Although osage orange is native only to the river bottoms of this region, it is believed that with the encouragement of cultivation this species could be made to grow in much of the territory wheiv dry farming is practiced. 100 WINDBREAKS. Of'species suitable for furnishing winter protection only the alli- gator juniper and the piiion are sufficiently drought resistant to live in the climate of the lower elevations. 6. THE PACIFIC COAST. In California windbreaks have been principally used by fruit growers for the protection of very valuable citrus orchards. There can be no doubt as to the value of eucalypts, Monterey cypress, and Monterey pine for this purpose, especially when located along the north side of an orchard, to check the spring winds. Hardly less important in southern California is the protection of all kinds of farm crops from the " Santa Ana" or dry north wind which occasionally blows out of the mountains. It has entirely destroyed a wheat crop in a day or two. The one thing that counts against certain profit in the immense wheat fields of California is the very fact of their unbroken immensity. There seems to be no good reason why the development of eucalypt planting in California should not also aim toward a thorough protective system for those fields, for which east-west belts of moderate "width are recommended. Euca- lypts grow rapidly and will for a number of years form a very dense windbreak. Underplanting will not be found practicable. In Washington and Oregon winds blowing out of the mountains are hardly less severe than the California "Santa Ana" in their effects upon field crops and orchards. The protection of orchards against winds carrying sand is, in the Columbia River Valley, to be obtained by the use of poplars and willows, while the more extensive shelters for grain fields may well consist of belts of Carolina poplar or cotton- wood, to be handled under the same system as has been recommended for the river bottoms of the Middle West. As a final word, it must be concluded that the right kind of a wind- break in the right place is a source of profit and of comfort; on the treeless plains of the Middle West it has no little esthetic value. What prejudice exists against its use is based on two things : First, experience with poorly-planned and poorly-planted windbreaks; second, a lack of appreciation of the protection and profit which a windbreak affords. o U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 228. FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. BY GEORQE L. CLOTHIER, ASSISTANT FOREST INSPECTOR, FOREST SERVICE. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1905. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE, Washington, D. (7., August 8, 1905. SIR: A paper on Forest Planting and Farm Management, pre- pared under my direction by Mr. George L. Clothier, of the Forest Service, and published in the Yearbook of the Department for 1904, is herewith submitted, with a few slight alterations, for republica- tion as a Farmers' Bulletin. Eespectfully, GIFFCRD PINCHOT, Forester. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. (3) 228 CONTENTS. Page.. Forestry and farm designing 7 The need of forest planting _ _ . _ _ _ _ 8 Mistakes of the past 8 Preparation of a planting plan 10 A concrete example 11 A model prairie farm plan 14 Trees and methods recommended 15 Special features of f crest planting about the farmstead . 18 Conclusion , - - 21 (5) 228 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. FIG. 1. Arrangement of forest plantations on a farm in central Ohio to facilitate scientific farm management 11 2. Ideal plan of the four quarters of a section — suited to the prairies of Kansas and Oklahoma . 14 3. Plan of a farmstead arranged to afford windbreak protection 19 (6) 228 FOREST PLANTING AND FARM MANAGEMENT. FORESTRY AND FARM DESIGNING. Although agriculture stands first among American industries and our production of farm products is greater than that of any other country, the possibilities of the art of agriculture have hardly begun to be understood. That scientific farming will vastly increase the productive power of the land in the United States is beyond doubt. With the advance of knowledge through the discovery of new truths and the advance in practice through the better application of what science has already found out, improved utilization of the country's resources will make room for a future rapid growth in population and wealth, as expansion in territory has made room in the past. Making the same land twice as productive as before is as good as doubling the amount of land, if not better, and we have as yet scarcely scratched the surface of the agricultural resources of the country as a whole. One of the ways in which present methods of farm management may be greatly improved is by better recognition of what may be called farm engineering, or farm designing ; and this in turn must give an important place to the consideration of farm forestry. The farm designer, or farm architect as he might be called, can do much to improve the efficiency of farm operation. Economical man- agement may be attained by a scientific adjustment of the parts of a farm, just as the utility of a great building may be increased by the careful planning of a qualified architect. Several agricultural col- leges and experiment stations have recognized this fact, and have given a distinct place to this as a part of the great problem of how to get the most out of the soil. The best opportunities to apply these principles are found in those parts of the West where new farms are being taken up. Generally it is also in these regions that forestry can do most for the farmer, for in the treeless regions, especially, the full development of the country depends in no small degree on the establishment of forest plantations. From the fact that trees take so much time to grow, the for; who seeks to advise a farmer how he can make trees contribute most 228 8 largely to his prosperity is compelled to take a long look ahead and to consider the whole problem of farm arrangement. In well-settled regions the possibilities of farm designing are apt to be severely limited by what has been done in the past. The location of the buildings, the division into fields, and in many cases the situation of the timber, are now fixed facts. Nevertheless, even here a decided improvement may often be made, as will be illustrated later. What needs to be emphasized now is that even in the older parts of the country a farm should be run according to a definite and carefully considered plan, designed to secure economy of operation and the best use of every part; that tree plantflng for farm purposes ought always to take into account this plan; and that even where standing timber is already present it may be in the interest of the best use of all parts of the farm to cut this down and plant elsewhere. THE NEED OF FOREST PLANTING. Forests are indispensable to the highest material development of any country. We have learned that, besides furnishing the useful timber products resulting from the growth of trees, they conserve moisture, ameliorate climatic extremes, and purify the atmosphere. Where they are not found naturally, or where they have been thought- lessly removed from wide stretches of country, it becomes desirable in behalf of the public welfare to plant trees in great number. Obvi- ously the benefits of such plantations will be most widely felt if the planting is well distributed over the region. Further, it is a work the benefits of which are shared by all, and which all should join in per- forming. The plantations in a definite region should be made after one gen- eral plan, in order to allot to each farm its proportionate amount of forest. The method of planting and the position of the planting sites should evidently be made with reference to a system of farm manage- ment, since a forest is the most permanent thing that can be planted on a farm. An example of such a plan and such a system is shown in fig. 1. MISTAKES OF THE PAST. It is unfortunate that a large percentage of the plantations made by farmers have been disappointing. Yet some commercial plantations, such as that of Mr. L. W. Yaggy, at Hutchinson, Kans., have been financially successful. Farm forest planting has been practiced, in some of our prairie States for more than half a century, and great good has resulted from many of the plantations, but the measurable increase in the wealth of the country attributable to forest planting has been small, owing to 228 9 , the choice of poor sites and the use of unsuitable species. The artifi- cial forests of Illinois would have been worth many times what they are at present if longer-lived and more valuable species had been used in the plantations instead of silver maple or other trees of as little worth. Species of the greatest value have often been ignored because of their slow growth, and others, deserving to be classed as " weed trees,7' have been used in their place. Successful plantations of black walnut, hickory, elm, oak, and other valuable trees are com- mon enough to prove that the slower-growing woods ordinarily pay best. Silver maple, boxelder, and the like are valuable chiefly for firewood, and it is easily possible to overstock the market for cord- wood in any locality. Lumber woods, on the other hand, can always be disposed of in any quantity. In order to illustrate the relative values of the two classes, let a comparison be made between the returns from a 64-year-old stand of black walnut in Morgan County, 111., and a 35-year-old stand of silver maple in Sangamon County. These were the best groves of each species found in the State during an extended survey made in the summer of 1904. The figures relating to the two tracts may be best contrasted in the following table : Value of planted forests of black walnut and silver maple on the prairies of Illinois. Species. Location. Age. Area. Ntimber of trees on area. Average diameter breast- high. Domi- nant trees. Inter- mediate trees. Sup- pressed trees. Black walnut . Silver maple.. Morgan County , 111 _ Sangamon County, 111. _. Years. 64 35 Acres. 0.6 5.6 119 1,478 Inches. 19.0 10.6 Inches. 13.3 Inches. 9.4 Species. Location. Number of trees per acre. Yield per acre. Total value per acre. & Annual value per acre, c Lum- ber, a Fence posts. Fire- wood. Black walnut . Silver maple .. Morgan County, 111 Sangamon County, 111 .. 198 264 Board ft. 42,000 1,800 Cords. 15 65 $1,050 130 $5.5* 2.15 a From trees 11 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. 6 Lumber at $20 per 1,000 board feet, fence posts at 10 cents each, and firewood at ? per cord. c Interest compounded annually at 3 per cent. It would be quite as easy to show that the returns from hickory, elm, or some other wood which can be used when no older than the maple would amount to more than those from the latter, but the com- parison of walnut with maple serves also to emphasize the greater 5116— No. 228—05 2 228 10 value of a wood which must be kept until the trees attain a good size. The figures in the last column represent the annual returns from the two plantations irrespective of their age, and are therefore directly comparable. It is a well-known fact that the great majority of the forest planta- tions made in accordance with the timber-culture act were failures. Here, again, the unfavorable results were due to poor sites and ill- adapted species, combined with a lack of care on the part of planters and the dishonesty of entrymen, who regarded this law merely as a means of obtaining title to public land without paying for it. Plantations made by specialists find designed for a special purpose do not usually require very elaborate planting plans.. It is the small woodlot plantation that is to serve many purposes in the economy of the farm which calls for the most careful planning. PREPARATION OF A PLANTING PLAN. As a machine of production, a farm should have a plan which pro- vides for the best use of its every part. The woodlot or forest plan- tation should be in a position to contribute to the successful operation of this plan, for the trees may affect the atmospheric drainage, the wind currents, and the humidity of the air about the home. At the same time a planting plan must provide for sites which will produce the best possible growth. The arrangement of the fields and the loca- tion of the fences, private lanes, drainage systems, buildings, and farmstead should all be considered before any forest planting is undertaken. Very rarely indeed have farmers deliberately planned the location and make-up of their forest plantations with reference to the needs, convenience and economy of their farms, and the relative value and adaptability of the trees to be planted. Woodlots have sometimes been so poorly located as to do actual damage to farms. Cases have been observed in the northern half of the Middle West where wind- breaks planted too close to the buildings caused the drifting snow of severe winters to bury the houses 15 or 20 feet deep. In the winter of 1899 a farmhouse in the Red River Valley, North Dakota, was buried in a snowdrift for three months because a cottonwood grove had been planted too near it. In other cases trees have been planted near tile drains, which the roots clog. It is probable that not one-tenth of American farms are being operated under any permanent system of management. Before forest planting is undertaken some such system must be adopted, however, in order to make the future existence of the forest plantations possi- ble, for more than half the planting plans made since July 1, 1899, 228 11 by the Forest Service, fundamentally affect the future management of the farms. As very few farmers are accustomed to formulating farm plans, the agent of the Forest Service, besides being called upon to give advice in matters pertaining to technical forestry, is usually drafted into this service as well. After consultation with the landholder and consideration of all the matters affected by the policy of management, he is able to bring out an orderly arrange- ment which will permit on the same farm the practice of both scien- tific agriculture and scientific forestry. fUBLIC StOAO h BW BW BW BW C HC MC HC BW 6W 6* HC MC HC HC HC HC H< HC HC HC = HARDY CATALPA SQUIRED NUMBER Or TREES PER BLACK WALNUT 9O7 HARDY CATALPA 9O7 TOTAL IB I 4 FIG. 1. — Arrangement of forest plantations on a farm in central Oiiio to facilitate scientific farm management. A CONCRETE EXAMPLE. The planting plan shown in fig. 1 was made for a farm in central Ohio, and illustrates graphically the bearing that forest planting may have on the management of a farm. This farm in Ohio contains 375 acres, and that part of it which is devoted to agriculture is capable of earning interest on a capitalization of $100 per acre ; not a foot of it is unsuited to tillage. That part which was originally heavily tim- bered has all been cleared, except a blue-grass pasture of 30 or -iO 228 12 acres which is occupied by the remains of the original forest, consist- ing of a scattered stand of declining sugar maple and beech trees. This timberland embraces the most fertile part of the farm, and inter- feres most seriously with the convenient and economical division of the farm into fields. If the Forest Service had advised the owner to attempt to rejuvenate the dying trees and to underplant them with expensive nursery stock, the instructions would have been implicitly followed, but such advice would have wrought a positive injury to the landholder. Instead, the planting plan advises that the forest area of the farm be reduced by clearing the only natural timber left standing, and that, instead of retaining the*scattered growth now cumbering the pasture, trees sufficient to occupy about half the present forest acreage be planted in such positions as to protect the farm from the severe westerly winds prevailing in the region. The owner was therefore advised as follows : (1) The major part of this farm is too valuable for agricultural purposes to be devoted to forestry. The native timber now scattered over the pasture is rapidly declining, and is reduced by every hard storm. No natural reproduction is taking place, and while the land is grazed none can be secured. The location of the scattered trees in the middle of the farm would require expensive fencing in order to protect them from live stock. Thus, it is believed that the rejuvena- tion of the old forest on this farm is impracticable. Instead, this land, as soon as the old trees have all disappeared or been removed, should be laid out into permanent fields. As every well-regulated farm, howrever, should possess some timber land to supply it with fence posts and to furnish shade and shelter for live stock, new plan- tations are recommended. The trees will take up as little room as possible, while the arrangement of the fields in rectangular blocks will greatly facilitate the use of modern machinery. (2) The chief plantations should occupy strips 5 rods wide, run- ning from north to south. One of these strips should be planted on the western border of the farm and another crossing its center due south of- the residence. A third should cut off the block extending east from the southeast corner of the main rectangular tract. In addition to these strips, it is advised that single rows of trees be planted on the division lines between the fields, so that they may be used as live posts upon which to fasten wire to form fences. (See fig. i.) (3) Black walnut and hardy catalpa should be used in equal pro- portions for the belts, and should be planted every 4 feet in alternat- ing rows, which should be 6 feet apart. The walnut seed should be planted two years prior to the introduction of the catalpa seedlings, in order to allow the slow-growing walnut to get a 'start before being 228 13 crowded by the catalpa. The nuts of the walnut should be collected as soon as ripe in the fall, and should either be stratified ° in moist sand or planted immediately in their permanent site. These nuts should never be allowed to dry out after ripening. They are most easily planted while plowing, by dropping them in a furrow and cov- ering them with the next furrow slice. If walnuts are thus planted, the squirrels are not likely to find them. The ground between the rows during the following two years should be planted with corn, and should receive good tillage. This can best be done by use of the lister. After the catalpa seedlings are introduced no more corn should be planted, but the ground should be cultivated as long as a single-horse cultivator can be run between the rows. Catalpa seed- lings 12 to 16 inches tall and one year old should be used. They can be obtained from dealers for $1.50 to $5 per thousand. The labor of planting these seedlings may be performed chiefly by horsepower. Both walnut and catalpa should be planted in accordance with the diagram shown at the right in fig. 1. By consulting the illustration the reader will see that the planting plan subdivides this farm into eleven fields — eight rectangular ones of equal area and similar dimensions, and three of nearly equal area but of unlike dimensions. This division will permit the application of scientific crop rotations, the eight rectangular fields being suited to two systems of four-year rotations and the three irregular fields to one three-year rotation. The convenient shape, ease of cultivation, and wonderful fertility of this farm present an excellent opportunity for the arrangement of such rotations of suitable crops. Trees planted on the lines which separate the fields will serve as windbreaks as well as living fence posts. A method adopted by some is to plant Osage orange hedges between the fields, and every 20 feet to allow one of the trees to grow to its natural height. The remain- ing trees should be pruned to a height of 5 feet and kept within proper limits for a hedge. Then, if this growth proves inefficient as a fence, it can be reenforced by fencing wire stapled to the large trees. If the Osage orange is undesirable or a hedge is not wanted, chestnut should prove a desirable tree for the fence lines. The young trees should be planted about 20 feet apart, and when they begin to crowd each other every alternate tree should be cut out. Round-headed and with sturdy trunks, these trees will form very effective windbreaks ' for the intervening fields. Their nuts will bring a satisfactory return for the land they occupy, and the trees which are cut out will furnish excellent fence posts. The substitution of straight woven- wire fences for the qld zigzag ones of rails transforms the fence lines from breed- o Stratification is a method of storing forest seeds to prevent them from drying out. The seeds are stored in alternating layers between layers of moist sand. 228 14 ing places for noxious weeds into productive land upon which the living fence posts grow into a merchantable product. Such a plan as this fixes the boundaries of the fields, locates the private lanes, and, in fact, forms the skeleton of any future system of farm management that may be applied to this farm. A MODEL PRAIBIE FAEM PLAN. In order to illustrate a model prairie farm plan made in accordance with sound principles of forestry, fig. 2 has been prepared. This i r FIG. 2i — Ideal plan of the four quarters of a section with location of forest and wind- break plantations — suited to the prairies of Kansas and Oklahoma. farm plan is applicable to a large region in the prairies of the Middle West, where windbreaks are necessary to the full development of the country. It assumes that the land is of uniform condition of soil, and has been surveyed by the rectangular system adopted by the Government. The public roads are supposed to be located on the section lines. The application of this model to a country with its 228 15 surface broken by creeks or lakes would, of course, necessitate a modification to fit local conditions. The plan is intended merely to illustrate principles. Four farms of 1GO acres each are shown, illustrating an arrange- ment suitable to each of the four quarters of a section. The farm- stead, or that portion of a farm which is occupied by the residence, barn, orchards, gardens, lawn, and feedlots, is here shown as placed at the section corner of each farm. While in a large proportion of cases the location of the farmstead will be determined by the particu- lar conditions, as water supply, topography, etc., an arrangement, where practicable, by which the houses stand on the section corners will be worth considering. The fields on each quarter section have been laid out to permit the planting of windbreaks to protect the crops from the hot southwest- erly winds of summer and the cold northwesterly winds of winter. The farmsteads are also provided with protection from winds. East winds have not been considered, because of their infrequent occur- rence, but a general adoption of this plan on all the farms of a region would afford protection from all points of the compass. The fields, with one exception, are all of the same shape and size, there being on each quarter section six fields, each 22.1 acres in area. This method of dividing the farm into fields will afford an opportunity for the application of a scientific system of crop rota- tion, and the fields, being six in number, will permit the application of a compound rotation embracing the use of a perennial crop like alfalfa in combination with five annual crops, where this is desired. If the use of a perennial is not desirable, the six fields will permit the running of two parallel three-crop rotations. TREES AND METHODS RECOMMENDED. The plan provides that the forest trees shall be planted in belts varying from 2 to 8 rods in width, except along fence lines, where they are in single rows. The best results, purely from the standpoint of forestry, will be obtained in the widest belts, since trees are social in their habits. Still better tree growth would be secured by planting in compact blocks. But as agriculture is the fundamental industry in the region to which this plan applies, the tree planting is designed only to supplement the production of field crops. Eleven or 12 per cent of each quarter section is to be devoted to forest. This is exclu- sive of the space occupied by the single lines of trees in the fence rows. The species that may be recommended for this purpose vary for each particular locality with conditions of climate, rainfall, and soil. Considering the Middle Western States together, however, the fol- 228 16 lowing trees, when placed on hospitable soil fulfilling the require- ments of each individual species, may, in the northern half of the region, be successfully grown as windbreaks : Arborvitse. White elm. Laurel-leafed willow. Green ash. European larch. Russian golden willow. Boxelder. Russian wild olive. White willow. Cottonwood. Western yellow pine. Cork elm. Black Hills spruce. In the southern half of the Middle West, also the green ash, cotton- wood, white elm, Russian wild olive, and western yellow pine may be successfully grown, and in addition the following species : Chinese arborvitse. Honey locust. Osage orange. Wild China. Mesquite. Persimmon. Black locust. Russian mulberry. Shittimwood. These lists do not include all of the best timber trees that might be grown in the Middle West, for many valuable timber trees will not endure such severe exposure as a windbreak is subject to. In the establishment of a windbreak wisdom is required in the placing of the different species. A windbreak composed of more than one species is usually the most effective. An excellent method of arrangement is to place the shortest trees in the outside row (toward the- prevailing wind), to plant a somewhat taller species next to them, and to place the tallest trees in a third row on the side adjacent to the buildings or the area which is to be protected. This causes the wind to strike the trees as it would strike the face of a steep hill, deflecting its course upward. If the tallest trees of the third row consist of a flexible species, such as cottonwood, European larch, white willow, or honey locust, they will bend before the wind, and act as a cushion to deflect it upwrard and over the object to be protected. A satisfactory windbreak 5 rods in width, for the pro- tection of the north and west sides of a farmstead (see fig. 2) and adapted to Minnesota and the Dakotas, is as follows: Plant 13 rows of trees, parallel to one another and 6 feet 10 inches apart. The first two rows on the north and west edges of the belts should consist of Russian wild olive, the third and fourth rows of arborvitae, the fifth and sixth rows of boxelder, the seventh and eighth rows of white elm, the ninth and tenth rows of white willow, and the remain- ing three rows of common cottonwood. Such a plantation, when mature, will appear like a wall with a sloping top, the highest side being where the cottonwoods are planted. Carrying out this same principle for Oklahoma and Texas, with a change in the position of the plantations to afford protection from southwest winds (see fig. 2), the following method is advised: The 228 17 first two rows on the south and west edges of the belts should consist of Russian mulberry or Osage orange, the third and fourth rows of Chinese arborvitse, the fifth and sixth rows of black locust, the seventh and eighth rows of green ash, the ninth and tenth rows of white elm, and the remaining three rows of honey locust or common cottonwood. In southern California, where the damaging winds come from oppo- site points of the compass (from both the southwest and northeast), a good plan for a windbreak is one in which the tallest, most flexible trees will be in the center rows, so that the species on either side will slope downward toward the outside edges of the belt. For such a windbreak 2J rods wide and consisting of 7 rows of trees, the follow- ing arrangement may be suggested : The three rows in the middle of the belt should be of blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), the next row toward the outside on each side should be of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) , and the two rows occupying the two edges of the belt should be of Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa). This same arrange- ment may be used on a belt 5 rods wide by doubling the number of rows of pine and cypress and increasing the gum to five rows. In order to construct a windbreak in California that will be perfectly effective, the belts should be placed on all four sides of the area which is to be protected. This is illustrated by the farmstead on the north- west quarter of the section shown in fig. 2. The belts advised in the model plan are of sufficient width to pro- duce all the timber that will be needed on a farm of 160 acres, while the fields are sufficiently narrow to be protected from winds by the single lines of trees occupying the fence rows. Experiments have demonstrated that a windbreak, on level land, will be effective for a distance of at least ten times its height. For perfect protection on the model farms herein described, the trees in the windbreak must reach a height of at least 50 feet. An objection to growing trees along fence lines has been made by farmers on the ground that such trees steal the soil nourishment from the crops which are on the edges of the fields. It is true that healthy, vigorous trees make great demands on the soil moisture in their imme- diate vicinity, but wherever their influence is felt as windbreaks they conserve enough moisture, by preventing rapid evaporation, to more than pay for all that they use. By planting a deep-rooted crop like alfalfa under the shade of the fence-line trees, good returns from the land may be secured in spite of the fact that the trees absorb a part of its moisture. It is a great mistake to begrudge a useful tree the space it occupies, and particularly so in the naturally treeless prairies of the Middle West. 228 1-8 SPECIAL FEATUBES OF FOEE3T PLANTING ABOUT THE FAKMSTEAD. On rare occasions it is found to be impracticable to concentrate the different elements of the farmstead in one place. (See fig. 3.) In the great majority of cases, however, it is both practicable and eco- nomical to have a farmstead, and the choice of its site is of the first- importance to the landowner. If the farmsteads of several adjoining sections were laid out in accordance with the plan herein ^uggested, four farmhouses would be grouped at each crossroads corner, bringing neighbors together in a little settlement. The position at the crossroads is also likely to facilitate the reaching of church, school, and town. An argument Hgainst such an arrangement is the possibility of its leading to neighborhood quarrels. In many cases, however, uniformity of soil does not exist. The farmstead must then be located with reference to the adaptability of the soil to the forest growth, since a farmstead without trees for shade and shelter is not worthy of the name. The forest planter, therefore, is often the one to determine the location of a permanent site for the farmhouse, and he may also lay out at least the plan of the farmstead itself. Fig. 3, representing the farmstead located on the southeast quar- ter of the section sketched in fig. 2, has been prepared to show how forest planting may be made to help every one of the different parts that go to make up the farmstead. Windbreak belts, 5 rods wide, are located on the north, west, and south sides of the farmstead. Open spaces varying from 72 to 96 feet in width have been provided to the north and west of the buildings and orchards, to act as snow traps to catch the drifts during winter storms. Every farmer is familiar with the fact that a hedge or belt of trees on the north side of an east-and- west road will cause the road to be filled with snow during winter, when the wind comes from the north. So the open space on the farm- stead will in the same way trap the snow, and will consequently pre- vent any drifts from forming near the barn or residence or in the orchards. These open spaces may be utilized for garden vegetables, sugar beets, and other annual feed crops, the accumulation of winter snows serving as an annual irrigation to store up large quantities of soil moisture for the garden, and making the land particularly well adapted to this purpose. The trees on the edges of these spaces will, for the same reason, grow very vigorously. In this plan the convenience, health, and comfort of the tenants of the farmhouse have all been considered in the location of both barn and residence. The grouping of the trees in the background of the 228 19 lawn has been made with reference to adornment, but without an attempt to enter into the details of landscape gardening. The plan leaves the lawn in such a shape, however, that the landscape gar- dener may have full scope for the display of his talents. A plan including, as this one does, complete protection from the hot winds of summer and the cold storms of winter will add greatly to the intrinsic FIG. 3. — Plan of a farmstead, situated at the southeast corner of a prairie farm, arranged to afford windbreak protection. worth of any farm located in the prairie States. If the farmer is engaged in the production of beef and pork, the protection of the barnyard and feedlots will economize the feed consumed by the fat- tening animals, for it takes more grain to produce a pound of flesh 228 20 upon animals exposed to the cold north winds of winter than upon stock that is protected from blizzards. Thus a windbreak takes the place of grain in maintaining the heat of the animal during cold weather. On the other hand, it will add to the farmer's bank account during the summer, for it will afford shade and protection to fattening animals, which lose flesh in very hot weather. Windbreak belts in connection with a farmstead form an asset that is none the less real because the actual money value may not easily be determined. The protection to an orchard afforded by forest trees is valuable, since late frosts are not likely to blight the fruit blossoms of a protected orchard. Forest belts *on the south and west sides of the farmstead give ample protection against the parching blasts from the southwest — the hot winds of summer, which are destructive to fruit in many parts of the country. It is to be understood, however, that the forest plantations herein recommended are also to be utilized for the production of the needed timber supplies on the farm. By judi- ciously thinning the plantations, 20 acres of planted forest will fur- nish* all the fuel needed on a farm of 160 acres, besides producing lumber for the renewal of the farm buildings. Many Kansas and Nebraska farmers have in twenty years grown cottonwood trees large enough for sawlogs. Mr. W. D. Rippey, of Severance, Kans., cut 200,000 feet of cottonwood lumber a few years ago from trees of his own planting. Mr. Rippey's plantations Avere on uplands where the soil is not particularly well adapted to the growth of cottonwood, and, when lumbered, were but little more than a quarter of a century old. On the farm of Mr. T. F. Eastgate, near Larimore, N. Dak., in the lied River Valley, a belt of planted cottonwood trees, supple- mented by a dense undergrowth of wild plum bushes, acts as a wind- break and snow catcher, causing a snowdrift to form in winter over the open field, which is devoted to alfalfa. In the summer of 190-1 Mr. Eastgate harvested alfalfa hay from this field at the rate of more than 5 tons per acre. Besides serving as a windbreak and snow catcher, thus making the growth of alfalfa possible on this farm, the forest plantation has produced cordwood during its twenty-one years of life at the rate of 4.74 cords per acre per annum. The* successful growth of alfalfa on 10 per cent of the area of this region would double the earning power of every acre of land in the Red River Valley; and, since the thermometer here sometimes falls as low as 50° below zero, it is possible to grow this extremely val- uable forage only by utilizing some contrivance like Mr. Eastgate's windbreak, to catch the snowdrifts and form during the winter a protecting blanket over the plants. 228 21 CONCLUSION. Forestry is but a branch of the great industry of agriculture, but it can give important aid to the farmer in getting sustenance for the human race from the soil. It has been shown that where forest planting is desirable, the planting plan is of fundamental importance to the management of the farm which is concerned. The location and cultivation of these forests may either make them peculiarly advantageous or cause them to become a detriment to the economical management of the farm. The planting plans which have been set forth in the preceding pages are not regarded as perfect, but are given as suggestions of what may be done to make farm forest planting serviceable. They are based on considerable practical experience, and it is believed that they demonstrate beyond a doubt how far superior is a well-considered, systematic method of handling the problems of farm forestry to the haphazard, careless methods so often practiced in the past. Farmers are now receiving instructions from the Department of Agriculture both for the establishment of forest plantations and for the inauguration of cropping systems, but it seldom happens that the same farmer receives instruction in both matters at the same time. The intimate relations existing between farm management and forest planting are so patent and their importance is so great that the two should go hand in hand. It is to be hoped that as the practice of scientific agriculture spreads, model farms may be laid out in all parts of the United States, on which practicable plans for forest planting may be demonstrated and the best methods of planning the various parts of a farm so as to make provision for an economical and practicable system of crop rotation may be illustrated. Farmers, in order to get the services of Government experts in planning both forest plantations and systems of farm management, should make application for instructions both to the Bureau of Plant Industry and to the Forest Service. 228 FARMERS' BULLETINS. The following is a list of the Farmers' Bulletins available for distribution, showing the number and title of each. Copies will be sent to any address on application to any Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. No 22 The Feeding of Farm Animals. No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. No. 25. Peanuts Culture and Uses. No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. No. 28. Weeds: And How to Kill Them. No. 29. Souring and Other Changes in Milk. No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. No. 32. Silos and Silage. No. 33. Peach Growing for Market. No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. No. 35. Potato Culture. No. 30. Cotton Seed and Its Products. No. 37. Kafir Corn: Culture and Uses. No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. No. 39. Onion Culture. No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. No. 43. Sew- age Disposal on the Farm. No. 44. Commercial -Fertilizers. No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. No. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. No. 49. Sheep Feeding. No. 50. Sorghum as a- Forage Crop. No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 52. The Sugar Beet. No. 54. Some Common Birds. No. 55. The Dairy Herd. No. 56. Experiment Station Work— I. No. 57. Butter Making on the Farm. No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. No. 59. Bee Keeping. No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 61. Aspara^is Culture. No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. No. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. No. 64. Ducks and Geese. No. 65. Experiment Station Work— II. No. 66. Meadows and Pastures. No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. No. 69. Experiment Station Work— III. No. 70. Insect Enemies of the Grape. No. 71. Essentials in Beef Production. No. 72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. No. 73. Experiment Station Work— IV. No. 74. Milk as Food. No. 77. The Liming of Soils. No. 78. Experiment Station Work— V. No. 79. Experiment Station Work— VI. No. 80. The Peach Twig-borer. No. 81. Corn Culture in the South. No, 82. The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83. Tobacco Soils. No. 84. Experiment Station Work— VII. No. 85. Fish as Food. No. 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. No. 87. Experiment Station Work— VIII. No. 88. Alkali Lands. No. 91. Potato Diseases and Treatment. No. 92. Experiment Station Work— IX. No. 93. Sugar as Food. No. 94. The Vegetable Garden. No. 95. Good Roads for Farmers. No. 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. No. 97. Experiment Station Work— X. No. 98. Suggestions to Southern Farmers. No. 99. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. No. 100. Hog Raising in the South. No. 101. Millets. No. 102. South- ern Forage Plants. No. 103. Experiment Station Work — XI. No. 104. Notes on Frost. No. 105. Experiment Station Work— XII. No. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. No. 107. Experiment Station Work— XIII. No. 108. Saltbushes. No. 109. Farmers' Reading Courses. No. 110. Rice Culture in the United States. No. 111. Farmers' Interest in Good Seed. No. 112. Bread and Bread Making. No. 113. The Apple and How to Grow It. No. 114. Experiment Station Work— XIV. No. 115. Hop Cul- ture in California. No. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 118. Grape Growing in the South. No. 119. Experiment Station Work— XV. No. 120. Insects Affecting Tobacco. No. 121. Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food. No. 122. Experiment Station Work— XVI. No. 123. Red Clover Seed: Infor- mation for Purchasers. No. 124. Experiment Station Work— XVII. No. 125. Protection of Food Prod- ucts from Injurious Temperatures. No. 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. No. 127. Important Insecticides. No. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. No. 129. Sweet Potatoes. No. 131. Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter. No. 132. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. No. 133. Experiment Station Work— XVIII. No. 134. Tree Planting in Rural School Grounds. No. 135. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. No. 136. Earth Roads. No. 137. The Angora Goat. No. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. No. 139. Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. No. 140. Pineapple Growing. No. 141. Poultry Raising on the Farm. No. 142. Principles of Nutri- tion and Nutritive Value of Food. No. 143. Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle. No. 144. Experiment Station Work— XIX. No. 145. Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. No. 146. Insecticides and Fungicides. No. 147. Winter Forage Crops for the South. No. 148. Celery Culture. No. 149. Experiment Station Work— XX. No. 150. Clearing New Land. No. 151. Dairying in the South. No. 152. Scabies in Cattle. No. 153. Orchard Enemies in the Pacific Northwest. No. 154. The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. No. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. No. 156. The Home Vineyard. No. 157. The Propagation of Plants. No. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. No. 159. Scab in Sheep. No. 161. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. No. 162. Experi- ment Station Work— XXI. No. 164. Rape as a Forage Crop. No. 165. Culture of the Silkworm. No. 166. Cheese Making on the Farm. No. 167. Cassava. No. 168. Pearl Millet. No. 169. Experi- ment Station Work— XXII. No. 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. No. 171. The Control of the Cod- ling Moth. No. 172. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. No. 173. Primer of Forestry. No. 174. Broom Corn. No. 175. Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. No. 176. Cranberry Culture. No. 177. Squab Raising. No. 178. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. No. 179. Horse- shoeing. No. 181. Pruning. No. 182. Poultry as Food. No. 183. Meat on the Farm— Butchering, Curing, etc. No. 184. Marketing Live Stock. No. 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds. No. 186. Experiment Station Work— XXIII. No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. No. 188. Weeds Used in Medi- cine. No. 190. Experiment Station Work— XXIV. No. 192. Barnyard Manure. No. 193. Experiment Station Work— XXV. No. 194. Alfal fa Seed. No. 195. Annual Flowering Plants. No. 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. No. 197. Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for Propagation. No. 198. Strawber- ries. No. 199. Corn Growing. No. 200. Turkeys. No. 201. Cream Separator on Western Farms. No. 202. Experiment Station Work— XXVI. No. 203. Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. No. 204. The Cultivation of Mushrooms. No. 205. Pig Management. No. 206. Milk Fever and its Treatment. No. 208. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting. No. 209. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. No. 210. Experiment Station Work— XX VII. No. 211. The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll Weevil. No. 212. The Cotton Bollworm— 1904. No. 213. Raspberries. No. 214. Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. No. 215. Alfalfa in the Eastern States. No. 216. Control of the Cotton Boll Weevil. No. 217. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton. No. 218. The School Garden. No. 219. Lessons taught by the Grain-Rust Epidemic of 1904. No. 220. Tomatoes. No. 221. Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. No. 222. Experiment Station Work— XXVIII. No. 223. Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. No. 221. Canadian Field Peas. No. 225. Experiment Station Work— XXIX. No. 226. Relation of Coyotes to Stock Raising in the West. No. 227. Experiment Station Work— XXX. No. 228. Forest Planting and Farm Manage- ment. No. 229. The Production of Good Seed Corn. No. 230. Game Laws for 1905. No. 231. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. No. 232. Okra: Its Culture and Uses. No. 233. Experiment'Sta- tion Work— XXXI. No. 234. The Guinea Fowl and Its Use as Food. No. 235. Cement Mortar and Concrete. No. 236. Incubation and Incubators. No. 237. Experiment Station Work— XXXII. No. 238. Citrous Fruit Growing in Gulf States. No. 239. The Corrosion of Fence Wire. No. 240. Inocula- tion of Legumes. No. 241. Butter Making on the Farm. No. 242. An Example of Model Farming. o Station Bulletin 125 February, 1915 Oregon Agricultural College Experiment Station Umatilla. Branch Experiment Station Windbreaks, Hedges, and Ornamentals for Irrigated Sandy Soils of Eastern Oregon BY R. W. ALLEN CORVALLIS, OREGON The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to the residents of Oregon who request them The soils of Eastern Oregon that are being reclaimed by means of irri- gation, are mostly light in character. As a result of their light nature and low cohesive power, they are subject to erosion by wind or flowing water. Wind action, by hindering development and cultivation, becomes an important factor in reclaiming land. These conditions, however, become less serious as the land is worked and improved. By reference to Table I it can be seen that the average wind velocity for this district is very low as compared with Amarillo, Texas, and Belle Fourche, South Dakota. Readings were taken once a day. As severe winds at Her- miston are seldom of 24 hours duration, their maximum velocity, as shown below, is frequently modified by several hours of comparatively mild wind. TABLE I. SHOWING COMPARATIVE WIND VELOCITY DURING THE GROWING SEASON AT STATIONS IN OREGON, TEXAS, AND SOUTH DAKOTA Station Miles per hour April May June July Aug. Sept. Mean for period Umatilla Experiment Farm Mean monthly velocity for three years Maximum velocity, 1914 Amarillo Experiment Farm Mean monthly velocity for seven years Maximum velocity, 1914 Belle Fourche Experiment Farm 3.9 12.7 9.7 19.6 8.6 16.5 3.5 10.6 G.2 14.8 9.3 12.4 49 10.7 8.9 16.6 7.8 18.9 4.0 12.2 7.2 11.0 6.7 14.4 3.4 13.7 6.6 10.8 6.3 9.0 2.8 11.1 6.9 12.4 6.3 13.8 3.7 11.8 8.1 14.2 7.5 14.1 Maximum velocity, 1913 Although the total mileage and maximum velocity of wind at the Texas and South Dakota stations is much greater than at Hermiston, crops are seldom injured by soil erosion. The soils are fairly heavy and not as easily disturbed. When the influence of wind velocity overcomes the effects of gravity and cohesion of soil particles, blowing or soil erosion takes place. The amount and the rapidity of erosion depend upon the following factors: (1) degree of exposure; (2) severity and frequency of wind; (3) constancy of direction of the wind; (4) humidity or relative weight and drying effect of the air; (5) amount of moisture present in the soil; (6) size of soil particles; (7) slope of land; and (8) extent of protection afforded by crops and other protective agents. Moving soils hinder irrigation by filling furrows, thus obstructing the flow of irrigation water and rendering necessary the refurrowing of the land. One of the most harmful effects of soil erosion, and one that is frequently overlooked, results from the removal of fine particles from the soil. The finer portions, which result from weathering of rock particles, and from decay of vegetable matter growing upon the soil, are sifted out and carried away, whenever movement occurs. This leaves behind the coarser and heavier particles that are of the least agricultural value. When blowing is allowed to continue, therefore, the condition of the soil cannot be improved, since the fine particles cannot be accumulated. Figure 1. (a) Two outer rows of corn stunted by influence of windbreak, Umatilla Experiment Farm, September 15, 1913. (b) Stunted and irregular growth of peach trees caused by being too close to windbreak. The protection afforded by trees as windbreaks is more effective than that of other forms of windbreaks owing to the greater height of the trees and the greater space between the rows. Such windbreaks diminish evaporation of moisture from soil and from crops. The benefit resulting from them depends upon the extent to which they decrease wind velocity. The rate at which moisture is carried away varies with rate of movement, temperature, and humidity of the air. Warm, dry air in motion takes up much more moisture than air which is quiet and cool. Evaporation of moisture from field crops and orchard trees is greater than from the soil. With an increase in wind velocity, the rate of loss increases faster from plants than from soils. These conditions must be met in the successful establishment of crops. From their durable nature and great value, hardy, rapid-growing trees furnish one of the most effective means of protecting land and crops. With the many beneficial influences of windbreaks, must be considered a few influences that are detrimental.- Fortunately, however, the undesirable features of properly established windbreaks are of decidedly less consequence than the desirable ones. The disadvantages, in fact, can be largely overcome by careful man- agement. The extent of injury resulting from shading depends largely upon the power of crops to tolerate shade. It appears to be much more detrimental to corn than to alfalfa. Crop growth upon the strip of land in the immediate vicinity of a windbreak is strongly influenced»by the trees that feed upon the soil. Within this area alfalfa generally succeeds better than do fruit trees or corn, provided sufficient moisture is supplied for both the trees and the supple- mentary crop. Diminished yields of crops in close proximity to windbreaks can be offset by utilizing as much as possible of the space for headlands and roads. Figure 1 shows the damaging effect of windbreaks upon field corn and peach trees in locations where shading has effected only a slight influence. An accurate cash valuation cannot be affixed to windbreaks. This results from variation not only in size and length of life of the trees, but also in the value of crops and in the management of the adjacent land. Nature and Uses of Windbreaks. The term windbreak generally indicates a closely planted row of trees, so located as to diminish the velocity of air currents passing over an adjacent area of land. Large and elaborate wind- breaks consisting of a number of rows of trees are frequently termed shelter belts. Such windbreaks are usually developed by growing several kinds of trees that range in habit from low-spreading types on the windward to very tall trees on the leeward side. Rows of tall trees, being relatively permanent and far apart, are the most practical and effective means of diminishing the harmful effect of high wind velocity upon the success of field operations and crop production. Windbreaks of secondary value are formed by various objects that retard wind velocity near the ground. Among the most common are those established by piling sage brush in windrows, by leaving strips of native vegetation standing or by strips of tall, hardy crops such as rye or corn. The most effective pro- tection for land is formed by low vegetation such as grass, rye, or alfalfa. Its uniform distribution and close proximity to the surface of the soil dimin. ishes the movement of air to a minimum. Neither of the low forms of wind- breaks can be used successfully and economically under general farming con- ditions. They need to be close together and consequently interfere with systematic cultivation of the land. Windbreaks of this nature are valuable for temporary use in reclaiming new land. As shelter of the most permanent and effective nature is afforded by prop- erly developed windbreaks of trees, it is with this form only that the following discussion deals. Various uses can be made of windbreaks. Among the most important are the protection to fields, buildings, stock corrals, and feeding lots. Other 6 uses, sometimes resorted to, are the protection of irrigation ditches and high- ways from drifting soils. Range of Effectiveness. The extent and degree of the effectiveness of a windbreak depend upon its density, height, and location. Where air passes through, as often occurs in single rows of trees, its velocity is diminished, but not effectively checked. A dense growth, of equal height, protects a large area and is of much greater value. The distance over which an effective windbreak exerts a beneficial influence has, from several statements of others, been found to be approximately ten times as great as the height of the trees. Location should be influenced by height of the trees and direction of the wind from which the buildings or fields are to receive protection. Prevailing winds are from the southwest, a fact which renders planting necessary on the south and west of buildings and fields. Location is a difficult problem in this region, as the course of prevailing winds is diagonal to farm boundaries. The land is rolling and irregular in character. Best results appear to accrue from planting on the south and west lines of each 10- or 20-acreunit. Hot, drying, summer winds of infrequent occurrence from the northeast are not of sufficient consequence on irrigated land to justify the establishment of windbreaks. Assuming that the beneficial influence of a windbreak extends over a distance ten times its height, as cited above, the distance between windbreaks on each farm unit will depend upon the height of the trees used and the slope of the land. Plans should be made accordingly in selecting trees and locating windbreaks. Formation of Frost Pockets. Windbreaks of tall growing trees should not be located so as to interfere with air drainage. Such barriers to air movement become a strong factor in creating local frost areas. It is by hindering the movement of cold, heavy air from high to low elevations that such areas or pockets are formed. To avoid this, open spaces through windbreaks should be left in depressions and on the lower sides of partly inclosed fields. Air drainage is similar to the removal of surplus water from the surface of the land. The cold, heavy air should be allowed to escape in a similar manner from the lowest portions of the fields. Plants to Use for Windbreaks. Since it is practically impossible to get a tree with all the requirements for an effective windbreak, the best shelter can be developed by combining several species. Deciduous trees are desirable for establishing windbreaks on new land, as they grow much more rapidly than conifers. They are also much cheaper and more easily started than evergreens. Although a few damaging winds sometimes occur in the spring before they leaf out, their value for the entire season is not materially lessened by the temporary absence of leaves. Poplars are frequently < chosen in preference to black locust, since they come into leaf earlier and are less subject to injury from frost. With proper care, rapid-growing trees become of considerable value in three to five years. Black locust and Lombardy poplar range from 15 to 25 feet high at five and six years of age and are quite effective as windbreaks. Mature locust trees attain 50 to 65 feet and Lombardy poplars from 75 to 90 feet in height. Black locust and honey locust must not be confused, as the latter grows slowly and is not desirable for the purpose under discussion. Considering all the qualities and habits of trees in common use, the black locust is the most desirable deciduous tree for general planting on coarse soils. It grows rapidly and spreads considerably. Next in importance come the Lombardy and Carolina poplars, which are tall and slender. They differ in shape, but not sufficiently to affect materially the manner of planting. The Carolina poplar is conical, or pyramidal, when young^ and when mature more spreading through- out than the Lombardy. It has an objectionable habit of shedding part of its foliage prematurely during some years. Figure 5-b. Small, hardy plants are necessary for use on the windward side of large Figure 2. (a) Russian oleaster, Elaeagnus angustifolia, eight feet tall at three years of age. September 14, 1914. (b) Russian golden willow, the same height and age. 8 Figure 4 (a) Five-year-old mulberry windbreak, average height six feet. September 26, 1914. (b) Five-year-old plants of Russian artemisia, average height approximately four feet. This plant does not give satisfaction as a low windbreak. windbreaks and for large hedges. For such purposes the Russian oleaster, Elaeagnus angustifolia, and Russian Golden willow, Salix sp., are very desirable species. Figure 2. The oleaster is very hardy, drought-resistant and grows on alkaline soils. It is somewhat thorny and has an abundance of silvery foliage. While the tree is dormant, the silvery appearance of the young growth is very attractive. The Golden willow is also quite hardy and is more spreading in habit of growth than the oleaster. Its foliage is dark green, and the bark on young wood is of a bright golden yellow color. The new growth is very attractive in winter, owing to its highly colored bark. The value of evergreens for permanency has not been demonstrated, but from the success of two varieties of pine now under trial, it appears that they will thrive, and if so, they will doubtless live many years. 10 The Western Yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa, and Scotch pine, P. sylveslria, have been found to succeed quite well under irrigation in this locality! Figure 3, (a) and (b). Evergreens of this character are difficult to start, and grow much slower than the preferable deciduous species. On the other hand, they are capable of withstanding wide extremes of climate and when well established are more or less drought resistant. Their slow development is more than offset by their superior value. They afford as effective protection from cold winter winds as from drying winds in summer. An abundance of dark green foliage renders them very attractive at all seasons. The three most promising species are shown in Figure 4. A row of pines planted to the leeward of a windbreak or shelter belt will be favored by the protection afforded it while young, and when mature will take the place of the shorter-lived deciduous trees. Frequent occurrence of evergreens with their heavy foliage add greatly to the attractiveness of a neighborhood, especially in winter. This is particu- larly noticeable in arid regions where they are so infrequently found. In selecting other than the desirable species of trees named above for use as windbreaks, considerable care should be exercised. Observations should first be made about the country to find what kinds succeed best, and from them the most desirable species should be chosen. If a tree not to be found in the locality is desired, a study should be made to determine its size and shape, its requirements of soil, and also what extremes of temperature it will stand. Lack of attention to the value of trees often results in the planting of very undesirable kinds. The silver-leaf poplar, Populus ni>ea, on account of its habit of sending out numerous suckers from the roots, which spread over a large area, should not be planted on other than waste land, and in out-of- the-way places. The tree also has a disagreeable habit of shedding large quantities of "cotton" in the fall of the year. This cottony-appearing material, which is in the form of a small sail or float attached to the seed, enables it to be carried through the air and scattered for long distances. Russian mul- berry, Morus, Figure 4, Box Elder (cut-leaf maple), Acer negundo, Hardy Catalpa, Catalpa sp., and Osage Orange, Toxylon pomiferum, are not thrifty on this soil and make insufficient growth to be of value. Arrangement of Trees in the Windbreak. Careful study should be made of the height and vigor of growth, and general success of trees to be used in a windbreak to determine in what manner they should be placed to give the best results. The manner of placing depends upon habit of growth of trees and the number of rows that are to be planted. Spreading trees set five feet apart in single rows make an effective shelter, as numerous strong branches closely fill the intervening spaces. Slender trees should always be planted in two or more parallel rows with the trees in one row opposite the spaces in the other. These two types, the spreading and the slender, should never be planted alternately in the same row. At some point in such a row one type usually 11 succeeds best, making the windbreak effective only to the full height of the spreading trees. Figure 5. When but one row is used, planting should be quite close. Slender trees should not exceed four feet and spreading trees six feet apart in the row. Single rows of spreading trees will occupy more space if not pruned or trimmed up than two rows of slender ones. The two rows of slender trees, however, are more effective than the single row of the spreading trees. Figure 6 shows typical single-row windbreaks of black locust and of Lombardy poplar. The second and additional rows of trees render windbreaks much more effective. For a tall and comparatively permanent shelter, a single row of spreading trees with two rows of tall ongs to the leeward are very effective. A very desirable large windbreak for this district can be established by planting two rows of Russian oleaster, Elaeagnus angustifolia, one or two rows of black locust, and two rows of Lombardy poplar. To place one or two rows Figure 5. (a) Black locust and Lombardy poplar planted alternately in the row. The locusts are one year younger than the poplars. (b) Carolina poplar, showing loss of leaves in midsummer. 12 Figure 6. (a) A typical single-row windbreak of black locust, (b) A single-row windbreak of Lombardy poplar. of western yellow or Scotch pine to the leeward of the poplars serves to make the shelter more permanent and of greater value in winter. Selection and Care of Stock. One-year-old seedlings of black locust from 12 to 14 inches tall, and one-year rooted cuttings of the poplars, are most desirable for general planting. They are listed by nurserymen as forest tree seedlings, and can usually be procured more cheaply, including cost of trans- portation, from nurseries in the Middle West than at Pacific Coast points. Such trees of the best quality should not cost more than $5.00 a thousand, and they give better satisfaction than older and more expensive stock. Oleaster and pine seedlings are more expensive. Pines that have been transplanted once or twice are preferable and cost from $15.00 to $20.00 a thousand. Planting should be done as early in the spring as water is available for irrigation, and not later than May 15. Fall and early winter planting is not desirable as the trees are liable to injury from drought and from the attack of rabbits. 13 Propagation. Deciduous trees can be successfully propagated at home. Black locust seed can be gathered in quantity from mature trees in the fall. The seed is quite hard and should be stratified during the winter or soaked in lukewarm water immediately before planting. When the seed is put in water, a portion of it will swell in a short time, and should be separated from the rest to prevent its being injured before the remainder begins to germinate. It should be planted the same as other seed of the same size. A growth of 12 to 24 inches can be expected the first year, and the trees will be ready for transplanting the following spring. Poplars are readily propagated by cuttings. Pieces of young wood from 8 to 12 inches long should be taken in early spring and planted to their full length in damp soil. With proper care, they will grow two to four feet, and frequently much more, the first season. If the soil is quite moist, cuttings can be successfully planted in their permanent locations. Russian oleaster, Elaeagnus angustifolia, is easily propagated. Trees are usually grown from seed, although layering and cuttings are sometimes resorted to. Golden willow, Salix sp., is propagated by cuttings. The propagation of pines and other conifers is much more difficult than of locust and poplars, and if attempted under ordinary farm conditions will be attended by heavy loss and frequent failure. Planting. To plant small forest trees a deep furrow should first be made with a lister or turning plow. By digging sufficiently in the bottom of this furrow to accommodate the larger roots, the trees can be placed and dirt brought in from the sides of the furrow and compacted to hold them in place. The furrows can then be filled in with a cultivator or plow. Irrigation should be applied immediately, in order to settle and moisten the soil about the roots, and at frequent intervals thereafter in order to stimulate rapid growth. Careful cultivation and the application of manures will facilitate the develop- ment of the trees. No less care should be exercised in planting windbreak trees than in setting fruit trees, as thorough work is necessary for success. On account of their small size, forest trees can be handled quite rapidly. Conifers require care as they are difficult to start. They should be shaded during the first one or two summers. This can be accomplished by placing a shingle or wide plank to the southwest of each tree, or by covering with lattice. Suckering. Locust and poplars alike sprout from the ground when root injuries occur. By placing roads and driveways near windbreaks the narrow strip of land adjacent to them, which is rendered comparatively unproductive by shading and the draft made upon its store of plant food, can be used to advantage. In this way less injury is inflicted upon the roots than if the soil is disturbeo! by cultivation, and less of sprouting will resuU. Distributing flumes and headlands should be located near the windbreaks whenever possible to diminish injury to the tree roots. Where sprouts occur, the roots, if not severed, should be cut off and the free ends taken out. The injured end of the remaining portion should be cut off smooth in order to facilitate healing. Training. Locust trees require occasional pruning while young, to prevent the formation of crotches, which frequently cause splitting down of old trees. 14 They should also be pruned at infrequent intervals for several years to remove drooping branches that interfere with cultivation. Wood taken from locusts can be used for fuel and posts. The upright habit of the poplar seldom renders thinning necessary. The timber is inferior to that of the locust. TREES AND PLANTS FOR HOME GROUNDS Windbreaks, shade trees, hedges, and ornamental shrubs are valuable for planting about farm buildings. The chief purposes are for protection, shade, and ornament. Protection of Buildings and Corrals. Windbreaks of this character, should be established in the same manner as those in the field. Care must be taken to avoid obstructing the outlook from residences, and "not to interfere with the convenience of access to buildings. Each farm has its peculiar problems, hence the most desirable location for windbreaks cannot be definitely stated. It is important to have trees close to the buildings on one side, but they should not be close on all sides on account of too heavy shading. It is very desirable to have a windbreak near the south or west of the buildings. When so placed the trees become of considerable value for shade in summer and thereby serve a double purpose. Ornamental hedges can be grown from a number of hardy shrubs. The general preference is for privet, Ligustrum, of which the California, L. ovali- folium, or a European variety, L. vulgare, is usually selected. California privet grows more rapidly than the European variety. Figure 7. Hedges for Ornament and for Screens. Attractive deciduous hedges can be Figure. 7. California privet, Ligustrum ovalifolium, on the right, and European, or common privet, L. vulgare, on the left. Note the comparative vigor of the two, which are the same age. 15 Figure 8. Windbreak, shade trees, and hedge of black locust, showing to what extent the trees in the hedge have been kept down by pruning. grown from two common barberry plants, Berberis vulgaris atropurpurea, and B. thunbergii. The purple barberry, B. vulgaris, has purple foliage and the other dark green. B. thunbergii is frequently quite attractive in winter owing to a reddish color resulting from many small red berries which it produces. These hedges do not respond to frequent heavy pruning as well as the privets and are less desirable. Privet makes a nice rough hedge when not pruned, but is usually trained into rectangular shape by frequent pruning. It is easily propagated by cuttings. Pruning should begin by cutting back severely the first or second year to cause the plants to spread out and send up a large number of shoots from near the ground. Large hedges are valuable for screens. When so used, they form a part of the background for the yard and fill an important place in the general scheme of decoration about the buildings. Two very desirable plants for this purpose are Russian oleaster, Elaeagnus angustifolia, and Russian golden willow, Salix sp.. Figure 2. Hedges of this nature cannot be made to serve the purpose of a fence. When they are placed near a corral, a substantial fence should be built at sufficient distance to prevent injury to the trees by stock. Large hedges require pruning, but usually at less frequent intervals than the smaller types. All details of operations and care in planting, treated under the discussion of windbreaks, is applicable to hedges and ornamentals. The most successful method of starting hedges is to use two parallel rows with the plants in the second row located opposite the spaces in the first. The distance between rows should be influenced by the width of hedge desired. Plants are usually placed 12 inches apart with the same distance between the rows. 16 Planting should be done in early spring on soil enriched by a liberal appli- cation of partly decayed stable manure. Hedges of Locust and Other Large Trees. To confine trees of large growing habit to the area of a yard hedge is a difficult undertaking. Frequent attempts have been noted of black locust and Russian mulberry being restricted by frequent pruning to a small hedge. They make a fair hedge while young, but later become thin by loss of foliage and eventually die out in places. Such trees should not be planted for a hedge, as they are not suited to this purpose. Figure 8 shows a hedge of young black locust trees that is kept in nice shape by frequent pruning. It will become rough and less attractive, however, as the trees become older. Ornamental Trees and Plants. Trees and shrubs suitable for use as orna- Figure 9. (a) Residence on irrigated homestead, occupied for four years without improvement of (b) Residence in the same vicinity and under identical soil conditions, showing the result of planting and caring for trees during four years. 17 Figure 10. (a) Perennial hollyhock, or Rose of Sharon, showing mass of foliage and showy blossoms, (b) Virginia creeper. This is a very hardy and attractive vine. (c) The honeysuckle is also a very desirable climber. (d) Boston ivy in its proper place. mentals have been grown in limited number at the Branch Experiment Station. The success of others has been observed in well kept yards about Hermiston. A few trees of ornamental character should be planted about the yard and buildings of every home, not only to furnish shade, but also to add to the com- fort and attractiveness of the place. Figure 9. Landscape effects are best developed by the massing of trees and shrubs at the sides and rear of buildings and lawns. Plants disposed in this manner succeed better owing to protection and shade resulting from their being close together. The following lists include the most hardy and attractive ornamental plants that thrive in this locality: Trees. Soft or Silver Maple Acer saccharinum, American Elm Ulmus americana, Sycamore Platanus occidentalis , White Ash Fraxinus americana, Green Ash F. lanceolata, Russian Oleaster Elaeagnus angustifolia, and English Thorn Crataegus; Scotch Pine Pinus sylvestria, Western Yellow Pine P. ponderosa, Red Cedar Juniperus virginiana, and European Larch Larix decidua. Shrubs. Spirea, Hydrangea, Lilac, Syringa, Snowball Viburnum, Peren- nial Hollyhock or Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus, Figure 10, Tamarix, and numerous varieties of roses. Vines. (Figure 10, b, c, d.) Virginia Creeper Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Clematis, Honeysuckle Lonicera, Wistaria, Boston Ivy Ampelopsis tricuspi- data, Hop Vine Humulus lupulus, Gourds Cucurbita. Perennial Flowering Plants. Golden Glow Rudbeckia lainiata, Hibiscus. Iris, Narcissus, Crocus, Violet Viola, and others of hardy nature. Annuals. Carnations Dianthus, Cosmos, Asters, Nasturtium, Sweet Peas Lathyrus odoratus, Hollyhock Althaea rosea, and other well known species. A large number of common ornamental plants can be grown successfully. Those that succeed with least attention are preferable for farm grounds. Tender sorts should be avoided, as winter protection is laborious and frequent losses cause discouragement. Ornamentals for the farm should be selected largely from permanent plants. When pruned and fertilized in winter, they require little attention during the busy season. The rush of work on a farm does not allow sufficient time for the proper care of annuals. Native Trees and Plants of Ornamental Value. A number of small trees and shrubs that are found along the Umatilla river and its tributaries are desirable for ornamental use. The most common of these are Clematis ligusticifolia (Piper), Choke cherry Cerasus demissa; a red flowering currant Ribes sangui- neum; a yellow flowering currant, R. aureum; Sumach Rhus glabra; Elder Sam- bucus glauca, and Mock orange Philadelphus lewisii. Figure 11-a shows a characteristic growth of clematis displaying a mass of silky white akenes, or tails to the seed, which hang until heavy frosts occur. The choke cherry is usually a small tree with an abundance of glossy dark green foliage. Its long racemes of white blossoms appear in early spring. The red and yellow flowering currants blossom very early, are quite showy and attractive. Sumach is a very attractive shrub or tree, reaching a height 10 to 14 feet, 19 Figure 11. (a) Wild clematis, climbing over a growth of willows. Its silky white appearance is due to the long and much-branched appendages borne by the seed. (b) Wild sumach, showing its characteristic habit of growth. Figure 11-b. Its foliage is dark green until autumn, when it turns to a bright red and is very showy. The elder, which is quite common, produces large cymes of white flowers in midsummer and matures its fruit in the fall. The fruit is edible. Mock orange is a medium-sized shrub, irregular in shape. It produces an abundance of fragrant white flowers in early spring. 20 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH WINDBREAKS AND ORNA- MENTAL TREES A number of plants varying in nature from forest trees to ornamental shrubs have been planted on the Experiment Farm to observe their growth and to learn the value of each for windbreak, hedge, and ornamental use. The common and the botanical name, date of planting, and success of each plant included in the experiment prior to 1913, are shown in Table II. Final notes for this bulletin were taken August 31, 1914. TABLE II. DECIDUOUS PLANTS Common name Botanical name Year Remarks planted Artemisia or wormwood .... Artemisia 1910 Not desirable. Growth slow and uneven. Fig. 4 b. Ash, green Fraxinus lanceolata 1910 More rapid growth than white ash. Ornamental, hardy. Ash, white Fraxinus americana 1910 Slow growth. Pretty foliage, or- namental, hardy. Barberry, Japanese Berberis thunbergii 1911 Desirable for ornamental use. Thrives in well kept lawns. Barberry, common Berberis vulgaris 1911 Desirable for ornamental use. Thrives in well kept lawns. Basswood of linden (Ameri- Tilia americana 1910 Not well adapted to locality. Did can). not succeed. Basswood or linden (Ger- Tilia platyphylla 1911 Not well adapted to locality. Did man). not succeed. Birch, paper Betulea papyri/era 1910 Did not succeed. Birch, white Betulea alba 1910 Not adapted to exposed location. Desirable for ornamental use in lawns, etc. Birch, yellow Betulea lutea 1911 Did not succeed. Catalp;i, hardy Catalpa, sp 1910 Growth slow and irregular. Or- namental in protected places. Not desirable for windbreaks. Cherry, black Prunus serotina 1910 Slow growth. Might be used in landscape massing. Chestnut, American sweet. Castanea americana 1910 Growth very slow. Ornamental. Coffee tree, Kentucky Gymnocladus canadensis. . . 1910 Growth very slow. Ornamental. Elm, American Ulmus americana 1911 Fair growth. Ornamental. Elm, cork Ulmus racemosa 1911 Similar to American Elm. Not as desirable. Empress tree Paulownia imperialis 1912 Not suitable. Growth slow. Freezes down. Hackberry Celtis occidentalis 1910 Growth very slow. Hickory, shagbark Hicoria ovata 1910 Did not succeed. Hickory, pignut Hydrangea Hicoria glabra Hydrangea penticulata 1910 1912 Did not succeed. Fairly hardy shrub. Desirable for ornamental planting. Lilac Syringa vulgaris 1911 Desirable ornamental. Very hardy. Locust Robinia pseudacacia 1910 Rapid growing tree. Most effect- ive single row windbreak. De- sirable for shade. Maple, cut leaf (Box Elder) . Acer negundo 1912 Fair growth. Might be used to limited extent as an orna- mental. Maple, Norway Maple, red Acer platanoides Acer rubrum 1911 1911 Growth very slow. Fair growth. Ornamental. Maple, silver Acer saccharinum 1910 Desirable shade and avenue tree. Wood brittle and branches sometimes break during severe winds. Maple, sugar Mock orange Acer saccharum Philadelphus 1910 1912 Growth slow. Ornamental. Desirable ornamental. Four to ten feet tall. 21 TABLE II— Continued Common name Botanical name Year ! Remarks planted 1 Mulberry, Russian Morus 1910 Desirable for medium height windbreak and for shade in damp locations. Oak, burr Quercus macrocarpa 1910 Slow growth. Hard to start. Or- namental. Oak, red Quercus rubra 1910 Not well adapted. Growth very slow. Oak, Scarlet Quercus coccinea 1910 Did not succeed. Oak, white Quercus alba 1910 Best species of oak. Difficult to start but makes a fair growth when once established. Orna- mental. Oak, yellow bark Quercus velutina 1910 Did not succeed. Oleaster, Russian Elaeagnus angustifolia. . ... 1911 Desirable for large hedge, low windbreak, or windward side of shelter belt. Very hardy. Oleaster, Russian Elaeagnus longipes 1912 Adapted to use as ornamental or for low hedges. Osage orange Toxylon pomiferum 1910 Not desirable on account of slow Pea Tree, Siberian Caragana arborescens 1912 growth and injury by frost. Growth fair. Desirable orna- mental. Mass of yellow blos- soms in early spring. Quite attractive. Poplar, Carolina Populus carolinensis ' 1910 Rapid growing trees. Conical in shape while young. Frequently loses part of foliage in summer. Not suitable for single row ' windbreak. Poplar, Norway Privet Populus Ligustrum ibota 1910 1912 Very similar to Carolina Poplar Quite spreading in habit. Very hardy. Privet, California Ligustrum ovalifoliutn . . 1910 One of the most desirable plants for small hedges. Privet, commom or Euro- Ligustrum vulgare 1910 Slower growing than ovalifolium. pean. More spreading in habit, foliage smaller and darker in color. Scotch Broom Genista scoparia 1912 Desirable for limited use as an ornamental. Snowberry Symphoricarpus racemosus 1912 Fairly hardy shrub. Produces white berries which han<_>; on greater part of the winter. Spirea Spirea prunifolia 1912 Very desirable ornamental. Two to five feet tall. Blossoms pro- fusely in early spring. Sweet Gum Liquidamber styraciflua . . . 1912 Growth fair. Subject to frost injury. Not desirable. Sycamore Platanus occidentalis 1910 Fair growth. Ornamental. Fair for windbreaks. Tamarisk Tamarix chinensis 1912 Hardy shrub. Ornamental in foliage and blossom. Tamarisk Tamarix germanica 1912 Hardy shrub. Ornamental in foliage and blossom. Tamarisk Tamarix hispidia 1912 Hardy shrub. Ornamental in foliage and blossom. Tulip Poplar Walnut, black Liriodendron tulipifera . . . Juglans nigra 1910 1910 Slow growth. Ornamental. Growth very slow. Ornamental. Willow, diamond Salix sp 1910 Suitable for large hedge or low windbreak. Willow, golden Salix sp 1910 Suitable for low hedge. Grows . more rapidly than Diamond 1 Willow. 22 TABLE III. CONIFERS Common name Botanical name Year Remarks planted Cedar, red Juniperns virginiana 1912 Very desirable ornamental vary- ing from ten to twenty feet in height. Fig. 3c. Cedar, Rocky Mountain ... 1911 Very desirable for hedge or for Silver. ornamental use. Hardy al- though slow to start. Fir, Douglas Pseudotsuga taxi folia 1911 Growth very slow. Might suc- ceed in well kept lawn. Fir, white. Abies concolor 1911 Not desirable. Larch, European Larix decidua 1911 Desirable ornamental. Requires careful attention in starting. Deciduous. Pine, Austrian Pinus austriaca 1911 Not adapted to conditions. Growth very slow. Loss heavy. Pine, red Pinus resinosa 1911 Not desirable. Pine, Scotch Pinus sylvestria 1911 One of the best evergreens. Suit- able for windbreaks or orna- mental use. Vigor and growth about the same as Western yellow pine. Pine, Western yellow Pinny pondcrosa 1911 One of the best evergreens. Suitable for windbreaks or ornamental purposes. Pine, white Pinux tstrobuti 1911 Not desirable. Spruce, Colorado blue Picea pungens 1911 Difficult to start. Growtli very slow. Spruce, Norway Picea excelsa 1911 Growth very slow. Suitable only for well attended lawns. A number of species of poplar and willow, introduced by the Office of For- eign Seed and Plant Introduction, that were planted in 1913, are very prom- ising for windbreak purposes. Figure 12 shows the most promising of these. A pretty Caragana (S. P. I, No. 21967), known as C. chamlague, is promising for ornamental use and for large hedges. Two elms, Ulmus sp., (S. P. I. No. 34063), and Ulmus pumila (S. P. I. No. 22975), received in the same lot, are very promising for use in shelter belts, in avenue planting, and as ornamentals. The mild winter of 1913 and 1914 prevented a demonstration of the ability of this stock to endure low temperature; but much of it was brought from coun- tries having severe winters. The stock in this experiment has been growing long enough to show what species are best adapted to this soil and climate and to indicate for what purpose the individual varieties are best suited. The above determinations are generally applicable to all the irrigated lands at low elevations in the Columbia river valley, as the soil upon which they have been made is a coarse sand, low in fertility and waterholding capacity, and located in an exposed place. Under similar climatic conditions it is reason- able to suppose that species found to thrive here would succeed on a congenial soil, and that a number of those found undesirable here might also be desirable. The scope of this experiment, therefore, should be much greater than that of the irrigated sandy soils adjacent to the Columbia river and its tributaries in the semi-arid climate of eastern Oregon and Washington. 24 «- -*-^-^-T^^-^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETI OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. IX. SEPTEMBER, 1889. A Study of Windbreaks in their Relations to Fruit- Growing. " That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all ; the parent and precursor of all other arts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds."— JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. Pres't C. K. ADAMS. Hon. A. D. WHITE, Trustee of the University. Hon. JAMES WOOD, Pres't State Agricultural Society. I. P. ROBERTS, Professor of Agriculture. G. C. CAI,DWEU,, Professor of Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Professor of Veterinary Science. A. N. PRENTISS, Professor of Botany. J. H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. W. R. DUDLEY, Ass't Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. HENRY H. WING, Deputy Director and Secretary. E. L. WILUAMS, Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. Agriculture, ED TARBEI,!,. Chemistry WII^UAM P. CUTTER. Veterinary Science, Entomology, JOHN M. STEDMAN. Horticulture, W. M. MUNSON. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELI, UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Fig". I. — Windbreak consisting of two rows of hard maple backing up a close row of Norway spruce. Considered to be a model shelter belt. Planted 15 years. On the farm of T. G. Yeomans and Sons, Wai worth, Wayne Co., New York. From a photograph. [Frontispiece.] 2. — Windbreak of Norway spruce, set about 6 ft. apart, with black raspberries in the foreground. Planted 25 years. On the farm of T. G. Yeomans and Sons, Walworth, New York. From a photograph. Page 97. 3, — Windbreak of Lombardy poplars, protecting a peach orchard from heavy winds when laden with fruit and ice. Planted n years. Peach trees the same age. On the fruit farm of Charles Gibson, South Haven, Van Buren Co., Michigan. From a photograph. Page 103. A STUDY OF WINDBREAKS IN THEIR RE- LATIONS TO FRUIT-GROWING. I. INFLUENCES OF WINDBREAKS UPON FRUIT PLANTATIONS. ALTHOUGH the best writers upon horticultural topics are nearly unanimous in recommending windbreaks for all fruit plantations, there is, nevertheless, wide difference in opinion and practice among good cultivators concerning them. Fruit-growers, as a rule, hold decided opinions concerning windbreaks. In fact, they usually hold extreme opinions, either wholly opposing shel- ter belts in all cases, or positively advocating them. All who are engaged in the growing of fruits or who attend fruit-growers' gath- erings, have heard the most positive experiences cited in support of both opinions. There must be good reasons for these opposing views. No general studies of the subject appear to have been made, yet it is one of commanding importance in many directions. There appear to be no well-grounded maxims or precepts among growers themselves, and statements concerning the merits of shelter belts are commonly vague. Studies of temperatures as influenced by windbreaks are now being inaugurated at this station under ex- cellent opportunities. The present inquiry was undertaken about six months ago, and' it is the outgrowth of previous experience and observation in the same direction. Many inquiries have been made and fruit farms have been visited. Three hundred circulars were addressed to leading fruit-growers in New York and Michigan, asking for defi- nite information in regard to windbreaks. Seventy-seven replies were obtained. This is a large proportion, and the number may be assumed to include all the persons of the three hundred ad- dressed, who have had experience, or have made direct observa- tion. Forty-eight of these replies relate definite results. It is probable that nearly the whole range of experience with wind- breaks in reference to fruit culture in the northeastern states is re- presented in these letters. The present discussion is presented as follows : I. Influences of Windbreaks upon Fruit Plantations. II. Proper location of Windbreaks, and manner of making them. General Summary. — 92 O X W Kind of indbreak 8 - " .338 ce, ch er- y spruce, belts, and al forest. f Norway on W., set part in 1874 ra of No mix na Row spruc 2 ft. a S-Sgn CD i— c a PH - Is! . a*f|p Ctf *w ' ej rC3 c/2 8 = ^ SJ'SOi: bo le un r^< ^3 « p . ^r S ^'i'So M ?? r^ s ?? 89 o"§ ^^ fcjO^ a en li N"^ ( !$d. •so o, _ o, ^ \1 ^« jf-^a'S c^ -S^TH § S*J ^^^^ S6 ^^Q S? t, ans ^ *! pq O — 93 — 3=.3g 2-^ £* £ o3 _D O en fl 2 - •"S en g ,d . p . en £3 cu O £-H oT ^ „, i-} v*3 • _M o v £J 2 tn '2 >H lls'lJri'S =Is^1J l|l|.il| j|i;j S o 2:5c$-s^^ B»«l5a <^ O O fi bofe S «»&! I ^ | .S = 'S =2 r* i ^H »•"• ^ IH O3 ^ trl -^ cu cy cu O cj y 3 ^ 3 *- d d Illgto ^o ^^3 *8_g-a-g ^ If! |1 its o^^o^S ^3 ^ G •* PH l CL t_i *. n t/i M w a u ^ K d ^ M d u 8.S -M ni .sU C T3 OJ rj > S 1 'S « en C S O w o »>-> o ""^ r2 -4-T K.^ !*£&«§ lair 5 h-o 3 ^^^5 il - Ji^ 5S JB o s o a» bJO o5-2 M »H C CO III c r_: en ° lib - K* (U ^ as ^^ OS — 101 — ut S £ *" ^>-2 .a w^'Scu^^^CiiO^j-; &»:9 ^ 5 C .S<*£ M X3 w O to -d ^3 r^ cu cu .S5^ _, 0» rrt H Sr^l^ 2 S ti ° .S '^^ a rt ^ .3 S H CO O 3 2 s - eg | O a. U-. t o 2 £_> g ^H CO p a> ^ '^ 1 ci j w 0 H •g s nediate inferior 1 J5 1 >> | (V J5 P T^ 3 P J.| , «.•§ w G ^j S "w « 'S "3 ^3 a; ^ 5^ '$ S ^. <1 * a H H ^ «ti ^*^* H *^ pn »2 . . ^ . i | PL; :§ M (N ^ CO ^ ^^ i^ '^ 2 — io3 — FIG. 3. — A Lombardy Poplar Screen, eleven years old, for the protection of a Peach orchard. — 104 REVIEW OF THE INFUENCES OF WINDBREAKS UPON FRUIT PLANTATIONS. The benefits derived from windbreaks are numerous, posi- tive in character, and appear to possess sufficient importance to warrant the strongest recommendations of horticultural writers. Yet the injuries occasionally sustained in consequence of shelter belts may be serious, for it is a well attested fact that trees sometimes suffer from cold in the immediate vicinity of a dense windbreak when they escape injury in other places. This fact is easily ex- plained, however. The influence of a windbreak upon the tem- peratures of an adjacent plantation is governed by its position with reference to prevailing or severe winds. Of itself, wind probably exerts little or no influence upon temperature. It ac- quires.the temperature of surfaces over which it passes. If these surfaces are colder than the given area, cold winds are the result, or if warmer, as a large body of water, the winds are warm. But wind often causes great injury to plants because of its accelera- tion of evaporation ; and winds which are no colder than the given area, if comparatively dry, may consequently do great dam- age to fruit plantations. This is particularly true at certain times during the winter season. Land winds, being cold and dry, are therefore apt to be dangerous, while winds which traverse large bodies of water, and are therefore comparatively warm and moist, are usually in themselves protectors of tender plants. The follow- ing table, giving the average temperatures of different winds at New Haven, Connecticut, as compared with the mean tempera- ture of that place, shows that those winds which blow off the Sound' are much warmer than the land winds* : Direction of wind. Average above the mean temp. Direction of wind. Average under the mean temp. Southwest, . . South, .... + 4° + 3-2° Northeast, . . West, — 0.6° — 1.1° Southwest, . . + 1.2° North, .... — 2.7° East, + 0.5° Northwest, . . - 4.5° Loomis' Meteorology, 88. — 105 — The mitigating influence of bodies of water is familiar ; the fol- lowing figures will serve to show the extent to which they modify the mean temperatures of the four coldest monthsf : A.— IN NEW YORK. STATIONS. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Average Lati- tude. Eleva- tion. Period of observation Fredonia, 30.8 28.7 27-4 35-3 30.55 42.26° 709 ft. 1830-1848. Rochester, Auburn, 28.5 29-5 26.0 24.4 26.4 24.6 33-i 33-5 28.5 28.0 43-07° 42-55° 506 650 1830; 1833-1853- 1827-1849. Utica, 26.8 23-3 23-4 32.3 26.45 43-06° 473 1826-1848. B.— IN MICHIGAN. STATIONS. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Average Lati- tude. Eleva- tion. Period of observation Detroit, 26.9 27.0 26.6 35-4 28.97 42.20° 580 ft. 1836-1846 ; 1849-1851. Fort Gratiot, 26.6 25-3 25-3 33-2 27.6 42.55° 598 1830-1846 ; 1849-1852. Battle Creek, 27.0 24.1 22.6 33-7 26.85 42.20° 800 1849-1855. Ann Arbor, 25-3 23.6 21.0 32.7 25-65 42.15° 700 1854-1855. It will be seen that the warmest stations are in most intimate connection with large bodies of water : Fredonia is on Lake Erie, Rochester near Lake Ontario, Auburn near the Central New York lake region, and possibly within the influence of Lake On- tario, while Utica is farther inland. Similar observations might be made concerning the Michigan stations. Temperatures of the coldest days would show much greater differences. It should be observed that the influence of a body of water is not governed by its proximitv, but by elevation of the land and direction of winds. Grand Rapids, Michigan, although about twenty-five miles from Lake Michigan, is greatly influenced by it. It is evident that if a windbreak stops or deflects a warm wind, it may prove injurious. A still place in the lee of the windbreak may therefore be the coldest part of the plantation. So far as the t Compiled from Blodget's Climatology of the United States, 38. — io6 — writer is able to learn, this sort of injury from windbreaks is con- fined to those regions which are directly influenced by bodies of water. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan has furnished many examples. M;)st growers in that region demand a free circulation of air from the lakeward, while desiring protection from the east. (Cf. Mr. Cook's letter in Table V.) This experience, however, does not argue that windbreaks should be entirely abolished on the lakeward sides of plantations, but that such breaks should be thin enough to allow of the rTassage of wind, while breaking its force. In such places, a windbreak should be what its name im- plies, a wind-break, not a wind-stop. The advantages of windbreaks in lessening windfalls, and in preventing the breaking of trees do not appear to be sufficiently understood. In sections which are influenced by large bodies of water, or when the fruits grown are sufficiently hardy to en- dure the most trying winds, these are the chief advantages of shelter belts, and are ample reason for planting them. The greater facility with which labor can be performed in windy weather, under the protection of a windbreak, is worth considera- tion. The injuries sustained through the greater abundance of insects immediately adjoining the windbreak, are easily overcome with the modern spraying devices. There are many instance.^ in which the windbreak lessens the vigor of one or two adjoining rows of fruit trees, but such injury appears to occur only where cultivation is poor, or where the windbreak has already obtained a good foot- hold when the fruit is set. The writer has examined a number of ex- cellent plantations this year in which the rows next the windbreak are as vigorous and productive as any in the orchard. In fact, a number of good observers declare that best fruit and greatest pro- ductiveness occur next the windbreak. Figures 2 and 3, show, respectively, thrifty raspberries and peaches next the windbreak. The following, from T. G. Yeomansand Sons, Walworth, Wayne Co., New York, who have had extensive and pronounced experi- ences with windbreaks, is a judicious statement of the advantages to be derived from shelter belts : " We have been extensively engaged in fruit culture for over forty years, and now have in bearing about 130 acres of apple orchard, 10 acres of dwarf pears, 10 of orange quince, and small fruits. For many years we have ex- perimented with windbreaks, and now have many artificial shelter belts of various kinds and ages, the oldest having been planted nearly thirty years. We consider windbreaks to be of the greatest value to fruit culture, and we are confident that most fruit-growers do not realize their importance. They protect the trees and plants at all seasons, and prevent windfalls to a great extent. Orchards thus protected in this region are more productive, more uniform, and longer lived than others. They render labor among the trees and plants much easier in windy days, and enable men to work in very windy weather, when otherwise it would be impossible. We have always succeeded in raising good fruit close to the windbreak. * * * We consider land devoted to shelter belts as very profitable investment, even to ordinary farm crops. We should not attempt to grow dwarf pears, orange quinces, or raspberries, without shelter of some sort." II. PROPER LOCATION, AND MANNER OF MAKING WINDBREAKS. i. THE LOCATION. The answer to this printed question must vary greatly with circumstances, and with the kind of fruit. Some localities are greatly exposed to prevail- ing winds ; others are screened by hills or sheltered in depressions and do not need screens. But our hardiest fruits are better off with some protec- tion.—/. J. Thomas, Union Springs, Where we have occupied grounds with a western exposure, we have usually planted lines of Norway Spruce on the western border. * * * How to avoid the severity of tlie west winds has been a constant study with us. — Patrick Barry, Rochester. Wherever the orchards or small fruit plantations would otherwise be ex- posed to strong winds. — W. T. Mann, Barker's. Where the wind has a sweep of a mile or more. — B. W. Clark, Lockport. Under all circumstances with which we are acquainted. Peach trees should not be planted nearer than 5 rods from a dense windbreak, or the drifting snow will break them down. Apple trees may be planted some nearer. — Geo. W. Dunn, Piercers. Should plant windbreaks for all fruits except apples. No telling the good a windbreak will do. — C. H. Perkins, Newark. Where there is a long exposure to west and southwest winds. — A. I. Hulett, Rochester. Under all circumstances where ground is exposed to severe winds. — Irving Rouse, Rochester. In all bleak locations ; also to a moderate extent as ornaments and for general protection. — S. C. Davis, Medina. Where an orchard has a northern and western exposure. — E. B. Norris, Sodus. i st. Where it is impossible to get a good exposure ; 2d, where fruit is planted which is especially liable to loss from wind, as King apples or Duchess pears. — H. J. Peck, Seneca Castle. Upon a site that is exposed to a cold and bleak north or west wind. — C. W. Pier son, Waterloo. Where orchards and fruit plantations are so situated as to be exposed to cold bleak winds ; in fact, in all exposed places I have no doubt windbreaks are very beneficial.— Anthony Lamb, Syracuse. — io8 — On all elevated, exposed locations, in order to hold the snow more evenly over the land and to prevent the evaporation that takes place rapidly with a high wind. Also to furnish nesting places for birds. — Geo. T. Powell Ghent. In all windy places. — D. Bogue, Medina. Where the wind is very severe, a windbreak on the north and west would be very beneficial. — Wm. C. Almy, Dundee. In exposed places where sandy ridges are liable to blow away. — A. S. Dyckman, South Haven, Mich. I would set nut-bearing trees on the north and west of all fruit orchards, for protection and for the nuts. — & M. Pear sail, Grand Rapids, Mich. Where the snow blows off. — Geo. C. McClatchie, Ltidington, Mich. I would recommend them wherever land is exposed to raking winds, first, for retaining snows on the ground, second, to protect fruit from winds. — /. F. Taylor, Douglas, Mich. In my situation, I should want the windbreak seme 40 to So rods from the orchard on the west, and extend to the north. Do not think it would be safe to plant one close upon the west side of my orchard for fear of still air settling down over the break. — H. H. Hayes, Tahnadge, Mich. For all small fruits especially, for all soils and localities.—/. N. Stearns, Kalamazoo, Mich. Where the land slopes to the prevailing wind. Should want it only high and thick enough to break the force of the wind, not to produce a dead calm. — R. J. Cory ell, Jonesville, Mich. In all exposed situations. — L. D. Wat kins, Manchester, Mich. Would plant my hedge on the side wrhere most exposed to high winds. — /. Austin Scott, Ann Arbor, Mich. Wherever the grounds are exposed to the south and west winds. — D. G. Edmiston, Adrian, Mich. Epitome. — It appears that a windbreak is desirable wherever the fruit plantation is exposed to strong winds. In order to pre- vent possible injury from too little circulation of air in certain lo- calities, particular care should be exercised in the construction of the windbreak (cf. next section). The west, southwest, and north winds are the ones which need greatest attention in general. 2. CHARACTER OF A GOOD WINDBREAK. We have usually planted lines of Norway Spruce on the western border. Sometimes a line of European larch is planted with the spruce. These and the Scotch and Austrian and white pine are all good for windbreaks. — Patrick Barry, Rochester. Evergreens are certainly preferable to deciduous trees. Judging from ob- servation, Norway spruce in single row planted two feet apart is best. — W. F. Mann, Barkers. We should recommend the Norway spruce planted in a single row from six to eight feet apart, or set four feet apart and every other one removed in a few years. If the location is much exposed, we would recommend a row or two of maples on the windward, set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, the rows being from ten to fourteen feet apart. — T. G. Yeomans and Sons, Walworth. The best kind I ever used or saw was a good Norway spruce hedge set — log — close enough together to make a tight break, and trimmed back until they had formed a tight hedge at least ten feet high. — E. B. Norris, Sodus. I do not believe that a solid windbreak would be desirable, as a circula- tion of air is necessary. We need only to break the power and force of the wind.— Geo. T. Powell, Ghent. Evergreens, — Norway spruce, Austrian pine, Scotch pine, etc., — planted in wide belts and not to close, but irregularly, something like nature. A. Hammond, Geneva. Something tall but not too thick, that will allow a free passage of wind but moderate its force. I have some faith in Lombardy poplar trees for this purpose. — A. S. Dyckman, South Haven, Mich. Norway spruce every time, set four feet apart. Keep well sheared, and you can have a perfect hedge as high as 20 or even 30 feet. — -J. Austin Scott, Ann Arbor, Mich. Epitome. — From a general .study of the subject, it appears that in. interior localities dense plantings are advisable, tight hedges being often recommended. In localities influenced by bodies of water, however, it is evidently better practice to plant a belt sim- ply for the purpose of breaking or checking the force of the warmer winds, still allowing them to pass in their course. Such a belt gives the desired shelter to trees when laden with fruit and ice, and may hold the snow, while danger from comparatively still air is averted. The damage from still air is usually observed in the lee of natural forests, and it is in such places that injury is reported by Michigan correspondents. The writer has found no indisputable evidence to show that such injury ever accompanies artificial windbreaks ; places where such injury was reported have been visited, but the loss of trees and fruit was plainly due to age of trees or other obvious reasons. Still, it is probable that a hedge-like windbreak may sometimes be the cause of mischief. The coarser evergreens, planted close together, are there- fore advisable for interior places, while deciduous trees, or ever- greens somewhat scattered, are often better for the lake re- gions. In these latter cases, however, the lay of the land is important, for if atmospheric drainage is good there is less danger of injury from tight belts. Lower levels, upon which cold air settles, are therefore more in need of open belts than higher lands. For interior places, a strip of natural forest is the ideal windbreak. In artificial belts, the kind recommended by Messrs. Yeomans, and illustrated in Fig. i, is undoubtedly one of the best. The il- lustration shows two rows of maples backing up a row of Norway spruce. "The maples then receive and break the force of the wind and prevent the spruces from becoming ragged. We never shear the spruces. ' ' — no — Our correspondents have advised the following trees for shelter belts : Norway spruce, Austrian pine, Scotch pine, While pine, Native deciduous trees, Ivombardy poplar, Kuropeari larch, Recommtnded by 25 persons. 5 3 2 2 2 I Hemlock spruce, Arbor vitae, Nut-bearing tree.« Hard maple, Elm, Basswood, Willows, Recommended by person. GENERAL SUMMARY. 1. A windbreak may exert great influence upon a fruit planta- tion. 2. The benefits derived from windbreaks are the following : pro- tection from cold ; lessening of evaporation from soil and plants ; lessening of windfalls ; lessening of liability to mechanical injury of trees ; retention of snow and leaves ; facilitating of labor ; pro- tection of blossoms from severe winds ; enabling trees to grow more erect ; lessening of injury from the drying up of small fruits ; reten- tion of sand in certain localities ; hastening of maturity of fruits in .some cases ; encouragement of birds ; ornamentation. 3. The injuries sustained from windbreaks are as follows : Pre- venting the free circulation of warm winds and consequent expo- sure to cold ; injuries from insects and fungous diseases ; injuries from the encroachment of the windbreak itself; increased liability to late spring frosts in rare cases. a. The injury from cold, still air is usually confined to those lo- calities which are directly influenced by lar^e bodies of water, and which are protected by forest belts. It can be avoided by plant- ing thin belts. b. The injury from insects can be averted by spraying with ar- senical poisons. c. The injury from the encroachment of the windbreak may be averted, in part at least, by good cultivation and by planting the fruit simultaneously with the belt. 4. Windbreaks are advantageous wherever fruit plantations are exposed to strong winds. 5. In interior places, dense or broad belts, of two or more rows of trees, are desirable, while within the influence of large bodies of water thin or narrow belts, comprising but a row or two, are usually preferable. 6. The best trees for windbreaks in the northeastern states are Norway spruce, and Austrian and Scotch pines, among the ever- greens. Among deciduous trees, most of the rapidly growing native species are useful. A mixed plantation, with the hardiest and most vigorous deciduous trees on the windward, is probably the ideal artificial shelter belt. L. H. BAILEY. Circular No. 27 ENEWING THE SHELTERBELT '." In cover figure the new generation of trees have grown for five years under the old stand. Even shade-enduring trees, although getting a start, will not make a satisfactory growth in the dense shade of other trees, consequently the old stand should be opened up either gradually or at one operation. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS Forestry Section DIVISION or FORESTRY COLLEGE Of fc AGRlCULTUfte UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Ames, Iowa RENEWING THE SHELTERBELT BY G. B. MACDONALD In removing the old decaying shelter-belt and replacing it with younger and better trees, it is not necessary to lose its protective value during the process. By following any one of the methods described in this circular the old stand of trees may be cut out and a new stand of the same or some other species secured while keeping the shelterbelt in a more or less effective condition. On many farms in Iowa there is need of renewing the old shelter- belts. They were planted in the early days mainly for protection and and were made up of quick-growing, short-lived trees, such as the soft maple, cottonwood, willow and boxelder, having been planted heavily in the central and northern sections of the state. Some of these shelterbelts have yielded good returns in fuel and lumber in addition to affording protection to farm buildings. Others, through the trampling of stock and other causes, have yielded only small returns in wood products and only a little more in protection. Most of these short-lived groves which are still uncut are in various stages of decay and in many instances should be replaced with new stands of of longer lived species. Five different methods for renewing shelterbelts in Iowa are pre-.. sented in this circular: By renewing from one side; by renewing from two sides; by renewing by clear cutting; by renewing in alter- nate rows; by renewing by underplanting. Each method is illus- trated with drawings which explain how the work is carried on for a shelterbelt of average size. Whatever system is used must be so adapted that it will meet the local conditions found in the shelterbelt that is to be renewed. REGENERATION FROM ONE SIDE In this method the object is to replace the present stand of trees gradually without losing much of the grove's protection value. If the grove is so old or in such poor condition that it will not hold together during the 15-year period required for regeneration, another system should be used which will take a shorter time. METHOD OF REMOVING THE OLD TREES Figures 1 to 5 show how the cuttings should proceed. In the case illustrated, it is assumed that the plantation is composed of 9 rows and that the trees will last at least 15 years longer. The rows run east and west and the grove is situated just to the north of the farm Buildings. First Step: During the winter or early spring remove all of the trees in the two south rows (8 and 9), leaving seven rows of trees for protection for the farm buildings. During the spring the blank rows should be planted up, preferably to one of the evergreen species mentioned later. The two new rows of trees will receive an abundance of light from the top and south side and also will be protected from wind damage by the old trees, which will insure a good growth. The new rows should be fully protected from stock and surface fires. Cultivation for several years will keep out weeds and grass and will increase the rate of growth. Second Step: Five years from the time the two south rows are removed, cut out the next two (6 and 7) and replant in much the same manner as the first two. Great care should be exercised in felling the large trees so as not to damage the newly planted rows. At this time also replant the fail spots in rows 8 and 9. Fig. 1. Rows 8 and 9 are to be cut out first and planted up the same vear with young trees of the -new species. Fig. 2. At the end of 5 years, rows 6 and 7 are cut out and replanted, this time the new trees in rows 8 and 9 should have made a good start. By 8 ill Fig. 3. After 10 years, rows 4 and 5 are cut out and planted. The new trees in rows 6 and 7 have made a good growth and those in rows 8 and 9 are large enough to give some protection. 8 Fig-. 4. After 15 years, the remaining rows, 1, 2 and 3, are cut out and re- planted. 6 Fig. 5. After 20 years, the last rows, 1, 2 and 3, are 5 years old and are 20 years old. The regeneration of the shelterbelt is completed. and 9, Third Step: After another five-year period has elapsed, cut out rows 4 and 5 and replant them. This leaves but three rows of the old trees for giving protection. By this time, however, if broadleaf trees or fast-growing evergreens have been used for planting, the trees in rows 8 and 9 should be large enough to give good wind protection themselves, thus reinforcing the old rows remaining. Fourth Step: After the third five-year period, cut out the re- maining three rows of old trees and replant. If the plantings are successful, the regeneration is completed. USE OF THE METHOD FOR DIFFERENT SHELTERBELTS The method of regeneration from one side is adaptable to groves of any species, since the successive cuttings progress in a way to give an abundance of light to the new growth, no matter what the original grove is composed of. Cotton wood: The cottonwopd matures at an age of 35 to 40 years. It requires an abundance of light for growth and, as a result, stands of this species are relatively open. Many of these shelterbelts in the state are 35 to 40 years old and, under usual conditions, will last long enough for the application of this system of regeneration. There will be difficulty in using the old trees for lumber, since it usually would not be profitable to bring in a portable sawmill every few years for cutting up small amounts of lumber. However, where the plantation is large enough, the lumber can be used profitably for rough construction work on the farm. Round, split or sawed fence posts made from cottonwood trees will last for 25 years if given a good treatment with creosote.* In most sections of the state the wood has a ready value for fuel on the farm. Soft Maple: Soft maple trees are quite tolerant of shade and, consequently, grow in a dense stand. The dense shading on the interior of the average soft maple grove makes it impossible to grow successfully under the old stand any except the most shade-enduring trees. However, under the regeneration method just described, the new trees are established outside of the grove proper, where shading interferes but little. Like the cottonwood, the soft maple is a short- lived tree and regeneration by this method should begin by or be- fore the fortieth year if possible. The relatively small number of maple trees removed periodically under this system should generally be used for fuel or fence posts. Soft maple fence posts when given a treatment of creosote, at a cost of 10 to 15 cents per post, will last for a period of 25 years. Willow: The willow is also short-lived and the application of this method should be begun preferably before the trees are 35 years old. The willow sprouts persistently from the stump after the trees are cut down and usually considerable trouble is experienced in killing the sprouts. If the trees are cut in August, instead of in the winter, very few sprouts appear, and if these are promptly removed the stumps soon die. Under present conditions the willow has few uses except for fuel. However, after treatment with creosote, willow fence posts last for a long period of years and the wood from the old shelterbelt might profitably be used for this purpose. Boxelder: Boxelder trees, although moderately rapid in growth, are always crooked, of small size and very short lived. They have little value except for wind protection. The regeneration by the method just described, should be begun as early as possible, even in young plantations. In old plantations (35 years), it is sometimes desirable to renew the grove by a quicker method, such as the clear- cutting system (see figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14). Use the trees removed for fuel or, if straight enough, for fence posts. Posts treated with creosote last as well as the cottonwood, soft maple and willow after treatment. TREES ADAPTED FOR PLANTING Practically any tree suited to the climatic, soil and moisture con- ditions can be safely regenerated under this first system. The selec- tion of the variety or varieties to be used must be largely governed by the uses to which the shelterbelt is to be put and also by the likes and dislikes of the owner. If the new grove is to serve efficiently as a shelter from the winter, winds, at least a portion of the new planting should consist of evergreens. If it is to serve also as a source of fuel, fence posts, and lumber, the trees best adapted for these pur- poses should make up a part of the new plantation. Care should be exercised in mixing species, so as not to have a row of fast-growing trees, such as some of the hardwoods, overtop and shade put pre- viously planted rows of a slower growing, intolerant species such as the Austrian, Scotch, or western yellow pines. The following evergreen trees, when only one species is used, are adapted for planting in regeneration from one side: *See Bulletin 158, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. "The Preservative Treatment of Fence Posts." 6 White Pine: One of the most rapid-growing evergreen trees. Will grow on any except a poorly drained soil. A good windbreak tree when spaced 10 feet apart, in rows 12 feet apart. Produces saw lum- ber in 40 to 50 years. For this purpose it should be spaced 8x8 feet apart. Will endure a slight amount of shading when young. Red Pine: Fairly rapid growth. Good for any but a wet soil. Will not endure shading. Austrian Pine: Very hardy. Good for dry situations. Slower in growth than the white pine. Will not stand shading. Western Yellow Pine: A hardy western tree suitable for dry situ- ation. Similar to the red pine but of slower growth. Very intolerant of shade. Norway Spruce: The best spruce for Iowa planting. Has a dense foliage and branches to the gyound. Will stand shading. Should not be planted on very dry situations. White Cedar: A shade-enduring evergreen of slow growth, making a good shelterbelt tree. It is not suitable for dry upland planting but will endure rather wet soils. Red Cedar: A good windbreak tree. Suitable for very dry situa- tions and soils of poor quality. Should not be planted near apple trees because of fungus trouble. Will stand shading. European Larch: A tall, straight tree suitable for planting on good soils. Intolerant of shade. Not best for winter protection, since it sheds its leaves annually. Produces good pole timber. Other evergreens which might be planted, but which are less de- sirable than the above, are the jack pine, Scotch pine, white spruce, and Douglas fir. Broadleaf trees which might profitably be planted are the following: Cotton wood: The fastest growing tree in Iowa. Good for quick results, but short-lived. Intolerant of shade. Will make fence posts* in six years and saw logs in 25 years on good soil. Soft Maple: Fairly rapid grower. Will stand close spacing, and some shading. Short-lived. Can be utilized for fence posts (creo- soted) and for fuel. Hardy Catalpa: A small tree requiring full light. Good for fence posts. Should not be planted on exposed situations in northwestern Iowa without protection of other rows of trees. Black Walnut: A fairly rapid grower, forming an open stand. Re- quires a moist soil. Is very intolerant of shade. Valuable for lumber but does not make a very effective windbreak tree, due to the thin- ness of its foliage. Honey Locust: A fairly rapid grower. Intolerant of shade. Makes good posts. Osage Orange: Not hardy in northern half of Iowa. A good fence post tree. Intolerant of shade. Russian Mulberry: A small tree, giving protection close to the ground. Very tolerant and drought resistant. Not hardy in northern Iowa. Wood very durable. Green Ash: A medium-sized tree of moderate growth and quite hardy. Makes fair fence posts. A large number of hardwood trees might be added to the above list, but in planting, care should be taken to select only those trees adapted to the local climatic and soil conditions. 'Cottonwood posts are not durable unless treated with a preservative. COMBINATIONS OF .SPECIES FOR PLANTING Various combinations of trees may be planted under this system of regeneration from one side, but, as a rule, two or three species are sufficient. If the rows are to be of different varieties, the principal care should be to see that the rapidly-growing hardwoods do not overtop and suppress the slow-growing trees. The intolerant ever- greens, being of slow initial growth, are in more danger of being overtopped than the hardwood trees. The following are some of the combinations which might be used: Combination No. 1. Rows 8 and 9, white pine; rows 6 and 7, Nor- way spruce; rows 4 and 5, European larch; rows 1, 2 and 3, white pine. Combination No. 2. Rows 8 and 9, white cedar or Norway spruce; rows 4, 5, 6 and 7, white pine, red pine or Austrian pine; rows 1, 2 and 3, white cedar or Norway spruce. Combination No. 3. Rows 8 and 9, European larch (bare in winter) ; rows 6 and 7, white cedar or red cedar;* rows 4 and 5, Norway spruce or white spruce; rows 1, 2 and 3, cottonwood. Combination No. 4. Rows 8 and 9, white cedar, Norway spruce or white pine; rows 6 and 7, red pine, Austrian pine, western yellow pine, or Douglas fir; rows 4 and 5, Norway spruce or white cedar; rows 1, 2 and 3, hardy catalpa. Combination No. 5. Rows 8 and 9, white pine; rows 6 and 7, Nor- way spruce or white cedar; rows 4 and 5, cottonwood; rows 1, 2 and 3, green ash, or Russian mulberry.** VARIATIONS IN THE METHOD In this first regeneration process, the five-year period between suc- cessive cuttings need not necessarily be adhered to. The period might be reduced to three years or less. In the case of a shelterbelt com- posed of three or four rows of old trees, only one row should be cut at a time, unless the trees are in very poor condition. REGENERATION FROM TWO SIDES In this method it is also the purpose to secure a new growth of trees without sacrificing entirely the efficiency of the windbreak. By reference to the diagrams in the figs. 6 to 10, it will be noted that instead of a gradual removal of the trees from one side, as was the case in the first method, single rows are taken from each side at inter- vals of five years. The time between the first and the last planting is the same as in the first method of cutting — 15 years. Figures 6 to 10 show how the cuttings should proceed. In the case illustrated, it is assumed that the shelterbelt is composed of nine rows of trees, most of which will last through the regenerative period of 15 years. *Red cedar should not be planted if apple trees are In the vicinity because of fungus trouble. **For Southern Iowa only. Fig. 6. At the beginning the two outside rows, 1 and 9, are cut out and re- planted the same year with young trees of the new species. 1 4 Fig. 7. After 5 years, rows 2 and 8 are cut out and planted with new trees; the trees in rows 1 and 9 are 5 years old. At the beginning, rows 1 and 9 of the old plantation are cut out and replanted to the new species. Five years later rows 2 and 8 are taken out, and after another period of five years, rows 3 and 7 are removed. At the last cutting, rows 4, 5 and 6 are replaced with young trees. It will be seen that fair protection from the wind is afforded by the old trees, even up to the last cutting, and by this time some of the newly-planted trees should be sufficiently high to give some protection. USE OF THE METHOD FOR DIFFERENT SHELTERBELTS This second method should be almost as successful in regenerating short-lived shelterbelts of cottonwood, soft maple, willow and boxelder, as the method of planting up from one side. There is one slight dis- advantage; the new trees planted directly north of the old rows will receive less light than those planted to the south, consequently, some care should be exercised in the selection of species for planting. The shading is most severe in the cases of soft maple and boxelder shelter- belts, since the foliage of these trees is much more dense than that of the cottonwood or willow. , Fig. 8. After 10 years, rows 3 and 7 are cut from the shelterbelt and replanted. Fig. 9. After 15 years, the remainder of the' old planting, rows 4, 5 and 6, are cut out and replanted. 456 Fig. 10. After 20 years the youngest trees, in the interior of the grove, rows i, 5 and 6, are 5 years old and the oldest, rows 1 and 9, are 20 years old. 10 In the case of groves which should be replaced at once with new trees, employ the clear-cutting system rather than the above plan. However, it is seldom that a plantation, even of the short-lived species, is so far gone that it will not remain in fair condition for 10 to 15 years. This method has certain disadvantages over the first, since it is more difficult to cut out the old trees in single rows without dam- aging the newly-planted ones. This is especially true when the origi- nal spacing of the trees is close. If the old timber is to be utilized for lumber, difficulty may be ex- perienced in getting a small number of trees sawed at a reasonable price. However, if the woodlot is to be used for fuel or fence posts, the timber can be cut economically for these purposes. SPECIES USED IN REPLANTING The list of species suitable for planting under this method is almost identical with the one given under the preceding first system. It should be borne in mind, however, that the newly planted trees to the north of the old rows will receive less light than those planted on the south side. As a result, if this shading appears to be excessive, trees which are somewhat tolerant of shade should be selected for this portion of the new shelterbelt. It is very often desirable to have a shelterbelt of evergreen and hardwood trees. As a rule, the evergreens give good protection close to the ground and also serve as an effective windbreak throughout the year, while the larger hardwoods break the wind, at a distance from the ground but are not as effective during the winter months. Combination No. 1. Rows 1 and 9,white pine; rows 2, 3, 7 and 8, Norway spruce; rows 4, 5 and 6, cottonwood. The white pine rows being on the outside, receive an abundance of light at all times for best development. The Norway spruce on the interior will receive sufficient light for good growth, since they are very tolerant of shade. The cottonwoods in rows 4, 5 and 6, although planted last, would reach a height greater than any of the evergreen trees in a few years. Combination No. 2. Row 1, Norway spruce; row 9, white pine; rows 2 and 8, white cedar; rows 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, hardy catalpa. The white pine trees in row 9 are not only effective as a windbreak, but also make a very beautiful row to face the farm buildings. The Norway spruce used in row 1, branches very close to the ground, has dense foliage, and, consequently, would be very effective in breaking the force of the wind. The white cedar, if closely spaced, makes a dense mass of foliage and is valuable for windbreak purposes. Al- though the hardy catalpa in the inside rows does not make a large tree, it is very desirable for fence posts. It is assumed in this com- bination, that the hardy catalpa rows can be harvested for fence posts in 12 years. Since the catalpa trees in rows 4, 5 and 6 are planted five years later than those in rows 3 and 7, the branches of the older trees should be trimmed back if there is danger of the later- planting being shaded too severely. The catalpa is very intolerant of shade and will not thrive if overtopped by adjoining trees. Combination No. 3. Row 1, white pine; row 9, white cedar; rows 2, 3, 7 and 8, Norway spruce; rows 4, 5, and 6, white pine. The white pine in the interior rows, although planted last, is suf- ficiently rapid in growth to prevent its being o'vertopped by the 11 adjoining rows of Norway spruce, although the latter are planted five years earlier. Combination No. 4. Rows 1 and 9, white cedar; rows 2 and 8, Nor- way spruce; rows 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, cottonwood. The evergreens on each flank of the shelterbelt will give efficient protection against the wind close to the ground and, at the same time, will give a pleasing effect to the windbreak both in summer and winter time. The interior of the plantation will, in a few years, not only break the force of the wind at some distance from the ground, but also be a profitable source of saw timber or fuel. Combination No. 5. Row 1, white pine; row 2, white cedar; row 3, white spruce; rows 4, 5 and 6, red cedar;* row 7, Jack pine; row 8, western yellow pine; row 9, European larch. The above combination makes an effective shelterbelt of coniferous species. The larch trees in row 9 shed their leaves during the winter. VARIATIONS IN THE METHOD It will seldom happen that the plan illustrated under this method will exactly fit conditions found in other shelterbelts. The method should be considered as suggestive and altered to suit local condi- tions. In the case of a shelterbelt which has only three or four rows, it would no doubt be preferable to use the system of regeneration from one side, taking out one row at each period instead of two rows. In the case of a plantation much wider than the one illustrated, it might be preferable to take two rows of trees at a time from each side instead of one row. There is no necessity of adhering to a uniform period of five years between cuttings. This may be either lengthened or shortened to suit convenience or necessity. On the other hand, a plan should be prepared and the work should follow a definite schedule or the regeneration will unquestionably prove a failure. REGENERATION BY CLEAR-CUTTING The method of clear-cutting is only employed when the windbreak can be dispensed with while the new stand of trees is growing, or where the old timber is in such poor condition that it must be re- newed at once. Under such conditions, it is advisable either to cut everything on the plantation or to leave only a row or two to give some protection for a few years. Under this system it is advisable, where conditions will permit, to leave two rows of the old trees after the first cutting, these rows to be removed during the second and third steps, respectively, in the regeneration process. (See figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14.) The system has several advantages. In cases where the old planta- tion is to be cut into lumber (cottonwood for example), the trees can be sawed at a minimum cost, since most of the plantation is removed at one time. In addition, by removing practically all of the stand at once and replanting, there is no damage to the new stand of trees. On the other hand, where the timber is to be used for fence posts and fuel, it very frequently happens that there is not 'Red cedar should not be planted in the vicinity of apple trees. Fig. 11. At the beginning:, rows 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are cut out. The rows are replanted the same year to either evergreen or broadleaf trees. The original trees in rows 1 and 9 are left temporarily for shelter and also to give some pro- tection to the new crop of trees. ff-fHM Fig. 12. After 5 years the trees in row 9 are cut out and replanted. The old trees in row 1 preserve partly the effectiveness of the shelterbelt at some dis- tance from the ground. If the interior trees are of the broadleaf class the effectiveness of the shelterbelt would eventually be increased by planting ever- greens in row 9. a market for this material except on the home place. Consequently, it would entail a great waste of material, through decay, to store up for a number of years a supply of fuel or posts made up of undurable woods. At the beginning of the regeneration period, all except the two outside rows of trees are removed and replanted. After five years' time, the south row (no. 9) is removed and replanted. At the' close of another five-year period the last row of old trees (no. 1) is re- placed. The outside rows being more thickly branched will give fair protection against the wind. In case the trees are in such poor con- dition that they will not last for even a few years, it would then be desirable to take out all of the old trees at the first cutting. Under such circumstances, a portion of the new growth should be made up of the most rapidly growing trees available, in order that the grove may become effective against the wind as soon as possible. The clear-cutting method, from a cultural standpoint can be more generally applied than any of the other systems suggested. In a pure plantation, established at one time, there is less danger of ex- cessive crowding and overtopping, since the trees are equal in rate of growth and shade-enduring qualities. If the new shelterbelt is to Fig. 13. After 10 years the newly planted trees are large enough to permit the removal of the remaining old trees, row 1, without injury. This row should be planted the same year. Pig. 14. After 15 years the regenerated shelterbelt should give good pr oj^ctidn . \ be composed of different species, care must be exercised in the selec- tion of combinations, to prevent overtopping and killing the slower growing or intolerant trees. This system should be applied to cottonwood, soft maple, willow and boxelder shelterbelts which are too old or degenerate to be satis- factorily regenerated by one of the slower methods, or where the protective feature of the grove is not of great importance. SPECIES USED IN PLANTING When one species is to be used throughout the entire shelter- belt, any tree which is suited to the climatic, soil and moisture condi- tions of the locality may be used. The following is a partial list of trees which might be used: Cottonwood, hardy catalpa, soft maple, hard maple, black walnut, red oak, white pine, red pine, Austrian pine, western yellow pine, Norway spruce, European larch, red cedar, white cedar. COMBINATIONS FOR REPLANTING Combination No. 1. The Norway spruce, white cedar or red cedar might be alternated with the cottonwood or other thin-crowned, fast-growing species. These evergreens are tolerant of shade and would make a fair growth under the light shade of trees such as the cottonwood. 14 Combination No. 2. Norway spruce and white cedar, where conditions are suitable, might be planted in alternate rows. After 30 to 35 years, the Norway spruce begins to overtop the white cedar, but the combination makes one of the most efficient shelterbelts that can be grown in Iowa. Combination No. 3. Any broadleaf species suitable for the region might be used on the interior rows of the plantation, these rows to be flanked by the plant- ing of any evergreen suiting the locality, in the outside rows 1 and 9. Combination No. 4. Alternating rows of European larch and Norway spruce. The European larch when planted alone makes a rather open stand. The tolerant Norway spruce, being of slower growth, will form an under story which will keep out grass and weeds, benefiting both species. VARIATIONS *IN THE METHOD One block, making up from one-fourth to one-half of the planta- tion, might be renewed in one year, and the balance of the plantation in the years immediately following. This would distribute the plant- ing over several years, which might be advantageous under certain conditions. REGENERATION BY ALTERNATE ROWS The method of regeneration by planting alternate rows may well be used in shelterbelts where the original spacing is wide. Many cotton- wood plantations might be renewed by this system. Disadvantages are to be found, however, in the fact that only the shade enduring species can be used for planting between the old rows left standing after the first cut and, later, when the remaining old trees are re- moved it is practically impossible to fell the timber without damag- ing the young trees which have been planted. Under this system the entire stand of old trees is removed in two cuttings. The second cutting should generally follow the first after about 10 years, but this period can either be shortened or lengthened to suit conditions (see figs. 15, 16 and 17.) Fairly good windbreak pro- tection will be afforded until time for the last cutting of the old tim- ber. At this time, unless the period between cuts has been of con- siderable length, the efficiency of the windbreak is likely to be impaired for a number of years, inasmuch as the tolerant trees which are used in replanting are generally of slow growth and will not be tall enough to give much protection against the wind in a period less than fifteen or twenty years. This system could be used in certain cases in cottonwood or willow plantations which are rather open. As a rule, it could not well be used in dense plantations of either soft maple, boxelder or other species forming a very heavy shade. For the reasons already given, this system is not as desirable as some of the others already described. SPECIES USED IN REPLANTING A list of trees suitable for replanting by this method will be re- stricted, except under exceptional cases, to those which are tolerant of shade. This list will include: Norway spruce Hard maple White cedar Soft maple Red cedar Basswood White spruce Boxelder In no case should trees intolerant of shade be used except where it is evident that they will not become overtopped by the adjoining trees. It might sometimes be possible to use a fast-growing, intoler- 15 Figr. 15. Alternate rows, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, are removed at the start. Also re- move broken, suppressed and otherwise defective trees in rows 2, 4, 6 and 8. Replant the open rows and blank spaces the same year. Only shade-enduring trees should be used except for the outside rows. Fig. 16. At this period the regeneration is only partially completed. The re- maining trees in rows 2, 4, 6 and 8 should be removed and replanted. Fig. 17. The trees of the first replanting are 20 years old, rows 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, and those of the second replanting are 10 years old, rows 2, 4, 6 and 8. 16 ant tree, such as the cottonwood, for planting in the rows taken out during the second cutting. For example, if Norway spruce were planted in rows 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 (see fig. 17), and cottonwood in rows 2, 4, 6 and 8, ten years after the Norway spruce had been planted, there is little question but what the cottonwood, in a few years, would overtop the adjoining Norway spruce, since the former is much more rapid in growth. REGENERATION BY UNDERPLANTING The object of the method of underplanting is to provide for a new growth of trees under the shade of the existing stand, without the removal of any except disease^ or suppressed trees for a period of years. This method can only be used profitably in plantations where the original spacing was rather wide, or at least only in plantations where there is some direct light reaching the ground. It is evident that in planting new trees between the old rows with- out the removal of any of the old stand, only the most shade enduring species can be used. This point should be thoroughly kept in mind, since a considerable loss and much delay .might result in underplant- ing with the wrong species. Aside from this the greatest disad- vantage is in the removal of the old stand of trees after the young growth has developed for 5 to 10 years in the shade. It is impossible to cut and remove the large trees without breaking and damaging the young growth to a greater or less extent. (See cover page figure.) The system would be most applicable to relatively young stands of trees in which a reinforcement of evergreens is desired, as, for ex- ample, a young open stand of cottonwood trees might very well be underplanted with such a tolerant tree as the Norway spruce. The proper time for cutting out the old trees must depend entirely upon conditions, and it is impossible to specify any definite time. The removal of the large trees might either be gradual or be done at one operation. In any event, the overtopping trees should be taken out when the new growth is being crowded or is suffering from lack of light. In certain stands of a very open nature, the trees making up the underplanting might be permitted to grow to a large size without cutting out any of the overtopping trees. However, this would be an exceptional case. The application of this method to groves of different species de- pends more on the openness of the stand than on the species itself, since the system could be applied to any grove if the old trees were widely spaced. The system, as a rule, will more generally apply to cottonwood and willow plantations than to soft maple and boxelder groves, since the two former are never found in as dense a stand as the last two. SPECIES FOR UNDERPLANTING As previously stated, only tolerant trees should be used in this method of regeneration. The following trees are suitable within their range and under proper soil conditions, for use under this method: Norway spruce Basswood White spruce Hard maple White cedar Soft maple Red cedar Boxelder The above list of trees might be used in various combinations suc- cessfully. X L. A— 2. Issued February 17, 1916. United States Department of Agriculture, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, Office of Dry- Land Agriculture, WASHINGTON, D. C. COOPERATIVE SHELTER-BELT DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLANTING TREES. A study of the climatic and soil conditions of the Great Plains region las made it apparent that trees can not be successfully grown in this section without following as closely as possible certain fundamental -ules for tree planting. The following instructions are offered for all shelter-belt coopera- xxrs, who are requested to study them carefully and to follow them is closely as conditions will permit. THE SHELTER-BELT PLAN. The cooperator's shelter-belt plan accompanies these instructions md shows the following: 1. Name and address of the cooperator. 2. Location of the more important buildings. 3. The location, size, and form of the shelter belt. 4. The lengths and width in feet of each part of the shelter belt. 5. The number of rows to be planted in each part. 6. The number and variety of trees to be planted in each row. 7. The distance between the trees in each row. 8. The distance between the rows. 9. The total number of trees of each kind that will be shipped. The width shown on the plan includes 4 feet on each side, in addi- ion to the space occupied by the trees, to allow for outside cultivation. Where the shelter belt is made up of two or more strips which cross jach other, f orming corners, the trees in the corners should be checked. In all plans north is at the top of the sheet. CARE OF TREES WHEN RECEIVED. Trees will be shipped the latter part of April or the first part of Vlay. On the day that they are sent a notice will be mailed to the iooperator. Every possible effort should then be made to get the jrees from the express office at once. When taking the trees home they should be well covered with bankets to protect them from the wind and sun. On arriving at 23921°— 16 the farm the package should be opened in the barn or shed and the roots of the trees well moistened. Cuttings should be treated in the same manner. If the weather permits, the trees should be planted immediately. If it is not possible to plant at once, the trees should be "heeled in." " Heeling in." — Dig a trench 8 or 12 inches deep, with one side sloping, and preferably in some sheltered location. Open the bundles, keeping each variety separate, and place the roots in the trench, with the trees lying against the sloping side. Cover the roots well with moist soil, packing it firmly against them. If the soil is dry it should be moistened. It is not necessary to cover the tops of the trees entirely. To "heel in" cuttings, completely bury them in moist soil, covering them 12 inches deep. It is not necessary to open the bundles. PLANTING TREES. Trees may be planted with either a spade or a walking plow. Planting with a plow. — Set stakes in the row and at the ends and plow out a furrow in line with the stakes. Deepen it by plowing back in the same furrow. The bottom of the furrow should be from 8 to 12 inches below the level of the land surface, depend- ing on the length of the roots of the trees. Carry the trees in a pail of water or carefully wrapped in a piece of wet burlap and plant by holding the tree by the top with the roots in the bottom of the furrow. Pull the soil in from both sides with the feet, tramping it solidly around the roots, so that the tree will stand upright. Fill in the furrow with a shovel, hoe, or cultivator and level off the sur- face. After the surface is level, the trees should stand about an inch deeper than they did in the nursery. In no case should the roots show above the ground, nor should the trees be hilled up. Do not plow more than one or two furrows at a time. If the furrow is left open too long the soil will become dry, a condition which is very injurious to the trees. Planting witli a spade. — A convenient way to locate the rows is by stretching a line. Small trees may be planted in the following manner: Thrust the spade straight into the ground and pry up the dirt in front of it; then, without lifting out the spade, push it forward and slip the tree in behind it. Spread the roots as much as possi- ble and pull out the spade, allowing the loose dirt to fall back against the roots. Tramp the soil firmly about the roots. Important points to ~be observed in planting. — Be sure to keep the trees covered or the roots in water while planting. A few minutes of exposure to hot winds will usually kill small trees. The best time to plant is on a quiet cloudy or drizzly day. Do not plant on a hot windy day. Plant the trees as soon as possible after receiving them. Tramp the soil firmly about the trees. PLANTING CUTTINGS. The most important thing in planting a cutting is to tramp the soil firmly against it, especially at the bottom. After the row has been marked, make a slanting hole with a pointed hoe handle, broomstick, or stout iron rod. The holes should be about an inch less in depth than the length of the cutting. Insert the cutting and tramp the soil firmly against it, taking care to pack the soil firmly against the lower end of the cutting. Not more than an inch of the cutting should project above the level of the ground. Always plant the cutting with the buds pointing upward. A spade may be used in planting cuttings. The method is the same as in planting small trees, except that the spade is pushed into the ground in a slanting direction instead of straight down. Proper and improper methods of planting cuttings are shown in figure 1. - •••— - '-'""? ai ' - - - - ~y»~- ~^ FIG. 1.— Sketch showing proper and improper methods of planting cuttings of trees. Proper method: a, A hole made with a pointed stick; 6, the cutting inserted and projecting an inch or loss; c, the planting completed, with the soil packed firmly against the entire cutting. Improper method: d, Soil left too loose about cutting; e, cutting planted too slanting; /, cutting planted too shallow. These improperly planted cuttings are all likely to dry out before rooting. While planting, keep the cuttings in a pail of water. If the soil is dry, the cuttings should be watered after they are planted. Cuttings will not take root in dry soil. CULTIVATION. The trees should be cultivated immediately after they have been planted or as soon thereafter as possible. Do not wait for weeds to appear, but keep the ground clean from the beginning. The culti- vator alone will not be sufficient to keep out all grass and weeds. It will be necessary to go through the planting once or twice during the season with a hoe. Success with trees can not be expected if cultivation is neglected. It is important that a strip of at least 4 to 10 feet on the outside be kept absolutely free from grass and weeds. Wherever fire guards or fences are required, they should be pro- vided by the cooperator. Approved : WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief of Bureau. DECEMBER 20, 1915. WASHINGTON : GOVKK-N MK NT 1'Kl.Vi'IXG OFFICE ' 1916 ' THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET CARLOS G. BATES Forest Examiner FORfiST! COLLEGE OfJkACftK UNIVERSITY OFCAU.- FARMERS' BULLETIN 788 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. April, 1917 J LTD RE RNIA "VT 7INDBREAKS are, in more ways than one, a farm asset. They tend to prevent the soil from drying out quickly and they protect grain and orchards from mechanical injury by the wind. A belt of trees by the farm buildings protects them from extreme winter cold and summer heat, and makes the farm a pleasanter place in which to live. The windbreak may also be a source of wood supply for use on the farm or for sale. This bul- letin tells how windbreaks act and what returns may be expected from them in dollars and cents. THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. CONTENTS. Windbreaks on the prairies J^age. 3 Page. What is a windbreak? 3 Lnect of the windbreak on yield of crops Where and what to plant 9 How a windbreak protects 3 Ground space necessary 11 Checking wind movement 3 Direct returns from planting 13 Reducing evaporation . . . 5 Effect on temperature . . . 7 WINDBREAKS ON THE PRAIRIES. WHEN the prairie regions of the Middle West *• were first devel- oped the lack of trees was felt severely. The clear sweep of the winds across the flat plains was a great hindrance to agricul- ture, for the soil was dried out quickly by evaporation, and grain was lodged and orchards injured by the mechanical force of the wind. Windbreaks were the only remedy, and thousands of miles of them were planted along roads and farm division lines. The effect of this planting, though only gradually felt, was very distinct; farming and living conditions became more favorable throughout the whole region. Considerable planting is still being done, but probably no more than enough to counterbalance the cutting in windbreaks already planted. Of course the need of windbreaks is not so acute now as it has been in the past, but some extension of the planting in this region is desirable, at least enough to protect the new areas which have been put under cultivation. WHAT IS A WINDBREAK? Any body of trees which gives protection to buildings or crops may be called a windbreak. This bulletin has to do, however, only with belts of trees planted about fields and farm buildings, especially for the purpose of breaking the force of the wind. The typical wind- break is a belt consisting of from six to eight rows of trees and usu- ally from a quarter of a mile to a mile in length. HOW A WINDBREAK PROTECTS. CHECKING WIND MOVEMENT. The influence of a timber windbreak upon air currents is purely mechanical. Its effectiveness depends, therefore, upon how nearly irThe Middle West Includes the States of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota. Nebraska, and Kansas. 68261°— 17 3 4 FARMERS' BULLETIN 788. impenetrable it is. The ordinary windbreak does not provide an absolute barrier to the wind ; a certain amount of air forces its way between the branches and foliage of the trees, so that the movement of the air on the leeward side is not completely stopped but only greatly reduced. When windbreaks composed of such trees as cot- tonwood become old, wide openings are left between the bare trunks and more wind gets through near the ground than higher up.1 Such windbreaks can be made efficient only by underplanting the cotton- wood with other trees or shrubs. An ideal windbreak for checking wind currents would have the contour of an earth dam. In the central rows would be planted FIG. 1. — On irrigated lands in western Colorado (Mesa County), the Lombardy poplar, a close relative of the cottonwood, grows thriftily, and is used for the protection of orchards. the tallest trees, such as cottonwood; on either side, rows of shorter trees, such as ash and locust; and outside of these, low bushes or cedars. Such a windbreak would not be easily penetrated, and its inclined surface would divert the air currents upward and relieve the horizontal wind pressure. Breaking the mechanical force of the wind benefits the farmer most directly by protecting his grain crops and his orchard. The value of the windbreak in giving this protection is, of course, difficult to measure in dollars and cents, but where winds are at all frequent such protection alone may be equal to the rental of the ground occu- pied by the trees. In one case in southern Minnesota a windbreak, 1 A dense mulberry hedge of a single row may offer quite as much resistance to the wind near the ground as several rows of open-growing locust or cottonwood. THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 5 80 rods long and about 28 feet high along the side of a cornfield, afforded complete protection for a strip about 10 rods wide during a wind blowing at 50 miles an hour. On the unprotected part of the field the wind blew down half the corn and bent the remainder halfway, the damage beginning at the edge of the 10-rod strip and increasing until it was greatest in that part of the field farthest from the windbreak. The corn was in the milk stage at the time of the high wind and did not produce more than a third of a crop on the damaged area. On the protected portion the total saving Avas 260 bushels, or the full crop of 6 acres, whereas the windbreak occupied only 2 acres. Pic. 2. — Corn to the north of a cottonwood grove is badly damaged by shade in a few rows adjacent to the trees. Movement of the topsoil also may be checked and dust storms prevented by breaking the force of the wind. For this reason Avind- breaks are of immense benefit in sandy regions or regions where the soil is very fine. Added to the crop and soil protection there is the personal com- fort to be derived from protection from wind about the farm and home and along public roads. Furthermore, a protected home is heated in Avinter more readily, and hence more cheaply, than one exposed to the Avind. REDUCING EVAPORATION. There is no part of the United States, except small areas in the Appalachian and Cascade Mountains, \vhich normally obtains more precipitation than is needed for groAving the best crops. The farmer 6 FARMERS' BULLETIN 788. usually plows, cultivates, and mulches with the object of conserving every drop of water that may reach the soil during the year. In the " dry-farming" regions of the West these conservation measures are carried farthest. Here it may be necessary to save the moisture of two seasons to grow a single crop. Anything which helps to conserve the moisture of the soil is of direct benefit to the farmer. The windbreak has this effect in a marked degree. The drying power of the wind is reduced by the windbreak very nearly in the same proportion as its velocity. In the immediate lee of the most effective windbreaks evaporation is re- duced as much as 65 per cent. Farther from the trees the FIG. 3. — Alfalfa grows almost to the base of honey-locust trees. reduction is less. The amount of reduction depends not only upon the density and proximity of the windbreak, but upon whether the field is fallow or in crops. The saving in moisture is least when the field is fallow, so that the only reduction is in the direct evaporation from the soil; it is greatest when the field is in crops, so that there is a reduction not only in the direct evaporation from the soil but also in the evaporation from the leaves of the crops. The more frequently winds occur in any locality during the grow- ing season, and the greater their velocity and drying power, the more important it is to use every means of preventing evaporation. Wind- breaks are especially valuable, therefore, in the Middle West, where THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 7 hot, dry winds, often of high velocity, are of frequent occurrence during the summer months, and in Montana and the Dakotas, where the warm west winds of the winter and early spring, known as " chinooks," do great damage to winter wheat and orchards. EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE. The farmer who has cultivated crops on a hot summer day need hardly be told that the warmest part of his field is the portion\vhich is sheltered from the wind. In the lee of the windbreak there is not only no breeze to cool the body and reduce what is known as the FIG. 4. — The branches of ash are small and short, and the tree does little damage by shading crops. " sensible temperature," but the actual temperature of the air is raised. Tests with a thermometer have shown that the area which is protected by a windbreak may be several degrees warmer during the day and several degrees cooler during the night than adjacent areas not protected. Such crops as corn are benefited very greatly by warm, sultry days. The windbreak helps to create these conditions and offsets to some extent the effect of cold, cloudy weather. The cooling effect at night is of course unfavorable to growth then; but the night is a period of comparative rest, so that the nocturnal cooling off is far 8 FARMERS BULLETIN 788. more than counterbalanced by the higher temperatures secured during the day. Windbreaks may appear undesirable for the protection of orchards in blossom or garden crops which are not hardy, because the danger of still frost seems increased by the stagnation of the air on the lee side. The added danger is more apparent than real, however, for still frosts only occur when there is practically no wind, and a wind- break can then have little effect one way or the other. Furthermore, complete stagnation of the air may be helpful rather than harmful if smudging is resorted to. FIG. 5. — Wheat near the trees has been benefited by the covering afforded where snow drifted in the lee of the windbreak. The freezing which often causes the most severe damage to orchards is that which follows a cold rain or late snow. During such a freeze the damage to blossoms is greatly reduced by protection from wind; for evaporation which produces a rapid cooling increases in proportion to wind velocity* During a freeze of this kind in Nebraska in 1908, fully protected orchards yielded crops many times as heavy as those without exterior protection, and even the leeward side of individual trees exposed to the wind suffered much less damage than the windward side. It is noteworthy also that the one storm of rain and snow, with a temperature of 28 degrees, did all the damage during the season, and that later frosts with lower tempera- tures did not affect the orchards. THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 9 EFFECT OF THE WINDBREAK ON YIELD OF CROPS. The effect of a windbreak on crops is not beneficial in every respect. There are certain ways in which it is plainly injurious. Trees in a windbreak always spread their roots extensively into the adjoining fields in search of moisture ; and they take not only the moisture but some of the nitrogen content of the soil. Furthermore, by shading the ground they may prevent crops from developing properly.1 Whether the total effect of a windbreak is good or bad depends upon whether the benefits derived from its influence on wind move- ment, temperature, and evaporation are greater or less than the injury resulting from the sapping and shading of the ground near by. FIG. G. — Effect of windbreak protection on quality of corn. /, In rows shaded by trees ; 2-7, average maximum ears from protected rows ; 8, ears from unprotected portion of field. To determine the total effect, crop measurements have been made in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowra, and Minnesota. Average rather than excep- tional conditions were measured, the object being to discover the effect of those influences which are continuous and affect every annual crop grown. Measurements made in fields of small "grain indicate that the crop gain in the protected zone is sufficient to offset fully the effects of shading and sapping. In a wheat field protected by a dense wind- break the gain amounted to about 10 bushels per acre where the pro- tection was most complete, and gradually grew less as the distance 1 Some crops do better than others when shaded. Seeding crops, such as timothy and alfalfa, are least affected ; grains which develop early in the spring, such as oats and wheat, are most affected, and corn occupies an intermediate position. 10 FARMERS BULLETIN 788. from the windbreak increased. The total gain was about equal to the amount of grain which could have been grown on the shaded ground near the trees. The season in which the measurements were taken was not of high winds, nor did it lack moisture. It would appear, therefore, that in a windy year when evaporation was high the total gain for the field would much more than balance the loss. In another case, barley on the south of an ash and honey locust wind- break benefited very materially from the accumulation of snow in the lee, and the conservation of this moisture. Here cultivation was pos- sible within 4 feet of the stems of the trees, so that the increased FIG. 7. — Effect of favorable atmospheric conditions on growth of corn plants and yield of fodder. On right, in protected zone (weight, 81 pounds) ; on left, in unprotected zone (weight, 42 pounds). yield of the field, amounting to about 14 bushels per acre at the highest point, was practically clear gain. The total gain for the whole field amounted to the yield of a strip of ground as long as the .windbreak, and three times as wide as its height. In other words, had the windbreak, which was 20 feet high, occupied a strip of ground 60 feet wide, the gain in the field crop would have paid the rental on all of this ground. The corn crops showed more consistent and marked benefits from protection than any others. In the region concerned the summer winds are almost wholly from the south, so that the only effective THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 11 rows and belts extended in an east-west direction. The effect on corn was very marked for a short distance on the south side of such wind- breaks and for a much greater distance on the north side. Fields of young corn showed much better growth in the area protected and warmed by the windbreak. The effect was visible to the eye early in the season, which was rather cool. Height measurements on one field showed the plants to be 4J feet high in the first 18 rows next to the windbreak, while beyond this protected zone the height was only 2J feet. This luxuriant growth was still in evidence at the end of the season, and not only produced more fodder, but bigger and heavier ears. The field showed a production of 59 bushels to the acre in the protected part and only 41 bushels in the exposed part. The net gain, including the area shaded by the grove, was equiva- lent to the yield of a strip twice as wide as the height of the trees, which were 38 feet high. The increased yield paid, then, for a strip 76 feet wide. The windbreak happened to be wider than this, but need not have been to afford the same amount of protection. With ordinary field crops the farmer may count on a benefit from windbreak protection which will make the loss of the area occupied by the trees negligible. Under Middle Western conditions a wind- break whose width does not exceed two or three times its height will more than pay for itself , regardless of the timber which it may produce. Farther east the same kind of influence and benefit will exist, though in a less marked degree, and a greater direct return may be expected from growing the timber for its own value, so that the need of even a slight amount of protection should make wind- break planting attractive. WHERE AND WHAT TO PLANT. In any region the windbreak should be so laid out as to offer the greatest resistance to damaging winds and to protect the greatest area. This simply means having the belt or row at right angles to the prevailing winds. In most of the Middle West the principal wind to be feared is the drying south wind of summer. Where the soil is reasonably moist, the cottonwood belt, extending east and west across the southern boundary of the farm, is preeminently the windbreak for this region. It may be supplemented by other east-west windbreaks or hedges, dividing the farm into lots and fields, and made up of mulberry or osage orange, green ash, or locust, depending upon the moisture of the soil. The cottonwood windbreak is recommended because it so quickly attains great height and produces so much wood for fuel. After it has grown, however, it may need underplanting or side planting to fill the gaps in the lower story. The underplanting, if any, must be done within a few years after the planting of the cotton- 12 FARMERS BULLETIN 788. wood. For this purpose green ash or red oak is recommended. On the drier situations the main planting must be done with some of the more drought-resistant species which do not attain such great height. Green ash or locust for the main belt and osage orange for the hedge can not be excelled. In the western part of this region more attention may have to be given to westerly winds, and the direction of the rows changed. In eastern Colorado, for instance, the windbreak must be planted so as to afford protection from the spring winds from the west, which are often very damaging. FIG. 8. — When mature, eottonwooil must be underplanted if the belt is to retain its efficiency. On the northern prairies (western Minnesota and the Dakotas) southerly summer winds are not so much felt as the westerlies. Here windbreaks should be mainly north-south ones, although some pro- tection on both the north and the south sides of the farm may be needed. Scotch and Norway pines, Colorado blue spruce, and Black Hills spruce are recommended where moisture is sufficient for them, because they give so much better winter protection than the hard- woods. On drier situations western yellow pine may be substituted for the Norway. In the Lake States practically all damaging winds are from the west, although the orchard may need just as much protection from THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 13 the easterly winds which usually precede and accompany a storm. White pine is recommended above all other species, because of its rapid growth and high timber value, which justify its planting in wide belts or groves. The planting of white cedar along the edges of older white-pine belts will greatly increase the efficiency of the existing windbreak. On the poorer soils Norway or Scotch pines may be used instead of white pine. In the Eastern States the situation is essentially the same as in the Lake States. White pine may be generally used, and white and Norway spruces and white cedar may be used in mixture or to strengthen the older windbreak on the sides. In the Southwest the choice of species is very limited, and in typi- cally dry situations possibly nothing can be made to succeed which has greater value than sagebrush in the form of hedges placed at frequent intervals. With a little more moisture the native ever- greens, pifion, alligator juniper, and cedars may be made to grow. With irrigation the species used in the Middle West can undoubtedly be utilized to good advantage. If possible, the windbreaks should extend northwest-southeast. In California citrus orchards and other valuable crops need pro- tection on all sides. Protection from the northerly " Santa Ana " is probably most essential to grains and other field crops. For all of these purposes Monterey cypress, Monterey pine, and eucalypts have proved very valuable. In the Columbia River region of the Northwest, Carolina and Loinbardy poplars and cottonwood are very efficient for the protec- tion of orchards and crops against the mountain winds, usually of easterly origin. Even small willows have been used to good advan- tage in checking the drifting of sand. GROUND SPACE NECESSARY. The belt of trees forming a windbreak needs the use of a certain amount of ground beyond that on which it actually stands. There must be space for the roots to spread out in search of soil nourish- ment and moisture. It should be remembered that the row of trees is a productive agent quite as much as a row of corn and may need just as much growing space in proportion to its height. Some spe- cies of trees, of course, spread their roots wider than others and need more space. Of those commonly planted, mulberry, honey locust, and osage orange spread the farthest in proportion to their height, and green ash spreads the least. Cottonwood does not spread its roots so far as is generally supposed. Cultivation tends to limit the spread of the roots by making more moisture available near the trees, though deep plowing or cutting the roots restricts the root extension at the expense of the growth 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 788. of the trees themselves. On the other hand, comp itition between trees, where several rows are planted together, tends to make those on the outside of the belt push their roots farther out into the open ground. The width of the strip of ground to be allowed the windbreak may be figured at from one and one-fourth to twice the height of the trees; for instance, a single row of trees 50 feet high should be allowed a strip of ground from 62 to 100 feet wide. DIRECT RETURNS FROM PLANTING. In addition to affording protection to crops and buildings, the windbreak usually has considerable value as a source of wood supply for use on the farm or for sale. In the f ollowing estimates of the tim- ber value of various kinds of windbreaks the acreage on which the figures are based includes not only the ground actually occupied by the trees but also that which is shaded and sapped. The estimates are for annual income per acre, discounted at the rate of 4 per cent from the final value of the timber when cut. No allowance is made for the cost of planting. Cottonwood rows and narrow belts planted on fairly moist bottom lands yield an income of from $2.64 to $8.01 per acre, the greatest values being obtained by cutting after the age of 40 years. Good re- turns can not be expected from any but moist situations. Willow planted on thoroughly moist soil yields from $4.17 to $15.81 worth of posts per acre, the highest values being realized when cut- ting is clone between the ages of 14 and 20 years. When utilized for fuel, willow yields an income of from 72 cents to $2.78. Green ash yields from $2.53 to $6.51 in posts on the best class of soils, and from $1.84 upward on poorer soils. It is an excellent auxiliary to cottonwood, but will make good growth on much more unfavorable situations. Honey locust is capable of growing on dry ground but grows very rapidly where there is more moisture. On dry ground it produces from $1 to $4.10 worth of posts per acre; on moist soil from $1.84 to $5.42 per acre. When cut and allowed to make sprout growth it may produce even larger yields. Osage orange may return as high as $12.51 per acre on the best soils. Its value on second-class soils is from $3.94 to $11.85. Even on third and fourth class soils it may return as much as $6 per acre. Osage orange not only produces posts that are hardly exceeded in lasting qualities by those obtained from any other species but is capa- ble of growing on very dry situations. Russian mulberry planted in favorable situations usually produces a number of rapid-growing shoots from each root, which makes it a THE WINDBREAK AS A FARM ASSET. 15 highly valuable post producer as well as an almost impenetrable windbreak. This species yields a return of from $8 to $30 per acre, the largest returns being secured by cutting at about 10 years of age. It requires good moisture conditions and is unable to withstand severe winter temperatures. Silver maple returns from 72 cents to $1.54 per acre, the largest amounts being obtained from windbreaks about 25 years old. The species is used chiefly for fuel. AVhite pine attains its best value only when grown to log size. This may be reached in windbreaks in 30 years or a little longer. The annual value of the growth is about $4 or $5 per ncre, according to the market for the timber. Scotch pine has not as high a value for lumber as white pine ; on most farms the fuel value is greater than the lumber value. This tree is capable of producing returns of from $2 to $4 worth of fuel per acre on moist soils. A very sandy soil will not hinder its growth. These estimates indicate that it is advisable to treat the windbreak as an asset and to give it the same care as the other productive agents on the farm, so that it may become a source of revenue as well as a comfort and a protection. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO TREE PLANTING. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. (Department Bulletin 153.) Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. (Farmers' Bulletin 134.) Forestation of Sand Hills of Nebraska and Kansas. (Forestry Bulletin 121.) Forest Planting in the North Plattc and South Platte Valleys. (Forestry Circular 109.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska. (Forestry Circular 45.) Price, 5 cents. Eucalypts. (Forestry Circular 59.) Price, 5 cents. Forest Planting on Northern Prairies. (Forestry Circular 145.) Price, 5 cents. Native and Planted Timber of Iowa. (Forestry Circular 154.) Price, 5 cents. 16 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 Of NORTH DAKOTAAGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION COLLEGE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, N^rvERS January, 1916. Circular 10 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD ITS ARRANGEMENT AND ADORNMENT By H. O. WERNER A farm home that is well surrounded by trees and shrubs always looks comfortable and inviting and naturally conveys the impression that the occupants of the home are contented, prosperous and the kind with whom one would like to get acquainted. Figure 1 — Substation grounds at Edgeley, North Dakota as they appeared in 1904. Figure 2— Substation grounds at Edgeley in 1915 taken from almost the same spot as Figure 1. The big house has been erected since 1904. Is tree planting worth while? Some of the greatest joys of life are obtained from an association with the growing plants around the home. Children who are raised THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD in a home that is made pleasant by trees and flowers will be less eager to leave the farm at their earliest opportunity. A cheerful looking farm home, together with fair treatment, will go far toward attracting and holding the most reliable farm labor. ADVANTAGES GAINED BY PLANTING TREES Many other gains result from the proper planting of trees around the farm home. In protecting tfie farm buildings from the winter winds the fuel bill is appreciably reduced. The livestock receives much protection from the winds. If the trees are properly selected and cared for, they will supply timber for fence posts and for general repairs about the farm as well as an abundance of fuel. The pro- tection afforded by a good windbreak of trees makes it possible to grow many varieties of small fruits and of vegetables, that could not be raised on the open prairie. Many kinds of edible fruits are borne on ornamental plants, — useful for hedges and windbreaks. Such fruits can be produced at a very low cost by planting them in the shrubbery clusters and windbreaks. The trees also protect the farm home from the dusty, drying winds of summer and reduce the rapid evaporation of moisture from the soil . besides affording an abundance of shade. They serve as an attraction for birds, which not only bring happiness by their song, but also aid by catching many harmful insects. During the time the trees are growing they increase the value of the farm with little expense to the owner. Probably the greatest assets to a prairie farmer who has had enough foresight and interest to plant trees around his home, are the enjoyment he derives from them in later years and the appreciation of his work by those who follow him in life. POSSIBILITIES FOR GROWING TREES ON THE PRAIRIES The fact that nature planted only grass over the most of North Dakota is no proof that trees will not grow on our prairies. A large number of very desirable trees and shrubs are found growing wild along the streams and other sheltered places throughout the state. This fact and the success with which trees are being grown by many farmers in all parts of the state, by the Experiment Station at Fargo, and on the grounds of the various Sub-experiment stations scattered over the state, proves conclusively that tree growing is comparatively easy to accomplish in North Dakota if proper care is taken of well selected kinds of trees. An additional proof is furnished by the suc- cess with which trees are being grown on the prairies of Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada. PLANTING MATERIAL FOR NORTH DAKOTA There are quite a number of desirable trees and shrubs that can be grown in all parts of North Dakota. The most important factor to consider in selecting trees to plant in this state, is their hardiness. THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD By this is meant their ability to live through the winter, to withstand the hot drying winds of summer, their susceptibility to late spring frosts and their general adaptation to the atmospheric conditions of the locality in which they are planted. Some of the trees listed here are especially desirable for some parts of the state while not adapted to other parts. When such special adaptation exists, it is noted under the discussion of the particular tree. Further information on the securing of trees for planting will be found under the head- ing, "Source of Planting Material," further on in the circular. TREES Box ELDER (Acer negundo). The Box Elder is found in the natural wooded districts of North Dakota. It prefers a rich, damp soil, where it will reach a maximum height of 60-70 feet. While it Figure 3— Box Elder on campus of the North Dakota Agricultural College. will grow on almost any soil it soon becomes dwarfed or stunted on poor or dry soils. It is an excellent nurse tree for slower growing kinds, and it is well suited to furnish much shade in a short time. It needs thorough interior pruning to keep the top from getting too dense. Its best place is in the outer rows of windbreak plantings. The wood, THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD which is soft, weak, and white, is commercially used for woodenware and paper pulp. The cottony maple scale is a very serious pest of this tree in many parts of the state. This fact, together with its in- feriority for shade and timber, — to several other kinds of trees, — is reason against its being so largely planted as in the past. Be sure that the Box Elder trees to be planted were raised from seed from a tree growing in the North. The cottony maple scale is *a very serious pest of Box Elder trees in many sections of the state and is being spread to uninfested areas by birds. It frequently attacks Soft Maple and Virginia Creeper. It is detected by the cottony-like mass secreted by the females in the early summer. Soon after this, the eggs are laid and can be found lodged in immense numbers in this cottony mass. The young hatch as small brown larvae that soon change to scale insects, which infest the young twigs and leaves. They do not secrete a cottony mass until the next summer, so that the cottony material on the trees over winter is that of the old females, then dead, who have done their damage. The damage is done by the insects sucking the sap from the young twigs thus choking the leaves. One of the treatments for this insect is to cut out all the infested twigs as soon as they are found and burn them. If this is not desirable the trees can be sprayed while the leaves are off the trees, with some insecticide that will kill the insect by coming in contact with it. Spraying materials recommended as satisfactorily controlling this pest are crude oil, sometimes sold as "insecticide oil"; whale oil and fish oil soap solutions ; and kerosene emulsion. Whatever material is used, it should be applied as a fine mist and care should be taken that all the young twigs are covered with the solution, as there the insects are found. For large trees a barrel pump or other high pressure spray out- fit should be used. This can be mounted on a wagon on which there might also be a raised platform from which a man with the spray nozzle on a long rod could reach the upper parts of the tree and spray more thoroughly, by covering the twigs with solution on all sides. A clear sunny day in late fall or early spring while the trees are dormant' and when the solution will not freeze on the trees will be the best time. SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharum}. The Sugar Maple, Rock or Hard Maple, one of the most valued hardwood trees, — is a native to a small part of North Dakota (Bolley and L. R. Waldron, N. D. Bui. 46 ). Under most favorable conditions it reaches a height of 100 to 120 feet. It is very ornamental and excellent for shade. It is a fairly rapid grower in moist soils. Its leaves turn to a beautiful yellow and red in fall and hold on for a long time. The wood which is reddish brown, close grained, tough and hard, is extensively used for flooring, interior furnishing, furniture, farm repairs, shoe lasts and boats, and as fuel it is surpassed only by hickory. It is the most dependable, most valuable and longest lived of all the maples in localities where it is hardy. It is very satisfactory as one of the permanent trees in the windbreak or woodlot. It does well in the southeastern part of the state and will probably succeed in all parts of THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD the state if not allowed to suffer for lack of water. It should at least be tried in the various parts of the state to determine is adapt- ability, because of its great value in all respects. SOFT MAPLE (Acer saccharinum) . The Soft Maple, also called Silver Maple is a rapid growing tree attaining a height of about 50 feet. It prefers damp soils but adapts itself readily to rather dry soils. It grows easily from seed and is readily transplanted. It frequently winter-kills when young after which it sends up a number of shoots from the base of the tree. If all of these shoots except one, are cut out, the tree will again assume the tree habit of growth. Figure 4 — Soft Maple on Experiment Figure 5— Canoe Birch (Betula papyri- Station Grounds. fera} growing at Fargo, North Dakota. It has great horizontal spreading branches which are apt to be broken by ice and wind. On this account it should not be used near the house, but is best used with Box Elders and Willows in the outer rows of the windbreak for quick effect. It does not grow quite so rapidly as the Box Elder early in life. The wood is light colored, easily worked and is used for flooring and cheap furniture. The large trees yield a small amount of maple sugar. This is a good tree for quick effect, but it is not valuable for permanent plantings. It is well adapted to the Red River Valley but it is not so well suited to the remainder of the state. It makes a satisfactory low trimmed hedge. (See Fig. 40). CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH (Betula papyrifera) . The Canoe or Paper Birch is grown in North Dakota for ornamental purposes. It may be used with good effect by planting in clumps on the lawn THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD with evergreen trees or as a single specimen planted alone on the lawn. Besides its white bark it is ornamentally valuable because of its flowers in spring and its golden yellow leaves in autumn. It is a rapid growing, short-lived tree and supplies wood of little value except for fuel. Figure 6 — Cut Leaved Weeping Birch (Betula alba var. pendula lacinata} on Agricultural College Campus. Also note effects secured with shrubbery AMERICAN WHITE BIRCH (B. populifolia). This birch will grow well on poor, dry, gravelly soils, but since it develops into a poor tree it is not desirable. THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD CUT-LEAVED WEEPING BIRCH (Betula alba var. pendula lacinata) is more beautiful, but also more rare, than either of the other birches. It is sometimes called "the aristocrat of the lawn," because of its stately and graceful habit of growth. It is one of the best trees for ornamental planting, is a very rapid grower but is generally short-lived. PLant it where it will develop freely with the branches dropping to the ground. HACKBERRY (Celtis occidentalis) . The Hackberry, a native of the state, is similar to the Elm. It is generally smaller, slower grow- ing, more symmetrical and does better on drier soils than the Elm. Figure 7— Hackberry (Celtis occidentalism on Experiment Station Grounds. The brownish black berries which are produced on a Hackberry tree remain on it through fall to winter and are ornamental as well as an attraction for birds. It is of little value for timber purposes. The trees can be raised from seed or they can be dug from the native woods and transplanted. Its excellent growing habits make it a valuable shade tree. It can well be used in some of the inner rows of the windbreak. It seems to do well,— when raised from northern THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD growing stock, — in all except the northwestern part of the state, where it should be given further trial on a limited scale. GREEN ASH (Fraxinus viridis). Green Ash is a native to the wooded shores of lakes and streams throughout North Dakota. It is hardy against drought, heat and cold, will grow on dry and alkaline soils. It is a rapid grower, catching up to the Box Elder in about 7 years. It is our most valuable deciduous tree for shelter belt plant- ing throughout the state and one of our best shade trees. Figure 8 — Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis} growing wild in one of the parks at Fargo. Ash lumber is valuable, being used where great strength and elasticity are required together with light weight, as in tool handles, vehicle frames and agricultural implements. This tree is very similar to the Eastern Red Ash (F. pennsylvanica) and is often sold by nurs- erymen under the name of "White Ash". The real White Ash (F. americana) is not suited to our conditions. BLACK WALNUT (Juglans nigra). The Black Walnut does well in North Dakota when planted on rich and damp soils especially along streams. They make fine shade trees and yield edible nuts, but the greatest value lies in the wood. The wood, — which is strong, hard, of a rich brown color, and very durable in soil, is used for the highest grades of woodwork. Black Walnut trees grow rapidly and surely THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Figure 9-Black Walnut (Juglans nigra} ten years from seed on Experiment Station Grounds. Figure 10 — Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana} on campus of North Dakota Agri- cultural College. Soft Maple hedge in background. 10 THE NOETH DAKOTA FAKMSTEAD from seed. It makes its best growth when planted among other trees, which will compel it to grow straight and tall in reaching for light. It does well in grove plantings or in the inner rows of the shelter belt, when planted on suitable soils. It is native to Minnesota. Ten year old trees raised from walnuts secured in South Dakota are doing well on the Experiment Station grounds. It may not be perfectly hardy in all parts of the state, but it deserves a trial because of its great value. It should be raised from walnuts produced on ac- climated trees. Figure 11 — Planting of European Larch (Larix decidua} 6 years old, on Experi- ment Station Grounds. GROUND CEDAR (Juniper us communis). This is a low, spreading, evergreen' that is found native on some of the poorest, driest land of North Dakota. It can best be used as an evergreen shrub for orna- mental planting or for covering waste land. The wood takes on a high polish, is hard and is very durable in soil. RED CEDAR (Juniperus virginiana). A small to medium sized, symmetrical shaped evergreen tree that is native to some of the drier soils of North Dakota, It is excellent for ornamental plantings and for low evergreen hedges. The wood which is light but very durable is much sought after for high grade woodwork and is very good for general use around a farm, being especially prized for fence posts. EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix decidua), is a very hardy deciduous conifer. It grows rapidly forming a compact, pyramidal growth. The leaves are beautiful and fresh looking throughout the entire growing THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 11 season, turning to a yellow shade before they drop in autumn. The wood is hard and durable. It is believed that larch wood will out- last oak. The tree is adapted to close planting in groves or shelter belts, where it will produce almost perfectly straight timbers suitable for posts, railroad ties or eventually telegraph poles. The European species is superior to the native American species. It is an excellent tree for low wet soils. It can easily be grown from seed and can be transplanted. Because of its beauty and valuable timber it should be planted on every lawn and should be made a part of every timber plantation. HOP HORNBEAM OR IRONWOOD (Ostrya virginiana) is a small, com- pact, very hard wooded tree, native to North Dakota. It is a good ornamental tree for dry places. The wood is very hard to work but outlasts all other wood when used for mallets, levers, tool handles, etc. WHITE SPRUCE (Picea canadensis) is a tree that grows as far north as any tree. Its chief values are for ornamental and shelter belt pur- poses and for its ability to grow on a great range of soils. The lumber is rather inferior. BLACK HILLS SPRUCE (Picea canadensis) is a distinct variety of the White Spruce (P. canadensis) growing as a smaller tree with stockier leaves and branches and more adapted to prairie conditions. It should be planted quite freely inside the shelter belt for ornamental effects. Figure 12— Colorado Blue Spruce (Picea pungens) on Experiment Station Grounds, (15 years growth from seed— transplanted as 3 year old trees.) 12 THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD NORWAY SPRUCE (Picea excelsa), is a tree that has been used widely for shelter belt planting. The Black Hills Spruce should be planted instead of this variety as it is better adapted to our prairie conditions. COLORADO BLUE SPRUCE (Picea pungens), is an excellent, hardy ornamental tree a specimen of which should be placed at the most conspicuous point on the lawn. The high cost of the trees is due to the fact that only a small portion of them are really blue. Figure 13 — Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) on Experiment Station Grounds. Figure 14 — A young Western Yellow or Bull Pine (Pinus ponderosa scopulorum) on Campus of North Dakota Agricultural College. THE NOBTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 13 JACK PINE (Pinus divaricata) . Next to the Western Yellow Pine and Black Hills Spruce, the Jack Pine is one of the best evergreens for all parts of the state, as it is very hardy and grows well on dry and poor soils. The timber is of little value except for fence posts. A serious objection to it for ornamental work, is its tendency to take on a sickly yellow color during the winter. It is good for covering dry lands where little else will grow. WESTERN YELLOW PINE (Pinus ponderosa scopulorum) . For the prairies this is our most valuable evergreen tree. It grows on a greater range of soil than any other pine. The leaves are dark green in color and are borne in clusters of 2 or 3, and are from 3 to 12' inches long. Its wood is good for posts and rough building where great strength is required, it also makes good fuel. It is somewhat ornamental and should be planted extensively in every shelter belt. Its great value lies in its ability to do well on very dry soils. It is also known commonly as Bull Pine. Figure 15— Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) on farm in Traill Co., N. D. SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris). This is a European species that has been planted very largely in windbreaks through the corn belt section. It is not as desirable in this state as the Western Yellow and Jack Pines since it is not perfectly hardy when grown in exposed lo- cations, it cannot withstand the drying summer winds which cause THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD its leaves to turn brown. Of late years this tree is being attacked by insects and by fungous diseases. It is extensively used in tree plan- tations at the Canadian Experiment Station at Indian Head, Saskatchewan. POPLARS AND COTTONWOODS. On soils with an abundant supply of moisture, the Norway Poplar, Russian Poplar and Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) will produce the greatest amount of lumber that can be Figure 16 — Row of Norway Poplars 6 years old on Experiment Station Grounds produced on a piece of land in 20 to 25 years. When planted in groves they need to be set about 16 feet apart, as they are gross feeders and will not tolerate shade. They should have either frequent cultiva- tion or a good straw mulch to keep down weeds and to conserve THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 15 moisture. The lumber is used for fuel, posts and cheap interior finishing in places where it can be kept dry and well painted. Trees planted and cared for in this way should average 300 board feet per tree in 20 years or around 50,000 board feet per acre. They do not do well mixed with other species and are not satisfactory for shelter. BALM OF GILEAD (P. balsamifera) a native tree is serviceable as a quick growing shade tree but it is often objected to because of the tendency of the leaves to rust. QUAKING ASP (P. tremuloides) , is a very ornamental tree, con- veying a gay expression by the continually trembling leaves. WHITE OR SILVER POPLAR (Populus alba) is a small and some- what spreading tree. It has very shiny dark green leaves with a fuzzy white lining. This is a very ornamental tree for planting on the lawn in the shrubbery clusters but it should be used sparingly. A serious objection to it is the large number of suckers it produces. All of these Populus species are hardy throughout the state but all need moist soils. WILD YELLOW OR RED PLUM (Prunus americana). This is a small tree native to a wide area of North Dakota. The fruit is small but edible. It is excellent for shrubbery clusters on account of its profuse blooming and fine shape. It can be used as a stock on which to graft plums of better quality. It is also used sometimes as a hedge for livestock. PIN CHERRY (Prunus pennsylv anica) . A small native tree, not valuable for either fruit or wood, but it is decidedly ornamental and a great bird attractor. WILD BLACK CHERRY (Prunus serotina). This is best adapted to deep rich soils but succeeds well on high lands. The tree is not always hardy when young so that some protection for a few years would be wise. It is an excellent lumber, ornamental and shade tree. Its fruits are edible and are especially relished by birds. The wood is light, hard, strong, and takes on a magnificent polish for which reason it is used for high grade furniture and the finest of interior finishing. As a timber tree it is almost equal to Black Wal- nut. It deserves further trial in all parts of the state. CRAB APPLES. A number of the crab apples are very desirable for ornamental plantings because of their blossoms. Some of the more popular species hardy in North Dakota are: — the Siberian Crab (Pyrus baccata) and probably Hall's Flowering Crab (P. Halliana), The fruit of most of these can be utilized for cooking. OAKS. As oak trees are difficult to transplant it is best to grow them by planting the acorns where the trees are to grow or by trans- planting small seedlings. They generally prefer a rich damp soil, but will grow in other soils, that are not too dry. They are all valu- able for ornamental and timber purposes and some oaks should be planted in every woodlot or shelter belt to add weight, dignity and permanence. RED OAK (Quercus rubra), is less valuable than the White and Burr oaks for timber but grows on a greater range of soil than any other oak, is a fairly rapid grower, and does better under North 16 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Dakota conditions than the other sorts. It is native to Minnesota where it grows on very dry soils. BURR OAK (Quercus macrocarpa), is a native oak with timber about equal in value to the White Oak grown in other sections. It is very ornamental in growth with beautiful yellow leaves in autumn. It is a very slow grower. Figure 17 — Burr Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) growing wild in one of the parks at Fargo, North Dakota. WILLOWS. The chief value of the willows lies in their rapid growth and hardiness which makes them the most desirable trees for snow traps and the outer rows of shelter belts or windbreaks. They can also be used for low formally trimmed hedges. Their use for timber is limited to the production of rather low grade fence posts, which, how- ever, can be made to test many years if well treated. These posts can be cut in about 7 or*8 years after planting the trees. All willows grow readily from cuttings, which for windbreaks are cut to about 10 to 15 inch lengths, stuck in the ground at an angle, to a depth of 8 to 10 inches about 18 inches to 2 feet apart in the row. This should be done in the early spring. WHITE OR GRAY WILLOW (Salix alba) has been grown most largely of all willows for windbreaks throughout prairie regions. It fills all the requirements very well but is less ornamental than the Russian Golden Willow. RUSSIAN GOLDEN WILLOW, (Salix vitellina var. aurea). This tree has a golden yellow bark which changes to a beautiful reddish color on the young twigs in autumn. It also has very attractive glossy leaves. A growth of five feet in one season is not unusual for this THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 17 species. It is good as a hedge plant if cut to the ground every three or four years. It is not perfectly hardy in some parts of the state. Do not confuse this with the common Golden Willow (Salix aurea) which is very much inferior. SANDBAR WILLOW (Salix fluvitalis) is a native low growing willow that is very good to plant on embankments to prevent washing or to hold drifting soil or sand. PEACH LEAVED WILLOW (Salix amygadoloides) , is a native tree Figure 18— White Willow (Salix alba} on Experiment Station Grounds. that, grows to a greater height than most willows. It produces rather low "grade timber. When compared with some of our better willows it is hardly worth planting. LAUREL LEAF WILLOW (Salix pentandra) is very ornamental be- cause of its glossy dark green leaves. It stands more dry weather than any of the other willows. Its best use is as a hedge or screen, or in the shrubbery clusters within the shelter belt. It would be highly desir- able if it did not become so unsightly after the first few years. 18 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD DIAMOND WILLOW (Salix cor data vestia) is native in the Missouri River Valley. It is lately becoming very popular for the lasting fence posts and large amount of fuel that it produces in a short time. NIOBE WILLOW (Salix vitellina var. pendula nova), introduced from Siberia is a weeping willow that is hardy in a large part of the state. Being very ornamental it can be planted as a specimen on The lawn, along the inner edge of the shelter belt or as a tall row for screening buildings. As any weeping tree will be considerably injured by the wind, it may best be planted in a sheltered location. Figure 19 — Niobe Willow (Salix vitellina var. pendula noia) on Experiment Station Grounds. AMERICAN MOUNTAIN ASH (Sorbus americana). This small tree is one of our best for ornamental purposes. It produces fine dark green leaves; beautiful clusters of creamy white flowers and these are followed by large clusters of beautiful red berries. The leaves turn a beautiful red and hold the color for a long time in autumn. Be sure to shade the trunks of young Mountain Ash trees toward the south to prevent sun scald, as this tree is very susceptible to that trouble. It is suitable for lawn planting in all parts of the state. BASSWOOD OR AMERICAN LINDEN (Tilia americana). The Basswood is a beautiful, tall native tree, suitable for shelter belt planting and making a good shade tree. The flowers are sweet scented. The wood is soft and tough. It is used for carriage bodies, trunks, and fuel. THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 19 It has little timber value until it is large enough to be made into lumber. Much of the success with this tree depends upon its being grown from northern stock which is acclimated. Figure 20 — American Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana} growing in shrubbery cluster on a Fargo lawn. Spirea Van Houttei in lower left hand corner. Lilacs comprise most of the remainder of the group. COMMON ELM (Ulmus americana). Also called White and Water Elm. This is one of our very best, hardy, native, trees. However, it demands a rather damp soil. When once it is established it grows rapidly. Its chief uses are for shade, street planting and shelter belt planting. The tree is naturally very graceful with its spreading branches and requires practically no pruning. To this tree we owe much of the beauty of many of our shelter belts. Of late it is being attacked by several very active insect pests. The wood is used for wagon hubs, flooring, kegs, boxes etc. The 20 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Slippery or Red Elm (Ulmus falua) also native to North Dakota is a rapid grower with less beauty than the common elm. Its wood is somewhat better, being used for fence posts, railroad ties and agricul- tural implements. Figure 21 — Grove of native Elms, near Lisbon, North Dakota For those not well acquainted with the different kinds of trees and shrubs the following lists will be useful. They contain the best kinds of trees for their respective purposes, for practically all of North Dakota. WINDBREAKS White and Russian Golden Willow Green Ash Elm Box Elder Larch and Western Yellow Pine TREES FOR DRY SOILS Red Cedar Burr Oak Green Ash Western Yellow Pine and Jack Pine Hackberry EVERGREEN TREES Western Yellow Pine Jack Pine Black Hills and White Spruce Colorado Blue Spruce Red Cedar TIMBER TREES Cottonwood and Norway Poplar Black Walnut Larch Green Ash Burr Oak TREES FOR LOW WET SOILS White Willow Larch Soft Maple Elm ORNAMENTAL DECIDUOUS TREES Larch White Birch and Cut-Leaved Weeping Birch Mountain Ash Elm and Hackberry Niobe Weeping Willow THE NOKTH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD 21 SHRUBS JUNE BERRY (Amelanchier alnifolia). The June Berry or Western Service berry, — also called the Shad Bush in some localities, — a native of the state, grows to a height of 6 to 8 feet, blooms very early in spring and produces a large number of berries that are ornamental and edible. COMMON BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris). The common barberry is not native to the state but grows readily in all parts of the state. Figure 22 — Common Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) on Experiment Station Grounds. It is a medium tall shrub, produces bright yellow flowers in spring, followed by ornamental berries. It is well adapted to low, trimmed or untrimmed hedges. Many people object to planting the Barberry because of its relation to the wheat rust (Puccinia graminis.) PURPLE LEAVED BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris atropurpurea) pro- duces pretty yellow flowers, followed by small berries that ranain until winter. The handsome purple leaves hold on until early winter. Very good for use in the shrubbery cluster, for hedges and individual specimens. JAPANESE BARBERRY (Berberis Thunbergii). This is the most handsome of all barberries. It is a dwarf shrub growing very grace- fully, producing dark green leaves and yellow flowers in summer and beautiful bright red leaves and bright red berries in late fall. It is excellent for low hedges and for planting in front of shrubbery clusters. It is not perfectly hardy as the young branches kill back part way but this is not serious enough to prohibit its use on a small scale. 22 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD SIBERIAN PEA TREE (Caragana arborescens) . The Caragana pro- duces a handsome, dense, tall hedge that requires very little pruning. (See Fig. 38). After the leaves drop, rather early in fall, the green bark produces a pleasant effect. It is also desirable for shrubbery clusters. RED TWIGGED DOGWOOD. There are several species all of which are very desirable because of the color their bright red bark gives to the winter landscape. There are two Dative forms: — Cornus stolonifera and Cornus serica and one imported form:— Cornus sanguiana, some- times called, Siberian Dogwood. All are hardy and do well on even fairly dry soils. They need some attention each year to keep down the suckers which they produce. Figure 23 — Red Twigged Dogwood (Cornus stolonifera} on Experiment Station Grounds. HAZELNUT (Corylus americana). The Hazelnut is native to North Dakota. A medium to tall shrub, suitable for shrubbery clusters in dry areas. THORN APPLE OR HAWTHORN (Crataegus coccinea) is a shrub or small thorny tree, producing white flowers in spring, followed by brighf red edible fruits that are very ornamental lasting far into the winter if not eaten by birds. Both this species and the Large Fruited Thorn (C. punctata) , — which is larger and produces more flowers, — are native. There are several other Hawthorns that could well be used, among them C. rotundifolia which often does better than the native species. RUSSIAN OLIVE (Elaegnus angustifolia) . This is one of the most valuable species for the semi-arid parts of the state. Tt is a small tree or very tall shrub with small, narrow silvery leaves that come out late in spring and remain on the shrub until early winter. Tt pro- duces many small silvery leaves that come out late in spring and remain THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 23 on the shrub until early winter. It produces many small silvery olive shaped fruits. It is most valuable all through the state for hedges, screens, windbreaks and coarse shrub clusters. (See Fig. 35 and 36). SILVER BERRY (Elaeagnus argentea). The Silver Berry is a similar plant to the Russian Olive though not . as large and coarse. It is adapted to dry soil and dry atmosphere. The fruit is a silvery berry much like the Russian Olive fruit in shape. It is native to the state west of the Sheyenne River. BUSH HONEYSUCKLES are noted for the profusion and fragrance of their flowers. They are tall growing shrubs suited to planting in shrubbery clusters and unsurpassed for tall ornamental hedges. (See Pig. 39). They frequently become unsightly at the base with age and lower growing shrubs should then be planted in front of them to screen their shabby appearance. There are several native forms. Two very popular kinds are Lonicera tartarica, — Tartarian Honey- suckle,— and Lonicera Morroivi. MOCK ORANGE (Philadelphus coronarius) is a medium to tall shrub valued for its fragrant white flowers produced in profusion in mid- summer. Having ornamental foliage, it is desirable for planting near the house. NINE BARK (Physocarpus opulifolius) is a strong shrub growing 8 to 10 feet ta1!. The flowers are small, white or pink, and produce shiny deep red berries that weigh down the branches in graceful curves. It is very good for massing or quick effect. It is very similar to the Spirea in habit of growth. DWARF PINE (Finns montana) a dwarf pine that does well in all parts of North Dakota. It is effectively used as an evergreen shrub. WESTERN SAND CHERRY (Prunus Besseyi) is a tall, rather coarse, native shrub, very useful for screening unsightly objects, for planting around the base of a cluster of trees or in the background of shrubbery clusters. Opata and Sapa plums, — crosses between this species and a large Japanese plum, — are more desirable than the ordinary AVestern Sand Cherry as their fruit is much better. FLOWERING ALMOND (Primus japonica), produces a profusion of beautiful flowers that are among the very first in spring. It is of medium height. It is best suited for the foreground of shrubbery clusters near the house. CHOKE CHERRY (Prunus virginica) is a tall coarse shrub that does very well thruout the state. It is adapted to be used for screening unsightly objects. WESTERN CHOKE CHERRY (Prunus melanocarpa) a native of North Dakota has smaller but better fruit than the ordinary Choke Cherry. BUCKTHORN (Rhammus cathartica). This is our most valuable hedge plant (See Fig. 34). When allowed to develop freely it forms a large symmetrical shrub, but as it is very unsightly around the base, lower growing shrubs should be planted around it. Its leaves remain green and cling to the shrub until very late in autumn. 24 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD SCARLET SUMAC (Rhus glabra) a native shrub that does well in dry places is valuable in clusters of coarse shrubbery where it can best be used in the background. Its flowers and leaves are ornamental in early autumn, when they take on a purplish tinge. It is a good shrub to screen objects and for quick effect. FLOWERING CURRANTS. There are two varieties that are very desir- able. The Mountain Currant (Ribes alpinum) is a small shrub with fragrant flowers, deep green leaves and an upright habit of growth. It is most useful in dry soils where few other shrubs succeed. The Missouri Flowering Currant (E. aureum) is probably the more common. It is a taller shrub than the Mountain Currant. Both are desirable for low natural hedges and for planting in shrubbery clusters. Figure 24 — Flowering Currant (Ribes aureum}, also Virginia Creeper vine in corner of building. WILD ROSES. Many of the wild roses scattered over the state can be used to advantage for their flowers. They will develop into very good plants with larger flowers when given good care. They are best used in the foreground of shrubbery clusters where their flowers in summer and fruits in fall show to best advantage. WILD RASPBERRY (Rubus strigosus) is a medium tall native shrub that is fairly ornamental because of the color it adds to the landscape in winter. ELDERS (Sambucus). There are many kinds of elders which are tall shrubs used because of their pretty flowers, foliage and fruit. They are all of about the same habit of growth. The varieties of THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 25 Elders mostly used are the common Black Elder, Golden Leaved Elder, Red Berried Elder and Cut Leaved Elder. They are valued because of their midsummer flowers. BUFFALO OR BULL BERRY (Sheperdia argentea). This is a native shrub, hardy in all parts of the state, adapted to rather dry soils. It has narrow silvery leaves and in the fall produces a crop of golden yellow and red berries a little larger than currants. In many ways it resembles the Russian Olive, though it is not as tall. It is 'used extensively for hedges and along the inside of the shelter belt, though for a hedge it is not as good as Russian Olive. Its berries are at pre- sent mostly used for making jelly. It is said to have derived its name from the fact that the berries were roasted and served with buffalo meat in the earlier days. The objection to using it as a hedge is its tendency to send out suckers. Figure 25 — Buffalo or Bull Berry (Sheperdia argentea) in shrubbery cluster on North Dakota Agricultural College campus. SPIREAS. The Spireas form a group of our most graceful flowering shrubs. Their chief asset is their very prolific blossoming during June. They are of medium to dwarf height. SPIREA VAN HOUTTEI (Spirea Van Houttei) is the most graceful of them all (See Fig. 20 and 26). In June it is completely covered with a mass of small white flowers which are placed along the gracefully drooping branches. For the rest of the season its dark green leaves give beauty to the grounds and in autumn its leaves display some of the most beautiful colors, mostly in shades of orange and red. It develops into a beautiful medium size symmetrical shrub when used as a specimen plant. It is excellent also for use in the fore part of the shrubbery cluster and for informal hedge's of medium height. It is entirely hardy in most parts of the state. ANTHONY WATERER SPIREA (Spirea Bumalde var. Anthony Wat- erer) is a compact, dwarf shrub, excellent for planting in front of tall shrubs. It produces bright crimson flowers in late summer. WILLOW LEAVED SPIREA (S. salicifolia) is a native of the state. It is often recommended for dry soils. It is a medium height shrub producing pink flowers and having dull dark green leaves. 26 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD SYMPHORICARPUS. The Symphoricarpus group comprises a number of useful dwarf shrubs all of which produce ornamental berries, many of which are hardy in the state and some native to the state. WOLF BERRY (Symphoricarpus occidentalis) , is native to the state along streams and on open prairies. INDIAN CURRANT OR CORAL BERRY (8. vulgaris) produces purple red, currant-like berries in the fall. It is of a spreading habit, suited for planting on banks or dry spot^. SNOW BERRY (8. r'acemosa) produces a heavy supply of showy white berries in late summer that cause the branches to droop grace- fully. All of these varieties are suitable for planting in front of tall shrubs for low ornamental natural hedges. Fig-ure 26 — Spirea Van Houttei (Spirea Van Houttei} Nursery Co.) (from Devils Lake LILACS. The lilacs form a well-known group of tall flowering shrubs that can be relied upon iri almost any locality. They are used a great deal for tall hedges. In the shrubbery clusters other shrubs should be planted in front of them to hide the coarse branches around the base. (See Fig. 20). The Common Purple Lilac is Syringa vulgaris. The White Lilac is S. vulgaris alba. The Chinese Lilac (8. Chinensis) is a very rapid grower. The Persian Lilac (8. persica) has smaller leaves and is more refined in its habits of growth. The Chinese Lilac is not perfectly hardy in all parts of the state. TAMARISK (Tamarix Amurensis). This shrub is hardy in the south eastern corner of the state, but seems rather tender through the other parts of North Dakota. It is valuable because of its fine feathery foliage and its ability to do well on dry and sandy soils. HIGHBUSH CRANBERRY (Viburnum opulus) a native shrub is hardy over most of the state. It does well on all but the driest soils. It is valued for its beautiful foliage and flowers but mostly for its clusters of red berries in the autumn. It is a medium to tall shrub. THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 27 SHEEP BERRY OR BLACK HAW (Viburnum lentago). The Sheep Berry is a native shrub or small tree very well adapted for orna- mental planting throughout the state. In the fall it produces small black edible fruits with a pleasant flavor. Figure 27 — High Bush Cranberry (Viburnum opulus) on Experiment Station Grounds. COMMON SNOWBALL (Viburnum opulus var. steriles) is very pretty and much honored because of its beautiful white flowers produced in the shape of big balls. It does well over the state, but is some- what undesirable because of the large numbers of insects that prey upon it. The following are some of the most common and most easily grown shrubs listed in groups according to the purposes to which they are best adapted: FLOWERING SHRUBS Honeysuckle Mock Orange Spirea Van Houttei Lilacs High Bush Cranberry SHRUBS FOR PALL AND WINTER EFFECTS Red Dogwood Purple Leaved Barberry High Bush Cranberry Buckthorn Russian Golden Willow ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS WITH EDIBLE BERRIES Elders Missouri Currant Buffalo Berry June Berry Choke Cherry SHRUBS FOR DRY SOILS Russian Olive Thorn Apple Buffalo Berry Wolf Berry June Berry- Dwarf Pine ORNAMENTAL HEDGES Buckthorn Siberian Pea Tree or Caragana Russian Golden Willow Missouri or Flowering Currant Red Cedar HEDGES SHELTER HEDGES FOR STOCK Buckthorn Russian Olive Russian Golden Willow Silver Berry Soft or Silver Maple 28 T TT E X 0 ~R T IT DAKOTA F A "R M S T E A D VINES Vines should be used for shading or screening porches, windows, summer houses or other places where shade is desired in a short time; to cover trellis or fences that have an objectionable appearance or that are erected to act as screens with the vines that cover them ; to beautify the walls of buildings by climbing over them and thereby "tying" the house to the lawn, — that is, making the house stand out less conspicuously, — and to aover dead trees, bare banks too steep for grass to grow on, and any other objects that cannot be hidden by trees or shrubs. Figure 28 — A Fargo residence showing use of shrubs and vines around the house. (Vine is Virginia Creeper.) Vines fall naturally into classes according to their method of climbing. There are the twining vines which are represented among our hardy vines by the Bittersweet. Hardy vines clinging by tendrils are Wild Grape, Virginia Creeper, and Engleman's Woodbine, — a form of the Virginia Creeper or Woodbine which clings to smooth surfaces. There are some vines that require support, — among these are the Virgin's Bower and Climbing Honeysuckle. Besides this we have vines grouped into hardy woody vines whose tops live over winter; hardy herbaceous or hardy perennial vines, whose roots live over but whose tops die down in winter; and annual vines that live only one year. THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 29 HARDY WOODY VINES VIRGINIA CREEPER (Ampelopsis quinquefolia) also called False Grape, American Ivy or Woodbine, is our best vine. It is native to the wooded districts of the state. It presents some of the most beautiful leaf colorings of autumn. It is a rapid grower and will climb to a height of 30 or more feet. (See Figs. 24 and 28). It will not hold to a smooth wall and when used for such purposes it requires some support. However, in those places it is better to use a variety of this species, known as Engleman's Woodbine (A. quinquefolia var. Englemanii) which has developed tendrils that enable it to cling to a wall. Figure 29 — Engleman's Woodbine (Ampelopsis quiniquefolia var. Englemanii) clinging to concrete wall without any support, in Fargo, North Dakota. Also shows how vines and shrubs can be used to cover fences. (Taken at end of second year.) BOSTON IVY (Ampelopsis veitchii) is a very pretty clinging vine that should be tried on a limited scale throughout the state. It is not generally hardy, but there are some vines of it within the state that seem perfectly hardy, — which leads one to think that hardy strains of it can be developed. BITTERSWEET (Celastrus scandens) is a very ornamental native climber. It produces orange yellow flowers followed by showy crimson fruits in autumn. The leaves are Sense and glossy. It is suitable for trellis work, for covering trees and rocks, etc. VIRGIN'S BOWER (Clematis virginiana) is another native orna- mental vine producing small clusters of little white flowers followed by fruits with very showy woolly tufts. It is very good for covering walls, trees, trellises and porches. It generally grows to a height of about 12 feet. 30 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD CLIMBING HONEYSUCKLE, of which there are many species, is an excellent climbing vine, desired chiefly because of its very fragrant flowers. If supplied with a support it will grow to a height of 15 to 20 feet. Lonicera Heckrotti and L. Japonica are some of the better species. This vine should be tried more carefully before it is exten- sively planted as it is reported to be not hardy in some sections. WILD GRAPE (Vitis riparia). Our native wild grape is very serv- iceable for arbors or porch decorations. It produces sour fruit that is edible after it has been frosted? HARDY PERENNIAL -VINES DUTCHMAN'S PIPE (Aristolochia sipho) and (A. macrophylla) are strong growing vines with immense heart-shaped leaves. They produce a very dense shade and adapt themselves to any soil. They do well in shady places. In good soils they will grow to a height of 25 feet or more. They receive their name from their pipe-shaped flowers. HOP (Humulus lupulus). The hop is a native hardy perennial vine good for covering arbors, walls, fences, tree trunks, etc. It produces greenish flowers and grows to a height of about 15 feet. CANADA MOONSEED (Menispermum canadense) is a very good vine for moist soils. It is a native of the state. It generally attains a height of 10 to 15 feet. ANNUAL VINES (Raised from seed sown each year) Morning Glory Japanese Hop Moonflower Wild Cucumber Hyacinth Bean Baloon Vine Cypress Vine Gourds Vines that can be relied upon to give satisfactory results under most conditions are: WOODY VINES ANNUAL VINES Virginia Creeper and Engleman's Morning Glory Woodbine Wild Cucumber Virgin's Bower HARDY PERENNIAL FLOWERS These are plants whose tops die down each year, but the roots of which live over winter. They comprise some of our most beauti- ful flowers. Only a few of the more common and better ones, adapted to the state, will be mentioned here. HOLLYHOCK (Althea rosea). Fall flowers. Tall plant. ANEMONE.* Early spring flowers. Does well in shade. COLUMBINE** (Aquilegia). Profusion of beautiful delicate flowers. THE NOKTH DAKOTA FAKMSTEAD 31 ARTEMISIA* (Artemisia canadensis) Wild Wormwood — sandy or dry places. LILY OF THE VALLEY (Convallaria majolis). Early summer flowers in shady places. LARKSPUR** (Delphinium). Blue flowers in midsummer. Dry soils. SWEET WILLIAM** (Dianthus barbatus). Various colored flowers in midsummer. BLEEDING HEART (Dicentra spectabilis) Graceful pink flowers. Figure 30 — Peony growing on Experiment Station Grounds. PALE PURPLE CONE FLOWER** (Echinacea angustifolia) Beautiful pink flowers, late summer, dry soils. WILD MADDER* (Galium boreale). Small plant, does well on dry soils. GENTIANS* (Gentiana). Several native forms adapted to damp soils BABY'S BREATH** (Oysophilia paniculata). Very useful for cut flowers. Dry soils. DAY LILY (Hemerocallis). Very beautiful, prefers moist soils. IRIS** (Iris— various species). Very beautiful summer. BLAZING STAR* (Liatris scariosa). Tall purple flowers in late summer. PRIMROSE* (Oenothera). Very desirable for flowers. PEONY** (Paeonia officinalis). Most elegant summer flowers. 32 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD ICELAND POPPY* (Papaver nudicaule). Excellent late summer flowers, does well on dry soils. PERENNIAL PHLOX** (Phlox paniculata). Fall flowers. Very de- sirable. GOLDEN GLOW** (Eudbeckia laciniata) . Excellent fall effects with yellow flowers. BLACK EYED SUSAN** (Eudbeckia hirta). Late summer flowers, does well on dry soils. BLOOD ROOT (Sanguianaria canadensis). Early flowers in damp shady places. GOLDEN ROD** (Solidago). Excellent fall flowers in dry soils. VIOLETS* (Viola). Early flowers on variety of soils. Figure 31 — Asters growing on a farm just outside of Fargo, North Dakota. ANNUAL PLANTS Asters Lobelia Snapdragon Marigold Cornflower . Nasturtium Sweet Pea Pansy Ageratum Petunia Alyssum Poppies Dusty Miller Scarlet Sage Ten Weeks Stocks Verbena Zinnia Cosmos *Good under wide range of conditions. **Very good under wide range of conditions. THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD 33 LOCATING THE FARMSTEAD The farmstead site should be selected so as to be most convenient and efficient in carrying on the general work of the farm. Generally the best place is in the middle along one side of the farm. If one is fortunate enough to have a good view, such as a lake, river, or possibly a hill, it should be given consideration in deciding upon a site. ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS In the location of the farm buildings in a proper systematic relation to each other, the thought of utility should be given first consideration. The buildings should be of easy access from the house,— which should be set back from one to two hundred feet from the road. The buildings housing live stock should not be too close to the house because of their unpleasant odors. In choosing the location of build- ings containing hay, straw or other highly inflammable material the effect of their proximity on fire insurance rates should be considered. The buldings should be located so as to require the fewest steps in doing the daily chores. The machine shed should be so placed that wagons and machines can be hitched to, on the way from the barn to the field without a waste of steps. A convenient arrangement is to have the machine shed placed at a right angle with the front of the barn and to- ward the windward side. In this way a large open court protected from the wind is formed in front of the barn. It is best to have the hog yard in the furthest corner of the barnyard and out of line with the prevailing winds that blow toward the house. To the rear of the barns, paddocks should be provided for the horses and cattle and runs for the hogs. These should be well fenced so that the ani- mals will not escape and injure the trees. The poultry house should be near enough to the dwelling not to require a waste of time in attend- ing to the poultry. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN AND FRUIT PLANTATION The vegetable garden and small fruit plantation should also be near the house. A garden of one-third to one-half acre and a fruit plantation of one-fourth to one-half acre will furnish the average farm family a constant supply of fresh vegetables and fruit and a sur- plus for canning and storing for winter use. (See North Dakota Experiment Station, Circular 5). The fruit plantation should be located so as to be well protected from the winds, but in the case of trees, select a location where the snow will not pile up and break them down. An appropriate place for the poultry is adjoining the garden, where the chickens will be of much use in catching harmful insects. To avoid damage to the garden a good pen should be provided for the chickens. 34 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD £e*£3<^§#2^t^ PLATE I. — FARMSTEAD FACING SOUTH This plan can be used for farmsteads facing West by omitting trees to rear of pens,;— which will then be East, — and placing them along right hand side,— which will then be South. TOTAL DIMENSIONS 720 FEET X 680 FEET House to road 200 feet House to barn 160 feet. House to poultry and garden 100 feet. House 30 x 40 feet. Cattle pen 120x160 feet. TOTAL AREA OF FARMSTEAD 11.2 ACRES Lawn 1.1 Acres Barnyard, Pens and Heavy Driving Road 2.9 Acres Garden 6 Acres Shelter Belt 2.8 Acres Fruit 4 Acres Alfalfa Patch 2.9 Acres Snow Trap Hedge — .5 Acre. THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 35 LOCATING WALKS AND DRIVES The walks and drives should be laid out in long easy drives, as these add much to the beauty of the place, and require very little extra travel. There should be as few walks and drives as possible, and they should be along the lines of most frequent travel. Generally it is well to combine walks and drives that would run parallel. There should be a separate road along the edge of the farmstead for heavy hauling. At least one of the drives and both if possible, should be located so that they will not be drifted shut by snow. ENTRANCE TO FARMSTEAD The entrance to a farm can be made to convey a feeling of hospitality by having it wide and open, with trees and shrubs planted on each side. It should be at right angles to the road or at an angle from the direction of greatest travel, probably toward town. Snow trap hedge / Outer Row 2nd Row 3rd Row 4th Row 5th Row 6th Row 7th Row 8th Row 9th Row SHELTER BELT ( White Willow (Salix alba) or ^ Russian Golden Willow ( (S. vitellina aurea) (Soft Maple (Acer saccharinum) or f Box Elder (Acer negundo) Norway Poplar (Poplus deltoides) and Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis) Box Elder (Acer negundo} American Elm (Ulmus americana) Bull Pine (Pinus ponderosa) 700 ft. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) 100 ft Sugar or Hard Maple (Acer saccharum) 100 ft European Larch (Larix decidua} 200 ft. Black Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) 100 ft. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalism 160 ft. 2700 cuttings 680 seedlings 1360 seedlings 1360 seedlings 340 seedlings 340 seedlings 90 seedlings 12 seedlings 12 seedlings 25 seedlings 12 seedlings 20 seedlings Hedge along hog yard and inside fruit plantation — Russian Golden Willow, 225 cuttings. Hedge along garden and poultry yard — Russian Olive, 200 seedlings. All seedlings and cuttings are set 2 feet apart in the row in snow trap, shelter belt and hedges, except the inner row of the shelter belt made up of miscellaneous species planted 8 feet apart in the row. In rows numbers 4 to 7 the Norway Poplars and Green Ash are planted alternately, Poplars to be removed in about 5 years. In row 8 Box Elders and Elm to be planted alternately. Box Elders to be removed in 6 or 8 years. All rows of shelter belt except \Villows to be thinned to 8 feet apart when necessary. 36 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD PLATE II.— FARMSTEAD FACING EAST This plan can be used for farmstead facing North, by planting trees along what is now the right side (as they are planted along the road in Plate I) and by omitting the trees along the bottom of the sketch, which would then be East The area and planting plan of this farmstead is the same as that shown in Plate I. THE NOKTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 37 LOCATION OF WINDBREAKS OR SHELTER BELTS Around the entire farmstead except perhaps along the east side, a thick windbreak or shelter belt of trees should be planted so as to give protection to all the buildings, gardens and lawns. If the house faces either north, south or west, it may not be desirable to plant a solid shelter belt in that direction because of obstructing a view of the road. (In these cases it might be possible to purchase a strip of land across the road and plant the shelter belt there, planting the trees some distance from the road to avoid closing the road with snow drifts. Clusters of trees may be planted along the road with a low hedge between the tree clusters. This will give some protection as well as a good view of stretches of the road from the house and of the house from the road. MAKING A SHELTER BELT The shelter belt should be 50 to 75 feet wide. The rows should be about 9 feet apart, — to better facilitate cultivation with two horse implements, — with the young trees about 2 feet apart in the row; these should later on be thinned out to 4 or 8 feet interspaces. In sections having rather dry soils the tree rows might be 10 or 12 feet apart so as to provide more moisture for each tree with a more rapid growth resulting. The outer rows should be made up of fast growing trees such as Willow, Box Elder and Soft Maple, to serve as a protection for the inner rows which should consist of the larger slower growing, longer lived trees, with greater timber value. Such trees are the Green Ash, Red and Burr Oak, Basswood, European Larch, Rock Maple, Black Walnut, Black Wild Cherry, and Elm. The outer rows of willows should be planted close together and allowed to branch near the ground in order to furnish the maximum amount of protection. On the edge of the lawn next to the shelter belt, plant trees and shrubs of varying heights and colors, in natural groups with curved outlines to break the abrupt straight line where lawn and shelter belt meet. Trees valuable for this purpose are : Black Hills Spruce, Jack Pine and Western Yellow Pine (also called Bull Pine and Ponder osa Pine) European Larch, Hackberry, Elm, White Birch, Mountain Ash, Flowering Crab Apples, Niobe and Wisconsin Weeping Willow, Silver Poplar, Quaking Asp, Russian Golden Willow and Russian Olive. SNOW TRAP A hedge or single row of trees should be planted about 75 to 100 feet outside of the outer row of trees in the shelter belt, to act as a snowtrap. By this means the snow will accumulate in the intervening space. The snow will not then pile up around the house and across the drives. Without this snow trap many of the young trees in the 38 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD windbreak are frequently broken down. The laurel leaf willow is fre- quently recommended for this purpose, because of its low spreading bushy habit, but as it is soon infested by insects and disease the White Willow, and Russian Golden Willow are more suitable. The space between this outer row and the shelter belt is an excellent place for a never failing alfalfa patch or for a small fruit plantation. If a shelter belt, planted according to these directions, is located 100 to 150 feet from the buildings and drives it will give the maximum amount of protection without piling the snow up to an objectionable degree. With proper handling the shelter belt will provide a liberal supply of fuel and lumber for farm uses. THE FARM WOODLOT It is a wise plan to increase the size of tlie shelter belt to a width of 100 to 200 feet and let it serve as a woodlot. Parts of the farm not easily cultivated can be profitably used for a farm woodlot. The farm woodlot will not yield much profit for 7 or 8 years. By that time it will be producing fence posts, from the more rapid growing species. Later it will furnish poles, railroad ties, lumber for repairs and finally the slower growing species can be marketed for their timber. Our large forests are becoming smaller and smaller with the result that already the farm woodlots are important sources of lumber. Their importance will increase as the years go by, especially so in a section as destitute of forests as is most of North Dakota. The farm woodlot is an expense for several years, but thereafter should be a source of income for the life time of the planter and those who follow him on the farm. The species used in a woodlot depend very largely upon the value of the land. On cheap land, that cannot well be utilized for anything else, the long lived trees producing the most valuable timber such as Oak, Hard Maple, Larch, Black Wild Cherry, Black Walnut and Western Yellow Pine, should be planted. On higher priced land the cheaper sorts of timber will prove most profitable, except where the slow growing valuable timber sorts have a greater value for the protection they afford and for ornamentation, than for timber. The reason for this is that the cheaper timber products, are marketed locally in the form of posts, railroad ties and cordwood which cannot profitably be shipped to or from great distances and also because a number of crops of these products can be grown in the time that one crop of high priced timber could be matured. These cheaper sorts would be such trees as the Willows, Ash, Cottonwood, Norway Poplar and perhaps Box Elder. CARE OF WOODLOT No animals should be allowed to graze in the woodlot as they will destroy many of the young trees and will injure the older ones. The trees should be planted as close as in a shelter belt so as to make THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 39 them grow tall and straight but not so close as to make them suffer for lack of light, moisture or plant food. Every year some trees can be cut out, taking the less valuable species first. Natural seeding should be encouraged. See to it that there is a good stand of the better kinds of trees. This is accomplished by scattering seed or planting young trees in the unoccupied areas and in clearing out all the poorer kinds every year. The woodlot also offers a chance for employment in odd seasons of the year. Figure 32 — Grove planting of Green Ash 25 years old on Experiment Station Grounds. HEDGES Next to the planting of shelter belts and woodlots eome hedges, as a means of making an economic use of trees and shrubs on a farm. The principal uses to which hedges are put, are to take the place of fences which would be unsightly and in need of frequent repair, to enclose feed lots, pasture, gardens or lawns. Hedges will not serve 40 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Figure 33— Russian Golden Willow Figure 34 — Buckthorn. Figure 35— Untrimmed Russian Olive Hedge Figure 36 Trimmed Russian Olive Hedge. HEDGES ON CAMPUS OF NORTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 41 Figure 37 — Red Cedar with Canoe Birch in background. Figure 39 — Tartarian Honeysuckle. Figure 38 — Caragana or Siberian Pea Tree Figure 40— Soft Maple. COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION GROUNDS 42 THE NOKT.H DAKOTA FARMSTEAD as a complete substitute for fences to hold back live stock, as the stock will soon learn to get through and the hedge will take on a ragged appearance. They are valuable for protecting stock from winds. Hedges have other values in that they are ornamental, hide unsightly objects, afford wind protection, and some hedge plants produce edible fruit. Still another use to which hedges could be put, especially in localities where soil drifts, is to plant them east and west across fields to break the force of the winds ajid prevent soil drifting. A hedge planted across a field will protect the- adjoining parts of the field for 50 feet, for every foot of its height. Thus a hedge 5 feet high will protect a field from wind damage for 250 feet. These figures are from actual measurements taken at Indian Head, Canada, by Dr. Saunders who states that after a violent spring storm a belt of trees 15 feet high protected the grain for 750 feet, beyond which distance the grain became gradually thinner until a little further on where it was entirely obliterated. Should a community get together and agree to plant hedges uniformly throughout that region they will get excellent results. The objection to one farmer doing it alone on less than a section of land is that his hedges will stop and hold the snow coming over the prairie for a great distance, with the result that he must wait a long time in spring until the parts of the field along the hedge are dry enough to work. With community co-operation in this matter, the snow would be more evenly distributed, as there would not be such a wide sweep of open country. Some of our best hedges for stock protection are : Russian Golden Willow, Russian Olive, Buffalo or Bull Berry, Soft or Silver Maple, Wild Plum, Barberry and Buckthorn. For ornamental hedges we have the Siberian Pea Tree or Caragana, Tartarian Honeysuckle, Buckthorn, Russian Golden Willow, Flowering or Missouri Currant, Silver Berry and Red Cedar. ORNAMENTATION OF THE FARMSTEAD Next to the point of utility, the chief reason for planting trees around a farm home is to make it more comfortable, more beautiful and a more homelike place to live. The best way to secure this is to have the house, — which is covered with vines and whose foundation walls are hidden by shrubs, — set back from the street quite a distance, with large open lawns all around. The edges of the lawn can be lined with ornamental hedges either trimmed or natural, depending on the plants used and with a border of ornamental shrubbery planted in irregular naturally curved lines. Clusters of trees and shrubs can be planted here and there along the edge of the lawn and on the lawn to hide objectional views and to emphasize good views of natural objects as hills, lakes, streams and fields or of the house from the street, — by serving as a natural picture frame. Where possible, plant shrubs and trees in the hollows of curves in drives and walks to give an apparent reason for the curve and to keep people from going across the lawn. THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 43 PLATE III. A SIMPLE PLAN FOR THE ORNAMENTATION OF THE FARMSTEAD AS SHOWN IN PLATE I AND II. A plan similar to this would be suitable for any farm home. Anyone desiring a more elaborate plan, can get suggestions from the more complete planting plan for the same farmstead, as shown in Plate IV, or they can be added in parts from year to year. The following trees and shrubs are suggested for the farmstead shown in Plate III. PLATE NO. NAME OF TREE OR SHRUB 1 Red Twigged Dogwood Red Cedar Spirea Van Houttei 4 Virginia Creeper 5 Bulbs or Annual Flowers 6 American Elm White or Canoe Birch Russian Golden Willow, Honeysuckle or Buckthorn 9 Hackberry or Green Ash 10 Caragana or Buckthorn NUMBER TO PLANT 6 2 5 14 1 1 50 1 90 44 THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD SCREENING THE BACKYARD Hide the back or service yard by planting a hedge of tall grow- ing shrubs around it. The kitchen and probably the wash room and milk room should open on this yard. A few shade trees in the vicinity of the wash room will be greatly appreciated by the men while waiting for meals during the summer. A small open grove to one side and to the rear of the house, where a gcod view of the road may be had Figure 41 — Shrubbery cluster in hollow of road showing use of flowers. and convenient to the garden will serve as a shady place for cleaning vegetables, for open air gatherings and as a place for children to play. An untrimmed or natural hedge should be planted between the back yard and the barn yard so as to make the two distinct. However, it is undesirable to have too many trees between the house and barn as they obstruct the view. Do not have many trees close enough to the house to shade it and make it dark and damp. ARRANGEMENT AND SELECTION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS. Avoid monotony in the planting of the farmstead. Use dif- ferent kinds of trees growing to different heights and shapes and having various colored flowers and leaves. Use shrubs very freely. They afford greater variations in kind and season of blossoming, in character of their leaves and height and character of growth. In front and among the shrubs can be scattered a number of hardy perennial flowering plants. These are flowering plants whose tops THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 45 die down each year but whose roots live in the soil over winter. These afford us a greater variety of flowers than we could otherwise have. Arrange the planting so that it will afford beautiful scenes all seasons of the year. Try to arrange the planting so that there will be a succession of blooming plants in different parts of the grounds all season. Try to have flowers of many different colors at the same time. Have plants with leaves of different shades of green. However, use yellow, white and purpled leaved specimens very sparingly. For early spring effects use some of the bulb plants which produce the first flowers and some early flowering shrub, such as the Flower- ing Almond. During the early summer there is a profusion of blooming shrubs. For mid and late summer there are few flowering shrubs. One of the best for this section is the Mock Orange. The flowering annuals, perennials and the tuberous rooted plants as cannas, dahlias and gladiolus, furnish many flowers at this time. For autumn, use the shrubs and trees that produce berries, as the Mountain Ash and Snowberry ; the species that hold their leaves for the longest time such as the Buckthorn, Spirea, Russian Olive and Barberry; and those that have especially beautiful autumnal colored foliage as the Oaks, Maples, Barberries, Spireas and Birches. PLANTING FOR WINTER EFFECTS Plant very largely for pleasing winter effects to counteract the naturally bleak, desolate feeling of winter. Do this by planting ever- greens extensively, but do not plant too many of the dark, sombre evergreens by themselves as they convey too solemn a feeling. Plant several kinds of evergreens of different colors in the same group. Scatter a number of White Birch trees throughout the different groups of trees and among the evergreens. Use the shrubs with bright colored bark as the Red Dogwood, Russian Golden Willow and Wild Raspberry. Even the ordinary trees and shrubs lend much beauty to the landscape when they are covered with snow. SHOWING SPECIMEN PLANTS Plants that have an especially fine shape, with leaves, flowers or fruit of an unusual kind can be shown off advantageously by planting them by themselves in the open. However, do not plant them in the middle of the lawn, but rather toward the edge, along the drive or close to the house. Plants of this kind are the Mountain Ash, Weep- ing Birch, Spirea, Elm. Hackberry; etc. 46 THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Figure 42 — A group of Red Cedars in a Fargo Park that adds beauty during all seasons. i Figure 43 — Group of Colorado Blue Spruce, Red Cedar and White or Canoe Birch on North Dakota Agricultural College Campus, showing how to place speci- men plants, how White Birch is adapted to planting with evergreens and the beauty of trees on a frosty winter morning. THE NOKTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 47 WHERE TO PLANT FLOWERS Plants grown for their flowers only are always desired but are frequently misplaced by giving them too much prominence. Never have flower beds in the middle of the lawn. Have them along the sides of the house, in long narrow beds, in screened flower gardens or scattered through the shrubbery clusters. Flowers are roughly j- • Figure 44 — A shrubbery cluster composed of White Spruce, Golden Willow and Wild Plum on a frosty morning on the Agricultural College Campus. divided into annuals, hardy perennials, bulbs and tuberous rooted plants. Flowers from any of these classes can be used in any of the ways mentioned. They are all valuable in North Dakota because they produce fine effects the first year while the trees and shrubs are small. USE OF BULB FLOWERS The bulb flowers are the first flowers of spring. They are most effective in large masses of the same variety or scattered in groups along the edge of the shrubbery clusters which they brighten up with fresh color early in the season. "When once planted in the shrubbery borders the bulbs are left there permanently to come up every year. This can be done if they are planted in beds or they can 48 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD PLATE IV. — DETAIL PLAN OP LAWN OF FARMSTEAD SHOWN IN PLATE I AND PLATE II. Anyone desiring to work out a complete plan similar to this may find it advisable to draw up some such plan and work it out gradually by planting some of the different parts during a number of years. A more simple plan will be found in Plate III. LIST OF MATERIALS SUGGESTED NO. ON PLATE NAME 1 Hardy Rose (Rosa rugosa) 2 Siberian Crab (Pyrus baccata} 3 Tartarian Honeysuckle 4 Tuberous rooted, frost tender plants as Cannas and Dahlias 5 Annuals, — as Asters, Nasturtiums, etc 6 Burr Oak Red Cedar 8 High Bush Cranberry 9 June Berry 10 Wolf Berry NUMBER TO PLANT 6 3 12 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 49 NO. ON PLATE 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 NUMBER TO NAME PLANT Niobe Weeping Willow 1 European Larch 19 Choke Cherry 9 Russian Golden Willow 11 Silver Poplar 1 Dwarf Pine. 6 Jack Pine 3 Western Yellow Pine 9 Black Hills Spruce 10 Canoe or White Birch 18 Red Twigged Dogwood 18 Buckthorn 90 Sumac 3 Missouri or Flowering Currant . 10 Sapa or Opata Plum 6 Hawthorn 2 Colorado Blue Spruce 1 Hackberry 2 American Elm 6 Black Walnut 8 Mountain Ash 1 Siberian Pea Tree 4 High Bush Cranberry 3 Red Twigged Dogwood 1 Mock Orange 3 Tartarian Honeysuckle 3 Spirea Van Houttei 10 Red Cedar Flowering Almond Peony 5 Primroses Perennial Phlox Iris — several varieties Larkspur Columbine Violets 25 Anemone Adams Needle or Spanish Yucca Bush Honeysuckle Scotch Pine Ninebark 6 Red Cedar 3 Persian Lilac Japanese Barberry ^ Spirea Van Houttei 1 Purple Barberry Iris 6 Peonies Sweet William Pale Purple Cone Flower Blood Root Golden Glow Tulips, Narcissuc and other bulb flowers Day Lily Hollyhock Red Dogwood White Lilac Bitter Sweet Virginia Creeper Engleman's Woodbine (Continued on Page 50) 50 THE NOKTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD be dug up after their leaves have died down and then kept in a dry place until planting time. The small early flowering bulbs as Scillas, Snow Drops and Crocuses are very beautiful, when planted in natural clumps in the lawn where they are left undisturbed to come up and bloom each spring. All the spring flowering bulbs — Crocus, Scillas, Snowdrops, Tulips, Narcissus Hyacinths and Tiger Lilies are planted late in September or early in October. The soil should be well pre- pared but with no manure as this causes them to rot. Plant them so that they are covered with soil to £ depth of about 2 or 3 times the diameter of the bulb, the greater depth in sandy soils. All bulbs need a good winter mulch for protection, especially the lilies. Good bulbs can be secured from almost any seedsman. As practically all our spring bulbs are grown in Holland and our lilies in Japan, the location of the seedhouse matters little. When bought directly from seedsmen the cost is not very great. The bulbs come up every year so it is not an annual expense. USE OF ANNUAL FLOWERS For a large amount of flowers in midsummer and for the early beautification of a new place, the annual flowers are best. Since they bloom the same season the seed is sown and live only one year they can be arranged as fillers and in temporary plantings. The seed can be sown in the open ground, but more and earlier flowers can be secured by transplanting the small plants that have been started in the house during March. Some of the most satisfactory flowers of this group are the Asters, Zinnas, Nasturtiums, Verbenas, Marigolds, Poppies, Ten-Week-Stock and Sweet Peas. Sweet Peas will bloom most pro- fusely if the blossoms are cut several times a week. USE OF HARDY PERENNIAL FLOWERS The hardy perennial plants which are so common in the old fashioned gardens are deservedly popular. After they are planted they continue to bloom every year but need little attention. They are best fitted for flower borders along hedges around the house or scattered along the edge of shrubbery clusters. Among the most NO. ON PLATE 71 (Continued from Page 49) NAME Virgin's Bower NUMBER TO PLANT 2 72 Climbing Honeysuckle . . 3 73 Snow Berrv . . „ ..: 3 74 Cut Leaved AVeeping Birch 1 75 American "Rim 1 76 Canoe Birch . 1 77 Wild Plum 22 78 Balm of Gilead . 3 79 Quaking Asp . . 6 80 Sugar or Hard Maple 2 81 Bush Honeysuckle ... 15 82 Lilac . 22 THE NOKTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 51 satisfactory and most popular of these plants are the Peonies, Iris, Columbines, Hollyhocks, Bleeding Hearts, Anemones, Violets, Phlox and Larkspurs. Peonies should be growing on every farmstead as they are unsurpassable for magnificent June flowers. USE OF ROSES Few of the cultivated roses are hardy in North Dakota. The most rugged of the domestic forms are the Hybrid Perpetuals and the Rugosa roses. The latter are tall bushy forms adapted mostly to be used as shrubs. The others need considerable protection over winter. This is best secured by covering them with about a foot of manure. Most roses should not be planted close to the house as most of them are very unsightly when not in bloom. MAKING THE LAWN A good lawn is a prime requisite for a well planted farmstead. When starting a lawn on a new place the surface should be smoothly graded into long, easy flowing, natural lines with a slope away from the buildings. All building debris around new buildings should be removed, for if covered over it will interfere with the moisture supply. The seeding can be done any time of the year, but probably most satisfactory results will be secured by grading the lawn in the fall, and after allowing it to settle over winter, smooth out the irregulari- ties in the surface and sow the seed early in the spring. The best lawn soil is one that naturally retains an abundant supply of moisture all through the season. The soil should be plowed to a depth of seven or eight inches if this is possible. A disk harrow and plank or log drag are the best implements for smoothing over the surface. In all grading be sure to have several inches of good rich soil on the top for a seed bed. WHAT TO SOW FOR LAWNS Kentucky Blue Grass and Red Top are the most largely used and most satisfactory lawn grasses. White clover is often used and comes on rapidly for the first year. This is later crowded out as the other grasses form a turf. For a lawn the seed is sown much more thickly than in the field. For an acre of ground one could use to advantage 25 pounds of each Blue grass and Red Top and about 6 to 8 pounds of White Clover. Brome is the best grass to use when a lawn is to be started under more adverse conditions. It will do better than any other grass in sections with a normally small rainfall where there is no opportunity for artificial watering and where lawns of other grasses could not be established. After securing a good stand of Brome Grass on a lawn, it is then frequently possible to start Blue Grass in the lawn by sowing the seed thinly in the other grass in early spring. It is generally cheapest in the end to buy selected rescreened grass seed. Sow the 52 THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD seed more carefully for a lawn than for a field. Sowing both ways across the lawn will eliminate any blank spaces. If possible, sow the seed just before a rain, which will drive it into the soil. If this is not possible rake the seed in lightly and go over with a roller to hasten germination. Covering the lawn with a thin coat of fine rotted manure just after seeding will conserve the moisture and prevent soil -blowing and thus give the lawn a good start. If there are blank spaces in the lawn at any time loosen the soil at these places with a rake and rake m some seed. The grass may be clipped the first year at a height of 2 inches but this is not necessary. Never allow the grass in the lawn to go to seed, as this weakens the plants. Many weeds will appear the first year. It is best to cut these off, as in pulling them, many little grass plants are destroyed. The first winter a mulch of well rotted manure should be applied to the lawn. After the first year this mulch is not necessary for protection, but a thin coat of fine well rotted manure applied in fall and raked off in spring will apply much plant food. Fresh manure should never be used on a lawn on account of the danger of its carrying weed seeds. It is a good practice to go over the lawn with a heavy roller each spring to compact the soil around the roots and to smooth the sur- face. When once established the lawn will be in best condition if not clipped too short, about 2 inches is a good length. A very neat looking farm lawn can be secured by clipping it 3 or 4 times a season with a mowing machine. If watering the lawn is ever practiced, liberal amounts of water should be applied when needed. SOURCE OF PLANTING MATERIAL Trees grown in other sections do not always do well in this state. There are three general methods of securing trees and shrubs, that are available to the North Dakota farmer: (1) Digging them from the native woodlands. (2) Buying them from a suitable nursery. (3) Raising them in a nursery plantation on the farm. The native woodland is a good place to secure small evergreens, — if they are found there, — and large trees for planting around the house. However, it is hard to get small uniform trees for the shelter belt. Another trouble is, that the trees growing in a native woodland have been protected by other trees, partially shaded and have the kind of soil they prefer. Such trees may suffer considerably when transplanted to the open prairie where they receive no protection and are often in a very different soil. The advantage of securing trees from a nurseryman is, that his trees are more uniform in size, have a better root system and being grown in the nursery row, are more adapted to the open prairie than the native woodland trees. In securing trees from a nurseryman always be sure that they are produced from northern grown seed, that THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 53 the trees are northern grown trees and that they shall be well packed for shipping. It is much better to deal directly with a reliable nursery than with the traveling tree agent. The cheapest source of obtaining trees is the farm nursery. From one-fourth to one-half acre will raise as many trees as an average farmer will need. The seed should be from northern grown trees. Sow the seed in rows about 4 feet apart so that the trees will be a foot apart in the rows, and cultivate constantly. SIZE AND AGE OF PLANTING MATERIAL The best age to plant is that which is most economical. For the shelter belt, seedling trees (trees one to two years old) are the most economical, as they are the cheapest and also the most easily trans- planted. Cuttings can usually be used for the willows. Note is made under the discussion of the different species when year old seedlings are not the best to use for shelter belt planting. When planting shrubs and trees for specimens or clusters or near the house it is best to get the largest specimens of the variety that can well be trans- planted in so far as the expense will permit. Generally these are 3 or 4 year old shrubs and 6 to 10 year old trees. For hedges either cuttings or seedlings can be used, depending largely on the variety used. UNPACKING PLANTING MATERIAL Generally the farmer has little to do with the packing of his trees and shrubs by the nurserymen. However, he should insist that his material be properly dug and packed. The important point in digging and packing is protection of the root system from unnecessary mutilation and most of all from drying. As soon as possible after goods arrive at the freight depot they should be removed and un- packed. If the soil is ready, plant them at once. If the soil is not ready, open all the bundles and "heel in" the trees or shrubs, making a deep furrow and laying the trees in this furrow with the tops lying on the soil thrown out and then cover the roots with soil by throwing a furrow of earth over them. PREPARING THE SOIL FOR PLANTING TREES The time for planting trees and shrubs is either late fall after the leaves have dropped or early spring. For a general mixed plantation of small trees early spring planting is preferable. Before planting trees or shrubs see that the soil is well prepared. Trees should not be planted in a freshly broken prairie sod but it should be worked for at least a year so as to be in fine condition. The soil for a windbreak should be plowed to the depth of a foot if possible, and should be pre- pared even better than for a wheat crop. Trees require soil prepara- tion onlv once in one or several life times and it should therefore be 54 THE NOKTH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD very thorough. Remember that the forest soils naturally are loosened to a great depth by the tree roots and that the surface is covered with several inches of leaf mold while the natural prairie soil presents a very different condition. A hoed crop as corn or potatoes is the best to precede a tree qrop. A stubble field is not very desirable as it leaves the soil too open, making it liable to dry out. Manure will help to open a heavy clay soil, but is not needed for fertility and should be added at least a year ahead of the time the trees are to be planted. Manure should be carefully used as some trees prefer poor soils. Figure 45 — Russian Golden Willow Cuttings. (10 inches long., 250 to a bunch). PLANTING THE TREES In planting seedling trees for windbreaks, open deep furrows with a plow a short distance ahead of the planters so the ground will not dry out. Plant the seedlings a few inches deeper than they were growing in the nursery row, packing the ground firmly around them. Cuttings should be 8 to 12 inches long and one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter. Make cuttings from the young wood of the trees. They should be placed in a furrow on a slant (so that the soil will pack around them more throughly) with the root end down, leaving about 2 inches of the cutting above ground. Another way is to make a slanting hole with a stick or iron bar and insert the cuttings. Never push the cutting into hard soil as this would do serious damage to the bark and buds. When planting large trees the hole should be dug large enough to receive all the roots of the tree without crowding or twisting them and so that the tree will be planted a few inches deeper than it was in the nursery. Always cut off all broken roots with a smooth, slanting cut and cut back the top sufficiently to balance the pruning done on the roots. Fill in first the top soil which in digging should THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 55 be thrown on a separate pile, to give the best soil around the young roots, then add layer by layer, packing down each layer with the feet. While planting do not allow the roots of the trees to dry out. To avoid this place the trees held for planting in a barrel or tub of water which can be moved about on a low wagon or stoneboat. TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS Special care needs to be taken when transplanting evergreens. Do not allow their roots to be exposed to the sun or wind for even a minute. Move them with as big a ball of earth as is possible to avoid injuring the root system. Do not allow them to suffer for lack of water before they are well established. It is best to get only small evergreens (about 8 to 12 inches tall) for transplanting. Many large evergreens are transplanted in August or late fall. MOVING LARGE TREES Large trees can be moved in the fall and winter with compar- atively little difficulty by digging around the tree until it is entirely loose, leaving a ball of earth several feet in diameter around the roots. The tree can then be loaded on to a small short stoneboat and hauled to the place where it is wanted. When planting trees in the fall be sure to give them a thorough watering, so that the roots will not dry out over winter and to anchor the trees in the ground, as the water freezes around the roots, thus avoiding injury from the wind by swaying. WHEN TO PLANT FLOWERS All bulbs, except some of the lilies, should be planted in the fall. Hardy perennials can be planted either in fall or spring. The best time is in the fall after which they should be given good winter pro- tection. Most hardy perennials are planted so that the crowns are just at the surface of the earth. THE CULTIVATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS All flowering plants, shrubs and trees should be especially well cultivated just after being planted, to conserve the soil moisture for them and to keep down the weeds. In the windbreak and along hedges, horse cultivation is easily given. All the sod should be cut away within a few feet of all young trees and shrub clusters and the ground should be frequently cultivated with a hoe. After trees and shrubs once shade the ground cultivation is not of such great importance. A deep mulch of straw or manure will answer the same purpose. 56 THE NOETH DAKOTA FAEMSTEAD PRUNING TREES SHRUBS AND HEDGES In pruning all shrubvs and trees try to remove branches that are crowding each other by rubbing against each other and all broken dead or unsightly branches. If the top of a tree or shrub does not admit enough light or is too crowded it should be thinned out. Trees Figure 46 — Moving large White Birch tree at Fargo. Note the short stone boat and also the burlap around the trunk of the tree to prevent injury from the chain. in the woodlot or shelter belt should be gone over every year for several years to trim off all branches that would tend to prevent a tall, straight tree or that would interfere with cultivation. Always saw or cut off a branch with a smooth cut as near as possible to the main branch or trunk, leaving no stubs. It is best to cover all large wounds with paint. Shrubs can be kept from becoming unsightly with age THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 57 by removing the old shoots frequently and giving the young shoots a better chance for development. Always try to preserve the natural shape of the plant, as this is much more beautiful than any fanciful or grotesque figure into which it might be trimmed. Hedges do not fall in this category as their value depends upon their being kept low, so as to be thick and impervious to live stock. A sharp corn knife is the best tool for trimming hedges. This trimming should never be done later than the last of July, as later trimming will cause a new growth to start. Old dead branches should be cut off when they appear as such. With some hedges, as the Kussian Golden Willow, it is necessary to cut them down to the ground every few years to get a new growth. The best time for trimming trees and most shrubs is when the leaves are off. Figure 47 — Showing cultivation of a planting of ash trees. WINTER PROTECTION Winter injury results from trees going into winter with the young growth not fully ripened and from the drying out of the roots. The most practical means of winter protection for lawn, shrubs, trees and fruit trees is a deep mulch of manure applied after the ground is frozen. This prevents the drying out of the roots over winter and by keeping the ground frozen will prevent any injury that might come from a possible mid-winter thaw. Very valuable or freshly transplanted 58 THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD trees will justify a very heavy watering just before the ground freezes, to provide considerable soil moisture for the protection of the roots. In the shelter belt manure mulching is not always practical. The mulch is there provided by thorough cultivation during the entire summer. INSECT PESTS AND STANDARD SPRAYS All insects can be divided into two main groups, — those with biting mouth parts that eat the foliage and those with sucking mouth parts that suck the sap from the leaves and stems. The same spray material cannot be used for both these groups. Those with biting mouth parts can be poisoned with a spray of Paris Green, — y2 Ib. to 50 gal. water, or with arsenate of lead, — 2 to 4 Ibs. to 50 gal. of water. The arsenate of lead is the better of the two, because it adheres to the foliage for a longer time. Sucking insects must be combatted by a spray that will kill the insect by coming in contact with it. Such materials are soap solutions, principally of whale oil soap, — 1 Ib. to 6 gal. water for use on foliage. — tobacco decoctions and kerosene emulsion, — made by dissolving half a pound of hard soap in 1 gallon of boiling water, then adding 2 gallons of kerosene, emulsifying the mixture into a creamy mass by stirring or running through a spray pump, diluting this material with 3 or 4 parts of water to one part of the emulsified solution for winter tree spraying, and with 8 to 10 parts of water for use when the leaves are on the trees. These general instructions apply to vegetables, flowers, fruit, forest and ornamental trees and shrubs. COMMON TREE AND SHRUB INSECTS The most common serious insect pests of forest trees and ornamen- tal trees and shrubs are: Canker Worm, — attacking most forest trees, Box-Elders and Elms, denuding them of early spring foliage. Can be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead early in the spring to poison the caterpillars, or placing a band of tar or some other sticky material around the trunk of the tree in August to catch the female moths as they climb up the tree to lay their eggs. It is best to put this sticky material on a piece of building paper or burlap so as to be sure it will not injure the tree. Where these methods are not practicable continuous summer cultivation and burning the in- fested leaves will tend to control this insect. The Cottonwood Leaf Beetle, attacking the Cottonwoods and Willows: the Willow caterpillars, attacking the Willows and Poplars are the most serious biting insects of early summer. The Box Elder Leaf Roller is a biting insect doing its damage in late summer. THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 59 The Box Elder Plant Louse, Elm Leaf Louse, Snow Ball Louse, Scurfy Scale, — attacking Cottonwoods and Willows — and the Cottony Maple Scale, — attacking Box Eders, Maples, Virginia Creepers, Bass Woods, and frequently Elms, — are the most serious sucking insects. There are certain gall making insects and twig borers that cannot be controlled except by removing the galls or dead twigs, which gen- erally contain eggs or young larvae. (Residents of North Dakota desiring assistance in the planning of farm ground plantings and further suggestions as to planting mater- ials, can secure such assistance by sending a sketch, — drawn to scale — of the farmstead to be planted, together with a statement as to the location, kind of soil, slope of land or any other information necessary in drawing up a suggestive plan, — to the North Dakota Experiment Station, Agricultural College, N. D. All such requests will be given as much attention as the work of the department permits.) THE NORTH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD 61 INDEX. Page Adam's Needle 32 Almond, Flowering 23 Anemone 30 Annual Flowering Plants 32 Annual Flowering Plants, Use of.... 50 Artemisia - 31 Ash, American Mountain 18, 19 Ash, Green 8 Baby's Breath 31 Balm of Gilead 15 Barberry, Common 21 Barberry, Japanese 21 Barberry, Purple Leaved 21 Basswood 18 Birch, American White 6 Birch, Canoe or Paper 5, 46 Birch, Cut Leaved Weeping 7 Bittersweet 29 Black Eyed Susan 32 Black Haw 27 Black Walnut 8, 9 Blazing Star 31 Bleeding Heart 31 Blood Root 32 Box Elder 3 Buckthorn 23, 34 Buffalo or Bull Berry 25 Bulb Flowers 47 Caragana 22, 41 Cedar, Ground 10 Cedar, Red , 9, 10, 46 Cherry, Choke 23 Cherry, Pin 15 Cherry, Western Sand 23 Cherry, Western Choke 23 Cherry, Wild Black 15 Columbine 30 Cottonwood 14 Cottony Maple Scale 4 (Coral Berry 26 Crab Apples, Siberian 15 Cultivation of Trees and Shrubs-55, 57 Currants, Flowering 24 Cuttings, Size of Day Lily 31 Dogwood 22 Drives, Walks and 35 Dutchman's Pipe 30 Elders 24 Elms, Common, American or Water 19, 20 Elms, Slippery or Red 20 Entrance to Farmstead 35 Evergreen Trees, Transplanting-... 55 Farm Buildings. Arrangement of.... 33 Farmstead, Locating the 33 Farmstead, Ornamentation of.... 42, 43, 48, 49 Page Flowering Shrubs 27 Flowers, Annual, Names of 32 Flowers, Annual Use of 50 Flowers, Bulb 47 Flowers, Hardy Perennial, Use of.. 50 Flowers, When to Plant f 55 Flowers, Where to Plant 47 Fruit Plantation 33 Gentian 31 Golden Glow 32 Golden Rod 32 Grape, Wild 30 Hackberry 7 Hardiness, What it means 2, 3 Hardy Perennial Flowers 30, 32 Hawthorn, 22 Hazelnut 22 Hedges, Community Planting of 42 Hedges, Pruning 57 Hedges, Shrubs for ~ 27, 40-42 Hedges, Use of 39-42 Hedges, Wind Protection from 42 High Bush Cranberry '26, 27 Hollyhock 30 Honeysuckle, Bush 23, 39 Honeysuckle, Climbing 30 Hop Vine 30 Indian Currant 26 Insect Pests 58-59 Iris 1 31 Ironwood 11 Ivy, Boston 29 June Berry 21 Larch, European 10 Larkspur 31 Lawn, Making the 51 Lawn, Use of Manure on 52 Lawn, What to sow for a 51 Lawn, When to seed a 52 Lilac - 26 Lily-of-the-Valley 31 Linden, American 18 Madder, Wild .... Maple, Hard or Sugar 4 Maple, Soft or Silver 5 Mock Orange - Moonseed, Canada 30 Moving large trees 55, 56 Ninebark 23 Oak, Burr 16 Oak, Red 15 Pale Purple Cone Flower .. Peony 31 Phlox, Perennial 32 Pine, Jack 12, 13 Pine, Western Yellow or Bull.... 12, 13 Pine, Scotch 13 62 THE NOETH DAKOTA FARMSTEAD Page Pine, Dwarf 23 Planting material for North Dakota 2 Planting material, source of 52 Planting material, size and age 53 Planting material, unpacking 53 Planting for seasonal effect 45 Planting for winter effects 45 Planting trees 54 Plum, Wild 15 Poplars, Norway 14 Poplars, Silver or White 15 Poppy, Iceland 32 Preparing soil for planting 53 Primrose , 31 Protection, Winter 57 Pruning trees, shrubs, hedges 56-57 Quaking Asp 15 Raspberry, Wild 24 Roses, Use of 51 Roses, Wild 24 Russian Olive 22, 40 Sheep Berry 27 Shelter Belt, Location of a 34-37 Shelter Belt, Making of a 37 Shelter Belt, Trees for a 20, 35, 37 Shrubs, for dry soils 27 Shrubs, for fall and winter 27 Shrubs for North Dakota 21-27 Shrubs, with edible berries 27 Siberian Pea Tree 22, 41 Silver Berry . 23 Snowball, Common 27 Snow Berry 26 Snow Trap 37 Soils, Preparing, for planting 53 Soils, shrubs for dry 27 Soils, trees for dry 20 Soils, trees for wet 20 Specimen plants 45 Spirea, Van Houttei 25 Spirea, Anthony Waterer 25 Spirea, Willow Leaved 25 Spray materials 58 Spruce, Black Hills 11 Spruce, Colorado Blue 11, 12, 4 Spruce, Norway 1 Spruce, White 11, 4 Sumac, Scarlet 2 Sweet William 3 Symphoricarpus 2 Tamarisk 2 • Thorn Apple 2 Timber trees for North Dakota 20, 3 Transplanting Evergreens 5 Trees, for North Dakota 3-2 Trees, for special purposes 2 Trees, Moving large 55, 5 Trees, Planting 5 Trees, Possibilities for growing .... Trees, Preparing soil for 5: Trees, Pruning 5 Trees, Source of, for planting 5 Unpacking, planting material 5 Vegetable Garden 3: Vines, Annual 3 Vines, for North Dakota 28-3 Vines, Hardy Woody 29-3' Vines, Hardy Perennial 3i Violets 3! Virginia Creeper ....29, 28, 2' Virgin's Bower 2! Wa]ks and Drives 3i Walnut, Black 8, ! Willow, Diamond II Willow, Laurel Leaf I1 Willow, Niobe 11 Willow, Peach Leaved 1 Willow, Russian Golden 16, 40, 5- Willow, Sandbar I1 Willow, White or Gray 16, 1' Windbreaks, Trees for 2i Windbreaks, Location of 34-3' Winter protection of trees 5' Wolf Berry £< Woodbine 2J Woodbine, Engleman 's 2! Woodlot, Oare of the 38-3! Woodlot, The Farm 3) Woodlot, Trees for the" 38, 2i 1 1426 Issued March 22, 1912. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMERS' INSTITUTE LECTURE 14. A. C. TRUE, Director. SYLLABUS OF ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON FARM HOME GROUNDS-THEIR PLANTING AND CARE. BY S. W. FLETCHER, M. S. PH. D., Director Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1912. PREFATORY NOTE. This syllabus of a lecture upon Farm Home Grounds — Their Plant- ing and Care, by S. W. Fletcher, M. S., Ph. D., director of the Vir- ginia Agricultural Experiment Station, is accompanied by 51 views illustrating this topic. The syllabus and views have been prepared f 01 the purpose of aiding farmers' institute lecturers in their presentatior of this subject before institute audiences. The numbers in the margins of the pages of the syllabus refer tc similar numbers on the lantern slides and to their legends as giver in the Appendix. JOHN HAMILTON, Farmers' Institute Specialist. Recommended for publication. A. C. TRUE, Director. Publication authorized. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., December 1, 1911. No. 14 (2) FARM HOME GROUNDS-THEIR PLANTING AND CARE. By S. W. FLETCHER, M. S., Ph. D. INTRODUCTION. View. We are influenced by our environment often more than we know or are willing to admit. Children especially are sensitive to their surroundings. The unattractiveness of their homes has driven more country boys to the cities than the hard work of the farm or its restricted social life. This unattractiveness of his home surroundings and lack of the common comforts and conveniences of life within it has made many a farmer's boy hate the farm and led him to the city as soon as he was of age. The farmer owes to his wife and to himself, but chiefly to his children, the best that he can do toward increasing the attrac- tiveness of his home. This does not necessarily mean a large expenditure of money; in fact, the best results are often secured with no expenditure except a little time, and time given to making the home more attractive is well spent. A HOUSE AND A HOME. The views which will be shown illustrate some of the im- portant points to be observed in improving the appearance of the farm home. These improvements involve little or no expense in their execution and may be accomplished in the time that the busiest farmer and his family can easily find if they have an appreciation of their importance and a disposi- tion to undertake the work. The heart of the subject is illustrated in the first two slides, which show the external difference between a house and a home. This is a picture of a farmhouse on a western prairie. It J looks like a new and very comfortable farm " house. " Doubt- less the farm is productive and the family prosperous. But something is lacking; it does not look homelike. You would not care to live there. 26198°— No. 14—12 (3) View. 2 The next slide shows a farm l ' home. ' ' The whole place looks comfortable. It invites you to come in and sit with the family by the fireside. It is a home; you would like to live there. A few trees, a vine or two, and some grass may make the dif- ference between a house and a home. A house is merely a shelter, a place where people stay. A home is a house, with evi- dences in and about it that the people who live there love it. They have taken the trouble to make it attractive and inviting. There are hi this country too many farmhouses and too few farm homes. Yet no one loves his family more than the farmer or is more interested in their welfare. His neglect of their surroundings is not from lack of affection but lack of knowledge and appreciation of the effect of shrubs, trees, vines, and a well-kept lawn upon the family life. 3 Farm homes ought to be the most attractive of all homes, since they are in the open country where plants live and are free to grow. Very few farms are as unfortunately situated as that shown in this picture. This is a farmhouse on a cattle range in one of the semiarid regions of the West, beyond the possibility of irrigation. The landscape is drear and desolate. Not a tree can be seen — only a waste of sagebrush and cacti. The desert has a charm of its own, but without irrigation this house can never be made homelike on the outside, whatever it may be within. 4 How different is the scene in the next picture, which shows a farm home under more favorable circumstances. Grass and trees, the two most important aids to home adornment, grow luxuriantly. It is easy to have an attractive home under these conditions. The great majority of American farms are located where trees, grass, and flowers grow without special care; if, therefore, the home is not attractive, it is due solely to the negligence of those who are entrusted with its care. FARM BUILDINGS. 5 Before proceeding with the details1 of planting the farm home grounds, a word should be said about farm buildings. This illustration shows a mistake common in locating the buildings. The house is set some distance back from the road, and there are about a dozen small barns, cribs, sheds, pigpens, and other outbuildings between the house and the road, all of which must be passed in going to the house. Under such conditions it will be difficult to make this an attractive farm home. A further disadvantage here is the fact that the house is located in a hollow, close to a spring, and hence is shut off from attrac- No. 14 View. tive views. Nearly all the older farmhouses, in those regions where the home water supply is usually a spring, are located in hollows. But most farmhouses built in recent years are, or should be, supplied with running water in the kitchen from a reservoir filled by a windmill, ram, gasoline engine, or other power, or even from a roof supply. Hence, in a rolling country there is no longer the necessity for locating the house by the spring in the hollow; it can be placed where it will command a view of the farm and surrounding country, which will greatly enhance its attractiveness. The farmhouse should be of simple and dignified architec- 6 ture. It should be sightly as well as comfortable. The owner should avoid striving after elaborate designs. The "ginger- bread" architecture of this house makes it ridiculous, because it is out of place. The elaborate scroll-saw work is "fussy," and soon becomes shabby. How much more satisfactory is the farmhouse shown here. Contrast its simple, straight lines 7 with the cut-up and artificial design of the other. It is beauti- ful because it is simple ; it looks l i homy, " and fits in well with its surroundings. The other house merely copies city architec- ture. It might do fairly well in a city or town where every- thing is artificial and crowded, but it looks entirely out of place in the open country. In recent years too many farm- houses have been built according to city designs. It is hard to improve upon the beautiful, roomy, and simple architecture of the farm home of colonial days. The house shown in this picture may not exactly please you in all details — every one should build a house to suit himself; but it illustrates the most important feature of an attractive country home, no matter how costly or how inexpensive — simplicity of design. The principle of simplicity might well extend to other fea- 8 tures of the farm home besides the house. This "sunrise" fence is an interesting piece of carpentry work, but one would hardly call it beautiful or appropriate. A plain wire, iron, or picket fence would be much better. Avoid such conspicuous things as rows of whitewashed stones bordering the walks, whitewashed tree trunks, iron dogs in the front lawn pointing at painted iron partridges, and other curious, striking, gaudy, and in- congruous effects. OUTBUILDINGS. The outbuildings should be in keeping with the house. This 9 shabby barn and slovenly barnyard are within 200 feet of an expensive and really attractive farmhouse. The contrast is striking and painful. How much better are the buildings on No. 14 View. 10 this farm? The barn and other outbuildings are neatly painted and in keeping with the house, and one gets a favorable impression of the whole place. Occasionally we see a farm with a barn that is kept in much better repair than the house; but more often the outbuildings are neglected, and thus they detract from the looks of the house. VALUABLE TREES. 11 The whole farm, not merely the yard, may contribute to the attractiveness of the farm home. A scene like this is a financial as well as an aesthetic asset to any farm. This farmer should think a long time before cutting down any of the trees that skirt the stream and fringe the meadow. A man 12 who has a noble tree like this anywhere in his fields should not begrudge the ground it renders unfit for cropping; the tree 13 is worth it. Especially should he protect fine trees like this that stand along the road bordering his farm. He can afford to sacrifice the ground it occupies for the pleasure it gives to his family and to the community. NEATNESS. The most general and the most serious fault of American farm homes is their unkemptness. Many farmers seemingly are in too much of a hurry to stop to "pick up." Slovenly yards are far more discreditable than bare, unplanted yards; and the very best planting is spoiled by untidiness. This 14 picture shows a farm home that is unattractive, merely because it is untidy. The most common criticism of our country life by European visitors is that so many of our farm homes, even those owned by prosperous farmers, are unattractive, because 15 they are untidy. Dilapidated fences, broken gates, machinery lying around out of doors, the woodpile by the front door, litter scattered around the yard — these and other evidences of lack of care can be seen in farm homes everywhere. Even if 16 the front yard is fairly neat the back yard is apt to look slov- enly, and the back porch is apt to be " cluttered up." On these same places may often be found expensive trees or shrubs, usually bought of a tree agent at an exorbitant price; but it is clear that what the place needs most in order to make it homelike is not 50-cent rosebushes nor dollar weeping wil- 17 lows, but simply a cleaning up. I do not know that farm homes as a class are more untidy than other homes. Un- doubtedly they are more difficult to keep neat than most No. 14 View. homes, and their untidiness is certainly more conspicuous. The average American farmer should give more time to pick- ing up, not forgetting the barnyard. 18 WHERE TO PLANT. Almost everybody loves plants and likes to set them out and watch them grow. Nearly every farm home has plenty of plants about it. The trouble is not so much that people do not plant enough as that they do not plant in the right places. 19 It is as important to know where to plant as what to plant. There are more than a dozen trees and shrubs around this house, but they are scattered about the yard without any ap- parent plan. The trees in front may be satisfactory for shade in time, but nothing has been done to hide the most objection- able feature of the place — the outhouse in the rear. In plant- ing the home grounds it is necessary to have some sort of a plan, preferably on paper, but at least in mind. The main object is to plant in such a way as to make the place look homelike and comfortable. The next few slides illustrate sev- eral ways of accomplishing this. If the farm home grounds are not cramped for room, and usually they are not, plant trees back of the house. When they grow tall the background of trees will set the house off to best advantage. The farmhouse 20 shown here has not a very inviting foreground, but notice how much the trees in the rear add to its homelike appearance. If part of the trees are evergreens, as in this case, so much the better. These background trees may also be useful as a pro- tection from bleak winds. A second principle of landscape gardening applicable to the farm home is this : As far as possible, keep the grounds immedi- ately in front of the house, especially as viewed from the road, free from low-growing trees, shrubs, and flower beds. Let this space be occupied by an unbroken lawn. Generally speaking, at least one-half of the grounds should be in lawn. The most common mistake in planting the farm home is to choke the front yard with a miscellaneous lot of trees, shrub- bery, and ornamental plants. This picture shows typical 21 farmyard planting — basswood, maple, and lilac, syringa, and rose bushes — all huddled together at the front of the house and giving a patchy effect. Contrast with this picture the 22 next, which shows a farm home with a beautiful expanse of rest- ful, unbroken lawn. In the great majority of cases most of the trees and shrubs should be planted in the rear and around the sides of the place, No. 14 8 View. leaving a lawn directly in front of the house, with perhaps a few tall-headed, deciduous trees for shade. The heaviest plant- ing, of course, should be on the side from which come the most annoying winds. If a good outlook means anything to the farmer and his family — and most country people do appreciate it — the border planting will be omitted at the points from which pleasing views may be obtained. Very often this heavy front-yard planting completely shuts out the views of the 23 farm and surrounding country that might have been enjoyed from the house. This slide shows a farm home so modest that 24 it has endeavored to hide itself from view. The next slide shows a view of the farm that could have been enjoyed from the porch of this house if the front yard had not been so choked 25 with trees, especially evergreens. The next slide shows one way of improving the same home. Since the grounds are quite small, most of the tall trees are planted back of the house, giving it a background. The low trees and the shrubs are planted in masses around the sides of the place, and against the foundation of the house. The flowers are planted in the borders against the shrubbery. There is a good lawn. The sketch does not show another much needed improvement — a vine climbing over the porch. This sketch illustrates the three most important points in planting the yard — the back- ground of trees, heavy planting along the sides of the yard, and an open lawn in front of the house. A few high-headed shade trees in the lawn immediately in front of the house are not necessarily a disadvantage, as the 26 next slide shows. There is a nice open lawn beneath the trees, and the house is not shut out of view from the road. These trees protect the house from the hot sun and bleak winds and give a grateful shade on the lawn. Shade trees like these are always desirable in the front lawn. If, however, this front yard were filled with evergreens and shrubs and were cut up with flower beds, the effect would not be at all pleasing. These should be planted along the sides of the yard, not in the middle. Shrubs are also seen to advantage when planted against the 27 foundation of the house, as is shown here. The foundation is usually not attractive, and the shrubbery hides it. The shrubs also make the house seem less artificial; it appears to rise out 28 of the shrubbery. The corner by the steps, which usually is a catchall for rubbish, may be made beautiful by filling it with plants. No. 14 View. A very poor way to grow flowers is shown here. A little 29 round hole has been cut in the lawn, and this has been filled with geraniums and coleus plants that the housewife, with much care, has carried over the winter in the cellar or by the windows. During the summer a few sparse blossoms are borne, but nobody would dare to pick them, because that would destroy the symmetry of the bed. Sometimes flower beds are made in the form of crescents, snakes, flags, and other curious and grotesque designs. There are at least three objections to these flower beds, especially on a farm: They take too much time, they do not produce enough flowers to be worth while, and they are usually out in the middle of the lawn where grass would be prettier. A much better way to grow flowers, especially on the farm, 30 is shown here. This is a flower border, not a flower bed. It is along the side of the lawn, not in the middle. It is irregular and natural, not symmetrical and stiff. There are all sorts of old-fashioned flowers here, and plenty of them, so that even the children are not afraid to pick a handful to carry to their .school teacher. Flowers should be grown not in little beds cut out of the lawn in front of the house, but in borders, along the fences, in front of the shrubbery, against the foundation of the buildings, and bordering the walks. This slide shows 31 some beautiful china asters in a most appropriate place — close to the house and peeping in at the sitting-room window. How much better they look here than they would out in the middle of the lawn. Flowers may also be grown in a flower garden — a little piece of land in the rear or on the side of the place, given up entirely to growing flowers. The charm of the 32 old-fashioned flower gardens of our grandmothers has not passed away. Vines are especially useful around the farm home for screen- ing unsightly objects like fences and outbuildings, and also for draping and softening the architecture of the house. This slide shows the beginning of a screen for the outhouse. 33 In another year the whole fence will be covered. On a great many farms this building stands out without any attempt to screen it, which is little short of indecency. Tall shrubs or evergreens should be planted in such a way as to hide it from the road, and while these are growing a high board fence should be erected and covered with vines, as shown in this picture. Boundary fences and other unlovely objects may also be covered with vines. No. 14 10 View. The use of vines for draping the house, especially the porch or piazza, is the most common form of home adornment in America. The average farm home would be bare indeed 34 without Virginia creeper, morning-glories, and nasturtiums. This picture shows a grapevine that not only adds greatly to the appearance of the house, but also contributes to its supply of healthful fruit. Grapes should be cultivated for decorative purposes much more than they are. WHAT TO PLANT. The preceding slides have given a few suggestions about where to plant, which is of much greater importance than the selection of the particular kinds to be used. On nearly every farm it is possible to grow an almost infinite variety of plants; the question is which ones are best, because only a few can be planted. It is impossible to give a list of plants that would 35 be generally successful in all parts of the country. Here, for example, is a home in southern Florida. These coconut palms, which are so attractive in that semitropical climate, would not be very successful in Michigan. Consult the horticulturist of your State experiment station for lists of plants especially adapted for certain sections. A few general suggestions, how- ever, may help the home maker in making his own selection. (1) Plant chiefly the trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers that are known to thrive in your locality without special care. A few novelties and exotics can be coddled, perhaps, but the main body of the planting should be of tried and proved sorts. This means that neighborhood experience is the best guide. It also means that you will be most apt to be successful with the kinds that are native to your own part of the country. This is especially true of trees and shrubs. Do not look too long upon the glowing colors and fascinating descriptions of the novelties in the seedsman's catalogue. Those kinds noted as "Too well known to need description" are much more apt to please you than the more expensive novelties. 36 (2) Do not plant many cut-leaved, variegated, weeping, and other unusual and striking plants. Most of the trees and shrubs should be the kinds common to the neighborhood, with perhaps a very few specimens of the curiosities. 37 (3) Do not plant many of the quick-growing, and therefore cheap looking, trees, like the poplars, willows, white maples, and box elders. A few of these can be used to advantage to secure quick results, but they should be interspersed with No. 14 11 View. slower growing but more substantial trees like the oaks and the elms, and the nurse trees should be cut out when the perma- nent trees need the space. (4) Most of the flowers for the farm home should be hardy perennials. When once established these come up every year without further trouble, except that they should be divided every few years. They take less time and usually give better results than annuals. (5) Plant the kinds you like. The home grounds should express the personalities and tastes of the family. THE LAWN. This is the most important feature of the home grounds except the trees. Grass and trees will make a fairly attractive home, even without vines, shrubs, and flowers. The lawn 38 should occupy at least one-half of the yard, hence the impor- tance of making a good one. The grading should be done several months before seeding, if possible, so as to allow the ground to settle and to secure a uniform grade before seeding. Prepare the ground deeply, fit it very thoroughly, and enrich it. Make a slight grade away from the house, to secure drain- age, and leave no hollows. Seed very thickly and take pains to seed evenly. A mixture of 50 pounds of bluegrass and 5 pounds each of white clover and redtop per acre gives excel- 39 lent results in most of the Northern and Central States. On some sandy soils of the South, pieces of turf of Bermuda grass must be used. Seeding is best done in early spring. Peren- nial weeds, such as dock, dandelion, and plantain, should be cut out the first season. The annual weeds will not give trouble after the first year. If parts of the lawn get thin and mossy scratch them with a rake, apply a fine compost, and sow more seed. The farmer will ask if a big lawn does not take a lot of care. It is not always necessary to cut the farm lawn with a lawn mower or even with a field mower. This slide shows a farmer 40 who makes the lawn pay by grazing cattle upon it. In this case care must be taken to scatter the manure. Others find sheep more practicable for this purpose. Sheep will keep a lawn as trim as if mowed; but a farm lawn that has flower beds and shrubs scattered over it can not be handled to advantage in this way. No. 14 12 WALKS AND DRIVES. View. Walks and drives are necessary evils, so far as the looks of the 41 place are concerned. Therefore, have only those that are absolutely necessary. If possible, do not allow a drive to bisect the lawn. If a walk is less than 50 feet long, make it straight. Make all longer walks and drives on a direct double curve; avoid serpentine curves. WHAT WILL IT COST? The first question that the farmer asks is: "What will it cost?" feeling that these things are all very nice, but that he can not afford them. Making a farm home attractive need not 42 cost a cent. All it need cost is a little work. The first item of improvement, greater neatness, costs nothing but an effort. The second item of improvement, the plan, costs nothing but study. The third item of improvement, the plants, can be mostly or wholly secured from the wild in nearly all parts of the country. This is especially true of trees. Nothing is better for home planting than the common trees of the sur- rounding woodland — elm, maple, oak, basswood, beech, pop- lar, hickory, black walnut, willow, ash, sycamore, pine, spruce, wild crab apple, and the like. No shrubs purchased of a tree agent are superior to the kinds native to a large part of the country, such as the osier, dogwood, thorn apple, sumac, witch-hazel, wild rose, rhododendron, elder, spicebush, and 43 viburnum. No bought vines can beat the wild Virginia creeper, honeysuckle, clematis, bitter-sweet, and grape. Many of the choicest wild flowers, such as the asters, goldenrods, hepaticas, and violets, do well when transplanted to the flower border; there they grow much larger than in the wild, so that they are hardly recognized as wild flowers. Some of the most attractive farm-home grounds are planted almost 44 entirely with plants dug from the woods and fields. The wild trees and shrubs do not usually grow as well for the first year or two as the nursery plants, but they soon catch up. Home improvement need not take money, but it does take interest. 45 The next four slides show what can be done when people are really interested. This farmhouse certainly looks unpromis- ing enough. It is ugly, unpainted, and without a plant in sight except a little grass. It is simply a house; you would 46 not care to live there. This shows the same place three years after. The house has been transformed into a home. A little paint, a few vines, a shrub or two, and some grass have wrought the miracle. Probably the whole improvement did not cost No. 14 13 View. more than a dollar, aside from the cost of the paint, which pays for itself in preserving the building. Here is an humble cabin in a mountain clearing. There 47 would not seem to be much incentive to improvement here. Yet the cabin looked like this a year later. This improvement 48 cost 10 cents for morning-glory seed. Was the money well spent ? These morning-glories were planted by the woman of the home, not by the man. In fact, it usually is the woman who 49 takes an interest; the man is too busy planting, making, and > harvesting crops to bother with such things. All honor to the American woman, who, no matter how humble her home or how countless her cares, still finds time to keep a few flowers blooming bravely in her windows and by the doorstep. We are interested in making the farm home more attractive because it enriches our own lives; but, far more than that, be- cause of the influence it may have upon the children in the home. The most earnest desire of all normal fathers and 50 mothers is that the children may have more advantages and lead happier and more useful lives than their parents. Nothing has a more potent influence in shaping the life of the child than the home environment. What are we doing to make our own homes more attractive? If we will not take the trouble for ourselves, we certainly should for our children, so that 51 when they leave us to make homes of their own they will always remember with pleasure the old home on the farm. No. 14 APPENDIX. LANTERN SLIDES. No. of view. 1. A bare, unattractive farmhouse. 2. An attractive farm home. 3. Desolate farmhouse in a treeless, semiarid region, without irrigation. 4. Attractive farm home in humid region. 5. Farm buildings between house and road. 6. "Gingerbread" architecture of farmhouse. 7. Simple and attractive architecture of farmhouse. 8. A "sunrise" fence; interesting but not beautiful or appropriate. 9. A shabby barn and slovenly barnyard, not in keeping with the house. 10. Neat outbuildings giving a pleasing appearance to the farmhouse. 11. Sheep grazing in the meadow. 12. Large elm tree. 13. Pine tree by the road. 14. Untidy front yard of a farmhouse. 15. Dilapidated yard fence. 16. Unkempt back yard. 17. Littered back porch. 18. Tools and trash lying around the barnyard. 19. Farm home with an attempt at planting, but no plan. 20. A background of trees for the house. 21. Front yard choked with trees and shrubs. 22. Farm home with open lawn in front of the house. 23. Planting in front yard which shuts off view shown in No. 24. 24. Attractive view of farm not visible from house on account of planting in front yard. 25. Sketch showing a better plan of planting the grounds than in Nos. 23 and 24. 26. Open lawn beneath shade trees in front yard. 27. Shrubs hiding the foundation of the house, 28. Planting in the corners. 29. A flower bed in the middle of the lawn. 30. A flower border by the fence. 31. China asters near the sitting-room window. 32. A flower garden. 33. Screening the outhouse. 34. Grapevine trained to the side of the house. 35. Grove of coconut palms in front of a Florida home. 36. Cut-leaved weeping birch. 37. Carolina poplar. 38. Play of light and shadow, and children on the lawn. 39. An attractive farm home, largely the result of the good lawn and the single vine of Virginia creeper. 40. Farm lawn being grazed by cattle. No. 14 (15) 16 41. Showing a drive with a gentle direct-double curve, with planting in the bends. 42. Wild crab-apple tree in blossom; this tree was transplanted from the woods. 43. Grapevine arbor; this grapevine was dug in the woods. 44. Attractively planted farm-home grounds in which all the plants are native to the vicinity and were dug from the wild. 45. Ugly, unpainted farm home and unplanted yard. 46. The house shown in No. 45, after painting and planting. 47. An humble mountain cabin. 48. The house shown in No. 47, showing the improvement wrought by morning- glories. 49. The woman on the farm; planting a tulip bed. 50. Children helping their mother pick sweet peas. 51. The farm home on the hill. No. 14 PUBLICATION may be pro- -*• cured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy SPECIAL BULLETIN NO. 79. MAY, 1916 MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION DIVISION FORESTRY DEPARTMENT FORESTE COLLEGE OF&A6RICULT UNIVCRSITY OFCAUFORN Typical established clime with the (over In-raking down. MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. Their Control and Better Utilization. BY F. HOBART SANFORD EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN 1916 This publication deals with the conditions found along the windswej shores of the great lakes and inland wherever there is shifting sam The study developed various fads which, if made use of, will assis owners of sand blows 1o formulate systems of control peculiar to thei individual conditions. No attempt has been made to set forth a single system that will appl without variation to any condition, but the object sought in this pr< liminary report is to secure uniformity of reclamation work. A later bulletin may be presented based upon results of the unifon reclamation plan. DIVISION OF FORESTRY COLLEGE OF A AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA JO MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. THEIR CONTROL AND BETTER UTILIZATION. BY F. HOBART SANFORD. Sand dunes occur quite generally on all continents. Some of the most prominent are found in Australia, France, Cape Colony, the Great Sahara and in Western Asia and many other places in the old world. Prominent among the dime areas of the United States are those at Cape Cod, along the Coast of California and Oregon, the Columbia River dune region and the Great Lakes Region. Vast amounts of money have been spent on sand dune reclamation, some to good purpose followed by entire success, and some in the form of experiment. This experimental work has demonstrated satisfactorily the possibility of control. It is no longer a matter of guess although the same methods will not apply in all cases. Dunes which occur near salt water present greater difficulties in their control than those lying- inland or near fresh water. The humidity of the locality as well as the total annual and seasonal rainfall all contribute their effects. The Great Lakes sand dunes are favored in this respect. The lake winds are heavily charged with moisture, and the annual rainfall amounts to from thirty-five to forty inches on the Lake Michigan shore and from twenty- six to thirty inches on the Huron and Superior shores. Under such moisture conditions and with the absence of the deleterious influence of the salt spray of other regions successful reclamation of shifting sand may be assured. The sand dunes in Michigan are found in four belts on the shores of the three greater lakes. These belts are mentioned hereafter as the Superior Belt, meaning the line of dunes found on the Superior shore of the Upper Peninsula; the South Shore Belt, meaning the belt along the south coast of the Upper Peninsula; the West Shore Belt as that formed by the winds and waters of Lake Michigan upon the west coast of the Lower Peninsula; and the fourth, the East Shore Belt as that washed by the waters of Lake Huron. Geologically the sand dunes are young. They had Iheir origin after the disappearance of the Toledo Wisconsin Ice Sheet or when Lake Michigan attained its present shore lines and they have been formed since by wind and water. That timber has been logged and new forests are again produced proves that the forests have conquered the dunes, and, left alone by man and his agents, the dunes would again be covered with natural forest growth. We cannot now expect this to occur, how- ever, and with the competition for farmland becoming stronger, man has attempted to use the dune areas. A time may come when agricultural science will teach us how to safely use all the sands for agricultural pur- poses, but until that time comes those lands should produce the crops now known to be suitable to them. 4 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. Many examples are found where a dune formation occurs covered with forest and other vegetation. The sand is firmly bound by the roots and masses of vegetative cover. No movement of this sand lias occurred for many years. In fact, old forests now stand on and others have been re- moved from these dunes. During the growl h, development, and ripen- ing of this forest there has been no change in the shape or form of these dunes. Such formations are called cNlablixlirfl atuck 1o White Hall. This is 1he largest area of traveling and established dunes on Hie shore, being about fifty- six miles long. Another belt reaches from Little Sable Point 1o Bass Lake, fifteen miles in length. A belt from Ludington includes Big Sable Lake and shore line to within five miles of Manistee, a distance of four teen miles, and from Manistec to Port ago Lake there is a narrow belt five miles long. There is a belt of one mile at Arcadia and a belt from Frankfort around Betsie Point and along the coast for ten miles to the northeast. It occurs again from C.leii Haven and Sleeping Bear Point with a few breaks up at <1a1 Hand Point. Across Great Traverse Bay the dune area forms a narrow belt along 1he shore from Elk Rapids to Charlevoix. From Charlevoix i1 becomes a very narrow belt of about one mile or less in width. Along the shore of Little Traverse Bay to Harbor Springs this belt is generally quite well covered with wild growth of all kinds and is not serious, being of the sand fiat type. From Cross Village to Mackinac City the sand area again becomes extensive with frequent active breaks, extending over twenty-five miles of shore line. Ap- proximately 235 miles of the west shore are of dime formation. Assum- ing that this belt averages one and one-half miles in width of active dune and three miles wide as an average of dime formation there are ''H- square miles, one-half of which is shifting sands. The other half is covered with various forms of wild growth. A small parl is good selec- tion forest of second growth. Most of it is cut over slash and brush land which is rapidly forming traveling dunes. Some of it, formerly cleared for farm purposes, is now reverting to an abandoned state of pot hole blows and traveling dunes. Altogether a careful estimate places the area fit only for timber growth at 225,500 acres. This forms the facing of the peninsula toward Lake Michigan. MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. EAST SHORE AREA. On the east shore a belt ten miles long on Thunder Bay is about one mile in width. From Greenbush to Tawas. Beach there is a belt twenty- live miles long and less than one-half mile wide from Greenbush to Au Sable, but over a mile wide from Au Sable to Tawas Beach. From Quanicassee City to Point Aux Barques on Saginaw Bay there is a narrow strip fifty miles long. From Lakeport to Port Huron there is a belt of approximately eight miles. Conservatively estimating the entire dune sand belt of the Huron shore as averaging one-half mile in width gives a belt of ninety-three miles long by three-quarters of a mile wide covering approximately 40,000 acres. Numerous areas have not been considered in these figures. Fig. 2. A condition of crust removal due to wind action, Big Prairie, Michigan. The constant pull of the wind rapidly tears away the vegetable binding, leavmg a naked sand swept surface. INLAND BLOWS. In various places inland there are large areas of shifting sand. These are not of dime formation. The movement of Hie sand is irregular. (Fig. 2.) The wind causes blow holes and mounds. Onlv a tv\v of these areas were studied. The largest one observed is located at Big Prairie and is extensive. No means are being taken to control it because there is ap- parently no prospect for large financial returns. Where such areas are held privately there should be either one of two plans offered by the State : 1st. Cooperation with the owner in planting with a view toward ult mate forest cover and sand control. 2nd. Purchase by the State at a nominal price followed by reclama- tion planting. Such inland areas of extensive proportions should be under fc trol either through actual ownership or through long term cooperative 8 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. agreement. Various smaller inland blows occur throughout the southern peninsula, usually only a few acres in extent but nevertheless serious from the owner's standpoint. These smaller blows are readily handled by the owners, ('lose adherence to the principles of the shelter belt coyer system as hereafter outlined will usually insure complete control of these smaller inland blows. Xo difficulty is experienced in establish- ing a permanent stand of young forest trees at once by planting. After one year some trees will be blown oyt while others will be covered up. Often it becomes necessary to use dead cover to protect the planting for the first three or four years. Less than LMC , of (he trees planted are usuall lost in this wa. TOTAL SAX I) A UK A. Bordering on the (Ireal Lakes, Michigan has at least 5:1-1,000 acres <:f dime formed land. This is stretched out in belts of s.ind aggre a total leiiiiih of four hundred miles. Fig. 3. The point of high water, or the point where the wind catches the sand. The bank of sand is here well planted to beach grass, and must be followed by tree planting. A disturbance or break in this grass cover, made bv a foot trail or wagon wheels, is sufficient to make a wind path for the sand which may develop rapidly into a traveling dune. THKOKY OF XATT'UAl. FOK.MATloX OF TIIK OHKilXAL I>TIXKS. Tt is probable that no change has occurred during the process of time in the general formation of sand piles called dunes. The ceaseless action of water, wind and temperature breaks down rocks into increasingly smaller particles and rounds oil' the angles of the grains. Constantly these grains are cast upon the shore by the waves. The sun's heat soon dries the grains and the wind rolls them higher- over the smooth sand surface, finally depositing them with masses of others in drifts and banks on the leeward slope of the newly formed drifts. During this time of wind and water formation of the dune, the vegetative forces are also MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 9 ceaselessly at work, Here and there reaching above the level sweep of sand surface, port ions of rock, driftwood or oilier debris project. Around these obstacles the wind forms liny drifts and cuts, into wiiiHi seeds of sand and shore grasses, and rootstalks of perennials di-ift and become covered wilh sand. (Jrowth starls in the shelters thus secured and soon clnnijis of grass cling tenaciously to the support. ( Fig. :>>.) Light seeds from nearby trees and shrubs lodge here and gain root. These small spots normally, and annually gain more Around than is lost to natural forces of wind and water. These spots of vegetation and woody cover soon spread over the fare of the heaviest drifts and form the crust which establishes the dunes. Species which take part in this early struggle with wind and water erosion, and which gradually win out arc all those shore and sand grasses and herbaceous plants which thrive so well on the shores of the (Jreat Lakes. The most prominent and those most •serviceable in reclamation are given here and include the three classes of trees, shrubs ;irms austriaca, Scolch Pine Pinus sylvcstris. White Spruce 1>i<i('(>:1 excelsa. European Larch I-n-ix europea. Hemlock Tsnga cauadensis. Balsam .Fir \ m'<'s balsamea. White Cedar . Thuya occidental is. 10 . EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. Hardwoods. White Poplar Populus alba. Balm of Gilead Populus balsamifera. Cottonwood or Carolina Poplar Populus cleltoides. Large Tooth Aspen Populus grandidentata, Trembling Aspen Populus tremuloides. Golden Willow . * Salix alba vitelHna. Black Willow Salix nigra. Black or Cherry Birch Betula lenta. Yellow or Bronze Birch Betula lutea. White Birch Retnla alba. Paper or Canoe Birch Betula papyrifera. White Oak Quercus alba. Red Oak Quercus rnbra. Black Oak Quercus velutina. White or American Elm TTlniiis americana. Sassafras Sassafras sassafras. Beech Fagus americana. Silver Maple \cer sarchariuum. Red Maple Acer rubruui. Hard or Sugar Maple Acer saccharimi. Basswood .' Tilia americana. Black or Yellow Locust Robiuia pseudacacia. White Ash , .Fraxinus americana. A list of the more common and useful shrubs follows: SHRUBS. Ground Hemlock, Taxus canadensis Marsh. Range: Along east shore of Lake Michigan south to Benton Harbor under forest cover. Bay Berry (Wax Myrtle). Myrica cerifera L. Range: Soul hern Michigan on sandy or sterile soil, near coast. Sweet Gale, Myrica Gale L. Range: Borders of ponds, swamps and lakes. Hairy Willow, Salix adenophylla Hook. Range: St. Joseph northward on beach sand. Broad Leaved Willow, S. glaucophylla Bebb. Range: Lake Shore on beach sand. Basket Osier, Salix viminalis L. Range: South Haven. Ou moist sandy soil. Three Toothed Cinquefoil, Sibbaldiopsis tridentata (Solaud) Rydb. Range: Barrens of Missaukee County. Grayling and shores of Great Lakes. Wild Rose, Rosa blanda Aiton. Range : Along Lake Michigan shore and inland. Prickley Rose, Rosa acicularis Lindl. Range: Cheboygan County. Mackinaw City to Petoskey. Rosa Sayi Schwein. Range: Northern lower peninsula and southern upper peninsula shores. MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. H Wild Red Cherry, Primus pennsylvanica L. f. Range : Very abundant on sandy soil in northern half of State, less abundant south. Sand Cherry, Primus pimrila L. Range: Emmet County to Ottawa County. Saginaw County to St. Clair County. Choke Cherry, Primus virgin iana L. Range: Common over Michigan on sands. Dwarf Sumach, Rhus copallina L. Range: Common in pine lands. Fragrant Sumach, Srhmaltzia erenata (.Mill.) Greene. Range: Bluffs and sandy hills of Michigan. Wild Winter Grape. A "his birolor Le Conte. Range: Southern Michigan and Lake Shore. Northern Fox Grape. Vitis Labrusca L. Range: Muskegon, southward. American ivy or Virginia Creeper, Parthanocissus quinquefolia (L) Planch. Range: Common in Michigan. St. Johns Wort, Ilypericum Kalmianum L. Range: Along I lie lakes, more common northward, Manistee, Petoskey. False Heather, Iludsmiia iomentosa Nutt. Range: Sandy shores of Lakes. Frequent on sand dunes. Canadian Buffalo Berry, Lepargyrala canadensis (L) Greene. Range: South Haven and northward along lakes. Not found on dunes and dry sand. Red Osier, Cornus stolon 5 fera Michx. R tinge : M?irshes and borders of streams, very common on moist flats along Lake Michigan. Bailey's Cornel, Cornus Baileyi Coull. & Evans. Range: Easl shores of Lake Michigan on sand dunes. Sheep Laurel, Kalmia angustifolia L, Range: Harrisville west to Portage Lake, Tawas City and Thunder Bay, common. Dwarf Blue Berry, Vaccinium angustifolium Act. Range: Dry hills and barrens of Michigan. Morning Glory, Convolvulus repens L. Range: General, a good sand bank binder under newly planted shelter. Button Bush, Cephalanthus occidentals L. Range: Swamps and river boltoms. Cheboygan Counly. Very com- mon southward on moist Hats. Soil, swamps. Partridge Berry, Mitchell a repens L. Range: Beech, maple, hemlock or pine woods, north slopes on pine soils. Common Elder, Sambucus canadensis L. Range: Common in clearings and in rich open places. Sheep Berry, Viburnum Lentago L. Range: Frequent over southern Michigan, moisl flats and in swamps. Snow berry, Svmphoricarpus racemosus Michx. Range: AJong Great Lakes. Saginaw Bay and Alpena County on dry ridges and banks. 12 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. GRASSES AND HKKr,A< 'KOfJS PLANTS. Beach grass, known also as Sea Sand Reed, Sea Ma tweed and Marram, Ammophyla arenaria (L.) Link. (Fig. 4.) Tliis is tlie most valu- able grass known to hold drifting sand. It is found along all the shores of the Great Lakes and grows vigorously. It is particularly valuable because of its root-stal^ growth which enables it to grow up through rapidly accumulating sand. Fijj. 4. (Jrass :u; of Anmioi.Iiylla ;ir< u;iri:i I.ii:k. ( omnionly k:i nsult-n d ID i.c (he l»rsl of tin- S;MH! hinders. i IT. 11.1 or B Long Leaved (Jrass, ('alamovilfa loiigifolia (Hook.) Hack. Range: Lake Michigan and Huron shores. Sand Grass, Triplasis purpurca (Walt. > Chapm. Range: (Jrcal Lake's shore. Desrriptive jihoto. Northern Wheat Grass, Agropyrmi dasystachynin ( Hook. ) \asey. Range: Shores of Huron and Superior. ( 'oinmon on dunes of the range. Squirrel Tail Grass, Tlordeum jnbatnni L. Range: South shore of Lake Superior. Wild Rye, Klyiuus arenarius L. Range: Shores of Great Lakes. Bristle Leaved Sedge, Carex eburnea Uoott. Range: Lake Michigan Shore — south half. Sand Sedge, Tarex arenaria L. Range: Not a native to Michigan, but probably naturalized from iMii-ope and of promise on account of its vigorous creeping footstalk. Seaside Arrow Grass, Triglochin maritima L. Range: Great Lakes. Indian Rice, 7J/ania acpiatiea L. Range: Sand Hats and marshes of Michigan. Small Rush Grass, Sporobolus neglectus Nash. Range: West Michigan shore. MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 13 Twisted Willow Grass, Draba incana arabisans. S. Wats. Range: Along the Great Lakes. Wild Lupine, Lupinus perennis L. Range: Sandy soils generally over Lake Region. ( a i vense L. The Clovers — Trifolimn < piatense L. / repens L. Rigid Tick Trefoil, Meibomia ridida (Ell.) Kuntze. Range: Dry soils of Michigan. Narrow Leaf Hush (Mover, Lespede/,a augnstifolia (Pursh) Ell. Range: Dry soils of Michigan. Beach Pea, Lathyrus maritinms (L.) Bigel. Range: A perrenial decumbent pea vine of great value on the Great Lake Region. It is perfectly hardy and a good spreader. Sand Violet, Viola subvestita Green. Range: Throughout Lake Region. Several -other members of this genus do well in a partial shade or dry or sandy soils, and should IK* em ouraged. Fire Wee;1, (liamaenerion augustifolinm ( L. ) Scop. Range: Dry soils and comes in readily after clearing and tire. Com mon over the Lake Region. Oakes' Evening Primrose, Oenothera Oakesiaua Robbius. Range: Common along the Great Lakes. Large Purple Gerard ia, Agalinis purpurea (L) Hritton. Range: Common on low lying Hats along the shores of the Great Lakes but not on the drift sands. Twin Flower, Linnaea americana Forbes. Range: On north slopes and cool cover. Not on sands unless shaded and moist. Peach Cocklebnr, Xanthinm echinatum Murr. Range: A coarse sand \veed, growing along lake shores and river-. White Aster, Frost Weed. Aster ericoides L. Range: On dry soils of Michigan. Lake Huron Tansy, Tanacetum hiironense Xutt. Range: On sand dunes of north part of the Southern Peninsula, and north. Canada Wormwood, Artemisia canadensis Michx. Range: A perennial root plant growjng on sand dunes from Xe\\ Buffalo to Mackinac City. Only a small number of plants, grasses and trees of this list foim active, aggressive, advance agents of natural reclamation. Tin1 iv-i establish themselves gradually and only after some little protection is afforded by the advance growth. TOVKR TYPES. There are two distinct forms or types of cover to deal with before a final forest cover is established. The first is a temporary type and in- cludes all those hardy persistent aggressive plants above listed. The most prominent being the beach grass, or Marram, the sand pea. the Wll- lows, poplars and sand cherries with often a sprinkling of paper birch. These form the temporary type which establishes a crust on the sand 14 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. drifts. Because of the intolerant character of the foliage of all these plants and further because of their short period of activity and vigorous life, they are not able to permanently maintain the control. Consequently the term temporary type is applied. Fortunately the temporary type fixes the sand and prepares the way for the reception of long lived durable timber trees which are able to find sufficient moisture and form a permanent type or forest. In this way occurs the very gradual reforestation of those great sand shore belts of Michigan. Fig. 5. Break over top of n wooded dime caused l>y a n>ad which led from the water edge to the top. Wind soon caused the destruction here shown. This dune is burying an orchard. ElARLY CONDITION AND TREATMENT OF DUNES. When tLe colonization and sol (lenient of Michigan began early in the eighteen hundreds it seems probable that the West shore was generally covered throughout its length with heavy stands of timber. With the removal of this cover through clean cutting, breaks in the crust occurred. The slash burnings which commonly followed lumbering made extensive tracts as bare as when first formed by wind and water. Construction of roads and clearing into fields help to hasten the formation of the large active or traveling dunes. If nature could be left alone she would finally reclaim tjie Michigan dunes but this has not been allowed. The sad part of man's interference is that much of the damage done to the natural cover and crust has been unnecessary. Little concern and less care often attended the burning of slash and undergrowth on these sands with the result that the accumulated humus and other sand binders were removed. All chance for a new crop of vegetation was thus destroyed because of the destruction of the seed. Often these burnings were cleared, plowed and cultivated for a few years until nothing could longer be produced. Such handling has prepared the way for heavy shif tings of the original dunes. Repeated cases were studied, which had been caused MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 15 by early cultivation and lated abandoned. Many instances were noted where traveling dunes have encroached upon orchards. In some cases these orchards of full grown trees were either partially or completely buried. In one place in Berrien County a break was caused by a twenty foot road which had been cut over the dune. Through this narrow open- ing in the timber erosion began by cutting away a clean channel or uslide" until a sweep several rods wide had been eroded clean. This dune was traveling rapidly, estimated at the rate of ten to fifteen feet a Fig. G. The planting on Creeping Joe at Manistee as done by the Government in 1902. Poplar was successfully established, a dead cover laid, and grass planted to hold the sand. Blocks were thus well handled but the fault lay in that no permanent planting was followed up. year. In this instance a small amount of care and slight expense in planting would have controlled the situation, where now it will re- quire a considerable amount of both time and money before control can be affected. Fig. 5. shows a portion of this traveling dune, taken from the lee or back side. Owing to the fact that wind is capable of moving only I lie dry sand grains, and to the further fact that Michigan has a humid climate it be- comes possible with care to reestablish the broken or traveling dunes and to permanently control the new ones. The State and tlie individual have both contributed to the conditions of sand erosion. Thousands of acres of land now lie a total waste, which may produce timber. Tlie dunes annually bury or threaten to bury much valuable property if not con- trolled. The- protection of property now entails heavy outlays of money. The railroads and public highways spend enormous sums in clearing tracks and in construction of temporary barrier fences against ihese sand encroachments. Much of the fighting is now being done in such a way that it must be done over and over yearly — viz: on the leeward side where the freshly blown sand falls. The work should be begun at the 16 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. other side of the dune if the sand problem is io be settled. If the plant- ing is done at the water edge, or at the edge of (lie break on traveling dimes, then I lie newly washed up accumulations are kept covered by vegetation. If the planting is always worked toward and close np to the high water, the serious damage of drifting sand may be overcome. On the southeast shore of Lake Michigan (here are long stretches where sand accumulates rapidly, and there annual planting on this newly formed land must not cease, once the Ixire expanse of naked (Junes back from, the shore are covered. There will always be a cutting and 'tilling operation carried on by the waves of the lake, but if the lills are planted Fig. 7. Government planting on south fare of Creep iu.i; Joe ;it Minister two years jifh-r the temporary rover was established. Druse belt of mass planting in the foreground to hold sand and break the sweep of the wind. close to the high water break, this problem becomes a simple one of willow planting with a periodical filling of permanent trees as the beach area is built into the lake. It cannot be hoped to prevent the building up or the cutting away of the shore Ihies with planting. DUNE HISTORY AND EARLY EFFORTS TO CONTROL SAND. The encroachment of sand from Lake Michigan upon valuable orchard, farm, and timber land has been a matter of much concern for many years. Many theoretically correct but half hearted attempts have been made to reclaim portions to some form of control. The investigative reports of studies made by various organizations usually conclude by offering1 recommendations, the carrying out of which would cost mam7 times what the land is worth. These lands are very largely privately owned which fact makes their reclamation much more difficult than where they are owned by the State or Federal Government. Experi- ments have been tried with entire success in many spots along the west shore. Where failure has resulted it has been due to the discontinuance of the work before a final cover of permanent forest growth became estab- MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 17 lished. A very noteworthy example of UK- success of the efforts to bind drifting sand was found at Manistce on a dune known as rivrping .I<><-. a large formation formerly covering one hundred or more acres. This dune is shown in figs. (5 and 7, in 1JMM-. about two years after ihe e. /••»vprn- ment planting of l<>02-3. This tree resisted successfully the burying action <>t while spruce, larch, pine and fir were killed. 1'atches of marram remain m tlie pro spots. upon solely to form the cover, frequent breaks occurred which gradually widened until all signs of grass or other growth were totally lost. (Fig. S.) The poplars completed the crnst and windbreak, but were noi suii.-d to form a permanent cover. Blocks of black locust and spruce were used which have formed a permanent cover, and in 1!>U. twelve years after planting, these blocks were withstanding ihe wind and sand action per- fectly. (Fig. 8.) On the areas where only grass was used as a cover nothing remained in 1914. Several places were found where poplars had been planted in. 1902. (Fig. 9.) These were gradually being over- come by the sand but still plenty of shelter was provided by (lie growl present to insure establishment of a permanent forest. Such was condition found at the crest of the once active dune twelve years aft the temporary plantings of grass and poplars. At any time during the interval of this dozen years a planting of permanent forest trees coul have been made with every chance of success. There were several no t< worthy examples of blocks of permanent planting on the windward i of the dnne as shown in Figs, s and 10. No permanent planting followed the grass planting, the result being that the block of locust 18 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN Fig. 8 had no protection after the grass cover broke. Nevertheless they have maintained a healthy and normal if not rapid growth. Incidentally it should be remarked that in this locality black locust was entirely free from the locust borer in August 1914. Fig. 8 further shows re- maining evidence of grass still struggling against the constant tugging of the wind. Another splendid example furnished by the United States Government's early work is at Saugatuck. A uniform planting of grass was made, the plants being secured close by and spaced 18 by 18 inches, at a cost of approximately |45.00 per acre. Here again too much was expected of the grass and dead cover. The last and most important operation was Fig. 9. Poplars half buried in a dime. Permanent planting should have been made before this temporary cover lost its grip upon the sand. not performed, viz, the establishment of a permanent forest. Such in- stances as these show the inadvisability of aitempjs on the part of pri- vate owners to conquer the bad dunos at one o|K'ralion by the use of beach grass alone. If, however, funds arc plentiful and immediate re- sults are demanded, successful reclamation may be secured by following the entire cover system which is described later. For the small owner or the farmer of moderate means other methods must be applied, calling for moderate annual expenditures and slower results. ORIGIN OF "BLOWS." The vast ridges of sand often towering a hundred feet or more above the water and extending in almost unbroken series from the southwest corner of Michigan to the Straits, bear mute evidence of the ceaseless activity of the water-wind action. Much of the surface of this series of dunes has become forest covered, the same as other land. While there are no data available there is every indication that under the wild natural condition of things, most of the dune sand became covered with permanent vegetation. With the exploiting of the timber wealth of MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 19 Michigan, however, the virgin pine, spruce, cedar, maple and oak was removed. Following this came the fires which removed the "crust" over this sand, formed during many generations of plant life. Many of these burned over clearings were cultivated for a time until the humus accumulation and root binder material had become exhausted. Often two or three croppings were sufficient to render these sands worthless for farming purposes. Such areas are spoken of as "blows." NEW DUNES. The new dunes and blows are those along the water edge of the lakes. The disturbance is not primarily an agitation of the old sand but the constant movement of new sand which is brought up from the bottom Fig. 10. A shelter belt established at Manistee by the Government. This belt was five to six rods wide arid proved a success as far as it went. No follow up or later planting was done aud the good effects of the belt were wasted. Without more permanent planting this belt will soon become buried. of the lake by wave action and cast high on the shore by the breaking water. During the breaking down process the particles of rock become finely pulverized by water action and contact with each other until there is formed a smooth surface,! grain called smooth sand. All the angles and sharp edges have been worn smooth. The form become globular, oval or rounded. In this form it is easily tossed on the beach by the waves. It soon dries and the wind tumbles it higher up the slope until it forms a part of the mass of sand that is building the new dune, burying the orchard or covering the field. When a break in the surface of" the old, formerly forest covered dune occurs as may be caused by a road or footpath, conditions are right for the development of a new dune, and the treatment is the same as for other forms of shifting sand. 20 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN SAND CONTROL WORK. Sand dune control is expensive and is justifiable only where an economic necessity demands it, or where 1he initial expense is justified by the consideration of future production and profit from the land. Under the first case would fall such objects as the encroachment of dunes upon highways and railways, the blocking of channels and harbors, the burial of land within municipal corporation boundaries and areas valuable as city forests and parks, and the encroachment upon valuable orchards and farm land. The second class includes those farm lands which should be made to yield periodic crops of short rotation timber and also those large areas of wild land which are now held for invest- ment or future development. Figure 11. I>est rm-t i\ ,• nHlon of sand Now durii!- the late winter. Sand has covered the snow to a depth of a foot or more, resulting in the burying *>f large numbers of smaller trees and shrubs. These results are always found on the' lee edge of tire drift. In any case where sand blows occur the question of the future value of the property is in direcl relation to the productive capacity of the land in the years to come. A sand blow yields nothing to the owner, and must always lie on the market as non-productive land. A sand blow planted and controlled by timber cover becomes an asset as soon as the cover is established. It at once becomes productive land and its future value increases. To what degree its selling value will increase depends upon various factors such as accessibility and desirability as resort or estate property and upon its timber value. MKT HODS OF CONTROL. Many plans of control have been worked out for the Cape Cod Dunes, 1he dunes along the Columbia River in Oregon, and European dunes. None of these methods can be applied to the Michigan dunes, because either the work was too costly, too intensive, or required immediate com- MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 21 plot ion. The private individual can not atfonl hoavy expense where there is no prospect of immediate returns. A system is then-lore neces- sary which roduoos the initial expense and spreads the work over a longer period. The labor problem also pi-o.ve.nls Hie private owner from securing planting material at the proper season. Planting stock is hard (o secure in quantities, especially beach grass. KiVort to complete the reclamation in one or two years often resnlls in careless planting or in leaving implanted areas which soon develop bad blow conditions and rnin the earlier work. These facts have been taken into consideration in I he following plan. The fact that the new sand tirst makes its appearance at the water line or high waler mark, establishes this as the point of first attack. The tirst planting that is done amounts to a border planting using any material capable of withstanding the rigors of exposure — rough sea's Fig. 12. Wind erosion at I'.iu I'rairie. This cvmelery lay in the path of a Now. Such a condition as (his inijiht justify a heavy expenditure iu the establishment of the Entire Cover System of sand control. and ice conditions are often very severe4 on living woody growth. On the tine sand beaches the use of beach grass, bearli willows, sand pea and other local plants that are easily secured is recommended. The im- portant principle is the establishment of a vegetative belt parallel to the water line and as near to it as plants will grow. In many places along the Lake Michigan shore grass planting is not necessary because of the tirni holding condition of the surface near the water. This is due to various compositions entering into the make up of the soil, principally however io (he coating of small pebbles or coarse gravel known as shingle. These conditions furnish splendid ground for the planting, the wind being the only faclor working against the plants. Often it has been possible to collect drift material enough to make a wind and spray butler between I he high water line and the planting line. Logs, slumps, sticks, barrels, boxes, etc.. furnish a good protection to the low growing tirst cover planting from the severe sweep of the winds. 22 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. BARRIER OR SHELTER METHOD. Sand blows often occur which do not warrant extensive outlay of time or money. The private owner is willing to do something, but he wants to do it gradually, a little at a time as his means and time warrant. To such conditions the Barrier Method of control is advisable. The vul- nerable point of attack must first be determined. This is indicated by the general travel direction of the sand. On shore sand dune work there is only one point of beginning and this is at the water edge. With in- land blows however this point may be more difficult to determine especially if one cannot watch I he blow throughout the year. Often there are seasonal blows from diU'erent directions, in which case dif- ferent sides of the blow should necessarih come under control simul- taneously. , . Fig 13. Birds eye view of tin- -ovcriiiiirnt planting of permanent clumps on the \\vst slope of Creeping Joe. The haphazard location of the groups of trees furnish little or no protection to the entire cover planting on the upper slope of the dune. A few years more would have witnessed the complete burial of the temporary grass and poplar cover at the crown of the dune. The tirst operation consists in establishing a living cover of sand- binding material and low woody plants with a permanent setting of small trees for both temporary and permanent shelter. For the pur- pose of sand-binding work, any herbaceous plant that will grow on the sand in the, locality should be used. Such plants as the valuable and common beach grass ( Ammophylla arenaria), the beach or sand pea (La- thyrus maritimus), Rosa virginiana, and other marsh or upland grasses and wild vetches are suitable. These are planted with 2 by 2 ft. spacing over the entire belt and later protected by the dead cover. Willow cuttings are next made from the abundant marsh willows which are common all along the Lake Michigan shore. The variety does not seem to make much difference so long as good fresh new wood from rapid growing trees is used. The cult ings should be twelve to eighteen inches long and not over three-fourths inches in diameter at the butt end. These are stuck into the sand to a depth of ten to fourteen inches so as to insure being constantly in moist sand. A row of willow cuttings is MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 23 placed two feet or less apart at the edge of the belt, another row planted in the same way is set three to four feet inside of I lie first row. In ex- ceptionally exposed blows it often becomes neressary to set one or even two more rows of willows, placing them closer together and thus cover- ing the first ten feet of the belt. This forms the facing or front. Be- hind the willow and still within the dead cover area alternating trees of Carolina poplar, spruce or pine should be set in rows four to five feet apart. First a one-year Carolina poplar and four feet from it an ever- green, then a Carolina poplar, then an evergreen, etc. These rows, alternately poplar and conifer, are best set four by four feet on areas exposed to heavy wind. Two objects are attained in the alternate plant- ing of poplar and conifers. First, a good growth and high per cent of living trees is assured by the use of Carolina poplar, since ninety-five per cent of the trees of this species 'should survive. *The rapid growth for the first ten to fifteen years assures a quick shelter against the sand carrying wind. Second, the poplars are short lived and their foliage does not monopolize the entire crown area, and further, they recover readily from the wind and storm injury to which they are subjected. When the poplar has stood the brunt of ice and snow storms for a dozen or more years it should be removed to furnish space for the permanent trees. Conifers make the best permanent forest crop on exposed sands because they form a dense screen through which 1he wind cannot pass and cast a dense shade which is conducive to the accumulation of humus forming litter, preventing the excessive drying out of the sand floor which often occurs during the dormant season when covered by deciduous trees only. They are also quite free from insect pests and produce higher returns from the lumber than do the hardwoods. Conifers do not succeed when planted alone on the sand dimes, however, because, owing to their slower growth at the start, they are more easily blown out or buried during the early years after planting, and they present a heavy evergreen top before the roots are sufficient I v established to with- stand the pulling, rocking action of the wind, which loosens them to such an extent that they are barely able to keep alive. They also suffer during the first and second seasons from excessive transpiration when standing unprotected. An artificial or "dead" cover should be established in bad cases, consists of any convenient material being placed on the land at the point of wind attack. (Fig. G.) Cornstalks, rotted marsh hay, brush, poles, old lumber scrap, rotted saw dust, cut weeds, etc., may be used, or sometimes short stakes, barrel staves, etc., may be driven into the sand at close intervals. The sole object of this cover is the obstacle furnished to the clear action of the wind. This material should be placed uni- formly over the belt or strip extending along the edge of the blow or along' the shore of the lake, and a few feet above the high water mark of winter storms and ice. The width covered depends entirely upon the size of the dune and the resources available in any one year for the work The belt may be covered for a width not less than a rod and preferably at least three or more rods the first year. The covering of this belt with dead material constitutes the last operation and i as the dead cover. Subsequent work under this method should be carried on by the estab lishment of successive belts parallel to the first. An interval of one 24 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. hundred feel or more may be lei'l between the first and the second belt. The second belt is established in the same manner as described above, except that one or two rows of willows will ordinarily be snllicienl to form the facing. From the later belts all willows may be omitted, using poplar and evergreens exclusively. When the second belt is bring estab- lished the dead cover should lie used if there is evidence of much sand travel over the surface, ruder this method a belt is established each year, each succeeding bell approaching nearer and nearer the top of the dune. If (he elevation increases rapidly the space1 between the second and third, and third and fourth belts should be nan-owed to Fii;. H. T <> Railroad Company loaded this dune upon cars and carried il across the Stale to be used in sand blasts. The results of the temporary cover planting by the < iovernment on this dune were excellent. The chief fault was that no permanent trees were planted later. The mass sliding down the bank is (he poplar and herbaceous material which formed the crust. Hoots were measured on both Carolina poplar and black locust which reached down into the sand for one hundred feet. seventy-five and fifty feet, respectively. When four or five belts have thus been established, enough shelter should have been provided for the open strips between belts nuinlwrs one and two and between numbers two and three, so that these may be sown to rye and grass, sweet clover, or any perennial capable of making some growth in this kind of soil. In many cases where severe blows are cutting away old dunes, as well as carrying fresh sand from the water, it will require many years of annual work to reclaim the land. The tlat or more level portions between the water and the top of the dune must first be covered with forest growl h, thus cutting off the supply of fresh sand, and breaking the sweep of the wind. As the higher portion of the blow is reached, where cutting away of the old dune is going on. recourse will again be necessary to the use of willows and poplars which must be underlaid thoroughly with dead cover. The Avindward edges of these cuts must always be the first ones treated. Once the shelter belts are carried and established to the top of the dune, a return is made to the grass covered areas between the breaks or barriers. Here good forest trees of many varieties may bi> planted. Choice of species depends entirely upon the object of the owner MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 25 and possible future utilization. In ninny places nut trees can I,,- handled In advantage where heavier soils ai-e found underhiim the sand In some blows, orchards might be maintained on the strips between (he barriers, II seldom is advisable to use annual crops upon these strips Once established a tree canopy should alwavs exist. When a break occurs through the opening of a gap in a barrier, for road or sired the soil exposed should be paved or sodded (o prevent excavation bv (he wind. The later management of the forest must be bv a conservai ive selection removal of individual trees and never bv clear cut I ing. > t »J» '»A'*A*iAJi* a ^».\/V.a«'1.'l.J 4 " ' * "j 4. • ' « » *fi * * *4*«**A^** */ •6'4'**^ ' * .'••' *'*.*• A Fig. 15. Diagram of Shelter I'.elt ^lethod. a l'.arrier o!' rubbish and waste. b Beach grass planting. c Willow cuttings. cuttings, or rooted sets. Conifer planting. Contour lines. KNTIHK COVKR .MKTllOIt. This system of dune reclamation is applicable either Avhere immediale cover is required, where future values justify the expense of immediale and heavy planting, or where sullicienl funds are available for the com- pletion of the work, in some cases extensive areas of valuable properly are in the immediate path of a rapidly traveling dune. Ki»\ 111 shows a cemetery lyinj;' in the ]>ath of an interior blow, reclamation of which might justify the expenditure of lariie sums for <|ui<-k control. On smaller dunes (his method is especially applicable, as where a city or town may be the unit doing the control work. Municipal organizations are usually in a position to purchase such areas if they are held by pri- vate parties who refuse to control (hem. Such steps seem advisable, since, when once under control these areas become valuable park or municipal forests. The planting of such areas would best be done by 26 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. the Entire Cover System since results are desired quickly. Another class of ownership which would use this system of reclamation is the investor in summer resort properties*. Holdings of sand dune blows and barrens are made especially attractive as sites for summer colonies when covered with forest. Thousands of acres of shifting sand along the shore of Lake Michigan may be eventually converted into summer home sites, by the expenditure of money in systematic cover planting for sand control. The Entire Cover Method is a complete covering of the sand in a single season. For convenience in can-vine; on the work it is best Fig. 10. The valuable work of beach grass. This mound of sand was very securely tied down by the roots of this grass. No other plant could possibly gaiu a footing so rapidly nor resist the wind action so effectively. handled in three operations, first, grass planting; second, willow belt planting, and dead cover. The labor under (his system is divided into three squads or crews numbered for convenience A, U and C. Squad A should be assigned to grass planting work entirely. Considerable skill in setting the plants is soon acquired. The size of the crews will vary with the lateness of the season. Ordinarily ten men make a good plant- ing unit for one foreman to handle. Squads B and C with their fore- men are assigned to the collection of grass plants. If the distance is not too great, say a mile or two between the planting site and the source of material, the two squads will secure, transport, and "heel in" plants enough during the firsf week lo keep squad A planting steadily for about three weeks. Beginning with the second week, squad B is assigned to planting the willow cuttings in belts as shown in Fig. 15. At this time squad C begins the collection and hauling of dead cover material which may be piled up at convenient points near the planting. Then squad 0 begins the planting of the poplar and conifer stock about ten days after squad A began. The trees are planted in rows five feet apart, un- less the blow is very severe, then a four foot spacing is preferable, alter- MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. 27 Cai?lina P°Plar with conifers. The conifers should be so set that they stagger in the succeeding rows in order to ftiniWi gSite n struction to the wind. Toward the last of the planting a few ,, V,, , • be taken from squad P, to distribute and spread the dead cover Except on very severe blows the dead cover need .mi be spread ani- formly over the whole area, but applied in strips at right angles In the direction of the prevailing wind. These strips may be from ten to twenty feel wide with intervals between of (wire this width I'vualiv about one-third of the area should be covered. Where both fine -mil Fig. 17. A paper birch alone and unprotected on Ihc- face of a dune. This (!•••<• stands «MI a mound of sand eight feet high and twenty feet across. The routs held the mound while the sand around the mound was swept away. A valuable tree to encourage because of the sand holding power of its root system. coarse materials are available, (lie con tings alternate with coarse, tine. coarse, fine, etc. (Jrass, marsh hay, straw and other light materials that are liable to be moved by the wind may be held in place by brush. Where well rotted sawdust is available it may be USIM! alternately with strips of grass or straw and brush. Sawdust cnnnol be used alone as it dries out and blows readily. Tu some cases, when the season is damp and there is plenty of moisture at the surface, a broad-cast sowing of rye or oats may serve to help bind the dead cover and protect the planted grass. The success of this expedient will depend entirely upon frequent rains to insure the germination of the rye, however. 28 EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN. CONCLUSIONS. There are two general plans of operation in the work of sand control. The Shelter Bell or Harrier system is suitable to private owners. It may be so managed as to enable the man of limited means to systematically do a portion of the work each year until the whole blow area is under per- manent forest cover. The Kntire Cover system calls for heavy expenditure in labor and materials but has as its aim the completion of the work over the whole area in a single season. 9 In this s\s!em the need of a provision lor follow up or repair work must be made. Fig. IS. The ei The poplar ;iml |<> persistent crust at holding the sand. i»v marram d tin- i><>1' I lie land. Fig. 21. In many places tbe beach presents a half naked condition varying in width from ten to eighty rods between the high water mark and the foot of the established dune. There is plenty of space on such areas for the planting of heavy foliaged conifers which will strengthen the protective cover of the dune and produce valuable timber. MICHIGAN'S SHIFTING SANDS. :u and is a fairly good tree for sand work. Sllvioulti v.8 36403^ I STORAGE /, 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY