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High Art
IN
Low Countries
BEING THE
inaTjGUral address
DELIVERED AT THE
.OTEXIXG OF THE WISBECH IXDUSTllIAL AND FIXE ART EXHIBITION, 7Tti MAY, 1866,
BY
The Very Hev. HARVEY GOODWIN, D D.
-'!y»-
WISBECH :
Leach & Sox, 26, High Street.
LONDON :
■&v.\,\. i D.VLDT, 186, meet Street, & (!, York Street, Covent GarJon.
CAMBRIDGE : Deigtitox, Bell, & Co.
ELY: HlLLa & SoK.
M.DCCC.LXVI.
High Art
IN
Low Countries
BEma THE
INAUGURAL ADDRESS
DELIVERED AT THE
OPENIXG OF THE WISBECH INDUSTRIAL AND FINE ART EXHIBITION, 7th MAY, 1866,
BT
The Very Rev. HARVEY GOODWIN, D.D.,
-»o*-
VnSBECH :
Leach & Son, 26, High Street.
LONDON :
BBLli & DALDT, 186, Fleet Street, & 6, York Street, Covent Garden.
CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL, & Co.
ELY : Hills & Son.
M.DCCC>LXVI.
WiGH Art in Low Countries.
This title, as you will perceive, will at once give me a double limitation of my subject, for all art is not high, and all countries are not low. We shall find the limitation convenient, and the subject so limited will be suitable. For what we want to do — what is desired by the promoters of this Exhibition — is, I suppose, to raise the character of local art as high as possible in a country, which, though not morally nor socially, yet geographically would be technically described as low. On this title, then. High Art in Low Countries, I respectfully request you to allow a portion of your thoughts to rest for a few minutes ; while with the other portion you accompany me in a preliminary discussion of the meaning, and of some of the principles, of Art.
Now there is one preliminary question which stares us in the face. What do we mean by Art ? And though this is a simple question, I am not sure that it is the easier to answer on that account : in fact, it is not unfrequently just the simple preliminary questions which are least likely to meet -with satisfactory answers. Ask many persons, who use the terms, to define what they mean by a Whig, or a Tory, or a Right-angled Triangle,
2043713
or a Respectable Man, or a Genteel Female, and you will probably find it difficult to get a clear answer ; and you may be reminded of the wisdom of a certain leader of the House of Commons, who, having endeavoured in vain to obtain a definition of the duties of an Archdeacon, and being compelled to make a speech which involved the knowledge of those duties, began by saying that tho duties were so well known that he would not take up the time of the house in explaining what they were. What then, I say, do we mean by Art ?
In the first place with regard to the word : it is of course the same as the Latin Ars, ariis, and as the French Art. This fact is not very interesting ; but there is, I think, some interest connected with tho etymology of tho word, if we trace it a little further. The dictionaries tolls us that the Latin ars is the same word as the Greek Arefe ; and this Greek word which signifies any kind of ability or sldll, but originally denoted more especially warlike ability or skill, courage, valour, is probably connected with Ares, the Greek God of war, the Mars of Latin Mythology. A connection v/hich I notice, because certainly art as we understand the word now, art as the word is ^^sed in such a phrase as " the "Wisbech Industrial and Art Exhibition," would have chosen any god or goddess in Olympus as its patron in preference to Arcs or IMars, the fierce god of war ; and if a name, which originally described the power of an Achilles or an Ajax, can now be used with most emphatic propriety to describe the power of those who beautify the Houses of God, and adorn our houses, then we may perhaps see in the change of meaning something of that
change wtiich is described by the prophet when he speaks of men " beating their swords into ploughshares and their spears into pruning hooks," and " learning war no more." Again, the dictionaries tell us that arete is probably connected with arren, a male, as the Latin virius is connected with vi?-, a mat} ; vhiiis signifying originally valour, courage, those qualities which were considered to be the chief glory of men ; but virtue is now no longer any special property of men ; I should think it quite a sufficient claim for men that they should be put on an equal footing with their fair sisters ; more than the half of the virtue which exists in the world, I am certain they have not got. And so also if art originally implied any- thing of masculine skill, manly valour, warlike craft unsuitable for women, we may congratulate ourselves that it is so no longer, and that art in the sense in which we are dealing v\'ith it to-day belongs to men and women alike.
Let us then leave the word and come to the thino:. Art may be regarded in the first instance as meaning skill in general ; but wo treat it as meaning skill of a particular kind. And I think that wo may properly define what we mean by saying that art is tliat kind of skill which is emploijed in clothing the useful tcith the heautifid. Lot us consider this definition.
Many things arc useful without being beautiful. There is no beauty worth speaking of in a gasworks- chimney, or in a newspaper, or in a railway carriage ; yet all these things, and thousands more which might bo mentioned, are singularly useful. It is not every useful article, perhaps, which admits of a covering of beauty ; in
6
some things tlie intensity of usefulness seems to make beauty unnecessary, or perhaps to make the attempt to add it ridiculous ; their usefulness is their beauty, and with that they must be contented. Nevertheless it is surprising how very few (comparatively speaking) are the cases in which super-added beauty is impossible, and therefore art unnecessary. In fact the instinct of art would seem to be almost coeval with the instinct of supplying the prime necessities of human life : amongst the earliest remains of human handiwork which recent discoveries have brought to light are rude carvings upon pieces of bone, which no doubt were regarded by the connoisseurs of the time as marvels of imitative skill. Men were compelled by tbeir necessities first to make tools, but they soon began to ornament those tools ; and I suppose tbcre is not a savage nation on the face of the earth, in which utility is everything, and art nothing : on the other hand art appears to belong to man's simplest nature, and it is only in a very advanced state of society that men think it a mark of superior sense and judgment to glorify utility at the expense of beauty.
Nor is it to be wondered at that man's nature should be thus constituted, seeing that God made man, and that the principle of clothing the useful with the beautiful, which I have spoken of as the foundation of art, is just the principle, upon which (speaking generally) we may say that God's works are constructed. Look at the human figure, the human face, the human hand, the leg, the foot. Every portion is useful, but not only so ; every part is beautiful, and the beauty and the utility are raarried together. We may speak of the eye as an optical
instrument, but when we spealc of the bright eyes of our fair sisters, we think of something very different from optical instruments : and the mouth is a very utilitarian organ, and has very commonplace work to do, but there is hardly anything more beautiful and more expressive than the human mouth, and we are not thinking of mere utility when we speak of ruby lips. So of other parts of the face, and of the body. Organs which appear to be hopelessly utilitarian, like the stomach and the heart, are packed away in closets ; and the human frame as presented to the eye, — especially if not spoilt by barbarous costume, — is a perfect specimen of the useful clothed with the beautiful ; in other words it is a perfect type of that, which in human works we describe as art.
The useful and the beautiful then are combined in a work of art; and let me observe that the degree in which each, of these two constituents will predominate varies very much in different cases. In some the use is almost everything, and the beauty superadded is trifling ; as for instance when two kinds of bricks are used in building a house, so as just to break the dull uniformity of the wall ; in others the utility has almost vanished to make room for mere beauty, as in the case of pictures. But, as a general rule, art does not seek mere beauty, but follows the example of nature, in which use and beauty go together, and utility is often an absolute condition of beauty : yet even in nature we sometimes find the beau- tiful almost as supreme as in the case of a picture ; thus we have the gorgeous colours of the morning or evening sky, and on a smaller scale we have the butterfly and the humming-bird.
$
Hitherto I liave been speaking of art as though It addressed itself entirely to the eye ; and in fact the kind of art, to which this exhibition chiefly directs our attention, is that which belongs to the sense of sight. But it ought to be observed, if only for the sake of justice, that the eye has not a monopoly of the pleasures of art. Art acts upon the mind, like almost all other things, through the senses ; but there are only two of the senses which appear to bo capable of being associated with art properly so called : the sense of taste for example might claim as its peculiar field the art of cookery, but we must not in an application of the terra admit cookery to the dignity of art : and the sense of smell might claim that art which is hereditary in the family of Jean Ilarie Farina, of Cologne, but neither must the composition of perfumes be admitted to the dignity of art : feeling, though a very useful, is so very humble and commonplace a sense, that it will probably hardly put in a claim. No, the two senses which are dignified beyond the rest as being the vehicles to the mind of the beautiful, and consequently the organs of art are hearing and seeing. Hearing may well compete with seeing in the dignity of its art-functions : music may challenge painting and sculpture, and claim equality of dignity : frequently the two join in partnership, as for instance in the choral worship of a beautiful cathedral, indeed one may say the entente cordiale between these two senses is complete, so that sometimes they interchange names with each other ; thus when I see a letter from a friend I say that I am glad to hear from him, and when a person explains to me by word of mouth some difficulty, I say, " Ah now, I see what you mean."
It is no discourtesy therefore to those branches of art ■which have the ear for their organ that we do not consider them to-day. We are dealing with art chiefly or almost exclusively as it belongs to the eye, and in so dealing with it I think we may adopt the definition which I have given already, that it is the clothing of the useful with the beautiful. The question therefore which it would seem to me should be prominent in the minds of those artists whose efforts we chiefly desire to stimulate by Industrial and Art Exhibitions, is this, How shall I make my work beautiful? How shall I produce that which is in good taste? And this question like many others, is very briefly asked, but cannot be very briefly answered. Some- thing however may be said which may be of use, and with your permission I will devote a few sentences to the subject.
I would observe that there are three great elements of beauty which ought to claim the attention of all art work- men, and which comprise almost the whole of his artistic stock-in-trade. The three great elements to which I refer are Form, Proportion, an I Colour.
The importance of form is illustrated by the fact that with the Latins forma was equivalent to beauty : and so thoroughly does form imply beauty, that if the form be good it is almost impossible to destroy the beauty. Take an instance. No position is more trying than that occupied by St. Paul's Cathedral in the midst of London smoke : there it stands from year to year with the accumulations of the atmospheric filth of perhaps the filthiest atmosphere in the world : and if the dome depended upon the colour of its material for its beauty, alas for the dome; but its
10
beauty is in its form, and as its outline catches your eye, lighted up by such daylight as the city of London enjoys, you cannot help saying that it is one of the finest buildings in the world.
The education of the eye to the delicate perception of form, and the education of the hand to the production of form, are I conceive amongst the prime requisites of art education ; and it is a kind of education which is the more important because the tendencies of modern times are in some respects unfavorable : there is such a tendency to manufacture things on a large scale, to use the rule and compass rather than the eye, to meet the demand of the times by the production of articles cheap and nasty, that there is a danger of men being frightened away from sound principles of honest art by the dread of being starved in the process of carrying out the principles. Let me illustrate the importance of form by reference to something which I remember hearing from Professor Willis. Professor Willis invented an ingenious instru- ment, which he called a Cymograph, an instrument for obtaining correct drawings of Gothic architecture; it is not very easy to do this, as any one will perceive who remembers how deeply under-cut and hollowed out many of these mouldings are ; however Professor Willis invented the Cymograph, and he did so because he had long been struck by the contrast of effect between ancient v.'ork, and modern work which professed to be merely an imitation of the old. Xow when the two came to be fairly laid side by side upon pa})er, by help of the cymograph, what was the difference between them ? Just this, that in the case of the ancient work
u
tte lines of the mouldings were drawn by the artist with a free hand, whereas in the modern every curve was a circle struck with a compass. The ancient architect went by the rule of brains, and the modern by the rule of thumb ; and I well remember the perplexity caused by this distinction to a very clever and competent man who for a time superintended the recent restoration of the Ely Lantern. Mr. Scott had asked him to make the working drawings of the ancient stonework outside the Lantern ; and the good man attempted to do so according to modern rules of art, but to his dismay he could find no centres from which to strike his circles, and every modern rule of stonework was ruthlessly set at defiance. If you had asked the great architect of the Lantern, with what do you draw the designs of your stonework ? he might have answered, like the artist in Dr. John Brown's Essay, who being asked, " With what do you mis your colours ? " replied " Wi' brains, Sir ! "
So much for form; proportion is almost equally important. Indeed it may be said that proportion is an element of form, that form depends very much upon pro- portion. Still proportion deserves separate consideration, and I should be very glad to give it such considerations as my poor ability might enable me, if it were not that I felt the necessity of studying proportion also in my address and hastening to conclude this portion of it, and proceed to that which is more particularly implied by its title.
For the same reason I must pass with a rapidity, which much grieves me, over the subject of colour. I must »:em.ark however that in this department there is a great
12
deal to be done, and great encouragement to Englishmen to do it. There is a great deal to be done, because until lately colour was in many departments of art almost forgotten ; especially in architecture we seemed somo years ago to regard it as an axiom that we should have no colours except those of wood and of stone : now we are beginning to wake to our mistake, and the danger is lest in the zeal of our returning consciousness we should rush with brush in hand and commit some tremendous blunders : it is for fear of committing such a blunder that the lantern of Ely Cathedral is now left in its unfinished condition ; it was thought better to look at the wood-work in its old crude patched condition, and to consider how it should be treated, rather than paint the whole in a hurry and repent of the result at leisure. But there is, as I have said, great encouragement to Englishmen to work at the colour depart- ment of art ; Englishmen have not I think as a nation good eyes for form and proportion, certainly we do not in general draw so accurately as our French and German neighbours, but we do hold a high position as colourists, and in any international exhibition of pictures perhaps nothing will strike you more than the excellence of the colouring of works of the English school. Let me dismiss this part of the subject by saying that colour seems to me to be in a very special and peculiar way a gift of God. Form and proportion you may say are God's gifts, inasmuch as God gives us the power of appreciating the beauty which arises from them, and sets us examples of such beauty in His works, but the beauty of form and propor- tion is after all connected with geometrical necessity, and therefore can only in part be connected with divine bene-
13
volonce. Not so colour : colour, and therefore all the heauty and pleasure arising- from it, is the result of a distinct creative act, which (as far as we can perceive) need not have been performed : God said " Let there be light, and there was light," but when God created light He created colour too ; the beams of light were not simple inseparable undulations, capable of discharging the useful office of conveying messages to the eye, but the white wave was made capable of splashing into numberless colours, and the great discovery which Newton made, not much more than a century ago, was in reality the discovery of a primeval act of God's providence of which men had perceived for thousands of years the pleasant and refresh- ing consequences, though they were in ignorance of the method of God's operation.
I have now spent as much time as I can afford upon the general question of art, and I pass on to the more direct discussion of the subject which I have chosen particularly for this address, and which I have shadowed forth in the epigrammatic title High Art in Low Countries.
I do not know whether the notion is generally prevalent, but I confess that to me it seems very natural, that districts such as this in which Wisbech is situated should be un- favorable to the flourishing of art and the birth and growth of art-genius. Far be it from me to say anything disrespectful concerning the Isle of Ely, but its best friends will not deny that it is flat, that it is deficient in pic- turesque features, and that there is not much in it to stir the imagination, or drive men to write poetry, in celebration of its natural beauties. The wild land of mountains, water- falls, woods and rivers, seems to be as Sir Walter Scott
14
phrases it, the " true nurse of the poetic child '^ ; in the midst of ditches and skiices the poetic child is Hkely to be smothered in infancy ; and hence I think there is a ten dency to imagine that the child of art is likely to fare as badly in our fen country or in Marshland as the child of poetry. But in truth any such imaginations would be unfounded, and would be contrary to experience. That this is so, I intend to prove for your comfort more at length presently, but before I do so I would first make two remarks*
In the first place it seems to me that the very absence of natural beauty in a flat country is likely to force the minds of the Inhabitants in the direction of art. The possession of everything upon which the eye can delight to rest, all ready made (as it were) by the hand of nature, may have the effect of cheeking the appetite for art, whereas the famine of natural beauty may compel a search for artificial food. Certain it is that the eai-liest works of art are to be found in the prosaic valley of the Nile, and in the flat country of Mesopotamia, and I think that every one must feel that the existance of beautiful churches, such as we find throughout Lincolnshire and the Marshland district of Norfolk, is a boon which in a more interesting country we should not appreciate nearly so highly.
But, in the second place, I think it should be borne in mind that a flat country is not without its advantages even in respect of beautiful objects upon which the eye can rest with pleasure, and by which the artist's eye can be educated. The effects of sunrise and sunset, and generally all beauties depending upon the atmosphere, are seen nowhere better than in a district such as this ; every-
15
one must have been struck occasionally with the grand cloud pictures which may be seen in a country having a wide horison ; eccentric forms, Alpine snowy ranges, weasels and whales, and every variety of hue. No lesson in colours can be better, and with such favourable lights it does not require much to make a picture ; a twist in a river with a windmill, or a cottage, an old barge, a peasant, and a dog, will probably furnish the subject of a charming work of art.
Perhaps I may add in speaking of flat countries, that they have in past times, had an advantage over others, in this respect, that they have got rich more quickly. Districts lying level with the sea, and intersected by natural highways in the form of rivers, with a rich soil ready for tillage, have generally been the earliest homes of commercial wealth, and wealth is necessary for the encouragement of art, " money " is said to " make the mare to go," and it makes the artist's brains and fingers to go too. Artists of all kinds object to hunger, and unless there be men who are rich enough to be patrons of art, art is likely to wane : to be sure you may sometimes find a man art-mad, like the famous French potter Palissy, who broke up his chairs, tables, bedsteads, everything, to keep up the fire in his furnace till his experimental pieces of pottery were sufficiently baked, and who got into scrapes with his wife in consequence, which would have appalled a less stouthearted man ; and even Palissy, by the way, would not have been able to achieve what he did, had he not met with influential patrons in the royal family of France. Money does not necessarily beget art, it may breed mere vulgarity and extravagance, still there must be wealth to
16
enable people to patronize art, and there must be education to teach people to appreciate it, and those countries which rise early to opulence are likely to be found amongst the early nurses of art.
And these considerations lead me to speak upon the remarkable growth of art in times gone by in those countries, which we claim par excellence as the Low Countries — the Pays Bas — or Netherlands. If any one wishes to know how high art can soar in low countries, he should observe what art has done in Belgium and Holland : we people of the fens have, as I shall shew you presently, some very special grounds of consolation con- cerning art here in this Isle of Ely, but if we are not contented with what we can find here at home we may easily run over the sea and find in a country very like our own consolation enough to comfort the most weakhearted. Will you kindly accompany me to Belgium and Holland for a very short trip, and as the G. E. R. Company has made everything so snug and comfortable by way of Harwich and Antwerp, will you consent to adopt that route.
As we steam up the Scheldt everything looks unartistic enough, mud banks, the country as flat and uninteresting as our own, but as we land at Antwerp, or rather for some time before landing, we find a pledge of high art in the beautiful spire of the great church of Notre Pame. This is a wonderful piece of construction, and is enough by itself to make Antwerp worth a visit ; very lofty, 360 feet high, but much more remarkable for its structure than for its height, it is light as lacework, being in fact scarcely a stone building in the proper sense of the word.
17
but rather composed of pieces of stone clamped together with metal. The Emperor Charles V. is reputed to have said that it ought to be kept in a case. In my own humble opinion it is the most beautiful spire in the world, and I may add here by way of parenthesis that an addi- tional stimulant to art is to be found in flat countries in the incitement which seems to be given t(t the erection of lofty buildings ; when men have no mountains near them to dwarf their puny efforts, it is worth while to try how much of beauty can be gained for a building by the elements of height.
The Spire of Notre Dame at Antwerp is however merely the most conspicuous specimen of the art treasures of the old town. Even in the way of Church art it merely stands at the head of a long list. I must pass over this long list to remind you that at Antwerp you meet with the masterpieces of Rubens, and with specimens of others of the most remarkable of Flemish painters. There is perhaps hardly any gallery in Europe of the size, which contains more treasures and less rubbish than that at Antwerp, and after all it does not contain what is regarded by many as Rubens' masterpiece the " Descent from the Cros^," which hangs in the great Church.
The mention of Rubens, the king of Flemish painters, and one of the great painters of the world, makes it necessary for me to make a few remarks upon the Flemish school and its connection with the history of art, I am speaking to you of " Migh Art in Low Countries," and nothing is more remarkable than the contributions to the art of painting which have been made by both Belgium and Holland. Belgium did in fact invent the great art
18
of oil painting for itself: it is true that the Flemish artists were not the first to use oil in the tempering of colours, Giotto and the early Italian masters were con- siderably in advance, but there seems to be no doubt that the two brothers Hubert and John Van Eyck not only invented independently for themselves the method of oil painting before the end of the 14th century, but that the excellence of their method was such as to gain European celebrity, and to induce an Italian artist to journey into the low countries for the purpose of learning it. More- over the excellence of the method and the genius of the inventors speak for themselves in existing works. It will be sufiicient to mention one which is perhaps their masterpiece. I refer to the picture or rather series of pictures known as the " Adoration of the Lamb," part of the work is in the church S. Bavon at Ghent, part is in the Museum at Berlin. I have seen both, and certainly it is impossible to overstate the admiration which an examination of the work inspires : some of those to whom I am speaking have probably seen this great picture ; for others it must suffice to remark that here we have a work in oil by the very inventors of the art, looking now after nearly five centuries as bright as when it came from the easel, and that the crowd of saints represented as adoring the Lamb contains several hundreds of faces, each one finished with the beauty and perfection of a most elabo- rate miniature.
Who shall say that Low Countries are not good cradles for High Art ? But the two Van Eycks were ^he beginning and by no means the end of the Flemish school. Of those who immediately followed them, there
19
are just two whom I will mention. The first Hans Hemling, or Memling, for he seems to bear both names, and of whose brush there is a wonderful specimen in the Hospital of St. John at Bruges ; it consists of a large chest or reliquary, adorned with the representation of the legend of S. Ursula and her 11,000 virgins who were martyred at Cologne and whose supposed bones you may still see there. The finish and preservation of this work are wonderful ; and they tell you at the hospital that offers have been made to the governors of a silver chest of the same size for that which they possess in painted wood. The offer would be a disadvantageous one even on the pure ground of money value ; for undoubtedly the visitors of Hans Hemling's work very soon contribute more silver than would be required to make the chest ; and herein, I may observe, is to be seen an example of the royal prerogative of art, which can turn a few shillings worth of wood and paint into a work absolutely more precious than silver, or even than gold.
The other early Flemish painter whom I wish to mention is Quintin Matsys, and I do so, not so much' for the excellence of his paintings, though that is very great, as because he was by trade a blacksmith. Yes, blacksmith and painter ! nothing can check the career of genius, and a very skilful blacksmith he was, as any one may satisfy himself by examining a wrought iron canopy which protects a pump close to the great church at Antwerp. The story is that Quintin Matsys was in love with a young lady, whose father objected to give his daughter to a blacksmith ; so for the sake of his lady-love Quintin Matsys gave up iron and took to paint.
20
These men whom I have mentioned belong to the infancy of the art, and their works have the stiffness and formality inseparable from the circumstances under which they were produced. Rubens, with his master Otto Venius, and his pupil Vandyck, represent the Flemish school in its full manhood and perfection. A marvellous manhood it was ! I feel myself incompetent to criticize it, and I know thoroughly well the small value, which belongs to my opinion, but I confess that the genius of Eubens impresses me as much as that of almost any painter whose works I have seen : you must not judge him by anything which we have of his in England : so far as I know there are but two places in which you can see him in his glory, namely, Antwerp and Munich; when you do see him in his glory, the freedom of his drawing and the magic of his colouring make you doubt which of the two is the more admirable : woe to the un- happy painter, whose works hang near those of Rubens !
If we went no further on our tour I think we might say, well done, low countries ! But the low countries have done much more. There is no country in which art has been applied to the architecture of towns more earnestly and more successfully than in Belgium. We English people are wonderfully thick-headed with regard to street architecture : we have not half-a-dozen towns which are tolerable, and of our modern towns the in tolerableness is generally unspeakable : only think of London and the large sums that are spent there on new streets and public improvements, and the small result obtained hitherto. However it is not my business to S,buse London, nor have I time to do so; my business
21
just now is to call your attention to the picturesque character of the Flemish towns and above all the Town Halls which the people built in those towns when they were the centres of manufacturing industry, and when the inhabitants had plenty of money. For there was a time when the people had plenty of money, namely, when Ghent was the Manchester of trade, and when the English Government was obliged to go to the capitalists of Antwerp to borrow cash. It is satisfactory to see that our wealthy towns are now making efforts in the same direction ; Liverpool some years ago built St. George's Hall, for courts of justice and other public purposes ; and Manchester has just produced a really remarkable building for the accommodation of her lawyers, being probably the most successful modern application to civil purposes of the architecture of the middle ages. The great mis- fortune, I may remark by the way of England, and es- pecially of England's great towns, in this department of art is her smoky atmosphere : when Flanders built her Hotel- de-vUle she had plenty of money and a clear atmosphere we have the money, but we lack the atmosphere ; and what chance is there of first-rate ideas entering the brain of an architect when they are all to end in smoke ?
There is one other branch of art which must strike everyone in travelling through Belgium : and that is the wood carving. I the rather mention this because we have imported a large quantity of wood carving from Louvain for Ely Cathedral, and any one who has seen Ely Cathedral, (as I trust almost all of you have,) will remember how much the effect of the stalls in the choir has been improved by the introduction of carved panels
22
exhibiting subjects from the Old and New Testaments. The principal opening for carving in a Flemish church seems to have been the pulpit : and some of the works in this department of sacred art are certainly wonderful : a pulpit for instance shall represent the garden of Eden, and then you will have the preacher surrounded with beautiful animals, peacocks, birds of paradise, squirrels, &c., with Adam and Eve perhaps as large as life. It may be doubted whether some of these pulpits do not represent carving gone mad, but certainly the details are very beautiful, and it would be difficult to go to sleep during a sermon preached from such an exciting platform. So much then for Flemish art : in the superficial sketch which I have given, I have wished to impress upon you this conviction, that Belgium was one of the early nurses of art in Europe, and that it is impossible for anyone to pass through the country, even in these railway days, without perceiving that this is true : and the result so far as we in the present day are concerned is this, that here is a country, as uninteresting by nature as the Isle of Ely or any other country of the kind, rendered positively delightful by the application of human skill to the highest departments of art. And before I leave the low countries I must ask you to observe that the same thing is true, though with variations, of the other great division of the Netherlands, namely, Holland. Did you ever go to Holland ? If not, I am sorry for you : a visit to Holland of a few days, supplies a man with recollections for the whole of his life. Of all the funny places I have ever seen Holland is the funniest. It is the only country in which I have felt disposed to rub my eyes and pinch
ftS
myself, in order to ascertain whether I was not in a dream. However my business is not to speak to you of Holland's eccentricity, but of Holland's art; and undoubtedly its school of paiutiug will bear comparison with any in the world. The most remarkable man in this branch of art was Rembrandt: and his case is the more worth noticing because there was apparently nothing in the circum- stances of his birth to make him an artist : he rose from the ranks, so to speak : it was genius, which would come out. He was the son of a miller : and this by the way in Holland is not a very exceptional thing, for it is a land of mills : between Saardam and Woermerveer in North Holland there are about four miles of mills, all planted by the side of the road as regularly as apple trees by the side of a garden walk : so that one would say that there was a good chance for any Dutchman having been bom in a mill : however Rembrandt was so born, and it has been suggested (I think very cleverly) that his peculiar style of painting, his method of lighting up his picture from one intense centre of illumination, may have been unconsiously suggested by the interior of his father's mill, where he played as a child : certainly it occurred to me, when I was once in a Dutch oil-mill, watching the process by which two worthy Dutch millers were extracting oil from linseed, and when I noticed the dark interior with the bright light streaming in through the open door, that here was a ready made "Eembrandt."
However this may be Rembrandt was a prince of painters and a glory of the low countries. Perhaps the most remarkable triumph of his art, and I refer to it because it is a wonderful triumph of art in general, — is
24
his picture, whicli you may see at the Hague, of a certain Professor Tulk, lecturing on anatomy. Only conceive the trial of a painter's powers, who is commissioned to com- memorate a famous anatomist by a picture subscribed for by his admiring pupils, and who underakes to paint not merely a head and shoulders, which in the course of two hundred years may stand for anybody, but the actual man demonstrating upon the dead human subject with his pupils around him ! You may say the picture must be disgusting ; but this is just what the picture is not ; such is the power of art used by genius that even so strange and unpromising a subject as the interior of a school of anatomy can be made a picture upon which the eye delights to rest.
At the Hague you may also see Paul Potter's bull — such a bull ! no rinderpest about him : a fine wholesome young fellow, who seems only to regret that the con- ventionalities of picture life prevent him from walking straight out of the canvass, and treating you to a good loud bellow. To me I confess this world-famous bull is not so striking as another picture by Paul Potter, representing a bear hunt : this is the most living animal picture I ever saw.
Then there is a marvellous picture at Amsterdam by Yan dor Heist, sometimes described as the miracle of the Dutch school. It represents the City guard of Amsterdam celebrating the treaty of Munster ; the picture has no great interest now, except as a remarkable group of por- traits ; here are about five and twenty persons life size grouped together on one canvass, and each portrait such as would make the fortune of an artist in London, while
25
the action of each man is perfectly easy and natural, and the finish of the whole quite perfect.
These great pictures which I have mentioned, are merely prominent specimens of a school ; painting has grown in the soil of Holland just as truly as her tulips and hyacinths ; the school has not soared to the poetic heights of the Spanish and Italian, nor even of the German and Flemish ; but it has done great things, and in imita- tive representative art, I need hardly say, it will challenge comparison with the whole world. My purpose, however, is not to institute an exact comparison between the Dutch and other schools of painting, but only to point out to you how thoroughly High Art has flourished in, and has morally elevated, a country which physically is hope- lessly low ; and how it is true of Holland, as of Belgium, that a country naturally uninteresting has been endowed with charms of the highest order by the gifts of genius and the happy victories of art.
"We must not linger, however, any longer in foreign countries. Time warns me that I must hasten to bring this address to a conclusion, but I must not do so without giving a moral, or what I should call in a sermon, a practical application. Let us come home then to our own country ; and let me remind you that although we cannot boast here an old school of painting, we may fairly say that in one department of art, and that a high one, namely architecture, we had in olden days, a school in the Isle of Ely, of which the Isle may be proud. Ely Cathedral represents, as every one will allow, mediajval architecture in the perfection of its beauty : but it may not have occurred to every one who has admired the
26
beauties of Ely Cathedral to think, or rather some may not have had the opportunity of knowing, that the principal mediaeval glories of Ely, perhaps the whole, were home-grown. I do not know the names of the architects of all the great works, hut the architect of the most remarkable portion, the central octagon and lantern, was undoubtedly a monk of the convent, Alan de Wal- singham. I suppose from his name that he was not born in the Isle, but came from "Walsingham, in Norfolk, a place in those days much more famous than now. He would probably have come from his native village as a boy to Ely, and would never have gone much beyond the bounds of the convent, except to see those farms of which he had the care as Sacrist. But he was a man of genius, and circumstances favored the devolopement of his genius, though in a singular way ; first he showed his love of art by making himself a goldsmith, and then he indulged the same love by turning architect ; many opportunities he found for the exercise of this art ; in fact the good old monk seems to have been constantly building one thing on another ; he designed the Lady Chapel, he built that exquisite little gem which we call Prior Crauden's Chapel, and several other buildings of less note ; but the grand opportunity for exhibiting his full powers occurred when the old central Norman tower fell in 1320 ; "It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good," and though the fall of the tower nearly frightened the monks out of their wits and emptied their pockets, it was (as we say) the "making" of Alan de Walsingham. Never was there a better opening, and Alan perceived it ; he did not send to London for Mr. Scott, as we his degenerate successors
27
do when we need any alterations or improvements, but he set to work himself: he determined that he would have no more heavy towers, threatening to come down and keeping up a reign of terror, but he would re-cast the whole structure of the Cathedral, and so he introduced that beautiful octagon, which has been ever since one of the chief features of the building, and which may be reckoned amongst the prime results of medieeval archi- tectural skill.
Here then we have close at home another specimen of high art in low countries; art, let me observe, none the worse for being consecrated to the service and worship of God : indeed it is true as a matter of history, and perhaps we might have expected it to be so, that the religious feeHng has been more successful than any other in pro- moting the progress of art : Bezaleel the son of TJri, and Aholiab the son of Ahisamach, of whom we read that God ''filled" them "with wisdom of heart, to work all manner of work, of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the embroiderer, in blue and in purple in scarlet and in fine linen, and of the weaver, even of them that do any work, and of those that devise cunning work," — Bezaleel and AhoHab were, I say, but the earliest specimens of a race of men, who under the old covenant and under the new, in the days of Moses and Solomon, and king Edward the third, and Queen Yictoria have consecrated their artistic genius to the service of God. Here no doubt, if a man have the power to realize it, is a spring of action which excites the bravest efforts and leads to the most transcendent results. You see the most complete illustration both of the power and of the
28
success of the principle in the case of that most admirable painter the monk of Fiesole whom it has become the custom to style Fra Angelico : of him we read that he would never paint for gain, but that if petition was made to him for a picture for any sacred purpose he would ask permission of his superior and then give himself to the work.
"We have no artist monks in Ely in these days, but the ceiling of the Nave of the Cathedral may be taken as evidence, not only that there is still high art in the low countries, but that the spirit which guided the brush of Fra Angelico in Italy more than 400 years ago, is alive in England at the present time. It is really a cheering fact with regard to art in our own country, that a work like that of the ceiling of Ely Cathedral should have been begun and completed by amateur hands : most of you are probably aware that the painting was conceived and half executed by the late Mr. Styleman Le Strange, and that when death cut short his labours sadly and suddenly, the work was taken up and completed by Mr. Gambler Parry. I have no time to describe this beautiful work, nor is it necessary : any one who can come to Wisbech to hear this address can easily go to Ely to see this painting; and I am sure that those who do see it, I may add that those who see the many other works of sacred art which are to be found in Ely Cathedral, wiU conclude that some how or another, although we have no Alan de "Walsingham amongst us, high art does still find its way into the low countries of our Isle.
Long may this continue to be so ! and may this indus- trial and art exhibition help to foster the love of art and
29
the knowledge of art and the study of art amongst us. Depend upon it art is truly the gift of God: as Bacon in the language of his latest and best editor, "declared with all the weight of his authority and of his eloquence, that the true end of knowledge is the glory of God and the relief of man's estate," so also we may say that art has been given for the same great purposes, that it is intended to promote human happiness, and that it is used for its highest purpose when it is made to tend to God's glory. All men are not artists nor capable of appreciating art in its highest forms, but all men are benefited more or less by the progress of art; just as all men are not poets, and yet poetry softens the manners and polishes the mind, and makes this world more habitable even for the most prosaic ; you cannot tie up the benefits of art to a few, it is a gift to humanity, and extends in its influence and its blessings as widely as the human race extends; it may be abused to evil purposes, to mere luxury and efieminacy, just as other good gifts of God may be abused, but there is no reason why it should be ; it is not to be compared in point of value with those other gifts which afiecfc the absolute necessities of the body, or the still more absolute necessities of the soul ; but putting aside these sovereign gifts of God, there is none for which we should give greater and more continual thanks than for Art, in all its multiform ramifications. We may see in it one of the most conspicious proofs of God's goodness, because we find in it the evidence that He has given us this world, not only as a place to live in, but as a place in which the eye and the ear and the whole mind may ever find abundance of beauty and unfailing springs of delight.
Le.vcu and Son, Trixters, 26, High Street, Wisbech.
ATHENS • y^GINA • CORINTH DELPHI • OLYMPIA • ITHOME SPARTA ♦ ARGOS ♦ NAUPLIA MYCEN^ • TIRYNS • &c. • &c.
PICTURES AND STUDIES OF
GREEK • LANDSCAPE and ARCHITECTURE BY JOHN ' FULLEYLOVE ^ R.I.
EXHIBITED IN THE GALLERY OF T'HE FINE ART SOCIETY, CXLVII. NEW BOND STREET, IN APRIL and MAY MDCCCXCVI.
The Illustration facing the Preface is from the Colossal head of Dispoina from Lycosura in Arcadia, now in the Central Museum, Athens.
EXHIBITION No. 147
JfliPfll^ESE OBJECTS OF ART
(ANCIENT).
LACQUERS, NETSUKES,
ART BRONZES, TSUBAS,
POTTERY, METAL WORKS.
COLOUR PRINTS by KORIUSAI, SHUNSHO, 1st TOYOKUNE, TORIYE, YESHI, UTAMARO, HOKUSAI, H.
CHOICE EMBROIDERIES, BROCADES, and other ART VrORKS OF OLD JAPAN.
HONOHO DOm, YOKOHAMA, JAPAN.
AND AT
PICCADILLY CIRCUS CHAMBERS (Entrance, 217 Piccadilly, W.)
ARTISTIC CATERERS, GENERAL REFRESHMENT CONTRACTORS AND FURNISHERS.
■ -v^ ^ ^ ^r yy ^'^y f w t' v^ -v "^•^■v w "^ w a
Balls, Conversazioni, "At Homes," Wedding Receptions,
Garden Parties, Smoking Concerts, &c., provided for.
Contractors to the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours,
Royal Society of British Artists, Princes' Hall,
The Continental Gallery, Natural History Museum, Kensington,
Messrs. Dowdeswell & Dowdeswells, Ltd.,
The Japanese Gallery,
AND TO THE FINE ART SOCIETY.
Estimates and information of the iVIanager,
.26 NEW CAVENDISH STREET, PORTLAND PLACE, W.
ATHENS ^ ^GINA ^ CORINTH DELPHI ^ OLYMPIA ^ ITHOME SPARTA ^ ARGOS ^ NAUPLIA MYCEN^ > TIRYNS ^ &c. ^ &c.
PICTURES AND STUDIES OF
GREEK 'LANDSCAPE and ARCHITECTURE BY JOHN ^ FULLEYLOVE ♦ R.I.
EXHIBITED IN THE GALLERY OF THE FINE ART SOCIETY, CXLVIII. NEW BOND STREET, IN APRIL and MAY MDCCCXCVI.
The tllustration facing the Preface is from the Colossal head of Dispoina from Lycosura in Arcadia, now in the Central Museum, Athens.
KXHIBITION No. 147
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PREFACE.
It is a remarkable fact that, although our landscape painters find their way to such distant countries as India and Japan, they seem one and all to pass over a country which is not only pre-eminent for natural beauty, but also of the highest possible interest for all lovers of art, and, indeed, for every thinking being.
We are, for the most part, indebted chiefly to the late accomplished President of the Royal Academ}^ for oppor- tunities of making any real acquaintance with the lovely forms of the mountains and sea-shores of Greece. In many of his pictures he has, indeed, given us the quintessence of Greek landscape ; but his sketches in oil must be seen in order that the completeness of his mastery over the refined beauty of distant mountains in classical lands may be appreciated. The beautiful Greek drawings of J. W. Muller, dating from the year 1838, are but too few in number, and, like the sketches of Lord Leighton, are not generally known to the public.
In the early years of the century, when Greece formed part of the Sultan's dominion, and travelling involved some risk and hardship, artists were contented to work up, according to their own fancy, the rough sketches of the enterprising archaeologists, or travellers, who visited the East of Europe ; and we need not be surprised that this practice continued to a much later date. We find, in fact, that the plates and woodcuts of what is still the standard illustrated work on Greece show ludicrous misintcrpreta-
tions of the sketches taken on the spot, and provide, in numerous cases, utterly incongruous foregrounds, borrowed from the famih'ar scenery of the Home Counties.
Perhaps one of the many reasons which might deter an artist from attempting such a fascinating subject as Greek landscape is the feeling of being overweighted with the innumerable associations which must always cling to the home of the most gifted race the world has ever seen. The mere mention of such names as Athens, Corinth Sparta, Argos, Mycense, Olympia, or Delphi conjures up visions in the mind with which no reality can possibly compete. It is a common experience that our first sight of a famous city or landscape, even under favourable circumstances, causes a shock of disappointment, due to the fact that the reality, fine as it may be, is so different from the mental image we had formed of it beforehand. Such a shock must, however, be transient indeed in the case of the visitor to Greece, if he is fortunate enough to possess, either by nature or by training, the power of appreciating the noble forms of her crystalline rocks and mountains and the pure and bright colours of her seas and sky.
We are told that the famous works of Greek architects and sculptors have for the most part entirely disappeared, or exist only in a distressing condition of ruin and decay. But, if this statement be put forward as an objection to a proposed visit to Greece, it should have little weight with an artist, or with any observant person, who is familiar with other countries than his own. He will have learnt the obvious lesson that all fine architecture, as well as the sculpture which forms an essential part of it, is specially adapted to the light and colour and, even to the forms of
the surface, of the country which gives it birth ; and that it cannot be thoroughly understood or appreciated elsewhere. He will, therefore, be anxious to see, either with his own eyes, or with the help of a thoroughly competent painter the actual relation of the more important remains (scanty though they may be) to the climate and to the landscape.
Setting aside, for the moment, the question as to the condition and value of the remains of ancient art still extant in Greece, we must not forget that the great natural features of the country still remain as they were in the time of Peisistratus, or in the golden age of Pericles. The rocks, hills, and mountains of Attica, just as we see them now, and even the grand stretch of olive groves along the course of the Cephissus, were the familiar surroundings of men, who, by the common consent of all subsequent generations, were the deepest thinkers, the greatest poets, and the most illustrious artists of the world. With these recollections uppermost in our minds, we should, most of us, certainly desire that a painter, who takes Greek land- scape and architecture for his subject, should deal with it as we should wish the portrait of a person whom we venerate or love to be treated. We should ask that the portraiture be, above all things, faithful ; that it shall select the really characteristic points, and that the work shall itself be admirable, both for drawing and for colour. We should deem it something like profanation if the artist, instead of coming to his work with an open and receptive mind, should import his own preconceived schemes of colour, derived from a different climate and surroundings or should modify the features of the landscape to suit his own notions of the picturesque or the sublime. We should regard it as certainly advantageous it our artist shall have
previously worked in the South of France, or in Italy ; so that he may at once know how to deal adequately with the bright light and pure colour of the Mediterranean lands. Personally, I should desire that he be a water- colour painter, because I believe that water-colour draw- ings, executed with washes of colour, and entirely free from the use of opaque pigments, afford the only satisfac- tory means of recording the more exquisite effects of landscape beauty, especially as seen in the clear air of the South of Europe.
The pure method of Mr. Fulleylove's practice as a water-colour painter, and the sincerity and directness of his work, are well-known to the frequenters of the Fine Arts Society's Galleries. His studies in Petrarch's country and in Italy (more especially at Siena) are also still fresh in our memory. It is, therefore, a subject for congratulation that he has now attacked the excessively difficult but enchanting subject of Greek architecture as associated with Greek landscape. The drawings he exhibits have the rare merit of having been, in nearly all cases, finished on the spot in all essential points, and they have thus a freshness and fidelity which can never belong to landscape work done in the studio.
Naturally, Mr. P\illeylove has devoted most of his time to Athens, " the eye of Greece " ; and he shows a large number of finished drawings, which, taken together, will enable the visitor to the gallery to form a fairly adequate idea of the natural situation of the ancient city, notwith- standing the intricacy of the nearer group of hills and their varying outline, never from two points o\ view alike. As regards the distant mountains, it may be convenient to remember that the long ridge of Hymettus bounds the
Attic Plain on the east, that the much lower range of yEgaleos (or Daphni) lies parallel to it on the west, and that the pediment-like form of Pentelikon rises to the north-east. The lofty range of Parnes to the north, which forms an important distant feature of the landscape of Attica is not included in any of the drawings exhibited.
Notwithstanding the comparative rarity, and the frag- mentary state, of the remains of ancient Greek architecture in Greece itself, Athens happily possesses, in the Theseum, the best preserved of all Greek temples, and in the Parthenon, the most perfectly-wrought and nobly-placed building in the world. Standing, as it does, upon the highest level of the Acropolis, and resting, to the extent of one-half of its width, upon mighty substructures specially built to support it, the Parthenon seems to command the whole Attic plain, and in spite of all the violence it has suffered, it yet remains sufficiently complete, from most points of view, to enable us to realise what its effect at a distance must have been, when it still enshrined the colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena. Besides the Parthenon, the Acropolis can boast the almost perfect little temple of Wingless Victory and the complex structure called the Erechtheum, a building which possesses all the finish and delicacy of an ivory casket. Moreover, the Western Front of the Acropolis is still spanned by the great Gate House of the Propylsea, unique as a specimen of a secular building of the finest period of Greek art.
It goes without saying that these famous monuments are again and again introduced in the numerous drawings of the Acropolis and its surroundings which Mr. Fulleylove exhibits. They can be identified by means of the detailed descriptions given in the catalogue. Of the nearer views
8
of the Parthenon, attention may be drawn to No. 26 for its singular but characteristic scheme of colour, and also to No. 88, as giving very faithfully the local colour of the building and therefore necessarily ignoring some of the details of form. No. 10 shows the interior of the West Portico, and gives, very happily, its colour at mid-day in summer. Looking at No. 36, with a vista along the North Peristyle, we seem to breathe the fresh air of the Acropolis in the early morning ; whilst in No. 27 we see the Eastern Front of the temple brilliantly illumined, at sunset, by reflected light from Hymettus.
The group of columns of the temple of Olympian Zeus, sixty feet in height, forms one of the most attractive objects to the artist in Athens, and Mr. Fulleylove has given full attention to this subject, as will be seen by reference to Nos. 18, 22, 28, 67, 95, and others.
As the melting blue of the sea no less than the clear air and the delicate colour of the distant mountains and rocky islands is a special characteristic of the views from the Athenian hills, some notice should be taken of the drawings Nos. 14, 17 and 18, in which Mr. Fulleylove gives us glimpses of the waters of the Saronic Gulf.
It will be seen that nearly the whole round of that marvellous land of beauty, the Peloponnesus, is illustrated by Mr. Fulleylove's brush. Nauplia, Argos, Tiryns, Mycenae, Tripolitza in Arcadia, Sparta, Ithome, Olympia, and many other world-famous sites are more or less fully represented. Of the landscapes, No. 86 (of Olympia) and No, 30 (Sparta) may be mentioned as specially brilliant and characteristic examples. No. 47 is singularly magnificent in its subject, the castle of Karytsena. The drawings of greatest artistic interest, amongst those which
have the remains of Greek architecture as their special subject, are perhaps No. 66 (Bassa^), 31 (Epidaurus), 80 (Tiryns), 82 (the Temple of Hera at Olympia), and No. 39 (the Temple at Corinth). The last-mentioned drawing is particularly valuable as showing how fine the colour of Greek landscape is, even in the absence of sunshine.
In northern Greece, Mr. Fulleylove's travels did not extend beyond Attica and the neighbourhood of Delphi. The plain of Cirrha, with Parnassus and the valley of the Pleistos in view (No. 24), is the principal drawing relating to Delphi ; but the Stoa of the Athenians (No. 19) should be noticed, and the two pencil drawings of the Castalian gorge (56) and the cliff on the opposite side of the valley of the Pleistos (84) should not be overlooked.
To many visitors the pencil drawings will form not the least attractive part of the exhibition. No. 79 (the Stoa of Hadrian), No. 64 (the Portico of Athena Archegetis), and No. 68 (the Tower of the Winds) show an extraor- dinary power of indicating colour as well as form with the lead pencil.
It is to be hoped that the collection now exhibited will
prove to be only the first-fruits of the artist's studies in
Greece. He has confined himself almost exclusively to
Attica and the Peloponnesus, but Boeotia, Thessaly Eubcjea,
and the Cyclades are full of splendid subjects. Moreover,
the wonderful riches of both shores of the Gulf of
Corinth have hardly been touched. We may, therefore*
confidently expect that Mr. Fulleylove will return to the
country where he has found so much original material for
the exercise and development of his talents.
H.
A3
C^ TA LOGU E.
The Copyrights in all tJie Exhibits are re sored. The
prices can be obtained on application; they are in every instance net and Guineas.
1. The Street of Tombs Outside the Dipylon (Gate) at
Athens.
One of the most remarkable tombs is that surmounted by a colossal Imll in the act of charging. This statue has undergone a good deal of restoration, but it is a singularly effective piece of work when seen relieved against the sky in such a climate ns that of Athens. Between this tomb and the tall shaft (slele) surmounted by an acroterion we get a view of the Parthenon, with a storm approaching from the East. (Size 7^ ;« 5^.)
2. Cape Gallo and the Gulf of Messene.
Sketch from the Messageries Steamer " Nerthe," loth April, 1895. (Size 7ix5l-)
3. The Acropolis of Mycen/E from the South-West,
Backed by the Imposing Form of Mount Elias,
The gorge to the right is the valley which served as a defence for the Acropolis on the south side. The piece of road to the left is within a few paces of the famous bee-hive tomb known as the Treasury of Atreus. (Size 7^ x 5'.)
4. The Parthenon from the Gre.\t Doorway of the
Propyl^a.
The column of Pentelic marble, dividing the drawing into two unequal parts, is the southernmost of the two central columns of the Eastern Portico of the Propylaea. One of the drums of this
II
column has been displaced apparently by an exphision of gun- powder. The northern half ot the west front of the Parthenon is given in full detail. There is a timber scaffolding within the inner colonnade of the Temple. To the left of the column of tlie Propyhx;a the north-east corner of the Parthenon appears. Leading up to it is the bare rock of the Acropolis, contributing by its faint blueish local colour to the blueness of the shadow which falls across it. (Size 6x7.)
5. The Acropolis from the Lower Slope of the Pnyx
Hill.
The convoluted mass of crng to the left is the Areopagus (^^ars Hill). The Acropolis fills the centre of the picture, and the relative positions of the remains of the world-famous buildings which surmount it are very clearly seen. To the right the west front of the Parthenon ; before it — stretched like a great screen across the west end of the Acropolis — the stately gateway and wmgs of the Propylcea; to the left, on the higher level, we catch sight of the porticoes of the Erechtheum ; and running the eye to the base of the Acropolis, to the right, we see the mighty sustaining wall of the Theatre of Herodes Atticus, with Mount Hymettus behind it. (Size 11x7!.)
6. The Temple of Athena on the Island of /Egina.
The Temple, which is magnificently situated on the top of one of the hills near Mount Elias in the southern part of the island, looks eastward towards Cape Colonna, over the blue waters of the Saronic Gulf. The coast seen above the sea is part of the west coast of Attica running down to Sunium. The drawing in- cludes five out of the six columns of the east front of the Temple, and five out of the twelve columns of the north side, also two coluvans of the pro/mos, together with the architraves. These columns are of limestone still partly covered with their marble stucco. (Size 12 x 7.)
7. Olympia. The Base of ihe Kronos Hill, with the
Remains of the Temple of Hera and the Philippeion.
At the foot of the hill, the columns of the north, south and west sides of the Henuon still in situ are clearly shown, and also the cella wall on the west and south. The remains of the I'hilip- peion, a circular building erected by Philip If. of I\[acedon
12
(circ. 336 is.c. ) are in the foreground to the west of the IIer?eon. The base of one of the Ionic columns is in its place, and the marble steps which supported the colonnade are connected by a slab of marble with the circular substructure of the central mass of the building. (Size7^x5i, )
8. Off Cape Matapan, Southern Greece.
Sketch from the Messageries Steamer " Nerthe," loth April, 1S95. (Size7ix5i.)
9. Argos and Larissa.
To the left the principal cliurch of the modern town of Argos. Behind the town rises the splendid mass of Larissa, the Acropo- lis of the ancient city, with medi?eval fortifications on its summit. Half way up lies the romantically situated convent of the Panagia. (Size 7J x s|.)
10. The Western Portico of the Parthenon from the
South.
The timber scaffolding, here shown, has been erected for the pur- pose of examining the condition of the architrave supporting the western frieze. The columns to the right are those of the inner row. The marvellous way in which the marble of the Parthenon takes colour is in no way exaggerated in this drawing. The second column of the Northern Peristyle (the column across which one of the beams of the scaffolding passes transversely) should be specially noticed. The time of day is towards noon. (Size 7 a >^ SiO
11. Mistra, near Sparta.
The Eastern Portico of the Pantanassa Church, with view over the valley of the Eurotas. (Size 7| x 51.)
12. The Laconian Gate of Messene.
The roadway coming up from the monastery of Vourkano to the village of Mavromati divides the foreground of the scene. In the middle distance we have before us the luxuriant valley of the Pamisus, and, in the far distance, the lofty upper ranges of Taygetus covered with snow. Under the boughs of the graceful olive, which flanks the finely squared masonry of the ruined gateway, we catch a glimpse of the gulf of Messene. The freshness and purity of colour of an April day in Southern Peloponnesus has here been happily caught. (Size ii x 7^.)
13
13- Colossal Head of Dlspoina.
From Lycosura in Arcadia, now in the Central Museum, Athens. (Size 7| X 5^, pencil.)
14. The Seaward End of the Plain of Attica looking
TOWARDS SaLAMIS.
The view is bounded to the left by the foot of th^ Acropolis with part of Beule's gate ; below, to the right of this, we overlook the whole of the ancient Assembly Place of the Athenian people (the Pnyx), with its retaining wall of colossal masonry below, and its scarped-rock boundary and bema above. Further away the famous olive groves, following the course of the Kephissus, stretch along the plain. (Size 145 x 11.)
15. Under the Northern Portico of the Erechtheum.
The dark hollow, seen through the fractured pavement in the fore- ground, is the crypt, containing the supposed marks of Poseidon's trident. The flight of steps, facing us, shows the point from which the drawing No. (76) was taken. It leads to the level of the Eastern Portico of the Temple, The mountain above is Hymettus, (Size 11 x y^.)
16. The Pnyx ; or, Place of Assembly of the Athenian
People.
At the junction of the converging lines of scarped rock is the Bema, or altar, of the Pnyx, with a platform in front, from which, it is believed, the orators addressed the people. It will be seen that the steps, at the side of the cubical mass of rock, which has been called an altar, ascend right up to the top of it ; and it seems probable that we have here rather the basis of the altar, than the altar itself. The latter may very well have been moveable. Above the Bema will be seen the remains of a semi-circular row of seats, apparently the seats of the Prytanes, facing the people. In the middle distance of the drawing the Acropolis rises majestically, and is finely opposed by the long line of Mount Hymettus. (Size 7^ x 5^.)
17. The Bastion and Temple of Wingless Victory viewed
FROM THE Ascent to the PROPYL/iiA. (Early Morning.)
The northern face of the great Bastion or outwork of squared masonry, which guards the ascent to the Acropolis at its south-western
14
point, occupies the left-hand half of the drawing. This Bastion is capped by a cornice of PenleUc marble, upon which formerly stood the famous parapet adorned with fij;ures of winged vic- tories sculptured in low relief. The three steps of the exquisite little Temple would, therefore, originally have been hidden from view. Just below are the steps still in situ belonging to the stairs which ascended to the platform of the Temple. The pedestal, above the atita beside these stairs, supported a statue of one of the leaders of the Athenian Cavalry. The long flight of steps, passing transversely across the drawing, is the modern ascent to the l'roj)ylKa. Far below, near the foot of the Acro- polis, some of the upper arches of the massive facade of the Theatre of Herodes Atticus rise into view ; and, to the right, the scathed surface of the Museion Hill, with the Monument of Philopappus on its top, slopes away from the eye in subtle curves which the artist has drawn with the utmost care and skill. Further to the right is the Bay of Fhaleron and (closing the landscape above) the clearly seen ranges of the mountains of Argolis. Even from this lovely prospect the eye gladly returns to the pure golden light which glows beneath the ceilings of the porticoes of the little Temple and plays in delicate opalescent colours upon its marble walls. (Size ii x 7.^.)
1 8. The Columns of the Temple of Olvmpl\n Zeus at
Athens from the North-East.
Over the soft blue water of the Saronic Gulf we see to the left the Island of ^gina, and then, to the right, a long range of the mountains of Argolis. Low down in the extreme right of the drawing will be noticed the Arch of Hadrian, in front of the sun-burnt slope of the Museion or Hill of Philopappus. The dignity and the extreme refinement of colour of the landscape of Attica are well represented in this drawing. (Si/e 14^x11.)
19. Delphl The Portico (Stoa) of the Athenl\ns.
The wall of polygonal masonry to the right is part of the Heleniko or terrace wall of the Great Temple of Apollo. Three marble steps at the back of the Athenian Portico, with two Ionic columns in place, stand in front of the wall. The "sacred way," terminating at the east end of the Great Temple above, passes in front of this Portico, and the row of marble seats along its further side marks out its course. To the left of the drawing is seen the mountain slope of Kirphis leading down to the gorge of the river Pleistos.
15
The interesting architectural remains here shown have only recently been fully uncovered by the French School of Archa.'ology. As the Director naturally desires to publish the results of the exca- vations at Delphi himself Mr. Fulleylove could not expect to obtain permission to make further drawings of them. (Size
20. Nauplia and Tiryns from the Road to Argos.
The great headland to the right, crowned by the fortress of Palamidi, overlooks the town of Nauplia. The golden-brown hill to the left is the ancient acropolis or fortress of Tiryns, the exploration of which by Dr. Schlieman was an event of hardly less impor- tance than his famous discoveries at Mycen.u. (Size II x 7^.)
2 1. The Acropolis from the Site of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
The two detached colossal columns belong to the west end of the Southern Peristyle of the Temple. To the right is the Arch of Hadrian. The striking form of the masses of rock, which con- stitute the natural defence of the Acropolis on its eastern side, shows with great effect in this drawing. (Size jh x 5^.)
2 2. Columns of the Temple of Olympian Zeus from the West.
Hymettus behind. Sunset effect. The colours of the landscape aie those of full summer. (Size jh x 5^.)
23. The Western End of the Acropolis seen from Below the Pnyx.
The position of the Propyli^a, the magnificent gate lioase ot Pentelic marble designed by the architect Miiesicles, is admir- ably shown in this di awing. All the five doorway?, which were closed by doors of bronze, are seen against the sky. Immediately to the left is the North wing (the Pinacotheca) ; to the right, the bastion surmounted by the little Nike Temple. High above all rises the Paithenon. Coming down to the foreground, we may note, on the right, the great sui)porting wall of the 'I'heatre of Herodes Atticus with the blue Ilynieltus behind it ; and, to the left, the pinkish coloured rock o( the Areopagus, ViiAi I.ycabettus above. (Size 12x7.)
re
24. Delphi from Itea.
This drawing indicates in a general way the position of Delphi with regard to the plain of Cirrha below and the snowclad summit of Parnassus above. On the left is the opening of the gorge of the Pleistos. Just above where it disappears from view to the right the new village called Delphi is visible on the slope of the mountain in front of the great precipices of the Castalian Gorge. Ancient Delphi lies out of sight in the hollow imme- diately behind the new village, and between it and the Castalian cliffs. (Size 71x51.)
25. The Stadion at Athens.
The line of sight is in the direction of the axis of the stadion. The hills sloping right and left show the line of the seats for spec- tators. The stones projecting from the side of the hill to the left are part of the masonry which faced the eastern limb of the stadion on its southern side. In the foreground is the modern bridge over the Ilissus leading to the stadion. (.Si/e 11 >• 7'..)
26. The Parthenon from the PROPYL.f:A. (Early morning.)
The pale golden light on the architraves within the Posticum is reflected from the east side of the west front of the Temple. The scarped rock to the right is the boundary of the precinct of Artemis Brauronia. The drum of a column in the right-hand corner of the drawing represents the southernmost column of the eastern portico of the Propylsea. For obvious artistic reasons the whole column could not be included in the drawing. The pedestal before the column is that of the statue of Athene Ilygitia by the sculptor Pyrrhos. Two or three paces in front of it are the remains of a large free-standing altar. (Size 21 j x 13^.)
27. The Eastern Front of the Parthenon in the Glow
of a Summer Sunset.
Below, to the left, the Hill and Monument of Philof appus. The rich colouring of the Parthenon is chiefly due to the rosy hues of sunset reflected from Hymettus. (Size 11 x 7^.)
28. Columns of the Temple of Olympian Zeus from the
North -West.
The delicate, rosy tint is characteristic of Hymettus at sunset. The hill in front of Hymettus is Ardetlos, above the Stadion. The time of year is late in June. (Size 7^ x 5 J,.)
17 29- The Acropolis with Kallirrhoi!; in the Foreground.
The worn and polished bed of the Ilissus, down which trickles the water of the fountain of Kallirrhoe, is richly coloured with blue and purple, owing to reflected light from the blue sky of a brilliant early morning in summer. The Acropolis with the Parthenon (divided into two masses from this point of view) is relieved against the sky. To the right are some of the lofty columns of the Temple of Olympian Zeus, the little cafe or refreshment house giving scale to them. (Size 12x7.)
30. Sparta and Mount Taygetus.
The lower ranges of Taygetus above Sparta, strangely suggesting both in form and colour the front view of a line of gigantic elephants, afford a fine contrast to the sharp angles of the snowy heights above. The point of view is immediately in front of the new museum ; and the houses at the foot of the mountains belong to the east end of New Sparta. A Grseco-Roman sarcophagus of marble, and architectural fragments are l)ing in the foreground. (Size 7| x 5^.)
31. The Theatre of Epidaurus.
Presumably the work of the younger Polykleitos ; the auditorium (Koilon) hollowed out ofthe side of the hill, as is usual in Greek theatres. In the diazoma, or horizontal gangway, half way up the side ofthe auditorium are thrones or seats of honour. The orchestra, marked by a circle of white marble, is clearly shown, and also the foundations of the stage buildings. By an act of barbarism, which has sadly ruined the artistic interest of this, the most beautiful ancient Greek theatre, the marble proscenium decorated with engaged Ionic columns has been removed, as not being part of the original design of the building. One of the great gateways opening into the passage (parados) leadmg to the orchestra occupies the lower middle part of the drawing. (Size II X 7^.)
32. The Acropolis and the Temple of Olympian Zeus,
from the Hill Ardettos.
The boundary wall ofthe enclosure (temenns) of the Temple is very clearly marked. The clustered group of lofty columns is the remains of the S.K. corner of the Temple itself. North-west of them is the Arch of Hadrian. The walls of the Acropolis make a splendid contrast to the rugged bosses of the rocks which support them. The Parthenon above is seen almost down to the stylobate, and masses finely from this point of view. The mountains are thuse of Daphni. (Size 7.^ x 5^.)
i8
33. The Square in Front of the King's Palace at
Athens.
Mount Hymettus behind and the dust-laden cypress trees in front of the Palace, ruddy in the last rays of a June sunset. (Size 14I x 11.)
34. Athens from the Road to Eleusis.
The hills running across the middle distance are a portion of the chain which divides the Attic plain into its two main parts. To the left we have the picturesque outline of Lycabettus, then the rolling hills above the Ilissus, next the rectangular form of the Acropolis, and to the right the Museion or Philopappus Hill. Behind this chain of hills and rocky eminences arises the great mass of Mount Hymettus. (Size 11 x j^.)
35. The Erechtheum, with the Caryatid Portico.
The Eastern Portico of the Erechtheum terminates the building to • the right. Only four out of its six columns are seen ; the second, counting from the south, is behind the an/a, and the northernmost one is in the British Museum. In the Caryatid Portico the dark figure is a terra cotta substitute for the original removed by Lord Elgin. Parts of the foundations of tlie archaic temple of Athena Polias are in the foreground. The exquisite reflected lights and colours of the buildings are given with remarkable purity and delicacy. (Size 7^ x 5^.)
36. Vista of the Northern Peristyle of the Parthenon,
LOOKING Westward.
Out of the seventeen columns of the Northern Peristyle the remains of fourteen, more or less perfect, may be counted on the right. Six of them, which have stood unmoved for more than twenty- two centuries, are distinguished by their splendid colour, almost matching in this respect the second column of the west front, which is also visible. The remains of the north cella wall are seen to the left. The two drums of colunms in shadow in the foreground reflect the pure blue of the early morning sky. Over their tops may be seen part of the Propyla'a, ami the mountains of Daphni and Megara. (Size 11x7^.)
37. The Areopagus and Theseum.
The craggy mass to the left is the Areopagus (Mars Iiill\ with the cleft of the Eumenides. Behind the Temple of Theseus stretch the famous olive groves of Athens, nourished by the water of the subterranean Kephissus. The mountain range is that of ^Elgaleos with tlie Pass of Daphni. (Size 7.^ x 5.^)
19
38. Athens from Colonos.
In the centre of the drawing we have the north side of the Acropolis, glowing in the summer sunset. East of it lies the mass of the modern town of Athens. The hill with the purple shadow upon its slope is Ardettos, over the valley of the llissus. The hill to the right is Philopappus. (.Size 11x7^.)
39. The Temple at Corinth.
The five columns to the right belong to the Western Peristyle, and the two columns in front of us, to the Southern Peristyle. These columns are all monolithic. The remains of the 'I'emple at Corinth are amongst the most ancient existing monuments of Doric architecture, and the solemn impression they make upon the traveller is admirably preserved in this drawing, the fine colour of which is remarkably sympathetic with the subject. Above the Temple to the right is the lofty Acropolis of Corinth (the Acrocorinthus) with the mediceval fortifications on its summit. Careful observers will notice that the capital of the near column has been turned round on its shafi, no doubt owing to the action of earthquakes. (.Size 14], x 11.)
40. Triple Bridge over the M.wrozoumenos River. '
Near the village of Neochori, on the road from Ithoine to Mcligula. (Size 1 1 X 7;j, pencil.)
41. The Temple ok Theseus from the South-West.
The mountain dominating the Temple, to the right (east), is Lycabetlus; the distant mountain, to the left, is Pentelikon. (Size II X 7^.)
42. Corfu. The Old Fort from the West.
To the left the Albanian Mountains. (Size 7i x 5^. )
43. The B-vitle-Field of AL\rathon from Mouni- Pente-
likon.
The plain of iVIarathon and the long spit of Kynosura are well shown ; but the sickle shape of the famous Bay is obscured by the intervening summit of Mount Agrieliki. Across the blue gulf of Petal! we see the splendid chain of the liubuean Moun- tains. (Size 1 1 X 7^.)
20
44- Athens : the Erechtheum and North Side of the Acropolis.
From a point east of the Parthenon. (Brilliant sunset.) (Size 7^^ 5?' pencil.)
45. The Venetian Gate at Nauplia.
With tine plane tree to the right. (Size 7^ x 5i, pencil.)
46. Kalamata, on the Gulf of Messene.
A well in the Market-place. (Size 7^ x 5";.)
47. The Castle of Karyttena, in Arcadia.
This is one of the most romantic scenes in the Peloponnesus, and is aptly quoted by Curtius as no less characteristic of Mediaeval Greece than Tiryns and Mycenae are of the Prehistoric age. The Castle covers the summit of a free-standing mass of rock rising up into the air (almost like the central tower of a great English Cathedral) above a gorge with precipitous red cliff-;. To the right of the Castle lies the modern town. (.Size 14I x 1 1.)
48. The Caryatid Portico of the Erechtheum from the
West.
The massive substructures to the right are part of the foundations of the archaic Temple of Athena Polias. One of the columns of the Eastern Portico of the Erechtheum appears to the left, beyond the back wall of the Caryatid Portico. (Size 11x7^, jjencil.)
49. Corfu. The Old Fort from the South.
(Size "jh X 5i. )
50. The Snowy Summits of Erymanthus.
From Kephale between Karytaena and Andritsxna in Arcadia ; peasants ploughing in the foreground. (Size 11 x 7^.)
51. The Temple of Athena at Sunium (Cape Colonna)
FROxM the North.
An encampment on the site of the cclla of the Temple. (Size 7|x52. pencil.)
21
52. The Areopagus and Theseum.
(Size 7i X 51, pencil.)
53. The Temple of Athena at Suniu.m (Cape Colonna).
View from the North. (Size 7| x 5^, pencil.)
54. South Colonnade of the Parthenon, looking West-
ward.
Late morning light. Mountains and a stretch of sea in the distance.
(Size 7|x 5^.)
55. Mount Ithome from the Stadion of Messene.
At the base of the mountain, part of the village of Mavromati may be seen. The architectural fragments in the foreground lie near the entrance to the stadion. Only the western side of the stadion appears. Its site is indicated by two figures sitting under a tree. (Size 11x7^, pencil. )
56. Delphi. The Castalian Gorge and Spring.
The scarped vertical face of rock, which may be seen above the figure of the shepherd, shows the recently excavated site of the Place for the Lustration of Pilgrims, to which the water of the Castalian Spring was carried by an artificial channel in the rock. The masonry to the left of the drawing is part of a modern reservoir. (Size 1 1 x 7^.)
57. The Dipylon (Gate) at Athens.
The central block of the outer side of the gate is in the foreground ; in front of it the marble base of a statue with a low bench, also in marble. In the distance is seen the Acropolis with the Propylacaat the right hand. (Size II x 7^.)
58. Mycen/e, showing the Site of the Famous Discoveries
OF Schliemann.
The mass of so-called cyclopean masonry, on the right, buttresses the upper part of the Acropolis of Mycenze. The wall at right angles to it contains the Lion Gate, and the large triangular stone abiive the lintel is the back of the well-known relief of lions or lionesses regardant, probably the most ancient piece of sculpture in (^reece. In the foreground is shown the singular double wall and gateway of the enclosure, called by Schliemann
22
(lie Agora, within wliuli he rcnnd the treasures of Myccncran art now in liie Central Museum in Athens. (Size 11x7.^, pencil.)
59. Thf. Acropoijs from the Base of thk pHii.oPAPrus
Hii.i,.
Over the talus of tlie debris from the excavations on the south side of the Acropolis wc see the front of the Theatre of Herodes Atticus with the long Portico connecting it with the Theatre of Dionysos. On the Acropolis itself, if we jiroceed from left to right, are Beule's gate, the Propylsea and neighbouring remains, the Erechtheum and Parthenon. Towering above the east end of the Acropolis is Lycabettus, with the chapel on its summit catching the sunlight. This drawing is intended to convey some idea of the glitter of sunset upon the splendid series of marble temples and monuments of the Athenian Acropolis. (Size 14^ X II.)
60. The Acropolis at Mycen^.
Willi Mount Elias in the background, {See water-colour No. 3.) (Size 7| X 5i, pencil.)
61. The Cavern-Chapel (Panaglv Speliotissa) on the
North Side ok the Acropolis.
This is the site of the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus. The square opening is cut in the scarped face of the Acropolis rock at the top of the Theatre of Dionysos. Above stand two columns which supported tripods dedicated to the God. (Size 1 1 X 7^, pencil. )
62. The Lower Part of the Auditorium of the Theatre
of Dionysos at Athens.
Beginning at the left hand below, we notice first the breast wall dividing the Orchestra from the Auditorium, and below it again the partially covered channel for rain-water. In the foremost row of marble seats or thrones, the third seat to the right is that of the Priest of Dionysos, distinguished by the exquisite relief, on the arm of the throne, of Eros engaged in cock-fighting. Higher up in the Auditorium are pedestals for honorary statues.
Mr. FuUeylove has had a congenial task in drawing in perspective the difficult curves of the tiers of seats rising one above another within the hollow cut for them out of the side of the Acropolis. (Size II X 7^.)
63. MiSTRA AND THE VALLEY OF THE EUROTAP.
This drawing was sketched at the residence of the Papa nf the ancient metropolis church. On the higher slope of the moun- tain to the right is the Pantanassa Church ; below, to the left, part of the medireval defences of the town. (Size II x 7,^, pencil.)
64. The Portico of Athena Archegetis at Athens.
The entrance to the Market-place built in the time of Augustus. On the side of the clift'of the Acropolis we see the caves of Pan and Apollo beneath the north wing of the Propyl:x;a. (Size H x 7^, pencil.)
65. The Acropolis from the Slopes of Lycarettus.
To the right is the Bay of Phaleron (a favourite anchorage of the British Fleet); to the left across the Saronic (iulf the Island of ..-Egina : the whole view backed by the mountains of Argolis. Of the buildings shown on the Acropolis, the central mass is the Parthenon; to the right the Erechtheum. (Size li x 7^.)
66. The Temple of Apollo at Bass^e in Arcadia.
(Size II X 7I.)
67. The Temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens.
The three columns with their architrave in situ belong to the East front. All the eight existing columns of the inner row of the .South Peristyle are shown. The arch of Hadrian is in front of the Acropolis. The vertical face of rock to the left of the drawing belong to the Philopappus Hill. The deep golJen- brown weathering of the marble is reproduced with great fidelity. (Size 14 J x 11.)
68. The Tower of the Winds.
To the left, part of the aqueduct which supplied the water-clock ; in the Imckground, the north side of the Acropt)lis, surmounted by the wall of Themistocles. (11 x 7^, pencil.)
69. The Propyl/ea from the Northern Edge of the
Platform (Stylob.-vte) of the Parthenon.
The steps of the stylobate below run in perspective along the left- hand side of the drawing. Over the drums of the fallen columns of the Parthenon, which sirew the ground to the right, we see the whole east side of the Projiyhca ; above it are the olive groves of the Kephissus and the mountains of Daphni with a glimpse of the Bay of Salamis. f^Size 7.J x 5^.)
70. Fai.len Columns of the North Side of the Parthenon
WITH THE Caryatid Portico of the Erechtheum.
In the immediate foreground are huge fragments of the architrave of the Parthenon, and behind them drums of the columns arranged in rows, with the bUie sky reflected from the highly finished vertical surfaces. Over the south wall of the Erech- theum, on the right-hand side of the drawing, appears the top of the north porch. The entrance (on the east side) of the Caryatid Porch is well seen. To the left of that porch the top of the retaining wall of the early temple of Athena Polias may be noticed. Above the porch rises the south corner of ihe west fiont of the Erechtheum, and the north corner shows to the right near the top of the northern porch. On the extreme left of the drawing is part of the Propyhra, and, further on, the observatory on the Hill of the Nymphs. Above the Olive Groves of the Kephissus are the Mountains of Daphni and Megara. (Size iSix ii.)
71. The Market-Place of Tripolitza.
The capital of Arcadia, a town founded by the Turks, and formerly the residence of the Pasha of the Morea, (Size 7^ x 5^.)
72. The Temple of Apollo at Bass^ in Arcadia, with
Distant View of Mount Ithome.
The front of the Temple faces the spectator and looks to the north. The reason for the unusual orientation is evident from the con- formation of the ground. The Temple is, in fact, built upon a ridge, and very extensive substructures would have been neces- sary if the usual orientation had been followed. (Size 7^ x 5^.)
73. The Temple of Theseus and the Acropolis from
THE North-West.
The time is early morning in June. On the Acropolis we see the Temple of Wingless Victory, the Propylaea, the Parthenon (in two pieces), and a part of the Erechtheum. To the right is Mars Hill with its herbage burnt up by the summer sun. Below the Acropolis, to the left, is part of the modern town of Athens; but the principal object is the Theseum, the most perfectly preserved Temple in Greece. Its exact situation with level ground on the south and a sloping hill to the north is carefully observed. The grand outline of Hymettus makes a fine background to this interesting drawing. (.Size 14^ x ii.)
25
74- The Arch of Hadrian.
The side towards the town (north-western aspect). This arch divided the ancient "City of Theseus" from the new quarter founded by Hadrian. (Size 7| x 5|.)
75. Mount Pentelikon and Lycabettus from the North-
eastern Angle of the Parthenon. (Early morning light.)
The drums of columns, and other fragments of the Parthenon lying in the foreground, make of themselves a very tine subject, irrespec- tive of the delicate beauty of the distant outline of Pentelikon, which shows itself here with special appropriateness as the moun- tain from the sides of which the marble of the Parthenon was quarried. The exquisite colour of that marble under varying incidence of light is given with rare fidelity, and it will be noticed how finely the colour is enforced by the sharp black shadows in the dowel holes. (Size 7| x 5^.)
76. The Parthenon and the Eastern Portico of the
Erechtheum from the North.
The point of view is on the flight of steps leading from the Northern Portico of the Erechtheum to the (10 feet higher) level of the Eastern Portico. This latter Portico is shown, in profile, in the right-hand upper corner of the drawing. Behind and beyond it, to the left, we see the easternmost half of the Peristyle (colon- nade) of the Parthenon, and, over the buildings to the extreme left, the upper slope of flymettus.
This drawing gives a singularly truthful rendering of the extraordinary colour assumed by the time-stained marble of the Parthenon at a sunset in the month of June. (.Size 11 x 7I.)
77. The Stoa of Hadrian at Athens.
The remains visible are part of the western side of the Stoa (exterior) including the one remaining pillar of the entrance porch. Above we have part of the north side of the Acropolis, (Size 7|x5l-)
78. The South Side of the Erechtheum with the
Foundations of the Earlier Temple of Athena Polias.
The Caryatid Portico and south wall of the Erechtheum show very delicate opalescent colours, due chiefly to reflected light from
26
the large slabs and drums oi marble lying on the i;roiind north of the Parthenon. The dark Caryatid is a terra- colta sub- stitute for the original, one of the greatest treasures of ihe British Museum. The substructures in the foreground are the foundations of the archaic Temple ; to the right, in the back- ground, Pentelikon, and, in front of it, Lycabeltus brilliantly illuminated by the setting sun. (Size. 14.3 x 11.)
79. Part of the External Colonnade of the Stoa of
Hadrian.
Four columns shown. The building to the left was formerly a mosque. (Size ii x 7|, pencil.)
80. TiRYNs. The Gate of the Upper Castle.
The gate-post to the left (west) io| feet high, is complete, with the rebate and the hole for the insertion of the strong bar to secure the gate. Only half of the right (eastern) post remains. Over it we see the massive outer rampart between tlie main gate and the gate of the Upper Castle. (Size 7^ x 5|.)
81. The Temple of Theseus from the North-East.
The building to the right is the Observatory, occupying the top of the Hill of the Nymphs. It should l)e noticed that the metopes of the Theseum are confined to the Pronaos; and the drawing may serve to show how satisfactory such a limitation of an enrichment may be, and how gratuitous is tiie assumption that the metopes in the main part of the building were decorated with painted figures. (Size II x 7^.)
82. The Temple of Hera at Olympia.
A portion of the west front of the Temple, which stood upon a platform with two steps, is shown. Two columns on the east side and six on the north are seen /u situ. These columns vary in size to a surprising extent. One of the enormous capitals, tilted up and standing upon the edge of its abacus, should be noticed, behind the tall column in the centre of the drawing. The hill at the back of the Temple is the one to the west of the river Kladeos. In this Temple, said to be the most ancient in Greece, was found the Hermes of Praxiteles, the only extant work of sculpture of the finest period known to be from the chisel of a great master. (Size 7^ x 5!.)
27
83. The Northern Portico of the Erechtheum.
Four out of the six pillars of the Portico appear in this drawing, which includes not only the great door-way so famous for its beauty and for the interesting problems it has given rise to, but also the small door-way leading to the Pandroseion. The rough masonry behind the two right-hand columns is the great wall below the site of the archaic temple of Athena Polias. To the right of the drawing we have the East Portico and part of the north wing of the Propylsea. Notwithstanding that this drawing will primarily attract attention for its artistic qualities, its rare colour, and the skill with which the effect aimed at IS achieved, the literal accuracy is nowhere sacrificed. Even in such a matter as the settlement of the great doorway, which causes it to appear out of perspective, the artist has not felt at liberty to misrepresent the actual condition of this famous monument. (Size 14^^ H.)
84. Delphi.
The cliffs on the south side of the river Pleistos facing Delphi. The stream in the foreground is the modern PapaJia, and flows from the Castalian Spring. (Size 11 x 7^, pencil.)
85. The Temple of Theseus from the North-West. (Morning light.)
This drawing shows very well the seating of the Temple on its site, Kolonos Agoraios— the Market Hill. (Size 75x5^.)
86. Olympia. The Pal/ESTra and Remains of the Temple of Zeus.
This view is taken from the western side of the Pala:stra ; and the standing columns in the foreground are part of the southern colonnade of that building. The platform (Krepidoma) of the Great Temple (which was raised upon a mound and occupied the highest point of the Altis or sacred enclosure) is in the centre of the drawing. Many of the colossal drums and other architectural members of the Temple lie scattered about on the ])latform. Across the valley of the Alpheios are seen the Phcllon mountains, topped by splendid masses of cloud. This drawing is a brilliant and characteristic record of a lovely spring day in the Western Peloponnesu*. (Size 11 x 74.)
28
87. The Acropolis from the Lower Part of the Philo-
PAPPUS Hill.
The long series of arches at the bottom of the drawing belong to the Theatre of Herodes Atticus and the portico which con- nected it with the Theatre of Dionysos. Behind the right hand termination of the portico is the site of the sanctuaries of Themis and ^•Esculapius. To the right, above, is the cavern chapel (Panagia Speliolissa), the site of the choragic monument of Thrasyllus. Higher up are two Corinthian columns, which supported votive tripods ; and. higher still, the south wall of the Acropolis. The Parthenon, as ever, dominates everything. To the left of it is the Erechtheum. The lofty hill to the east (right) is Lycabettus ; below it, to the right, part of the modern town of Athens, and above and behind that, the delicate outline of Mount Pentelikon. (Size 7^ x Si-)
88. The Parthenon from the North End of the
Eastern Portico of the PROPVLiEA. (Evening light.) The local colour of the rocky surface of the Acropolis intensifies the long blue shadows. The effect of the golden-brown weathering of the surface of the marble on the West front of the Parthenon is beautifully and faithfully given. (Size 14I x 11.)
89. The Ancient Quarries on Mount Pentelikon.
Of extraordinary interest as the material source of the finest archi- tecture and sculpture of Ancient Greece (Size 11 x 7.^, pencil.)
90. Interior of the Theatre of Herodes Atticus.
Showing part of the structure behind, and to the right hand of the stage ; also the western end of the auditorium. Above the great arches to the right we have the Island of /Egina, and below the island, to the left, the scarped rock of the Philopappus Hill in which is the so-called prison of Socrates. (Size 6x7.)
91. Athens : the Monument of Agrippa and the Pina-
cotheca.
Behind the lofty pedestal of the monument of Agrippa is the Temple of Theseus ; to the right the substructures and part of the North Wing of the Propyltea (the Pinacotheca). To the left we have the wall of the terrace or bastion of the Temple of Wingless Victory. The distant view gives the plain of the Kephissus, and the mountains of Daphni. (Size 7J x 5^.)
29
92. N.E. Entrance to the Enclosure (Temenos) of the
Temple of Olympian Zeus.
The anta and column, shown in the foreground, are part of the porch of the time of Hadrian. The arch of that Emperor is at the end of the road ; above it, to the right, the Acropolis ; over the wall, to the left, the Philopappus Hill and Monument. (Size 7^x5i.)
93. The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
Behind it rises the grand mass of the Eastern end of the Acropolis rock ; along the Southern front of the Acropolis walls are seen the two votive columns which bore votive tripods, similar to the one for which the " Monument of Lysicrates" served as a support. (Size 6x7.)
94. The Eastern Portico of the Erechtheum, viewed
from the Northern Peristyle of the Parthenon.
The column to the right, with its strong golden-brown local colour, warmed by the full morning summer sun, is the third column counting from the north-east corner of the Parthenon. The blocks of marble, which conceal the lower part of the column, form part of the Pronaos wall. The East Portico of the Erechtheum is seen below to the left ; behind are the mountains of Daphni. (Size 6x7.)
95. The Acropolis from the Site of the Temple of
Olympian Zeus.
The two detached colossal columns belong to the west end of the Southern Peristyle of the Temple. On the right the upper part of the Arch of Hadrian ; to the left, a popular cafe. The form and local colour of the Acropolis rock have been very carefully studied. (Size 14^ x n.)
96. Sunset from the North-East Corner of the
Acropolis.
To the left, a bit of the east front of the Parthenon, with ruddy light reflected from Hymettus. To the right, the precipitous north side of the Acropolis. In the middle distance, the Erechtheum, showing all three of its porticoes. In shadow, between the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the upper part of the Propylsea. (Size 7h>^5h-)
3°
97- The Temple of Athena at Sunium (Cape Colonna). Distant view over the hills. (Size "jh x 5^.)
g8. The Bay of Nauplia from Tiryns.
Between the lofty fortress-hill of Palamidi and the rocky height of Itsh Kaleh lies the town of Nauplia, with the blue mountains of Eastern Laconia behind it. In the bay, to the right, may be seen the island of Bourzi, the romantic looking prison of the Public Executioner of Greece. In the left-hand foreground is a portion of the rocky hill on which stands the remains of the citadel of Tiryns. (Size7|x5|.)
99. The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
This drawing shows the exact condition and present surroundings of this famous gem of the Corinthian style of architecture The ground about it has recently been lowered ; so that it now stands free. (.Size 7i x 5-|. )
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STUDIES & DRAWINGS BY SIR EDWARD BURNE-JONES, BART.
WITH A PREFATORY NOTE BY JULIA CARTWRIGHT (MRS. ADY)
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Prefatory Note,
" Vart, mes en/ants" said Paul Verlaine, " c'est d'etre absolument soi-meme." This Sir Edward Burne-Jones undoubtedly is, and this is the secret of his rare fascination. He is always entirely himself. His art is unlike that of other men, his conception undisturbed by any external influences. He has created a world of his own, where the air is full of strange, sweet music, and fair faces look down upon us from some far-off region where they dwell in a charmed atmosphere of reverence and delight. The beauty of natural fact and the wealth of ornament which glorify his visions are alike instinct with life. Each precious jewel, each fret-work of marble or ivory, each crinkle and fold of his embroidered draperies has a definite intention. Each growing tree and opening flower is touched with the same tender human sentiment. The enchanter's wand has waved over the scene, and the glamour of its spell still lingers there.
This personal and romantic vision it is which lends so indefinable a charm to the drawings and studies that are here brought together. Each bears the stamp of the painter's original genius, each reflects in a new and different form the passion and poetry of his artist-soul. And all alike reveal the wonderful patience and industry, the strenuous and unwearied energy with which he has
laboured during the last forty years, and still labours to day, ' rising early, and late taking rest,' and devoting the whole strength of his life to his art. A careful and atten- tive study of these works will enable us to follow the steps by which Sir Edward has attained the thorough mastery of means that distinguishes him among imaginative painters, and will at the same time help us to realise the vast amount of toil and effort, the long tale of disappoint- ments which go to the making of a single picture.
A few words as to the artist's methods may be of interest. First of all, he makes a rough sketch in chalk or pencil of the picture which he has in his mind's eye. Then he prepares a cartoon in water-colour or pastel of the same size as the painting, in which all the figures arc introduced and the whole scheme is set forth. After this, he makes elaborate studies of every part of the picture. The faces and figures, the separate limbs, hands and feet are all studied from life, and the draperies and other accessories are minutely and accurately drawn. From these carefully-finished studies the master proceeds to paint his picture on the canvas, often going back to the model to correct his work and add the last touches. He never hurries or slurs over his painting, but keeps his pictures in his studio, often for years together, and works at them all in turn, as the spirit moves him.
Many of the drawings that we see here are preparatory studies for the famous pictures which are familiar to us all We recognise the maidens of the Golden Stairs and the Mirror of Venus, the great Angel of the Annunciation, and the heavenly messengers who watch by the empty tomb on the Morning of the Resurrection. We see again
the love-lorn knight of the Chant d'Amour, the sad face of Fortune as she turns her fated wheel, and the fair-faced children who look down on King Cophetua and his beggar bride. Here too are the aged St. Joseph from the Star of Bethlehem, and the Mermaid from the Depths of the Sea, Perseus borne on his winged sandals through the air, and Pygmalion gazing in silent adoration at the marble which his hands have fashioned. Six finished drawings of the Sleeping Maidens in the Garden Court recall the Briar- rose pictures, and a number of elaborate studies of drapery were designed for the Days of Creation. Whole sheets, again, are covered with studies of helmets and armour, of flowering roses, and babies as lovely as Raphael's own. On one page we find the sleeve of the Angel Gabriel, on another a drawing of a seraph's wing, in which every feather is traced with the most delicate precision.
Side by side with these well-known subjects are studies for pictures which still hang unfinished in the painter's studio, or have never yet been put upon canvas. Such are the Queens who keep watch over the Sleep of Arthur in Avalon, and the beautiful heads of youths and maidens with the most varied emotions depicted on their faces, from the great picture of Love's Wayfaring, upon which the artist is now engaged. Such, too, are the Sirens who seek to lure the Crusaders' bark on to the perilous strand, and the kneeling girls who wait for the Passing of Venus, the beauteous nymph who lives in the Heart of the Lotus, and the " faire Dame " driven by those two grisly villeins, Scevitia and Crudelitas, from the Masque of Cupid.
Among the finished drawings, we find three important
sets of illustrations, in which all the finest qualities of Sir Edward's art are displayed. Two of these, the admirable designs for Virgil's ^Eneid and for the roundels of Orpheus and Eurydice which decorate a piano, are already well known. The third, which has never been exhibited before, consists of ten subjects forming part of the series lately designed by the painter for the magnificent Chaucer that will ere long issue from the Kelmscott Press. This splendid and long-expected work cannot fail to delight lovers of art. Nowhere has the master's decorative skill, his romantic fancy and beauty of line, been more fully, revealed than in these designs, which are destined to adorn the pages of the old English poet for whom he has so profound and true a sympathy.
And yet most of us will find a charm that is still more rare in the row of portrait-heads, some of which have only been completed within the last few months. These fair women, with the mysterious smile on their lips and the look of infinite sadness in their eyes, these faces, so alike in their type of beauty, so unlike in their endless variety of expression, have all the spiritual refinement of Lionardo's art. Their wistful and sorrowful loveliness lingers in the mind like some old melody, and haunts us long afterwards with its pathetic music.
A few carefully-selected designs remind us of the different branches of decorative art in which the painter's boundless and overflowing fancy has found expression. One of these, the cartoon of David giving Solomon in- structions for the building of the Temple, was designed for a stained-glass window in the church of Holy Trinity, Boston, U.S.A. Another, of Christ upon the Cross, calling
7
the weary and heavy-laden to come to Him, was executed in mosaic for the American Church in Rome, while the designs of Sir Galahad and the Quest of the Holy Grail have been reproduced in tapestry by Mr. William Morris. Another drawing (No. 146), is of especial interest as showing a side of the painter's genius that is only known to his family and intimate friends. This clever sketch of children and quarrelling cats is but one of many grotesque subjects, originally intended for the amusement of his home circle, in which the gifted artist has given free rein to the strong sense of humour that is so marked a feature of his character.
Lastly, in the Book of Flowers, we have a series of small water-colour paintings on subjects suggested by the names of plants. Love-in-the-Mist, Jacob's Ladder, The Star of Bethlehem, each have an appropriate legend. Love-in-a-Tangle is aptly illustrated by a picture of Fair Rosamond in her rose-bower, winding the skein that guides the stranger's footsteps through the maze. With- the-Wind recalls Dante's vision of Paolo and Francesca, clasped in each other's arms and whirled together through space. Wall-Tryst naturally suggests the old story of Pyramus and Thisbe, and False Mercury appears as the god of dreams, showing the sleeping sailor his white cottage on the shore, and the girl who waits for his return under the garden tree. Morning-Glories are angels bringing the sunbeams to scatter the clouds of night. Most-Bitter Moonseed is figured by the enemy who sowed tares among the wheat while men slept. Under the name of Travellers' Joy we have a picture of the Three Kings from the far East, " rejoicing with exceeding great joy " as
8
they reach the end of their journey, and fall low on their knees before the manger of Bethlehem. Meadow Sweet is the field of white lilies, where Gabriel salutes the hand- maid of the Lord with his " Hail, Mary ! " and Golden Cup awakens memories of the Holy Grail, that legend which the painter has made especially his own. But no words can describe the wealth of graceful imagery, of lovely colour and tender feeling, which has been lavished on these flower-fancies. Each subject is rendered with the same exquisite charm, each little painting is a poem in itself.
JULIA CARTWRIGHT.
CATALOGUE.
Catalogue.
The Copyrights in all the Exhibits are reserved. The prices can be obtained on application. They are in every instance net and Guineas.
1. Study of Mary Magdalen, in "Morning of the
Resurrection."
2. Study of Drapery for Picture, "Thk Briar
Rose."
3. Studies for " Golden Stairs."
4. Study for Drapery of Nimue, "Merlin and Nimue."
5. Studies of Draperies for Picture, "The Golden
Stairs."
6. Studies of Heads for "The Wheel of Fortune,"
and others.
7. Studies for Picture of " Fortitude."
8. Study of Head in Unfinished Picture, "The
Pilgrim of Love."
9. Studies for Drapery of Angels in "The Days of
Creation."
10. Two Heads.
II
11. Study for Head of Mermaid in Picture, "The
Depths of the Sea."
12. Study for Head of Queen in "Arthur in Avalon."
13. Study for Head in Picture "Arthur in Avalon."
14. Studies for Hands.
15. Studies of Drapery for "The Briar Rose" Series.
16. Studies of Armour.
17. Studies of Heads for "Perseus."
18. Studies for "Car of Love" and "Judgment ok Paris."
19. Study of Head for Attendants in " Arihur in
Avalon."
20. Sketch for Lady in Picture, "Le Chant d'Amour
21. Study of Picture of "Fortitude."
22. Studies of Drapery for "Passing of Venus."
23. Studies for Helmets.
24. Study in Black and Gold.
25. Design for Danae.
26. Studies for Mosaic in the American Church of St
Paul's at Rome, "The Tree of Forgiveness."
27. Studies of Armour for "The Briar Rose" Series.
28. Studies of Drapery for the Grai/E, "Perseus " Series.
29. Study of Armour.
12
50. Study for Angels, "Morning of the Resurrection."
31. Studies of Drapery.
;^2. Study of a Head.
33. Studies of Sleeves for the Angel of the
"Annunciation."
34. Study of a Head.
35. Study of a Head of Queen in Picture, " Arthur
in avalon."
36. Studies for Head of Danae.
37. Study of a Head for a Picture, "The Masque of
Cupid."
38. Studies of Two Heads.
39. Studies for "The Golden Stairs."
40. Study of Head in Unfinished Picture, " The Sirens."
41. Studies for Drapery, "The Golden Stairs."
42. Studies of Drapery for Figures in Picture, "The
Passing of Venus."
43. Study of a Head.
44. Study for Attendant Child in " King Cophetua,"
45. Study for the Beggar Maid, " King Cophetua."
46. Studies of Children for Bronze Figures in a Picture.
47. Studies of Children.
13
48. Studies of Heads.
49. Studies of Hands for Picture of " Days of
Creation."
50. Design for Embroidery, "The Heart of the
Lotos."
51. Study of Head for Picture, "The Marriage of
Psyche."
52. Study for Head of Angel in Picture of " Sangrail."
53. Study for Picture of "The Sirens."
54. Rape of Proserpine.
55. Study of Head for Picture, " Marriage of
Psyche."
56. Studies of Children.
56A. Studies for Drapery in "Golden Stairs" and " Rose Briar."
57. Design for Stained Glass in Church of Holy
Trinity, Boston, U.S.A. David Instructing Solomon about the Building of the Temple.
57A. Study of Drapery for Figure of "Richesse" in "Romance of the Rose."
58. Study ok Head for Unfinished Picture.
59. Study for Head of Queen in Picture, "Arthur
in Avalon."
60. Study for Head in Picture, "Love's Wayfaring."
14 6i. Study of Hair.
62. Study of Head for Attendants in Picture, " Arthur
in avalon."
62A. Studies of Children.
63. Study for Head in Picture, "The Marriage of
Psyche."
64. Study of Head.
65. Studies for Head of Medusa, in "Perseus" Series.
66. Study of a Head.
67. Studies of Drapery for "Arthur in Avalon."
68. Study for Figure of "Justice."
69. Study of a Head for the " Perseus " Series.
70. Study of Head for "Arthur in Avalon."
71. Studies of Heads for "The Masque of Cupid."
72. Study of Hair for "Briar Rose" Series.
73. Study of Hair and Head-dress.
74. Study for Figure of Love in " Chant d'Amour."
75. Study of a Head.
76. Study of Head for Picture, "The Car of Love."
77. Studies for Hands in "The Days of Creation,"
" Merlin and Nimue."
78. Study of a Head.
IS
79. Study for Drapery.
80. Study of Gorgon for " Perseus " Series,
81. Study for Mermaid in "The Depths of the Sea.
82. Studies of Heads.
83. Study of a Head in "The Briar Rose."
84. Study for Wood Spirit.
85. Study for Helmet in "Perseus" Series.
86. Study for St. Joseph in Picture, "The Star of
Bethlehem."
87-92. Six Studies for the " Briar Rose."
93. Study of Helmet in " Perseus " Series.
94. Study for Sea Monster in " Perseus " Series.
95. Two Studies of Heads and Study for "The Golden
Stairs."
96. Studies of Heads.
97-98. Designs for Initial Letters in an Illuminated Virgil.
99. Study for Figure of Helen in Picture, " Fall of
Troy."
100. Designs for the XII. Books of the ^neid. loi. Study for Picture of "The Sirens."
102. Designs for the XII. Books of the ^nkid.
i6
103. Studies of Hands for Picture of " Days of
Creation."
104. Study for Andromeda and Figure in "The Wheel
OF Fortune."
105. Designs for the XII. Books of the /Eneid.
106. Study of a Head for "The Garland."
107. Designs for Initial Letters in an Illuminated
Virgil.
108. Designs for Initial Letters in an Illuminated
Virgil.
109. Two Studies : (i.) Head of Medusa ; (ii.) Blind
Love.
no. Studies of Feet for "The Golden Stairs."
in. Study of Head for Mermaid in "The Depths of the Sea."
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PEB-EAPHAELITISM.
BY
JOHN RUSKIN, M.A.,
ADTHOR OF " MODERN PAINTERS," " STONES OF VENICE," "SEVEN LAMPS OF ARCHITEOTORE," ETC. ETC.
A NEW EDITION
LONDON:
SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 65, OOUNHILL,
M.DCCC.LXII.
PKE-EAPHAELITISM.
BY
JOHN KUSKIN, M.A.,
AUTHOR OF " BIODEKN PAINTERS," " STONES OF VENICE,"
A NEW EDITION.
LONDON: SMITH, ELDEll AND CO., C5, COENIIILL.
M.DCCC.LXII.
PREFACE
Eight years ago, in the close of the first volume of " Modern Painters," I ventured to give the following advice to the young artists of England : —
" They should go to nature in all singleness of heart, and walk with her laboriously and trustingly, having no other thought but how best to penetrate her meaning ; rejecting nothing, selecting nothing, and scorning nothing." Advice which, whether bad or good, involved infinite labour and humiliation in the following it, and was therefore, for the most part, rejected.
It has, however, at last been carried out, to the very letter, by a group of men who, for their reward, have been assailed with the most scurrilous abuse which I ever recollect seeing issue from the public press. I have, therefore, thought it due to them to contradict the directly false statements which have been made respecting their works ; and to point out the kind of merit which, however deficient in some respects, those works possess beyond the possibility of dispute.
Denmark Hill, August, 1851.
PEE-EAPHAELITISM.
It may be proved, with much certahity, that God intends no man to live in this world without work- ing : but it seems to me no less evident that He intends every man to be happy in his work. It is written, " in the sweat of thy brow," but it was never written, " in the breaking of thine heart," thou shalt eat bread : and I find that, as on the one hand, infinite misery is caused by idle people, who both fail in doing what was appointed for them to do, and set in motion various springs of mischief in matters in which they should have had no concern, so on the other hand, no small misery is caused by over-worked and unhappy people, in the dark views which they necessarily take up themselves, and force upon others, of work itself. Were it not so, I believe the fact of their being unhappy is in itself a violation of divine law, and a sign of some kind of folly or sin in their way of life. Now in order that people may be happy in their work, these three things are needed : They must be fit for it : They must not do too much of it : and they must have a sense of success in it — not a doubtful sense, such as needs some testimony of other people for its confirmation,
6 PllE-llAPHAELITISM.
but a sure sense, or rather knowledge, that so much work has been done well, and fruitfully done, what- ever the world may say or think about it. So that in order that a man may be happy, it is necessary that he should not only be capable of his work, but a good judge of his work.
The first thing then that he has to do, if unhappily his parents or masters have not done it for him, is to find out what he is fit for. In which inquiry a man may be very safely guided by his likings, if he be not also guided by his pride. People usually reason in some such fashion as this : "I don't seem quite fit
for a head-manager in the firm of & Co.,
therefore, in all probability, I am fit to be Chancellor of the Exchequer." Whereas, they ought rather to reason thus : " I don't seem quite fit to be head- manager in the firm of & Co., but I dare say
I might do something in a small greengrocery busi- ness ; I used to be a good judge of pease ; " tiiat is to say, always trying lower instead of trying higher, until they find bottom : once well set on the ground, a man may build up by degrees, safely, instead of disturbing every one in his neighbourhood by per- petual catastrophes. But this kind of humility is rendered especially difficult in these days, by the contumely thrown on men in humble employments. The very removal of the massy bars which once separated one class of society from another, has rendered it tenfold more shameful in foolish people's, i. e. in most people's eyes, to remain in the lower grades of it, than ever it was before. When a man
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 7
born of an artisan was looked upon as an entirely different species of animal from a man born of a noble, it made him no more uncomfortable or ashamed to remain that different species of animal, than it makes a horse ashamed to remain a horse, and not to become a giraffe. But now that a man may make money, and rise in the world, and associate himself, unreproached, with people once far above him, not onlv is the natural discontentedness of humanity developed to an unheard-of extent, what- ever a man's position, but it becomes a veritable shame to him to remain in the state he was born in, and everybody thinks it his dufy to try to be a " irentleman." Persons who have anv influence in the management of public institutions for charitable education know how common this feeling has become. Hardly a day passes but they receive letters from mothers who want all their six or eight sons to go to college, and make the grand tour in the long vacation, and who think there is something wrong in the foun- dations of society, because this is not possible. Out of every ten letters of this kind, nine will allege, as the reason of the writers' importunity, their desire to keep their families in such and such a " station of life." There is no real desire for the safety, the discipline, or the moral good of the children, only a panic horror of the inexpressibly pitiable calamity of their living a ledge or two lower on the molehill of the world — a calamity to be averted at any cost whatever, of struggle, anxiety, and shortening of life itself. I do not believe that any greater good could
8 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
be achieved for tlie country, than the change in public feeling on this head, which might be brought .ibout by a few benevolent men, undeniably in the class of " gentlemen," who would, on principle, enter into some of our commonest trades, and make them honourable ; showing that it was possible for a man to retain his dignity, and remain, in the best sense, a gentleman, though part of his time was every day occupied in manual labour, or even in serving cus- tomers over a counter. I do not in the least see why courtesy, and gravity, and sympathy with the feelings of others, and courage, and truth, and piety, and what else goes to make up a gentleman's character, should not be found behind a counter as well as else- where, if they were demanded, or even hoped for, there.
Let us suppose, then, that the man's way of life and manner of work have been discreetly chosen ; then the next thing to be required is, that he do not over-work himself therein. I am not going to say anything here about the various errors in our systems of society and commerce, which appear (I am not sure if they ever do more than appear) to force us to over-work ourselves merely that we may live ; nor about the still more fruitful cause of unhealthy toil — the incapability, in many men, of being content with the little that is indeed necessary to their happiness. I have only a word or two to say about one special cause of over-work — the ambitious desire of doing great or clever things, and the hope of ac- complishing them by immense efforts : hope as vain
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 9
as it is pernicious ; not only making men over-work themselves, but rendering all the work they do unwholesome to them. I say it is a vain hope, and let the reader be assured of this (it is a truth all- important to the best interests of humanity). No great intellectual thing was ever done by great effort; a great thing can only be done by a great man, and he does it without effort. Nothing is, at present, less understood by us than this — nothing is more neces- sary to be understood. Let me try to say it as clearly, and explain it as fully as I may.
I have said no great intellectual thing : for I do not mean the assertion to extend to thinos moral. On the contrary, it seems to me that just because we are intended, as long as we live, to be in a state of intense moral effort, we are not intended to be in intense physical or intellectual effort. Our full energies are to be given to the soul's work — to the great fight with the Dragon — the taking the kingdom of heaven by force. But the body's work and head's work are to be done quietly, and com- paratively without effort. Neither limbs nor brain are ever to be strained to their utmost ; that is not the way in which the greatest quantity of work is to be got out of them : they are never to be worked furiously, but with tranquillity and constancy. We are to follow the plough from sunrise to sunset, but not to pull in race-boats at the twilight : we shall get no fruit of that kind of work, only disease of the heart.
How many pangs would be spared to thousands, if
10 PIIE-RAPKAELITISM.
this great truth and law were but once sincerely, humbly understood — that if a great thing can be done at all, it can be done easily ; that, when it is needed to be done, there is perhaps only one man in the world who can do it ; but he can do it without any trouble — without more trouble, that is, than it costs small people to do small things ; nay, perhaps, with less. And yet what truth lies more openly on the surface of all human phenomena? Is not the evidence of Ease on the very front of all the greatest works in existence? Do they not say plainly to us, not, " there has been a great effort here," but, " there has been a great power here ? " It is not the weariness of mor- tality, but the strength of divinity, which we have to recognize in all mighty things ; and that is just what we nov\^ never recognize, but think that we are to do great things, by help of iron bars and perspiration : — alas ! we shall do nothing that way but lose some pounds of our own weight.
Yet let me not be misunderstood, nor this great truth be supposed anywise resolvable into the favourite dogma of young men, that they need not work if they have genius. The fact is that a man of genius is always far more ready to work than other people, and gets so much more good from the work that he does, and is often so little conscious of the inherent divinity in himself, that he is very apt to ascribe all his capacity to his work, and to tell these who ask how he came to be what he is : " If I cwi anything, which I much doubt, I made myself so merely by labour." This was Newton's way of
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 1 1
talking, and I suppose it would be the general tone of men whose genius had been devoted to the physical sciences. Gewius in the Arts must com- monly be more self-conscious, but in whatever field, it will always be distinguished by its perpetual, steady, well-directed, happy, and faithful labour in accumulating and disciplining its powers, as well as by its gigantic, incommunicable facility in exercising them. Therefore, literally, it is no man's business whether he has genius or not : work he must, what- ever he is, but quietly and steadily ; and the natural and unforced results of such work will be always the things that God meant him to do, and wdll be his best. No ao'onies nor heart-rending^s will enable him to do any better. If he be a great man, they will be great things ; if a small man, small things ; but always, if thus peacefully done, good and right ; always, if restlessly and ambitiously done, false, hollow, and despicable.
Then the third thing needed was, I said, that a man should be a good judge of his work ; and this chiefly that he may not be dependent upon popular opinion for the manner of doing it, but also that he may have the just encouragement of the sense of progress, and an honest consciousness of victory; how else can ho become
" That awful independent on to-morrow, Whose yesterdays look backwards with a smile? "
I am persuaded that the real nourishment and help of such a feeling as this is nearly unknown to half the workmen of the present day. For whatever
12 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
appearance of self-complacency there may be in their outward bearing, it is visible enough, by their feverish jealousy of each other, how little confidence they have in the sterling- value of their several doinofs. Con- ceit may puff a man up, but never prop him up ; and there is too visible distress and hopelessness in men's aspects to admit of the supposition that they have any stable support of faith in themselves.
I have stated these principles generally, because there is no branch of labour to which they do not apply : But there is one in which our ignorance or forgetfulness of them has caused an incalculable amount of suffering; and I would endeavour now to reconsider them with especial reference to it — the branch of the Arts.
In general, the men who are employed in the Arts have freely chosen their profession, and suppose them- selves to have special faculty for it ; yet, as a body, they are not happy men. For which this seems to me the reason — that they are expected, and themselves expect, to make their bread hy being clever — not by steady or quiet work ; and are, therefore, for the most part, trying to be clever, and so living in an utterly false state of mind and action.
This is the case, to the same extent, in no other profession or employment. A lawyer may indeed suspect that, unless he has more wit than those around him, he is not likely to advance in his pro- fession ; but he will not be always thinking how he is to display his wit. He will generally understand, early in his career, that wit must be left to take care
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 13
of itself, and that it is hard knowledge of law and vieforous examination and collation of the facts of every case entrusted to him, which his clients will mainly demand : this it is wdiich he is to be paid for ; and this is healthy and measurable labour, payable by the hour. If he happen to have keen natural perception and quick wit, these will come into play in their due time and place, but he will not think of them as his chief power ; and if he have them not, he may still hope that industry and con- scientiousness may enable him to rise in his profession without them. Again in the case of clergymen : that they are sorely tempted to display their eloquence or wit, none who know their own hearts will deny, but then they kiiow this to be a temptation: they never would suppose that cleverness was all that was to be expected from them, or would sit down deliberately to write a clever sermon: even the dullest or vainest of them would throw some veil over their vanity, and pretend to some profitableness of purpose in what they did. They would not openly ask of their hearers — Did you think my sermon ingenious, or my language poetical ? They would early understand that they were not paid for being ingenious, nor called to be so, but to preach truth ; that if they happened to possess wit, eloquence, or originality, these would appear and be of service in due time, but were not to be continually sought after or exhibited ; and if it should happen that they had them not, they might still be serviceable pastors without them.
Not so with the unhappy artist. No one expects
14 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
any honest or useful work of him ; but every one expects him to be ingenious. OriginaHty, dexterity, invention, imagination, everything is asked of him except what alone is to be had for asking — honesty and sound work, and the due discharge of his function as a painter. What function? asks the reader in some surprise. He may well ask ; for I suppose few painters have any idea what their func- tion is, or even that they have any at all.
And yet surely it is not so difficult to discover. The faculties, which when a man finds in himself, he resolves to be a painter, are, I suppose, intenseness of observation and facility of imitation. The. man is created an observer and an imitator ; and his func- tion is to convey knowledge to his fellow-men, of such thino's as cannot be taught otherwise than ocularly. For a long time this function remained a religious one : it was to impress upon the popular mind the reality of the objects of faith, and the truth of the histories of Scripture, by giving visible form to both. That function has now passed away, and none has as yet taken its place. The painter has no profession, no purpose. He is an idler on the earth, chasing the shadows of his own fancies.
But he was never meant to be this. The sudden and universal Naturalism, or inclination to copy ordinary natural objects, which manifested itself among the painters of Europe, at the moment when the invention of printing superseded their legendary labours, was no false instinct. It was misunderstood and misapplied, but it came at the right time, and
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 15
has maintained itself through all kinds of ahuse ; presenting, in the recent schools of landscape, per- haps only the first fruits of its power. That instinct was urging every painter in Europe at the same moment to his true duty — the faithful representation of all objects of historical interest^ or of natural beauty existent at the 'period ; representation such as might at once aid the advance of the sciences, and keep faithful record of every monument of past ages which was likely to he swept away in the approaching eras of revolutionary change.
The instinct came, as I said, exactly at the right moment ; and let the reader consider what amount and kind of general knowledge might hy this time have been possessed by the nations of Europe, had their painters understood and obeyed it. Suppose that, after disciplining themselves so as to be able to draw, with unerring precision, each the particular kind of subject in v/hich he most delighted, they had separated into two great armies of historians and naturalists ; — that the first had painted with absolute faithfulness every edifice, every city, every battle- field, every scene of the slightest historical interest, precisely and completely rendering their aspect at the time ; and that their companions, according to their several powers, had painted with like fidelity the plants and animals, the natural scenery, and the atmospheric phenomena of every country on the earth — suppose that a faithful and complete record were now in our museums of every building destroyed by war, or time, or innovation, during these last 200
16 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
years — suppose that each recess of every mountain chain of Europe had been penetrated, and its rocks drawn with such accuracy that the geologist's diagram was no longer necessary — suppose that every tree of the forest had been drawn in its noblest aspect, every beast of the field in its savage life — that all these gatherings were already in our national galleries, and that the painters of the present day were labouring, happily and earnestly, to multiply them, and put such means of knowledge more and more within reach of the common people — would not that be a more honourable life for them, than gaining precarious bread by "bright effects?" They think not, perhaps. They think it easy, and therefore contemptible, to be truthful ; they have been taught so all their lives. But it is not so, whoever taught it them. It is most difficult, and worthy of the greatest men's greatest effort, to render, as it should be rendered, the simplest of the natural features of the earth ; but also be it remembered, no man is confined to the simplest ; each may look out work for himself where he chooses, and it will be strange if he cannot find something hard enough for him. The excuse is, however, one of the lips only; for every painter knows, that when he draws back from the attempt to render nature as she is, it is oftener in cowardice than in disdain.
I must leave the reader to pursue this subject for himself ; I have not space to suggest to him the tenth part of the advantages which would follow, both to the painter from such an understanding of his mission, and to the whole people, in the results of
PEE-RAPHAELITISM. 1 7
his labour. Consider how the man himself would be elevated ; how content he would become, how earnest, how full of all accurate and noble knowledge, how free from envy — knowing creation to be infinite, feeling at once the value of what he did, and yet the nothingness. Consider the advantage to the people : the immeasurably larger interest given to art itself ; the easy, pleasurable, and perfect knowledge conveyed by it, in every subject ; the far greater number of men who might be healthily and profitably occupied with it as a means of livelihood ; the useful direction of myriads of inferior talents now left fading away in misery. Conceive all this, and then look around at our exhibitions, and behold the " cattle pieces," and "sea pieces," and "fruit pieces," and "family pieces;" the eternal brown cows in ditches, and white sails in squalls, and sliced lemons in saucers, and foolish faces in simpers ; — and try to feel what we are, and what we mioht have been.
Take a single instance in one branch of archaeology. Let those who are interested in the history of Eeligion consider what a treasure we should now have pos- sessed, if, instead of painting pots, and vegetables, and drunken peasantry, the most accurate painters of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had been set to copy, line for line, the religious and domestic sculpture on the German, Flemish, and French cathedrals and castles ; and if every building destroyed in the French or in any other subsequent revolution, had thus been draw^n in all its parts with the same precision with which Gerard Douw or
2
18 " PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
Mieris paint basreliefs of Cupids. Consider, even now, what incalculable treasure is still left in ancient basreliefs, ftdl of every kind of legendary interest, of subtle expression, of priceless evidence as to the character, feelings, habits, histories, of past genera- tions, in neglected and shattered churches and domestic buildings, rapidly disappearing over the whole of Europe — treasure which, once lost, the labour of all men living cannot bring back again ; and then look at the myriads of rncn, with skill enough, if they had but the commonest schooling, to record all this faithfully, who are making their bread by drawing dances of naked women from academy models, or idealities of chivalry fitted out with Wardour Street armour, or eternal scenes from Gil Bias, Don Quixote, and the Yicar of Wakefield, or mountain sceneries with young idiots of Londoners wearine' Highland bonnets and brandishino- rifles in the foregrounds. Do but think of these things in the breadth of their inexpressible imbecility, and then go and stand before that broken basrelief in the southern gate of Lincoln Cathedral, and see if there is no fibre of the heart in you that will break too.
But is there to be no place left, it will be indig- nantly asked, for imagination and invention, for poetical power, or love of ideal beauty? Yes, the highest, the noblest place — that which these only can attain when they are all used in the cause, and with the aid of truth. Wherever imao;ination and senti- ment are, they will either show themselves without forcing, or, if capable of artificial development, the
FRE-RAPHAELITISM. 19
kind of trainitii? which such a school of art wouhl give them would be the best they could receive. The infinite absurdit}" and failure of our present traininfTf consists mainlv in this, that we do not rank imagination and invention high enough, and suppose that they can be taught. Throughout every sentence that I ever have written, the reader will find the same rank attributed to these powers — the rank of a purely divine gift, not to be attained, increased, or in anywise modified by teaching, only in various ways capable of being concealed or quenched. Under- stand this thoroughly ; know once for all, that a poet on canvas is exactly the same species of creature as a poet in song, and nearly every error in our methods of teaching will be done away with. For who among us now thinks of bringing men up to be poets ? — of producing poets by any kind of general recipe or method of cultivation ? Suppose even that we see in a youth that which we hope may, in its develop- ment, become a power of this kind, should we instantly, supposing that we wanted to make a poet of him, and nothing else, forbid him all quiet, steady, rational labour? Should we force him to perpetual spinning of new crudities out of his boyish brain, and set before him, as the only objects of his study, the laws of versification which criticism has supposed itself to discover in the works of previous writers? Whatever gifts the boy had, would much be likely to come of them so treated? unless, indeed, they were so great as to break through all such snares of falsehood and vanity, and build their own
2—2
20 PRK-RAPHAELITISM.
foundation in spite of us ; whereas if, as in cases numbering millions against units, the natural gifts were too weak to do this, could anything come of such training but utter inanity and spuriousness of the whole man ? But if we had sense, should we not rather restrain and bridle the first flame of inven- tion in early youth, heaping material on it as one would on the first sparks and tongues of a fire which we desired to feed into greatness ? Should we not educate the whole intellect into general strength, and all the afiections into warmth and honesty, and look to heaven for the rest ? This, I say, we should have sense enough to do, in order to produce a poet in words : but, it being required to produce a poet on canvas, what is our way of setting to work ? We begin, in all probability, by telling the youth of fifteen or sixteen, that Nature is full of faults, and that he is to improve her ; but that Raphael is perfection, and that the more he copies Raphael the better ; that after much copying of Raphael, he is to try what he can do himself in a Raphaelesque, but yet original, manner : that is to say, he is to try to do something very clever, all out of his own head, but yet this clever something is to be properly subjected to Raphaelesque rules, is to have a principal light occu- pying one seventh of its space, and a principal shadow occupying one third of the same ; that no two people's heads in the picture are to be turned the same way, and that all the personages represented are to possess ideal beauty of the highest order, which ideal beauty consists partly in a Greek outline of nose,
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 21
partly in proportions expressible in decimal frac- tions between the lips and chin ; but mostly in that degree of improvement which the youth of sixteen is to bestow upon God's work in general. This I say is the kind of teaching- which throuofh various chan- nels, Eoyal Academy lecturings, press criticisms, public enthusiasm, and not least by solid weight of gold, we give to our young men. And we wonder we have no painters !
But we do worse than this. Within the last few vears some sense of the real tendencv of such teachino; has appeared in some of our younger painters. It only could appear in the younger ones, our older men having become familiarised with the false system, or else having passed through it and forgotten it, not well knowino- the degTee of harm thev had sustained. This sense appeared, among our youths, — increased, — matured into resolute action. Necessarilv, to exist at all, it needed the support both of strong instincts and of considerable self-confidence, other- wise it must at once have been borne down by the weight of general authority and received canon law. Strong instincts are apt to make men strange and rude ; self-confidence, however well founded, to give much of what they do or say the appearance of impertinence. Look at the self-confidence of Words- worth, stiffening every other sentence of his prefaces into defiance ; there is no more of it than was needed to enable him to do his work, yet it is not a little ungraceful here and there. Suppose this stubbornness and self-trust in a youth, labouring in an art of which
22 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
the executive part is confessedly to be best learnt from masters, and we shall hardly wonder that much of his work has a certain awkwardness and stiffness in it, or that he should be regarded witli disfavour by many, even the most temperate, of the judges trained in the system he was breaking through, and with utter contempt and reprobation by the envious and the dull. Consider, further, that the particular system to be overthrown was, in the present case, one of which the main characteristic was the pursuit of beauty at the expense of manliness and truth ; and it will seem likely, d priori, that the men intended successfully to resist the influence of such a system should be endowed with little natural sense of beauty, and thus rendered dead to the temptation it presented. Summing up these conditions, there is surely little cause for surprise that pictures painted, in a temper of resistance, by exceedingly young men, of stubborn instincts and positive self- trust, and with little natural perception of beauty, should not be calculated, at the first glance, to win us from works enriched by plagiarism, polished by convention, invested with all the attractiveness of artificial grace, and recommended to our respect by established authority.
We should, however, on the other hand, have anticipated, that in proportion to the strength of character required for the effort, and to the absence of distracting sentiments, whether respect for pre- cedent, or affection for ideal beauty, would be the energy exhibited in the pursuit of the special objects
PRE-RArHAELITISM. 23
which the youths proposed to themselves, and their success in attainino- them.
All this has actually been the case, hut in a degree which it would have been impossible to anti- cipate. That two youths, of the respective ages of eiohteen and twenty, should have conceived for them- selves a totally independent and sincere method of study, and enthusiastically persevered in it against every kind of dissuasion and opposition, is strange enough ; that in the third or fourth year of their efforts they should have produced works in many parts not inferior to the best of Albert Durer, this is perhaps not less strange. But the loudness and universality of the howd which the common critics of the press have raised against them, the utter absence of all generous help or encouragement from those who can both measure their toil and appreciate their success, and the shrill, shallow laughter of those who can do neither the one nor the other — these are strangest of all — unimaginable unless they had been experienced.
And as if these were not enough, private malice is at work against them, in its own small, slimy way. The very day after I had written my second letter to the Times in the defence of the Pre-liaphaelites, I received an anonymous letter respecting one of them, from some person apparently hardly capable of spell- ing, and about as vile a specimen of petty malignity as ever blotted paper. I think it well that the public should know this, and so get some insight into the sources of the spirit which is at work against these
24 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
men : how first roused it is difficult to say, for one would hardly have thought that mere eccentricity in young artists could have excited an hostility so deter- mined and so cruel ; hostility which hesitated at no assertion, however impudent. Tliat of the " absence of perspective " was one of the most curious pieces of the hue and cry which began with the Times, and died away in feeble maundering in the Art Union ; I contradicted it in the Times — I here contradict it directlv for the second time. There was not a sino^le error in perspective in three out of the four pictures in question. But if otherwise, would it have been anything remarkable in them ? I doubt if, with the exception of the pictures of David Roberts, there were one architectural drawing in perspective on the walls of the Academy ; I never met but with two men in my life who knew enough of perspective to draw a Gothic arch in a retiring plane, so that its lateral dimensions and curvatures might be calculated to scale from the drawing. Our architects certainly do not, and it was but the other day that, talking to one of the most distinguished among them, the author of several most valuable works, I found he actually did not know how to draw a circle in per- spective. And in this state of general science our writers for the press take it upon them to tell us, that the forest-trees in Mr. Hunt's Sijlvia^ and the bunches of lilies in Mr. Collins's Convent Thoughts^ are out of perspective.*
* It was not a little curious, that in the xexy number of the Art Union which repeated this direct falsehood about the Pre-Raphaelite
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 25
It might not, I think, in such circumstances, have been unoraceful or unwise in the Academicians them- selves to have defended their young pupils, at least by the contradiction of statements directly false respecting them,* and the direction of the mind and
rejection of " linear perspective " (by-tlie-bye, the next time J. B. takes i;pon him to speal< of any one connected with tlie Universities, he may as well first ascertain the difference between a Graduate and an Under-Graduate), the second plate given should have been of a picture of Bonington's — a professional landscape painter, observe — for the want of aerial perspective in which the Art Union itself was obliged to apologise, and in which the artist has com- mitted nearly as many blunders in linear perspective as there are lines in the picture.
* These false statements may be reduced to three principal heads, and directly contradicted in succession.
The first, the current fallacy of society as well as of the press, was, that the Pre-Eaphaelites imitated the errors of early painters.
A falsehood of this kind could not have obtained credence any where but in England, few English people, comparatively, having ever seen a picture of early Italian Masters. If they had they would have known that the Pre-Raphaelite jjictures are just as superior to the early Italian in skill of manipulation, power of drawing, and knowledge of effect, as inferior to them in grace of design ; and that in a word, there is not a shadow of resemblance between the two styles. The Pre-Eaphaelites imitate no jiictures : they paint from natiu-e only. But they have ojiposed themselves as a body, to that kind of teaching above described, which only began after Raphael's time : and they have opjiosed themselves as .sternly to the entire feeling of the Renaissance schools ; a feeling compounded of indolence, infidelity, sensuality, and shallow pride. Therefore they have called themselves Pre-Raphaelite. Il they adliere to their principles, and paint nature as it is around them, with the help of modern science, with the earnestness of the men of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, they will, as I said, found a new and noble school in England. If their sympatliiea
26 PRE-RAPIIAELITISM.
sio'lit of the public to such real merit as they possess. If Sir Charles Eastlake, Mulready, Edwin and Charles Landseer, Cope, and Dyce would each of them simply state their own private opinion respect- ing their paintings, sign it, and publish it, I believe the act would be of more service to Enolish art than anythino- the Academy has done since it was founded. But as I cannot hope for this, I can only ask the public to give their pictures careful examina- tion, and to look at them at once with the indulgence and the respect which I have endeavoured to show they deserve.
Yet let me not be misunderstood. I have adduced them only as examples of the kind of study which I would desire to see substituted for that of our modern schools, and of singular success in certain characters, finish of detail, and brilliancy of colour. What faculties, higher than imitative, may be in these men, I do not yet venture to say ; but I do say, that
with the early artists lead them into media3valiam or Romanism, they will of course come to nothing. But I believe there is no danger ot" this, at least for the strongest among them. There may be some Aveak ones, whom the Tractarian heresies may touch ; hut if so, they will drop off like decayed branches from a strong stem. I hope all things from the school.
The second falsehood was, that the Pre-Raphaelites did not draAV well. This was asserted, and could have been asserted only, by persons who had never looked at the pictures.
The third falsehood was, that they had no system of light and shade. To which it may be simply replied that their system of light and shade is exactly the same as the Sun's ; which is, I believe, likely to outlast that of the Renaissance, however brilliant.
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 27
if they exist, such faculties will manifest themselves in clue time all the more forcibly because they have received training so severe.
For it is always to be remembered that no one mind is like another, either in its powers or percep- tions ; and while the main principles of training must be the same for all, the result in each will be as various as the kinds of truth which each will appre- hend ; therefore, also, the modes of effort, even in men whose inner principles and final aims are exactly the same. Suppose, for instance, two men, equally honest, equally industrious, equally impressed with a humble desire to render some part of what they saw in nature faithfully ; and, otherwise, trained in convictions such as I have above endeavoured to induce. But one of them is quiet in temperament, has a feeble memory, no invention, and excessively keen sight. The other is impatient in temperament, has a memory wdiich nothing escapes, an invention which never rests, and is comparatively near- sighted.
Set them both free in the same field in a mountain vallcv. One sees everything, small and large, with almost the same clearness ; mountains and grass- hoppers alike ; the leaves on the branches, the veins in the pebbles, the bubbles in the stream ; but he can remember nothing, and invent nothing. Patiently he sets himself to his mighty task ; abandoning at once all thoughts of seizing transient effects, or giving general impressions of that whicli his eyes present to him in microscopical dissection, he chooses
28 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
some small portion out of the infinite scene, and calculates with couraoe the number of weeks which must elapse before he can do justice to the intensity of his perceptions, or the fulness of matter in his subject.
Meantime, the other has been watching the change of the clouds, and the march of the light along the mountain sides ; he beholds the entire scene in broad, soft masses of true gradation, and the very feeble- ness of his sight is in some sort an advantage to him, in making him more sensible of the aerial mystery of distance, and hiding from him the multitudes of circumstances which it would have been impossible for him to represent. But there is not one change in the casting of the jagged shadows along the hollows of the hills, but it is fixed on his mind for ever ; not a flake of spray has broken from the sea of cloud about their bases, but he has watched it as it melts away, and could recall it to its lost place in heaven by the slightest effort of his thoughts. Not only so, but thousands and thousands of such images, of older scenes, remain congregated in his mind, each mingling in new associations with those now visibly passing before him, and these again confused with other images of his own ceaseless, sleepless ima- gination, flashing by in sudden troops. Fancy how his paper will be covered with stray symbols and blots, and undecipherable short-hand : — as for his sitting down to " draw from Nature," there was not one of the things which he wished to represent, that stayed for so much as five seconds tos'ether : but none
PPE-RAPHAELITISM. 29
of them escaped for all that : they arc sealed up in that stranoe storehouse of his : he may take one of them out perhaps, this day twenty years, and paint it in his dark room, far away. Now, ohserve, you may tell both of these men, when they are young, that they are to be honest, that they have an important function, and that they are not to care what Eaphael did. This you may wholesomely impress on them both. But fancy the exquisite absurdity of expecting either of them to possess any of the qualities of the other.
I have supposed the feebleness of sight in the last, and of invention in the first painter, that the contrast betw'een them might be more striking ; but, with very slis'ht modification, both the characters are real. Grant to the first considerable inventive power, with exquisite sense of colour ; and give to the second, in addition to all his other faculties, the eye of an eagle ; and the first is John Everett Millais, the second Joseph Mallard William Turner.
They are among the few men who have defied all false teaching, and have therefore, in great measure, done justice to the gifts with which they were intrusted. They stand at opposite poles, marking culminating points of art in both directions; between them, or in various relations to them, we may class five or six more living artists who, in like manner, have done justice to their powers. I trust that I may be pardoned for naming them, in order that the reader may know how the strong innate genius in each has been invariably accompanied with the same humility, earnestness, and industry in study.
30 miE-RAPHAELITISM.
It is hardly necessary to point out the earnestness or humility in the works of William Hunt ; but it may be so to suggest the high value they possess as records of English rural life, and still life. Who is there who for a moment could contend wath him in the unaffected, yet humorous truth with which he has painted our peasant children ? Who is there who does not sympathise wdtli him in the simple love with which he dwells on the brightness and bloom of our summer fruit and flowers? And yet there is something to be regretted concerning him : why should he be allowed continually to paint the same bunches of hot-house grapes, and supply to the Water Colour Society a succession of pineapples with the reffularitv of a Covcnt Garden fruiterer ? - He has of late discovered that primrose banks are lovely, but there are other things grow wdld besides prim- roses : what undreamt-of loveliness might he not bring back to us, if he would lose himself for a summer in Highland foregrounds ; if he would paint the heather as it grows, and the foxglove and the harebell as they nestle in the clefts of the rocks, and the mosses and brioht lichens of the rocks them- selves. And then, cross to the Jura, and bring back a piece of Jura pasture in spring ; with the gentians in their earliest blue, and a soldanelle beside the fading snow ! And return again, and paint a gray wall of alpine crag, wdth budding roses crowning it like a wreath of rubies. That is what he was meant to do in this world ; not to paint bouquets in China vases.
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 31
I have in various other places expressed my sincere respect for the works of Samuel Prout : his shortness of sight has necessarily prevented their possessing' delicacy of finish or fulness of minor detail ; hut I think that those of no other living artist furnish an example so striking of innate and special instinct, sent to do a particular work at the exact and only period when it was possible. At the instant when peace had been established all over Europe, but when neither national character nor national architecture had as yet been seriously changed by promiscuous intercourse or modern " improvement ; " when, how- ever, nearly every ancient and beautiful building had been long left in a state of comparative neglect, so that its aspect of partial ruinousness, and of sepa- ration from recent active life, gave to every edifice a peculiar interest — half sorrowful, half sublime ; — at that moment Prout was trained among the rough rocks and simple cottages of Cornwall, until his eye was accustomed to follow with delight the rents and breaks, and irregularities which, to another man, would have been offensive ; and then, gifted with infinite readiness in composition, but also with in- finite affection for the kind of subjects he had to portray, he was sent to preserve, in an almost in- numerable series of drawings, every one made on the spot, the aspect borne, at the beginning of the nine- teenth century, by cities which, in a few years more, re-kindled wars, or unexpected prosperities, were to ravage, or renovate, into nothingness.
It seems strange to pass from Prout to John
32 PllE-RAPHAELITISM.
Lewis ; but there is this fellowship between them, that both seem to have been intended to appreciate the characters of foreign countries more than of their own, nav, to have been born in EnMand chieflv that the excitement of stran(]^eness mio-ht enhance to them the interest of the scenes they had to represent. I believe John Lewis to have done more entire justice to all his powers (and they are magnificent ones), than any other man amongst us. His mission was evidently to portray the comparatively animal life of the southern and eastern families of mankind. For this he w^as prepared in a somewhat singular way — by being led to study, and endowed with altogether peculiar apprehension of, the most sublime characters of animals themselves. Eubens, Eembrandt, Snyders, Tintoret, and Titian, have all, in various ways, drawn wild beasts magnificently ; but they have in some sort humanised or demonised them, making them either ravenous fiends, or educated beasts, that would draw cars, and had respect for hermits. The sullen isolation of the brutal nature ; the diofnitv and quietness of the mighty limbs ; the shaggy moun- tainous power, mingled with grace as of a flowing stream ; the stealthv restraint of strenoth and wrath in every soundless motion of the gigantic frame ; all this seems never to have been seen, much less drawn, until Lewis drew and himself engraved a series of animal subjects, now many years ago. Since then, he has devoted himself to the portraiture of those European and Asiatic races, among whom the refine- ments of civilization exist without its laws or its
PllE-RAPnAELITIS:M. 33
energies, and in whom the fierceness, indolence, and subtlety of animal nature are associated with brilliant imai^^ination and stronaf affections. To this task he has brought not only intense perception of the kind of character, but powers of artistical com- position like those of the great Venetians, dis- playing, at the same time, a refinement of drawing almost miraculous, and appreciable only, as the minutiae of nature itself are appreciable, by the help of the microscope. The value, therefore, of his works, as records of the aspect of the scenery and inhabitants of the south of Spain and of the East, in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, is quite above all estimate.
I hardly know how to speak of Mulready : in delicacy and completion of drawing, and splendour of colour, he takes place beside John Lewis and the pre-Raphaelites ; but he has, throughout his career, displayed no definiteness in choice of subject. He must be named among the painters who have studied with industry, and have made themselves great by doing so ; but, having obtained a consummate method of execution, he has thrown it away on subjects either altogether uninteresting, or above his powers, or unfit for pictorial representation. " The Cherry Woman," exhibited in 1850, may be named as an example of the first kind ; the " Burchell and Sophia" of the second (the character of Sir William Thornhill being utterly missed) ; the " Seven Ages" of the third ; for this subject cannot be painted. In the written passage, the thougiits arc pi-ogressivc
3
34 PUE-RAPIIAELITISM.
and connected ; in the picture they must be co- existent, and yet separate ; nor can all the characters of the ages be rendered in painting at all. One may represent the soldier at the cannon's mouth, but one cannot paint the " bubble reputation " which he seeks. Mulready, therefore, while he has always produced exquisite pieces of painting, has failed in doing anything which can be of true or extensive use. He has, indeed, understood how to discipline his genius, but never how to direct it.
Edwin Landseer is the last painter but one whom I shall name : I need not point out to any one acquainted with his earlier works, the labour, or watchfulness of nature which they involve, nor need I do more than allude to the peculiar faculties of his mind. It will at once be granted that the highest merits of his pictures are throughout found in those parts of them which are least like what had before been accomplished ; and that it was not by the study of Raphael that he attained his eminent success, but by a healthy love of Scotch terriers.
None of these painters, however, it will be an- swered, afford examples of the rise of the highest imaginative power out of close study of matters of fact. Be it remembered, however, that the imagi- native power, in its magnificence, is not to be found every day. Lewis has it in no mean degree, but we cannot hope to find it at its highest more than once in an age. We have had it once, and must be content.
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 35
Towards the close of the last century, among' the various drawings executed, according to the quiet manner of the time, in greyish blue, with brown foregTounds, some began to be noticed as exhibiting rather more than ordinary diligence and delicacy, signed W. Turner,* There was nothing, however, in them at all indicative of genius, or even of more than ordinary talent, unless in some of the subjects a large perception of space, and excessive clearness and decision in the arrangement of masses. Gradu- ally and cautiously the blues became mingled with delicate green, and then with gold ; the browns in the foreground became first more positive, and then were slightly mingled with other local colours ; while the touch, which had at first been heavy and broken, like that of the ordinary drawing masters of the time, grew more and more refined and expressive, until it lost itself in a method of execu- tion often too delicate for the eye to follow, rendering, with a precision before unexampled, both the texture and the form of every object. The style may be considered as perfectly formed about the year 1800, and it remained unchanged for twenty years.
During that period the painter had attempted, and with more or less success had rendered, every order of landscape subject, but always on the same princi- ple, subduing the colours of nature into a harmony of which the key-notes are greyish green and
* He did not use liis full signature, " J. M. W.," until about the year 1800.
3— '2
36 rilE-UAPIIAELITlSM.
brown ; pure blues, and delicate golden yellows being admitted in small quantity as the lowest and highest limits of shade and light : and bright local colours in extremely small quantity in figures or other minor accessories.
Pictures executed on such a system are not, properly speaking, works in colour at all ; they are studies of light and shade, in which both the shade and the distance arc rendered in the general hue which best expresses their attributes of coolness and transparency ; and the lights and the forefjround are executed in that which best expresses their warmth and solidity. This advantage may just as well be taken as not, in studies of light and shadow to be executed with the hand ; but the use of two, three, or four colours, always in the same relations and places, does not in the least constitute the work a study of colour, any more than the brown engravings of the Liber Studi- orum ; nor would the idea of colour be in general more present to the artist's mind when he was at work on one of these drawings, than when he was using pure brown in the mezzotint engraving. But the idea of space, warmth, and freshness being not successfully expressible in a single tint, and perfectly expressible by the admission of three or four, he allows himself this advantage when it is possible, vvithout in the least embarrassinsf himself with the actual colour of the objects to be represented. A stone in the foreground might in nature have been cold grey, but it will be drawn nevertheless of a rich brown, because it is in the foreground ; a hill in the
PRE-RAPIIAELITISM, 37
distance might in nature be purple with heath, or golden with furze ; but it will be draw^n, nevertheless^ of a cool grey, because it is in the distance.
This at least was the general theory, — carried out with great severity in many, both of the drawings and pictures executed by him during the period : in others more or less modified by the cautious intro- duction of colour, as the painter felt his liberty increasing ; for the system w^as evidently never con- sidered as final, or as anything more than a means of progress : the conventional, easily manageable colour, was visibly adopted, only that his mind might be at perfect liberty to address itself to the acquirement of the first and most necessary knowledge in all art — that of form. But as form, in landscape, implies vast bulk and space, the use of the tints whicli enabled him best to express them, was actually auxiliary to the mere drawing ; and, therefore, not only permissible, but even necessary, while more brilliant or varied tints were never indulged in, except when they might be introduced without the slightest danger of divert- ing his mind for an instant from his principal objectc And, therefore, it will be generally found in the works of this period, that exactly in proportion to the importance and general toil of the composition, is the severity of the tint ; and that the play of colour begins to show itself first in slight and small drawings, where he felt that he could easily secure all that he wanted in form.
Thus the " Crossing the Brook," and such other
38 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
elaborate and large compositions, are actually painted in nothing but grey, brown, and blue, with a point or two of severe local colour in the figures ; but in the minor drawings, tender passages of complicated colour occur not unfrcquently in easy places ; and even before the year 1800 he begins to introduce it with evident joyfulness and longing in his rude and simple studies, just as a child, if it could bo supposed to govern itself by a fully developed intellect, would cautiously, but with infinite pleasure, add now and then a tiny dish of fruit or other dangerous luxury to the simple order of its daily fare. Thus, in the foregrounds of his most severe drawings, we not unfrcquently find him indulging in the luxury of a peacock ; and it is impossible to express the joyful- ness with which he seems to design its graceful form, and deepen with soft pencilling the bloom of its blue, after he has worked through the stern detail of his almost colourless drawing'. A rainbow is another of his most frequently permitted indulgences ; and we find him very early allowing the edges of his evening clouds to be touched with soft rose-colour or gold ; while, whenever the hues of nature in anywise fall into his system, and can be caught without a danger- ous departure from it, he instantly throws his whole soul into the faithful rendering of them. Thus the usual brown tones of his foreground become warmed into sudden vigour, and are varied and enhanced with indescribable delight, when he finds himself by the shore of a moorland stream, where they truly express
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 39
the stain of its golden rocks, and the darkness of its clear, Cairngorm-like pools, and the usual serenity of his aerial blue is enriched into the softness and depth of the sapphire, when it can deepen the distant slumber of some Highland lake, or temper the gloomy shadows of the evening upon its hills.
The system of his colour being thus simplified, he could address all the strength of his mind to the accumulation of facts of form ; his choice of subject, and his methods of treatment, are therefore as various as his colour is simple ; and it is not a little difficult to give the reader who is unacquainted with his works, an idea either of their infinitude of aims, on the one hand, or of the kind of feeling which per- vades them all, on the other. No subject was too low or too high for him ; we find him one day hard at work on a cock and hen, with their family of chickens in a farm-yard ; and bringing all the refine- ment of his execution into play to express the texture of the plumage ; next day he is drawing the Dragon of Colchis. One hour he is much interested in a gust of wind blowing away an old woman's cap ; the next, he is painting the fifth plague of Egypt. Every landscape painter before him had acquired distinction by confining his efforts to one class of subject. Hobbima painted oaks ; Ruysdael, waterfalls and copses ; Cuyp, river or meadow scenes in quiet afternoons ; Salvator and Poussin, such kind of mountain scenery as people could conceive, who lived in towns in the seventeenth century. But I am well
40 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
persuaded that if all the works of Turner, up to the year 1820, were divided into classes (as he has him- self divided them in the Liber Studiorum), no pre- ponderance could he assigned to one class over another. There is architecture, including a large number of formal " gentlemen's seats," I suppose draw- ings commissioned by the owners ; then lowland pastoral scenery of every kind, including nearly all farming operations — ploughing, harrowing, hedging and ditching, felling trees, sheep-washing, and I know not what else ; then all kinds of town life — court- yards of inns, starting of mail coaches, interiors of shops, house-buildings, fairs, elections, &c. ; then all kinds of inner domestic life — interiors of rooms, studies of costumes, of still life, and heraldry, in- cluding multitudes of symbolical vignettes ; then marine scenery of every kind, full of local incident ; every kind of boat and method of fishing for parti- cular fish, being specifically drawn, round the whole coast of England — pilchard fishing at St. Ives, whiting fishing at Margate, herring at Loch Fyne ; and all kinds of shipping, including studies of every separate part of the vessels, and many marine battle pieces, two in particular of Trafalgar, both of high importance — one of the Victory after the battle, now in Greenwich Hospital ; another of the death of Nelson, in his own gallery ; then all kinds of moun- tain scenery, some idealized into compositions, others of definite localities ; together with classical compo- sitions, Komes, and Carthages, and such others, by
PRE-RAPIIAELITISM. 41
the myriad, with mythological, historical, or allego- rical figm'es — nymphs, monsters, and spectres ; heroes and divinities.*
What ocncral fcelino- it may he asked incredu- lously, can possibly pervade all this ? This, the greatest of all feelings — an utter forgetfulness of self. Throughout the whole period with which we are at present concerned, Turner appears as a man of sym- pathy absolutely infinite — a sympathy so all-em- bracing, that I know nothing but that of Shakspeare comparable with it. A soldier's wife resting by the roadside is not beneath it ; Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah, watching the dead bodies of her sons, not above it. Nothing can possibly be so mean as that it will not interest his whole mind, and carry away his whole heart ; nothing so great or solemn but that he can raise himself into harmony with it : and it is impossible to prophesy of him at any moment, whether, the next, he will be in laughter or in tears.
This is the root of the man's greatness ; and it follows as a matter of course that this sympathy must give him a subtle power of expression, even of the characters of mere material things, such as no other painter ever possessed. The man who can best feel the diiference between rudeness and tenderness in humanity, perceives also more difference between the branches of an oak and a willow than any one else
* I sliall give ii catalogue raisonnee oT all this in the ihiid volume oJ" Modern Painters.
42 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
would ; and, therefore, necessarily the most striking character of the drawings themselves is the spe- ciality of whatever they represent — the thorough stiffness of what is stiff, and grace of what is grace- ful, and vastness of what is vast ; but through and beyond all this, the condition of the mind of the painter himself is easily enough discoverable by com- parison of a large number of the drawings. It is singularly serene and peaceful : in itself quite pas- sionless, though entering with ease into the external passion which it contemplates. By the effort of its will it sympathises with tumult or distress, even in their extremes, but there is no tumult, no sorrow in itself, only a chastened and exquisitely peaceful cheerfulness, deeply meditative ; touched, without loss of its own perfect balance, by sadness on the one side, and stooping to playfulness upon the other. I shall never cease to regret the destruction, by fire, now several years ago, of a drawing which always seemed to me to be the perfect image of the painter's mind at this period, — the drawing of Brignal Church near Eokeby, of which a feeble idea may still be ga- thered from the engraving (in the Yorkshire series). The spectator stands on the " Brignal banks," looking down into the glen at twilight ; the sky is still full of soft rays, though the sun is gone, and the Greta glances brightly in the valley, singing its even-song ; two white clouds, following each other, move without wind through the hollows of the ravine, and others lie couched on the far away moorlands ; every leaf of the woods is still in the delicate air ; a boy's kite,
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 43
incapable of rising, has become entangled in their branches, he is climbing to recover it; and just be- hind it in the picture, almost indicated by it, the lowly church is seen in its secluded field between the rocks and the stream ; and around it the low churchyard wall, and the few white stones wdiich mark the resting places of those who can climb the rocks no more, nor hear the river sing as it passes.
There are many other existing drawings which indicate the same character of mind, though I think none so touching or so beautiful : yet they are not, as I said above, more numerous than those which ex- press his sympathy with sublimer or more active scenes ; but they are almost always marked by a ten- derness of execution, and have a look of being beloved in every part of them, which shows them to be the truest expression of his own feelings.
One other characteristic of his mind at this period remains to be noticed— ^its reverence for talent in others. Not the reverence which acts upon the prac- tices of men as if they were the laws of nature, but that which is ready to appreciate the power, and receive the assistance, of every mind which has been previously employed in the same direction, so far as its teaching seems to be consistent with the great text-book of nature itself. Turner thus studied almost every preceding landscape painter, chiefly Claude, Poussin, Vandeveldc, Loutherbourg, and Wilson. It was probably by the Sir George Beau- monts and other feeble conventionalists of the period, that he was persuaded to devote his attention to the
44 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
works of these men ; and his having done so will be thought, a few scores of years hence, evidence ot perhaps the greatest modesty ever shown by a man of original power. Modesty at once admirable and unfortunate, for the study of the works of Vande- velde and Claude w^as productive of unmixed mischief to him : he spoiled many of his marine pictures, as for instance Lord Ellesmere's, by imitation of the former ; and from the latter learned a false ideal, which, confirmed by the notions of Greek art pre- valent in London in the beijinnino- of this centurv, has manifested itself in many vulgarities in his com- position pictures, vulgarities which may perhaps be best expressed by the general term " Twickenham Classicism," as consisting principally in conceptions of ancient or of rural life such as have influenced the erection of most of our suburban villas. From Nicolo Poussin and Loutherbourg he seems to have derived advantage ; perhaps also from Wilson ; and much in his subsequent travels from far higher men, especially Tintoret and Paul Veronese. I have myself heard him speaking with singular delight of the putting in of the beech leaves in the upper right-hand corner of Titian's Peter Martyr. I can- not in any of his works trace the slightest influence of Salvator ; and I am not surprised at it, for though Salvator was a man of far higher powers than either Vandevelde or Claude, he was a wilful and gross caricaturist. Turner would condescend to be helped by feeble men, but could not be corrupted by false men. Besides, he had never himself seen
PRE-RAPIIAELITISM. 45
classical life, and Claude was represented to him as competent authority for it. But he had seen moun- tains and torrents, and knew therefore that Salvator could not paint them.
One of the most characteristic drawino^s of this period fortunately hears a date, 1818, and hring-g us within two years of another dated drawing, no less characteristic of what I shall henceforward call Turner's Second period. It is in the possession of Mr. Hawkesworth Fawkes of Farnley, one of Turner's earliest and truest friends ; and bears the inscription, unusually conspicuous, heaving itself up and down over^ the eminences of the foreground — " Passage of Mont Cenis. J. M. W. Turner, January 15th, 1820."
The scene is on the summit of the pass close to the hospice, or what seems to have been a hospice at that time, — I do not remember any such at present, — a small square-built house, built as if partly for a fortress, with a detached flight of stone steps in front of it, and a kind of drawbridge to the door. This l)uilding, about 400 or 500 yards off, is seen in a dim, ashy grey against the light, which by help of a violent blast of mountain wind has broken through the depth of clouds which hangs upon the crags. There is no sky, properly so called, nothing but this roof of drifting- cloud : but neither is there anv weight of darkness — the high air is too thin for it, — all savage, howling, and luminous with cold, tlie massy bases of the granite hills jutting out hero and there grimly through the snow wreaths. There is a
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desolate-looking refuge on the left, with its number 16, marked on it in long ghastly figures, and the wind is drifting the snow off the roof and through its window in a frantic whirl ; the near ground is all wan with half-thawed, half-trampled snow ; a dili- gence in front, whose horses, unable to face the wind, have turned right round with fright, its passengers struggling to escape, jammed in the window ; a little farther on is another carriage off the road, some figures pushing at its wheels, and its driver at the horses' heads, pulling and lashing with all his strength, his lifted arm stretched out against the light of the distance, though too far off for the whip to be seen.
Now I am perfectly certain that any one thoroughly accustomed to the earlier works of the painter, and shown this picture for the first time, would be struck by two altogether new characters in it.
The first, a seeming enjoyment of the excitement of the scene, totally different from the contemplative philosophy with which it would formerly have been regarded. Every incident of motion and of energy is seized upon with indescribable delight, and every line of the composition animated with a force and fury which are now no longer the mere expression of a contemplated external truth, but have origin in some inherent feeling in the painter's mind.
The second, that although the subject is one in itself almost incapable of colour, and although, in order to increase the wildness of the impression, all brilliant local colour has been refused even where it
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 47
might easily have been introduced, as in the figures ; yet in the low minor key which has been chosen, the melodies of colour have been elaborated to the utmost possible pitch, so as to become a leading, instead of a subordinate, element in the composition ; the subdued warm hues of the granite promontories, the dull stone colour of the walls of the buildings, clearly opposed, even in shade, to the grey of the snow wreaths heaped against them, and the faint greens and ghastly blues of the glacier ice, being all expressed with delicacies of transition utterly unex- ampled in any previous drawings.
These, accordingly, are the chief characteristics of the works of Turner's second period, as distinguished from the first, — a new energy inherent in the mind of the painter, diminishing the repose and exalting the force and fire of his conceptions, and the presence of Colour, as at least an essential, and often a prin- cipal, element of design.
Not that it is impossible, or even unusual, to find drawings of serene subject, and perfectly quiet feeling, among the compositions of this period ; but the repose is in them, just as the energy and tumult were in the earlier period, an external quality, which the painter images by an effbrt of the will : it is no longer a character inherent in himself. The " UUeswater," in the England series, is one of those which are in most perfect peace ; in the " Cowes," the silence is only broken by the dash of the boat's oars, and in the " Alnwick " by a stag drinking ; but in at least nine drawings out of ten, either sky, water, or figures arc
48 PRE-RAPIIAELITISM.
in rapid motion, and the grandest drawings are almost always those which have even violent action in one or other, or in all ; e. g. high force of Tecs, Coventry, Llantliony, Salisbury, Llanberis, and such others.
The colour is, however, a more absolute distinc- tion ; and we must return to Mr, Fawkes's collection in order to see how the change in it was effected. That such a change would take place at one time or other was of course to be securely anticipated, tlie conventional system of the first period being, as above stated, merely a means of study. But the immediate cause was the journey of the year 1820. As might be guessed from the legend on the drawing above described, "Passage of Mont Cenis, January 15th, 1820," that drawing represents what happened on the day in question to the painter himself. He passed the Alps then in the winter of 1820; and either in the previous or subsequent summer, but on the same journey, he made a series of sketches on the Rhine, in body colour, now^ in Mr. Fawkes's collection. Every one of those sketches is the almost instantaneous record of an effect of colour or atmosphere, taken strictlv from nature, the drawing and the details of every subject being comparatively subordinate, and the colour nearly as principal as the light and shade had been before, — certainly the leading feature, though the light and shade are always exquisitely harmonized with it. And naturally, as the colour becomes the leading object, those times of day are chosen in which it is most lovelv ; and whereas before, at least live out of six of Turner's drawings
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represented ordinary daylight, we now find his atten- tion directed constantly to the evening- : and, for the first time, we have those rosy lights upon the hills, those gorgeous falls of sun through flaming heavens, those solemn twilights, with the blue moon rising as the western sky grows dim, which have ever since been the themes of his mightiest thoughts.
I have no doubt, that the immediate reason of this change was the impression made upon him by the colours of the continental skies. When he first travelled on the Continent (1800), he was comparatively a young student ; not yet able to draw form as he wanted, he was forced to give all his thoughts and strength to this primary object. But now he was free to receive other impressions ; the time was come for perfecting his art, and the first sunset which he saw on the Rhine taught him that all previous landscape art was vain and valueless, that in comparison with natural colour, the things that had been called paintings were mere ink and charcoal, and that all prece- dent and all authority must bo cast away at once, and trodden under foot. He cast them away: the memories of Vandevclde and Claude were at once weeded out of the great mind they had encumbered ; they and all the rubbish of the schools together with them ; the waves of the Rhine swept them away for ever : and a new dawn rose over the rocks of the Siebengebirge.
There was another motive at work, which ren- dered the change still more complete. His icUow
4
50 PRE-RAPHAELITISM. '
artists were already conscious enough of his superior power in drawing, and their hcst hope was that he might not he able to colour. They had begun to express this hope loudly enough for it to reach his ears. The engraver of one of his most important marine pictures told me, not long ago, that one day about the period in question, Turner came into his room to examine the progress of the plate, not having seen his own picture for several months. It was one of his dark early pictures, but in the foreground was a little piece of luxury, a pearly fish wrought into hues like those of an opal. He stood before the picture for some moments ; then laughed, and pointed joyously to the fish : — " They say that Turner can't colour ! " and turned away.
Under the force of these various impulses the change was total. Every subject thenceforward was primarily conceived in colour ; and no engraving ever gave the slightest idea of any drawing of this period.
The artists who had any perception of the truth were in despair ; the Beaumontites, classicalists, and " owl species" in general, in as much indignation as their dulness was capable of. They had deliberately closed their eyes to all nature, and had gone on inquiring " Where do you put your brown ' tree ? ' " A vast revelation was made to them at once, enough to have dazzled any one ; but to them^ light unen- durable as incomprehensible. They " did to the moon complain," in one vociferous, unanimous, con- tinuous " Tu whoo." Shrieking rose from all dark
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places at the same instant, just the same kind of shriekino; that is now raised as^ainst the Pre-
O CD
RaphaeUtes. Those glorious old Arabian Nights, how true they are ! Mocking and whispering, and abuse loud and low by turns, from all the black stones beside the road, when one livinsc soul is toilino- up the hill to get the golden water. Mocking and whispering, that he may look back, and become a black stone like themselves.
Turner looked not back, but he went on in such a temper as a strong man must be in, when he is forced to walk with his fingers in his ears. He retired into himself ; he could look no longer for help, or counsel, or sympathy from any one ; and the spirit of defiance in which he was forced to labour led him sometimes into violences, from which the slightest expression of sympathy would have saved him. The new energy that was upon him, and the utter isolation into which he was driven, were both alike dangerous, and many drawings of the time show the evil effects of both ; some of them beino- hasty, wild, or experimental, and others little more than magnificent expressions of defiance of public opinion.
But all have this noble virtue — they are in every- thing his own: there are no more reminiscences of dead masters, no more trials of skill in the manner of Claude or Poussin ; every faculty of his soul is fixed upon nature only, as he saw her, or as he remembered her.
I have spoken above of his gigantic memory : it is
4—2
52 rKE-lJAniAELITISM.
especially necessary to notice this, in order that we may understand the kind of grasp which a man of real imaijination takes of all thino^s that are once brought within his reach — grasp thenceforth not to be relaxed for ever.
On looking over any catalogues of his works, or of particular series of them, we shall notice the recurrence of the same subject two, three, or even manv times. In anv other artist this would be nothing remarkable. Probablj, most modern land- scape painters multiply a favourite subject twenty, thirty, or sixty fold, putting the shadows and the clouds in different places, and " inventing," as they are pleased to call it, a new " effect " every time. But if we examine the successions of Turner's sub- jects, we shall find them either the records of a succession of impressions actually received by him at some favourite locality, or else repetitions of one impression received in early youth, and again and again realised as his increasing powers enabled him to do better justice to it. In either case we shall find them records of seen facts ; never compositions in his room to fill up a favourite outline.
For instance, every traveller — at least, every tra- veller of thirty years' standing — must love Calais, the place where he first felt himself in a strange world. Turner evidently loved it excessively. I have never catalogued his studies of Calais, but I remember, at this moment, five : there is first the " Pas de Calais," a very large oil painting, which is what he gaw in broad daylight as he crossed over, when he got near
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the French side. It is a careful study of French fishing boats running for the shore before the wind, with the picturesque old city in the distance. Then there is the " Calais Harbour " in the Liber Stu- diorum : that is what he saw just as he was going into the harbour — a heavy brig warping out, and very likely to get in his way or run against the pier, and bad weather coming on. Then there is the " Calais Pier," a large painting, engraved some years ago by Mr. Lupton :* that is what he saw when he had landed, and ran back directly to the pier to see what had become of the bri^r. The weather had o-ot still worse, the fishwomen were being blown about in a distressful manner on the pier head, and some more fishing-boats were running in with all speed. Then there is the " Fortrouge," Calais : that is what he saw after he had been home to Dessein's, and dined, and went out again in the evening to walk on the sands, the tide being down. He had never seen such a waste of sands before, and it made an im- pression on him. The shrimp girls were all scattered over them too, and moved about in white spots on the wild shore ; and the storm had lulled a little, and there was a sunset — such a sunset ! — and the bars of Fortrouge seen against it, skeleton-wise. He did not paint that directly ; thought over it — painted it a long while afterwards.
Then there is the vignette in the illustrations to Scott. That is what he saw as he was going home,
* Tlie pLite was, lio-\vcvcr, novor publishod.
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meditatively; and the revolving lighthouse came blazing out upon him suddenly, and disturbed him. He did not like that so much ; made a vignette of it, however, when he was asked to do a bit of Calais, twenty or thirty years afterwards, having already done all the rest.
Turner never told me all this, but any one may see it if he will compare the pictures. They might, possibly, not be impressions of a single day, but of two days or three ; though, in all human probability, they were seen just as I have stated them ; * but they are records of successive impressions, as plainly written as ever traveller's diary. All of them pure veracities. Therefore immortal.
I could multiply these series almost indefinitely from the rest of his works. What is curious, some of them have a kind of private mark running through all the subjects. Thus, I know three drawings of Scar- borough, and all of them have a starfish in the fore- ground : I do not remember any others of his marine subjects which have a starfish.
The other kind of repetition — the recurrence to one early impression — is, however, still more remark- able. In the collection of F. H. Bale, Esq., there is a small drawing of Llanthony Abbey. It is in his boyish manner, its date probably about 1 795 ; evidently a sketch from nature, finished at home.
* And tlic more probably because Turner w^as never fond of staying long at any place,. and was least of all likely to make a pause ol two or three days at the beginning of his journey.
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It had been a showery day ; the hills were partially concealed by the rain, and gleams of sunshine break- ing out at intervals. A man was fishing in the mountain stream. The young Turner sought a place of some shelter under the bushes ; made his sketch ; took great pains when he got home '^to imitate the rain, as he best could ; added his child's luxury of a rainbow ; put in the very bush under which he had taken shelter, and the fisherman, a some- what ill-jointed and long-legged fisherman, in the courtly short breeches which were the fashion of the time.
Some thirty years afterwards, with all his powers in their strongest training, and after the total change in his feelings and principles, which I have en- deavoured to describe, he undertook the series of " England and Wales," and in that series introduced the subject of Llanthony Abbey. And behold, he went back to his boy's sketch and boy's thought. Pic kept the very bushes in their places, but brought the fisherman to the other side of the river, and put him, in somewhat less courtly dress, under their shelter, instead of himself. And then he set all his gained strength and new knowledfi^e at work on the well- remembered shower of rain, that had fallen thirty years before, to do it better. The resultant drawing* is one of the very noblest of his second period.
Another of the drawings of the England series, Ulleswater, is the repetition of one in Mr. Fawkes's
* Vkk Modern Painters, Tart II. Sect. TIT. Clmp. TV. § M.
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collection, which, by the method of its execution, I should conjecture to have been executed about the year 1808 or 1810: at all events, it is a very quiet drawing of the first period. The lake is quite calm ; the western hills in grey shadow, the eastern massed in liuht. Helvellvn risino- like a mist between them, all beino- mirrored in the calm water. Some thin and slightly evanescent cows are standing in the shallow water in front ; a boat floats motionless about a hundred yards from the shore ; the foreground is of broken rocks, with some lovely pieces of copse on the riiJ^ht and left.
This was evidently Turner's record of a quiet even- ing by the shore of UUeswater, but it was a feeble one. He could not at that time render the sun- set colours : he went back to it, therefore, in the England series, and painted it again with his new power. The same hills are there, the same shadows, the same cows, — -they had stood in his mind, on the same spot, for twenty years, — the same boat, the same rocks, only the copse is cut av;ay — it interfered with the masses of his colour. Some figures are introduced bathing ; and what was grey, and feeble gold in the first drawing, becomes purple, and burn- ing rose-colour in the last.
But perhaps one of the most curious examples is in the series of subjects from Winchelsea. That in the Liber Studiorum, " Winchelsea, Sussex," bears date 1812, and its figures consist of a soldier speaking to a woman, who is resting on the bank beside the road. There is another small subject, with Winchel-
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sea in the distance, of which the engravino- bears date 18 1 7. It has two women with bundles, and tuo soldiers toiling along the embankment in the plain, and a baofirafre wafrcron in tlie distance. Neither of these seems to have satisfied him, and at last he did another for the England series, of which the encrravino^ bears date 1830. There is now a rep'iment on the march ; the baggage waggon is there, having ffot no farther on in the thirteen years, but one of the •women is tired, and has fainted on the bank ; another is supporting her against her bundle, and giving her drink ; a third sympathetic women is added, and the two soldiers have stopped, and one is drinking from his canteen.
Nor is it merely of entire scenes, or of particular incidents that Turner's memory is thus tenacious. The slightest passages of colour or arrangement that have pleased him — the fork of a bough, the casting of a shadow, the fracture of a stone — will be taken up again and again, and strangely worked into new relations with other thoughts. There is a single sketch from nature in one of the portfolios at Farnley, of a common wood-walk on the estate, which has furnished passages to no fewer than three of the most elaborate compositions in the Liber Studiorum.
I am thus tedious in dwelling on Turner's powers of memory, because I wish it to be thoroughly seen how all his greatness, all his infinite luxuriance of invention, depends on his taking possession of every- thing that he sees,— on his grasping all, and losing
58 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
hold of nothing, — on his forgetting himself, and for- getting nothing else. I wish it to be understood how every great man paints what he sees or did see, his greatness being indeed little else than his intense sense of fact. And thus Pre-Eaphaelitism and Raphae- litisra, and Turnerism, are all one and the same, so far as education can influence them. They are dif- ferent in their choice, diflferent in their faculties, but all the same in this, that Raphael himself, so far as he was great, and all who preceded or followed him who ever were great, became so by painting the truths around them as they appeared to each man's own mind, not as he had been taught to see them, except by the God who made both him and them.
There is, however, one more characteristic of Turner's second period, on which I have still to dwell, especially with reference to what has been above advanced respecting the fallacy of overtoil ; namely, the magnificent ease with which all is done when it is successfully done. For there are one or two drawings of this time which are 7iot done easily. Turner had in these set himself to do a fine thing to exhibit his powers ; in the common phrase, to excel himself ; so sure as he does this, the w ork is a failure. The worst drawings that have ever come from his hands are some of this second period, on which he has spent much time and laborious thought; drawings filled with incident from one side to the other, with skies stippled into morbid blue, and warm lights set ao-ainst them in violent contrast ; one of Bamborough Castle, a large water-colour, may be named as an
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example. But the truly noble works arc those in which, without effort, he has expressed his thoughts as they came, and forgotten himself; and in these the outpouring of invention is not less miraculous than the swiftness and obedience of the mighty hand that expresses it. Any one who examines the draw- ings may say the evidence of this facility, in the strange freshness and sharpness of every touch of colour ; but when the multitude of delicate touches, with which all the aerial tones are worked, is taken into consideration, it would still appear impossible that the drawing could have been completed with ease, unless we had direct evidence on the matter : fortunatclv, it is not wanting-. There is a drawing- in Mr. Fawkes's collection of a man-of-war taking in stores : it is of the usual size of those of the Eno-land series, about sixteen inches by eleven : it does not appear one of the most highly finished, but is still farther removed from slightness. The hull of a first- rate occupies nearly one-half of the picture on the right, her bows towards the spectator, seen in sharp perspective from stem to stern, with all her portholes, guns, anchors, and lower rigging elaborately detailed; there are two other ships of the line in the middle distance, drawn with equal precision ; a noble breezy sea dancing against their broad bows, full of delicate drawing in its waves ; a store-ship beneath the hull of the larger vessel, and several other boats, and a complicated cloudy sky. It might appear no small exertion of mind to draw the detail of all this shipping down to the smallest ropes, from memory, in the
Go PIIE-RAPHAELITISM.
clravvino'-room of a mansion in the middle of York- shire, even if considerable time had been given for the effort. But Mr. Fawkes sat beside the painter from the first stroke to the last. Turner took a piece of blank paper one morning after breakfast, outlined his ships, finished the drawing in three hours, and went out to shoot.
Let this single fact be quietly meditated upon by our ordinary painters, and they will see the truth of what was above asserted, — that if a great thing can be done at all, it can be done easily ; and let them not torment themselves with twisting of compositions this way and that, and repeating, and experimenting, and scene-shifting. If a man can compose at all, he can compose at once, or rather he must compose in spite of himself. And this is the reason of that silence which I have kept in most of my works, on the subject of Composition. Many critics, especially the architects, have found fault with me for not "teaching people how to arrange masses ; " for not " attributing sufficient importance to composition." Alas ! I attribute far more importance to it than they do ; — so much importance, that I should just as soon think of sitting- down to teach a man how to write a Divina Commedia, or King Lear, as how to " compose," in the true sense, a single building or picture. The mar- vellous stupidity of this age of lecturers is, that they do not see that what they call, " principles of com- position," are mere principles of common sense in everything, as well as in pictures and buildings ; — A picture is to have a principal light ? Yes ; and so a
PRE-RAPIIAELITISM. Gl
dinner is to have a principal dish, and an oration a principal point, and an air of music a principal note, and every man a principal object. A picture is to have harmony of relation among its parts ? Yes ; and so is a speech well uttered, and an action well ordered, and a company well chosen, and a ragout well mixed. Composition ! As if a man were not composing every moment of his life, well oT ill, and would not do it instinctivelv in his picture as well as elsewhere, if he could. Composition of this lower or common kind is of exactly the same importance in a picture that it is in anything else, — no more. It is well that a man should say what he has to say in good order and sequence, hut the main thing is to say it truly. And yet we go on preaching to our pupils as if to have a principal light was everything, and so cover our academy walls with Shacabac feasts, wherein the courses are indeed well ordered, but the dishes empty.
It is not, however, only in invention that men over- work themselves, but in execution also ; and here I have a word to say to the Pre-Raphaelites specially. They are working too hard. There is evidence in failing portions of their pictures, showing that they have wrought so long upon them that their very sight has failed for weariness, and that the hand refused any more to obey the heart. And, .besides this,, there are certain qualities of drawing whicli tlicy miss from over-carefulness. For, let them be assured, there is a ffreat truth lurkin"- in that common desire of men to see things done in what they call a
62 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
" masterly," or " bold," or " broad," manner : a truth oppressed and abused, like almost every other in this world, but an eternal one nevertheless ; and whatever mischief may have followed from men's looking for nothing else but this facility of execution, and supposing that a picture was assuredly all right if only it were done with broad dashes of the brush, still the truth remains the same : — that because it is not intended that men shall torment or weary themselves with any earthly labour, it is appointed that the noblest results should only be attainable by a certain ease and decision of manipulation. I only wish people understood this much of sculpture, as w^ell as of painting, and could see that the finely- finished statue is, in ninetv-nine cases out of a hundred, a far more vulgar work than that which shows rough signs of the right hand laid to the workman's hammer : but at all events, in painting it is felt by all men, and justly felt. The freedom of the lines of nature can only be represented by a similar freedom in the hand that follows them ; there are curves in the flow of the hair, and in the form of the features, and in the muscular outline of the body, which can in no wise be caught but by a sympathetic freedom in the stroke of the pencih I do not care what example is taken, be it the most subtle and careful work of Leonardo himself, there will be found a play and power and ease in the outlines, which no slovj efibrt could ever imitate. And if the Pre-Raphaelites do not understand how this kind of power, in its highest perfection, may be
PRE-RAPHxVELITISM. 63
united witli the most severe rendering of all other orders of truth, and especially of those with which they themselves have most sympathy, let them look at the drawinofs of John Lewis.
These then are the principal lessons which w^c have to learn from Turner, in his second or central period of labour. There is one more, however, to he received ; and that is a warning ; for tow^ards the close of it, what with doing small conventional vignettes for publishers, making showy drawings from sketches taken by other people of places he had never seen, and touching up the bad engravings from his works submitted to him almost every day, — engravings utterly destitute of animation, and which had to be raised into a specious brilliancy by scratching them over with white, spotty, lights, he gradually got inured to many conventionalities, and even falsities ; and, having trusted for ten or twelve years almost entirely to his memory and invention, living, I believe, mostly in London, and receiving a new sensation only from the burning of the Houses of Parliament, he painted many pictures between 1830 and 1840 altogether unworthy of him. But he was not thus to close his career.
In the summer either of 1840 or 1841, he under- took another journey into Switzerland. It was then at least forty years since he had first seen the Alps ; (the source of the Arveron, in Mr. Tawkes's col- lection, which could not have been painted till he had seen the thing itself, bears date 1800,) and the direction of his journey in 1840 marks his fond
64 PIIE-RAPHAICLITISM.
memory of that earliest one ; for, if we look over the Swiss studies and drawings executed in his first period, we shall he struck hy his fondness for the pass of the St. Gothard ; the most elaborate drawing in the Farnley collection is one of the Lake of Lucerne from Fluelen ; and, counting the Liber Studiorum subjects, there are, to my knowledge, six compositions taken at the same period from the pass of St. Gothard, and, probably, several others are in existence. The valleys of Sallenche and Chamouni, and Lake of Geneva, are the only other Swiss scenes which seem to have made very profound impressions on him.
He returned in 1841 to Lucerne ; walked up Mont Pilate on foot, crossed the St. Gothard, and returned by Lausanne and Geneva. He made a large number of coloured sketches on this journey, and realized several of them on his return. The drawings thus produced are different from all that had preceded them, and are the first which belong definitely to wdiat I shall henceforward call his Third period.
The perfect repose of his youth had returned to his mind, while the faculties of imagination and execution appeared in renewed strength ; all con- ventionality being done aw^ay by the force of the impression which he had received from the Alps, after his long separation from them. The drawings are marked by a peculiar largeness and simplicity of thought : most of them by deep serenity, passing into melancholy ; all by a richness of colour, such
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 65
as he had never before conceived. They, and the works done in following years, bear the same relation to those of the rest of his life that the colours of sunset do to those of the day ; and will be recognized, in a few years more, as the noblest landscapes ever yet conceived by human intellect.
Such has been the career of the greatest painter of this century. Many a century may pass away before there rises such another ; but what greatness any among us may be capable of, will, at least, be best attained by following in his path ; by begin- ning in all quietness and hopefulness to use whatever powers we may possess to represent the things around us as we see and feel them ; trusting to the close of life to give the perfect crown to the course oF its labours, and knowing assuredly that the determina- tion of the degree in which watchfulness is to be exalted into invention, rests with a higher will than our own. And, if not greatness, at least a certain good, is thus to be achieved ; for though I have above spoken of the mission of the more humble artist, as if it were merelv to be subservient to that of the antiquarian or the man of science, there is an ulterior aspect, in which it is not subservient, but superior. Every archaeologist, every natural philo- sopher, knows that there is a peculiar rigidity of mind brought on by long devotion to logical and analytical inquiries. Weak men, giving themselves to such studies, arc utterly hardened by them, and become incapable of understanding anything nobler, or even of feeling the value of the results to whicli they lead. But even the best men are in a sort
5
66 PRE-RAPHAELITISM.
injured by them, and pay a definite price, as in most other matters, for definite advantages. They gain a pecidiar strength, but lose in tenderness, elasticity, and impressibility. The man who has gone, hammer in hand, over the surface of a romantic country, feels no longer, in the mountain ranges he has so laboriously explored, the sublimity or mystery with which they were veiled when he first beheld them, and with which they are adorned in the mind of the passing traveller. In his more informed conception, they arrange them- selves like a dissected model : where another man would be awe-struck by the magnificence of the precipice, he sees nothing but the emergence of a fossiliferous rock, familiarized already to his imagi- nation as extending in a shallow stratum, over a perhaps uninteresting district ; where the unlearned spectator would be touched with strong emotion by the aspect of the snowy summits which rise in the distance, he sees only the culminating points of a meta- morphic formation, with an uncomfortable web of fan- like fissures radiating, in his imagination, through their centres.* That in the grasp he has obtained of
* This state of mind appears to have been the only one which "Wordsworth had been able to discern in men of science ; and in disdain of which, he wrote that short-sighted passage in the Excursion, Book III. 1. 1G5 — 190, which is, I think, the only one in the whole range of his works which his true friends would have desired to see blotted out. What else has been found fault with as feeble or superfluous, is not so in the intense distinctive relief which it gives to his character. But these lines are written in mere ignorance of the matter they treat ; in mere want of sympathy with the men they describe : for, observe, though the passage is put into the mouth of the Solitary, it is fully confirmed, and even rendered more scornful, by the speech which follows.
PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 6?
the inner relations of all these things to the universe, and to man, that in the views which have been opened to him of natural energies such as no human mind would have ventured to conceive, and of past states of being, each in some new way bearing witness to the unity of purpose and everlastingly consistent providence of the Maker of all things, he has received reward w^ell worthy the sacrifice, I would not for an instant deny ; but the sense of the loss is not less painful to him if his mind be rightly constituted ; and it would be with infinite gratitude that he would regard the man, who, retaining in his delineation of natural scenery a fidelity to the facts of science so rigid as to make his work at once acceptable and credible to the most sternly critical intellect, should yet invest its features again with the sweet veil of their daily aspect ; should make them dazzling wdth the splendour of wandering light, and involve them in the unsearchableness of stormy obscurity ; should restore to the divided anatomy its visible vitality of operation, clothe the naked crags with soft forests, enrich the mountain ruins with bright pastures, and lead the thoughts from the monotonous recurrence of the phenomena of the physical world, to the sweet interests and sorrows of human life and death.
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TO MESSRS. W & A GILBEY
Gentlemen,
Such insight as, in the course of the past six years, I have obtained into the subject of this booklet I owe to you. In the declining days of the Universal Exhibition held at Paris in 1889 I had the good fortune to become your guest at Chateau Loudenne, where I witnessed the vintaging operations of that autumn on the model estate of the Medoc, and, under your hospitable auspices, visited several of the most generally renowned vineyards of the Pauillac, St. Estephe, and other famous wine-producing districts. To the information I then acquired much more has since been added during my subsequent visits.
The result of some study and of still more personal observation and enquiry is set forth to the best of my knowledge and ability in the following pages. You are the natural godfathers of the book, and to you I dedicate it, not only in acknowledgment of the valuable information and advice for which I am your debtor, but as a token of my warm personal regard and esteem.
Yours faithfully and gratefully,
WM. BEATTV-KINGSTON.
London : June, 1 895.
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INTRODUCTORY.
Bordemix. — The 1895 ExJiibitioiu its general eharacler
and particular objects.
Bordeaux is an ancient, noble, and stately city. It occupies the site of Burdigala, once the capital of Aquitania Secunda — a flourishing Roman Colony at the commencement of the Christian era — destroyed by the Visigoths in the latter part of the third century, and rebuilt at different times "on the water-edge," as its more modern name denotes, by Franks, Saracens, Normans, and finally Frenchmen of the Gascon variety, whose mediaeval Dukes chose it for their place of residence and seat of government. That position it continued to hold under the Eno-Hsh rcQ-ime, which ended with the close of the Hundred Years' War. Gascony then reverted to French rule, to which it has ever since been subjected. The subsequent develop- ment of Bordeaux to its present dimensions and high rank among the great provincial cities of France — of which it is considered the handsomest, in more than one respect — is unquestionably due to its felicitous geographical position, some three-score miles from the sea, on the banks of a ofi'>antic river naviuable to vessels
VI
of the deepest draught and largest tonnage. Bordeaux, moreover, stands in the centre of one of the finest and most sedulously cultivated wine-producing regions of France, and is the political and commercial capital of a great, densely })opulated, and exceptionally prosperous department, as well as the emporium of the wine industry of all the adjacent viticulturist departments, whose vinous products converge upon Bordeaux, and are thence shipped in vast quantities to all the claret- consuming" countries of the habitable elobe. Beino- the chcf-licu ot the huge province which, for many a century past, under its several territorial designations of Aqui- laine, Guienne, and Gascony, was the brightest jewel in the royal diadem of monarchical France, it is now the chief city of the "prosperous South-West," a rich region extending from the Fyrenean range to the mountains of Auvergne and the hills of Poitou.
This remarkable combination of natural advantaores enjoyed by Bordeaux accounts for the circumstance that, with the solitary exception of Paris, it is the only city of P' ranee which has proved itself capable of organising and supporting International Exhibitions on a steadily increasing scale of importance, and uniformly successful in their results, commercial and industrial as well as financial. As has already been pointed out, the port of Bordeaux is in direct communication, by means of ocean- going steamers and sailing-ships, with all parts of the worid. Situate on the main-line from Paris to Madrid, within an eight hours' run to the capital of the Third Republic, Bordeaux city is connected by rail with the South of France, Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, as
\"11
well as with the charmino- Gascon seaside resorts of Royan, Arcachon, Biarritz, and Hendaye, and the picturesque sanatoria of the Pyrenees, such as Pau, Bareo^es, Luchon, Bao-neres de Bicrorre, Cauterets and many others. It is, moreover, abundantly equipped with local attractions, possessing handsome monuments and public buildings, much ancient domestic architecture that is picturesque and well-preserved, splendid shops, rivalling those of Paris in respect to their spacious frontages and artistic tia/crors, stately quays, fringing either bank of broad Garonne throughout four miles of its majestic course, and one of the finest stone bridges in Chris- tendom. The Cathedral of St. Andre is a o^rand twelfth-century structure, while the principal theatre is a magnificent modern edifice of enormous size and admirable proportions ; there are quaint old medi:tval churches, town-gates in the guise of classical triumphal arches and of Gothic fortress-portals, spacious streets and squares, broad, leafy boulevards, and a public garden as large and as tastefully laid out as any of London's minor parks. Bordeaux is a vivacious place, not in the least lethargic or torpid, like many of the venerable French cities which have lost their commercial or political raison d ctrc, and show no signs, save monu- mental ones, of their whilom prosperity and importance. The great wine-emporium is manifest!}' busy and well- to-do ; its wide stone quays are lined with vessels taking in or discharging cargo ; the tramcars that rumble or jingle incessantly up and down its princely thoroughfares are thronged all day long with passengers ; its open fiacres and closed sapins are neater and far better horsed
\111
than Parisian \ehicles of those classes ; in Bordeaux streets, even of outl\"ing suburbs where working-folk live, nothing is to be seen suggestive of destitution, or even of extreme poverty. In short, the general aspect of the town and its population, some 280,000 in number, bears conclusive witness to the steadfast and lucrative character of the trade upon which the conspicuous prosperity of the Bordelais is solidly founded.
The "national, international, and universal" Exhibition of Bordeaux owes its being to the Philomathic Society, a local institution founded some eighty-five years ago by sixty-nine leading citizens of Bordeaux, with the com- prehensive object of promoting and fostering "everything that could contribute to the advancement of useful and agreeable pursuits." At first dependent, for its pecuniary resources, upon the modest contributions ot Its members, it occupied itself for some years chiefly with literature and the fine arts, dlverofincr from time to time to the consideration of agricultural and industrial questions, and organising relief for the necessitous population of Bordeaux and its vicinity during periods of commercial and viticultural depression. As long ago as 18 10 It provided gratuitous medical advice for the sick poor, and subsequently got up numerous concerts and entertain- ments in furtherance and aid of charitable purposes. In time it became a sort of Academy, with branches affected to the study of letters, physical science, end archceology, and gave public lectures upon chemistry, astronomy and painting. Its Immediate offspring are the existing Bordeaux Associations known under the several titles of the Philharmonic, Linncean, and Agricultural Societies,
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and the Art Union. In 1827 it opened its first Artistic and Industrial Exhibition, followed by eleven others, of which the last, held in 1882, was supported by six thousand exhibitors and attended by over a million of visitors.
The buildings appertaining to the thirteenth Bordeaux r^xhibition organised by this beneficent Association occupy a vast square called the Place des Ouinconces, situate in the very heart of the city and commanding a fine view of the Garonne and its stately quays. These constructions include a large central pavilion, in which are disj^laycd the clarets and white wines of the Gironde and its neighbouring departments, and a considerable number of accessorial structures affording accomoda- tion to mechanical expositions of electric apparatus, machinery, social sciences, and other up-to-date wonders, as well as to a theatre, a horticultural show, an aquarium, and a goodly number of restaurants, cafes, &c. The minor exhibitions in the galleries of the main building illustrate education ; industrial, liberal and decorative arts; hygiene, manufactures, dwellings and furniture. In annexes, flanking the great pavilion on its either side, are located the exhibitions of agricultural implements, engineering appliances, transport contrivances, and colonial products.
This interesting Exhibition was opened on May ist, 1895, by a member of the Government of the Third Republic, and was honoured, early in the following month, by an official visit of the President, M. Felix Faure, who was received by the Wine Committee, the chairman of which body (M, Buhan, Vice-President of
XI
the Philomathic Society) after offering a "vin d'honneur" to the Chief of the State, explained to him the aims and objects of the Exhibition, calHng his attention to the auspicious circumstance that the vineyards of the Gironde, after struggHng vaHantly for fifteen years against " invading plagues," are at present restored to their pristine splendour, "superb with vitality, force, and fruitfulness," and yielding wines that only require " reintegration in the degree of consumption formerly attained by them " to crown the viticole industry of Bordeaux with a legitimate and well-merited meed of prosperity. In replying to M, Buhan's address, the President of the Republic expressed his full confidence that " a happy issue would reward the efforts of the Girondist wine producers and merchants."
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CLARET
Chapter I.
Claret : its methods of prociucticn and treatment, old
and nczLK
TN all civilised countries, and by all [)eoples of highly cultivated and refined tastes, Claret is generally acknowledged to be the finest, wholesomest, and most palatable of red wines. It enjoys this vinous sovereignty, or at the very least supremacy, in virtues of the felicitous circumstance that it combines in itself all the qualities and characteristics that are held by connoisseurs to constitute superlative excellence in fermented juices of the grape, and each of which, or, in some cases, a coalition of more than one, impart special importance and value to particular wines of other countries or of non-claret-yielding French districts.
Claret is produced in the greater portion of the Department of the Gironde, not only in the lower and upper Medoc, but in the Cantons of Rlaye, St. Rmilion and Libourne, as well as in the Fronsadais, Cubzadais, Bourgeais, and in the extensive wine-growing region known as Entre-Deux-Mers. A good deal of red wine which comes into the P'rench market under the somewhat elasticdesignationof 'Vinde Bordeaux" — ^;/^^//a^ Claret, — '
is made in the Departments of the Dordogne, Lot et Garonne, Lot, Tarn et Garonne, and Landes. Some of the wines, being generous and "firm" in character, are utilised by the Bordeaux merchants to colour and fortify the weaker products of the Gironde.
Of all the varieties of grape-juice, however, that eventually reach the consumer in the reality or seeming of " Bordeaux," those native to the Medoc and ranking as "classed growths" are undoubtedly the first wines in France — indeed, in the whole world. Their colour, for the most part, resembles that of a fine "pigeon-blood" ruby ; they possess body, delicacy and mellowness in a higher and more distinct degree as well as in a more zestful ensemble than are displayed by other wines ; their flavour is superb, and their aroma, technically termed " bouquet," which developes and improves with age, is absolutely unrivalled. Scientific analysis has ascertained that they contain alcohol and tannin in such judiciously adjusted proportions as to enable them to mature without becoming dry, losing colour, or suffering any abatement of their stimulating and fortifying capacities. This combination of high qualities, keenly gratifying to three of the five senses with which mankind Is endowed by nature, justifies the paramount reputation which they have enjoyed for centuries. They possess, however, another distinctive attribute of great moment, to wit, a hygienic value not found in any other wine, and attributable to the ferruginous element which they contain In the form of tartrate and other salts of iron. To this strengthening tonic, and to their nutritive properties, they owe the steadfast favour with which they are regarded by the
medical faculty, many members of which prescribe them in cases of anaemia, nervous prostration, and exhaustion consequent upon enteric fevers, influenza, and surgical operations entailing a considerable loss of blood. Hence they may justly claim to be beneficent as well as enjoyable ; for they are indisputably instrumental alike in restoring health to the sickly and in giving pleasure to the robust. The sphere of utility in which pure Claret circulates includes the hospital and the palace ; the ruddy and fragrant wines of Bordeaux are equally welcome in the sick room and the banqueting hall. They furnish patricians with the choicest of beveraofes, and humble folk with the most acjreeable and effectual panacea for many of ihe "ills that flesh is heir to."
The name by which the Medoc and other Gascon growths are familiarly known to all English-speaking peoples is derived from the archaic PVench participle claire, which may be exactly rendered in our vernacular by "cleared," or approximatively by "clarified," and prol ably had reference to exceptional limpidity in the wine thus distinctively designated at a time when a good deal of fermented grape juice was consumed in a more or less turbid or clouded condition. Long ago, clairt\ the participle, suffered conversion into the epitheiical word or adjectival noun clairei, in which form it frequently figured in French prose and verse alike of the sc;ven- teenth and eifrhteenth centuries. An instance ot its denominative use may be found in the curious old l)allail " Les Nonnes de Bayonne," formerly enjoying great popularity in the l^rench merchant navy, as well as in
the provinces of Gascony and Guienne. The lines of the opening verse run thus : —
" En revenant de Bayonne,
De Bayonne en Bayonnais, J'ai rencontre trois nonnes Qui vendaient du vin clairet."
As far back in our history as the reign of Edward III., when red wine from " Gascoyne " was freely drunk by English persons of condition at sixpence a gallon retail, and five pounds a tun wholesale, the French denomina- tion claird had already been corrupted or anglicised into "clarry," by which term the generous liquor imported in vast quantities from the Gironde— in 1372, according to Froissart, "a fleet of merchantmen seeking wine not fewer than two hundred sail in number was seen to arrive at Bordeaux in one tide " — was mentioned in various statutes of mighty Edward's weak successor, Richard II., during whose reign "clarry" was so abundant in England that the medium brands were sold for thirteen and fourpence, and the "best and choicest" for twenty shillings a tun. A royal Order is extant, dating from the thirty-sixth year of Henry III., commanding the keepers of the King's cellars at York to provide his Majesty on Nativity Sunday with a cask of red wine or clarry — specified in the original Latin as " unium dolium rubri vini ad claretum faciendum ' — for his own table. Chaucer describes his Merchant as drinking "clarrie and vernage " (vermouth) "to encrease his corage ;" and in the ancient n^.etrical romance hight " The Squyre of Lowe Degree," claret is offered by the King of Mungary to his daughter under the designation
of "clare," in conjunction with "algrade, respice, antische, bastarde, pyment, garnarde, muscadell, and rochelle," varieties of wine which appear to have some- what gone out of fashion in the course of the past five hundred years, while claret has not only held its own in "perfidious Albion," but at the present time actually takes a far higher standing among wines imported into Great Britain than it occupied in the palmiest Planta- genet days.
In the claret producing districts grap?s practically make themselves into wine, assisted, of course, to a certain extent in the process by mechanical appliances and skilled labour ; and, as far as the Medoc growths in particular are concerned, adulteration and doctoring are simply unknown practices. Beyond a shadow of a doubt, Medoc Claret is really what it professes to be ; that is to say, pure grap3 juice, entirely free from admixture of any other substance, liquid or solid, and owing none of its attractions, such as colour, flavour, perfume and strength, to the "preparation" or "treatment" undergone by all other varieties of French wines — some of which are fortified with alcohol and sweetened with syrup, while in others the process of fermentation is artificially arrested. Notoriously, in claret-consuming countries outside France, an impression prevails to the effect that the growths of the iMedoc are often adulterated, or, at the very least, that many of them are more or less doctored previous to their exportation. This impression is an altogether erroneous one. Of late years, and more particularly between 1879 and 1887, France has been compelled to import enormous quantities of cheap, common wine from
Spain, Portugal, Italy and Dalmatia, for home use, her own wine production having lamentably declined during the interim through the ravages of mildew and the pernicious phylloxera. Millions of gallons of a liquor exclusively consumed by the French folk of the lower classes— wine in name, but not in nature — were also in that time of stress manufactured in France, where they found a ready sale and yielded large profits to their fabricators. Not a litre of these wretched compounds was ever sent abroad, for the reason that such fudged-up stuff will neither stand sea-transport, nor keep on land for more than a few days. As soon as it is ready for consumption it must be drunk. Even fair im'tation wine turns into worthless vinegar after being kept for a week or so in wood. It is on this account that keepers of cabarets, estaminets and " Debits de vins " frequented by working men purchase their "piquette" or "petit-bleu" from day to day, in accordance with the average over-the- counter requirements of their customers. As a matter of fact none of this liquid rubbish is ever exported. No foreign wine-merchant would import it at any price, for it is not intrinsically worth the duty he would have to pay upon it, and he could not sell a bottle of it to any of his clients without ruining his reputation and blighting his business.
Nor, indeed, are the rough wines so largely imported into France exported thence as French wines. They are "treated" — as a rule principally by dilution — for home consumption, in respect to which quantity, not quality, is the paramount desideratum. I'or instance, perfectly trustworthy statistics show that more French
8
wine is drunk in Paris alone, during three months of the year, than the total amount of wine of all countries consumed throuohout a twelvemonth in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Curiously enough, in spite of this amazing disproportion between the quantities of vinous liquor swallowed at home and abroad, the Medoc growths are better known and more judgmatically appreciated in England than in France. All the finer brands of pure claret are disposed of abroad, chiefly in the British Islands, Colonies, &c., in Northern Germany, Holland, Belgium, and the United States of America. Often the entire produce of an important property in the Medoc is purchased "en bloc " on forei'T^n accounts, not a bottle of that particular vintage remaining in France. In some cases even the names of estates that sound "familiar as household words" in the ears of habitual claret-drinkers abroad are utterly unknown to French consumers outside the so-called " Bordeaux Districts." On the other hand it must be admitted that certain brands of local renown which are in request among the claret connoisseurs of the Hanseatic towns, and of Berlin. Brussels, and Am- sterdam, who are deeply versed in the nomenclatures of Medoc growths, may be looked for in vain upon the wine-cards of the most expensive and fashionable London hotels and restaurants. There is a public refectory in Hamburg, the commercial magnates of which prosperous city like their claret "good and a great deal of it," justly celebrated for the extensive variety of Bordeaux wines stored in its capacious cellars. Herr Pfordte, its former proprietor and present manager— for the business, a few
years ago, was sold by him to a limited liability company — is extremely proud of the fact that not a single denomination of the "classified ' Medoc wines, sixty in number, is absent from his wine list, the most compre- hensive in all Germany, as far as Bordeaux, Burgundy, and Rhone brands of "Rothwein" are concerned. In this regard Pfordte knows no rival even in Paris, where few r staurateurs go out of the beaten track in relation
Interior of Chais, Chateau Margaux
to "chateau" and "vintage" wines, and where there is little native demand for "specialities" at any price exceeding ten francs a bottle. As for London, the names of the "great wines" that stand firmly in |)ublic favour may be reckoned uj) on the fingers of both hands. It may be confidently asserted, however, that all the claret retailed in the United Kingdom by res]>ectable
lO
dealers is genuine grape-juice, however cheap or lacking in character it may be, and that no adulteration whatso- ever is practised in connection with that branch of the wine trade ; possibly because wholesome claret is so plentiful and relatively inexpensive that nothing is to be gained by playing tricks with it. After all, the annual consumption of wine per head of the British population is less than half-a-gallon in quantity, while in France it averages twenty-one gallons, chiefly of table-wine, the cheapness of which, for the reasons above stated, is practically prohibitive to its exportation. In fact, Great Britain takes the greater portion of France's high-class and costly clarets ; the remainder, roughly speaking, is despatched from Bordeaux to other foreign countries.
The process of wine-making, or rather of assisting grape-juice to transform itself into wine, is practically uniform throughout the Gironde, where the old fashioned methods of treading and pressing the ripe fruit, still adhered to in Italy, Hungary, Greece, Roumania, and a few other grape-growing European countries, have long since become obsolete, except on some of the smaller bourgeois and paysan properties. As to the date at which vintaging operations should commence, it can rarely be determined beforehand ; but the vendangeitrs generally begin to gather during the second or third week in September, and complete their tasks within from fifteen to twenty-two days. Gathering is executed as rapidly as may be possible, and, local labour being usually inadequate to effect it with the necessary swiftness a certain number of expert grape-gatherers is hired from neighbouring districts and departments.
II
The "main d'ceuvre" is organised in gangs of from twenty to thirty strong, each of which is under the command of a "chef de manoeuvre" or gang master. Women, girls, and lads are employed to cut the grapes, a cutter being told off to each row of vines, with a " vide- panier" or basket emptier in attendance upon him or her, as the case may be. As the cutter snips the bunches of fruit from the stocks, he or she lays them down care- fully in 'a basket, which, when full, is picked up by the "vide-panier" and emptied no less carefully into a " hotte," a wooden or nowadays more generally metal pail slung on the back of a " porteur de bastes" or bucket carrier, who is provided with a straw pad to keep the "hotte" clear of his blouse. Each bucktt contains about fifty pounds' weight of grapes, and one carrier is allotted to four rows of vines. It is his business to take in cargo until his pail is full ; to trudge off with it to a cart harnessed to a yoke of oxen and stationed in one of the broad paths traversing the vineyard at right angles to the rows of plants ; to discharge the contents of his "hotte" into one of two tubs {doiiilles) set up on end in the cart, and to return to the basket fillers and emptiers in order to load up again. The two tubs constitute what is technically termed a charge or load, which will yield four hogsheads of wine, and are finished with such nicety while in the cooperage that no drop of liquor escapes them, though the ripe grapes bleed freely during their conveyance from the vineyard to the atvio' or press-house. As soon as the load has been completed, the two fawn coloured bullocks, often superb animals standing from sixteen to seventeen hands high, lounge away with them to the citvicr a
12
rectangular one-storeyed building of oblong shape, pierced in front on its upper floor by three large openings, behind each of which is a spacious circular press, placed exactly above a two-thousand gallon vat on the ground floor. A crane, worked by hand, lifts the tub from the cart drawn up outside the cuvier, swings it through the opening till it hangs exactly over the press, and by the aid of an ingenious mechanical contrivance tilts and empties it into the latter receptacle, which is movable. Forthwith two men standing in the pressoir — not barefoot, as of yore, but shod with clean sabots or wooden shoes— convey the grapes with scoop-sided shovels to the "egrappoir," a machine by which the fruit is squeezed and separated from its stalks. After undergoing this duplex operation it is then thoroughly pressed. The juice which it yields — resembling diluted bullock's blood in colour and consistence —flows freely into the vat beh^w by a trough issuing from the lower edge of xk\^ pi'essoir, the surface of which gently inclines towards the wooden gutter commu- nicating with the vat.
This, as the wTiter has been assured by several of the principal vigucrons in the Medoc and other claret- producing districts, is the whole process from first to last b\' which red Bordeaux wines are made. Once in the vat [c?tz>c) the grape-juice is transmuted into " vin clairet " by the action of certain natural laws, with the occult workings of which man does not attempt to meddle. When the vats are full and hermetically sealed, the press-house is closed, so that the fermentation of the "must" may not be disturbed by any variations of temperature. After fermentation has been completed
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"decuvage" — that is, the drawing-off of the wine into tubs for eventual transfer into hogshead casks — is com- menced. The time of "decuvage," however, is to a certain extent determined by one or other of several considerations ; as, for instance, the degree of maturity attained by the " must," the particular character of the fruit yielding that liquid, the temperature maintained during the period of fermentation, and, lastly, the proprietor's desire to make a special sort of wine, e.g., light or full, delicate or high-Havoured. It has been within the personal experience of eminent wine-makers that the results of a "drawing-off" carried out five days after the filling of the cuves, and of another effected at the expiration of five weeks, have both turned out equally good wine of one and the same vintage. More- over, the owners of classified or highly-rated bourgeois growths usually make three distinct varieties of wine from their annual grape-harvest. One is composed of fruit gathered from old vines, choice vines, vines most exposed to the action of the sun's rays and planted in the best soil. Another is the produce of younger plants and of those less favourably situated, necessarily yielding fruit of inferior quality. The third consists of " fonds de cuves,"' i.e., dregs and more or less turbid liquid left at the bottom of the vats after the clearer wine has been drawn off. This muddy residue, when taken out of the cuves, is put into a cylindrical vessel provided with a powerful iron screw, by means of which it is subjected to vigorous pressure for several hours, and compelled by sheer force to yield a mediocre liquor, technically known as "press-wine." The lees, when squeezed almost dry
15
and solid, are replaced in the vat, liberally watered, and left to stand for a fortnight. The outcome of this infusion is a thin, acid, vinous liquor named piquette, extremely cheap, and therefore consumed in large quantities by the local peasantry.
Piquette is nearly identical in character with the " vin de barriere " — the intrinsic value of which is too small to justify the augmentation in its retail price that would accrue from payment of octroi duty upon it — enjoying the favour of the operative classes resident in the neighbour- hood of Paris. Into the composition of this mysterious brew, however, substances enter which have no affinity with the grape ; whereas Medoc piquette is really made of vinous residuum, upon which the specific name of "marc" has been bestowed. This "marc," after suffering what may be aptly termed an extremity of maceration, furnishes excellent nourishment in the shape of manure to its illustrious parent, the vine. Grapes resemble pigs — their greediest consumers, whenever they get a chance of browsing in a vineyard — in respect to being " all good," or at least all utilisable. In the grape, nature gives expression to one of her most convincing protests against wastefulness. Even its pips are in high request for the fattening of fowls, to which " feathered bipeds " they give rapid increase of size and appreciable improvement in flavour.
Chapter II.
The zvine trade, in connection with claret ; its past fluctuations, present condition, and probable prospects.
As far as may be gathered from authentic historical records, the Anglo-French wine trade had attained a considerable development as long ago as the middle of the twelfth century, when Guienne was a province of England. Large quantities of red wine were imported fron-i that region into the island realm in the reign of John, who regulated the traffic by special statutes of a highly oppressive nature, and issued edicts fixing whole- sale and retail prices at rates that were probably intended, in view of the intrinsic value of c'aret in those days, to exercise a highly restrictive effect upon its importation. In I I 54 a duty of a shilling per tun was levied by the Crown upon Anjou wines, and little more than a century later that duty was doubled. Nevertheless nearly nine thousand turs of claret from Gascony and Anjou were imported into London and Sandwich in 1273, and in the first year of the fourteenth century Bordeaux table wine was sold in the English capital at threepence a gallon, thrice the price of British beer. It must have been a good deal dearer in 1352, when " clarry " of the better sorts
paid from six to eightpence duty per gallon, and "ordinary" fourpence. Edward III., in his patriotic anxiety to keep British money in British pockets, went so far as to prohibit his native-born subjects from travelling to Guienne in order to purchase wines there, and strictly enjoined his "Seneschal in Gascony and Constable of Bordeaux to arrest any Englishman contravening this edict, and forward his body to the Tower of London." This was protection
St. Emilion from the West with Ch&teaux Ausone and Belair hi the distance
with a vengeance; but the Black Prince, then his father's viceroy in South-western France, considerably modified King Edward's despotic decree.
Clarets were extensively consumed in England until the latter part of the fifteenth century, when Spanish wines began to compete with them for ])ul)lic favour. Henry VIII. forbade the sale of Gascon wines in his realms at above eightpence the gallon. Charles I. fixed
i8
their prices at a maximum of ^i8 per tun wholesale, and sixpence a quart retail. During the reign of the " Merry Monarch" this latter rate was raised in 1672 to sixteen pence, and some years later to two shillings, the last fixed price imposed upon claret by the anti-trading authority of the English Crown. Meanwhile, demand having stimulated supply, the imports from Bordeaux had largely increased, amounting in 1676 to nearly ten thousand tuns. At that time England was taking a larger quantity of red wine from Gascony and Guienne than any northern country, and trade with France had been carried on upon a tolerably equitable footing throughout the regime of the Commonwealth, and the first decade succeeding the Restoration. In 1676, however, Anglo-French transac- tions resulted in a trade-balance against England of nearly a million sterling ; the selling value of land con- siderably diminished, and a panic ensued, which led to the denunciation of the treaty of commerce then in force between the two countries, and a little later on, in 1678, to a vote of Parliament declaring that " trade with France was detrimental to the United Kingdom." Presently an Act was passed prohibiting the importation of French wine, and this absurd legislative blunder was not remedied until 1685 — seven years later — when James II. very sensibly re-opened the wine trade with France. P^^orthwith it assumed larger dimensions than it had ever before attained, its surprising development striking the Protec- tionists of the period with consternation and horror. These latter, when William III., shortly after ascending the throne, renewed the rescinded prohibitions of French goods, vehemendy asseverated that "new life had been
19
imparted to British commerce ; " but results completely- confuted their nonsensical allegations.
All these ups and downs of the Anglo-French wine- trade, alternating throughout some five hundred years, were fraught with instruction as well as interest to those who contemplated them from other points of view than the simply commercial or scientifically politico-economical. For instance, as Cyrus Redding pointed out in i860, they irrefutably proved that the English national taste in wine changed in exact proportion to the dearness or cheapness of that commodity. Statistics culled from the Journals of the House of Commons show that between 1675 and 1678, when the trade was open, 8,535 tuns of French wine were imported into England, against 116 of Portuguese. During the seven years term of prohibition, affecting French wines only, four tuns of the latter were imported against 6,880 of Portuguese. From 1686 to 1695, trade with France being once more in full swing, 13,400 tuns PVench were annually imported, while the Portuguese average was barely 433. These figures clearly demonstrated that from 1 154 to 1695 the wines to which the English people had become accustomed by rarely intermitted consumption throughout five centuries and a half had secured their sincere and manifest preference. In 1695, however, duties that were virtually prohibitory were levied on French wines. Five years later, according to Mr. Redding, the " Metliiien " treaty with Portugal, in its results, proved conclusively that the national taste, in respect to wine, accurately followed the cheapness of that particular commodity. The prohibitory enactments endured till 171 3. and, beyond
20
a doubt, popular prejudices were powerfully instrumental in their prolongation. These, in earlier times, had been balanced by the circumstance that England had held, in sovereign possession, some of the finest wine-producing districts in France. Even the long and sanguinary wars wao-ed between the two countries did not exercise a prejudicial effect upon the wine-traffic, however, when England lost her French provinces ; nor did the remembrance of bitter hostilities affect the trade materially in later years. Distaste to the wines of France was the direct outcome of their excessive costliness, caused by unreasonably onerous duties. Indisputably, Englishmen coveted and accorded prefer- ence to French clarets, until those vexatorial imposts forbade a further enjoyment of them. When stubborn facts convinced them, much against their will, that they could no longer afford to drink their fill of sound claret, they gave it up, and took to other liquor, the price of which was within their pecuniary potentialities.
From 1713 down to the middle of the present century, governmental methods of dealing with the French wine trade, as a source of State revenue, repeated or imitated the pattern set by the spendthrift Charles and his short-sighted counsellors ; that of paralysing it by duties which were oppressive, anti- commercial and unjust, and which gave rise to all manner of adulteration and fraud, equally prejudicial to the interests of the State and of the wine-consumer. While the ratio of consumption, in respect to other commodities, exceeded that of the increase of popula- tion, the quantity of wine dealt with by the trade
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22
remained stationary, although the beverage that "gladdens the heart of man," hid been in universal use from the earliest ages chronicled in trustworthy history, and ha 1 even at one time been produced in England. Unlike tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco, wine was not an article of comparatively recent introduction into the United Kingdom, and belonging to the category of luxuries familiarised into necessities. It was, how- ever, so easily drawn upon as a source of public income, in other words, the mode of levying wine-duties gave men in office so little trouble, that these latter were content to "let well be" as long as the duties did not increase, and even contemplated the falling-off in wine- consum[)tion betweed 1800 and 1850, to the tune of some 700,000 gallons annually, with a certain com- placency. That, within the half-century in question, the consumption of wine in Great Britain had decreased to the extent of nearly fifty per cent, seemed not to concern the Exchequer one whit. As early as 1786 Mr. Pitt had been held up to public reprobation for diminishing the revenue by reducing the duty on French wines from ^96 to ^50 per tun. That great statesman could see, though his political adversaries could not, that increased consumption would more than make up for the im- mediate sacrifice of income. Subsequently the wine- duiies came to be regarded by the Exchequer as a nest-egg, to be left undisturbed, whatever fiscal experiments might be tried in relation to imposts on malt and spirits.
During the first half of this century the population of England doubled, while the quantity of wine consumed
23
by it was reduced in the exactly converse ratio ; and why ? Because the duty varied between a fraction less than six shillings, and nineteen and eight-pence per gallon on liquor the intrinsic value of which was from a shilling to eighteen-pence per gallon ! Under such burdens as these the use of French wines in England naturally declined, and proportionately with it the demand in France for British goods by which the wines would have otherwise been paid for. The view of foreign wine taken by Protectionists, then and far more recently, was that " it was a luxury, and could therefore stand any amount of squeezing." It could not, however, and its incapacity in that regard was conclusively proved by the following "stubborn fact." The duties levied upon foreign wines in Ireland produced ^150,000 in 1796. They were then doubled, and should therefore have returned ^300,000 in the following year, whereas they only yielded ^130,000.
The year i860, during which rational and equitable principles were applied to the revision of the crushing old tariffs, heralded a revival of the moribund popularity of claret in the three kingdoms. Thenceforth the trade in " Bordeaux," though at times seriously affected by phases of heavy vicissitude, has not only shown large development, but has conspicuously gained in firmness.
From i860 to 1875 exports from the M^doc and other claret yielding districts to England increased steadily, if somewhat slowly, and in the latter year the I)rosperity of growers and shippers reached its zenith, while the waxing popularity of claret in Great Britain left nothing to be desired by those immediately interested in
24
its sale. Calamity, however, was hard at hand, in the shape of the phylloxera, which commenced its work of devastation shortly after one of the finest vintages of the century had been completed, and at one time threatened the Medoc vines with total destruction. Not only the quantity but the quality of the various yields suffered indisputable deterioration. A few years later, the gravity of this disaster — by which within twenty years the French nation suffered pecuniary losses amounting to the equivalent of ;^400,ooo,ooo sterling, or twice the total of the 1S71 war indemnity — was terribly aggravated by the appearance of the mildew, the ravages of which insidious fungoid were soon found to be even more ruinous than those of the all but irrepressible beetle. Mildew told upon the grape-juice after fermentation as well as upon the fruit before gathering. Wines that had apparently stood well for a couple of years in wood, showing no symptoms of taint, suddenly became affected at the expiration of that period, went thin and bitter, and were practically unmarketable. Presently all con- fidence in clarets of a "mildew year" collapsed. In the course of this gloomy period the esteem previously accorded to "Bordeaux" in England sensibly abated, good cheap wines of that class being well-nigh un- attainable, while those of Australia, California and Hungary, as well as the lighter Burgundies, came to the front with a prominence which, but for the scarcity of wholesome claret, would hardly have been accorded to them.
In 1887, however, to quote an eminent trade authority, "the silver lining of the cloud of adversity that had so
^5
long over-shadowed the Bordeaux districts became visible, and a strong, sound, if somewhat expensive wine was harvested. Then followed five auspicious years of more or less excellence,, practically free from disease." The prospects of the trade accordingly brightened, in such sort that, a few months ago, shippers were in possession of a fair stock of meritorious clarets, though differing from one another very markedly in "style," for they
Chateau d'Issan. Proprietor— M. Georges Roy
comprised the "light and stylish" vintages of 1888 and 1891, and the "stouter and dearer" ones of 1887 and 1890, all of them varieties in demand among distributors. Hence, from all points of view, the situation of the Anglo- French wine-trade last year could justly be regarded eis "easier and more satisfactory" than it had heretofore been for considerably more than a decade.
The vintage of 1893 ^^^ exceptional in respect to
26
quantity, yielding nearly five millions hectolitres of claret, and above the average of quality displayed by the produce of the previous eight years. Important transactions in its wines that accrued as soon as its special claims to consideration became generally known imparted a lively stimulus for the time being to the Bordeaux trade. The circumstance that growers, owing to the extraordinary copiousness of the yield, were inclined to be moderate in their pretensions, combined with the influence of a prevalent impression to the effect that the wines would turn out well, gave rise to a business activity seldom, if ever, previously experienced in the Gironde capital. According to an universally recognised authority in relation to the wine trade, the chief immediate cause of this gigantic "boom" in clarets was the action taken by German wine merchants and speculators, who were just then short of Medoc growths, having bought sparingly of '91's and none at all of '92's. Believing that the quality of the '93's would exactly suit their market, and being attracted, moreover, by low prices, they set to, purchasing, "as if they meant never to stop"; and " Bordeaux shippers found themselves in the unwonted position of being hardly able to buy fast enough " to meet the demands that poured in upon them. So sudden and quick was the rush made to secure the '93's that a good many of the "classed growths" were actually bought without having been tasted. Of a certain renowned " first growth " the story is told that its proprietor "having announced that the wine could be tasted on such and such a day, found at six a.m. of that day no fewer than twenty-four carriages drawn up in
27
front of his chateau," the respective occupants of which vehicles were brokers or agents, each of whom had endeavoured to be first in the field, fondly hoping to secure the earliest chance of buying. The report referred to goes on to say that Belgium, Sweden and Russia so assiduously followed the lead set by Germany that in an incredibly short time every "classed growth" was snapped up.
Such a large business, too, was done in the unclassed "crus " that in the early spring of 1894 few " bourgeois " or " artizan " growths of the previous autumn's vintage were lying unsold either in the Medoc or in Bordeaux, the chief claret emporium. The movement thus set afoot extended even to the older wines, some of which surprised their holders by displaying an unexpected buoyancy in the market. One remarkable effect of the 1893 Medoc vintage on the Bordeaux trade was that Great Britain, for the time being, ceased to afford the best outlet for French clarets, being fairly outdone by Germany in respect to the purchase of costly and cheap varieties alike ; and it is considered likely that their consumption in the Fatherland will continue to increase, inasmuch as the '93's have more than fulfilled the expectations of their buyers throughout Northern Europe.
Why, asks the above-quoted authority, does not claret improve its position in the United Kingdom .'* In the first place, most probably, because fashion has changed in the matter of wine-drinking, thanks to the poor character of the Mddoc produce shipped from Bordeaux during the period of adversity intervening between 1875 and 1887, which diverted consumption from claret to other vinous
28
liquors, such as Port, Burgundy, and Colonial Red Wines. The displaced consumption has only been partially re- adjusted as yet, because the British public has not until now fully realised how much more satisfactorily claret can at present niinister to its needs than it could even as lately as five years ago. Moreover, clarets were not the only wines that fell out of demand, to a greater or smaller extent, during the spell of commercial and financial depression in which Great Britain was bound throughout several successive years.
Whenever the expending capacity of the " classes and masses '^' is hampered by the restrictive effect of "hard times," the first suggestion of compelled thrift is a limitation of indulgence in alcoholic liquors, by which curtailment dealers in those beverages necessarily suffer. Again, British importers and retailers not unnaturally — though perhaps injudiciously — devote their attention more sedulously to remunerative than to unprofitable wines ; and claret, unfortunately, has too long ranked in the latter catego y. It has been repeatedly suggested that Bordeaux shippers, and their agents in England, should increase their outlay in such directions as commission to retailers and advertising, in order to push their wines in the United Kingdom. By this means, in all probability, intelligently brought to bear on the consumer by the producer, the popularity of good sound claret, such as is largely held in stock by native shippers, could and would be considerably extended and enhanced throughout Great Britain.
How great has been the need for imparting to the claret trade some such incentives as those above suggested
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may be gathered from the fact that even in 1893 the importation and consumption of French red wine, as far as England was concerned, showed a falling off respectively of 122,763 and 93,607 gallons. The inference obviously to be drawn from this infelicitous retrogression is that the disagreeable impression produced by the faulty vintages of 1883-4-5 and 6 was not completely effaced two years ago, and that many persons then still eschewed Medoc wines, bearing in mind the "mildewed specimens" furnished to them as long as British retailers were constrained to derive their supply of the "ordinary com- mercial article" from the vintages of those "lean years." Manifestly, the new era in the Medoc which commenced in 1887, and which has brought into the market seven vintages absolutely free from mildew taint, had not made its beneficial effects thoroughly felt in 1893. Nor had the ofood value oriven at that time and for two or three previous years by the Bordeaux shippers borne adequate fruit quite as soon as had been anticipated. Since then, steadily improving quality has begun to tell, as well as moderate price. With sound claret readily purchasable at five pounds per hogshead, and "classed growths" at from eight pounds upwards, it may fairly be assumed that the English demand for Medoc wines will soon recover the importance which it displayed in days antecedent to the appearance of the havoc-wrecking phylloxera and mildew disease. Meanwhile it is un- deniable that fine clarets for after-dinner drinking have to a great extent lost their hold upon the English fashionable world. By many the "pernicious cigarette" is held responsible for this change in post-prandial usage ;
31
but it may be more reasonably attributed to the mishaps that befell the "grands crus" year after year, throughout more than a decade. The custom of drinking- choice wine with dessert has not yet died out in Great Britain, though it has shown ominous symptoms of decay, and it may yet derive fresh vitality from a healthy renascence of absolutely first-class, irreproachable, supernacular claret.
In relation to the exceptionally copious claret-vintage of 1893 which, early in the following spring, became the subject of an animated controversy among the leading shipping firms of Bordeaux, a letter was addressed to The Times and published by that journal in its issue of June 6, 1895, a few passages of which communication are reproduced in this place, as bearing upon a subject fraught with interest alike to those who deal in and those who delight in the "grands vins " of the Medoc.
A Great Claret Year.
(From a Correspondent.)
Claret of late years has somewhat fallen from its high estate. It is ?X\^ par excellence the wine of every- day drinking, but it has lost that commanding supremacy it once enjoyed. Less of it is consumed than formerly, and lower average prices are obtained for it, while new aspirants to popular favour are pressing closely upon it in many directions. The causes which have contributed to bring about this result are not far to seek. Notoriously the wines which have come to us from France of late years have been deficient in the qualities which won for
32
claret its original popularity. For the past decade or more the market has been glutted with inferior wine, the product often of immature fruit ; the vintages have not infrequendy been sour and have lacked that roundness and delicacy of flavour which characterise claret at its best. Largely, no doubt, this has been due to adverse climatic causes. A succession of wet and cold summers retarded the development of the vines, while phylloxera and other pests assisted further to hamper the operations of the vignerons. Whatever U\^ reason, the public have not been slow to detect the deterioration that has taken place, with the consequent result that the Bordeaux trade has been going through a period of almost unexampled depression.
Fortunately for the future of Claret, just when things seemed to be at their darkest the splendid summer of 1893 came to the rescue of the vignerons. In that season everything seemed to be in favour of the grower. A rather mild winter assisted in the early development of the plants, and a fine spring conduced to an early flowering. Then followed months of hot, continuous sunshine, relieved at the proper intervals by seasonable rains, which dispelled all fear of the grapes being over- loaded with tannin through lack of the necessary moisture. The average temperature was the high one of 69 J^ cleg. Fahr., which, as will be seen by the following figures, compares \'ery favourably with that of such famous years as : — 1854, in which the temperature was 72^/^ deg. Fahr. ; 1848. 71 deg. ; 1875, 70 deg. ; 1864, 69^ deg. ; 1858, 69 deg. ; 1874, 69 deg. ; 1869, 68 deg. ; 1870, 68 deg. ; 1 871, 68 deg.
The natural effect of the extraordhiarily favourable conditions was a remarkably early harvest. In some districts gathering commenced on the i8th of August, which is the earliest date for the commencement of the vintage during the present century ; the only year which at all enters into competition with it in this respect having been the memorable season of 1822, when operations
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were started on the 31st of August. Under such pro- mising conditions the yield could not fail to be good ; in point of fact, it was quite extraordinary, falling little short of that of the wonderful year 1875.
Here are some statistics which will show very clearly the overwhelming superiority of the vintage in the matter of quantity over those of recent years :-- The
34
yield in 1869 vvas 2,oi6,ooohhds. ; 1874, 2,277,000; 1875, 2.346,000; 1887, 512,000; 1888,1,250,000; 1889, 960,000; 1890,708,000; 1891,1,088,000; 1892,820,000; 1893, 2,i90,ooohhds.
As regards the all-important question of quality, the wine of 1893 seems likely to take a very high place amongst the very finest vintages of the century. It was a question at one time whether a year of such extra- ordinary heat and dryness might not produce coarse and hard wines, but events proved that these apprehensions were groundless. Nothing could be finer than the pro- duce of the vintage. The wines were generally soft and sweet, with good colour, sufficient body, and a remark- ably attractive flavour, which will no doubt develope for them later a special type of their own. They are reminiscent of the wines of the most famous years, and, in the opinion of experts, are likely in a few years to hold their own with the best of them. Some districts, of course, are specially favoured, the Graves, St. Estephe, Pauillac, and St. Julien markedly so, but the wines everywhere may be said to be of exceptional quality.
All round there has been a great eagerness mani- fested to acquire the produce of this notable year. The natural and inevitable result has been that prices originally very moderate have already become compara- tively high, with the prospect of a further material enhancement of the immediate future as stocks become more distributed and scarcer. This is the more likely to be the case as the grand season of 1S93 was followed by a very disappointing one last year. The inclement weather greatly injured the crops, and the wine was
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5
made for the most part from poor and immature fruit, with, of course, the consequence that it lacks the hig-her and more delicate qualities that are looked for in claret. Altogether there seems every prospect that the vintage of 1893 w^ll secure an abiding popularity and do much to restore the waning prestige of claret.
As far as this country is concerned, it is at all events certain that the wine will be thoroughly appreciated when its merits become known to consumers, as they will be when the first shipments are received next year. Connoisseurs on this side the Channel are as quick to recognise a really good article as to detect a bad one, as French growers have found in the past to their cost, and there will in all likelihood be a spontaneous acceptance on their part of this vintage as one of the greatest that France has ever o-iven to the world.
This letter elicited some pregnant comments from an eminent firm of wine merchants, the members of which are vineyard proprietors in the Medoc. Their rejoinder, like the article to which it specially referred, was addressed to the Editor of T/ie Times, and adverted instructively to the International Exhibition now open at Bordeaux.
" The e.\hil)its at Bordeaux, sent from the principal Estates, and more panicularly from the larger producing districts from which moderate-priced wines are procured, have an especial interest for the English consumer, as there is no disguising the fact that, af.er all, the high-priced Clarets of celebrated years are more or less articles of luxury, wliile the moderate-priced wines have come to be a necessity for a wide class of English consumers."
In the subjoined paragraphs of their interesting letter,
36
the firm in question took occasion to put forward an earnest and well-founded vindication of the merits of M^doc growths produced in certain years antecedent to 1893, some of which most assuredly do not deserve to be included in any adverse or slighting criticism of the Gironde clarets belonging to the period that intervened between 1886 and i893^a period during which the vines were de facto free from the evils previously wrought by phylloxera and mildew, and yielded vintages that found favour with experienced claret-drinkers in England as well as throughout Northern Europe. This, indeed, was the case with all the vintages alluded to, except that of 1892, the unsatisfactory character of which has been frankly recognised by growers and shippers alike.
" If we might take exception to any portion of your correspondent's letter, it would be to the fact that in dilating upon the excellent quality of the wines of the year 1893 — as to which there can be no difference of opinion — he has rather placed the quality of the wines of recent years in the shade.
"This is the more to be regretted, as the 1893 wines will not reach consumers certainly for one or two years from the present time.
"We should have been quite in accord with your correspondent if he had stated that for some few years prior to 1887 ' the wines which have come to us from France have been deficient in the qualities which won for Claret its original popularity.'
"Those who are acquainted with the quality of the wines pro- duced in the Medoc between 1887 and 1893 must admit that the produce of the years 1887, 1888 and 1891, as well as 1893, are Wines which have considerable merit, and answer well to the description of Claret given by your correspondent, viz. that ' it is still par excellence the wine of every-day drinking.'"
A striking example of the erroneous pronouncements
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38
to which experienced members of the Bordeaux wine- trade have olien committed themselves in relation to the respective merits of claret vintages is afforded by the notorious hesitancy and half-heartedness with which the magnilicent growths ot 1875 were at first received, and by their subsequent triumphs, scarcely less dazzling than any of those previously achieved by the most successful wines of the century. Similarly, there was a strikincr lack of unanimity in the judgment delivered by the trade upon the 1S93 vintage of the Medoc in the Spring of 1894, shortly after its products had undergone the tests to which new wines are invariably subjected at that time of year. More than one influential Bordeaux House openly decried them, and solemnly prophesied "disappointment dire" to the foreign buyers who had speculatively and largely invested in them. In one authoritative trade-circular they were even described as "badly constituted" and "conspicuous for their defects." On the other hand, a large majority of the reputable Bordeaux claret-shippers accorded to them almost un- qualified praise, attributing to them the possession of brilliant colour and elegant bouquet, combined with softness of tone and delicacy of flavour. As a matter of fact the Medocs of 1893 were made in exceptionally favourable circumstances, both as regarded atmospheric conditions and an all but total absence of disease. At the present time it is generally understood and re- cognised, by trade experts and claret connoisseurs alike, that they have in all essential respects justified the favourable opinion which many trustworthy judges expressed with regard to them in the earlier stages of
their development, when, according to a great shipping firm, they "recalled the best wines of 1864 more vividly than those of any other year," and, in the words of another renowned expert, appeared "likely to make grand wines in the future."
3 -^ ^■K^^r^\,
Ploughing between the Vines
Chapter III.
l^intagcs ; classificatijii ; cclcbralcd vineyards a7id
growths.
M. Edouard Feret's valuable work, " Bordeaux and its Wines," to which the present writer is indebted for a great deal of the trustworthy information set forth in these pages, contains a careful analysis of the leading characteristics of the Medoc Vintacjes, o-ood, bad, and indifferent, from the year 1815 to comparatively recent times. It may be gathered from this painstaking compilation of details recorded in official returns, journalistic reports, and trade-circulars published in the course of nearly seventy years, that the twelve- month historically identified with the final overthrow of the Great Napoleon and the second Bourbon Restoration also witnessed the production of one of the finest clarets of the nineteenth century, in quality resembling that of the famous " comet" wine of 181 1, which was signalised, when it came into the market, as "exquisite, of a marrowy softness, full, and fruity." Another remarkable Medoc year was 18 19, the wines of which "developed marvel- lously in bottle." Next in chronicled renown came 1828, fairly abundant in delicate, elegant clarets, l^he Gironde
41
vintage of 1834 was as fine In character as that of the same year in Portugal, and its matured " first growths " were styled "'perfect " in the first and second decades of the Victorian age. '37's, '41's, and '44's were all above the average in abundance and soundness, while 1847. for clarets as well as ports, was reckoned one of the " fine years," and the INIedocs of 1848 (the Red Year) have been officially described as " exquisite, of beautiful colour,
Filling the New Casks, Ch&teau Brane Mouton
remarkable mellowness and delicacy, and perfect develop- ment.' During the ensuing nine years the vines suffered severely from oidium, and yielded no wine of any note or high value; but the produce of 1858 turned out all that the most hypercritical claret drinker could desire, possess- ing rich colour, fruity taste, body, bouquet, delicacy, and ripeness. So did the '64's, though a little lighter in character than the '58's ; they hold, however, a place of
42
honour in the category of ' grands v ins." The succeed- ing ten )ears were all more or less disappointing, in one or another respect, although '68's and '69's were both in great request, and at abnormally high prices, and '70's, when they attained maturity, also found favour with the trade. 1875, c>n the other hand, was a "great year" in the Medoc, immediately preceded and followed by "good years." Its wines were "graceful and perfumed," while those of 1874 were somewhat heavy, and those of 1876 were hard and unattractive. Then a calamitous decade ensued, during which — excepting in 1878, which was productive of excellent clarets, the vintaging of the grape-crop not having commenced until October 1 2 — the phylloxera vastatrix and t>eronosp07'a viticola (mildew) did their worst to convert the cheerful and luxuriant vineyards of the Gironde, Dordogne, Charente and other grape-growing Departments of France into gloomy and desolate wildernesses. These noxious agencies, however, were successfully combated by means that will be described in another chapter of this pamphlet. While the vine-pests were in the ascendant claret fell into disrepute, or, at the very least, lost considerable ground, among its foreign consumers, and the Bordeaux wine- trade passed through a phase of disastrous depression which at one time (1886) threatened to end in absolute ruin.
An old proverb says that "when things seem to be at their worst, they are apt to take a turn for the better." The soundness of this axiom was satisfactorily demon- strated by the Medoc vintage of 1887, which inaugurated a new "golden age" for growers and shippers, its
43
produce being "healthy, highly coloured, full-bodied, and fruity ; although hard at first, maturing superbly." The wines of 1888, again, were unusually abundant, and distinguished for their delicacy of flavour and aroma. Those of the following year, though distinctly fuller and deeper in colour than the '88's, and very abundant, scarcely rose above mediocrity. They furnished vast quantities of excellent table-wine, a good deal of which, belonging to the "classed growths," underwent marked improvement while in wood, and is now well thought of in the trade. What is as yet known of '90's and '91's is on the whole favourable, the former beino- strono- and of deep colour while the latter are comparatively "light" in both those respects. They have, however — especially the '91's — scarcely come into consumption, as far as the "classified" and "bourgeois" growths are concerned, and no positive opinion can with confidence be pro- nounced as to how they may "eventuate," in American parlance, when fully matured and at their best. About the '92's, as the great Bordeaux House of A. Lalande & Co. pointed out in its annual report dated March, 1895, "there is not much to be said," save that "some of the best succeeded growths deserve a certain atten- tion on account of the low prices at which they can be acquired." It is easy to read between the lines of this discreetly worded paragraph. As to the '93's, of which so fervent an eulogium obtained publicity in the columns of The Times on June 6th (see preceding chapter), it is perhaps too early as yet to speak at all authoritatively about their future. Thus much is known of them, however — that they possess the important qualifications
44
of body and colour, while their alcoholic strength "tests" at about eleven degrees.
According to a carefully compiled report promulgated in Ridley's Trade Circular of January, 1894, throughout the entire season of the previous year everything favoured the growths of the Gironde. Thanks to a fine, warm spring, they were unusually forward ; their flowering consequently took place nearly a month earlier than that of 1 89 1, and was fortunate enough to escape the dreaded May frosts. Hence by the beginning of June a plentiful crop was already assured, provided no damage should subsequently be sustained from hail or mildew. "Happily, neither of these deadly enemies to viticulture put in an appearance, and continuous hot w^eather throughout July and AuQ-ust enabled the aatherino- to commence before the end of the latter month— a date which has few parallels in the history of the Medoc." Owing to the healthy condition of the vines, the grapes did not become scorched, notwithstanding the abnormal sultriness of the temperature, nor have the wines in general displayed too much body, which, prior to the gathering, was feared might be the case. The latter auspicious circumstance is doubtless chiefly due to the cooler weather which set in with September, and to the gentle rain accompanying it, opportunely softening the skins of the fruit, and pre- venting the development of too much tannin. Thus was produced a wine highly favoured in the Bordeaux market, where it gave rise to great activity during the month of November and part of December, 1893. Excepting the Chateau vintages of Brane-Cantenac, Cos d'Estournel, and Montrose, all the " classed " growths were bought
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up during- that period, and the produce of those three estates found purchasers before the close of the year.
Many years aoo the red wines of the Medoc were told off in four oroups, at the instance of the more influential Bordeaux traders, and came to be commonly known by the distinctive appellations of "fine growths," "bourgeois growths," "artisan growths," and "peasant growths." Parenthetically it may be observed that the wines of the three first groups are for the most consumed out of France, while the greater portion of the "peasant growth" is purchased on the spot by the more important vineyard proprietors of the districts in which it is produced, and is by them utilised for blending with their own wines of a similar character. This grouping of the wines was effected in the eighteenth century, and has at different times undergone revision in the direction of promoting or degrading particular wines from one group to another, in accordance with their respective improvement or de- terioration. At a later period the group of "fine growths " was further subdivided into five categories, to which was reserved the special denomination of " classed wines " ; and this classification, definitely established by a " conferential syndicate" of Bordeaux wine-brokers in 1855, has suffered no modification whatsoever since that year, though important changes have taken place in the conditions ;ir.d values of some of the " Chateau " wines therein comprised, as well as in the "bourgeois" growths still excluded from classification, the best of which claim, very properly, to share the titular distinction generally accorded to the " classed growths." Doubtless, when the classification of 1855 shall come to be reconsidered,
47
certain of these " bourgeois," or, rather, " Chateau " wines, such as Laujac, Loudenne, Le Crock, Bessan, Sio-ognac, and Verdiofnan, will obtain the honours of classification. As M. Feret justly remarks, growths may be improved, or the reverse, by change of proprietary. Those which may have been neglected, through the slovenliness, lack of practical knowledge, or pecuniary embarrassment of their owners, may pass into the hands of rich and intelli- gent men who will compel them to yield produce of unexceptionable quality ; and shining examples of such " happy transfers" are not far to seek among the principal " bourgeois " vineyards of the Bas Medoc. It was to the owners of one of these latter, not to any proprietor of a "classed growth," that the gold medal "for the best managed estate in the department of the Gironde" was awarded by the Government of theThird Republic, in 1887. Meanwhile, the classification of "grand red wines of the Medoc," as semi-officially established just forty years ago, stands as follows : —
FIRST GROWTHS
Chateau-Lafite Chateau-Margaux
Mouton
Rauzan-Segla .
Rauzan-Gassies
L^oville-Lascases
Leoville-Poyfere
Leoville-Barton
Durfort-Vivens.
Lascombes
Gruaud-I.arose Sarg. Saint Julicn
Paiiillac Chateau-Latour .
Margaux Chateau-Haut-Brion .
SECOND GROWTHS.
Fauillac Gruaud-Larose
Pauillac Pessac
Margaux
Saiuf'JuIicn
Margaux.
. Sai7it-Julien Branne-Cantenac . Canfcnac Pichon-Longueville Pauillac Pichon-Loiigueville-
Lalande , . —
Ducru-Beaucaillou Saint.Julicu Cosd'Estourncl . Saiut-Estl'phe Montrose . . —
48
|
THIRD |
GROWTHS. |
||
|
Kirwan |
Cantenac |
Palmer . |
— |
|
Chateau d'Issan |
La Lagune |
. Ludon |
|
|
Lagrange . |
Saint-Julien |
Desmirail |
. Margaux |
|
Langoa |
— |
Calon-Segur . |
. Sahit-Esfephe |
|
Chateau-Giscours . |
Lalmrde |
Ferriere . |
. Margaux |
|
Malescot-Saint- |
M. d'Alesmeis |
||
|
Exupery |
Margaux |
Becker |
• ■ |
|
Cantenac- Brown |
Cantenac |
||
|
FOURTH |
GROWTHS. |
||
|
Saint-Pierre . . .' |
^nint-Julien |
Rochet . |
. Saint-Est'phe |
|
Branaire-Duluc |
Chateau-Beyche- |
||
|
Talbot . . . |
— |
velle . |
. Saint-JuUen |
|
Duhart-Milon . Panillac |
Le Prieure |
. Cantenac |
|
|
Poujet . . . Cantenac |
Marquis deTherme Margaux |
||
|
La Tour-Carnet . . |
^■.u'nt-Lainrnt |
||
|
FIFTH |
GROWTHS. |
||
|
Pontet-Canet |
J ''a I III lac |
Haut-Bages . |
. Pauillac |
|
Batailley |
Pedesclaux |
||
|
Grand-Puy-Lacoste |
Belgrave . |
. Saint-Laurent |
|
|
Ducasse-Grand-Puy |
Camensac |
||
|
I^ynch-Bages |
Cos Labory . |
. Saint-Estcphe |
|
|
Lynch-Moussas |
— |
Clerc-Milon . |
. Pauillac |
|
Dauzac |
Labarde |
Croizet-Bages |
|
|
jMouton d'Armailhac |
q Pauillac |
Cantemerle . |
. Macau |
Le Tertre . . . Arsac
As an instance of the effect produced by the above classification upon the market value of the M6doc growths, it is a noteworthy fact that the four "grands vins " of the first category fetch in Bordeaux fivefold the prices paid there, first hand, for the best bourgeois growths, and thirty per cent, more than the world- renowned Leovilles and Laroses of the second category.
49
The valuation of these "premiers crus " appears some- what disproportionate to that at which certain superb unclassed clarets are appraised ; but it is in such anomalies that the influence of tradition and the power of fashion find concrete expression.
The cJidteaux of the Medoc, sixty of which are associated with "classed wines" and perhaps a dozen more with the o'rand bourgeois "Towths, are seldom
Interior of Cuvier, Chateau Langoa
architectually true to their somewhat high-flown de- sig-nation, being- for the most part quite unpretentious structures — solidly built, commodious, one or two- storeyed country-houses. F"ew of them can advance any valid claim to considerable antiquity, unless here and there in the shape of a ruined and uninhabited tower of the feudal period, standing in the park or grounds of the "castle" to which it probably g'ave its own venerable
50
name not much earlier than the latter part of the eio-hteenth century. The greater number of these chdteaiix are within easy reach of the left bank of the Garonne-Gironde, and, in many cases, are visible from the deck of any craft passing up or down that majestic river between Bordeaux and the Gulf of Gascony.
Starling from the city of wine and steaming or sailing seawards, the first chdtca2i that meets the eye crowns a small eminence about half-a-mile from the water-side. It is Cantemerle, last in the list of "fifth growths ;" a fine high-roofed house pleasantly shaded by tall trees, and Hanked on either side — as are most of the Medoc "castles" — by its appurtenant press-houses and cooperages, storage and cellarage. Cantemerle though set so low down in the classification tables, is one of those productive and well-ordered estates the least celebrated of which has furnished a title of honour to some pure, generous, and wholesome variety of claret, while the more renowned arc synonymous with choice and costly growths only to be met with at the tables of Fortune's favourites, among whom may be reckoned their original producers, the great vigncrons of the IMcdoc. The wines of Cantemerle have long enjoyed favour in Holland, and of late years in England, by reason of their delicate flavour, fragrant aroma, full body, and remarkable stability. Consequently they are in request among the Bordeaux shippers, who buy them early and dispose of them readily.
Immediately after Cantemerle comes a double string of chdtcojix ; Poujet, Kirwan, Tertre, Dauzac, Palmer, Therme, in the front line overlookinp- the river, with
51
Le Prieure, d'Issan, Becker and Rauzan in the rear. Chateau Poujet was formerly a Benedictine convent, the reverend inmates of which were eminently successful viticulturists, producing good liquor that was much esteemed abroad as well as at home. Its wines at the present time rank fifth in the fourth class. Chateau- Kirwan (third class) belongs to the city of Bordeaux, and its vines are contiguous to those of Margaux, Rauzan and Brane, occupying the most sun-exposed slopes of the Cantenac district. Chateau du Tertre is situate in the Arsac commune ; its produce takes precedence of Cante- merle in the fifth class, to which category also belongs Chateau Dauzac, the wines of which estate were " gold- medalled " some years ago. Chateau Palmer (formerly Chateau de Gasq, under which name its wines acquired great celebrity at the Court of Louis XV.) produces a fine claret well known and appreciated in England. Its vines having been entirely destroyed by oidium before 1858, the domain was replanted in and after that year, and now yields wine of the " third class," which has often rivalled " second orrowths." Of the chateaux standinLT further inland, Rauzan- Gassics is historically the most remarkable, its authentic annals dating back to the year 1530. Its wines rank third of the "second growths," and are justly celebrated for their exquisite delicacy, possibly attributable to the circumstance that every plant of inferior quality has been eliminated from the Rauzan vineyards. The next chdteati visible from the river is IVIargaux — one of the four famous premiers cr/ls — a stately three-storeyed mansion with a lofty Greek portico, approached by a broad avenue of fine forest trees. The
52
house, now occupied by Count Pillet-Will, the proprietor of the Margaux vineyards, stands on the site of an ancient fortified stronghold which in the fifteenth century was known as Chateau Lamothe, and then belonged to the Seigneurs of Monferrand. A subsequent possessor, M. de Fumel, planted the estate with vines in 1750, since which date its wines have earned and maintained a world-wide notoriety. Between the communes of Margaux and St. Julien, in the following order, stand the Chateaux Camensac, Belgrave, Latour-Carnet, Bey- chevelle, Talbot, St. Pierre, Duluc, Langoa and La- grange. Chateau Belgrave (fifth class) is a handsome modern house, not at all castellated. Its proprietor, as well as its produce, is immortalised by Biarnez, in his po|)ular poem, " Les Grands Vins de Bordeaux," a familiar distich of which runs as follows : —
Deveze d'uii cinc^uiemc a dcja tout le lustre, Et doit peut-etre encor devenir plus illustre.
Chateau Latour-Carnet dates from the fifteenth century, and still })resents an antique aspect, part of the original castle owned by Jean de Foix (about 1480) having been incoq^oratcd in a dwelling-house of later date. Its wines belong to the fourth class growths, and bear an excellent reputation. Chateau Beychevelle, though not in its present form, dates back to the fourteenth century, when it was one of the feudal castles owned by the Counts of Candale. Later on it passed by marriage into the possession of the Dukes of Epernon, the last of whom was Lord High Admiral of France. In his honour all vessels passing the old castle were required to strike their
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54
topsails. Hence the nickname " Baisse Voile," which stuck to the c/idtemi, and has been corrupted into Bey- chevelle by the influence of local dialect. Chateau Langoa is a fine modern building-, the "annexes" of which include workmen's dwelling's, spacious stables, and other accessorial structures, all very commodious and solidly executed. Chateau Lagrange has a picturesque and imposing appearance, chiefly owing to its lofty square tower, rising to a height of some fifty feet above the pointed roof of the corps-de-logis. The wines of these two magnificent properties belong to the third class of "fine growths," and are of admirable quality, combining all the finest characteristics of first-rate claret. Chateaux Latour and Lafite, each the headquarters of a "first i>"rowth," are the next two riverside mansions of strikingr exterior. Latour justifies its name by an ancient round tower, standing apart from the residential house, and Lafite by a comparatively modern turret adjoining the western extremity of the chdtemi. Both their wines share the honours of the "first class" with those of Chateaux Margaux and Haut-Brion, Lafite is one of the show-places of the Medoc. It belongs to the Barons Gustave, Alphonse, and Edmond de Rothschild, whose predecessor. Baron James, bought the estate in 1868 for a little more than £\^^,ooo. /\mong its " specialities " are its enormous wine-cellars filled with the finest assort- ment of clarets in the world, of every great growth and vintage of the present century. Thousands of dozens of bottled wines that are practically priceless, because they will never be sold, fill the huge bins of the private Mddoc cellar of the Rothschild family. Among the famed
55
neighbours of Lafite and Latour are Chateaux PIchon- Longueville, Gruaud-Larose, Mouton (also a Rothschild possession) and Leoville ; such a complex of treasure- yielding vineyards as no other country can show within a six mile radius. The house at Pichon- Longueville, itself lofty and well-proportioned, is flanked by four slender turrets, two at either end of the main buildino-, and its vineyards adjoin those of Latour, just within the Pauillac district and bordering on that of St. Julien. Gruaud- Larose, being a divided property, has two chateaux, one supplemented by a graceful square tower, the other an unassuming but comfortable country-house of recent construction. There is nothing particularly remarkable about Chateau Leoville except its delicious wine, which Biarnez, the Bard of Claret — already quoted in this chapter — proclaims a "first growth" by right of its inherent excellence, adding, in a spasm of indignant admiration,
Je ne comprends pas quel expert inhabile A pu dans les seconds classer le Leoville.
In the St. Estephe district, a little beyond Pauillac, the chateaux within sight of the mighty Gironde, attain- ing here a width of from ten to eleven kilometres, are separated by long stretches of vine-plantations, one estate running into another promiscuously — that is, to the tourist's eye, unfamiliar with local landmarks. Walls and hedges there are none. The favourite delimitation mark of a territorial boundary appears to be li sort of martello- tower, cropping up in a happy-go-lucky kind of way where any demand for such a structure might in reason be least
56
expected ; as, for instance, in the middle of a fifty-acre vineyard, or on a strip of waste-land by the roadside, half a mile or so from any human habitation. Between Pauillac and St. Yzans — in which latter commune the model estate of the Medoc, Chateau Loudenne, the property of Messrs. W & A Gilbey, is situate — the principal chateaux studding- the left bank of Yellow Gironde are Cos-Labory, Le Crock, Montrose, and Calon-Segur. Cos- Labory, the vineyards of which are contiguous to those of Lafite, is only separated from Cos-d'Estournel by the high-road from St, Estephe to Pauillac ; both chdteatix are stylish modern buildings. The house at Montrose (2nd class) is little more than a spacious pavilion, while that at Calon-S^gur (3rd class) is quite a stately edifice. As for Le Crock, although its wines only rank among the "superior bourgeois growths" of the St, Estephe district, the chateau is one of the prettiest residences in the 'twixt-water realm of claret. It is picturesquely situated on the crest of a small hillock engirdled by woods, and overlooks a tastefully timbered park traversed by a limpid brook, which is gracefully spanned here and there by quaint little rustic bridges.
Among the other chateaux of the Gironde renowned in foreign countries for their splendid clarets are Haut- Brion (ist class), an extensive mansion of somewhat antiquated aspect, situate in the Pessac region eastward of the M(^doc, and Chateau Pape-CMment, the story of which is a -somewhat curious one. The celebrated growth produced on the estate thus significantly nick- named was created in the year 1305 by Monseigneur Bertrand de Goth, then Archbishop of Bordeaux, who,
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being subsequently elected Sovereign Pontiff, bequeathed his vineyard to his successor in the Archiepiscopate, Cardinal Arnaud dc Canteloup ; de Goth himself, on assuming the triple tiara, taking the title of Clement V., since which time the property has been known by the august sobriquet of " Pope Clement." Chateau Giscours (3rd class) in the Labaude commune, is a strikingly magnificent building, replacing a noble mansion of yore which also had an interesting history of its own, too long for repetition in this place. Finally, Chateau Pontet- Canet, which gives its title to a meritorious wine equally familiar to English and French claret-drinkers, is a massive, square, two-storeyed house, showing five windows per both floors and the entresol on each front. The Pontet-Canet growths, which stand at the head of the " cinquieme crus " enumerated in the 1855 classifica- tion, had an extraordinary run some years ago in Paris, London, Berlin and Hamburg, and have fairly main- tained their popularity in those cities until the present time, although other clarets, equalling them in merit if not in costliness, have come strongly to the front within the past four years. Pontet-Canet is still a highly remunerative estate, yielding in an average season fully eight hundred hogsheads of sound, well-flavoured wine, which in the Bordeaux market fetches a price slightly higher than that usually paid for other growths of the filth class.
Chapter IV. Diseases of the Vine, and their ti'eatment.
Every part of the vine — roots, stocks, leaves, buds, blossoms, and fruit — has special attractions for some noxious parasite, or furnishes forth the favourite food of some insatiable insect, which battens and breeds upon it until its vitality is completely exhausted. Fungoids, grubs, and beetles are far more inveterate and deadly foes to the vineyard proprietor than frost and hail, though the damage done by these latter is often terribly calamitous ; for the ravages perpetrated by exceptionally severe weather are iniermittent, and can to a certain extent be remedied by insurance, while those executed by living forces of low-class organisations, unless averted by precautionary measures or stayed by drastic remedies, are continuous. These depredators never weary of the work of destruction, which incessantly employs their energies and engrosses their attention, but plod away steadily at their appointed tasks, all unconscious of the injury they are inflicting upon innumerable creatures of a higher order, and inflexibly fighting the batdc of life, which always means death to one or other of the com- batants. They, too, have been fought against for many
6o
years past and with more or less success by the vigfierons whose property they have striven to ruin ; and the story of Claret, somewhat sketchily outlined in these pages, would be reprehensibly incomplete should it leave alto- gether undescribed the ills that vines are heirs to, and the methods, prophylactic as well as curative, by which modern science has strenuously endeavoured to deal with them.
Among- the destructive insects that have preyed upon the vine for many a year past is the Rliynchites Bacchus, familiarly nicknamed " the cigarette " in the Gironde and " goat " in the Medoc. It is about the size of a common house-fly, bright green in colour, and furnished with a tiny trunk, through which it sucks up the sap of the young shoots. This devastating little beast lays its eggs on the reverse side of the vine-leaf, which it then rolls up in the shape of a cigar, whence one of its sobriquets. The grubs, when hatched, feed upon the substance of the leaf till their time comes for burrowing into the ground, where they remain in a torpid state throughout the winter, emerging therefrom, perfectly developed, early in the spring. There are two ways of dealing with these miniature "goats," one being to shake them off the vines into pans containing soap and water, the other to afford facilities for feeding upon them to young chickens, by which they are highly esteemed as a succulent dainty.
The most destructive of vine parasites is a coffee- coloured insect (Eiunolopus vitis), popularly known as the "bud-cutter," from its pernicious habit of gnawing off the young vine-buds, and also as the "scrivener," from the
6i
bitten-out tracks which it makes upon the leaves while crawline over them "on the feed." This voracious creature eats the grape-stalks and even the immature fruit, as well as the foliagre of the vine. Nothing comes amiss to it that it can nibble at. in which catholicity of taste and appetite it is sedulously rivalled by the P^'ocris, a homely caterpillar which is eventually transformed into an extremely pretty butterfly. So is another green and
Basement Floor of Cuvier, Chateau Giscourj
greedy caterpillar scientifically styled " Pyralis^' which turns into a gaudy pink-and-gold moth, irrepressibly addicted to laying eggs in vast numbers. These, wherever found, are promptly scalded ; for the Pyrahs — fortunately an intermittent visitor to the Mcdoc, its favourite feeding-ground being Burgundy — is regarded as a crowning abomination by all vine-growers. Another pest, provided willi an iii;>cni()us apparatus foi' l^rowsing
62
on c^rape-buds, is the " EucJiloris'' a green cockchafer of forbidding aspect. The larva of the " white worm " (Mclolontha z'u/oaris) is pecuHarly fatal to lowland (pains) vines. It is not a "hardy annual," like most of its fellow parasites, but lives underground for three whole years, during which period it unwearyingly gnaws at the roots of the younger plants. Then it comes up to the surface and makes itself generally objectionable as a cockchafer. Another vexatious insect, rejoicing in the euphonious name of A pate scxdentala, lays eggs upon the branches of the vine with a view to their ultimate consumption by its offspring. The " treatment " for this dangerous rodent is sulphate of carbon, by which its permanent discomfiture is usually achieved. Then there is the Altis or " vine-tlea," a tiny beetle, which the Medoc viticulturists have been vainly endeavouring to extirpate for many successive years by poisoning it with diluted phenic acid and suffocating it with sulphureous smoke. It feeds upon buds as well as leaves, and therefore finds no mercv at the hands of the assiduous vine-dresser, who puts it to death by thousands upon thousands, without, however, appreciably diminishing its numbers when once it has effected a firm lodgment in a luxuriant vineyard. Slugs and snails are extremely hurtful to the Medoc vines, chicllv to the vounsj leaves, from which it is usual to cull theni by hand during springtide, for the benefit of hungry ducks and hens, kept on short commons for a day or two and then dri\en into the vineyards, there to feast to repletion upon the choice varieties of Nemoralis, Hortensis, and Cartkusiana that particularly affect the "" feuille cle vigne " as an article of diet.
63
T\\e p/iy/ioxei'a vastatrix, which has done more harm to the vines of France than all the other insect-plagues above enumerated and the fungoid visitations which will presently be adverted to, is one of Dame Nature's eccentric " sports " ; for it is sometimes sexual and regenerative and sometimes sexless and self-multipli- cative. In the latter development it exemplifies the inexplicable process oi parthcnogxucsis, the practical result of which is fertility without impregnation, enabling certain insects of the neutral gender to reproduce their species, which are born with the same inherent capacity, absolutely independent of any generative agency what- soever. A single self-multiplying phylloxera, hatched from the w^inter ^'g'gy will, by the end of May, have laid five hundred eggs, the produce of which — also parthenogenesic phylloxera — will within a month have given birth to 250,000 similar insects. At the third ijeneraticjn the descendants of the orio'inal siuQ-le insect will number 62,500,000,000, and there are five or six tjenerations in the vear. As devastators of the vine these creatures work in difTerent directions. Some attack the leaves and others the roots. It is no exaggeration to say that half the vineyards of France have suffered severely from the depredations of phylloxcridcs. Thirteen years ago, when they had by no means done their worst, it was estimated that the loss caused by them up to that time represented ^220,000,000 sterling.
Like the potato-bug, another Insect unfavourably distinguished for its destructive propensities, the phylloxera is a native of America, and, oddly enough, is not fatal to vines that are indigenous to that country.
64
To this curious circumstance is clue the practice, become general in French wine-producing districts of late years, of replanting with American stocks the vineyards devastated by \\\^ phylloxera. The insect was discovered in the New World just forty-two years ago, when the eminent naturalist Asa Fitch bestowed upon it the impressive title o{ Pemphigus vitifolice. In 1867 Shinier declared it to be a type of the genus Dactylosphccra, while Westwood, who had detected its presence in English vineries some time previously, maintained that its proper scientific designation was Perityuibia vitisana. " Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? "
Not until June 11, 1869 — a disastrous day for the wine industry of fair France — was the detestable little creature first observed at Flolrac, near Bordeaux, battening upon the roots of vines which had presented a sickly appearance for two or three years previously. During the two following years it came to light in several " vinicole " communes on the right bank of the Garonne, as well as across the Dordogne, in the cantons of Libourne and Castillon. In 1873 ^^ disclosed itself in the Bordelais districts on the right bank of the Garonne, and finally reached the Medoc in the great claret year of 1875, spreading rapidly through the fertile " 'twixt water" region, and wreaking destruction wherever it appeared. A little later on the French Government offered a prize of ^12,000 to the discoverer of a means of preventing or arresting the ravages of this insect. Although many remedies have been suggested, only five can justly claim to have achieved any important successes.
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In the report of the International Congress held at Bordeaux, in 1881, these five remedies are described under the following headings, viz. : —
" Siii)))/crsio)i, which can be carried out only in vineyards bordering a river, and which requires that the soil should be left under water every year for a period of from forty to fifty days between the months of November and March.
''Re-planting, which can only be advantageously practised where the soil — sand for example — is resistant to the propagation of the insect.
''Re-planting with American and other vines, the stocks of which will resist the attacks of the insect.
" Suphnr of Carbon, injected into the soil, and aided by the use of manures.
" SulpJio-c irbonate of potassium, also assisted by manures."
The use of the former of these insecticides was estimated, by the Congress, to cost £"] 4s. per acre the first year, and £\ i6s. the next, as against ^11 4s. and £^ respectively for the cost of treatment by sulpho- carbonate of potassium.
It must be borne in mind that formerly, when a grower planted a vineyard, he thought it was work done for thirty, fifty, or eighty years or more, and hence the appearance of an insect capable of destroying almost at a moment's notice the result of his labour, naturally caused all the more alarm.
The system of treatment generally adopted in the Gironde, as a means of combating the phylloxera, is that by sulpho-carbonate of potassium.
^1
In the application of this material to the vines, the leading points to be considered are the following : —
First. — The means of obtaining the necessary fresh water. The source of supply for this should be in close proximity to the vineyard, and of sufficient quantity. The machinery to be used in the treatment must also be adapted to suit the position of the spot from which the water has to be obtained.
Second. — Pumping power must be at hand sufficient to carry the water to the different parts of the vineyard, and to the requisite altitude. On the property chosen, as illustrating the system of treatment followed, the distance from the spot where the water is obtained to the farthest point of the vineyard is about 1,300 yards, inclusive of the detours necessary to be made in order to get at the various pieces of vines. The highest point to which the water has to be carried above the source of supply is 82 feet, and the force necessary for the raising of this water is obtained by means of an eight horse-power steam pump.
Third. — A supply of galvanised iron delivery-pipes is required, and this piping consists of tubing in lengths of 16 feet, and a diameter of 3I inches, with all the necessary junctions, bolts, &c., for connecting the same. To ensure perfect junction of the tubing, leather washers arc used. The material for the treatment also includes the necessary joints, taps, cross-pieces, cvc, together with india-rubber hose for use between the rows of vines to be operated on. Two men are specially employed in fitting and arranging the piping, which has to be i)laced in accordance with the position of the vineyard and the progress of the treatment.
6S
Fourth. — The siilpbo-carbonatc which forms the im- portant element in the treatment is analysed previously to its use, and should ij;"ive an averai^e of 15 per cent, of sulphur of carbon and a quantity of from 10 to 20 per cent, of potash, the dose varying with the requirements of the vineyard.
A hole, called a cttvette, is formed around the base of each vine, and the sulpho-carbonate of potassium having been mixed with the necessary quantity of water, as mentioned below, the mixture is applied to the root of each vine.
The solution has no toxic effect on the insect if it is of a less strength than one part sulpho-carbonate to 500 parts water, and, to allow for the water already in the soil, the material should not be considered as possessing any virtue if weaker than 5 in 333,
Experience has shown that the solution t(^ be poured into the cuvette should be made in the proportion of sli<'lul\ over half an ounce of sulpho-carbonate to a gallon of water.
The vines beinir o-enerallv ])lanted thirtv-nine inches apart, the cuvette should receive as much sulpho- carbonate as would be contained in an ordinary sized egg-cup, say i^ to 2 ounces.
The followino- will of'ive a general idea of the method 000
of treatment employed in the vineyards where the phylloxera prevails. The treatment should be carried on during fine weather. At this time, the soil being dry, the water is more rapidly absorbed, and consequently the diffusion of the toxic gases is more rapid.
Suppose the number of vines to be treated is 193,260
69
at 2 ozs. per vine, and 97,229 at i^ ozs. per vine, the quantity used would be about iS/4 tons.
Where treatment of this kind is resorted to, it is necessary not to destroy the balance of the nutritive matters required by the vine ; for if the vegetation is unnecessarily increased there is a danger that the plant may suffer from what is known as con/ure, or a dropping off of the immature grapes, a result which happens
Interior of Cuvier, Chateau Ducru-Beaucaillon
somewhat frequently where the requisite care is not observed.
The date for the commencement of the treatment is about the 20th of March, and at that time oanos of men and women are employed preparing the holes (cuvettes) for retaining the solution of sulpho-carbonate around the foot of the vine, until the whole has been absorbed by the soil. In making these holes attention has necessarily
to be given to the slope of the ground, so that the base of the cuvette may be kept level, and the water not suffered to run away to saturate the surrounding soil.
The following sketch will perhaps serve to explain what is meant : —
Section of Watered Vineyard Slope.
The cost of labour in making the cuvettes is estimated at 2s, lod. the thousand vines, but this expense can be reduced if the work is carried on in the spring- time, when the ordinary labour of removing earth from around the vines has to be performed.
It is important that the treatment should be commenced sufficiently early to combat the phylloxera before the mild weather sets in and awakens the insect from its winter sleep,
The pump and tubing above described having been put in position, the work of the treatment is carried out by six men, each followed by a woman having a supply of lo to 15 pints of sulpho-carbonate and a measure holding a little over two ounces. In order to ensure the methodical workinof of the treatment, the sitjnal to commence is usually given by means of a whistle connected with the steam pump, and each man then starts
71
by filling the cuvettes with a quantity of about two gallons of water, into which is poured the dose of sulpho- carbonate of potassium decided upon, a further quantity of water then being added until the cttvette contains in all from about three and a half to four gallons of liquid. Acting in this manner two rows of vines can be treated at the same time, and the work carried on regularly, so as to ensure that the supply of water in the pipes is never stopped, otherwise there would be a danger of their bursting under the pressure.
Having finished the first quantity of vines to be treated, the workman closes the taps, unscrews the indiarubber tubing, and attaches it to a fresh supply-pipe, which has already been laid in position for use. As soon as all the vines have been treated and the solution has penetrated the ground, a plough is passed lightly between the roots of the vines, so as to fill up again the cuvettes, and at the same time retain in the soil for as long a period as possible the efiect of the insecticide.
The tiny animal thus combated at great expense and with infinite pains is hardly perceptible to the naked eye, except in clusters, being scarcely a millimetre in length, breadth or depth. It is sometimes brown, sometimes greenish, sometimes yellow, and is provided with a trunk, ingeniously contrived to puncture the surface of leaf or root, and to suck up the juices permeating the vegetable tissue. Its stomach is as long as its head and throat combined ; its eyes are faceted like crystals ; its legs are long and strongly articulated. In one stage of its being it carries two pairs of wings, respectively long and broad, short and narrow. The phylloxera is particular as to
72
its diet, evincinor a marked partiality for vines grown on the most fertile alluvial soils, and on those consisting- of chalky and sandy clays situate on hill-sides or high plateaux ; whereas the stocks planted in lands composed of intermixed sand and gravel have hitherto enjoyed comparative immunity from its ravages.
Turning from these prowling and insatiable insects to vine-parasites of an even lower order — the passively destructive fungoids and galls — precedence must be accorded to oi'dium, a minute mushroom growth, first detected upon some English greenhouse vines, in 1845, by a gardener named Tucker, by whose patronymic Professor Berkeley thought fit to distinguish oidiuin from kindred fungoids, when that erudite naturalist described and classed this particular pest two years after its discovery. In the department of the Gironde it put in an appearance about 1851, and from 1853 to the present day the claret-producing vineyards have been more or less under its noxious influence.
The treatment adopted to check it consisted in sprinkling the vines with powdered sulphur, and was so far successful that the intensity of the oidiuin plague has considerably abated within the past forty years. One diffusion of sulphur per annum is now administered to the plants, instead of three or four, as formerly. If practised before flowering-time, it is generally efficacious — invari- ably so in dry years. An alternative treatment is the superficial drenching of the affected vines with diluted sulphuret of potassium or sodium. It must be a comfort to proprietors of vineyards, sorely exercised by the evil deeds of this parasitical fungus, to know that oidimn is
IIJ
(O >; O ^
o ^
<<
o
74
severely worried by a parasite of its own, the Cicinno- boliis Cesatii, which renders the existence of the Uncinula spiralis a burden to it, and recalls to mind the time- honoured distich,
" The little fleas have lesser fleas upon their legs to bite 'em, Those lesser fleas have lesser fleas— and so ad infinitum:'
Another morbid disease of the vine, called " Erinetwz" is due to diminutive galls generated by an acarian parasite, scientifically denominated Phytocoptes vitis. The leaves punctured by this parasite get turned up at their edges, and show hairy spots on their under side, distinguishable from the white blemishes of mildew by their close adherence to the leaf, which keeps its natural greenness on the upper surface. Like o'ldium, erineimi can be kept down by the pulverised sulphur treatment, administered to the affected leaves by means of a bellows, the invention of Count de la Vergne.
Antkj-acnosis, which did a great deal of damage to the Gironde vines in 1891, is a cryptogamous disease caused by a vegetable parasite having instinctive affinity to the vine stock, on which it rapidly developes, invading the leaves and grapes as well as the branches and stems. It produces black mouldy spots, which eat away the tissues and cells of the wood, and eventually deepen into cavities that interrupt the circulation of the sap. It is treated by a preparation of sulphate of iron or sulphuric acid, dissolved in water, and applied with a brush to all the wood of the plant, in dry weather only, and before the first week of March. By this process only can
75
anthracnosis be kept under and even done away with for the time being. It is, however, apt to recur in wet seasons.
Mildew, which of late years has proved even more injurious in the Medoc than the insect plagues, resembles anthracnosis in nature, being also a mouldy parasite, which attacks all the above-ground portions of the vine, more particularly the leaves and the grapes. It expresses itself in wliite spots somewhat larger than an ordinary pin's head, which spread rapidly, producing discolouration of a corresponding extent on the obverse face of the leaf; when they turn brown and get dry the leaf perishes and falls to the ground. Eriiiosis and "grillage" are less dangerous varieties of this destructive disease. All three have been and are successfully overcome by the " Bouillie Bordelaise," or Bordeaux Mixture, which has also been utilised as a specific remedy for the potato disease, and is a combination of sulphate of copper and " fat " lime in the [)roportion of three to one and liberally diluted with water. There are three preparations of this mixture, one of which is distinctively known as " heavenly," probably because It Is light blue In colour and perfectly clear. They differ from one another only In details of proportion, the Ingredients being Identical in all cases, and are applied to the surface of the young leaves by a hand-worked distributor, of which there Is more tlian one variety. The treatment Is preventl\'e, not curatixe, and absolutely Indispensable. It should be carried out ten or twelve days befon^ th(; llowering of the vine. In the early days of Its use ap[)rehensIons were entertained that the sulphate of copper would affect the Havour of
76
the wine yielded by grapes of the vines thus doctored. Careful analysis subsequently proved that the presence of copper in such wines was not more apparent than in wines produced from plants which had not been subjected to treatment ; and, as a matter of fact, the vintages posterior to 1886 have not the slightest twang at- tributable to the influence of the " Bordeaux Mixture."
An insidious malady of even more recent develop- ment than the mildew bears the significant name of " PoiiTTidi^,'' and is caused by a minute mushroom which attaches itself to the vine-roots in branchinp- festoons of
o
a dark brown hue, closely resembling fibrous ramifications in an advanced stage of decay. The roots of vines that have been killed by pourridi^ display shiny black excrescences and trailing strands of fibre. Having suffered thoroughgoing decomposition, they cease to convey nourishment to their parent stock, which accordingly dies of inanition.
In dealing with so fatal a disease it has been necessary to adopt drastic measures for its extirpation. As soon as it manifests itself, the vines infected by it are pulled up and burned, as well as those in their immediate vicinity. Trenches are then dug round the plague-stricken section of the vineyard in order to isolate it. The soil is thoroughly turned up and picked over, with the object of securing all the straggling remnants of diseased roots it may have retained. These having been collected and destroyed, the ground is drenched with a solution of vitriol, 3 per cent, in strength. The sections thus treated are sometimes re-planted at the expiration of a twelve- month from the date of treatment, but the leading
11
vltlculturist authorities of the dav are asffeed that such sections should be allowed to lie fallow for at least three years before they may safely be replanted. A severe visitation of pourridie was experienced in the Medoc districts during the spring of 1891, and proved terribly injurious to the vines of the low-lying estates.
A morbid malady familiarly known both in French and English by the name of "rot;" having three
( I' I
.<:
•*■
Chateau Ducru-Beaucaillon. Proprietor— Mr. Nuthankl Johnston.
varieties, the brown, white, and black, and being generically akin to m'ldew, has given a good deal of trouble in the department of the Girondc^ since the year 1887, when il literally devastated the vineyards o( Lot-et-Garonne. The brown-rot, in weather-conditions favourable to its rapid development, is capable of destroying a whole grape-crop within ten days. White- rot preys upon the grape stalks and, later, on the fruit,
^7^
which il causes to " decHne and fall " while still unripe.' Black-rot is the most deadly variety of the three, all of which are stubborn foes of the vine, only to be efficiently combated and subdued by liberal aspersions of the wonder- workingf Bordeaux mixture. In addition to all the insect and fungoid plagues above adverted to, there is an evil-working creature called cochylis oiiiphaciella, which, in its butterfly stage, deposits millions of eggs upon the immature fruit, and in its next development — that ol a grey grub with a highly polished black head — eats up its birthplace with unfailing assiduity.
Subsequently, in the character of a chrysalis, it effects a snuQf lodgement under the bark of the vine-stock, where it passes the winter in a state of complacent inactivity, emerging at springtide, equipped with gaudy wings, and eager to reproduce its species at the expense of the much-exercised viticulturist.
At the hands of this sad industrial the cochylis moth encounters an extremely unfriendly reception. He illuminates his vineyards with glaring lanterns, to which the giddy things are attracted, and encircles the stocks with broad troughs containing some sort of sticky stuff. The moths fall into these by thousands, having previously stunned themselves by clashing recklessly against the lantern-glasses, and perish miserably in vast numbers. As for the grubs, they and their cocoons are carefully "hand-picked" during flowering time, in order to be ruthlessly squashed underfoot or. consumed by fire ; and during the winter months an end is put to the chrysalides by scorching the leafless stocks or painting them with various compositions notoriously unfavourable to insect
79
longevity. From this brief resunu' of the perils that beset the vine it will readily be deduced that the business of a wine producer necessitates unrelaxing watchfulness, trained intelligence, and skilled labour from day to day "all the year round."
"Porte-Hotte" discharging tiie grapes into the "Douiiles" on Bullock Cart
APPENDIX.
The Medoc : ils gcogi-apJiical position, physical features
and aspect.
That part of the department of the Gironde known as the Medoc, meaning 'twixt-water — its modern name being a contraction or corruption of " In Medio Aqua;," the designation bestowed upon it by its rulers at a time when Bordeaux was the seat of government of a Roman colony — extends from Bordeaux to the sea, roughly speaking, (more correctly, from Blanquefort to Soulac), and lies between the Garonne-Gironde river and the department of the Landes. It is a tongue of land, undulating in outline, about fifty miles in length and from five to six in breadth, the soil of which is pardy silico-gravellous, partly calcareous in the hilly regions, and clayey here and there in the low-lying lands, especially near the river. Along its water-boundary vineyards fringe the river bank, sweeping downward from the crests of the hillocks — their local style and tide is " croupes," or cruppers — of the Upper and Lower Medoc. In both these districts woodland is a comparative rarity, the soil being " under grape " wherever the vine will fiourish. Plven the " palus," or marshy lands, have been drained, protected from the river-floods by massive embankments, and profusely planted with vine stocks,
•^
4^t)r
-4'
1 f
m
ij^i*--*.^
.t^-
.•<
, I'if-i'i hiliifiit I ' .1.. '!A'
.^^
82
while the hill-sides and slopes, with scarcely an exception, have been cleared of timber and utilised for viticultural purposes. The chief chateau proprietors, however, have kept up the small coppices that happened to have been spared from destruction when all the considerable woods of the Medoc were felled, about half-a-century ago, and the general picturesqueness of the residential mansions on the left bank of the Gironde is greatly enhanced by their backings or semi-girdles of fairly tall forest trees and hieh covert. A few of the wealthier and more enterprising vignerons have even embellished their estates with vigorous young plantations of oaks and beeches, chestnuts and planes, at a pecuniary sacrifice which can only be justly appreciated by those who have learned how profitable to its owner is every rood of Medoc soil that will grow grapes. These handsome belts and clumps of the trees already mentioned, intermingled in the larger " bosquets " with walnuts, elms, and limes — all of which flourish exceedingly in the Gironde — refresh the eve with fine colour-harmonies in green, and afford a welcome relief to the prevalent bluish tints of the vineyards, imparted to the leaves by the persistent "treatment" with sulj)ho-carbonate of potassium to which the plants have been subjected throughout the past decade.
The distinction of prefix between the " Upper" and "Lower" Medoc is a purely geographical one, implying no superiority or inferiority in the products of the respective districts, nor having reference to the surface altitudes of either. As a matter of fact, some of the " croupes " in the neighbourhood of Lcsparre — the
83
capital of the Bas Medoc, and seat of a sub-prefecture — are considerably loftier than those of Haut Medoc, Among the Bas Medoc clarets are several which, in respect to quality, colour and bouquet, leav^e nothing to be desired. Comparisons are odious ; but it may be confidently assumed that whenever a re-classification of the Medoc growths shall take place the wines of the Lesparre canton and the riverside districts between St. Seurin and Talais will receive the advancement in vinous rank which they have long merited. Every expert in the Bordeaux trade knows them to be worthy of admission to the "fifth class," if not to even higher dignities, and of being raised from the bourgeoisie to the noblesse, in the realm of Claret.
Vines were imported into Gaul from Greece and Asia Minor shortly after the commencement of the Christian era, and found throughout the South of France a congenial soil and a benign climate, favourable to their luxuriant development. At the time of their immigration Gaul was a province of the Roman I^mpire, and sent its finest products to the capital of that vast realm, then the best market in the world for edible and potable delicacies of every kind. Imperial and patrician epicures spared no expense to keep their larders and cellars constantly supplied with solid and liquid dainties imported from the outlying regions of the Caesarian realm. When Lucullus dined with Lucullus — when Heliogabalus entertained a select gathering of kindred spirits at a dinner party the cost of which varied between fifteen hundred and two thousand pounds — oysters from Britain, oranges from Seville, and above all red wines from the M^doc, figured
84
conspicuoiisl)' in the incmis of those elaborate banquets. It is on record lliat the Emperor Domitian. an ultra- Protectionist who entertained insurmountable objections to foreign produce of every descriptioti, and was extremel)- incensed by the circumstance that the delicate French wine^ competed more than successfully with the rougher and coarser native growths of Italy, gave orders that all the vines in Gaul should be grubbed up and destroyed ; and his decree was carried out, to the consternation and temporary ruin of the Gallic wine- producers. Domitian's oppressive edict died with him, however, and Robus —who is still spoken of with respect in the Gironde as an enlightened fosterer of the wine industry — authorised and encouraged the replanting of the desolate vineyards throughout the meridional provinces of Gallia. Bordeaux wines soon came to the front again, and acquired such celebrity in Rome itself that they were warmly extolled, in the fourth century, by Ausonius, who drew attention to the large and active business done in the Medoc growths at the capital of the Empire. The Merovingian kings of France promulgated laws regulating and encouraging viticulture. "Good Kino: Daofobert " was the terror of vin.eyard depredators and grape-stealers by reason of the severe statutes enacted and enforced during his reign for the punishment of misdemeanants of that class ; and Charlemagne was a steadfast patron and protector of the growers and wine manufacturers of his period. The later French kings, however — Valois and Bourbon alike — imposed all sorts of taxes upon wines, compelling it to contribute to the Exchequer at every
85
stage of its production, carriage, and consumption, until — about the middle of the eighteenth century — the imposts on wine in retail equalled one-fourth of its intrinsic value. Louis XV, the " Well- Beloved," out-Heroded Herod by strictly prohibiting the further plantation of new vines and the replacement of old ones which had proved sterile for two successive years. These measures were taken in the interest of the wheat-growers, whose star was in the ascendant at Court a hundred and forty years ago, while that of the Gascon vignerons was by way of " |)alino- its ineffectual fires." The Great Revolution, however, relieved French viticulturists of some of their fiscal burdens, and imparted a stimulus to the production and manufacture of wine, which within thirty years raised the value of its annual crop to the equivalent in French currency of ^20,000,000 sterling. That of 1893, it may be observed, attained the amazing total in quantity of fifty millions of hectolitres, or a little more than eleven hundred millions of o-allons.
INDEX
|
Aqiiilaine |
•• |
VI. |
|
Aqniiaiiia Sccumli |
V. |
|
|
Alvjratlc |
6 |
|
|
Altis .. |
62 |
|
|
America |
63 |
|
|
Amsterdam |
8 |
|
|
Anjou |
16 |
|
|
Anth'-acnosis . . |
71. 75 |
|
|
Antische |
6 |
|
|
Apate sexdenlal.i |
62 |
|
|
Archacon |
vii. |
|
|
Archliishop of liortlcaux |
56 |
|
|
Arnaiul ile Caiucloup. Cardinal |
5R |
|
|
A rsac |
51 |
|
|
Auvergne |
vi. |
|
|
Asa Fitch |
64 |
|
|
Asia Minor . . |
83 |
|
|
Ausonius |
84 |
|
|
Bajjueres dc IJi;^'orrc . . |
vii. |
|
|
Harti-es |
vii. |
|
|
liastardu |
6 |
|
|
Hataillcy, Cliitcau |
48 |
|
|
IJayonnc |
3. -l |
|
|
liecker, M. d'Alesnicis, Cli.iie.uj |
48,51 |
|
|
IJelyium |
8,27 |
|
|
IJclRr.ive, Chateau |
48.52 |
|
|
Berkeley. Professor .. |
72 |
|
|
Berlin |
8, 58 |
|
|
Bertrand de Goth. Mon>ei,;neur |
56,58 |
|
|
Ilessan, Chateau |
47 |
|
|
Beychcvellc, Chateau |
48 |
52.54 |
|
Biarnez |
52. 55 |
|
|
Biarritz |
vii. |
|
|
Black Prince, Tlie |
17 |
|
|
Blancjuefort . . |
80 |
|
|
Klaye |
I |
|
|
Bordeaux v. vi. vii, viii. 4, 9. 10, T7, 18, |
23. 2 |
4. |
|
26, 27, 31, 32, 38, 48, 50 |
S'. |
58, 80 |
|
Bouille Bordelaise |
75 |
|
|
Bourjjeais |
I |
|
|
Branairc-Duluc, Ch.lteau |
48 |
|
|
Br uic Cantenac, Chateau |
44 |
47. 51 |
|
British islands |
8 |
|
|
Brown Cantenac, Chateau |
48 |
|
|
Brussels |
8 |
|
|
Buhan, M. . . |
xi. |
|
|
Uurdigala |
V. |
|
|
Burgundy |
9 |
28, 61 |
Calon-Segur, Chateau Caiuensac. Chateau .. Candale, Counts of ., Cantenac Cauterets
Cantemerle, Chateau Carthusiana . . Castillon Charente Charlemagne Charles I. Chaucer
Cicinnobolus Cesatii . Clement V. . . Clerc-Milon, Chateau Cochylis omphaciella.
4«,
48,56
48, 52
52
51
vii.
:o, 5' 62 64 42 84
rr, 20 4 74 58 48 78
Colonial Red Wines . .
Clolonics
Cos d'Estonrnel, CliAtcau
Cos I-abory, Chateau
Croizet-Bage^, Chateau
Cubzadais
I")artylosph.tTa l^a;.^obcrt, Kin;.^ 1 )ahnatia Dauzac, Chateau De Gasq, Chateau De Funiel. M. Dc la V'ergne, Count . Desniirail, Chateau D'Issan, Chateau Doniitian, Iiuipci'or .. Dordogne
Ducasse-Graud-Puy. Chateau . Ducru-Bcaucaillou, Chateau . Duhart-Milon, Ch.ateau Duluc, Ch.atcau Durfort-Vivens, Chateau
lidvvar.l III
England . . 4,8, 16,
lintre-Deux-Mers
F.peoon, Dukes of
Iirineum
Erinosis
Euchloris
Eumolopus vitis
Europe, Northern
Exhibition of Bordeaux
Faure, M. Felix
Ferel, tdouard
Ferriere, Chateau
Floirac
France
France. South ol
French Wines
Froissart
Fronsadais
Garnarde
Garonne
G iscony
Gaul ..
Germany
Germany, Northern
Gilbey, W & A
Gironde xi., i, 2, 4, 10, 36, 40, 42, .
Giscours, Chateau
Grand-Puy-Lacoste, Chateau..
Graves
Great Britain . . 6, 8, 10,
Greece
Grillage
Gruaud-Larose Sarget, Chateau
Gruaurl-Larose, Chateau
Guienne
Gulf of Gascony
PAGE 28 8
44. 47. 56
. . 48. 56
48
84 7
48. 50, 51 51 52 74 48
.. 48. SI 84 2, 42, 64 48 47 48 52 47
. . 4. 17 , 22, 23, 24, 30, 36, 50. 51
52 74 75 62 60 .36 . 35
6, 8,
|
40, |
47 48 64 |
|
|
10 |
18 |
20 |
|
vi |
83 |
|
|
19 |
23 |
30 4 |
47. 55. 66, 72,
VI., 4, t6,
■3. 27.
6
X.. 64
17, 18
83,84
27
8
56 60,
82, 84
48.58
48
34
31.83
10,83
75
47
47.55
17.18
50
I N D EX — continued.
Haniburjj
Hanseatic Towns
Haut-Bages, Chateau..
Haut-Brion. Chateau . .
Heliogabalus . .
Hendaye
Henry III. ..
Henry VI 11. ..
Herod
Holland
Hortensis
Hungary
Iberian PeninsuU In Medio Aqua? 1 reland Italy . .
James II. Jean de Foix . . John, King ..
King of Hunijary Kirwan, Ch.Meau
I.abaude
l.afite. Chateau
Lagrange. Ch.lterui
La Lagune. Ch.lte.iu . .
Lalaiuie & Co.
Laniothe, Chateau
Landes
Langoa, Chateau
Lascoinbes, Chateau . .
I. a Tour Carnet, Chateau
Latour, Chateau
Laujac, Chateau
Le Crock. Chateau
Leoville Barton, Chateau
L^oville Lascases, Chateau
Leoville Poylere. Chateau
Le Prieure, Chateau . .
Lesparre
Le Tertre, Chatenn
Libourne
London
Lot
Lot et Garonne
Loudenne. Chateau ..
Louis X\*.
Luchon
LucuUus
Lynch Bages, Chateau
Lynch iMoussas, Chateau
Madrid
Malescot-Sainl-rxn;Mry, Chatca
Margaux, Chateau
Mar<iuis de Theririe, Ch.lte.in
Mr-'lolontha vulgaris
Mildew
Monferr.and, .Seigneurs ot
Montrose, Chateau
Muuton. Ch.aieau
Mouton d'Arniailhacq. ClrlKrau
Mouton Uothschild, CMiatc.iu
Muscadell
Napoleon NeiHMr.'iIis
PAGE
8, 58
8
48
47. 54. 56 88 vii.
4 17
's
8. 50 62 10
8,23 10, 84
52 16
48, 50, 51
58 . 55. 56 5-'. 54 48 43 .5=
48,
47.
24. 3".
5=. 54 47 48,5= 54. 55 47 47.56 47.55 47. 55
47. 55 48,51 82,83
48, so 1,64
16, 58
^. 77
47. 56
51.85
vii.
83
48
54 50
62 44. 75
47- 5fi 47 48
55 0
4" 62
Oidiuin
Palmer, Chateau Pape-Clenient, Cli.Ueau Paris .. Paris, Universal Exhibition i
Pau
Pauillac
Pedesclaux, Chriteau
Pemphigus vitifoliu' .
Perityiubia \"itisana ..
Pessac
Petit-bleu
Pfordte, Herr
Philomathic Society
Phylloxera . . .. 24, 30, 42, 63, 64,
Phytocoptes \ ili-^
Pichon Longucville Cliateau
Pichon-LontiuevillcJ alandc, Ch.ltenu
Pillet-Will. Count
Piquette
Pitt. Mr.
Place des Quinconces
Poitou
Pontet Canet, Cli.ltean
Port . .
Portugfal
Portuguese AVinc
Potato-bug
Poujet, Cliateau
Pourridie
Prorris
Protectionists
Pyment
l^yralis
Pyrenees
Rauzan Gassies, ChA-eau
Rauzan Segla. Ch.lte.ui
Redding, Cyrus
Respice
Rhone
Rhynchites Bacchic
Richard II. ..
Ridley's Circular
Robus
Rochelle
Rochet, Chateau
Rome
Rot, Hrown. lilack, and Wliite
Rothschild. Barons
Rothwein
Rouniaiiia
Kuyan
Rus.ia
Saint-Pierre, Ch.lteau
Sandwich
Seville
Shimer
Sigognac, Chateau ..
Sh.g
Snails
Soulac
Soverci:.,ni Ponlilf
.Spain
St. Andre, Catliedral o(
St. l^niiron . .
St. lislephe ..
PAGE 51. 7=. 74
48. 50. 51 56 .9.58
.34.
vn.
55.56
48
64
64
56
7
8,9
viii.
66, 68, 71
74
47. 55
47
52
7. >S
48.58
28
. 19. 41
19
63
48. 51
76. 77
61
-3
6
61
vi, vii
47. 51
47- SI
19
6
9 60
4
44 84
6 48 84 77. 78 54
9 10
27
48, 52 16 83 64 47 62 63 80 58
34. 55. S*!
I N D E X — continued.
|
PAC.B |
|||||
|
St. Julien St. Seiirin St. Yzans |
*. |
34 |
52 |
55 83 56 |
Uncinula <;|iir.ilis United Kingdom United States |
|
Sweden |
• * |
2/ |
Verdignan, Cli.1te:ii. VisigotI S; Tlii; |
||
|
Talais Talbot, Cli.lteau Tam et Garonne |
48 |
83 5? 2 ■ |
Westwood William III. |
||
|
Tower or 1. |
juilon |
>7 |
|||
|
Tucker |
7-a |
Yoi |
PAGE
74 18. =?, 27, 28 8
47
64 18
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Basement floor Cuvicr— Ch'if^iu r.-^m-irs
Brown Cantcnac, CliAteau
Chais. Ch.lteau Latour
Chais, Chateau Loiitieime
Chais, Chateau Marjjanx
Cuvier, Langoa
Cuvier, Leoville Poyferre
D'Issan, Ch.^leaii
Ducru-Beaucaillon, Chriieau ..
Filling Casks. Ch.lieau Brane Moutoii
Giscours, ChAteau
Gruaud-Larose, Ch.lieau
Interior of Chais, Cu^te u Mari^aux ..
Inierior of Cuvier, ChAieau niit.ru-Heaucailiou
Interior of Cuvier, CluUeai; Langoa
pa(;e
61
65 9 49 33 -3 77 41 81
73
9
69
49
Lafite, Chfiteau
Langoa, ChAteau
Latour, Chateau
Leoville Lasrases, Chilean
Liliourne. Port of
Louiieniie, Chateau . .
Margaux, ChAteau
Ploiigliing betweer. \'ines
I'oiitet Canet, ChAteau
Porte-Bastes— Mouton d Arniailhacq ,.
Porte-Hotte, discharging into the •' Douilh-
on Bullock Cart Section o! Watered Viut-yir 1 SK);)f- .. St. Finiihon fioiii the Smith .. Si. limilion Iroiii the W est
PAGE 13
53 21 29 xii. 57 5
39 37
IV.
17
*
"io-JJ^
mc
^■V
'Ocrofct4t
BAROMETER MANUAL.
• • ^^^- 1 ■
COMPILED BY
ADMIRAL FITZROY, F.R.S.,
FOR THE
BOARD OF TRADE.
• • '•^^ t ■
COPIED BY PERMISSION, AND PUBLISHED BY
NEGRETTI and ZAMBRA,
TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES;
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich ; the Admiralty ; Honorable Board of Ordnance ; Board
of Trade; the Meteorological Society; the Observatories Kew, Toronto, Washington, Victoria,
Cape of Good Hope, Calcutta; tlie Royal National Life Boat Institution; the Coast Guard
Service; tlie Arctic Expedition, 6^c., &c.
HOLBORN VIADUCT, 45, CORNHILL, and 122, REGENT ST., LONDON.
N OTI CE.
NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA
BEG TO ANNOUNCE THAT THEY HAVE NOW PUBLISHED
A RE-ISSUE OF THEIR
TREATISE
ON
Htl^jrubjttirl f itdrum^nh J
EXPLANATORY OF
THEIR SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES,
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION,
AND
Practical Utility.
ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS WOOD ENGRAVINGS.
^nce dTibc ^jnimg^*
BAROMETER
MANUAL.
COMPILED BY
ADMIRAL FITZROY, F.R.S.
FOR THE
BOARD OF TRADE.
- • -^^^ • -
COPIED BY PERMISSION AND PUBLISHED BY
NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENT MAKERS
TO HER MAJESTYTHE QUEEN; H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES;
The Royal Observatories, Greenwich and Kew ; the Admiralty ; Hon. Board of Ordnance ; Board of Trade ; British Meteorological Society ; the Royal National Life Boat Institution ; &c ,
HOLBORN VIADUCT,
45, CORNHILL, E.G. ; AND 122, REGENT STREET, W., LONDON.
DIRECTIONS.
A Barometer, for a Coast Weather -glass, sliould bo placed •svliere it may be seen at any time, in a good light, by Fishermen, Boatmen, or Seafaring persons.
It should be set regularly — by a duly authorized person — about sunrise, noon, and sunset.
An explanatory Card, and a Manual, should be accessible near the barometer.
In an Aneroid, a Metallic, or Wheel Barometer, the motion of the hand should correspond to that of mercury in an independent instrument; and such substitutes should be often verified by comparison.
The average height of the barometer, in England, at the sea level, is about 29'95 inches, and the average temperature of air is nearly 60 degrees.
Add one-tenth of an inch to the observed height, for each hundred feet the barometer is above the mean sea-level ; and, for close comparison, when desired, subtract three-hundredths of an inch for each ten degrees which the attached thermometer shows above 32°.
The thermometer falls about one degree for each three hundred feet of elevation above about fifty feet from the ground.
These pages may be useful to Farmers and Gardeners also, though, in general, wind affects them less than rain.
EXPLANATORY OF
WEATHER GLASSES
IN NORTH LATITUDE.
IN OTHER LATITUDES SUBSTITUTE THE WORD SOUTH, OB SOUTHERLY OR SOUTHWARD, FOR NORTH, &C., THROUGHOUT THESE PAGES.
The Bakombtee Eises for Nortlierly wind,
(including from North-west by the North to the Eastward^)
for dry, or less wet weather — for less wind, — or for more than one of these changes : —
Except on a few occasions when rain (or snow) comes from the Northward with strong wind.
The Baeometer Falls for Southerly wind,
(including from South-east by the South to the Westward,)
for wet weather, — for stronger wind, — or for more than one of these changes : —
Except on a few occasions when moderate wind with rain (or snow) comes from the
Northward.
For change of wind towards any of the above directions : — A THERMOMETER FALLS.
For change of wind towards
the 7i2^per directions only : — A THERMOMETER RISES.
Moisture or dampness, in the air (shown by a hygrometer)_, increases BEPOEE or with rain, fog or dew.
|
On barometer scales the following con- |
And the following Summary may be useful |
||
|
tractions maybe useful in JVort/i latitude: — |
generally : — |
||
|
RISE |
FALL |
RISE |
FALL |
|
roE |
FOR |
FOE |
roE |
|
N. Ely. |
S. Wlt. |
COLD |
WARM |
|
N.W. — N. — E. DRY |
S.E. — S. — W. WET |
DRY |
WET |
|
OE LESS |
Oli MORE |
OE LESS |
OE MORE |
|
WIND. |
WIND. |
WIND |
WIND. |
|
EXCEPT |
EXCEPT |
EXCEPT |
EXCEPT |
|
WET EROM |
WET FROM |
WET TROM |
WET FROM |
|
N. Ed. |
N. Ed. |
COLD SIDE. |
COLD SIDE. a2 |
NOTE.
For the information of those who are entirely unacquainted with the subject of Meteorology, the following note may be offered in explanation of the broad basis on which the Science of Weather is founded.
"We are all aware that our earth is surrounded with a gaseous envelope, which we call the air or atmosphere ; but it is not so clear to all what important purposes this envelope is destined to fulfil in the general economy of the world.
It is by the motion of this atmosphere that the intense heat of the tropics is lessened, and that the extreme cold of the Polar circles is mitigated ; by means of this fluid the vapours that arise from the ocean through the heating influence of the sun are formed into clouds, and are conveyed to distant lands to refresh the parched soil with welcome showers ; in fact, this air that we breathe, when in motion, may be looked upon as one of the great means of rendering this globe more habitable, by equalizing the burning heats of equator and the icy coldness of the polar regions. Now if this motion were regular, and took place from one given point to another within certain periods, we should have no difficulty in predicating what would take place at any given time. But as it depends on such a variety of causes acting simultaneously and with varying degrees of force, we cannot reduce our observations to such simple expression.
If we were to suppose the earth stationary and that it had no revolution round its axis, we can easily conceive that very little, if any, change would be perceptible in our atmosphere ; but as such a state of rest does not exist, and on the contrary we are changing our own position with regard to the sun every moment by virtue of the earth's motion, it will readily be seen that as the different parts of the globe pass under the heating influence of the sun, that effects varying with each such change would render themselves manifest. These effects, which we recognise as change of temperature, varying pressure of atmosphere, winds, moisture, rain, &c., are rendered evident to our minds by means of delicately-constructed instruments, that enable us to measure the exact value of such changing conditions of our atmosphere.
With the data furnished by' these instruments before us, then, it will be readily conceived that from the careful and accurate observation of one set of conditions we are enabled to predict, with a tolerable degree of accuracy, what phenomena will follow as a natural sequence ; or, in other words, by observing the changes that are constantly taking place in our atmosphere, we are enabled to foretell the coming weather with a certainty much greater than is generally supposed.
But in order to do this satisfactorily, we must not be content to merely take the indications of any single instrument as our guide, but must endeavour to appreciate the value of each disturbing cause, before we can arrive at anything like a reliable result.
Thus, we may have a rise in the Barometer, which, taken in conjunction with different conditions of temperature, will indicate quite different results ; — for instance, a rising barometer, with the temperature lowering, indicates wind from the northward ; while the same rise, with an increasing temperature, points to the southward as the probable direction of the coming wind.
In fact we require three instrumental data for the prognostication of the weather : namely, the height of the barometer, the temperature as indicated by the thermometer ; and the amount of vwisture contained in the air as indicated by the hygrometer ; and to make this more apparent, we subjoin, as instances, some skeleton rules, which will illustrate our meaning, and which will be found fully explained and developed in the ensuing pages. For greater clearness of illustration ■we have arranged them under three heads, namely, a Kising, a iSteady, and a Falling Barometer.
A RISING BAROMETER. A "Rapid" rise indicates unsettled weather. A "Gradual" rise indicates settled weather. A " Kise" wiih dry air, and cold increasing in summer, indicates wind from Northward ; and if rain
has fallen, better weather is to be expected. A " Kise " with moist air, and a low temperature, indicates wind and rain from Northward. A " Ei<e" with Southerly wind indicates tine weather.
A STEADY BAROMETER, With dry air and a seasonable temperature, indicates a continuance of very fine weather.
A FALLING BAROMETER. A "Bapid" fall indicates stormy weather.
A " Rapid" fall with Westerly wind, indicates stormy weather from Northward. A " Fall" with a Northerly wind, indicates storm with rain and hail in summer, and snow in winter. A "Fall" with increased moisture in the air, and heat increasing, indicates wind and rain from
Southward. A " Fall" with dry air and cold increasing (in winter), indicates snow. A " Fall" after very calm and warm weather, indicates rain wita squally wea'her.
HOW TO FORETELL WEATHER.
1. Familiar as the practical use of weather-glasses is, at sea as well as on land, only those who have long watched their indications, and compared them carefully, are really able to conclude more than that the rising glass* usually foretells less wind or rain ; a falling barometer more rain or wind, or both ; a high one fine weather, and a low the contrary. But useful as these general conclusions are in most cases, they are sometimes erroneous, and then remarks may be rather hastily made, tending to discourage the inexperienced.
2. By attention to the following observations (the resalts of many years' practice and many persons' experience), any one not accustomed to use a barometer may do so without difficulty.
3. The barometer shows whether the air is getting lighter or heavier, or is remaining in the same state. The quicksilver falls as the air becomes lighter, rises as it becomes heavier, and remains at rest in the glass tube while the air is unchanged in weight. Air presses on everything within about forty miles of the world's surface, like a 'tnucli lighter ocean, at the bottom of which we live — not feeling its weight, becaase our bodies are full of air,t but feeling its currents, the winds. Towards any place from which the air has been drawn by suction, J air presses with a force or weight of nearly fifteen pounds on a square inch of surface. Such a pressure holds the limpet to the rock, when by contracting itself, the fish has made a place without air§ under its shell. Another familiar instance is that of the fly, which walks on the ceiling with feet that stick. The barometer tube, emptied of air, and filled with pure mercury, is turned down into a cup or cistern con- taining the same fluid, which, feeling the weight of air, is so pressed by it as to balance a column of about thirty inches (more or less) in the tube, where no air presses on the top of the column.
4. If a long pipe, closed at one end only, were emptied of air, filled with water, the open end kept in water, and the pipe held upright, the water would rise in it more than thirty feet. In this way water barometers have been made. A proof of this effect is shown by any well with a sucking pump — up which, as is commonly known, the water will rise nearly thirty feet, by what is called suction, which is, in fact, the pressure of air towards an empty space.
5. The words on scales of barometers should not bo so much
* Glass, barometer, column, mercury, quicksilver, or hand, t Or atmosphere, or the atmospheric fluid which wc breathe, i Or exhaustion. § A vacuum.
G
regarded for weather indications as the risinn- or fulUng of the mercury ; for, if it stand at ChaugeaUe (29'50), and then rise towards Fair (30'00), it presages a change of wind or weather, though not so great as if the mercury had risen higher ; and, on the contrary, if the mercury stand above Fair and then fall, it presages a change, though not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower : besides which, the direction, and force of wind are not in any way noticed. It is not from the point at wliicli the mercury may stand that we are alone to form a judgment of the state of the weather, but from its rising or falling, and from the movements of immediately preceding days as well as hours, keeping in mind effects of change of direction, and dryness or moisture, as well as alteration of force or strength of wind.
6. The barometer is said to he falling when the mercury in the tube is sinking, at which time its upper surface is somethnes concave or hollow ; or when the hand moves to the left. The barometer is rising when the mercurial column is lengthening ; its upper surface being convex or rounded ; or when the hand moves to the right.
7. In this part of the world, towards the higher latitudes, the quicksilver ranges, or rises and falls, nearly three inches — namely, between about thirty inches and nine- tenths (30'9), and less than twenty-eight inches (28"0) on extraordinarg occasions ; but the usual range is from about thirty inches and a half (30"5) to about twenty- nine inches. Near the Line, or in equatorial places, the range is but a few tenths, except in storms, when it sometimes falls to twenty-seven inches.
8. The sliding scale (vernier) divides the tenths into ten parts each, or hundredths of an inch. The number of divisions on the vernier exceeds that in an equal space of the fixed scale by one.
9. By a thermometer the tveigM of air is not shown. 'No .nir is within the tube. None can q-et in. Bat the bulb of the tube is full of mercury, v/hich contracts by cold, and swells by heat — according to which effect the thread of metal in the small tube is drawn down or pushed up so many degrees ; and thus shows the temperature .*
10. If a thermometer have a piece of linen or muslin tied loosely round the bulb, wetted enough to keep it damp by a strip or thi^ead dipping into a cup of water, it will show less heat than a dry one, in proportion to the dryness of the air and quickness of drying.f In very damp weather, with or before rain, fog, or dew, two such ther- mometers will be nearly alike. J
11. For ascertaining the dryness or moisture of the air, the readiest and surest method is the comparison of two verified thermometers ; one dry, the other ji'ms^ moistened and Jce2?t so. Cooled by evaporation
* Thirty-two dsgrees is the point at which water begins to freeze or ice to thaw.
t Evaporation.
X Twice their diflEerence, subtracted from the higher, gives the dew point (nearly).
as mucli as the state of the air admits — the moist (or wet) bulb thermometer shows a temperatui'e nearly equal to that of the other one when the atmosphere is extremely damp or moist ; but lower at other times, — in proportion to the dryness of air and consequent evaporation, — as far as twelve or fifteen degrees in this climate ; twenty or even more elsewhere. Prom three to eisfht deo'rees of difference is usual in England ; and about seven is considered healthy for inhabited rooms. The thermometers should be near each other, but not loltliUi three inches.
12. The thermometer fixed or attached to a barometer, intended to be used only as a weather-glass, shows the temperature of air about it nearly — but does not show the temperature of mercury within exactly. It does so, however, near enough for ordinary practical purposes — provided that no sun, nor nre, nor lamp heat is allowed to act on the instrument partially.
13. The mercury in the cistern and tube being aSected by cold or heat, makes it advisable to consider this when endeavouring to foretell coming weather by the length of the column, and indispensable when making comparisons with any other instruments.
14. Briefly, the barometer shows weight or pressure of the air ; the thermometer — heat and cold, or temperature ; and the wet thermom- eter, compared with a dry one — the degree of moisture or dampness.*
15. It should always be remembered that the state of the air foretells coming weather, rather than shows the weather that is present — (an invaluable fact too often overlooked) ; that the longer the time between the signs and the change foretold by them, the longer such altered weather will last ; and on the contrary, the less time between a warning and a change, the shorter will be the continuance of such foretold weather.
16. To know the state of the air, not only barometer and ther- mometer should be watched, but the appearances of the sky should be vigilantly noticed.
17. If the barometer has been about its ordinary height, say near thirty inches, at the sea level,t and is steady, or rising — while the thermometer falls, and dampness becomes less — North-westerly, Northerly, or North-easterly wind — or less wind — less rain or snow- may bo exjoected.
18. On the contrary — if a fall takes place, with a rising ther- mometer and increased dampness, wind and rain may be expected from the South-eastward, Southward or South-westward.
* The two thus combined making a (Mason) hygrometer ; for which, however, some kinds of hair, grass, or seaweed may be a substitute, though very inferior.
t It differs, or stands lower, about a tenth of an inch for eacli hundred feet of height directly upwards, or vertically above the sea ; its average height being 29-95 inches at the mean sea level in England: which height may be called "par "for that level. Allowances must, therefore, be made for barometers on high land or in buildings j each dilEorent elevation having its own (normal) line of pressure or par height.
8
19. A Fall, with low thermometer, foretells snow.
20. Exceptions to these rules occar when a Northerly wind, with wet (rain, hail, or snow), is impending, before which the barometer often rises (on account of the direction of the coming wind alone), and deceives persons who from that sign only (the rising) expect fair weather,
21. When the barometer is rather below its ordinary height, say down to near t\vent3--nine inches and a half (at the sea-level), a rise foretells less wind, or a change in its direction towards the Northward, — or less wet ; but Avhen it has been very low, about twenty-nine inches — the first rising usually precedes, or indicates, strong wind — at times heavy squalls — from the North-westward, Northward, or North- eastward— after which violence a gradually rising glass foretells improving weather — if the thermometer falls. But if the warmth continue, probably the wind will back (shift against the sun's course) and more Southei-ly, or South-westerly wind will follow : especially if the barometer's rise is sudden.
22. The most dangerous shifts of wind, or the heaviest Northerly gales, happen soon after the barometer ^irs^ rises from a very low point ; or if the wind veei's gradually, at some time afterwards.
23. Indications of approaching change of weather, and the direction and force of winds, are shown less by the height of the barometer, than by its falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of more than thirty (;50"0) inches (at the level of the sea) is indicative of fine weather and moderate winds ; except from East to North occasionalUj.
24. A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather. A slow movement, the contrary ; as likewise a steady barometer, which, when continued, and with dryness, foretells very fine weather.
25. A rapid and considerable fall, is a sign of stormy weather, and rain (or snow). Alternate rising and sinking indicates unsettled and threatening weather.
26. The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from S.E., or S.W. ; the greatest elevations, Avith wind from N.W., N., or N.E., — or with calm.
9,7. Though the barometer generally falls with a Southerly, and rises with a Northerly wind, the contrary sometimes occui's ; in which cases, the Southerly wind is usually dry with fine weathei', or the Northerly wind is violent and accompanied by rain, snow, or hail ; perhaps with lightning.
28. When the barometer sinks considerably, much wind, rain (perhaps, with hail), or snow will follow; with or without lightning. The Avind Avill be from the Northward, if the thermometer is low (for the season) — from the Southward, if the thermometer is high. Occa- sionally, a low glass is followed or attended by lightning oidy ; while a storm is beyond the horizon.
29. A sudden fall of the barometer, with a Westerly wind, is some- times followed by a violent storm from N.W., or North, or N.E.
30. If a gale sets in from the E. or S.E., and the Avind veers by the South, the barometer will continue falling until the wind is near a marked change, when a lull may occur ; after which the gale will soon be renewed, perhaps suddenly and violently, and the veering of the wind towards the N.W., I^ortb, or N.E., will be indicated by a rising of the barometer with a fall of the thermometer.
31. Three causes (at least*) appear to affect a barometer : —
32. First. — The direction of the wind — the North-east wind tending to raise it most — the South-west to lower it the most, and Avind from points of the compass between them proportionally as they are nearer one or the other extreme point.
33. N.E. and S.W. may therefore be called the wind's ^o?es.
34. The range, or difference of height shown, due to change of direction only from one of those bearings to the other (supposing strength or force, and moisture, to remain the same), amounts in these latitudes to about half an inch (as read off).
35. Second. — The amount — taken by itself — of vapour, moisture, wet, rain, or snow, in the wind, or current of air (direction and strength remaining the same), seems to cause a change amounting, in an extreme case, to about half an inch.
36. Tliinl. — The strength or force alone of wind, from any quarter (moisture and direction being unchanged,) is preceded, or foretold, by a fall or rise, according as the strength will be greater or less, ranging, in an extreme case, to more than two inches.
37. Hence, supposing the three causes to act together — in extreme cases — the height would vary from near thirty-one inches (30 "90) to about twenty-seven inches (27-00), which has happened, though rarely (and even in trojncal latitudes).
38. In general, the three causes act much less strongly, and are less in accord ; so that ordinary varieties of weather occur much more frequently than extreme changes.
39. Another general rule requires attention ; which is, that the wind usually appears to veer, shift, or go round toitli the sun (right- handed, or from left to right)t and that when it does not do so, or backs, more wind or bad Aveather may be expected instead of improve- ment.
40. It is not by any means intended to discourage attention to what is usually called "weather wisdom." On the contrary, every prudent person Avill combine observation of the elements Avith such indications as he may obtain from insti-uments ; and Avill find that the more accu-
* Electrical effects are yet uncei-tain.
t With watch-hands in the Northern hemisphere ; but the contrartj in Soiit/i hdUndc. This, however, is only apparent ; the wind is actually circulating- in the contrary direction ; as a circle, or circular iigure, turned horizontally, while moved across a map. or chart, Avill explain better than words.
B
10
ratcly tlie two sources of foreknowledge are compai-ed and combined, the more satisfactory their results will prove.
4:1. A barometer begins to rise considerably before the conclusion of a gale, sometimes even at its commencement. Although it falls lowest before high winds, it frequently sinks very much before heavy rain. The barometer falls, but not alioays, on the approach of thunder and lightning.* Before and during the earlier part of settled weather, it usiially stands high, and is stationary ; the air being dry.
42. Instances of fine weather, with a low glass, occur, however, rarely ; but they are always preludes to a duration of wind or rain, if not both.
43. After very warm and calm weather, a squall or storm, with rain, may follow ; likewise at any time when the atmosphere is heated much above the tisual temperature of the season ; and when there is, or recently has been, much electric or magnetic disturbance in the atmosphere.
44. Allowance should invariahhj be made for the previous state of the glasses during some days, as well as some Jiours, because their indications may be affected by distant causes, or by changes close at hand. Some of these changes may occur at a greater or less distance, influencing neighboui'ing regions, but not visible to each observer whose barometer feels their effect.
45. There may be heavy rains or violent winds beyond the horizon and the view of an observer, by which his instruments may be affected considerably, though no particular change of weather occurs in his immediately locality.
46. It may be repeated that the longer a change of wind or weather is foretold before it takes place, the longer the presaged weather will last : and, conversely, the shorter the warning, the less time whatever causes the warning, whether wind or a fall of rain or snow, will continue.
47. Sometimes severe weather from the Southward, not lasting long, may cause no great fall, because followed by a duration of wind from the Northward ; and at times the barometer may fall with Northerly winds and fine weather, apparently against these rules, because a con- tinuance of Southerly wind is about to follow. Ey such changes as these one may be misled, and calamity may be the consequence, if not duly forewarned.
48. A few of the more marked signs of Aveather — useful alike to seaman, farmer, and gardener, are the following : —
49. Whether clear or cloudy — a rosy sky at sunset presages fine weather: — a red sky in the morning, bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain) :— a gray sky in the morning fine weather : — a high dawn,t wind : — a low dawn, fair weather.
* Thunder clouds rising from XoHli-wesUvard, against the wind, do not usually cause a fall of the barometer.
t A '-high dawa" is when the first indications of daylight are seen above a bank of clouds. A '• low dawn " is when the day breaks on or near the horizon, the first streaks of light being very low down.
11
50. Soft-lookinrr or delicate clouds foretell line weather, with modei'ate or light breezes : — hard-edged oilj-lookiug clouds, — wind. A dark, gloomy, blue sky is windy ; — but a light, bright blue sky indicates line weather. Generally, the softer clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps more rain) may be expected ; — and the harder, more "greasy," rolled, tufted, or ragged, — the stronger the coming wind will prove. Also — a bright yellow sky at sanset presages wind ; a pale yellow, wet: — and thus by the prevalence of red, yellow, or gray tints, the coming weather may be foretold very nearly : — indeed, if aided by instruments, almost exactly.
51. Small inkv-lookinof clouds foretell rain: — light scud clouds, driving across heavy masses, show wind and rain ; but if alone, may indicate wind only.
62. High upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or stars, in a direction different from that of the lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, — foretell a change of wind.*
53. After fine clear weather, the first signs in the sky of a coming change are usually light streaks, curls, wisps, or mottled patches of white distant cloud, which increase, and are followed by an over- casting of murky vapour that grows into cloudiness. This appearance, more or less oily, or watery, as wind or rain will prevail, is an infallible sign.
54. Usually, the higher and more distant such clouds seem to be, — the more gradual, but general, the coming change of weather will prove.
55. Light, delicate, quiet tints or colours, with soft undefined forms of clouds, indicate and accompany fine weather ; but gaudy, or unusual hues, with hard, definitely outlined clouds, foretell rain, and probably strong wind.
56. Misty clouds forming, or hanging on heights, show wind and rain coming — if they remain, increase, or descend. If they rise or disperse — the weather will improve or become fine.
57. When sea birds fly out early, and far to seawai'd, moderate wind and fair weather may be expected. When they hang about the land, or over it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind, with stormy weather. As many creatures besides birds ai'e affected by the approach of rain or wind, such indications should not be slighted by an observer who wishes to foresee weather.
58. There are other signs of a coming change in the weather known less generally than may be desirable, and therefore worth notice ; such as when birds of long flight, rooks, swallows, or others, hang about home, and fly up and down or low — -rain or wind may be expected. Also when animals seek sheltered places, instead of spreading over
* In the tropics, or regions of trade winds, there is generally an nppcr and counter current of air, with very liglit clouds, which is not an indication of any approaching change. In middle latitudes, such upper currents are not so frequent (or evident '/) except before a change of weather.
12
their usual range ; wben pigs carry straw to their styes ; when smoke from chimneys does not ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm), an unfavourable change is probable.
59. Dew is an indication of fine weather ; so is fog. Neither of these two formations occur under an overcast sky, or when there is much wind. One sees fog occasionally rolled away, as it were, by wind — but seldom or never formed while it is blowing.
60. Remarkable clearness of atmosphere near the horizon : distant objects, such as hills, unusually visible, or raised (by refraction)* — and what is called "a good hearing day," may be mentioned among signs of wet, if not wind, to be expected.
61. More than usual twinkling of the stars ; indistinctness or apparent multiplication of the moon's liorns ; haloes; '• wind-dogs, "t and the rainbow ; are more or less significant of increasing wind, if not approaching rain, Avith or without wind.
62. Near land, in sheltered harbours, in valleys, or over low ground, there is usually a marked diminution of wind — during part of the night — and a dispersion of clouds. At such times an eye on an over-looking height may see an extended body of vapour below (rendered visible by the cooling of night) which seems to check the wind.
63. The dryness or dampness of the air, and its temperature (for the season), should alioays be considered — with other indications of change or continuance of wind and weather.
64. On land, generally, there is more difficulty in ascertaining the real direction of the wind, in practice, than there is at sea — where sails, or a vane and a compass, are always at hand, uninfluenced by heights or eddy winds.
65. Some observers notice smoke, others clouds (seldom going with the Zoca^ Avind ieZo it?, though generally correct, as respects i\iG prevalllnij Avind), some mark the vane or Aveathercock, Avhile only a few of the lighthouse and telegraph observers know how their points of reference bear by the Avorld (or map) or by a magnetic needle, of which the variation is still less often known Avithin a point of the compass (if indeed understood.)
^o. Such persons should be advised to marlc a true east and west line, ahout the time of the eqiiinox, by the sun at rising or setting ; and by it give their bearings, or directions of Avind. And they should take its direction from that of the lotuer clouds, (Avhen they are not very distant,) compared with that of vanes and smoke, — in preference to any other indication.
0)7. Much more care is required in noticing the veering, shift, turn, or gyration of the Aviud, than has usually been thought necessary. Very rarely has the Avay the Avind went round been noticed in ordinary registers.
* Such refraction is a sign of easterly wind.
t Fragments or pieces (as it were) of rainbows (sometimes called " wind-galls ") seen
on detatched clouds.
13
68. These sliiftings or veerings of wind — being caused, generally, by the progression of cyclonic movements of the atmosphere which succeed or counteract each other, variously impinging against air at rest, or moving differently — require much attention.
69. With respect to the " normal " levels, lines, or barometric heights, (namely, the means, above and below which instruments range, at places of various elevations), often, indeed generally, used on the Continent of Europe — it may be repeated that our word " par " may be a useful synonym, for ordinary use : thus — (say) twenty-four hundredths (or whatever it may be) above or below par.
70. Wherever practicable, the vertical difference between any such level, and that of the ocean, should be ascertained, as each ten feet lowei'S the barometer about eleven thousandths of an inch. This sea level should be that of the ocean itself — at mean half-tide — a lev^el which should be the universal standard of reference.
71. " Weather glasses " were used even before the 18th century. Among others, De Foe watched and registered them in 1703 (see his account of '"The Great Storm : " ) but it is an instance of the necessity for repeating information, that, generally speaking, even now so little real use is made of these instruments, however familiar, common, and inexpensive they have become.
72. Like seamanship, ability to foretell weather is acquired by degrees, practically, and has not been hitherto attained by books ; though it may now be so ; — in consequence of numerous recorded observations and opinions, brought together in late years, very carefully considered, and published at the lowest price by Government.
73. Instruction being thus available, based on scientific as well as practical conclusions, by such help, properly studied, any one may become "weather-wise" who will notice, even once a day, the in- dications of the heavens, of thermometers, and of a barometrical instrument.
74. Marked distinction is advisable between such observations and instructions as are intended only for indicating changes of weather, or its duration, and those of a superior kind required for comparisons and elaborate deductions for scientific purposes.
75. To know whether a tube with mercury has been well boiled (as it is called) by holding and turning it over a charcoal fire, it is un- necessaiy to watch the tedious process. Subsequent e.xamination of the metal in the glass tube, with a lens, and its " click " at the top of the tube, give unfailing evidences of the presence or absence of air, whether boiled or otherwise treated.
76. To verify the graduation thoroughly (not a few casual heights only, by comparison with another barometer), artificial pressure or exhaustion must be obtained by placing the instrument under the receiver of an air pump.
14.
7/. This is done at Kew Meteorological Observatory very com- pletely ; and it is necessary for accurate scientific barometers, though not for mere weather glasses.
78. "While saying so much of the mercurial bathometer, it would be an injustice to the Aneroid not to mention that ten years' experience of this small, and verij portable barometer — at sea, on land, and travelling, has induced its high recommendation (when set joroperly) as an excellent weather glass for small vessels or boats.
79. As all these barometric instruments often, if not usually, show what may be expected a day or even days in advance, rather than the weather of the present or next few hours ; and as wind, or its direction, affects them much more than rain or snow, due allowance should alwavs be made for davs as well as for hours to come.
80. Annexed is a table of avei^age tempei^atures between eight and nine o'clock a.m. near London, which may be used (with allowance for ordinary differences between Greenwich temperatures and others) to assist in foretelling the direction and nature of coming wind and weather.
81. The thermometer (shaded and in open air) when much higher, between eight and nine a.m., than the average, indicates Southerly or Westerly wind (tropical) ; but when considerably lower, the reverse or Northerly (polar) currents of air.
82. These indications are not yet so generally familiar as they ought to become, being easily marked, and very useful.
88. The Aneroid, or a Sympiesometer, require a little occasional adjustment to a good mercurial barometer (as a standard) by turning the back screw of the foi'mer very gently and slightly, or by altering the pointer of the Sympiesometer.
84. By comparison with the Weather Report (meteorological) now published daily in the limes, Shipping Gazette, and other newspapers, any one may ascertain the state of a barometer, aneroid, or sympie- someter ; or his elevation above the sea level ; provided that the comparison is made between eight and nine in the morning, with two or three published observations, for the same time, at places nearest to him on different sides.
85. These daily statements of the weather, and indications of verified, as well as reliable standard instruments, show to those who are interested, — and who regularly compare the accurate simultaneous observations thus generally available, — not only what were the general and various states of atmosphere over Great Britain, Ireland, and the west of Europe — from Copenhagen to Lisbon — the same, or the previous morning (according to the time of day, and the newspaper referred to) ; but by such comparisons, enable a useful degree of foreknowledge of weather, during the coming day or two, or even few following days, to be attained by any observant and considerate person.
15
86. Now that the exclusive patent for making Aneroid Barometers has expired, it is to be hoped and expected that our opticians will produce trustworthy and even yet more portable instruments, on the same principle mainly, — but improved in manufacture, as well as in the principle itself.
87. One kind may be soon anticipated — exactly compensated for changes of temperature, accurately (not equalhj) graduated on the disc surface — and as superior to the common Aneroid as a chronometer is to a cheap watch : but this instrument must be comparatively ex- pensive.
88. Another description (a modification of this admirable French instrument) may be considerably cheaper and sinaller than the present popular one. It may be a pocket "weather glass" (so to speak), suitable for fishermen, pilots or seafaring persons employed in boats, or small coasting vessels, — without space to suspend, or means to provide, a mercurial barometer.*
89. Every day the Shipping Gazette (if morning papers are not seen) will afford the means of verifying and correcting such a " Storm warnei'," without taking it to any other place, or person, for com- parison.
90. The average temperatures at Greenwich, in the shade and open air, between eight and nine a.m., are nearly the mean temperature of each twenty- four hours, taking the year through, around London, and, with allowance for the differences between the means of Greenwich temperatures and those of other places, may be taken, generally, for the British Islands as follows : namely, about the middle of —
|
January |
. 37° |
July . |
62° |
|
February . |
. 39° |
August |
. 61° |
|
March |
. 41° |
September |
57° |
|
April |
. 46° |
October |
50° |
|
May . |
. 58° |
November |
43° |
|
June |
. 59° |
December |
39° |
Details of the construction and use of Meteorological Instruments will he
found in
NEGBETTI and ZAMBRA'8
TREATISE ON METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS,
EXPLANATORY OF THEIR SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES, METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION,
AND PRACTICAL UTILITY.
With vrry many valuahle and useful tahlett of cprrections, ^'c, ^'c.
Illustrated with 100 Engraving-s. Bound in cloth, price 5s.
* See also Aneroid Barometers, page 21.
16
91.
WIND.
FOECE.
Scale of Wind —
0 tol2
corresponding
to 0 to 6 of land scale.
Oto
Light
5
7 8
5 Moderate
7 Fresh .
8 Strong . 10 Heavy . 12 Violent .
Oto
1
o
.J
o O
4 5
Pressure — Velocity.
|
Pounds. (Avoirdupois.) 2 5 |
Land Scale. 1 2 |
|
10 |
3 |
|
21 |
4 |
|
26 |
5 |
|
32 |
6 |
Miles (Houi-ly.)
10
32 45 65
72 80
92. The followiiig Method is used to indicate the State of Weather, and Force of Wind, at Sea, in Lighthouses, and at many Stations on land : —
b c d f
g h
1
m
o
P
q
r s t u
w
also
Blue sky
Clouds (detached)
Drizzling rain.
Foggy .
Gloomy.
Hail.
Lightning
Misty (hazy)
Overcast (dull)
Passing showers.
Squally.
Hain
Snow .
Thunder
Ugly (threatening) appear
ance of weather. Visibility. Objects at a dis
tance unusually visible. Wet dew.
Note. — A letter repeated aug- ments its signification : — thus, f f, very foggy ; r r, heavy rain ; r r r, heavy and continuing rain, &c. ; and a cipher after a figure which represents a letter (as above) augments similarly.
0 Calm.
1 Steerage way.
2 Clean-full— from 1 to 2
knots.
3 Ditto— 3 to 4 knots.
4 Ditto 5 to 6 knots.
5 With royals.
6 Top-gallant sails over single
reefs.
7 Two reefs in top sails.
8 Three reefs in top sails.
9 Close reefed main-top sail
and courses.
10 Close reefed top sails and
reefed fore sail.
11 Storm stay sails.
12 Hurricane.
From 2 to 10 being supposed "close-hauled."
The above method is now be- come very general, and, in prac- tice, it answers well ; not only for seamen, but even for popular use, on land, by estimating the force of wind, proportionally, between the extremes of its slightest motion and its utmost violence.
17
NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, 0ptii:!ians and Ulctx^arolagiciU Instrumjent Mal^i^ts
TO HER MAJESTY,
HOLBORN VIADUCT, 45, CORNHILL, & 122, REGENT STREET.
PHOTOGRAPHERS TO THE CRYSTAL PALACE, SYDENHAM.
BEG TO DIRECT THE ATTENTION OP THE PUBLIC TO THE
METEOROLOrTlCA.L INSTIIUIENTS
MANUFACTURED BY THEII.
These Instruments nlU he found to comprise ever// viodcni improvement of
importance, and their Patknted INSTRUMENTS to possess characteristics
that render them the most efficient of anij hitherto introduced to the
scientific world.
Feoji the vast experience, extending over many years, possessed by Messrs. NEGRETTI and ZAMBRA, they can with confidence recom- mend their Instruments, both for extreme accuracy and superior quality, as being best suited to the requirmeuts of the man of science, the student, and the amateur.
The fact that Messrs. NEGRETTI akd ZAMBRA supply Her Majesty the Queen, the Royal Observatory Gr-eenwich, the Council and Members of the British Meteorological Society, the Kew Obser- vatorj-, the Admiralty, the Board of Trade, the Board of Ordnance, the War Office, all the Scientific Departments of Her Majesty's Govern- ment, the Indian Council, the Colonial Observatories, the American, Brazilian, Spanish, and Portuguese Governments, etc.,^etc., is in itself sufficient guarantee of the quality of their Instruments, independently of their having obtained the only Prize Medal awarded for Meteoro- logical Instruments at the Exhibition of 3851, two Prize Medals, 1862, a Medal, Chili, 1875, and three Prize Medals, Philadelphia, 1876.
Messes, NEGRETTI and ZAMBRA have devoted especial attention, under the direction of the late Admiral R. FITZROY, F.R.S., to the construction of Barometers suitable to the various Fishing and Life-Boat Stations on our coast, and they are happy to state that their exertions have been of real practical utility.
The success of their Sea-Coast Barometer is now placed beyond doubt, they having been favoured with extensive orders for them by the Board of Trade, for all the Fishing Stations in Scotland ; by the Duke of Northumberland, for use on the Northumberland coast ; and by the Royal National Life-Boat Institution, for their various Life- Boat Stations.
Special attention is called to the following particulars of this I'cally useful instrument : —
Fig. 1.
tr-iiin»(«j««'^
/I^E^J,
The FITZROY STORM EAROMETEHor FISHEKMA N»S and LIFE- BOAT STATION BAROMETER, as made by Negretti and Zambro. especially for the Board of Trade and Royal Life-Boat Institution to be fixed at all the principal seaports, fishing- and life-boat stations. (Fig 1.)
Is equally adapted for the use of those cngaj^ed in agricultural pursuits as well as for private individuals, and is fully described in the following extract from the Life-Boat Journal, October 1st, 1860 : —
" Public attention has frequently been called to the invalu- able use of a barometer for indicating a coming storm. It not unfrequcntly happens that a notice of a gale is given by a barometer two or three days before it actually takes place. It seems plain that with such powers placed providentially in our hands, the calamities now endured by our fishermen, coasters, and agriculturists might in many instances be avoided. A good barometer in a public situation would warn them in time Avhat to expect, and they could thus be fre- quently able to avoid the terrible consequences of storms, so often at present proving fatal to them.
" It is satisfactory to find that this important subject has been taken up by the NATIONAL Life-Boat Institution, the Board of Trade, and the British Meteorological Societv. It is proposed by these Institutions to fix barom- eters, wherever found useful and practicable, in suitable positions at the Society's Life-Boat Houses and Fishing Stations, which are situated on most parts of the coasts of the United Kingdom.
" The object of the Institution will be to obtain a good in- strument, and one that will not easily get out of order by travelling, or require renovating at frequent intervals ; in short, a barometer that, having been once set up at a life- boat station, will be a permanent instrument of instruction, and one that will not entail any future expense to the Society. In order to meet these requirments, the makers (Messrs. Negretti & Zambra) have introduced the following changes in the regular instruments, which, we think, may fairly come under the head of Important Improvements. In the first lilace, the frame in which the barometer is mounted is made of solid oak, firmly screwed together, and the brass or ivory scales that barometers are generally furnished with are here replaced by a substantial plate of porcelain, on which the degrees and figures are legibly engraved, and permanently blackened-in, so that, as far as the divisions and figures are concerned, there will be no danger of their becoming faded or obliterated. This is a very important improvement, especially for an instrument that has of necessity to be placed in an exposed position, where the mariner may be able to consult it at any time, even in tlie middle of the night, should he wish to do so.
" The mercurial tube of the barometer is of large diameter, so as to render the mercury easily visible, and show the slight- est variation, and is so constructed that the liability of air entering it is, we may say entirely obviated ; for if air by any means finds its way tip the tube of the barometer, let the quantity be ever so minute, the indications of the instrument are erroneous, and no longer to be relied on. To prevent the admission of air to the vacuum above the mercurial column, a trap is laid at the bottom of the tube, near the part called ^°" * the ' Cistern,' so that if any air should find its way into the
tube, it cannot possibly pass the trap, but is there detained, and the instrument is in no way deteriorated or injured by its presence. These tubes are, moreover, ' boiled.' The operation of boiling a barometer tube consists in filling the tube with mercury, and then causing the mercury to boil by placing the full tube over a charcoal fire. It is an operation attended with considerable risk to the tube and
f
M
illUJ:.<
operator, and for this reason is seldom carried into practice, and in the majority of barometers made it is entirely neglected. The size of the mercurial column averages four-tenths of an inch ; so that, altogether, instruments of the greatest efficiency will be obtained. A great change has also been effected in the old
system of marking the scales with Fair, Change, Rain, &c. — words which, in reality, have often a tendency to mislead, and to throw discredit on barometrical indications. The plan to be adopted in the Life-Boat Barometer is shown in the accompanying engraving. This has been arranged systematically by Admiral Fitzroy, F.R.S."
The Price of the above Instrument is £5 os. each.
Messrs. N. and Z. beg to state that good Barometers for ordinary purposes can be supplied from
£2 2s. to £3 ICs. each.
NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA'S
FARMER'S BAROMETER AND DOMESTIC WEATHER-GLASS, (^g. 2.)
The importance of correct Meteorological observations as applied to the proper regulations of many matters con- nected with every-day life, both in Town and Country, is now so generally admitted, that the introduction of any Comprehensive Instrument, easy in its use, certain ixi its indications, and readily understood by every one, must be looked upon as a great boon.
It is a well-known fact that the Barometer is as much. or even more affected by a change of wind as it is by rain, and the objection raised against a simple Bai'ometer reading, as leaving the observer in doubt whether to expect wind or rain, is entirely removed in the Instrument now offered to the Public by the addition of the Hygrometer, an instrument indicating the comparative degree of dryness or dampness of the air ; — a most important item in the determination of the coming weather.
Hitherto the use of scientilic instruments of this class has been confined to very few observers, and until lately has borne very little fruit : nevertheless through the instrumentality of James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., as Secre- tary of the British Meteorological Society, multitudes of observations have been taken with extreme accuracy, and duly registered ; and it is from these carefully collected data that we are enabled in a measure to interpret the various changes that we feel au'l see going on in our atmosphere, and by the aid of well-constructed instru- ments, are in a position to predict with a great degree of certainity the weather that is likely to prevail from time to time.
In support of this, we have but to point to the great success that has attended the forecasts of coming gales and storms by Admiral Fitzroy, F.R.S. , and it is mainly to his indefatigable exertions as Chief of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, that we owe the timely warnings that are given at our seaports of the advent of 5 Pig. 2. great storms and adverse weather.
If, then, so great and signal success has attended the proper interpretation of Nature's own warnings in regard to affairs maritime, why should we disregard lier voice wlien less vital, though still highly important interests could be benefited in an equal degree ? Why should the Farmer be still content to let his crops lie at the mercy, so to speak, of the weather 1 when he has within his reach a faithful monitor, which, if taken into his confidence, will be the means sooner or later of preventing damage to, and in many cases total loss of his crops.
The Farmer hitherto has had to depend for his prognostication of the weather on his own unns';;stcd ""\Vea,ther Wisdom ;" and it is pcvrccMy marvellous how
expert he has become in its use. Science now steps in, not to ignore this experience, but on the contrary, to jj^ive it most vahiable assistance by extending it, and enabling it to pierce the future, and predict with an accuracy hitherto unknown, the various changes that take place in this most variable of climates.
To the Invalid the importance of predicting with tolerable accuracy. the changes that are likely to occur in the weather, cannot be overrated. Many are the fatal colds that would be prevented, if we knew that the morning so balmy and bright, and withal so refreshing to exhausted nature, would subside into a cold and cheerless afternoon : and this perhaps so suddenlj', that the mischief is done before proper steps can be taken to avert it ; even to the robust, much inconve- nience may be prevented by a due respect to the indications of the Hygro- Barometer, and the delicate in health will do well not to disregard its warnings too hastily.
Description of the Instrument.
The Farmer's or Hygro -Barometer, fig 2, consists of an upright tube of mercury inverted in a cistern of the same tluid ; this is secured on a strong frame of wood, at the upper end of which is fixed the scale, divided into inches and tenths of an inch. On either side of the Barometer tube are two Thermometers — that on the left hand has its bulb uncovered and freely exposed, and indicates the tem- perature of the air at the place of observation ; that on the right hand has its bulb covered with a piece of muslin, from which depend a few threads of soft lamp-cotton ; this cotton is immersed in the small cup situated just under the Thermometer, this vessel being full of water ; the water rises by capillary attrac- tion to the muslin-covered bulb, and keeps it in a constantly moist state.
These two Thermometers, which we distinguish by the names "Wet Bulb" and " Dry Bulb," form the Hygrometer ; and it is by the simultaneous reading of these two Tliermometers, and noting the difference that exists between their indications, that the humidity in the atmosphere is determined.
In making the scale of the Barometer, we have discarded the words " Fair," '• Change," &c., as being obsolete, and more likely to mislead than otherwise ; and have contented ourselves with the simple division of inches and tenths.
We have done this, as the value of a reading depends not so much on the actual height of the mercury in the tube, as it does on whether the column is rising, steady, or falling.
At the bottom of the instrument will be found a screw ; this is for the purpose of forcing the mercury to the top of the tube when the instrument is being carried from place to place, and must always be unscrewed to its utmost limit when the Barometer is hung in its proper place. After this it should never be touched.
The manner in which the Hygrometer acts is as follows : It is a pretty well- known fact that water or wine is often cooled by a wet cloth being tied round the bottle, and then being placed in a current of air. The evaporation that takes place in the progressive drying of the cloth causes the temperature to fall con- siderably below that of the surrounding atmosphere ; and the contents of the bottle are thus cooled. In the same manner, then, the covered Bulb Thermometer will be found inrariahhj to read lower than the uncovered one ; and the greater the dryness of the air, the greater will be the difference between the indications of the two Thermometers ; and the more moisture that exists in the air, the more nearly they will read alike.
It will be seen, then, by the above description, that the" Farmer's Barometer" consists essentially of three distinct instruments : the Barometer, the Thermometer, and the Hygrometer. We have thus at our command the three instrumental data necessary for the prediction of the weather. And now to describe
How TO Use the Instrument.
The observations should be taken twice a day, say at 0 A.M. and 3 or G r.M. ; and should be entered on a slij) of paper or a slate hung up by the Barometer. The observer will then be able to see the different values of the readings from time to time, and to draw his conclusions therefrom.
The Thermometer on the left hand should first be read, and a note made of its height ; this gives the temperature. The Wet Bulb should now be read, and a note also taken. A further note is also to be made of the difference in these two readings.
We next read the Barometer by moving the small index at the side of the tube until it is on a level with the top of the mercury. Having noted the number of inches and tenths at which the column stands, we compare with the last observa- tion, and see immedictely whether the Barometer is rising, steady, or falling.
Now, having taken the observations as above, which take much longer to describe than to perform, we naturally ask the question, ]\ hat are ice to predict
frovi them.
And probably, the best way of answering this query will be by giving an example. We will suppose that our readings yesterday were as follows: Temperature, 70° ; Wet Bulb, 69° ; Difference, 1° ;=very moist air. Barometer 29.5, and that rain will fall.
To-day we read: Temperature, (30°; Wet Bulb, '>:P ; Difference, r)° ;=dryer air. Barometer, 30. We may safely predict that the rain will cease, and probably we may have wind from the Northward.
Many cases will doubtless suggest themselves to the observer where these figures do not occur, and where he might fiad a difficulty in interpreting the indications of his instruments. We have, therefore, drawn up some concise rules for his guidance ; and although they will not prove absolutely infallible guides to this acknowledged most diiSicult problem, still, they will be found of infinite service in foretelling^the weather, when added to an intelligent observation of ordinary atmospheric phenomena, as force and direction of wind, nature of any particular season, and the time of the year.
The science of Meteorology is of course still in its infancy. But with such
adjuncts as the Instrument now introduced, and carefully kept registers of the
results of observations taken with it, we may hope ere long to have so far mastered
the difliculties of the subject, that Tlte coming weather may ie
j}redicted with certainty.
Price of Fakmee's Barometer £2 10 0
The cistern must be kept filled with pure water, and occasionally cleaned out, to remove any dirt. The muslin should also he renewed every few weeks, observing to use muslin that has been well boiled in clean, water. See also Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer.
Fig. 3.
"1!!^
NEGRETTI \ ZAMBRA'S STANDARD METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
STANDARD BAROMETER, (Fig. 3.)
On Fortin's principle, reading from an ivory point in the cistern, to insure a constant level— with mercury boiled in the tube. The barometer tube is enclosed and protected by a tube of brass throughout its whole length ; the upper portion of the brass tube has two longitudinal openings opposite each other ; on one side of the front opening is the bai'ometrical scale of English inches, divided to show, by means of a vernier, the five-hundred tli of an inch ; on the opposite side is sometimes divided a scale of French millimetres, reading also by a vernier to one-tenth of a millimetre ; the reservoir or cistern of the barometer is of glass, closed at bottom by means of a leather bag, acted upon by a thumb-screw passing through the bottom of an arrangement of brass- work, by which it is protected.
Before making an observation, the mercury in Ihe cistern must be raised or lowered by means of the thumb-screw, until the ivory point and its reflected image are just in contact ; the vernier is then moved by means of the milled head, until its lower termination just excludes the light from the top of the mercurial column ; the reading is then taken by means of the scale on the limb and the vernier.
Price £8 6 0
With Millimetre Scale (extra) 0 15 0
ANEROID BAROMETER. (Fig. 4.)
TIic "AiKU'oid" has now been reduced in size, and it can be had from an inch and a quarter to six inches in diamelor. The .smallest sizes are enclo.sed in watch cases, or otherwise, so as to Ije adapted to the pocket. By a beautifully simple contrivance, a milled rim is adjusted to move round with hand pressure, and carry a fine index or jjointer, outside and around the scale engraved on the dial, or face, for the purpose of marking the reading, so that the subsequent increase or decrease of pressure
may l)c readily seen. These very small Fig. 4.
instruments are found to act quite as correctly as the largest, and are quite as serviceable. Besides answering the purpose of .•; weather-glass in the house, if carried in the pocket, they arc admirably suited to the exigencies of tourists and travellers. They may be had with range sufficient to mea- sure heights of 20,000 feet ; with a scale of elevation in feet, as well as of pressure in inches, engraved on the dial. This scale of elevation, which is for the temper.ature of .50'', was computed by Professor Airy, the Astro- nomer Eoyal, who kindly presented it to Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, at the same time suggesting its application. Aneroid Barometers will be found very serviceable to pilots, fishermen, and others, for use in coasting and small vessels, and yachts, where a mercurial barometer cannot be employed, be- cause requiring too much space.
Note. — The first Pocket Aneroid Barometer ever produced was manu- factured by Negretti and Zambra for Admiral FitzEoy.
Price, Aneroid Barometer, with card dial £2
Ditto ditto with metal dial .3
Ditto ditto with metal dial and thei-mometer . 3 Ditto ditto with Negretti and Zambra's compared
a
g
3
O
c3 o
10
3
10
and corrected scale, as supplied to the Eoyal Navy
Barometer
. £3
10,000
and
feet
8 4
5 6
0 0 0
o 10 0
Ditto Engineers and Surveyors Altitude Aneroid 20,000 ft. range with Magnifier, compensated
Pocket Aneroid Barometer, 2f inches diameter Ditto ditto for measuring altitudes to
compensated for temperature, in leather case Ditto ditto ditto to 20,000 feet ....
Watch-Size Aneroid Barometer, weather range (Fig. 4.) . Ditto ditto fully divided for altitudes to 7,000 feet
Ditto ditto for altitudes to 10,000 feet (Fig. 4)
Ditto ditto ditto 20,000 feet (Fig. 4)
Watch-size Aneroids may be had in Silver Cases at a cost of £2 2s,
Watcli-slzc Aneroids hi Solid Gold, liigTily finished cases. £15 15s. to £21.
3 4 5 G extra.
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fi
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NEGRETTI AND ZAMBIA'S PATENT SELF-REGISTERING STANDARD MAXIMUM THERMOMETER. (Fig. 5.)
The only Instrument of the hind adapted for transmission to India and the Colonies
The patent self -registering thermometer consists of a tube of mercury fitted on an engraved scale. The thermometer tube above the mercury is entirely free from air ; and at the point in the bend above the ball, is inserted and fixed with the blow-pipe, a small piece of solid glass, or enamel, which acts as a valve, allowing mercury to pass on one side of it when heat is applied ; but not allowing it to return when the thermometer cools. When mercury has been once made to pass the valve, which nothing biit heat can effect, and has risen in the tube, the upper end of the column registers the maximum temperature. To return the mercury to the bulb, we must apply a force equal to that which raised it in the tube ; the force employed is gravity, and is applied by simply lowering the bulb end of the thermometer, when the gravity of the mercury in the tube will be sufficient to unite it with that in the bulb, and thus prepare the instrument for future observation.
Price, £1 1 0
NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA'S STANDARD MINIMUM
THERMOMETER. (Fig. 6.)
Consists of a glass tube, the bulb and part of the bore of which is filled ■n-ith perfectly pure spirits of wine, in which floats freely a black glass index. A slight elevation of the thermometer, bulb uppermost, will cause the glass index to flow to the surface of the liquid, where it will remain unless violently shaken. On a decrease of temperature, the alcohol recedes, taking with it the glass index ; on an increase of temperature, the alcohol alone ascends the tube, leaving the end of the iudiQ^ furthest from the bulb indicating the minimum temperature.
Frice, £110
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Fig
Fig,
GLAISHER'S STANDARD RAIN GAUGE. (Fig. 7.)
This Gauge is arranged for the reception of the water only which falls upon its receiving surface, and for the prevention of loss by evaporation. The rain is first collected in a funnel, terminated at its lower extremity in a bent tube in which the last few drops of rain remain. The measure is graduated to hun- dreths of inches, according to the calculated weight of water, as determined by the area of the receiving surface. In use, the Gauge is partly sunk below the surface of the soil, so that the receiving surface is about five inches above it.
Price, in japanned tin . £1 1 0 In copper . £1 10 0 Eeceiving Vessel for Ditto, Price, in tin and copper, 2s. and .3s. 6d.
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BULB HYGROMETER. (Fig. 8).
Consists of two parallel thermometers, as nearly identical as possible, mounted on a wooden bracket, one marked dry, the other wet. The bulb of the wet ther- mometer is covered with thin muslin, round the neck of which is twisted a con- ducting thread of lamp-wick, or common darning-cotton, this passes into a vessel of water, placed at sucli a distance as to allow a length of conducting thread, of about three inches ; the cup or glass is placed on one side, and a little beneath, so that the water within may not aifect the reading of the Dry Jhilb Thermometer. In observing, the eye should be placed on a level with the top of the mercury in the tube, and the observer should refrain from breatliing whilst taking an observation. The temperature of the air and;;of evaporation is given by the readings of the tmo thermometers, from which can be calculated the dew point, Tables l)ning furnished for that purpose with the instrument. Price . £2 2 0
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The bulb of this instrument is transparent, and the divisions engraved on its
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supported as shewn in Fig. 9. Price, £1 5 0
Instructions for use similar to Standard Minimum.
NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA'S PATENT STANDARD SOLAR RADIATION THERMOMETER, (Fig. 10.)
This instrument has a blackened bulb, the scale divided on its own stem, and the divisi(uis protected by a glass shield. In use, it should be placed horizontally, with its bulb in the full rays of the sun. The directions for use are identical with those for the determining of the temperature of the air. Price, £15 0
VACUUM SOLAR RADIATION THERMOMETER. (Fig. 11.)
This instrument consists of Negretti and Zambra's blackeued-bulb Radiation Thermometer inclosed in a glass tube and globe, from which air is exhausted. Thus protected from the loss of heat which would ensue if the bulb were exposed, its indications are from 20° to oO° higher than when placed side by side with a similar instrument with the bulb exposed to the passing air. At times, when the air has been in rapid motion, the difference between the reading of a thermometer giving the true temperature of the air in the shade, and an ordinary solar radiation thermometer has been 20° only ; whilst the difference between the air temperature and the reading of a Radiation Thermometer in vacuo has been as large as 50°. It is also found that the readings are almost identical at distances from the earth varying from six inches to eighteen inches. Price, £1 10 0
NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA'S
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER CHARTS,
For keeping a record of the variations of the barometer and thermometer. Each sheet is ruled and figured for one month's observations ; twelve of these sheets are neatly mounted on a card, so that when one month's readings are ended, the sheet can be removed by cutting round the edge with a sharp knife, and a fresh sheet will be exposed. These records form a most interesting and valuable reference for comparing present and past weather.
Price, for each part of 12 sheets, for Barometer, 2s. 6d.
Ditto ditto for Thermometer, 2s. 6d.
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CONTENTS:
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ON CERTAIN FALLACIES.
-:o:
THE objecl of this paper is to meet some of the stock arguments that are most commonly advanced by the opponents of Food Reform, and to prove in each case that for those who are once con- vinced of the desirabihty of a Vegetarian diet, there is no insuperable difficulty in carrying their wishes into practical eff"ecl:. In nine cases out of ten it will be found that these objetftions to Vegetarianism are based on no solid and rational grounds, but rather on certain prejudices which have taken deep root in the British mind, and are in one form or another continually reappearing. I am aware that in refuting these time-honoured fallacies, I am only going over ground which has already been repeatedly traversed. But as long as our opponents persist in advancing the same arguments, we Vegetarians may be pardoned for reproducing the same replies.
1. ''The Teeth.'' One of the first objections by which flesh-eaters attempt to throw discredit on Food Reform, is the statement that the mipossibility of a Vegetarian diet is demonstrated by the forma- tion of the teeth and other strucTiural evidence. "Comparative anatomy" they say, "shews distincflly that the human teeth and intestines are constru(5ted with a view to the digestion oi flesh, and not of vegetables." The answer to this very fallacious argument is simply a denial in toto. Flesh-eaters are utterly mistaken in the assertion they rashly make, and if they will examine their authorities more carefully, they will discover that the comparative anatomy to which they appeal establishes beyond any doubt the frugivorous, not carnivorous origin of man. "The natural food of man," says Cuvier, "judging from his structure, appears to consist principally of the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables." This opinion is corroborated by that of Linnajus, M. Gassendi, Ray, Professor Owen, Professor Lawrence, and a host of other authorities ; but even without any scientific testimony, the fa (ft that the apes, who are near- est akin to us in the animal world, are frugivorous, is a somewhat strong indication that flesh is not the natural food of mankind.
2. Our opponents next take refuge in the very specious fallacy that " Vegetarianism is impossible in cold climates.'" We are reminded that our climate is not a tropical one ; that Vegetarianism may be all very well in warm and simny regions, but that in this land of cold and mist "the roast beef of old England" alone can cheer and support us. We reply that acftual experience shows this to be er- roneous. Those who have conscientiously made a trial of a Veget- arian diet have not found climatic influences the smallest obstacle in their path. An English winter is undoubtedly depressing, but it is not more so because one's food is pure.
3- The baffled advocate of flesh-eating now changes his ground, and adopts a higli moral tone, pointing out at tlae same time some incidental difficulties and drawbacks of Food Reform. " Vegetarian- ism involves too much thinking about one's food.'" Hard-working men often seem to think there is a sort of merit in "not caring what one eats." This is a fallacy ; for though it is meritorious to be able to content oneself with plain fare, yet mere indifference about one's food can only arise from stupidity or thoughtlessness, since the welfare of mind and body is intimately connected with what we eat. But is it true that a Vegetarian diet involves excessive " thinking about one's food ? " A change of diet undoubtedly necessitates some temporary consideration ; new recipes have to be found, and substitutes for "meat" must be tried; but this is not an inherent or perpetual characfteristic of a Vegetarian regime, which, when once fairly started, is far simpler and less troublesome than the system of flesh-eating. If Vegetarianism had existed as a national custom for some centuries, and flesh-food were now being introduced as a novelty, precisely the same objecftion might be urged on the other side ; it would then be the flesh-eater who would be obliged to hunt out recipes and 'think about his food.' And he would have a much less pleasant subjedt to think about.
4. " Vegetarianism is a mere crotchet,'' This is a statement which often does much injury to the cause of Food Reform, by represent- ing it as a fanciful whim, amiable enough and praiseworthy in intention, but undeserving of the consideration of pracflical men. When there is so much real work to be done in this world, it is childish — so argues the earnest and philanthropic flesh-eater — to waste time on theories which are the mere dreams of humanitarian sentimentalists and fanatical crotchet-mongers. This is an argu- ment which, in the mouth of an unscrupulous opponent, is always sure of a considerable amount of success ; for there is no charge of which Englishmen stand in such mortal and unreasoning terror as the very vague accusation of " sentimentalism." Men who are naturally gentle and kind-hearted, will obstinately close their ears to anything which can expose them to the least suspicion of " sen- timent," and will san(5tion any cruelty rather than run the risk of being ridiculed as " humanitarians." Again, there is a natural disinclination among honest and hard-working men to attend to any new do(5trines or speculations which may distracft their thoughts from the leading obje(5l of their lives, and this disinclination is strengthened tenfold when they are told that the theories in question are visionary and unpracStical. Now this is exactly what is con- stantly being asserted by the opponents of all reforms, not least of Food Reform. Yet, how can Vegetarianism be truthfufly described as a mere craze and oddity? It can hardly be denied that it is praifticable ; for it is seen to be pradtised by many who owe to it increased health and happiness. Its indubitable economy cannot wisely be disregarded in a country where poverty is as prevalent as in ours. If we are not blinded by prejudice and custom, we should see that the most truly pracflical man is he who can live most simply, healthily, and contentedly; while the term "crotchet-
monger " is to none more fitly applicable than to him who fondly imagines that he cannot live a useful life without costly and unnecessary food. But, alas! this is one of the commonest of all fallacies, to make ourselves believe that those people are " unprac- tical" who advocate a course of life which we ourselves do not wish to pradlise.
5. " We ought to eat meat for the sake of others.'' Selfishness is the next crime with which the Vegetarian is charged. His relatives are anxious about him, for he is delicate by nature, and the dodtor has been heard to mutter words of ominous import ; the neighbours are beginning to talk ; the servants too are puzzled and annoyed ; the cook grumbles at having to prepare new dishes, and the butcher's tenderest feelings are shocked and violated. Would it not be far nobler and more unselfish on the part of the author of all this trouble, if he would set aside his own personal feelings, and eat meat for the sake of others ? This, which may be termed "the family fallacy," is of much the same nature as the last; the only difference being that there it was the fear of sentimentalism, here it is the fear of selfishness that is used as a powerful lever to warp the reasoning powers of the unwary. The fallacy lies in represent- ing Vegetarianism as a mere idle whim and personal predilecftion, such as it would indeed be selfish to pracflise, where it caused trouble or anxiety to others. But all true Food Reformers know that it is much more than this ; a man who has once understood the full meaning and value of Food Reform cannot return to a flesh- diet, for any motive, however specious, without wronging and ruining the whole spirit of his life. In a case where one feels as strongly as this, it is no question of selfishness or unselfishness ; it is a sheer absurdity for a man to give up what he feels to be true and right. No person in the world is justified in demanding such a sacrifice as this, and no Vegetarian is justified in granting it if demanded.
6. " What should we do without leather? " is perhaps the commonest of a host of questions of a similar kind, the objecfl of which is to shew to what desperate straits civilized men would be reduced, if they were deprived of the use of animal substances. Jocose flesh- eaters take a malicious delight in pointing out and enumerating to Vegetarians the many animal substances now in common use, and in taunting them with inconsistency in using them. The consistent Food Reformer, they say, must abjure boots and leather in all its forms ; he must not even be drawn by a vehicle where the harness is of leather. His books must not be bound in calf; seal-skin and all furs must be banished from his household. Bone too must be prohibited ; and he must bethink him of some substitute even for soap and candles. All this is amusing enough, but the answer to it is of the simplest and most conclusive kind. The difficulties mentioned are only temporary and incidental, and are merely owing to the facft that the abundance of animal substance from the car- cases of slaughtered beasts has naturally been used to supply our wants, to the exclusion of other material. Vv'hen once the supi)ly
of carcases began to diminish, invention would soon be busy, and the wants of man would he equally well supplied from other sources. This process would of course be a gradual one, keeping pace exacflly with the gradual change from a diet of animal to vegetable food: at no period would there be the smallest confusion or inconvenience to anybody. In the meantime, Vegetarians need not seriously trouble themselves with the foolish charge of "inconsistency." They use leather, &c., now, not from any personal preference for such substances, but because, owing to the unpleasant dietetic habits of other people, it so happens that they can at present get nothing else. It is important, however, for Food Reformers to feel sure that the adoption of their principles would cause no real and permanent deficiencies in the appliances of civilized life ; and on this point I think they may feel easy. We hear of many trivial and hardly serious objedlions, but I do not think any really neces- sary or important animal producftion can be mentioned, for which as good a substitute could not easily be supplied from the vegetable or mineral kingdom. It may afford some pleasant mental exercise to our carnivorous friends to tax their ingenuity on this point.
7. And now we come to two of the most amusing and characfter- istic arguments of our opponents. Finding that direcfl attacks on Vegetarianism are by no means unanswerable, and that the diffi- culties of that system are not so insuperable as has been fondly supposed, they have recourse to what may be considered a most ingenious after-thought. They are suddenly filled with profound concern for the true interests of the animals themselves ! " What would become of the animals P " is a question to which these humane and unselfish disputants invite our serious attention. If they were not killed for food, would they not soon run wild in great numbers, and be reduced to a grievous state through famine and bodily ill-condition ? Would they not lie dying in great numbers by a slow and painful death, instead of being quickly and mercifully despatched by the hands of the butcher ?
It is almost incredible that any reasoning person should ask such questions as these ; yet the facff that they are repeatedly asked must be my excuse for spending a few moments in answering them. Some persons are unaware, or aff"edl: to be unaware, that even under the present system the increase of domestic animals is not left free and unrestri(51:ed ; that the cook makes known her demands to the butcher, the butcher in his turn applies to the cattle-breeder, and animals are bred and supplied precisely in proportion to this demand. If Vegetarianism ever became general, only such animals would be bred, and only in such limited numbers, as would then be required for the service of men ; as, for instance, sheep for their wool, and horses for their value as beasts of burden. This change would of course be a gradual one : the demand for other cattle would not cease suddenly, nor would cattle-breeders be ruined by finding their occupation suddenly gone. Nor need we fear that any animals would eventually be lef"t unprovided for on our hands; for there would undoubtedly be some loyal and conservative flesh-
eaters, who, faithful to the end, would perform the useful task of eating up any otherwise superfluous oxen and swine. Horses are not at present usually killed for the sake of tlieir flesh ; yet it is not found that they run wild in great numbers, or lie dying about our fields. Donkeys are not used for human food; yet it is, pro- verbially, a rare thing to see a dead donkey. So, too, would it be under a Vegetarian regime. Animals would be bred only in such numbers as were actually required. When they were worn out by old age or disease, they would, if incurable, be mercifully killed and buried.
8. " Ah," says some more profound and metaphysical flesh-eater, "but observe that in thus diminishing the number of animals that are born into the world, you are also diminishing the sum of animal happiness. At present a large number of animals live a happy life, and die a speedy death, and the balance of pleasure must be surely in their favour. It is better for the animals themselves to live and to be killed, than not to live at all.'"
Such reasoning, if accepted as a justification of flesh-eating, must also justify vivise(5tion or any torture whatever. A vivisecftor who breeds rabbits for that purpose, might argue that it is better for the rabbits to live a year and be tortured an hour than not to live at all. The humane flesh-eater may be shocked, but if he will examine the argument he will find it precisely identical with his own. This may lead us to suspedt the validity of such reasoning ; yet it is so frequently advanced by persons of considerable intelli- gence and education that it deserves to be carefully examined and refuted. Its fallacy arises from a confusion of ideas about " life," as compared with previous existence or non-existence.
Now animals either exist, or do not exist, before the commence- ment of "life." If they do exist, this ante-natal condition may, for all we know, be a happier state than "life," and it is therefore absurd to assert that we do animals a kindness in breeding them. On the other hand, if we assume, as seems most probable, that they do not exist before birth, how can the transition from non- existence to existence be shewn to be an advantage ? That which is non-existent is alike beyond the reach of pleasure or pain, and the terms "good," "bad," "better," "worse," can only apply to that which is already existent. Of the non-existent we can predicate just this — nothing. To say, therefore, that we have done a kindness to our born flocks in giving them life, is as sheer and utter nonsense as to say that we have done an ?wkindness to our unborn flocks, in not making special arrangements for their birth ! Or, in other words, a man brings more happiness into the world, in exacft pro- portion as he eats more flesh-meat and enlarges the trade of the butcher and cattle-breeder. If we all resolve to eat twice as much mutton, there will be twice as many sheep, and the beneficent flesh -eater will observe with complacent self-satisfaction twice as much frisking happiness among the lambs in spring-time !
The facft is that the duty of kindness and gentleness to the lower animals begins only at the time of their birth, and ends only at
their deatli, nor can it be evaded by any references to ante-natal existence, or non-existence. Such devices are only an after thought by which flesh-eaters try to escape the responsibility of their own adts. It may or may not be better for mankind, that animals should be bred and slaughtered for food : it certainly is not better for the animals themselves.
9. Next we come to what is sometimes described as the great justification of flesh-eating, the argument drawn from nature. Flesh-eating, it is said, cannot be immoral, because it is part of the great natural system whereby the economy of the world is regulated and preserved. The flesh-eater triumphantly quotes Mr. Tennyson's lines in "Maud" —
" For Nature is one with rapine, a harm no preacher can heal. The May-fly is torn by the swallow, the sparrow is speared by the shrike, And the whole Uttle wood where I sit is a world of plunder and prey."
This being so, " is it right,'' asks our pious and scrupulous friend " to refuse to conform to the didlates of Nature?"
The fallacy here consists in advancing as a binding and universal law of Nature, that which is in reality only a special and partial one. It is true that some animals are carnivorous ; if a cat were to refuse a mouse, her conducft might conceivably be argued to be unnatural, and, therefore, immoral. But it is equally true, that other animals are «o^ carnivorous; we are not so unreasonable as to expe(5l a horse to eat rats and mice; why then should it be unnatural or ungrateful in man to decline to prey upon the lower animals ? The flesh-eater must first prove that man is acftually a carnivorous rather than frugivorous being ; and this, we imagine would be rather a difficult task.
The absurd assertion so often made, that animals were ''sent'' us as food, may be classed under this same head. The mere fadt that we have been accustomed to eat flesh-food, no more proves that animals were created for this purpose, than the existence of canni- balism proves that missionaries are " sent" to the South Sea Islands solely as an article of food, or the existence of slavery that black men were "sent" to be the slaves of white. In barbarous times cruel pra(5tices are originated, and afterwards are confirmed by cen- turies of habit, till at last, when humanity raises a protest against them, men are so blinded by custom as to attribute to God or na- ture that which is in reality only the result of their own vice and degradation.
10. The fallacy derived from " the necessity of taking life. Many people seem to think it a sufficient refutation of Vegetarian prin- ciples to point out that it is absolutely necessary in some cases to take the lives of animals. They delight in showing that we are obliged to kill wild animals, to keep down vermin, and to destroy domestic animals when old and diseased ; or that we inci- dentally take life even in such innocent acSts as cooking a cabbage or drinking a glass of water. The fallacy consists partly in wrongly assuming that the objett of Vegetarianism is " not to take any life ; "
whereas it is really "not to take Yik unnecessarily''' (the last word, conveniently omitted by our opponents, containing in facl: the whole essence of the Vegetarian creed), and partly in the strange idea that because it is sometimes necessarj' to take life, it must be always allowable. Vegetarians are not so foolish as to deny the necessity of sometimes destroying animals, both intentionally and by acci- dent; but that is no reason for killing more animals than is really necessary, but rather the reverse. It is quite true that we must in self-defence keep down vermin; but it does not follow that it is advisable to eat their carcases. It is quite true that we cannot avoid accidentally taking life ; but that can scarcely justify us in purposely breeding animals for the slaughter-house. To assert that because we accidentally tread on a beetle, we are justiiied in deliberately slaughtering an ox ; or that because we chance to swallow a fly, we are right in bleeding a calf to death and enjoying our veal, is an argument which must equally justify homicide and murder of every description. A murderer might argue in like manner, that he found he was always treading on spiders, and therefore it was obviously necessary "to take life."
11. ^' The Scriptural argument.'' I have often been met by the remark that any system which condemns flesh-eating must be wrong, because it was sanc5lioned by the usage of the Jews, and is mentioned without disapproval in the New Testament. Having no wish to enter on any religious controversy, I will very briefly state why I consider such reasoning fallacious. It is only in late ages that Vegetarianism has been seriously studied and adopted as a principle ; only lately has its deeper import been widely and systematically recognised. It follows, therefore, that it is unreason- able to look to the New Testament for teaching on this subjecft, which was quite unknown to the Jews of that day, and was reserved for the consideration of a future generation. Why need we fear to admit that morality, or rather the knowledge of morality, is progressive, and that which is allowable in one age is not necessarily so in another? For instance, the habit of slavery was sancftioned in the Old Testament, and not condemned in the New ; yet it is not now denied that the abolition of slavery marked an advance in moral knowledge. So, too, it will be in the question of Food Reform.
12. Finally, when all other objecftions are exhausted, we have usually to defend ourselves against this last spiteful thrust, the arrow which our Parthian-like antagonist discharges as he turns in flight, worsted in the argumentative combat. ''If you use milk and eggs, you are not a 'Vegetarian' at all." I have included this among our so-called "fallacies" because, though of ccjurse it is verbally true that milk and eggs are "animal" producfts, yet the sense in which the objetftion is made is in most cases entirely mis- leading and fallacious. It has always surprised mv. that some Food Reformers have allowed themselves to be troubled by this captious obje(ftion to the name "Vegetarian," and have tried, with singular lack of success, to provide themselves with some other title; for
8 ■
the popular name "Vegetarian" is probably the best one that could be found, and I confess I utterly fail to see why it is inappli- cable to those who live mainly on a vegetable diet. The immediate objedl: that "Vegetarians" aim at is not so much the disuse of "animal" substances in general, as the abolition of flesh-meat in particular. If they can drive their opponents to make the very important admission that acftual flesh-food is unnecessary, they can surely afford to smile at the very trivial retort that "animal" sub- stance is still used in eggs and milk. And, as a matter of fadt, all Food Reformers know well that even milk and eggs are quite un- necessary to those who eat no flesh, though many "Vegetarians" use them as being at present cheap and plentiful, and as affording a modus vivendi to those who might otherwise be altogether excluded by dietetic differences from the society of their friends. Under a more natural system of diet we should soon dispense with them altogether, but in the mean time we hold ourselves free to use them without renouncing the name "Vegetarian," at the risk of shocking the verbal precision of our carnivorous friends.
I have now answered what appear to me to be the commonest of our adversaries' arguments. Would-be Vegetarians are at first so often subjecfted to annoyance and molestation, owing to the kindly anxieties of friends and relatives, and the more officious advice of acquaintances, that it is well to be fore-armed in argu- ment. The early career of a Vegetarian is indeed often a veritable Pilgrim's Progress. He meets with no lack of such charadters as Mistrust, Timorous, and Ignorance: Mr. Wordly Wiseman, the representative of Society, is always at hand with his plausible remonstrances: even the dreadful Apollyon himself, in the form of the family physician, occasionally bestrides the path of the bold adventurer, with his awful and solemn warning^ — "Prepare thyself to die." But if the pilgrim presses boldly on his course, these early obstacles will rapidly vanish from his path ; even as Apollyon, when he felt the thrust of Christian's sword, " spread forth his dragon's wings and sped him away." h. s. salt.
-k5=-«-
REPRINTED FKOM "THE FOOD REFORM MAGAZINE.
PLEASE CIRCULATE THIS PAPER.
The National Food Reform Society is established to promote, as essential articles of diet, the use of fruits, nuts, grains, and other rroducts of the vegetable Mngdom. The Society seeks to promote this object by means of a magazine (The Food lieform Magazine), literature, essays, lectures, social meetings, and public discussions. Offices — 30, Rochester Boad, London, N.W. Able lecturers on Food Reform are furnished, free of expense, to other Societies, when desired. A packet of literature will be sent, post free, upon application to the Secretary, as above. Minimum Annual Subscription {including magazine) half-a-crown.
Bainbs, Printer, Fairfax Place, South Hampstead.
Tv^e BOY TELESCOPE MAKER.
I
Y)0]M I FiRsir Saw Saturn :
Or the Boy Telescope Maker,
By WALTER BELL,
ARCHITECT,
CAMBRIDGE.
BEING DIRECTIONS, WITH DIAGRAMS, FOR MAKING TELESCOPES WITH PAPER MOUNTS
AS A PASTIME.
Post free of the Author for Twelve Stamps.
W. P. Spalding, 43, Sidney Street.
•
printed by "The Cambridge Express " J^eWspaper Gomparxvj (Limited).
c
ONTENTS.
Chapter I.
Paper Telescope making, an amusement for boys and girls. — Opportunities nnv compared with past times. — Great knowledge of tlie Ancients compared with the ignorance of the Middle Ages. Page ~.
Chapter II. Names and description of lenses most used. Pa-ge lo.
Chapter III.
Galileo's first telescope. — How to construct an imitation in paper mounts. — Its power. Page 12.
Chapter IV.
The cheap astronomical telescope. — Construction explained. — How to
calculate the power. — Materials required. — Starting the tubes. — How to set
the glasses. Page 17.
Chapter V.
Some of the heavenly bodies we should examine. — What we may expect to see. Page 26.
Chapter VI.
An Improved Telescope. — The Object Glass. — Setting and testing. — Improved eye-pieces for both kinds. — Making the Huygenian eye-pieces selecting from odd lenses. — Making the Ramsden eye-piece. P<^ge 32.
Chapter VII.
The terrestrial eye-piece. — Making a convertablc eye-piece. — Usual pro- portions of erecting eye-pieces. Page 39.
PREFACE.
The following Chapters are put before the public to assist those who may be in search of a useful hobby, by giving a few hints on making telescopes with paper mounts.
In describing the lenses and alluding to the Heavenly bodies, the subjects are dealt with in amateur fashion, without trespassing upon scientific ground.
In the hope that these hints may induce many, who have idle hours, to take up a pastime both fascinating and instructive, they are now offered by
THE AUTHOR
Cambridge, 1895.
Chapter I.
There are few school-boys who have not made the discovery that of all amusements there are none that give the lasting gratification like that of making something, and bringing that something into use. And there are probably few men who have not some pleasure in looking back upon holiday time so spent.
There is not only great charm about making things that we can use ourselves^ but it is generally found that the eye and the hand have been trained, and a vast amount of knowledge acquired, far in advance of what is often the result when boys are supplied with all they can wish for, ready made.
Making paper telescopes has afforded the author so much pleasure, that he feels it would be much more taken up it boys were introduced to it by one who had followed it as an amateur, instead of leaving them to search works written on behalf of scientific discovery. It is to supply this want that this little work is now offered to the young who have time on their hands, and are perhaps wasting it in many ways they will ever after regret. Here, then, it is proposed to shew what may be done with waste time, waste paper, ordinary fingers, and no extraordinary purse.
Before proceeding to the workshop part of the business, let us take a brief peep into the historical side of the star-gazing question, that we may compare what was done in ancient times with what can be done now. By so doing, we shall the better appreciate the grand opportunities that boys now possess.
8
Very, very long ago (thousands of years) much more was known of the stars in their courses than we are apt to suppose. The Caldeans and Egyptians had gone deeply into these mysteries.
These ancient observers knew when the sun ran his daily course what stars where behind him, and would be visible but for the superior splendour of his light. They knew that the earth was but one of a group travelling with the sun on a defined course among the fixed stars. The origin of the names by which many of the constellations are now known, and even those of the signs of the Zodiac are lost in antiquity. If we look at the book of Job, written about 1520 years B.C., verses 31, 32 and 33 of chapter xxxviii. are alone sufficient to show that in very early times astronomy was understood in a way that would put to shame the ignorance and superstition that existed through- out Europe until the sixteenth century.
Think, for a moment, how these great men of old time would have valued and turned to grand account a couple of simple lenses that are now to be had by any school boy. How delighted they would have been to have seen Venus as a crescent, and had a peep at the Pleiades, and found even by these simple means how many more lovely gems it possessed than their unaided eyes had seen. In fact, they would have found the face of the whole heavens contained thousands upon thousands more stars than they had ever seen before. What may be seen through a modest instrument, that any boy or girl can make, will be treated more exactly in a future chapter.
Let us now go back to the days of the first Popes of Rome. Rome, the great centre of the wealth and splendour of this hemisphere, attempting to control not only the learning, but the opinions of all her people.
Now, unfortunately, the Romans were poor mathematicians, and of astronomy they knew absolutely nothing. It was ignorantly believed that the flat earth was the centre of the universe, the Pope being its head. It was evident that no discovery in astronomy (nor indeed in anything else) could improve so exalted a position. The natural result was [that most men who had ideas that did not quite tally with those of the Pope, if good Catholics, kept those ideas carefully to themselves ; while others, who were bold enough to discuss them, were promptly punished as heretics, before a new theory could be fairly developed. As late as the year a.d. 1600, Bruno was burnt for propounding the theory that the earth was but one planet in the heavens among many. Of course, this gave the Pope's dominion a very subordinate place in the universe. Soon after, in the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury, Galileo, the great Florentine astronomer, was thrown into prison for proclaiming his belief in a similar doctrine. By this time, among the first fruits of the Reformation, appeared the printing press in England and Germany.
Thus new ideas on all matters were sown broadcast throughout Europe, rudely regardless whether they exposed Papal superstition or not. This privilege having been care- fully preserved for us, let us take full advantage of it. After a few words upon glasses generally, we will discuss Galileo's Telescope, generally believed to be the first that was ever made.
lO
Chapter II.
Glasses generally.
We must first make a list of llie names of tlie lenses mentioned in this work, in order that the reader may know where to refer if necessary hereafter.
1. Concaved; having both surfaces concaved. This \( would make any object seen through it look
smaller, and more distant.
2. Plano-concave ; having one surface flat and the |( other concaved.
3. Bi-convex ; having both sides convexed to the ( \ same sweep. This is the ordinary magnifying
glass.
4. Double convex. Same as No. 3, but having the () sides of different sweeps.
5. Plano-convex. Having one side flat and the other I ) convexed.
When we speak of a magnifying glass having so many inches focal length, we mean that the distance at which the rays that pass through it would meet at a centre : being point C in Fig. I. It is the distance at which it would be held from a piece of cloth to burn it most effectually by the sun's rays. As tlie concaved glasses spread the rays they })ro_ duce no such point ; therefore, if we speak of one as a four-inch, we should mean that it required the strength of a four-inch convexed lens to neutralise it. That is, if we place the two close together and look through them, we shall find they appear scarcely different to plain glass.
The word lens is said to have be^n taken from lentil, because a magnifying glass resembles it somewhat in shape. In common phraseology almost any piece of glass that is used to refract light is now called a lens.
II
The invention of the magnifying glass must rank among the grandest of all human works. By it the human eye has been permitted to pierce remote space and scan worlds before unknown. By it secrets are revealed from the atoms of the earth. It has given us the camera and spectroscope, which have carried science beyond the wildest dreams of romance. Those who have spare time and want a hobby would do well to improve their acquaintance with the lens.
12
Chapter III.
Galileo's Telescope. This simple instrument consisted of but two glasses. The more important of the two is the objective, sometimes called the object glass. Now refer to Fig. I, and we shall
o
learn how to place it. It is marked O G. We have here the section of an ordinary magnifying glass, and we are to suppose that rays of light come from the large arrow in the direction of the lines. The curves of the glass would refract them to one centre, marked C. If we place a piece of white paper at this centre, we shall see an inverted image of the arrow, or any thing that happens to be in front, provided it is well lighted. Now, if instead of allowing the rays to meet at C, we place a concave glass, which we may call the eye
lens, at E L, as in Fig. II, this glass having the power of spreading the rays, they will emerge almost parallel as they entered 0 G at first.
The result will be that an eye placed as in sketch will have an enlarged view of the arrow, not inverted, but erect, as seen by the unaided eye. Here then we have a telescope like Galileo's.
13
The magnifying power is determined by the proportionate difference between the distance that E L and O G are from point C, where the rays would have met, as seen in Fig. I, without the second glass.
We will suppose that O G has a focal distance of 36 inches ; now if the concave glass be of a strength equal to 3 inches, the clearest view would be obtained by placing it that distance from C. This would give a power of twelve. By the power of twelve we mean it would make a distant church steeple look twelve times as high, or the moon look twelve times as wide in diameter. If we apply this to superficial measurement, it makes a surface look twelve times twelve, or one hundred and forty-four times greater than it would look to the unaided eye. For the sake of simplicity we shall always mean so many times in diameter.
The power of twelve here given is perhaps as high as it would be of any practical use to make a telescope of this class.
The exact power of Galileo's first instrument is not known — some think about eighteen, and it is said to have been set up in a leaden tube.
This very simple form of telescope is the only one known that will shew objects the right way up with but two glasses.
For astronomical work it has long been given up. It is not adapted for taking measurements, and even with a moderate power the field of view is so small that it is a very troublesome instrument to use.
The ordinary opera glass is usually formed of this con- struction, such a low power being required — generally but two or three diameters— the field of view is therefore not reduced unpleasantl}'. The young telescopist will soon discover that, although different combinations of glasses give different fields of view {i.e., some wider than others with the same
14
15
power), yet, as we increase the power by the same system, the width of the field of view is diminished. Nothing is more troublesome to an amateur than an arrangement which gives too small a field, and unless well mounted on a good stand so that it can be turned in any direction at will, to find a star or anything small is a tedious job. Should, however, our amateur wish to amuse himself making a Galilean telescope, he will find such as shewn in Fig. IV a very useful little instrument for looking at terrestrial objects, but too weak for a stargazer.
It is intended to have for an object marked O G a bi-convex lens of 13 inches focal length and i inch in diameter. If, when complete, the tubes are pulled out, the glasses would be io| inches apart, the eye lens E L being of the strength of 2\ inches. Thus the magnifying power would be 5^- diameters. When closed for carrying in the pocket it would be 7| inches long, and if inch in diameter.
It can be easily constructed entirely of paper; and, if the tubes are solid and carefully made, they should be nearly as hard as wood and last for many years, and once true keep true in a way better than we could expect wood to act. First we make the tube A the exact size outside of the first glass we wish to mount — E L. Outside this we form a second tube B by rolling paper round it, from which it can be easily removed and replaced. Now, if we cut the inner tube we can insert the glass between the two pieces, and fix them in any position we like within the larger tube B. A third tube C is made in the same way over B, and over this a fourth tube outside of all. Now let the third tube C be cut into four pieces of the lengtlis shewn at 0, F, D, H. Two of tliese will be used to fix the glass O G (in tlie same manner as tlie eye glass). The third piece must be fixed outside the end of tube B at D. The fourth piece placed on B but fixed to outside tube only.
i6
The instrument is now complete. Tubes A, B, C should be -g- of an inch thick. Tlie outer one somewhat thicker, and if covered with dark whole coloured paper should have a neat appearance.
Directions for making these tubes are more fully given in the next Chapter.
17
Chapter IV.
Making the Astronomical Telescope.
The first Telescope that was of any real use to the Astronomer is generally called Kepler's. If the reader will refer to Fig. Ill, which shews this simple form of the refracting telescope as it existed in the days of Sir Isaac Newton, he will see at once the difference between it and tliat of Galileo. In that we are now about to consider, the
rays from the objective 0 G are allowed to meet at their natural centre C. With E L, the eye lens, the image then formed is examined in a similar way that we should take a glass to look at any material thing.
It will be seen that the rays spread from C towards E L. The eye glass, being convexed, has the tendency to bring them together. The result is, that they are again made nearly parallel, and thus a clear view is obtained ; now inverted, the rays having been allowed to cross at C.
The magnifying power can be reckoned in a similar way to that mentioned before, by the difference of the focal length of the two lenses. Thus, if the objective were 36 inches focal length, and the eye glass 3 inches focal length, the power thus combined would be twelve diameters. This construction gives a much larger field of view than the Galilean.
i8
By it a larger body than the moon could be seen at one view with the highest powers herein mentioned in connection with this telescope. Its simplicity at once pro- claims it the instrument of the amateur.
Now to set about making it, as shewn in
MATERIALS Fig. V. The first thing to be considered
REQUIRED. is, what materials shall we want and their
cost. The author, thirty years ago, con- structed a similar one with glasses that cost about fourteen pence. The objective lens being a spectacle glass that had not been cut oval. But as much time is to be spent upon the making, and we hope much more in the using, it is advisable to pay about three times that amount for the glasses, as upon their quality the success of the whole thing largely depends.
We shall require for this work: first, the objective glass, a bi-convex lens having a focal length of 50 inches, and two inches in diameter; secondly, the eyeglass, being also a bi-convex lens, ik inch focal length. This would be about i inch diameter, giving a power 33I diameters. It will be advisable to have lower powers, but these can always be added. One of 2 inch, giving a pov/er of 25, and even one weaker than that, for looking at star groups and comets, would be found useful by reason of its wider field.
The next material that is to play an important part in the work is the paper. Choose a fairly strong paper, not loo thick. Probably the best, is that largely used by architects for their specifications, and solicitors for their briefs. This, like most things that are good, is rather expensive to buy, it being hand nude. It does not matter in the least whether the same kind is used throughout or not, so that if a few sheets of really good paper be found, keep them for starting the tubes, that being an all important part.
In case enough waste paper cannot be collected, it would be well to buy at a paperhanger's shop a roll of white lining paper,
19
w
o o
W
Hi
w H
i-i <
s
o !z; o
B< H
<l
w I-I
C/} yj
OS
w 1-1
Oi
20
such as is sold at about is. the piece of 12 yards by 21 inches wide. The next article is a penny cake of water-colour lamp black. This is better than Indian ink, as it dries more of a dead black. The last item is the paste, which must be good ; and as many young people do not know how to make it, we may as well give a receipt with this list.
Take a good heaping table-spoonful of flour, put it in a clean saucepan, very gradually mix water with it until half a pint is added. This must be done in such a way that it looks all even, there must not be lumps of flour in a lot of thin stuff. Put the saucepan on the fire and keep it well stirring the whole time it is on. It may remain there until about two minutes after it has boiled. When cold it will stiffen and may almost be emptied out in a lump. If not taken off the fire at the time mentioned it will be cooked and its sticking power diminished. It can be made extra strong by adding to the water a little piece of glue that has been previously boiled. A small quantity of powdered alum added to it prevents it going sour so quickl}/. Gum may be used, but for the larger tubes paste seems to work better. A drawing board, say 24 inches by 17 inches, will be found very useful to work upon.
We now begin with the eye glass (refer to
THE BLOCK TO Fig. V). Take a round ruler, it may be
START THE WORK formed of wood or paper, fully 6 inches long.
UPON. An ordinary cedar pencil will do well to
start upon. Cover it by carefully rolling paper round it until it is ^V °^ ^'^ ^'^^^^ ^®^^ ''" diamater than the eye glass. It will not be necessary to gum each round, but all the paper must be firm and flat and the sides perfectly parallel ; the edge of each roll should always finish straight, or it will not be possible to keep the work true.
We now have the block -^jr inch in diameter, about 7 inches long on which to start making the first tube.
21
This is formed by gumming or pasting paper TUBE A. round the block until it is the same size as
the lens, -f inch outside, and 6 to 7 inches long. (Only two or three inches of this will be required, but the cutting will be explained afterwards.) The paper for making this should be 7 inches wide and about 9 inches long. Pieces longer than this would be difficult to keep true.
The part that is to be rolled immediately next the block, and will, when finished, become the inside of the tube, should have several coats of the lamp-black paint. Care must be taken that no gum finds its way upon this black part, or a solid block will be the result instead of a tube, but all the rest of that side of the paper must be carefully gummed.
Whether gum or paste be used, it will be found bette to allow a few minutes to elapse between brushing it on the paper and rolling it round, to give the moisture time to penetrate to some extent. This dampness will cause the paper to shrink, and perhaps be too tight on the block when dry, to allow it to slide off without injury. To prevent this it is well to roll in a slip of dry paper, about an inch wide and a bit longer than the tube. This slip can be withdrawn when the work is half dry, and will make room for shrinkage ; besides, should a little gum have found its way through the joint, its removal will prevent the tube becoming stuck to the block. In about twenty minutes another piece about the same size may be put on. After this it will be well to roll it up in dry paper and put the work away until thoroughly dry — which will be some hours — then the process must be repeated until the tube is finch in diameter outside, that being the size of the lens we wish to mount.
When this first tube A is fairly dry, proceed
TUBE B. to make tube B outside of it in the same
way, being careful to gum all the surface,
except that which comes next the inner tube. Give all these
22
inner surfaces a good coat of the black paint, and always insert the temporary slips, going about half way round and covering the joint as before described, when starting one tube over another. Tube B, when finished, should be, inside, just large enough for the lens to drop in easily, and outside a \ inch larger in diameter, and not less than 7 inches long.
Outside B form C in the same way ; re- TUBE C. member, to insure success, the work must
not be done in a hurry, and each piece of paper should start and finish with edges straight along the tube. Form C until it grows to if inch in diameter and 7 inches long. Now this tube C must remain this diameter for a time, that it may be used as a block on which to make the mounts for the objective. The inner block and tubes should remain in their places all the time to assist in keeping the whole work firm and true. Proceed for each tube in the same manner.
The tubes for the objective consist of, first, that im' mediately over the block, if inch inside and 2 inches outside diameter, one over this being 2 inches inside and 2f inches outside diameter.
When the tubes are perfectly dry, both ends
MOUNTING THE must be cut off to where they appear as a
GLASSES. soHd block, the best tool for this important
job is a very Jine toothed saw, this done
as neatly as the tools at command will allow. Each end
must now be ground true — that is, square with the sides of
the tubes. This can best be tested by standing it upright
on end, and observing as it turns round whether it keeps the
same line with any well-defined upright line that can be seen
the other side of it, as a sash or door frame.
The grinding of the tube is not difficult; with a little care a smooth piece of Yorkshire stone will do well, sometimes
23
the hearth stone will be found just the thing. If one tube be slightly turned round within the others, it will easily be seen whether the edges agree, and even if they are such a match that the eye can scarcely detect a difference, another rub will find it out and put it right.
Having ground these two ends as carefully as possible the inner eyeglass tube A and the inner tube belonging to the objective must be cut to the lengths required, and the process of grinding repeated. It will not be found quite so easy now the tubes have been separated and cut. This need not cause trouble, as if the second cuttings be only fairly neat, the inner pieces can be reversed. Thus in each case placing next the lens the end that is the truest.
It is not desireable to fix the tubes at once ; they can be used as they are, and should a slight shrinkage take place might require half a round of paper adding.
Having mounted the objective and released tube C, the latter should now be covered with paper until it becomes the same size as the outermost, being 2f inch externally.
It would be found difficult without great practise to construct the outer tube wholly of paper ; it would have to be at least j^ inch thick, nearly 50 inches long, and 2f inches diameter inside. It would require a block to make it upon. Therefore it would be better to get a tinman to make one in sheet zinc — this should not cost more than three shillings. The ends should be protected by having a piece of brass wire soldered round as shown in Fig. V. It is a good plan to cover this tube outside with a few rounds of paper, finishing with a whole colour like dark green to make it look neat ; or it could be finished witii a covering of American cloth, accord- ing to fancy. Paper is an excellent material for this part of the work. It checks vibration, often objectionable in other constructions, and being a slow conductor of heat prevents the air inside changing temperature too rapidly.
24
The inside of the zinc tube, which is not next the paper mounts, must, Hke all the rest of the inside, be made a dead black. Black cloth has the surface we should imitate. The only objection to it is that it would be difficult to fix it in its place. Perhaps the simple way to finish is to roll up paper that has been well painted, and place it in as a lining — it need not be made into a tube. It is a very black job to paint the tube itself black; but if the reader wishes to try, he must get a little powder black from the colour shop, mix it with water and hot size, to this add a piece of tallow about as large as a nut. This will prevent it from drying too brittle. In which case it would scale off.
When using the higher powers, if the dis-
REDUCING , • 1 . 1 1 ^u
colourmg be troublesome, the outer rays
APERTURE. , u K . /r 1 j • .i
should be cut off by reducing the aperture-
Thus, cut a card, well blacked, to size of object glass, to
form a cover ; making a circular opening in centre, if inch
diameter, or any reduced size that may be found necessary.
Venus will mostly require this even with the low powers
recommended.
We have been describing an instrument having an objective, whose focal length is 50 inches, as being the most serviceable. Little would be gained by having it longer, as for three times the power about nine times the length would be required. Should, however, our amateur have to work in a small room, and prefer a shorter tube, which would be more handy, he could reduce it by starting with an objective of 40 inches focal length only.
It could rarely be used with a larger aperture than i^ inch, therefore, the objective need not be more than i| inch diameter, or the opening could be reduced as occasion required with the circular card before mentioned.
25
With the reduced opening and focal length of course the eye glass must follow. An i| inches would give a power of 32 diameters, and be the highest this construction would carry.
This simple arrangement reduced to 40 inches will, of course, shew only under most favourable circumstances all that is mentioned under the head of "What we are to see.''
If, however, our amateur will make for it one of the compound eye pieces described in Chapter VI, he is not likely to be disappointed with the result.
In order to avoid the necessity of removing the eye glass from its mount to try another power, each new eye- piece should be mounted in a tube six to seven inches long, and of the same external diameter as that marked B. By this arrangement any change can be quickly made, and the mounts last for a considerable time.
26
Chapter V.
What we are to see.
Most people when they first look through an astronomical telescope seem disappointed ; having heard so much of gigantic orbs and big figures in connection with the wonders of the heavens, and half forgetting that the big figures refer to distances so remote that the human eye, with human aids, is permitted but a faint glimpse into these realms of wonder. The great discoveries we hear of are the rewards of long lives of observation and research, that the ordinary observer must be content if he can only verify a few of the more simple facts connected with so deep a study. The list herein given must not be looked upon as complete. The reader must also be reminded that an eye unaccustomed to telescopic work will not see so much detail as one more trained, and that those who are fond of the work and persevere are generally rewarded by finding that their eyes are to some extent be- coming trained and seem to penetrate deeper than when they first began. Our English atmosphere is proverbially change- able, and our amateur will find that by comparing two nights work, both of which were judged equally clear, proved by result by no means equally favourable to the sight. It occasionally happens that when there are a few clouds drifting and we have to wait for a look between, that look has been rewarded with an exceptional good view. It will require some experience to know when to expect the best results.
We are now dealing only with those objects that may be seen with a simple instrument that any boy or girl may make, as shewn in Fig. V, whose greatest magnifying power is only to reach about thirty-three diameters. We advise our reader not
27
to attempt to look at the sun through this instrument by the aid of smoked or stained glasses. Persons getting interested are apt not to remove their eyes at the first indication of discomfort, and a lasting injury to the sight may be the result. The best way to look at the sun with such appliances as are here described is to throw its image upon a sheet of white paper. There are often spots upon its surface large enough to be seen in this way, being many thousand miles across. During an eclipse by the njoon several persons can watch its progress thus, with the same glass.
The first planet we come to, taking them in order from the sun, is Mercury. His close proximity to the sun makes him so difficult to find, that we can scarcely consider him one of the sights in our list. He passes through all the phases of the moon. The author believes it just possible to verify the fact with the instrument described, although he has never been fortunate enough to find him.
Venus, this star of piercing brightness is never to be seen very far from the sun, and is therefore always a morning or evening star. She goes round the sun once in about 225 days at a mean distance of nearly 68,000,000 miles, and is therefore occasionally only about 25,000,000 miles from the Earth. Like Mercury, she passes through all the phases of the moon — many stages of these changes can easily be followed by our instrument. She is better situated than the first planet and much larger, being 7,660 miles in diameter, or nearly as large as our Earth. When new it will be observed that she appears much larger than when nearly full, on account of her being nearer to us. So near and so interesting that she has attracted the attention of astronomers in all ages, but in spite of this but little is known of her even now.
Ve; us, the brightest of all the stars, strange as it may seem, gives the telescopist the idea that the surface is always
28
enveloped in storm clouds or perhaps snow. For, although much nearer to the sun than we are, were her atmosphere a little thinner than our own she would be cold enough for snow. When over head, clouds which obstruct the light appear dark to us, hut look at those opposite the sun. We th.en see their illuminated sides, which appear dazzlingly bright ; such seems the surface of Venus. It is this piercing light that makes her rather a trying object to the telescope; for that reason the higher power of our humble telescope must not be expected to give such good results as the lower. Our amateur will probably find that when set to from 15 to 25 diameters the best views will be obtained. This will depend a good deal upon the state of the air, and perhaps too, upon the position and condition of the planet itself. These powers should give a clear outline, shewing the phases. If this be obtained it is not likely that disappointment will be met with in any other quarter of the heavens. At times possessors of large instruments have discovered spots, and watched their movements which have appeared regular, and led the observer to imagine that he has thus been enabled to calculate the time the planet takes to turn round upon its own axis.
But similar spots have appeared which have given different results. From this it has been concluded that these were dark patches in the clouds moving by the wind, or apertures through which for a time the dark surface of the rocks could be seen. Thus the period of her rotation is still uncertain.
The moon is so near to us that we must almost regard her as part of the earth rather than a remote heavenly body, never farther away than 252,000 miles, and once a month within 225,000. Now dealing with thousands instead of millions we have a distance on which even our Telescope can make some impression. Our Satellite being, apparently, devoid ot atmosphere, our course is clear indeed. Thus her rocks
29
her plains and her caverns have been more accurately mapped out by the astronomer than many remote parts of the e^rth have yet been surveyed by the Geographer.
She is a little over 2,000 miles in diameter, and on the side we see — for we always have the same face turned to us — some of the mountains are 12,000 feet high, having among them caverns many thousand feet in depth. Even with our small instrument there is much to be seen. Look at her when she is a crescent, observe the clear outline of her hills, some having circular pits in their crest with even another little hill in its centre. These are said to look like extinct volcanoes. Now search among the black shadows for some bright spots. Look again after twenty minutes or so, and some of these will have developed into well defined rocks. The shadows have shortened in the valleys, and a more extended view is obtained. This is the effect of sunrise on the Luna hills, much the same as with us. The light may be watched in the same way as it retires across the surface of the moon. By this means the shape of both sides of the hills may be examined, and a good idea of every locality obtained. By practice the eye gets accustomed to its work, and much more detail observed than was first suspected.
We now come to the planet Mars. She is smaller than the Earth and her year is longer, being only 4,200 miles in diameter, and her year 687 days. Yet there are so many ways in which she is said to resemble our planet that she is an object of great interest to the modern astronomer. Travelling round the sun at a distance of 141,000,000 miles, she is always too far off for our telescope to make much of a thing so small. When we pass between her and the sun, and in nearly a straight line we are about 180,000,000 miles nearer than when she is the other side. Our small instrument will just enable us to note her changing shape and increasing size as she comes into her most favourable position.
30
Next in order is the gigantic planet Jupiter, which goes round the sun at a distance of 482,000,000 miles in 4,333 days ; but being 85,000 miles in diameter, its great distance does not prevent it being an interesting object to the amateur telescopist. The softness of its light enables us to use a higher power than upon Venus or even Mars; like Mars it is nearest to us when we pass between it and the sun. Then is the time for a really good view. It cannot be mistaken, the brightest star in the midnight sky.
What makes this planet so pleasing an object is the fact that a telescope of the poorest power and pretentions will shew its four satelites, and as these little gems are always changing their position as they dance round the mother planet, the sight has always a freshness. Whittaker's almanack will tell us how we must expect to find them placed. It will be imagined that two on each side would be the correct thing, but occasionally they are to be seen on the same side, when they certainly have an ill-balanced look. As they pass in front or behind they will be invisible. It has happened that they have all disappeared at one time. Occasionally on a clear night, when Jupiter's clouds are well defined, they may be seen as belts across the planet.
We now have to consider the most glorious sight in the heavens that it is our privilege to behold — the planet Saturn. Our telescope is just powerful enough to give us a glimpse of his wonderful rings. His distance is so great that we we must not expect more than to be just able to verify the the fact of its existence.
This marvellous orb travels round the sun at a distance of 884,000,000 miles, taking nearly thirty years to accomplish the journey. Like the last two planets mentioned, when nearest to us it is easily found in the midnight sky.
The diameter of its globe is 71,000 miles, while the outer edge of its ring or cluster of rings is said to be
31
176,418 miles in diameter. What a glorious arch this must appear if it could be viewed from a distance of only a few million miles.
The ring, being only some two or three hundred miles in thickness, is invisible to all but possessors of very powerful telescopes when its edge is turned to us. But, when a little on the incline, as it usually is, its soft clear light enables us to use our highest power, which should give us a fair view for at least ten weeks about every thirteen months.
At this time there are two of the eight satellites, that are large enough to be seen with a low power, if well placed. There is a chance, therefore, that they may be found.
In selecting your glasses always remember that a weak or low power eye-piece will give a wider and a clearer field of view than one more powerful of the same kind. This applies to all constructions.
Therefore, do not despise a low power. Even one of but five diameters may be found useful in looking at star groups and comets. Such a one directed to the Pleiades will add a number of gems to the group. There are many con- stellations that should be examined in this way. In most cases the number of stars will be found considerably increased. ^
Many of the fixed stars seen through a powerful glass appear double, almost as if there were two stars, one revolving round the other. If our amateur's work is really good, there are a few he might possibly be able to divide. Some of tlie easy ones should be examined on an exceptionally good night.
If the reader wishes to study the fixed stars, he is recommended to secure a Planisphere, and read the works of such men as Mr. R. A. Procter and Sir R. Ball. It is only within the province of this little work to point out a few objects that the young telescope maker should look for, as a holiday amusement.
32
Chapter VI.
An Improved Telescope. We now suppose the reader to have fairly mastered the work described in the former chapters, and wishes to con- struct a rather better instrument. Should he possess a good lathe he will not find it difficult to learn to mount his lenses in brass. We are now only dealing with paper mounts, but of course what applies to the one applies also to a great extent to the other.
If our young enthusiast be willing to spend, say £2, he can construct an instrument that would easily carry double the power of that before described. And if his work be really good, even a power of a hundred diameters whether in brass or paper. We do not say that he will have a better instrument than he could buy for his money, but we do say that he will find more gratification in the using of it, and acquire more knowledge of the subject.
Although we cannot attempt to explain herein why one combination of lenses is better than another — the mysteries of the prism being far too deep — we must diverge to some extent to make the reader understand the nature of some of the difficulties that limit the power of the Telescope. He has probably discovered that if he tries a higher power than is here advised he gets confusion of colour. If he shut off the light from the outer edge of the objective, he finds colour improved but dullness the result ; that he cannot discern so much detail in a distant object as he could with a lower power. When a ray of light is refracted by passing through the curved surface of a lens, the colours of which white light consists are refracted unequally, and therefore divided. Should the refraction be acute, all the colours of the rainbow will
33
be produced. Fig. VI shews this in an exaggerated form Let a raj- of white light pass through any convex lens and it will be found that the same strength of curve which bends
Fe^ f'/
the red ray to R would send the yellow ray to Y and the blue ray to B. The more difference there is between the focal lengths of the two glasses that are used in combination the more acute will be the angle and the greater the confusion of colour. In looking through a telescope, the order in which the colours range will sometimes be found reversed. This is because, in the combination of lenses, what we might call a back action is set up. The order will therefore depend upon how many times this takes place. It was probably the care- ful study of these changes that enabled Huygens to give us the beautifully clear eye-piece that bears his name.
The achromatic objective is a combination of flint and crown glass, and owes its corrective power to the fact that the former can refract light prismatically equally to the latter, even though the mean angle of the refraction of the whole ray may be less.
This objective, now so extensively used, was invented by more than one person about the same time, little more than a hundred years back, it corrects the discolouring to such an extent, that by its use a telescope can now be made in the length of 6 feet that will do better work than could have been done by the old simple refractor in a length of loo feet.
An achromatic object glass of this kind, 2.} inches in diameter, would usually have a focal length of about 33 inches. It would be almost impossible for a youth of ordinary ability
34
to construct eye-pieces small enough to do justice to it in this length. For that reason, perhaps, our amateur coming into possession of such a glass, might find that he had hut little lietter results than were obtained by the more simple means. It would, therefore, be advisable for him to get one ground of that diameter to a focal length of say 50 inches. This can be well done for 27/-, of fair quality. Let him mount this in the way before described. After practice he will be able to make his inner mount thinner, that he may not hide so much of the surface as was done before.
If the eye-pieces made for the first telescope were used they would give the same magnifying power, but with clearer vision.
Having set up the objective with all the care it deserves, it must now undergo some test. Cut a piece of card round ; just the size to drop in the tube and cover the whole face of the glass. Cut from this a triangular piece, so that about one quarter of the glass only is exposed to the light. One angle of the cut should just reach the centre of the card. Now firmly fix the telescope so that you can see some very bright object. A good thing would be a bill printed boldly in black ink on white paper, fifty to sixty feet off, with the sun full upon it. Focus upon this, now insert the cardboard covering three quarters of the opening. This should simply make the image a little less bright. Now turn the card round, so making each quarter of the lens do the same work in turn. If the image thrown remains the same in colour and brightness your mounting is true. If not the glass is not square with the tube, you must pack it out with thin paper until you have fouud the most uniform results. Sometimes it is found that by turning one tube within another an improvement is made. In that case mark the position and always keep to it.
35
After this test, if, as the eye-piece sUdes in, there be a very faint tint of green on the edge of the white, then somewhat suddenly a well defined colourless view follow, after that a faint tint of purple when too far in, then we have a fairly good glass and mount. The last test can be tried with and without the card cover. Such an objective would work well with the strongest compound eye-piece our amateur is likely to set up in paper mounts.
Having made the eye pieces described in the previous chapter, the reader will find but little difficulty in setting up those shown in Figs. VII and VIII. Having two lenses each, unless they are well mounted, there will be as much loss by re- petition of error as will be gained by the improved combination. For that reason they have been placed with better class teles- copes. Although they would equally improve the working of the simple objective.
The Huygenian eye-piece consists of two plano-convex lense?, placed as shewn in Fig. VII with their convex sides towards the objective. If the eye glass E, have a focal length of I, that of the field glass F, would be 3 and their distance apart would be 2. These figures being inches they would in power be equal to a single lens of 2 inches focal length. In use, the field lens would be placed within the focal centre of the objective, as in Fig. II, and their power calculated as before described would be about twenty diameters with the 40 inch glass. The fact of its being so placed gives it the name of a negative eye-piece.
36
The proportions here given of i to 3 are the original, and said to give the most perfect achromatic correction. It is found that this proportion may he varied without sensibly diminishing this corrective power, provided the distance between them remains the same, that is half the sum of the focal distance of both.
Now if we wish to make a stronger eye-glass, say equal to i inch, the old proportion would require an eye-glass of I inches focal length. To mount so small a lens would of course be a tough job for an amatuer. Now if we try the proportion of 3 to 5 the focal length of the eye-glass required would be -j% inch or half as long again, and the field glass \^. The chances of getting this fairly true would be much greater than with the other.
It we make the lenses more nearly alike still, say 3 to 4, we should find the distance between them 3L This would place the field lens so nearly in the focal centre of the eye- glass, that we should see magnified, as on a screen in front of the planets, all the scratches and particles of dust that had accumulated on the surface of the glass, which would by no means adds interest to the picture.
Suppose we go the other extreme, and make more difference than i to 3, we shall meet a new enemy in sphevical aberration. That is, lines that should be straight would appear curved. It will therefore be found advisable to keep the proportion somewhere between 3 to 5 and 3 to 9. The distance apart being always half the sum of both. If it be found in using this eye-piece that a bright object appears yellow or a dark one blue on the outside edge of the lenses they are too far apart. The Huygenian eye-piece gives a larger field of view and clearer to the edge than a single lens of the same power. Its exceptionally clear definition
37
renders it the eye-piece of the Amatuer. Bi-convex lenses would not give nearly so good results, but may be used in the weaker powers.
These differences have been gone into at some length in order that the reader, who may not always be able to get exactly what he wants, may be induced to try what he can do with any lenses that may come in his way.
With a carefully made eye-piece of this construction, having an eye lens f inch focal length, and a field lens li we should have a power 40 when used with the 40 inch objective, while the simple 50 inch glass might have an eye-piece having one f inch lens, and the other i-^- inch giving a power of 44 by same construction. The 50 inch achromatic could be provided with one having the eye glass f inch, and the field glass i^ inch, giving a power of fifty- seven diameters ; this would be found most useful for general work.
Smaller lenses have been mounted in paper, but unless our amateur is very expert he will not see better detail than with those of more moderate power.
'' 3
The Ramsden eye-piece. Fig. VIII. In this the image is formed at C, in front instead of behind the field-glass. It is therefore called a " Positive " eye-piece. Being adapted for taking measurements it is the construction most used by astronomers ; as, however, the use of the micrometer is beyond our scope, we will content ourselves with a description of the eye-piece alone. The two plano-convex lenses of which
38
it is formed are of equal focal lengths, and have their convex sides turned towards each other, the distance between them being equal to two-thirds the focal length of either. If each lens had a focal length of i^ inch, their distance apart would be I inch. The power of this combination would be the same as that of a single bi-convex lens of the focal length of ig^inch, placed as £ L in Fig. III.
This beautiful and useful eye-piece, the invention of Ramsden, whose name it bears, gives a clear definition well up to the outer edge of the field of view as in the centre. It is considered more perfectly free from spherical aberration than any other. A great consideration for accurate observa- tion and measurement.
Being able to work with two glasses of the same diameter as well as focal length, and at the same lime somewhat larger than the eye-glass of the Huygenian, makes this eye-piece rather more simple to set up in paper construction.
The achromatic should easily carry one, having lenses both of which are i inch focal length if well mounted, giving a power of sixty-six diameters. Tiiis combination not having so great corrective power in colour, is not so suitable for the simple objective lens as the Htiygenian.
39
Chapter VII.
The Ter yes trial Eye-piece.
Should the reader still wish to extend his labours, he may find much entertainment in the construction of an erecting eye-piece for looking at terrestrial objects, par- ticularly if he have windows that command extensive views. Fig. IX shews lenses arranged to give a power of nearly 25 diameters, with the 50 inch.
Plano-convex glasses give better results than bi-convex. Either can be used, the former are shewn in the illustration in order to indicate the direction to turn the different faces. This is perhaps the highest power that could be recommended for our amateur. He will easily understand that every glass added, means increase of error and loss of light.
The drawing needs but little explanation to one who has mastered the simpler work.
E is the eye-glass, a plano-convex having its plane side towards the eye of a focal length of 2^ inches and i inch diameter. In the focal centre of the eye-glass, that is 2^ inch towards F is a stop of card i, to cut off the false rays. Its aperture being f inch in diameter. F is the field-glass, being a 3 inch plano-convex lens li inch in diameter, having its plane side to the eye-glass, and 3};': inches from it. A is the amplifying glass, plano-convex, ly^g inch in diameter, same focal length as F, and 4|- inches from it and having its convexity towards F. A card stop is placed at j being f inch from A, and its aperture being i inch in diameter. 0 is the object lens 2^ inches focal length (this is not to be confused with the main large glass also called the object glass or objective) like the others, plano-convex, having its convexity towards A and 3 inches from it.
40
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Q 2; <!
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41
In using this combination, should a bright object seem yellow or a dark one blue near the outer edge of the field slightly reduce the distance between F and A, letting the other distances remain the same.
In designing Fig. IX, arrangements are made so that from it two Ramsden eye-pieces may be produced by simply shifting the tubes. Thus, to form an astronomical eye- piece of the two 2^ lenses, remove the two centre glasses, and all the tubes except a, b and c, d. It will be seen that a and b can be placed within c, and the two lenses pushed to the eye end of the tube, when they will be ready for use as a Ramsden eye-piece.
To form a similar one of the 3 inch lenses, remove all but tubes e, f and g, containing lens A ; now place lens F as near as it will go towards A. Keep it in place with block h. When these are pushed to the eye end of the tube they will be found to form a useful low power eye-piece with fairly wide field.
Should the reader not wish the eye-piece convertable some labour can be saved, besides which he will not be tied to two focal lengths, and these exact diameters. This alteration might enable him to bring into use other glasses he happened to possess.
Differences are found in these eye-pieces from diff"erent makers; but they are much the same in principle. If the eye- glass E be changed away for one f inch less in focal length and placed that piece nearer F, we should have a fair specimen of the proportions generally used. This alteration would sensibly increase the power, and for this telescope not be so suitable. It would, however, be found to work well with the 40 inch objective.
The points to keep in view, in selecting lenses for a day eye-piece are roughly speaking these. Let the eye-glass be say ^ inch in diameter, the field glass one inch, mostly as
42
large as will work, next the amplifying, which is usually about the same focal length as the field — sometimes more and some* times less, but would not require to be more than ^ inch diameter, or say double the eye-glass. O, the object lens in focal length, shorter than F and A and never less than the eye-glass, would have a diameter of f inch or scarcely less than F.
If we apply this erecting eye-piece (as Fig. IX) to the simple 50 inch objective, it will give the same field of view and the same magnifying power in diameters; but the aperture being less, it must gather less light from the distant objects we examine. It would therefore not have the same penetra- ting power. Thus, a distant notice board which could be read all day by the superior glass, would only be read by the simpler one when the sun was full upon it.
A brighter view and broader field would be obtained from the 40 inch, its magnifying power being reduced. This is mentioned in case the reader should wish to extend his experiments, as a terrestrial telescope with a simple objective must necessarily be a somewhat cumbersome instrument com- pared with the neat little things that can be bought provided with the Achromatic.
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COPYRIGHT.
Twelve Reasons
WHY I AM A
Conservative.
By C. H. SHARMAN,
RULING COUNCILLOR, HABITATION NO. 1799, THE PRIMROSE LEAGUE.
DEDICATED
BY PERMISSION TO
me Right Hon. LORD RANDOLPH SPENCER CHURCHILL, M.P.
HouHon:
E. MARLBOROUGH & CO.,
51, OLD BAILKY. 1887.
PRICE THREEPENCE.
Twelve Reasons
WHY I AM A
Conservative.
Bv C. H. SHARMAN,
KTMNG COUNXILLOR, HABITATION NO. 1799, THE PRIMROSE I.EAr.UE.
DEDICATED
BY PERMISSION TO
The Right Hon. LORD RANDOLPH SPENCER CHURCHILL, M.P.
Hontiou:
E. MARLBOROUGH & CO.,
51, OLD BAILEY.
1887.
To THE Right Honourable
LORD RANDOLPH SPENCER CHURCHILL, M.F.
THIS MODEST BROCHURE IS,
33i? spccitil jjcrmtssion, most rcsijcctfulli? HeliicatttJ
BY HIS VERY OBEDIENT SERVANT,
CHARLES HENRY SHARMAN.
Copies of this Pamphlet have also been accepted and acknowledged by THE MOST HONBLE. thE MAR(2UIS OF SALISBURY, K.G., ETC.
PRIME MINISTER, AND H.M. SECRETARY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
THE LATE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF IDDESLEIGH,
G.C.B., D.C.L., ETC.
THE RIGHT HON^le. thE EARL OF MOUNT-EDGCUMBE,
PRIVY COUNCILLOR, LORD STEWARD.
!i -v
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF HARROWBY,
PRIVY COUNCILLOR.
HIS EXCELLENCY THE MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY,
PRIVY COUNCILLOR, LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND.
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE VISCOUNT FOLKESTONE, M.P.,
PRIVY COUNCILLOR, TREASURER OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
THE RT- HONi^LE SIR HENRY T HOLLAND, Bart., G.C.M.c;.
PRIVY COUNCILLOR, H.M. SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES.
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE W. H. SMITH, M.P.,
PRIVY COUNCILLOR, FIRST LORD OF THE TREASURY.
January y 1S87.
PREFACE.
Havinc. read a Paper at the Lower Sydenham Conservative Working Men's Club embodying the subject of this Pamphlet, at the pressing request of many of the members I have been induced to publish it.
Two recent Political Events have invested the Paper with historical interest, inasmuch that the permission for the Dedication dates simultaneously with Lord Randolph Churchill's retirement from the Conservative Cabinet, and the letter of acknowledgment from the late Lord Iddesleigh was dated from the Foreign Office, and was one of the last communications issued by that universally esteemed and deeply regretted statesman.
The lawless proceedings that have taken place in Ireland since this Pamphlet was written serve to accentuate the arguments it contains, whilst the vio- lence of the utterances of Mr. Dillon, M.P,, and others during the past few weeks, forms a fitting commentary to the remarks I have quoted as to the manner in which these self-elected Patriots pro- pose to save Ireland.
C, H. S.
Allenby Road,
Forest Hill, S.E. January, 1887.
TWELVE REASONS WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE.
!t is possible that some of my readers may be of opinion that Conservatives are fully alive to the advantages enjoyed by the party, and that any argu- ments that can be adduced in support of the principles that govern Conservatism are superfluous ; but at the same time I feel satisfied that many others will agree with me, that in view of the extraordinary and — in too many instances— unscrupulous efforts put forth by the Radical and Separatist party — who do not hesitate to place their opinions before the so- called English working man in the most varied and seductive forms — it is the duty of every Con- servative— and I am justified in attempting, how- ever imperfectly — to supply reasons and to sustain a few arguments to show not only why 1 am a Conservative, but also to conclusively prove, as I hope to do, that the cause of Conservatism places the greatest possible advantages within the reach of the entire manhood of the nation.
TWELVE REASONS
It IS not my intention to unduly particularise certain "classes" of society. I do not desire to establish the identity of what our opponents are pleased to deny the existence of. i.e., The Conser- vative Working Man. It is a somewhat hackneyed phrase, and moreover it is a definition that in the vocabulary of our political opponents is frequently accompanied by gibes and taunts intended to be at the expense of any honest man zvJio dares to think for himself, or to act for himself, and who has the courage to rcfttse to be cajoled into a condition of disaffection, or who declines to become the tool of irresponsible and dangerous agitators and adventicrers.
In the course of the few remarks that I propose to make, I hope I shall be excused if, instead of showing by my arguments in all cases in the strict letter "Why I am a Conservative" — I occasionally explain why I should not be, or why I am not, a Radical. I propose to adduce twelve arguments in support of Conservative principles, and to consider these twelve points in the following order, viz. :
I. — I am a Conservative because I de- sire to support the laws and conditions that govern order and society.
Let me at the same time add, that I am quite pre-
WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE.
pared to recognise and to support lawful and temperate proposals, for the revision of any such laws, and in such form, as circumstances, necessity, or changed conditions may justify ; but I am not prepared to encourage a dangerotis system of defiaiice, or the violent abrogation of any existing instittUion, law, or obligation, that may be, or that may appear to be, inconvenient — a condition of political morality we all know to have become chronic in the councils of modern Radicalism.
I wish particularly to avoid as far as possible any unnecessary or purely recriminatory remarks, either upon the general party politics of Radicalism or the expressions of particular individuals, except in such cases where the position of the speaker or the violent nature of the utterance or action demands a notice. Unfortunately, there have been of late years pro- pounded by responsible Radical statesmen, doctrines of such a dangerous character that it would be an injustice to our manhood and an everlasting reproach to Conservatism, were these insidious teachings passed over unnoticed and unchallenged.
It is not easy to forget that one Statesman, whom 1 may be allowed to describe as probably the most experienced politician of the day, by virtue of the great number of years he has appeared in the political arena — I refer to Mr. Gladstone — I say we
TWELVE REASONS
eannot, we must not, forget how this statesman of undoubted abiHty, of indomitable energy, but withal inhabited by the fiercest and most uncontrollable passions, has prostituted these great gifts, has used those powerful political engines, not for the advance- ment of the common weal, not in support of our ancient institutions, but rather to undermine and destroy our national dignity, and to render inoperative some of our most valuable national obligations ; to apply the flame of class hatred to passions already rendered uncontrollable by a deadly poison of dis- content and disaffection largely enforced by the seductive arguments of his powerful brain — I say it is legislators of this dangerous character that I will never recognise ; and I am of opinion that it is examples of misdirected ability, such as this, that sets the sober mind of an Englishman think- ing, and either makes hitn an eager disciple of Con- servatism, or induces him to redouble his deterini7iation^ as a Conservative, to uphold Conservative principles.
II.— I am a Conservative because I believe that Conservatism makes a man SELF-RELIANT, whereas I maintain that the tendency of Radicalism is to " bolster
IVBV I AM A CONSERVATIVE.
Up " a man, and to rob him of that dignity which should be his most valued inheritance.
But Conservatism does much more than to make a man self-reliant, inasmuch as it develops the practice of thinking and determining what is really best in life.
h opens up a vista of responsibility of action that is speedily recognised and accepted by its disciples, whatever their station may be.
It leads a man to weigh his convictions of what is right — not in the unfair scales of political prejudices, but rather in the honest balance of even-handed justice — whilst it blinds his sight to selfish aims and personal considerations.
It is also undeniable that Conservatism can never be fashionable with n-nthinking men. The very in- gredients of Conservatism (if I may so describe them) are a thoughtfulness for, a toleration of, a consideration for, the opinions of others, and above all, firmness and decision of political character and a recognised continuity of ideas.
One of the most expressive definitions of a Con- servative that has come under my observation is given in a well-known modern dictionary. It reads thus :
" Conservative — One who desires to preserve
lo TWELVE A'EASOJVS
the institutions of Ids country until they can l)c changed WYYW ckktaintv /or tiic bcttcri'
III.— I am a Conservative because I am opposed to political gambling and experimental legislation.
I am ready to admit that the term "political gambling " is a strong expression by which to define the action of any section of politicians, but I fail to recognise a better definition to illustrate the hazardous character of modern Radicalism.
The tlii'ow of the political dice determined the murder of Gordon. The throw of the political dice fixed the fate of poor CoUey and weakened English authority at the Cape. The throw of the political dice, but for a fortuitous chance, might have led to the disintegration of the home portion of the Empire, and to an inheritance of generations of deadly strife upon the very hearth of our national family.
Again, some of our most prominent Radical statesmen have suggested experimental legislation in a variety of forms and ways to meet the demands of agitators and adventurers, but I am not prepared to adopt the great and undefinable risks of such a policy — a policy, 1 maintain, that can only be reasonably
JVBV 1 AM A CONSERVATIVE. U
designated "political gambling." What would be said of the Commander of an army if he exer- cised the authority conferred upon him, in such a manner as to depute the more general control of his troops to those inferior officers or rank and file that he knew were the least observant of discipline, and the most ready at all times to violate the military code ? Would the public opinion of this or any other country, countenance, support, or even permit such a proceeding, even if it were proposed in the most euphonious form, or suggested for trial as a very simple experiment ? No, there is no room for " ex- perimental policy " in the management of a nation's interest.
IV.— I am a Conservative, because I believe that the whole tendency of Conservatism is to cement all classes of society, for the mutual advantage of all.
Now I feel sure that I shall not lay myself open to the charge of undue partisanship, when I declare as my opinion, that Conservative principles have the common object and aim of binding all grades of Englishmen (and when I speak of Englishmen, I intend to include every son of the greater England) in one great bond of brotherhood, recognising the
1^ TWELVE REASONS
rights of all, considering the claims of all, redressing the grievances of all.
Meting out of justice such as this, is not to be brought about by rashly championing the assumed rights of one party in the State, or by unfairly ignor- ing the undoubted privileges of another section of the nation, or by encouraging false hopes and by making hollow promises, with a view to prostitute the support of that section of the people who have probably the fewest opportunities for political study, and who are consequently without the knowledge of the full responsibility of a political existence.
These are the ready victims of the Radical Jugger- naut, which rolls mercilessly over the moral framework of its too easily persuaded votaries, fostering feelings of discontent in the breasts of bread-winners, luring men from honest labour, preaching violent obstruction to employers' wishes, and in fact destroying the best nature of the man ; leaving many a trace of domestic desolation in its wake, creating misery and even despair in homes which, under other conditions, might have been a credit to our nationality and an honour to civilisation.
V,— I am a Conservative, because I believe that Conservatism offers fewer inducements for the development of
WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE. 13
dangerous ambitions, or for personal and political aggrandisement
In support of my contention that opposite politics present this great difficulty and danger, I must again (most reluctantly) refer to the late Radical Prime Minister, Mr. Gladstone, as a notable example.
Mr. Gladstone, with all his admitted powers of eloquence, his great learning, and his vast experience, permits — ay, encourages — his followers to worship him with a frenzied idolatry that he himself would instantly condemn, in that unmeasured language of which he is at times such a perfect master, were the leading figure in the scene any other than himself.
What do we read day by day of the doings of the Radical party ?
Do we find that, taking advantage of the enforced idleness that the common-sense of the country has decreed for them, the Radicals are seriously de-' liberating upon any scheme for the material or moral welfare of the people ?
Do we not rather find that the universal doctrine being propounded is only one of fulsome adoration of their fallen chieftain ?
Only a short time since, Mr. Joseph Arch addressed a meeting at Ipswich, and the theme of his eloquence was absorbed in giving expression to what he termed the '* Labourers' Union Political
14 TWELVE REASONS
Programme," and what was in his opinion to be the programme of this Labourers' Union ? It was ''' Reneived confidence in the grand old man'' (reported as Mr. Arch's own words), and ''Home Rule for Ireland^
Now it appears to me to be incredible that a body of agricultural labourers, forming Mr. Arch's audience, should have had common patience to listen to speeches or recommendations of the nature I have quoted, when these labourers too well know, and many of them are daily experiencing, the bitter results that follow in the wake of agricultural depres- sion, such as that the country is passing through at the present time.
Would it not have been a reasonable expectation that Mr. Joseph Arch, with his experience, and bringing into the scale the great deliberative powers he claims to possess, would have propounded some sound scheme or would have suggested some prac- ticable plan, if not to remove, at least to ameliorate or minimise, the effects of those dreadful misfortunes that surround the class of which Mr. Arch is the self-elected champion ?
But no, that would not be true Radicalism. Man- worship and man -glorification appears to be the watchword ; and, in his obscure and modest way, Mr. Arch educates his supporters to place himself
WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE. 15
in the chair of the idol as a fitting prototype of his more illustrious master.
These misguided people deserve our strongest pity ; with empty pockets, empty stomachs, starving families, and in too many cases with nothing before them but destitution and the workhouse, they are invited, forsooth, to consider the glorification of Mr. Gladstone, and after that the desirability of Home Rule for Ireland.
Contrast this miserable political farce with the conduct of our Conservative leaders. Do we find Lord Salisbury stumping the realm from station to station, feeding an insatiable ambition by obtaining the idolatrous worship of his fellow-man ?
Do we ever find Lord Salisbury or Lord Randolph Churchill wasting the precious moments of political life in vain attempts to beggar their opponents, or to set the worst passions of class against class ?
Do we not rather find these illustrious leaders — illustrious, not in the vain sense in which this word is frequently associated — do we not find them saying in so many words: "We do not ask for honours; we do not care for adulation ; we have put our hands to the plough and we will go on to the end, fulfilling the great duties we have undertaken, not for our own aggrandisement, but for the welfare of our country,
1 6 TWELVE REASONS
the hai)i)incss of the greatest number of our people, and, with God's help, the peace of the world."
YL— I am a Conservative because I believe Conservatism represents the highest form of real Liberalism, as op- posed to political Liberalism so-called.
A very favourite cry of our political opponents is that the Conservatives, when in office, filch the notions of the Radicals, and adopt more or less of them as their programme. A more unreasonable and absurd contention it is difficult to imagine.
Now I will give you my views upon this subject, and I will first ask any serious Radical — if such a rara avis can be found — Whether it is generally supposed that a Conservative, because he is a Conservative, comes into the world differently gifted from other
men ?
Whether a Conservative, because he is a Con- servative, is supposed to be endowed with less powers of observation than his opponents ?
And whether a Conservative, because he is a Conservative, is supposed to be deficient in human sympathies ?
Let history answer these questions, as well it can. The small space at my disposal precludes the
WJIV I AM A CONSERVATIVE. 17
possibility of quoting here what all the world knows of the brilliant and honestly applied intellect of Lord Beaconsfield, ever exercised in the best interests of the nation ; of the leviathan, yet withal the gentle, mind of Lord Salisbury ; ot the indomitable energy and great administrative capacity of Lord Randolph Churchill.
I repeat that it is a monstrous assumption for the opposite party to suppose that they alone can be the exponents of Reform, the removers of injustice, oppression, or the Best Friends of the working man.
But it is here the comparison must end, because it is by the means by which the "■goals of good'''' are to be reached that the great gulf is created ; and whilst our Radical opponents are daily tempting the unwary with dangerous proposals, that at the best can only benefit one section of the community at the expense of another section, the Conservative platform is to do the greatest possible amount of good to the greatest munber of the people, and to do it in such a manner that no section of the community shall suffer, but that the effects shall be to solidify its inlluences and results for the permanent benefit of the present generation, and to earn the gratitude of posterity.
i8 TWELVE REASONS
VII. — I am a Conservative because one of the greatest principles recognised by Conservatism is the defence of religion against the attacks of all and every enemy.
It is unnecessary for me, I am sure, to describe here the deplorable scenes enacted during the past few years in the House of Commons — proceedings, of such an outrageous character that the very records in the public press brought a blush of honest shame upon the face of every true Englishman who read them.
I need not remind the reader of the name and character of the man whose conduct led to these abominable exhibitions, but I will ask: "Where did we find the respective leaders ranged in this conflict ?"
We found Mr. Gladstone supporting those whose avowed objects were a defiance of the most vital points in the moral construction of the House of Commons, whilst Sir Stafibrd Northcote and the whole of the Conser\^ative Party were found ranged upon the side of order, law, and reason.
Fierce were the battles fought again and again, victory was given to the cause of order, Mr. Gladstone was defeated, to the sincere gratification of all classes of politicians who valued the preservation of our country's proud traditions above the empty victory of party warfare.
WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE. i^
VI 11. —I am a Conservative because I believe that the guarantee of the rights of all properties, and the most thorough observance of the liberty of the subject, is to be found in the front rank of Con- servative policy.
Our opponents, on the other hand, have furnished us with abundant evidence that they will show na respect for the rights of property, if those rights or that property is considered stifficiently tangible in character to bait the hook by which they hope to- catch their unwary and irresponsible following.
It is a notorious fact that the lawless pro- ceedings in Ireland, during the past few years, have been and are being supported every day by the voice and wicked advice of some of the most respon- sible representatives of the Radical party ; and so blinded have they become to a sense of reason, that many have not hesitated to give their support to that small party of the State whose policy is to attack in the most violent manner all owners of property whose greatest misfortune it is to have that property within measurable distance for attack by these unprincipled agitators.
As a well-known writer remarks, while discuss- ing the manner in which the Modern Radical Federa- tion urge their claims; "Unfortunately, disobedience
20 TWELVE REASONS
to the laws is the favourite weapon of Reformers nowadays."
Again, this is the manner in which the Irish farmers and tenants are instructed to recognise their legitimate obh'gations ! — instructed too by men who have been allowed to go through the farce of subscribing to the oath of allegiance to the Crown and observance of the laws, in their position as members of the legislature.
Mr. O'Brien, M.P., recommends the peasants to ■devote their leisure time to the "hunting of landlords," whilst Mr. Dillon has advised Irish farmers to pay the rent which is honestly due to the landlord "into the hands of other men in whom they can trust " ! and he did not hesitate to stigmatise as a traitor any honest man who was determined to fulfil his con- tract with his landlord.
Now I will ask : Can anv one who desires to ^ee even-handed justice sustained, ally himself with a party whose surroundings are of such a reckless and destructive character ?
It would indeed be a wonder as well as a disgrace to our common humanity if, in the face of this doctrine of the basest form of robbery, we did not find that intelligent and thinking Englishmen were determined to support the cause which undertakes, as far as it is able to do so, " to respect the rights of every one.
JVIfV I AM A CONSER]-ATIVE. 2r
whenever and wherever those rights are mijiistly assailed,' and to enforce the completion of just and fair obligations.
IX. — I am a Conservative because Con- servatism aims at freedom of religious instruction.
There is, however, a wide distinction between this doctrine as understood by Conservatives, and the doctrine of freedom of religious instruction as defined by our opponents. And it is a curious fact that in this, as in every other instance where the Radical element- asserts its views of "the rights of man," a not very careful sifting of their arguments shows that, so far from being actuated by a spirit of common fairness- to all, the proposals they make are of the most despotic character ; and their action in such instances faithfully reflects the favourite form in which the Radicals endeavour to define Conservatism when seeking to ridicule the Conservative party.
Do they not propose to forcibly exclude religious teaching in schools ?
Do they not recommend, in the form of a dic- tatorial demand, that school fees in Board Schools shall be entirely abolished ?
A hundred other similar proposals made by our opponents might be adduced to show the form of
22' TWELVE REASONS
•despotism that would unhappily prevail, were the •common-sense of the nation suspended to the extent of placing the governing powers in the hands of these political firebrands.
X.— I am a Conservative because I believe that Conservatism offers the onlv safe guarantee for the unimpaired in- tegrity of the Empire.
When it is remembered that centuries have been occupied, and the blood of thousands upon thousands of Englishmen has been shed in all parts of the world, in defence of our rights and our possessions, it is almost incredible that any important political party should be found in the country who were ready at any moment and on every occasion to permit the disintegration of the Empire.
That it is so it would be idle to deny. It is equally immaterial to them whether the cry be "Perish India!" "Ireland for the Irish!" or "The down- trodden Boer ! " so long as they can be spared the anxiety of conscientiously fulfilling the national obligations, or so far as shall satisfy those avowed enemies of our country whose patronage they aim at securing, let the cost even be that our national life is strangled in the conflict.
WJIV I AM A CONSERVATIVE. 23
XL— I am a Conservative because the principles of Conservatism recognise the best interests of the nation as of vital importance, rather than the development and encouragement of party conflict.
There can be no more dangerous action than the present and popular forms of agitation as supported by RadicaHsm.
It is not that the Radicals are prepared to rationally and reasonably argue the desirabihty of reforms, the removal of abuses, or the restitution of rights ; their? passwords are: "■ Eveiy tiling that is is wrong! ! and we will change it if we can and how we can."
Finally. — 1 am a Conservative because the whole rubric of Conservatism con- duces to the maintenance of the Constitution.
Because the principles of Conservatism and the actions of its leaders show a sensible and unwavering continuity of aim ; a certain protection of the rights of citizenship ; an unswerving regard for the honour of Englishmen at home and abroad ; a dogged determination at all times and in all places to defend the rights of EngHshmen, and to
24 J^EASOA'S WHY I AM A CONSERVATIVE.
resent and punish the invader, whether it be on the steppes of Afghanistan or the sands of Africa : to support at all risks and in every fojm, the safety^ the honour, and the happiness of our Queen and the Royal Family.
As Conservatives, we recognise that we have only a life interest in the gi'eat advantages that surround us (a fact that apparently has never entered into the composition of the Radicals), and that we intend to hand down to those who shall follow us, tinimpaired, iinsullied, and 7indiz>ided, these glorious- heritages and birthrights of an Englishman.
Then shall we earn as a just reward the great and solemn recognition : " Well done, thou good and faithful servant."
This above all— To thine own self he true; Afid it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man.
CHARLES DIC1>:E.SS AND EVANS, CKYSTAl. I'ALACE I'RESS,
■4
THE
CAMBEIDGE DIONYSIA.
A CLASSIC DEEAM.
BY THE EDITOR OF "THE BEAR."
"He who is offended at that which in kindly meant is doubly in the wrong. Firstly, he vexeth himself for no cause ; and next, he imputeth a bad motive to him who never conceived it."— Bacon's Essays.
Cambritrg^ :
rniN) K.n tor tiik aitiior. SOLD BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS.
1858.
Trinity College, November, 1858.
I AM a junior Soph ; a first class in our last May. Mathe- matics are my forte, and my friends tell me that Classics are my foible. However, I was considered a very neat scholar at Edinburgh. I cannot, perhaps, write Iambics like Harvey the Shrewsbury freshman, who is said to have translated the lines in Hamlet beginning " To be or not to be, that is the question" (we read them in our Shakspere society last Long) in the course of a single walk. Still, I beat all the Harrow men in the Euripides cram paper — and that is no trifle. This term I have been reading with Shillibere, very much against the advice of ray tutor, who told me to stick to Mathematics. I do not like Shillibere ; he snubs me on all occasions, and when I wished to learn something which would pay in the College examinations, he set me down to the Wasps of Aris- tophanes. On the first Audit day of this year he told me that as it was the Tridoi'yia he would excuse my reading with liim, but bade me get up the subject of the Dionysia before our next meeting. That afternoon Jamie Drummond and I (Jamie was third in the Trigonometry paper) set out for our walk as early as a quarter after one, and came home famished. We managed to sit opposite a boiled turkey in hall, and contrived to secure llie Audit bowl three times;
4 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
keeping it with us so long as to rouse the indignation of two Eton cricketing men, one of whom I heard call Jamie a damned red-headed Scotchman. After dinner we played whist in the lodgings of Shipton, the bachelor Scholar. The fourth man was Barlow, commonly called Billy, Shipton's fag at Rugby ; a good-natured, clever, classical freshman : he is, however, rather fast, and rides out hunting with the drag foxhounds. I lost thirteen points, chiefly owing to Barlow, who would keep chattering about the respective merits of the ale at the different colleges, and caculating the chances of victory on the ensuing fifth of November. We left soon after eight, and then Barlow came to my rooms, and joined me in a glass of toddy. When he had gone I took down the Wasps, but somehow or other I could not make much of them. So I drew my easy-chair to the fire, filled my pipe, and opened Smith's Antiquities on the article "Dionysia." But the Greek words bothered me, and I was too lazy to rise for a Lexicon. So I fell a thinking on Athens, and what glorious fun the festival must have been. I can recollect nothing more till I found myself in the midst of a strange dream. And yet, marvellous as it was, nothing seemed to surprise me ; but I took it for granted that every- thing was perfectly natural and consistent. And the dream was as follows :
I was still sitting in my rooms with my books before me : but it was broad daylight, and a lovely morning, such as sometimes breaks upon us, even at Cambridge, in the beginning of November. The courts were very quiet, but I heard a constant shouting in the distance, as if there was some tumult in the streets. Suddenly tlie door flung open, and Barlow appeared. He looked flushed and excited ; on his head was a garland of ivy-leaves, and he swung in his
A CLASSIC DREAM. 5
hand a pewter. " Shut up your books," he cried : " no reading on the iriQoi'^ia. If you do another equation I'll report you to the proctor BaatXeix; for impiety. The God, the jolly Godj hates Colenso worse than he hated Pentheus. I've come to fetch you to the theatre, whether you will or no. There is a new comedy to be represented, and all the University will be there. By Hercules, I hope they'll hit the authorities hard. When the performance is over we sup with Rumbold of Caius, culinary Caius, the head- quarters of good living. I am king of the feast, and not a soul shall get off under three bottles. We have stolen the chaplets from the Botanical Gardens; Ingrey sends the dessert, and Stratton has promised to bring two flute-players
from Barn . Here I started up, crying, " Barlow, lead
on ! I'm your man." And we danced out of the New Court gate, and up the lane into Trinity-street. And there was a sight that made my heart leap.
The whole road was crowded with men, all in the wildest state of joy and liquor. Every one acknowledged the presence of the God, to whom liberty and license are dear. Laughing, singing, cheering, jesting, they were pouring in an unbroken stream towards Magdalen-bridge. Gyps mingled with the throng, enjoying perfect freedom and equality on this day of the year. Ever and anon some fresh band of revellers issued from the colleges and lodging-houses on the way, and swelled the main flood. Here came a mob of Queens' men, sweeping the street, and roaring at the pitch of their voices, " For he's a jolly good fellow !" referring probably to the late senior wrangler. There, from the gTcat gate of Harry the Eighth, streamed forth the whole club of Third Trinity. In front, arm-in-arm, strode tlic victorious four; while elevated on the shoulders of the crew of the second boat sat the secretary, liis
6 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
temples crowned with roses, riding a huge barrel, and bearing in his hand a silver bowl foaming with cider-cup. As we passed All Saints'-passage, from the direction of the Hoop Inn there moved a goodly company, twenty-five or thirty in number, and my companion whispered me that this was the Historical Society, and bawled out to them to ask whether Elizabeth was justified in putting Mary to death. And behind them walked, with downcast eyes, three or four unhappy wretches, who, as my companion told me, were the lapsed members, who w^ere cut off from all communion with their fellows. And those who passed by made not a little fun of the poor outcasts. And just inside the gateway of St. John's College, there was a group of young men who successively tried to dance on an inflated pigskin. And he who danced best received a draught of their ale. And presently there came by a drunken Trinity sizar, w^ho, after a successful trial, took the flagon, but when he had tasted, he cursed, and spit, and swore no Trinity shoe-black would condescend to drink it. Upon which a stout Johnian kicked his shins, and, as it was evident that a row would ensue, and that we as men of the same College would be implicated in it, we hurried away, not wishing to desecrate the festival of the God by evil feelings. And on Magdalen-bridge was seated a knot of idle fellows who chaffed all the passers-by. And among others they told a solitary individual in a Downing-gown that he was so few that his College did not think it worth its while to brew for him, but had sent out for a gallon of swipes from the Eagle for his special consumption. So at last we arrived at the gate of the theatre, and after paying threepence each, which had been furnished us from the University Chest, we went in and sat down.
One side of the Castle-hill had been hollowed out Into a
A CLASSIC DREAM. 7
spacious ampliitlieatre. Tier above tier the long benclies rose to the summit of the slope. In the front seats were the Vice- chancellor, and the heads of colleges, and doctors of divinity, and professors, and noblemen, and all who could claim founders' kin. And the rest of the space was filled to overflowing with undergraduates and bachelors. But all females were excluded from the spectacle. And the throng was very clamorous, and many were provided with oranges and nuts, and even stones, wherewith to pelt the unpopular actors. And in the orchestra was an altar, at which Shillibere stood, crowned with ivy, and robed in a long white robe. And from time to time he poured copious libations of ale upon the ground. And under- neath the stage sat a white-headed man, bearing a lyre. And at this time the stage was veiled with a great curtain, em- broidered with the loves and deeds of ancient and godlike men. And there I saw how the chosen heroes had launched a boat of pristine build, and ventured down the river in search of the Golden Fleece, where, as rumour said, the beer which the immortals drank was brewed. And I saw too how, as they passed along the black water, the first prow which had ploughed those waves, the men of Barnwell came down to the shore to wonder at the strange sight. And how, near the Stygian ferry, they came upon a fierce race, who seized their boat with long poles, and threw with unerring aim brickbats which ten bargemen of these degenerate days would in vain attempt to lift. And how, when at length they had found the Golden Fleece, their young chief was captured by the landlord and his friends, and locked up in darkness and solitude. But tlie black-haired daughter of the inn, avIio was cunning at medicating ales and knew the virtues of strychnine and all bitter herbs, was charmed with tlie flowing ringlets and easy tongue of tlie youth. And she stole the key from
8 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
her father while he was overcome with drink, and eloped to the boat with her new lover. All this I saw, and much more. And next me sat a staid bachelor, who seemed as if he had taken no part in the jollity of the morning. So we fell into conversation, and he told me how the theatre had been built under the inspection of Dr. Donaldson, from a comparison of plans furnished by freshmen in the Trinity College examina- tions. And he said that the festival of this year was jovial beyond any that had preceded it ; for that the public mind had just recovered from the painful excitement caused by the mutilation of the statues on the roof of Trinity librarj' : which act men had suspected to be part of a plot for over- turning the constitution of the University, and delivering us over to the Commissioners. And that report said there would be two Choruses in this play. And that fourteen First Trinity jerseys had been ordered from Searle's, and one of great size for the Coryphffius. And he would have said more, but a tipsy Pembroke man bade him hold his tongue, or he would bring against him an action of aae/Sela at the next private business meeting in the Union, for disturbing the worship of the God. So we looked, and the curtain had already been drawn down. And the scene disclosed was in the Old Court of Trinity, letter Z, and two gyps were asleep outside the door ; and tlie clock struck six, and one of them started up.
Gyp a. — One, two, three, four, five, six ! 'Tis plaguy hard To keep us watching here the livelong night. Williams, you dog ! get up : you're not in bed.
Gyp B. — Hallo ! I do believe I've had a snooze. \_Yatvns.
I feel as if I was in Great St. Mary's.
Gyp a. — Come, stir your stumps, and fetch a quart of bitter : I know you have an order on the butteries, And then I'll tell you what I dreamt to-night.
A CLASSIC DREAM. 9
Gi'P B. — Bitter ! 'Tis bitter cold for ale this morning. Here, take a nip of this, and fire away. [^Hands him a flask.
Gyp B. — I seemed to sit within the famed Town-hall, "Watching the progress of the Bachelors' Ball. There, gayest trifler in the throng of dancers.
Was C n cutting figures in the Lancers.
And at my side the gallant Colonel Phipps, His arms a-kimbo on his manly hips, Said, while around he let his eye-glass range, " C n, methinks, has had a saving change !"
Gyp B. — Well dreamt ! But I have dreams as well as you. Here's one as marvellous, and just as true. I seemed to hear our Rhadamanthine Mayor Deal justice from the magisterial chair. A Corpus sizar had been well-nigh slain By fifteen blackguards in St. Botolph's lane : The Mayor approved his fellow-townsmen's pluck, And fined the plaintifi" two-pound-ten for luck. As pensively he rubbed his broken head, " Confound old Currier Balls !" the gownsman said.
Gyp a. — Come now, I'll chat a little with the audience. Our master here, who keeps in the top-story. Honest Philoleon, for his first three years Led a most quiet and gentlemanly life. He was not gated more than twice a term ; He read three hours a-day ; rode every week ; Last year pulled seven in our second boat : In all things ' moderation' was his motto. And when he came home jolly in the evening, "Jackson," he'd say, " take my new coat and keep it : It's made so that no gentleman could wear it :" Or, " Jackson, that last bottle of port was corked. So drink my health in it." He ever was The best and the most generous of masters.
10 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
But now he's gone stark mad; and you must guess
"What sort his madness is. \_To the spectators.
Gyp B. — That Queens' man there Says that he's bent on being senior wrangler.
Gyp a. — No, no ; he won't be old enough these ten years.
Gyp B. — And that black- whiskered noisy party yonder, Sitting amongst a group of Harrow freshmen. Guesses he aims at office in the Union.
Gyp a. — What, to be called united and compact ? And to be chaffed in the suggestion-book ? Not quite so low as that. Come, try again. D'ye give it up? Well, listen, and I'll tell you. One Sunday evening last May term at tea He met by chance a troop of roaring lions. And came back swearing he must join their number. Or give up hopes of immortality. Prom that day forth he ran about the college. Talking of "Truth," and "Souls," and "Great Ideals;" And asking men to give him a -n-ov o-tu ■, And telling them he saw within their eyes A bond of sympathy that made them brothers. Then he cut dead a schoolfellow and friend Whose name was Samson, because Samson slew The lion in Gath ; and seeing that his idol Was bound in green, he went to Sunday chapel In a green coat ; and three times every day He sent me posting off to Petty Cury, Declaring he must use the Lion's tap Or give up beer. In short, such pranks he played We nigh engaged a cell at Cherry bin ton. So, in this state of things, his younger brother Bdeluleon came up this term to College, A sensible hot-headed Cheltenham freshman ; Who, when he saw his brother's strange distemper. Blushed for himself and for the family.
A CLASSIC DREAM. 11
And first lie tried by pleasing the old fellow
To wean him from his hobby ; taught him songs,
And took him out to supper : but whenever
His health was drunk, and he was asked to sing,
He spoke straight off a canto from " St. Clair ;"
And then he dressed him in his best and washed him.
And got him made a member of the Musical :
But, at the first rehearsal, off he ran.
His fiddle on his back, and never halted
Till he was inside Palmer's Printing-office.
So, vexed and wearied at his constant folly,
The young one locked him up within his rooms.
But the old chap is sly, and full of tricks,
And loves his liberty.
[_FIuloleon appears at the window.
Phtl. — Hallo, you scoundrel ! Just let me out ; 'tis time to go to Lectures.
Gyp a. — Why you're a questionist : you have no lectures.
\^Miter Bdeluleon.
Bdel. — Was ever freshman plagued with such a brother ? What have I done that I deserve this evil ? I never was undutiful ; I never Have read a line of Alexander Smith ; IS'or picked a pocket ; nor worn peg-top trousers. Fortune, who calls thee blind, does not bely thee.
Phil. — I want a supper order from my tutor.
Bdel. — No, no, old boy, I took good care of that : I got you an aegrotat. Sold again ! Where are you now ? Good heavens !
\_Philoleon p>uts his head out of the chimney.
PniL. I'm the smoke.
Bdel. — Confound the man who altered all our chimneys ! Jackson, run up, and beat him with the pewter Till he backs water ; then clap on a sack.
\_Philoleon reappears at the windoio.
12 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
Phil.— 0 Lord St. Clair, on bended knee I charge you set the maiden free !
Bdp.l. — In mercy stop that nonsense quick : Your Lion always makes me sick. I feel as ill as when I tried My first and only Smoker's Pride.
PniL. — 0 may the curses of the Gods light on you ! And may you wallow in the lowest Hades, Along with all the men who've struck their tutor. Or laid against the boat-club of their College, Or caught a crab just opposite the Plough : In that sad place of punishment and woe. Where lectures last from early dawn till noon, And where the gate-fines rival those at Christ's, And there 's a change of Proctors every week ! Then you'll repent of having used me thus.
Bdel. — You blasphemous old scoundrel! Come, you fellows, We all must need some coffee this cold morning.
[^Enter Chorus of writers of the ^' Lion,'" preceded ly
a chorister hearing a lantern. Choktjs a. — Rosy-fingered dawn is breaking o'er the fretted roof of King's. Bright and frosty is the morning : sharp and clear each footfall rings. Gyps across the court are hurrying with the early breads and butters. Blithely hums the master's butler while he 's taking down the shutters. In our rooms we left the kettle gaily singing on the coals ; And within the grate are steaming eggs and ham, and toast and
rolls. Soon we'll have a jovial breakfast, with the members of our mess, Chatting of our darling project, future hopes, and past success. We have come to fetch our brother. What can cause his long
delay ? It was not his wont to keep us shivering here the livelong day. He was always sharp and sprightly when the " Lion" was in question ; Ever ready with an Essay ; ever prompt with a suggestion.
A CLASSIC DREAM. liJ
Surely he must be offended At our leaving out his poem : Yet no insult was intended, As our want of space must show hira. Or pei'chance he came home jolly, Wishing to knock down the porter. And lies cursing at his folly, Panting for some soda-water. Shew yourself upon the landing : Hear your loved companions' groans : For our feet are sore with standing On the rugged Old Court stones.
[Philoleon sheivs himself at the window. Phil. — Comrades, when I heard your voices, how my heart within me leapt ! Thoughts of happier days came o'er my spirit, and I almost wept : Those bright days when free and happy with some kindred soul
I strayed, Talking of objective functions up and down the chesnut glade. Now a cruel younger brother keeps me under lock and key : Those I hate are always by me ; those I love I may not see. 0 my own, my cherished Lion, object of my prayers and toil, "Would that I and thou were lying underneath the All Saints' soil ! Drop your voices, dear companions, lest you rouse a sleeping Bear. Chorus A. — Does he then despise our anger ? All men know who ate Don't Care. Never fear him. "We'll protect you. Do not heed his threats and
frowns. Say your prayers, and jump down boldly. "We will catch you in our gowns.
\_Philoleon places his leg over the window-sill, hut is seized from behind htj Bdeluleon. Bdel. — Not so fast, j'ou old deceiver ! From your evil courses turn.
14 THE CAMBRlDCiE DIONYSIA.
Never will I tamely let you join in such a vile concern. Sooner than behold my bi'other sunk to such a depth of scorn, Gladly would I bear to see him walking on a Sunday morn 'Twixt a pair of pupil-teachers, all the length of Jesus-lane, With a school of dirty children slowly shambling in his train : Or behold him in the Union, on the Presidential seat, Shakspeai-e smiling blandly o'er him, freshmen ranting at his feet. Get you gone, you pack of scoundrels ! Don't stand bawling here all
day. Williams, fetch me out the slop-pail : Jackson, run for 20 K !
Choetjs a. — Slay the despot ! Slay the tyrant ! Him who cannot
brook to see All his neighbours dwelling round him peaceable, secure, and free- Well I know you've long been plotting how to seize the Castle-hill With a band of hired assassins, there to work your cruel will. But you shall not go unpunished — no, I swear by Jove in heaven, We will bind and hand you over to the merciless eleven. Then we'll see if you continue to your purpose firm and fixed. In the gloomy spinning-prison, when the hemlock bowl is mixed. Let the man who wrote the Syrens make a feint upon the door : Bring up ladders, ropes, and axes ; we must storm the second floor.
\_Enter Chorus of First Trinity men. Choeus. — Here they are. Upon them boldly ! Double quick
across the grass ! Cut them off" from Bishop's Hostel, lest along the wall they pass ! Forward, Darroch ! Forward, Perring ! Charge them, Lyle ! And
now remember 'Gainst what odds you fought and conquered on the fifth of last
November : When you broke with one brave comrade through an armed and
murderous mob : Fear not an ODsthetic humbug, you who've faced a Cambridge snob. Men of twelve stone, in the centre ; coxswains, skirmish on the flank ! You're too eager there, you hoplites: Jones and Prickard, keej)
your vnnk !
A CLASSIC DREAM. 15
Do not stay to spoil tlie fallen while a soul is left alive : We must smoke them out and kill them, now we've caught them in the hive.
\Tlieij charge the ivriters in the ^^ Lion,^^ icho resist for some time; but on the death of E^ Astes, the re- mainder Jly in all directions. Victory ! Victory ! now for a shout ! As when we bumped the Johnians out ! Vain was the might of Elective Affinities When brought face to face with our valiant First Trinities. Victory ! Victory ! Huzza ! Tantivy ! For when an ass In the lowest class Talks of the pictured page of Livy, 'Tis time for every man of sense To arm in honesty's defence, As if the French were steaming over In rams of iron from Brest to Dover.
\^Bdeluleon comes out leading Philoleon dressed in a First Trinity costume. Bdel. — Thank you, my brave allies ! And now to prove The confidence I have in your discretion, I here entrust to you my elder brother, To watch his morals, and to cure his madness. So treat him kindly ; put him in a tub. And take him down the river every day ; And see that no one asks him out to supper, To make him tipsy. Be not hard upon him, But let him have his pipe and glass of sherry. Since he is old and foolish. And if ever He comes back sound in body and in mind, I'll stand you claret at the next club-meeting.
\_Exit Bdeluleon.
16 THE CAMBRIDGE DIONYSIA.
PARABASIS. We wish to praise our poet, who despising fame and pelf Flew like a bull-dog at the throat of the jagged toothed monster
itself Which rages over all the town, from Magdalene-bridge to Downing, With the head of a lion, and feet of a goose, and the ears of
Eobert Browning. But some of you good fellows think, as the poet grieves to hear, That you are laughed at in "the Bears," the play he wrote last
year: So he assures you faithfully that no insult was intended. Do not cherish bitter feelings ; for. Least said is soonest mended. And next he bids us tax our wit To tell some members of the Pitt, Whose names he knows not, when they meet Him passing into Sidney-street, Not to bawl out " The Bear, The Bear !" First because he does not care : Then surely for a man of taste. It is a sin and shame to waste In calling nicknames near the Hoop The breath that's given to cool our soup. So, being a good-tempered bard. Whichever of them leaves his card He'll ask him out next week to dine, And shake hands o'er a glass of wine. And now he bids you all good evening, and farewell till next
October ; And hopes to-night you'll sup like princes, and that none will go
home sober. If policeman K arrests you, let not that your spirits damp : Break his head, and shave his whiskers, and suspend him to the lamp. [_Exeunt.
[Part III.
ENGLISH TENANT-FARMERS
ON THE
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF CANADA.
THE REPORTS OF
Mr. W. WEEKS, Cleverton, Chippenham, Wilts;
Mr. T. PITT, Oburnford, Cullompton, Devon ;
Mr. A. J. DAVIES, Upper Hollings, Pensax, Tenbury, Worcestershire,
ON
Their Visit to Canada in 1893.
Published by Authority of the Government of Canada (Department of the Interior).
FEBRUARY, 1894.
MCCorquodale & Co., Limited, Kuston, London, N.W.
ENGLISH TENANT-FAPaiERS
OK TUE
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
OF CANADA.
THE REPORTS
OF
Mb. W. weeks, Cleverton, Cuippenham, Wilts ;
Mr. T. PITT, Oburnford, Cullompton, Devon ;
Me. a. J. DA VIES, Upper Hollings, Pensax, Tenburt, Worcesteesiiire,
OH
THEIR VISIT TO CANADA IN 1893.
ruhlislied hij Autliority of tlie Government of Canada CDcparimcnt of
the Interior).
PEBRUAUY, 1804.
PA in in.
CONTENTS.
PREFACB
Mr. W. Weeks's Eeport
Mr. T. Pitt's Report
Mr. a. J. Davies's Keport
General lNroK:\rATiON about Canada (Appendix A)
TuE Canadian Exuibits at Cuicago (Appendix B)
■iVLAF ••• ••• ■•« ••■ •«• ■■( ft* ea«
•to face
tagb iii
1
8 U GL CO 72
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
lixPERlMENTAL FaRJI, OtTAAVA
A Farm-IIodse, Southern Manitoba
Farm Scene, Manitoba
Double-Furrow and Single-Furrow Wheel Ploughs Canadian Pacific Railway Hotel, Quebec Touonto
A KiLLARNEY CrOFTER PLOUGHING
Cattle in the Qu'Appelle Valley ...
Calgary
Vancouver ...
Ranch Scene, Alberta
Farm Scene, Ontario
An Ontario Farm
Parliament Buildings, Ottawa
Winnipeg
A Crofter Stable and Farm-Yard ...
Crofters Threshing
Wheat Stacks, Manitoba
Grain Elevator, Brandon
Hyde Farm, Qu'Appelle
Cameron's Farm, Qu'Appelle ...
Bow River, Calgary
A Large Tree (Girth, 55 Ft.), Stanley P.
ark, Vancouver
3
4 6
7 8 10 12 13 15 17 20 27 29 35 41 44 45 43 48 50 51 52 55
PREFACE.
In July, 1893, the High Commissioner for Canada, by direction of the Minister of the Interior, invited the following gentlemen (who are all connected with the agricultural industry in the different parts of the United Kingdom from which they come) to visit the Dominion of Canada, and report upon its agricultural resources, and the advantages the country offers for the settlement of farmers and farm labourers, and the other classes for which there is a great demand : —
Mr. A. J. Davies, Upper Hollings, Pensax, Tenbury, "Worcestershire ; Mr. W. H. Dempster, Millbrook Lodge, Clarbeston Road, Sonth Wales ; Mr. Alexander Fraser, Balloch, CuUoden, Inverness, Scotland ; Mr. R. II. Faulks, Langhara, (Jak- ham, Rutland ; Mr. J. T. Franklin, Handley, near Towcester, Northamptonshire ; Mr. J. J. Gniry, Peppardstown, Fetbard, Clonmel, Ireland ; j\Ir. Tom Pitt, Oburn- ford, CuUompton, Devon ; Mr. Jolm Roberts, Plas Heaton Farm, Trefn;ujt, North Wales; Mr. Reuben Shelton, Grange Farm, Riiddiugton, Nottinghamshire; Mr. Joseph Smith, 2, Mowbray Terrace, Sowerby, Tbirsk, Yorkshire; ]\Ir. John Sleven, Parroch Farm, Hurlford', Ayrshire, Scotland; Tilr. Booth Waddington, Bolehill Farm, Wingerworth, Chesterfield ; and Mr. William Weeks, Cleverton Farm, Chippenham, Wiltshu-e.
In addition, two other farmers — Mr. John Cook, of Birch Hill, JS'een Sollars, Cleobury Mortimer, Shropshire; and Mr, C. E, AV right, of Brinkhill, near Spilsby, Lincolnshire — visited the Dominion, under their own auspices, during 1893 ; and they have been good enough to prepare Keports of their impressions.
The Reports, if published together, would make a bulky volume.
It has therefore been decided to divide them into the following
parts : —
Fart 1 — The Reports of Messrs. Shelton, Waddington, Cook, and Smith.
Fart 2 — The Reports of Messrs. Franklin, Faulks, and Wright,
Fart 3 — The Reports of Messrs. Weeks, I'itt, and Davies.
Fart 4 — The Reports of Messrs. Roberts and Dempster.
Fart 5 — The Reports of Messrs. Steven and Fraser.
Fart 6— The Report of Mr. Guiry.
Part 1 will be circulated in the following counties ; — Northumber- land, Cumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, York, Lancashire, Shrop- sliire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derby, and Nottingham.
Part 2, in Lincoln, Rutland, Leicester, Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Hertford, Bedford, Bucks, Oxford, Berks, Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and Sussex.
Part 3, in Warwick, Worcester, Hereford, Gloucester, Wiltshire, Hampshire, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall.
Fart 4, in Wales ; Part 5, in Scotland ; and Part 6, in Ireland.
Any or all of these pamphlets, as well as other illustrated From wJiom pam]:)hlets issued by the Government, may be obtained. Pamphlets post free, by persons desiring to peruse them, on applica- obtainable. tion to the lion. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B., High Commissioner for Canada, 17, Victoria Street, London, S.W. ; to Mr. J. G. Colmer, C.M.G., Secretary, at the same
iv Preface.
address ; or to any of tlie agents of tlie Canadian Government in the United Kingdom, whose names and addresses are as follows: — Mr. John Dyke, 15, Water Street, Liverpool; Mr. Thomas Grahame, 40, yt. Enoch Square, Glasgow ; Mr. E. J. Wood, 79, Hagley Eoad, Birmingliam; IMr. P. Fleming, 44, High Street, Dundee; Mr. W. G. Stuart, Nethy Uridge, Inverness ; and Mr. G. Leary, William Street, Kilkenny. Copies may also be obtained from the steamship agents, who are to be found in every village.
As the land regulations of the different Provinces Land are frequently referred to in the Eeports, they
llecjulations in are quoted in detail in the following paragraphs :
various Provinces, but they are, of course, subject to alteration from
time to time : — ■
Prince Edward Inland. — The available uncultivated and vacant Governinent land is estimated at about 45,000 acres. These consist of forest lands of medium quality, the ver^' best having, of course, been taken up by the tenants in the first instance, and their price averages about one dollar per acre. Parties desiring to settle upon them are allowed ten years to pay for their holdings, the purchase- money to bear interest at 5 i)er cent, and to be payable in ten annnal instalments.
l^ovn Scotia. — There are now in Nova Scotia about two millions of acres of ungranted Government lands, a considerable quantitv of which is barren and almost totally unfit for cultivation ; but there is some land in blocks of from 200 to 509 acres of retUly valuable land, and some of it the best in the province, and quite accessible, being very near present settlements. The price of Crown lands is $40 (£8 sterling) per 100 acres.
New Brnnstv/rk. — Crown lands, of which there are some 7,000,000 acres still ungranted, may be acquired as follows : — (1.) Free grants of 100 acres, by settlers over 18 years of age, on the condition of improving the land to the extent of £4 in three months ; building a house 16 ft. by 20 ft., and cultivating two acres within one year; and continuous residence and cultivation of 10 acres within three years. (2.) One hundred acres are given to any settler over 18 years of age who pays £A in cash, or does work on the public roads. &c., equal to £2 per annum for three years. Within two years a house 1*^ ft. by 20 ft. must be built, and two acres of land cleared. Continuous residence for three years from date of entry, and ten acres cultivated in that time, is also required. (.3.) Single applications may be made for not more than 200 acres of Crown lands without conditions of settlement. These are put up to public auction at an upset price of 4s. 2d. per acre ; purchase- money to be paid at once ; cost of survey to be paid by purchaser.
Quebec. — About 6,000,000 acres of Crown lands have been surveyed for sale. They are to be purchnsed from the Government, and are paid for in the following manner: — One-fifth of the purchase-money is required to be paid the day of the sale, and the remainder in four equal yearly instalments, bearing interest at 6 per cent. The prices at which the lands are sold are merely nominal, ranging from 20 cents to 60 cents per acre (15d. to 2s. 5^d. stg.). The purchnser is required to take possession of the laud sold within six months of the date of the sale, and to occupy it within two years. He must clear, in the course of ten years, ten acres for every hundred held by him, and erect a habitable house of the dimensions of at least IG ft. by 20 ft. The letters patent are issued free of charge. The parts of the Province of Quebec now inviting colonisation are the Lake St. John District ; the valleys of the Saguenay, St. Maurice, and the Ottawa Kivers ; the Eastern Townships; the Lower St. Lawrence; and Gasp^.
Ontario. — Any head of a family, whether male or female, having children tinder 18 years of age, can obtain a grant of 200 acres; and a single man ever 18 years of age, or a married man having no children under 18 residing with him, can obtain a grant of 100 acres. This land is mostly covered with fore.'t, and is situate in the northern and north-western parts of the province. Such a person may also purchase an additional 100 acres at 50 cents per acre, cash. The Beltlemeut duties are — To have 15 acres on each grant cleared aud under crop at the
Preface. v
end of the first five years, of which at least two acres are to he cleared annnallv ; to build a habitable hoiise, at lea.st K! feet by 20 feet in size ; and to reside on the land at least six months in each year. In the Rainy Rlnr district, to the west of Lake Superior, consisting of well-watered uncleared laud, free trrants are made of IGO acres to a head of a family having children under 18 years of age residing with him (or her) ; and 120 acres to a single man over 18, or to a married man not having children under IS residing with him; each person obtaining a free grant to have the privilege of purclnising 80 acres additional, at the rate of one dollar per acre, payable in four annual instalments.
Manitoba and North- West Territories. — Free grants of one quarter-section (160 acres) of surveyed agricultural land, not previously entered, may be obtained by any person who is the sole head of a family, or by any male who has attained the age of 18 vears, on .ipplication to the local agent of Dominion lands, and on pay- ment'^of an office fee of $10. The grant of the patent is subject to the following conditions having been complied with : —
By makinst entry and within six months thereafter erecting a habitable house 'and commencing actual residence upon the land, and continuing to reside upon it for at least six months in each year for the three next succeeding years, and doing reasonable cultivation duties during that period.
Persons making entry for homesteads on or after September 1st in any year are allowed until June 1st following to perfect th.ir entries by going into actual residence. The only charge for a homestead of 100 acres is the entrance fee of $ 10. In certain cases forfeited pre-emptions and cancelled homesteads are available for entry, but slightly additional fees, and value of improvements thereon, if any, are demanded from the homesteader in each case, and when abandoned pre-emptions are taken up they are required to perform specified conditions of settlement. Full information can be obtained from the local agents. In connection with his home- stead entry the settler may also purchase, subject to the approval of the Minister of the luterior, the quarter-section of the fame section, if availal)le, adjoining his homestead, at the Government price, which is at present §3 per acre. In the event of a homesteader desiring to secure his patent within a shorter period than the three vears, he will be permitted to purchase his homestead at the Government price at the time, on furnishing proof that he has resided on the land for at lejist 12 months subsequent to date of entry, and has cultivated oO acres thereof.
The following diagram shows the manner in which the country is surveyed. It represents a township — that i>-, a tract of land six miles square, containing 36 sections of one mile square each. These sections are subdivided into quarter- sections of IGO acres each, more or less.
township diagram.
640 Acres. N.
|
..31.. |
. 32.. |
..33.. |
..34.. |
...35... |
...3G... |
|
|
^i^ |
...30... |
Schoo ...29.. Lands |
...23.. ..21 . |
...27... |
H.B. ...26... Lands |
.. i.")... |
|
v/. |
...19.. : |
...20... |
•22... ...15... |
• f - |
...24... |
|
|
...is |
...i7.. |
...ie... |
...14.. |
...13... |
||
|
...7.. |
H.B. ...8... Laiuls |
...9... |
...io... |
Scliool ...11... Lands |
...12.. |
|
|
...6... |
...5... |
...4 ... |
...'3... |
... 2 ... |
...1... |
E.
The right of pre-emption has ceased to exist, having been altogether discon- tinued since 1st January, 1890.
Information respecting timber, mineral, coal, grazing and hay lands, may be
vi Preface,
obtained from any of the land agents. Homesteaders in tlie first year of settlement are entitled to free permits to cut a specified quantity of timber for their own use only, upon payment of an oflice fee of 25 cents.
It must be distinctly understood that the land regulations are subject to varia- tion from time to time. Settlers should take care to obtain from the land agent, when making their entry, an explanation of the actual regulations in force at that time, and the clause of the Act under which the entry is made endorsed upon the receipt, so that no question or difficulty may then or thereafter arise.
British Culumbiu. — In this province anj^ British subject who is the head of a family, a widow, or a single man over 18 years, or an alien proposing to become a British subject, may acquire the right from the Provincial Government to pre- empt not more than IGO acres of Crown lands west of the Casciide liange, and 320 acres in the east of the province. The price is 4s. 2d. an acre, payable by four annual instalments. The conditions are — (1) Personal residence of the settler, or his family or agent ; (2) improvements to be made of the value of lOs. 6d. an acre. Lands from IGO to 640 acres may also be bought at from $1 to $5 an acre, ac- cording to class, without conditions of residence or improvements.
The Esquimau and Nanaimo Railway Syndicate have not yet fully ari'anged the terms upon which they will disi)Ose of their unoccupied lands. They own about 1,. 500, 000 acres, but they are much broken up by rock and mountains.
The land belonging to the Dominion Government lies within the " Railway Belt, " a tract 20 miles wide on each side of the line, which begins near the sea-board, runs through the New Westminster district, and up the Fraser Valley to Lytton ; thence it runs up the Thompson River valley, past Kamloops and through Eagle Pass, across the northern part of Kootenay district to the eastern frontier of British Columbia. The country is laid out in townships in the same way as in Manitoba and the North-West Territories. The lands may be purchased at a price not less than $5 (£1) per acre — free from settlement conditions, no sale, except in special cases, to exceed 640 acres to any one person. The lands may be "homesteaded " in certain proclaimed districts by settlers who intend to reside on them. A registration fee of $10 (£2) is charged at the time of application. Six months is allowed in which to take posse.ssion, and at the end of three years, on proof of continuous residence of not less than six months annually and cultivation, he acquires a patent on payment of $1 per acre for the land. In case of illness, or of necessary absence from the homestead during the three years, additional time will be granted to the settler to conform to the Government regulations. Any person after 12 months' residence on his homestead, and cultivation of 30 acres, may obtain a patent on payment of $2.50 (10s.) per acre. These conditions apply to agri- cultural lands.
In addition to the free-grant lands available in Manitoba Lands for and the North- West Territories, several companies have Sale. large blocks of land which they oii'er for disposal at
reasonable rates, from S2.50 up to $10 per acre. Among others, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company (Land Commissioner, Mr. L. A. Hamilton, Winnipeg) has about 14 millions of acres ; and the Hudson Bay Company (Chief Commissioner, Mr. C. C. Chipman, AViunipeg) has also a considerable area. The same remark applies to the Cauada Xorth-West Land Company (Land Commissioner, Mr, W. B. Scarth, Winnipeg) and the Manitoba and North- Western Eailway Company; and there are several other com- panies, including the Land Corporation of Canada. The Alberta Coal and Eailway Company also own nearly half a million acres of land in the district of Alberta. The prices of these lands vary according to position, but in most cases the terms of purchase are easy, and arranged in annual instalments, spread over a number of years. Mr. it. Seeman, c/o The Manitoba and North-Western Eailway Company, Winnipeg, has purchased about 80,000 acres of land from
Preface. vii
that railway company. He is prepared to sell the land at a reasonable rate per acre, a small sum being paid down, the remainder in annual instalments on a graduated scale, Mr, Seeman has already sold about 40,000 acres daring tlie last year. As will be seen from some of the delegates' Reports, Lord Brassey, Senator Sauford, and otlu>rs have land for sale. The Colonisation Board have also land for disposal, under favourable arrangements, particulars of which may be obtained of Mr. G, B, Borradaile, AVinnipeg.
In all the provinces improved farms may be purchased Improved at reasonable prices — that is, farms on which buildings Farms. have been erected and a portion of the land cultivated.
The following are the average prices in the d liferent provinces, the prices being regulated by the position of the farms, the nature and extent of the buildings, and contiguity to towns and railways : — Prince Edward Island, from ,£4 to £7 per acre ; Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec, from £2 to ,£10; Ontario, from £2 to £20; Manitoba and the North-West Territories, from £1 to £10; and British Columbia, from £2 to ,£20, These farms become vacant for the reasons which are explained with accuracy in many of the accompanying Reports. They are most suitable for persons possessed of some means, who desire more of the social surroundings than can be obtained in those parts of the various provinces in which Government lands are still available for occupation and settlement.
Canada has already assumed an important position as Agricultural an agricultural country, and the value of its exports of Exports. such products alone now nearly reaches $50,000,000*
annually, in addition to the immense quantity required for home consumption. The principal items of farm and dairy produce exported in 1892 — the latest returns available — were: Horned cattle, S7,748,949; horses, Sl,354,027 ; sheep, Sl,385,146; butter, Sl,056,058; cheese, Sll,652,412; eggs, Sl,019,798; flour, ggl,784,413; green fruit, Sl,444,883; barley, S2,613,363; pease, S3,450,534; wheat, S6,949,851 ; potatoes, $294,421, Besides the articles specially enumerated, a considerable export trade was done in bacon and hams, beef, lard, mutton, pork, poultry, and other meats, as well as in beans, Indian corn, oats, malt, oatmeal, flour-meal, bran, fruits, and tomatoes. The chief importers of Canadian produce at the present time are Great Britain and the United States, but an endeavour is being made, and so far with success, to extend the trade with the mother country, and to open up new markets in other parts of the world. The products of the fisheries, the mines, and the forests aro also exported to a large annual value ; and the manufacturing industry is a most important and increasing one, especially in the eastern provinces, and includes almost every article that can be mentioned.
It is not necessary to extend this preface or to summarise the
* The exports of these products in 1879 were only 33f million dollara, and the importance of t!ie present volume of the trade may be realised when it is remembered that prices have declined, roughly, 25 j)cr cent, in the interval.
viii Preface.
various Keports ; thoj must be allox^'ed to speak for themselves. They deal with Canada as seen by practical agriculturists, and refer not only to its advantages, but to its disadvantages, for no country is without the latter in some shape or form. It may safely be said, however, that Canada has fewer drawbacks than many other parts of the world ; and this is borne out by the favourable opinions that are generally expressed 1*3^ tlie Delegation. Those who read the Reports of the farmers who visited Canada in 1879 and 1880 will realise that immense progress has been made since that time — when the vast region west of Winnipeg was only accessible by railway for a short distance, and direct communi- cation with Eastern Canada, through British territory, was not complete. Considerable development lias also taken place since 1890 — when the previous Delegation visited the country.
The Canadian Government, in inviting the Delegation, wished to place, before the public, information of a reliable and independent character as to the prospects the Dominion offers for the settlement of persons desiring to engage in agricultural pursuits, and it is believed that its efforts will be as much appreciated now as they were on previous occasions. In Great Britain and Ireland the area of available land is limited, and there is a large and ever-increasing population ; while at the same time Canada has only a population of about 5,000,000, and hundreds of millions of acres of the most fertile land in the world, simply waiting for people to cultivate it, capable of yielding in abundance all the products of a temperate climate for the good of mankind. It only remains to be said that any persons, of the classes to whom Canada presents so many opportunities, who decide to remove their homes to the Dominion, will receive a warm welcome in any part of the country, and will at once realise that they are not strangers in a strange land, but among fellow British subjects, with the same language, customs, and loyalty to the Sovereign, which obtain in the Old Country.
For general information about Canada, advice to intending Emi- grants, and a description of the Canadian, Agricidtural and Dairy Exhibits at Chicago, see Ajipendices (pages 61 to 72).
In addition to the Reports of the Delegates referred to above, the Reports of Professor Long, the ivell-hnoivn Agricultural Expert, and of Professor Wallace (Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy), of Ed^'^liurgh University — who visited Canada in 1893 — are also available for distribution, and may he procured from any of the Agents of the Government.
THE REPORT OF MR. W. WEEKS,
Cleverton, Chippenham, Wilts.
In response to an invitation from the Canadian Government, requesting British farmers to visit the different provinces of the Dominion and report on its agricultural resources, I appHed, and was selected by Sir Charles Tupper as a delegate to represent Hampshire and Wilts, and, wishing to have a fair understanding before 1 started, was told that I was not to go as a paid servant to boom the country, but as a guest, with a free hand to say and do as I wished ; and I think it my duty to my countrymen to report every drawback and every inconvenience that emigrants will have to face, as well as the advantages they will obtain. I will write my Eeport in as few words as possible, knowing there were several delegates, each expected to send in a Eeport, and we cannot expect the public to read all the Eeports unless they are very brief.
I was so pleased with the land laws and regulations that I should have referred to them, but I have been informed they will be dealt with, and statistical information given, in an introduction to these Eeports.
I will leave to others the pleasure of describing the voyage, General the beautiful scenery of the St. Lawrence and Eocky Advice. Mountains, the magnificent timber and vast tracts of
prairie, &c., and settle down to what must ever be the principal question, £ s. d. I never lost sight of the idea that I was likely to be asked on my return, by all kinds and conditions of men : Can I do better in Canada than in England ? I must ask : What have you done in England ? A man with capital has unlimited openings in Canada, either in farming, mining, or manufac- turing ; or he can get nearly double the interest for his money, if he simply wants to live on the use of it. Miners, mechanics, artisans, and agricultural labourers get higher wages than they would in England, and can live quite as cheaply ; anyone able and willing to undertake manual labour is sure of employment at good wages; but those following the professions and lighter callings— barristers, solicitors, doctors, clerks, draughtsmen, shop assistants, railway employes, and, in fact, anyone who prefers working with his brain rather than his hands — had better stay at home, as the supply more than equals the demand, and Britishers are not cute enough to compete with men born and bred in the country. There is no demand for governesses, female clerks, or shop assistants, but female servants with good characters can easily obtain good homes and good wages. But the agricultural resources of the country is the principal thing I have to deal with, and with a country more than 3,000 miles across that is rather a big undertaking. I will begin with dairy farming, and say decidedly that Canadian cheese and butter can compete successfully against the world,
2 The Ap'icuUural Resources of Canada,
as proved by the awards taken at the World's Fair at Cliicago, where, in the final competition for cheese made in 1893, Canada carried oif in the class for Cheddar cheese 369 awards, against 45 for the whole United States. AVe shall have an opportunity of tasting tlie big Canadian cheese that wa=! made at Perth, in Ontario, and exhibited at Chicago ; it weighed 2lJ,U00 lbs. net, is 28 feet in circumference, 6 feet high, and 207,200 lbs. of milk were used in making it.
The factory system of cheese-making prevails in Canada. Cheese There are 1,400 cheese factories, and many creameries,
Factories, that relieve the farmers, and especially the females, of the heaviest duties of the dairy. A dairyman at starting would have no difficulty in obtaining whatever breed of cows he fancied, as pedigree cattle of all breeds have been imported for years ; and though the price given by the factories for milk is less than in England, the cost of keep for cows is small, and there is a good margin for profit.
Cattle are bred in thousands on the ranches, and, though they are only worth £8 per head when fat, they pay well, as the land is rented from the Government on a 21 years' lease at 2 cents, or one penny, per acre.
Sheep are bred in large numbers in the older provinces, and the number exported is about 300,000 a year, which will greatly increase in the near future.
They have a good class of horses in Canada, and they can be bi*ed, broken to saddle and harness, and put on the English market at a cost of £25 per head, so they ought to pay.
We now come to grain-growing, and at the present Grain- Groiving. price there is very little profit in it in any part of the world. At the Millers and Bakers' Exhibition held in London in June, 1892, a sample of Red Fyfe wheat grown in Manitoba was awarded the highest possible prize, against the wheat produce of the world, and took the Champion Gold Medal. I brought home samples of it this year, and the millers I showed it to said no better could be grown. That wheat was only worth 2s. per bushel in Manitoba, but the land is so easily cultivated, horse keep is cheap, and, owing to supc'rior implements, no rent to pay, and very light taxes, it can be grown at a cost of Is. 8d. per bushel; so there is a profit, though small; and when we consider that it costs £Q 10s. per acre to grow, thresh, and market wheat in England, we must give the Canadian best. As a rule, the man who grows grain does nothing else, and in a bad grain season is bound to suffer. Others go in wholly for cattle, sheep, or horses. That pays well if done on a large scale, with plenty of capital ; but a man with small means should go in for mixed farming: then, if one branch fails, he has others to fall back on.
In describing the soil of Canada, I may say I believe
Where to Go. some of it to be the best in the world, but there
ar« large areas of timber lands of no use to
farmers, and vast tracts of barren sand and rocks ; but there is
enough good land to supply the need of every man who is likely to
Mr. W. Weels's Bej^ort.
8
emigrate for tlie next 20 years, and tte very best of it can he taken as a free grant by those who will take the trouble to find it. If you want to save time and expense in looking for good land, go to one of the British farmers who have been to Canada as delegates. Their addresses may be had from the High Commissioner for Canada, 17, A''ictoria Street, London. They have no interest in the Colony, and don't care one straw whether you go or stay away ; but they have been all over the country, and if you tell them what you want to grow when you get there, they will advise you w hat spot to go to. For instance, if you want to grow fruit, go near Niagara Falls, in Ontario ; if grain, try Manitoba ; for mixed farming, go to the N'orth-West Territories, where you are close to the British Columbia market, and the price of farm produce is as high there as in England. North of Edmonton, as well as east and west of it, there is land 4 feet deep in solid black mould ; it will grow four or five tons of bay per acre, and finer crops of grain than the best land in England. There is plenty of timber and water ; horses, sheep, and cattle do well.
If you want a ranch for cattle or horses, there is good land between Calgary and Fort McLeod ; but do not go far south of Calgary for mixed farming at present : through want of water in that district, it is not reliable ; but they are turning their attention to irrigation.
For hop-growing, take the valleys between the Eocky Mountains. At Agassiz they grow the best quality, and double the quantity per acre that can be grown in England.
EIPEEIMEMTAI- FARM, OTTAWA.
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
Government
Experimental
Farms.
"We visited several experimental farms, and though I woiihl always back a practical farmer af^ainst a scientific one to ktM^p the cart on the wheels in bad times, experimental farms are very useful in a new country. The managers are not expected to make the farm pay, and they are as willing to tell a new settler of their failures as of the success they have had ; so he can easily ascertain from them what will grow in the neighbourhood and what will not, the best way to till the soil, the best crops to grow, and how to grow them, and save himself the time, trouble, and expense of experimenting.
I am not going to say anything against Canadians, Canadian because they are the best-hearted people in the world. No Farming, one ever said a word to me but what was a kind word, and they will go out of their way to assist the greatest stranger ; but by far the biggest half of the men who till the soil are not Canadians, and they are the worst farmers I ever saw. There has been enough straw burnt and hay wasted this year in Canada to keep every beast in the British Isles for five years. The reason why the average production of grain is so low is, the farmers crop more land than they can handle, and they grow wheat on the same land 10 or 20 years following, with- out returning anything to it in the shape of manure. If we treated land like this in England, we should not reap as much grain as we put in for seed. A lot of the settlers never had any experience in cultivating land. The crofters I saw were mostly fishermen ; and men who followed all trades and professions in the Old Country take to farming in Canada. They obtain their houses, stock, and implements often on credit, and have to pay big interest on the money, and yet they expect to make a fortune. If these men get a living, what is possible to men who know how to handle the land, and could pay cash for their stock and
A FAEM-HOUSE, SOUTHERN MANITOBA.
implements? "What good farmers I did see were doing well, and I can give the addresses of several who started with nothing, and have made a fortune in 10 or 11 years. They were either born in Canada,
Mr. W. WeeWs Report. 5
or went there very young ; they had employed no help, father and sons doing all the farm work, while the wife and daughters did the house work, baked, milked cows, and attended the dairy, and often looked after cah es and pigs. I made a note of several, and will copy t\\o or three notes just as I made them. September 12th. — Saw the iirst well- cultivated farm in Manitoba. The owner — Mr. Shipley, of Wav}' Bank, Stonev.all, near Winnipeg — took the land as a free grant, or homestead. No capital to begin with ; is now well oif ; farm in good state of cultivation ; good crops ; has cattle, horses, and pigs ; comfortable home and farm buildings ; and some dollars to lend to a friend in need. Did all the work of the farm with the help of his boys, but the boys had been well educated, and had the manners of gentlemen ; wife and daughters do all the work of house and dairy, bake, serve calves, &c., but were as briglit and intelligent as any ladies in England, and seemed quite contented and happy. Sejytember 14th. — Good farm at Mr. James Overend's, Ninette Post Office, Manitoba, head of Pelican Lake. Has a nice herd of cattle ; farm, 900 acres ; homesteaded first quarter-section, bought the rest ; nice house and buildings. AYere cutting grass, with a self-binding reaper, that was over 4 tons per acre. Had begun without much capital, and has made a fortune in 11 years. September 16th. — Called on Mr. James Taggart, who emigrated first to Ontario ; moved 10 years ago to bis present residence at Valley Grove, Souris Plain. Started with no capital ; homesteaded first quarter-section, took next quarter as pre-emption at $2.50 ; bought half a section at S6 per acre, and another quarter at S9 per acre. As the country filled up land kept getting dearer. Has now 800 acres, with a first-class house, barn, granary, stables, and other buildings, that cost S2,800, and it is all paid for; has 450 acres of grain — the rest pasture; grows 40 bushels of wheat and 50 oats of per acre ; has nice lot of cattle, pigs, and 10 good working horses. The secret of his success was to be seen in four big sons ; the eldest was 1 7 when he came to Valley Grove,
The worst failures I saw in Canada were cases where Farm PapiJs. gentlemen had paid premiums for their sons to learn farming. The men who took the premium knew when they took it that the only way to learn farming ^A•as to drive a plough, drill, self-binding reaper, or mowing machine, attend cattle, sheep, and horses; and if the boys would do that, any honest man would pay them wages and find them good board and lodging ; and when the boys find they have been cheated, they often refuse to work, and idle away their time at hotels, drinking, and learning nothing but bad habits. I hope it is the last I shall ever hear of a man paying a premium for his son to learn farming. If the boy is able and willing to work, I know plenty of men who will teach him, and pay him whatever wages he deserves ; but if he is too proud to go through the practical part of farming, keep him at home : Canada is jio place for him.
Another failure is the man who in the good old days was Who should a gentleman farmer, and when things began to go wrong Emigrate. would not cut down his expenses, but lived in luxury
till he loist all his capital, then emigrated, and found luxuries cost more in Canada than thev do at home. These men get
6
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
nearly frozen in the winter, because they won't work to keep themselves \\ann, for it is cold there in the winter ; and I say to those who can't stand the cold, or who want servants to wait on them : Don't go, for
FARM SCENE, MANITOBA.
you don't get your chickens cooked in Canada ; and I say to any man 45 or 50 years old who has never travelled : Stay where you are, if you can : things are so different in a young country, that a man who has trod one path all his life would nut like to alter his ways to suit another country. We are too thickly populated in England, and the young and strong can easily adapt themselves to the ways of a new country, and to them I say, Emigrate. Now comes the question, Where ? And I think I can give reliable advice on that point, as I have been all through Canada, I spent six years in Australia and, New Zealand, and have been in the States of New York, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and Dakota, in America; so when my own boys are big enough to emigrate, I can easily tell them what country to select. I like Australia and New Zealand, but it is a long way to go. Times are bad there just now, and the price of farm produce is always low. The land in the States is all taken up, and held for more money than it is worth, and there are a lot of men there who can't get employment. There are what land agents call " improved farms " in the settled parts of Canada that can be bought cheaply, because the owners have cropped them till they are nearly worn out. If you want a nice house and a fence, buy an improved farm, but don't think for a moment the land has been improved, for it has not. It may have
Air. W. Weels's Rejiort. 7
been cleared of timber, and that is an improvement, but I never s^aw an acre of land where the soil had been improved. I shall say to my boys : There is land in Manitoba and the North-West, virgin prairie, that is good enough without any improvement. You can homestead it, or • buy it at a very low price. Go there and prosper. You will be in Greater Britain, a British subject still, among men who are loyal to the Queen, and delight in the cry of, " One flag for ever." And, stranger, what is good for them is good for you.
The principal things to take are all your old clothes What to Take, (as anything does to wear in the North-West), also
plenty of new warm clothing and underclothing ; and be sure and take a good gun, as game is very plentiful. Many Englishmen have an idea that people living in thinly populated districts are liable to be molested by Indians, but such is not the case. They have land reserved for them, and they keep on it; and their numbers do not increase, like the white men. They have given trouble in the past, but are not likely to do so again, as they know the whites are too strong for them. They are quiet and peaceable, and as they become educated and civilised they turn their attention to agricultural pursuits. I have left the most important piece of advice till the last ; it is this : If you have any money in your pocket, keep it there, or bank it ; you will have people asking you to buy land, and invest in various speculations, but have nothing to do with them till you have been long enough in the country to be sure the investments are sound. It is a great deal easier to lay out your money than to get it back ; and even if your object is to take some of the land the Government are willing to give you, take plenty of time to look about before you select it. You may settle on a useful piece of land, and after you entered for it discover something better ; but you can't change. When you have once home- steaded a farm, you must stick to it or buy some more : the Government won't give any one man two pieces of land, unless in very exceptional circumstances. The best plan is to work for some farmer for a time till you find a spot you are perfectly satisfied with ; and I may tell you farm servants usually board with the family, and are treated as equals
DOUBLB-FCBEOW AND SI.S'GLE-rUIiUOW WHEEL rLOlMJHS.
THE REPORT OF MR. T. PITT,
Oburnford, Cullompton, Devon.
Having seeu an invitation in the Press from the Dominion Government to farmers desirous of visiting that country with a view to reporting on the agricultural resources of the country generally, and especially of Manitoba and the North- West Territories, I replied offering my services, and was fortunate in being selected.
Accordingly, T left Liverpool on the evening of August The Voyage. 24th, 189:J, by s.s. "Vancouver," Dominion Line.
The officers and stewards did all in their power to make the passage agreeable and comfortable to all alike. The passage generally was a favourable one, with only a little fog ; and, as we arrived at Quebec early in the afternoon of September 2nd, it will be seen that we really had a good passage. One little incident occurred
CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY HOTEL, QUEBEC.
whilst going up the St. Lawrence — viz., the discovery of a boat, about two miles distant, keel upwards, with two persons holding on to it, whom we were fortunate enough to rescue from their perilous position.
Mr. T. Pitt's Report. 9
Father and son were fishing, and the boat capsized in a squall. The St. Lawrence is a magnificent river, and its banks are thiclily populated by descendants of the early French settlers.
On arriving at Quebec, we had two or three hours before Quebec, dark to drive around the city. It is very strongly fortified ;
the citadel being on the top of a lofty summit projecting into the St. Lawrence, the river at this point not being much over a mile in width. There is a great history attached to this pretty, old- fashioned city, with its narrow, winding, and precipitous streets. With that I have nothing to do.
Leaving Quebec about midnight, we reached Montreal Montreal, about 1 p.m., Sep. 3rd. This is a very fine city, situated at the base of a mountain, hence its name — Mont-Eoyal — and has a population of over 250,000. It boasts of fine wharves, large warehouses, fine public buildings, residences, good hotels, wide streets, with good electric car service, and is of necessity a large trading centre, as the produce of the AVestern portion of the Dominion is all brought here by lake, river, and rail, for export to our own market. Sep. 4th. — Arrived at Ottawa, capital of the Dominion, a fine city, with handsome buildings, especially the Government Buildings, with their fine library and reading room. Called on several ofiicial gentle- men, who received us most courteously, and gave us every assistance and information as to our route, &c.
This also is a very busy city, with its numerous Ottaiva lumber mills and other manufactories, the waters of
Experimental the river Ottawa being the motive power. In the Farm. afternoon, accompanied by Mr. Fortier, we drove
to the Central Experimental Farm (450 acres). This is one of some five excellent institutions sj)read over Canada for the benefit of the farmers and settlers, and maintained by the Government. One can hardly estimate the benefits conferred by these farms on all connected with agriculture. Buildings are spacious and economically planned, and serve as a pattern for those about to erect new buildings. Good specimens, usually pedigree, of several breeds of cattle, with a special view to dairying, are kept. The same may be said of sheep and hogs. Experiments are tried with gi'ain, with a view to ascertain the best time for seeding, and to find those sorts which mature earliest, which is an essential where tliey are liable to get early frosts ; also with grasses, natural and artificial ; with all kinds of fruit, forest and ornamental trees, and shrubs. The best sorts of grain are supplied to farmers for seed in small quantities of 3 lbs. each ; the number distributed last year was 16,906, equivalent to 241 tons. Farmers' own growth of grain is also tested for seed pur- poses, and 1,600 samples have been tested this year. They are invited to visit the farm at any time, and the superintendent is always ready to lielp them with any information they may nnjuire. Annual reports are also issued by tliese farms — four years ago 5,000 to 10,000 coj^ies were sufficient for the demand, now 40,000 are required — giving details of the year's work in all its branches, and the farmer treasures these
PAUT III. 2
10
The Agricultural Hesom-ces of Canada,
reports among his best books as most reliable authorities. Doubtless there are many otlier advantages connected with these farms which I do not remember ; but in a large country, with every variety of climatic and other difficulties, and with such a previously inexperienced class of tillers of the soil as there must be among new settlers, the benefits must be immense, and it appears to me that the Government do their utmost to smooth them away, and make farming easy.
TORONTO.
"We next visited the Toronto Fair, on September 6th. Toronto. The exhibition grounds, situated on Lake Ontario, and
extending over 100 acres, with permanent buildings, the largest and most commodious in Canada, are handed over to a committee of the leading citizens for two months. The fair is open for 12 days. "We were, unfortunately, too early to see any of the animal exhibits, as they are sent in for the second week. We were, however, much pleased with the show of fruit and vegetables of all kinds ; grain, natural and artificial grasses, the former from 4 ft. to 8 ft. in length ; two specimens of wood — tamarac and spruce ; imple- ments being unpacked ; stoves, very ornamental, both for heating and domestic purposes ; orchids, ferns, foliage and other plants, better than are seen in many of our Old Country greenhouses. The programme also includes trotting races, lacrosse contests, local industries, and all
Mr. T. Pitt's ReiwrU 11
kinds of amusements. In this way many not actually interested in agriculture are attracted, and the gate-money is enormous, making it, I believe, almost self-supporting. After leaving the grounds, we visited the extensive premises of Messrs. Massey-Harris Co., machine and im- plement manufacturers (the excellence of whose work is already known in this country), employing from 1,200 to 1,500 hands, and turning out last year 11,000 to 12,000 self-binders and 8,000 to 10,000 mowers. Speaking of their work, and of the implements we saw throughout Canada generally, we were convinced that they were lighter, mors durable, and cheaper than here. Next day — Sep. 7th — we visited the Niagara Ealls, which does not concern my Eeport.
On passing Sudbury, we were told of a recent discovery Nickel of nickel near that place, only awaiting capital to create
Dej)osits. a large industry. We reached "Winnipeg early September 11th. Called on Messrs. L. A. Hamilton, and H. H. Smith, Commisioner of Dominion Lands, who kindly arranged our routes, and supplied us with tickets, &c.
After lunch, accompanied by Mr. Leacock — who is to be Winnipeg to our guide to the North-West — we drove to Stonewall, Stonewall. passing over about 16 miles of good prairie land. Called
on the Hon. Mr. Jackson, Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba ; found him superintending some threshing on his farm; had just finished 1,050 bushels of oats from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. — the day's work, allowing one hour for dinner. Sowed his wheat May 15th, and cut it on September 1st ; it yielded 34 bushels per acre, and was worth 40 cents per bushel.
Sep. 12th. — Drove to Stony Mountain, where Colonel Stony Irvine kindly showed us over the Penitentiary ; about 70
Mountain, inmates, very orderly and give no trouble ; farm, probably about one section, attached to it, on which the inmates are employed. There are five such in the Dominion, and one other for women, corresponding with our Dartmoor or Portland establishments. AYheat crop realised 35 bushels per acre, and oats 55 to 60 bushels.
Returned to Winnipeg, capital of the province of Manitoba. This is a handsomely built city, with splendid electric car service and lighting, and wide streets. Fine hospital, large flour mills, grain elevators, and lumber mills, and many public buildings ; the chief work- shops of the Canadian Pacific Eailway — between Montreal and the Pacific — are here, and the train yard contains more than 20 miles of sidings.
Sep. 13<7i.— Left Winnipeg, passing through a splendid Southern district to Morden, which is a flourishing settlement of
Manitoba. Mennonites, originally from Germany ; arrived at
Killarney at 3.35 p.m. Drove at once to see a farmer who came out 11 years ago with about $800; now values his entire stock at $8,000. He grew in —
1890, 120 acres of -wheat, producing 3,320 bushels — sold at 75 cents per bushel; 1801,140 „ „ „ 4,380 „ „ 52 „
1892,175 „ „ „ 4,200 „ „ 55 „
1893, 150 ,, ,, and 50 acres of oats, worth 30 cents per bushel,
but not yet threshed. Has 340 acres in cultivation; sows about 200
12
The Agricultural Besources of Canada.
acres to £friim every year ; remainder is summer fallow. Has 31 cattle, 11 horses, and 10 milking cows.
/%>. 14</t.— Drove to Glenboro', calling at Belmont and Glenhoro. Grand on our way, and visiting other farmers, who
gave us similar results, though we heard of as much as 55 bushels per acre of wheat, and exceptional averages of about 45 bushels. In one sheltered valley we found citron and other fruits being
''''"i'JiiiilP'lliSiijIir'j'i^Mii'vkii'^^^
A ICILLARNET CROFTER PLOUGH [NO
grown. Saw lots of wild ducks and geese in lakes, and wild turkeys. At Glenboro' met Messrs. Doig, Duncan, and Axford. Average of wheat this year around Glenboro', 12 to 15 bushels per acre.
Sej^. \bth. — -Mr. Thompson drove me around tlie neighbourhood, visiting one or two farmers — prosperous and happy, and well pleased with their location. Afternoon, drove to Souris ; very good agricul- tural district. Called on a successful farmer, some six miles from Souris, owning 1^ sections; soil 2 ft. deep. Has built good house and first- elass stable. Came out from Ontario 10 years ago with not much capital.
Sep. IQth. — Left Souris, driving to Brandon. Wheat crop Drive to this year around Souris, 5 bushels to 12 bushels per acre. Brandon. Season too dry, and crop much injured by hot wind about a
month before harvest, causing premature ripening and much shedding of grain — a very general complaint this year — thus reducing the average. 1-in. lumber is worth here £4 per 1,000 ft. There are also large lumber mills here, the logs being floated down the Assiuiboine Eiver from the Riding Mountains, about J 20 miles distant.
Sop. 17th. — Sunday. Drove to experimental farm to
Bramlon arrange for visit to-morrow. During the day met Mr.
Experimental Campbell, of the Asylum ; Mr. Ord, Dominion Lands
Farm. agent ; Mr. Lucas, of Calgary ; and others. Sep. ISth.
— Drove to the experimental farm ; 640 acres, with
Mr. T. Pitt's Export.
13
320 acres in cultivation. The able manager, Mr. Bedford, showed us over the buildings, and the various classes of cattle, sheep, hogs, &c. Average crop of wheat this year, 20 to 30 bushels ; barley, 40 to 65 bushels; oats, 60 to Su bus];els, t lie Banner oats being the best variety. £00 varieties of native or prairie grasses ; tomatoes, a good crop, but frosted ; mangold, 1,400 bushels ; and swedes, 1,000 bushels per acre, 60 lbs. being a bushel. This is their average crop. Depth of soil, 18 in. to 4 ft. This is another of the farms alluded to above. Here, and at a similar farm at Indian Head, a considerable acreage is devoted to growing pure grain for seed purposes, and this has been sold to some 3o0 farmers in 2- bushel lots at about 10 cents beyond market value, so that early appli- cants can obtain sufficient seed with which to sow an acre. Only the best varieties are cultivated on these farms for this purpose. The surplus pedigree animals are annually sold, and readily purchased by farmers, at reasonable prices. As one of the delegates doubted the existence of clay on this farm, we drove out, accompanied by an emjihye, with a spade ; after digging 2 ft., we found no clay, but better soil.
CATTLE IN THE QU AFPELLB VALLET
Also met Mr. Livingstone, the flax king of Ontario, who has a large farm in the Morden district, producing flax, and crushing 2,000 busliels of flax seed per diem, making 150 tons of cake a week. Has also a large farm in Ontario; 1,000 acres in ordinary cultivation. Also nut
14 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
Mr. Hall, of Griswold, farming 1,000 acres, who has averaged (from 1882 to 1891 on 300 acres, half on new breaking or summer fallow, and half on stubble) 27 bushels of wheat per acre, at 67 cents per bushel. Cost of threshing grain, 4 cents per bushel ; or 6 cents per bushel, including board for men and hauling to granary. Total cost from ploughing to putting grain into elevator or granary, 30 cents per bushel, for a crop of 20 to 25 bushels per acre. In 1891 had 300 acres of wheat, producing 10,438 bushels, at 78| cents per bushel. Has 300 acres of grass land fenced in. Average crop of wheat for the province of INIanitoba this year is 17 bushels, and worth from 47 to 50 cents per bushel. Oats in Brandon are worth from 31 to 33 cents per bushel. Has 75 cattle, 25 horses, 7 breeding sows. Sold 9 steers over three years old at 2| cents per lb., live weight, by which all cattle, sheep, and hogs, are bought and sold.
Sep. 12th. — We leave Brandon, passing Indian Head, Lord Brassey's and arrive at Qu'Appelle, where Lord Brassey's agent — Farms. Mr. Sheppard — met us. Between Indian Head and
Qu'Appelle Lord Brassey owns about 41,000 acres, with four sections in cultivation; has 1,400 acres of wheat and 200 acres of barley and oat^s this year. Sej). 20th. — Mr, Sheppard drove us over the farm, with which we were much pleased. The grain was all cut, and they were busy carrying to stacks. In 1891 six binders cut 100 acres of wheat a day, 30| bushels per acre, and 1,800 bushels a day were threshed. Value of land, from $3 to iS30 per acre. Cost of ploughing, with five horses, and two — sometimes three — furrow ploughs, is $2 per acre. About 500 acres is summer-fallowed every year. Mr. Sheppard now drove us, calling for Mr. McKay, manager of the experimental farm, to a farmer threshing 35-40 bushels per acre on first breaking; on the previous day threshed 800 bushels of wheat in the morning, and 1,000 bushels of oats in the afternoon. Average thresh- ing last year was 1,500 bushels per day.
One farmer three or four miles distant threshed 2,260 bushels on one day. Has one section cost him $10 per acre four years ago, and was a ])ortion of the Bell Farm. Eighteen men will work threshing machine, including hauling grain to own granary. Also informed me that cattle will do out on prairie around straw heaps at 308 below zero Tab. Freight from here to Montreal, 32 cents per bushel. Prefers this climate to Ontario, and is the finest he has ever struck. Tells me that Lord Brassey has no land equal to two sections one mile north of here, which can be bought at $7 per acre, and is equal to his section, where he has soil 5 ft. deep. Employs three three-horse teams ; when land is in cultivation one team will work 100 acres.
After lunch with Mr. Sheppard, we drove to the experi- Experimental mental farm, Mr. McKay kindly showing us over it. Farm. Saw three good bulls — Shorthorn, Polled Angus, and
Holstein ; the latter used chiefly for dairying purposes. The stalls were under a grand barn. Saw also some famous hogs. The samples of grain were good, and there was one especially good grass, im- ported from Austria — Broraus inermus — producing 3 tons 12 cwt. per acre. Indian corn is used to a great extent for ensilage, being chaffed
3Ir. T. Pitt's Bei^ort.
15
before being put into silo. Onions were also ,very fine. This farm is likewise doing good work. We also passed through the Bell Farm, originally 60,000 acres, costing $1^ per acre, owned by Major Bell, from Ontra-io ; in 1882 was formed into a company. Lord Brassey bought about 33,000 acres. Major Bell now owns about 14,000 acres, with 4,000 in cultivation. Indians help on the Bell Farm in harvest.
Some farmers after a fallow take a crop of grain, then burn the stubble and take a second crop, and also a third and fourth, without ploughing.
CALCJART.
Sep. 2\st. — Eeached Calgary. Slight fall of snow. Calgary to After breakfast, left for Edmonton. Much pleased
Edmonton. with land from Innisfail; level prairie, with bush.
Arriving at South Edmonton at 9 p.m., crossed the Sas- katchewan to old town. The following morning examined some good specimens of grain and grasses ; one kind, 5 ft. high, having produced 5 tons per acre. Was told that one man had grown wheat 14 years in suc- cession, without manure or summer fallow. Introduced to the Mayor, Mr. Macaulay, and to Mr. Anderson, Dominion Lands agent. The latter has been 52 years in Canada — 40 years in Quebec, and 12 here. This weather is more severe than any during the 12 years he has been here. Went over a Hudson's Bay fort ; saw some old brass guns in good condition, except wheels. Had strawberries, raspberries, and blue- berries in perfection this summer. Soil from 6 to 24 in. deep. Government land here can be bought at $3 per acre, and free grants may be had within a reasonable distance ; that in the hands of speculators
16 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
is held for SSIO per acre. The Mayor told me he prefers this soil and climate to INIanitoba. The native grasses grown in this district have excelled those in Manitoba for the last three years. Gold is also found here, and good money can be earned at this industry, as well as on the Peace Eiver. The Saskatchewan is navigable for 1,500 miles ; passing through Battleford and Prince Albert, it empties into Lake AVinnipeg. Coal is also found on this river, and 25 miles higher up there is a 20-ft. seam ; coal is delivered here at 10s. per ton. I may here say that owners of laud in the North- West can buy the right to minerals for $10 per acre. After lunch, drove north towards the Sturgeon Eiver, and on to St. Albert. Saw some splendid crops of oats and barley, the heaviest we have yet seen. "Were told that one piece had been cropped eight times without manure or summer fallow.
Sep. 'Sird. — The Mayor drove us to Fort Saskatchewan via Clover Bar, passing through a very good tract of land. Snowing all the morning. Plans are out for erecting a town outside the fort. Had good sport with prairie chicken during our drive. Sep. 25th. — Drove to Wetaskiwin, and on the following day to Red Deer. The whole district from Edmonton to Olds is good, especially between Innisfail and Olds. Took train to Calgary.
Sep. 27th. — Started for Btitish Columbia. After a yew short run we got into the Eockies, arriving at New
Westminster. Westminster on the evening of the 28th, travelling with
Dr. Praeger and Judge Bole. Next day we visited the agricultural fair being held at New Westminster. Splendid display of all kinds of vegetables, fruit, and grain, that of timber being especially good ; also good show of honey. Lacrosse contests were very exciting. Met Governor Dewdney there, and several other gentle- men. Having taken only a bird's-eye view, we took steam launch and visited the Brunette Steam Lumber Mills, on the Fraser River, employing 200 hands. Output very large ; about 15,000,000 port measure (i.e., 12 ft. cube) per annum. It was most interesting to watch the huge logs drawn up from the river, and turned over by "nigger" (machine) into position, cross-cut to various lengths, sawn, tongned, grooved, planed, in rapid succession, and then piled up for transport by rail or river.
Then went to see the Pitt Meadows — sojne 2,500 ValaahU acres — purchased about five years ago, in two
Lands. lots, by the British Columbian Dyking and
Draining Company, at a cost of >S5| per acre. The company reclaimed this land in the following way: — A dyke 33 ft. wide and 8 ft. deep was cut, by means of a steam dredger, around this land, with steam pump at the lower end to empty it when filled in spring by floods caused by melting snow on the mountains. They are now asking S50 per acre, and it will probably be worth $100 in four or five years. The dredger clears from 50 to 100 yards in length per day, throwing soil on the bank between the dyke and the river. Cost of reclaiming is between $15 and $20 per acre. On the second lot (about 1,250 acres) we saw, at the first plfiughiug ^Q busliels of oats per acre, and at the second
Mr. T. Pitt's Report.
17
ploughing 120 bushels, were grown. On the same river — the Lillooet — higher up there are many thousands of acres to be reclaimed, and will ultimately prove to be most valuable and productive land. This district, as well as British Columbia generally, cannot be called an agricultural one in the same sense as Manitoba and the North-West, as the heavy timber makes it expensive to clear, and the climate is not so suitable for grain. Dairying is chiefly followed, and during the last three or four years fruit has been extensively grown. Maize does well, and is used largely for ensilage. A ready market for all agricultural produce is found, nearly S2,000,0u0 worth being imported per annum. They export fish, lumber, and minerals (gold, silver, iron, and coal). I was informed that the demand for agricultural produce here will be always greater than the supply.
VANCOUVEK
Vancouver and Victoria.
morning.
Sep. 30^7^. — On reaching Vancouver, a very growing city (population, about 18,000), \\q were introduced to several gentlemen, and drove througli Stanley Park, with its. lovely timber, crossing to Victoria early on Sunday Oct. 2nd. — Mr. Dunsmuir kindly provided a special train for us to Nanaimo and Wellington, stopping at Duncan, and taking a 1 0 or 12 miles' drive through a splendidly wooded country, with only a little agricultural land available. On reaching Wellington, five miles beyond Nanaimo, accompanied by Mr. Dryden, the superintendent, we went over the Dunsmuir coal mines. Ijegan to work them in 1871. The output, about 1,200 to 1,300 tons a day ; last year, 3rj0,000 tons; all shipped
18 The A(jr'icultural Resources of Canada,
to San Francisco. This railway was built by the Dunsmuir family, and they were granted a large land subsidy. On returning to Nanaimo, we went to see the Vancouver Coal Co.'s mines. Output, about 2,000 tons a diiy. In 1892 raised 528,000 tons, and this year, to date, 434,000 tons. This also goes to San Francisco.
Oct. 37'd. — Lei't Nanaimo by boat, and on reaching Tlie Mainland Vancouver took train to Harrison, crossing the again. Harrison and Fraser lliver in canoes. After
landing, drove to Chilliwack, passing through some fine land. One piece we drove over was seeded out 18 years ago, and a crop of hay has been taken every year, in some years a second, and averaging just 4 tons per acre, without any manure. This farmer was also growing hops, having 18 acres this year —
1 think we were told producing 1 ton per acre. Then we drove to another farm of 400 acres; cost $1 per acre 22 years ago. Here a cheese factory was being run, milking 60 cows, Holstein and Ayr- shire ; average return, about $60 per annum each cow. Making cheese seven months in summer, and butter five months in winter. Cheese, about 12 to 13 cents per lb. ; butter, 25 to 30 cents per lb. ; apples,
2 cents per lb. Average crop of oats, 80 bushels per acre ; maize (10 to
12 ft. high), 25 tons per acre, for ensilage. Chilliwack Valley is about
13 by 9 miles in extent, and in boom time the land was worth from SlOO to $150 per acre with some stumps in it, and cost about $18 per acre to clear. Land now worth from $5 to $125 per acre, varying according to the amount of timber on it. Produces heavy crops of swedes, carrots, &c., all for home consumption. Pigs are raised in large numbers; average price, living, 7 cents per lb.; dead, 11 cents per lb., delivered. Live chiefly on grass in summer, and are finished on grain for about one month. Several farmers milk 50 cows, chiefly for butter ; average price, 27 cents per lb. Skim-milk is used for pigs. Cows are principally Ayrshire, crossed with Shorthorn or Holstein. Oct. 4:th. — Drove to Whatcom through very good land, and heavily timbered here and there. Crossed the Fraser, and met Mr. Sharp, superintendent of the experimental farm at Agassiz, on the bank. Walked to Agassiz, and looked over the farm. Left for Banff, arriving there the following evening, and at Calgary on evening of the 6th.
Next morning left Calgary by train for McLeod. On our The McLeod arrival there the Mounted Police drove us to their post at District. the old town of McLeod. Major Steele received us, and,
with Capt. Saunders, showed us over stables, &c., and arranged our programme for this district, we having placed ourselves in their hands for transport for the next four or five days. Saw some good cattle before reaching this place. Were told that a rancher can get his hay cut and ricked for about $3 per ton, and one gentleman had his fixed last year for $2|. Went to a store in McLeod to see Indians trading, having just received their treaty money of $5 per head. On plain just outside McLeod about 100 of them were holding their races, in all manner of costumes. Introduced to Colonel Villiers. Oct. Sth. — Drove to Standoff police post, calling at St. Paul's Mission School, in Blood Indian Eeserve — 500,000 acres.
Mr. T. Pitt's Eejwrt. 19
The Government allows teachers S60 per annum for board and clothing, and S12| for teaching, for each child, up to 20 in number. Beaching Cardstone at 8 p.m., called at Mr. Card's house, but he was not in. Mrs. Card, daughter of Brigham Young, pressed us to stop at their house, but we drove to Lees Creek police post. Mr. Card and Mr. Leonard called on us during the evening, and the former told us he began farming here six years ago, and came 100 miles from Salt Lake City. The colony now consists of 100 families, besides bachelors, and numbers 600, and owns 50,000 acres, with 1,300 in cultivation. Most of the com- munity have from 40 to 70 acres each. "Wheat averages 20 bushels per acre. They own 400 cows, and rear the calves, and in 1892 produced 53,000 lbs. of cheese, and this year 38,000, at 10 cents per lb. wholesale. Milk is worth 8 cents per gallon at the factory. Grow from g to 2 tons of hay per acre, and all sorts of vegetables ; and say they must have irrigation for grass, garden, and trees. Also have 6,000 sheep. In open weather, which they usually have, sheep run on the prairie, penning them by night, and, when snow is deep, giving them a little hay. This February had it unusually and exceptionally cold — on one occasion 40 to 50 degrees below zero. Has provided one shed 60 ft. by 100 ft., and two sheds 30 ft. by 112 ft., for shelter. Spanish and French Merino crossed with Cotswold or Shropshire, weighing about 50 lbs. each; price 10 cents per lb. generally, now only 7 to 8, and carrying about 6 lbs. of wool each — including lambs at lOg cents per lb. All breeds of cattle kept — Holstein, Shorthorn, Devon, and Jersey. Devons compare favourably, three- and four-year-old steers weighing, when dressed, about 800 lbs., worth 4 to 5 cents per lb., live weight. Hogs, 160 to 175 lbs. each, worth 9 cents per lb. Butter, 25 cents per lb. ; eggs, 30 cents per doz. This is a village settlement — rare in Canada — and Mr. Card thinks it far superior to scattered settlers ; and most undoubtedly they are a flourishing and very contented people, though not located on very good land (in my humble opinion). They were the first, I hear, to go in for irrigation in the States. Oct. 9th. — Drove to Cochrane Eanch — 14,000 acres. Commenced in 1882 with about 13,000 cattle ; present stock, between 13,000 and 14,000. Turned out this year 1,700 steers three years old and over. Ranches are let on lease for 20 years at a very nominal price — some few cents per acre— but this practice is discontinued, and on expiration of lease the Government offer leaseholders the freehold of one-tenth of their holdings at $1| per acre. •
Oct. lOtTi. — Drove to police post at Leavings, and to RancTies. Mosquito Creek. Oct. \Wi. — Left Mosquito Creek for
High River, where we met Mr. Stimson, manager of the North-West Cattle Company Eange. The company have 20,000 acres fenced in, and have shipped 550 head of cattle this year. At S40 per head they pay. "Weaned 1,200 calves in October; keep them in corral till quiet, when cows go off to prairie, and are brought in fat by Christmas. Reached Calgary in the evening. The lust few days we visited only ranching country ; in itself most uninteresting, but one is struck with the results of the light brown looking stuff growing on the prairie called grass. "We passed many large bunches of cattle of all
20
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
ages, full of flesh and quality, and producing beef without any assistance from artificial food, or attention. Some few, I believe, die — say 5 per cent. ; but who in the Old Country does not experience similar loss with daily
RANCH SCENE, ALBERTA.
attention, and, in winter, costly assistance? Oct. 12tJi. — Drove out to Stone's Eanch to look at the irrigation works carried out by Mr. Alexander, who showed us the modus operandi. On the 7th I met Mr. Child, engineer for the city of Calgary, who is interesting himself in the matter, and is engaged on some irrigation works to the north of the city. He informed me that an Act of Parliament was being drafted for irrigating land generally, and would probably become law next year.
AVe saw the "New Era" grader at work, superintended by Mr. Alexander, which forms a ditch 3 ft. deep, 10 ft. wide at bottom, 16 ft. at the top, and takes out 1,000 cubic yards per day, at 45 cents per yard. AVater is supplitd from the Bow Eiver. A cubic foot of water per second will irrigate 100 acres. Probable cost of §upplying water to farm is S2| per acre, and farmer can put it on his land at S3 to S4 per acre. This will increase the production to an enox'mous extent in this dry district, and it is supposed it will be very generally utilised.
Oct. 13th. — Left Calgary 3 a.m., arriving at Eegina at 7 p.m. Itegina. Passed through some barren prairie, tenanted by coyotes and badgers. Eegina is the capital of the North-West, and head- quarters of Mounted Police. It is a small, but growing, place. Met Mr. Haultain, Premier of the North-West Legislative Assembly ; Mr. Davin, M.P. ; and Mr. Brown, who is farming 700 acres about 12 miles distant — sandy clay, 40 ft. deep. Has 450 acres in wheat. In 1891 had 51
Mr. T. Pitt's Beport. 21
bushels of wheat per acre; in 1892, without ploughing, 30 bushels; in 1893, also without ploughing, 13 bushels per acre — three crops in succession on the same land with only one ploughing. In July of this year estimated his crop at 30 bushels per acre ; a hot wind came and shrivelled it up, and only got 13 bushels. This is chiefly a wheat district, and near Qu'Appelle Valley, which is about 400 miles long, and from one to three miles wide. Oct. 14/^. — Met Mr. Neff, Finance Minister of the North- West. Farming 2,400 acres, with 1,000 in cultivation, and only sows wheat on summer fallow, 500 acres per annum. Two men wdth four-horse ploughs ploughed 150 acres in 18 days, at a cost of S3 per day each, including everything. Average crop, 25 bushels per acre. Has been farming 10 years, and only caught once with frost, viz., August 25th, 1885. Probably was sown late. Should be all sown by May 1st. In 1891 burnt wheat stubble on 85 acres, and on May 12th, -with four drills, drilled the same to wheat in two days, with no ploughing or harrowing, producing 25 bushels per acre, and sold it at 80 cents per bushel. Runs the farm with three regular hands. With snow 1 ft. deep, after three days of sunshine, can sow wheat.
Called on a butcher in Eegina, who, 18 months ago, bought a calf six months old for SIO, and let it run on prairie, and it is now hanging in his shop, weighing 520 lbs. How much per pound did it cost him ? Saw a lamb born in May now weighing 51 lbs. Average price of beef, 3 cents per lb., live weight; mutton, 5 cents per lb. live weight, 10 cents dead; veal, 10 cents per lb. for carcass ; sausages, 12| cents per lb. ; pork, Qh cents per lb. dressed, 4| cents living ; cured bellies, 16 cents ; ditto sides, 12| cents ; plain ditto, 12| cents per lb. Cured bacon comes from Hamilton, Ontario.
Mr. Davin drove us to Presbyterian Industrial School for Indian Children, calling on the way at Government House, but, unfortunately, did not find the Governor at home. This school, at which the Rev. Mr. McLeod is the manager, has a grant from the Government of $120 per head, to include everything. There are now 77 boys and 48 girls ; these latter are difficidt to get at, parents not wishing to part with theiu. Besides their ordinary education, the boys are instructed in shoe- making, carpentering, tailoring, harness-making, and agriculture — the Government having granted the land. Younger children in school all the day ; elder ones in school three hours, at work on farm four hours.
Oct. 15th. — Went to police parade, and service at barracks. Colouel Ilerchmer kindly showed us over riding school and gymnasium. After lunch, drove out to see a prairie fire raging. Police were very busy notifying it to the settlers, and also in fighting it. Was told it bad run 50 miles, but, as far as we went (about 10 or 12 miles), saw no houses, ricks, or other damage done than to grass. Mr. Fraser, Dominion Lands agent, went with us.
Oct. Idth. — Drove to liuck Lake, passing on our way a
A Drive in farmer — the only grumbler we heard; and in conversalicm
the District, with him, and on inquiry from his neighbours, thought he
had no good grounds for doing so, having some 5,000
bushels of grain, 2^ sections of land, and comfortable surroundings;
22 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
only located there 10 years, from Ontario. At liuck Lake met two brothers, farming quarter-section each ; came here five years ago next spring, and very pleased with their location. Wheat 35 bushels, and oats 55 bushels per acre. Have 40 head of cattle ; sold some three-year- old steers last spring at $50 each. Have 160 sheep, chiefly Cotswold ; sold some, 1 year and 10 months old, at $11 each, in April. Carried off nearly all the prizes this year at local show. Sheep carried 12 lbs. of wool each, at 9| cents per lb., unwashed. Adjoining, met another farmer ; came there at the same time. Has some very good thorough- bred horses, good cattle ; and a fine white Chester sow, with a long family, under a straw rick, and no other protection (Oct. 16th). This gentleman was out with two grand piebald mares, ploughing a fire guard, as a fire was moving towards his farm. Showed me a stubble which at first breaking produced 47| bushels of wheat per acre; has a Clyde stallion, fee 10 guineas — no foal, no fee. Had dinner with the father of the two former gentlemen, who has half-section adjoining them. Found his garden well stocked with currants, gooseberries, raspberries, sunflowers (for poultry) 7 ft. and 8 ft. high, rhubarb, and carrots — just as we have in the Old Country. On two sides of the garden he had sown soft maple for ornament and protection. As I should here remark, this is bald prairie, A^th no brush or tree of any kind ; still with such good results as shown above. Numbers of wild duck and geese on the lake ; chickens plentiful. They get their firewood and small lumber from creek 16 miles distant; this is done in winter.
All these gentlemen were well pleased with their situation, and doing well. Hope to have station nine miles distant ; at present nearest is at Eegina, some 20 miles. The trail is good, and horses in Canada have wonderful staying powers, and this distance can be done in under two hours ; load of grain, say in four or five hours.
Oct. nth. — Called on Mr. Davin before leaving Eegina. There is a little brush on prairie before reaching and after leaving Qu'Appelle. Observed on passing Lord Brassey's farm they were still carrying wheat and threshing. The appearance of this farm is greatly improved by small patches of brush dotted all over it.
At Grrenfell we were met by several gentlemen. We were Grenfell. soon dispersed for board and lodging among this hospitable colony during our only too short stay here. Our best thanks to them. My host has been there 10 years, and has done well, having extensive stores ; engaged in lumber and cattle trade ; and a banker, with a partner. Oct. IStJi. — Drove with Messrs. Love and Peel to Weed Hill district. Called on several farmers doing well. One of them had taken three crops of wheat in three consecutive years without ploughing, producing 40, 22, and 14 bushels per acre respectively ; another, with three sons, farming half- section each, with good crops every year. Now we come to the farm of one of our hosts, Mr. O. P. Skrine, farming 2,000 acres, with 200 in cultivation, with a splendid lot of horses, cattle, and sheep, good house, barn, &c. Next is Mr.B. Skrine's farm — 1,280 acres — very prettily situated, overlooking lake, bluffs, and church just beyond. Has 230 acres
Mr. T. Pitt's Eeport. 23
iu wheat and oats, good horses, and very fine pure Shropshire sheep. Passing the houses of two other gentlemen, we come to Mr. Skilliters farm — 840 acres — hay land, bluff, and prairie. Goes in for pedigree cattle ; has a very good lot — large, and in fine condition. Observed one grand calf, eight months old, valued at $80 ; had not had hous- ing, extra food, or attention. Also has a very fine lot of horses. Then called at another farm — 480 acres — owned by a clergyman's son, who is going in for horses. Been there two years, and has 150 acres broken. Oct. Idth. — "Walked over to see a farm rented on the half system — i.e., the owner, who has been farming the land, lets the tenant into the farm, with all the stock, crops, &c., on it, taking an inventory of the same, the tenant paying the owner half the proceeds of each year's farming, and, on quitting, leaves the same number of stock, and number of acres in crop, as he found on entering. The tenant, originally from Westmoreland, came here two years ago from Ontario. The farm is one section ; 400 acres under crop this year — 230 acres in wheat, at 25 bushels per acre, and 170 acres in barley and oats, at 30 bushels and 40 bushels per acre respectively ; and has 240 acres of grass land. Has 40 cattle, 10 horses, 40 hogs. There are also 43 stacks of grain, con- taining from 8,000 to 10,000 bushels. Prefers the climate here to that of Ontario, and this is the best money-making place. Last year he grew 180 acres of oats after oats, without ploughing, and had a very good crop, except a strip through the plot, which he ploughed as an experiment. The oats on ploughed strip were not so high by 3 in., and cropped less by from 7 to 10 bushels per acre. Can drill 20 acres a day with four horses and shoe drill. Euns the farm hi:-:iself and son, with three men in summer and one in winter. Land was clean, and well farmed.
Left for Brandon. Oct. 20th. — Drove by Brandon Rapid City. Asylum through very pretty country ; open at first,
then bluffs to Rapid City. Met Mr. llaffner, large grain merchant ; also Mr. Duncan, who had 300 acres under wheat : t liought he had 30 to 32 bushels per acre. Hot wind in early part of August blew a hurricane one day, followed by two days of less violence : only had 14 bushels per acre. Has one section of land 20 miles north of here. Average wheat crop is 18 to 30 bushels per acre ; oats, 40 to 60 bushels per acre, at 25 cents per bushel. Met a gentleman, who tells me a farmer west from here has a flock of 400 Merino sheep, crossed with Leicester : made $750 off his lambs ; also that another flock running on prairie became too fat to breed. Met the Mayor, Mr. Hindson ; also Mr. Eea, who told me of a farmer some 1 2 miles north of here who has grown wheat 17 years consecutively on same land ; last crop nearly as good as first. This year has 28 bushels, and, being a bad year, this is below his average ; no manure has been used, as a matter of course : this must always be understood when not other- wise mentioned. Has two sons and two daughters grown up. No hired labour, and farms half a section. ILis about 5,000 bushels of wheat and oats. Had not a dollar when he came out ; would not buy waggon, but made a sledge for his work, and had two oxen ; now worth £2,000. Took his family to Old Country two years ago. In 1889
24 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
sowed some wheat on March 17th, then had storm of snow and rain, and did not sow again until April 10th; this last crop was headed before the earlier sown, and was by far the best crop. Oct. 21si.—Went over Mr. Duncan's elevator for export— capacity, 40,000 bushels; then went to mill and elevator owned by McCulloch & Co.— capacity, 30,000 bushels. 300,000 bushels will be marketed here. Out of that 60,000 to 100,000 bushels will be ground and exported, chiefly to Eastern markets. 1 am unable to say what became of the remainder, as I was assured they export no grain. There are also two flat ware- houses for grain— capacity, 10,000 bushels. Then went over woollen factory owned by McCulloch & Co. ; manufacture yarn, tweeds, and blankets. Wool worth 8 to 10 cents per lb., and use from 60,000 to 75,000 lbs. per annum, all from this district. Blankets from 6 to 9 lbs. worth from $5 to $8 per pair. About 10 a.m. the Mayor, Mr. Hindson, drove me west of Rapid City, through open prairie, then bluff, to a farmer. Been here 10 years; had no capital; bad to borrow to purchase his yoke of oxen and plough. Has half a section, with good house; 250 acres in cultivation; 70 acres of wheat, about 17 bushels per acre ; oats not good. Has 50 head of cattle ; employs two men. Then to another farmer from Ontario. He and his family have 2| sections; has some good pedigree cattle— about 100 — including some good bull calves and yearling bulls, a few sheep, and 10 horses. Eeturned to Eapid City about 1 p.m., and at once drove on to Minncdosa, and left that place by train in special car for Birtle, where the Mayor, Mr. Crawford, met us. Passed through undulating prairie ; brush and bluff; not much cultivated, but good grazing district. Steers weighing 1,000 ibs, can be bought for $20 each at this time of the year. Left Birtle for Torkton.
Oct. 22nd. — Drove to Mr. Seeman's range— 81,100 acres, Yorlcton. bought from Manitoba and Noi-th- Western Eailway Com- pany, at S>1 per acre. Came here last spring 12 months ; has about 490 acres in cultivation, nearly all in crop this year. Has had good crops, and stubbles are about the best we have seen, except, probably, on Lord Brassey's farm. Has a well, 50 ft. deep, w^ith windmill and large water tank. Is building large barn to hold 100 cattle, which number he proposes to feed this winter on chopped straw, bruised grain, and pulped roots ; has steam engine for this work. Intends only cropping 250 acres next year, and summer- fallow the other 240. In breaking new ground he ploughs deep instead of the usual 2 in. and back-setting. Cost of clearing the 490 acres was SIO per acre, ready for the first crop. Has 500 cattle, 17 horses, 15 yoke of oxen, a lot of good pigs ; but unable to run them on stubbles on account of stacks being unprotected. There was a splendid lot of feed, enough to fatten 100 pigs. The land appeared to us exceedingly rich.
Oct. 239yZ.— Arrived at Binscarth at 4.30 a.m., and
Barnardo Farm. drove to the Barnardo Home, reaching it at 7 a.m.
The able superintendent, Mr. E. A. Struthers, showed
us over the house, which was very nicely kept and comfortable, and was
founded five years ago. Number of boys at present is 40 ; expecting 10
Mr. T. Piifs lie2:>ort. 25
or 15 more directly ; but this is an experiment, as they usually come out in May. Largest number in residence at one time, 97. The Home has 9,00() acres, 600 of which are in cultivation ; 1,000 were granted by the Dominion Government, and four sections by the Manitoba and North- Western Eailway ; the remainder being purchased at i$4 per acre. These boys come from London w^hen 17 years old, and are kept at the Home from 3 to 12 months, and are then placed out in situa- tions in Canada, with about 2 to 5 per cent, of failures only. The Home has a large herd of cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, &c., with creamery and large separator. Shipped 30,000 lbs. of butter to British Columbia. The boys cultivate the farm, and are taught butter-making in the latest and most approved method ; are paid for their labour at $2 to $4 per month, boys finding their own clothing. About 300 tons of hay are made annually. We were very pleased with this institution, and great credit is due to the superintendent; the lads were bright and intelligent. Left the Home for Binscarth, calling at Eussell on the way. Looked over a herd of 74 cattle being shipped to Montreal for Liverpool ; cost about i$37 each. Freight from Montreal to Liverpool, 30s. to 40s. per head, for a train-load. Freight is low this year. Met Mr. Shield, large contractor : informed us there was a splendid ranch country in Lake Dauphin district, 50 miles north-west of here.
Oct. 2ith. — Drove to Binscarth Farm. Two sections, taken Binscarth up by an English company 12 years ago, now leased Farm. to a gentleman for five years from February, 1892, at
S200 per annum. Has a grand barn, 300 ft. long by 50 ft. deep; fine lot of stalls on ground floor, with lofty chambers over for corn and hay, with granari(?s, &c. ; also good house, piggeries, blacksmith's shop, implement shed, labourers' cottages for married and single men. These three latter buildings are not general. Used to run pedigree cattle and horses, which weie winners of many prizes. Can get hay cut and put into rick, all complete, for S2 per ton. Eick is allowed to stand 30 days before being measured. Drove on to Silver Creek. Saw a farmer threshing with 12 horses ; 25 bushels of wheat per acre, good sample. Barley poor and smutty. We did not like the country, but were told it was good. Then went to another farm : three brothers, 1 section ; 40 acres of wheat, 15 bushels per acre ; 60 acres of oats, 24 bushels per acre. Had very good sheep, between Lincoln and Leicester. Had dressed one, 147 lbs. Seven horses, very good ; 3 cows, 9 young steers, and good pigs — 4 especially so, born June 1st, and now weighing over 9 score each. Then drove to another farmer; half-section, bought for $1| per acre in 1881. Taxes on half - section, S12 per annum. 90 acres in cultivation. Crops of grain not heavy this year. In 1887 grew 52 bushels of wheat per acre ; in 1888 wheat was a failure ; in 1891 had 35 bushels per acre. Land after a crop of barley does well — nearly equal to a summer fallow. Has 35 head of cattle, 7 horses, and good pigs. Poultry are the best paying, sheep next, but was obliged to si.dl out last year on account of losses by wolves ; killed on an average one a day. Sheep dressed from 120-130 lbs. In 1887 one lamb dressed
PAKT III. 3
26 The Acjrkullural lltsources of Canada.
74 lbs. 1 month 1 day old. Called at another farm ; two brothers, doing \V(>11 ; hali'-sectiou. Have 40 cattle, and several horses — good sort — with good barn and house, lleturned to Binscarth.
Oct. 2oth. — Arrived at Birtle. Met the Mayor (Mr. Craw- Birtle. ford), Messrs, O'Callaghan and Flower. Tliere are large lumber mills here. Logs from the Riding Mountains are floated down the Bird Tail Eiver, and the supply of spruce and tamarac therefrom will probably last for many years. Best lumber is worth S14 per 1,000 ft. A large number of track ties, or sleepers, 8 ft. long, G in. X 9 in., are produced here at 30 cents each— 100,000 tliis year. Firewood is cheap ; a cord 8 ft. x 4 ft. x 4 ft. being worth from SI to SI5. Money is dear, viz., 10 per cent, to 20 per cent. : the former is safe. "Went over the Arrow Steam Flour and Grrist Mills : 10 pairs of rollers, turning out 100 barrels per day ; can store 10,000 bushels of grain. Charge for grinding wheat, 15 cents per bushel, or toll ; for gristing ditto, 10 cents, or toll. Sharps make S15; pollard, SS12 ; bran, $10 per ton ; flour, according to quality, up to S2.10 per 100 lbs. Mr. Crawford then drove us south-west towards the Assiniboine Valley. Called on several farmers, two with half-section each. Mixed farming is general in this district. AVheat crop not heavy, and I think would be benefited if manured ; the soil appears light. Tlien came to another farmer, with quarter-section, who came here three and a half years ago, and had been working one and a half years previously on a farm, lie has 3 horses, 3 cows, 3 steers (sold 2 this year), yoke of oxen, 5 heifers, and 5 pigs. Came out almost without means, and is now very satisfied. Called on Mr. Drummond, manager of General AVilkinson's farm, which consists of 1,600 acres, with 250 in cultivation. He grows very good samples of grain, especially barley, which is the best we have yet seen. The farm is also well stocked with horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs. Mr. Drummond said he did not summer-fallow, but sowed a crop of feed oats, rye, or millet, and after the crop is eaten he runs a pair of disc harrov/s over the land, and sows to wheat without ploughing. Oct. 26l7i, — Drove to Beulah, calling on one or two farmers. Came to one who had nine children. He came from Ontario 11 years ago with only a little capital ; he has 3^ sections, and his family have done well. Then came to a widow with four sons, farming 1^ sections, of which 300 acres are in cultivation, and well stocked with cattle and hogs. After our return, we went to a meeting of neighbouring farmers, held in the Town Hall, which the Mayor had convened. We spent a pleasant evening talking over our experiences during our trip, and how things stood in the Old Country, and hearing from them their views of farming in Canada.
Oct. 27ih. — Ari'ived at Minnedosa by train ; then to Portage-la- Portage-la-Prairie. Before reaching the " Beautiful Prairie. Plains," we passed through a lot of good land, mostly
in cultivation. At Gladstone we were informed of a hailstorm passing over the district in July and doing considerable damage, extending, say, from 80 to 100 miles in length. This is a very fine wheat district, and produces mostly ISTo. 1 hard. Was
Mr. T. Fin's Report.
27
told of some farlners -vVlio burn their inferior grain as well as straw. For harvest and threshing they get men from Ontario, cheap trains being run for the purpose. A corn merchant told me he had been here 10 years, and this year's yield is the smallest lie remembers, owing to hot winds ; still, the quality is good. Also had been free from early frosts till last three years, vvhen they had it each year. One farmer near AVinnipeg had his farm 2 ft. under water, and only began to sow wheat June loth, and in four days sowed be- tween 200 and 300 acres, which matured in 82 days, and had 18 bushels per acre. Sample good — No. 1 hard — and sent it to the World's Fair. A butcher told me he had 12 steers and 3 heifers, bought at 2^ cents per lb. Price, per prime cut, 12^ cents ; plain, 5| cents per lb. Salts the skins (about 60 lbs.) and sends them to Toronto, at 3| cents per lb. Oct. 28^7i.— Leave our special car here, after a Meek's very pleasant sojourn in it, and go by Canadian Pacific Eailway to Winnipeg, passing through level prairie and good hay land. Oct. 'SOtJi. — Called on Mr. II. H. Smith, to arrange about spending a few days in Ontario, on our way back, as we were anxious to see this old-settled part of the Dominion.
FARM SCENK, OMTARIO.
Oct. 31s^. — Left Winnipeg for Woodstock, Ontario Ontario. (via Chicago), arriving there about 5 a.m., Nov. 4th.
Here we met several gentlemen at the liotcl after breakfast, who escorted us through the market, and, it being market day, we wqvq introduced to several retired farmers ; chatted with
28 the Agricultural Resources of Canada,
them, and then visited the Court House, Registry Court, and other places. Sheep here are worth 6 cents, and lambs 7 cents, per lb., per carcass. Prices: Leg of mutton, 9 cents; ditto lamb, 10 cents; and beef, from 5 to 10 cents per lb. Couple of fowls, 50 cents ; and ducks, 75 cents. Turkeys are worth 10 cents per lb., and geese 6 cents per lb. ; eggs, 20 cents per dozen ; and butter, 25 cents per lb. One farmer has 700 turkeys fattening. Wages, 75 cents to $1 per day, and board. Drove to Mr. Donaldson's farm — 400 acres. Very good house and farm buildings ; been there 37 years. Saw some first- class pedigree Shorthorn cattle and Shropshire sheep — as good, and, I venture to think, better than would be found in England under similar treatment. Grain crops good. Wheat, 35 bushels per acre, and worth 60 to 70 cents per bushel ; oats, 60 bushels per acre ; barley plain. The two latter are consumed on the farm. Saw some very good autumn-sown wheat, probably sown in August. The opinion prevails here that wheat at the above price will pay double by feeding to hogs at 8 cents per lb. dead weight, or 6 to 6| cents living. Visited the Farmers' Co-operative Cheese Factory ; had taken in 19,500 lbs. of milk to-day ; largest quantity in one day was 43,000 lbs., producing 56 cheeses of 76 lbs. each, and worth 10 cents per lb. Milk, 1 cent per lb. Whey is sold to a pig grazier adjoining at $5| for every ton of cheese produced.
Nov. 5th. — Mr. Charles drove us to his farm, some two or Typical three miles out; had bought it about 18 months ago; 136 Farms. acres, in poor condition. Has expended a considerable amount on the house (very good now) and premises, and is fast improving the fences, &c. This farm cost about $50 per acre, and with a total outlay of, say, $2,000 it will be a pretty and valuable property and well repay the expenditure. The horses we sat behind were grand specimens, and not often surpassed in the Old Country. Then drove to Mr. T. C. Patteson's charming place, Eastwood. This gentleman is Postmaster-General of Toronto, but had practised some years previously as a barrister. We drove through a pretty piece of forest on the estate, passing a strong piece of autumn-sown wheat which had already been fed off. Showed us some good Shropshire sheep ; also two trees, one planted by the Marquis of Lansdowne, the other by Lord Aberdeen— one doing well, the other far from flourishing. There would be no feeling of being an exile in a foreign land among such surroundings as we saw here.
Nov. 6th. — Left Woodstock for Ginrashy, one of the Friiit-Groiving. oldest towns in Ontario, settled in 1780. This is a
great fruit-growing district, and, with the exception of tropical fruits, all do well. Drove out with three gentlemen over a very pretty and productive district, and where the soil is not suited for fruit, grain was grown. It was estimated by a gentleman that on 14 acres of vineyard there Mere 100 tons of grapes, worth 3 to 5 cents per lb. now, but earlier 1| to 2^ cents. Average crop would be 4 to 5 tons per acre. 20 acres of peach orchard have realised S7,000; 300 trees per acre, and last from 16 to 20 years. Eight acres
Mr. T. Pitt's Report.
29
of peach aud 9 acres of vine made last year $2,250. Laud is worth about SI 00 per acre. A good deal of maple grows here, as well as hickory and shumac. Fruit trees do best on light, sandy soil. One gentleman grows tomatoes, aud has two houses, 100 ft. x 20 ft. each. Crop in summer is worth 30 cents, and in winter 50 cents, per lb. Fruit shipped in afternoon reaches Toronto the following morning, and Montreal later the same day. Have a ready sale for produce. Also visited Grimsby Park — about 50 acres, well wooded — over which are 300 cottages dispersed, occupied in June to August by I'esidents from Toronto and other cities, at a rental of S50 to $100 each.
AN ONTARIO FARM,
In the evening took train to Guelph. This is a g(jod Ontario business place ; population, 12,000. The following
Agricultural morning walked out to the Agricultural College, where College. we were received by the president, Mr. Mills, who
courteously devoted the day, until 5 p.m., in showing us over the college aud farm buildings. This is an institution, y/r.v^, for giving an agricultural education, and, secondly, for experiments. There were 11 o students in residence at the time of our visit. Fees for board, washing, and tuition are low — viz. : llesidents pay as low as S30 per annum, aud non-residents (which I infer to mean students coming from another province, or beyond Canada) as much as
30 The Agricultural Resources of Canada^
S150 per annum; this latter fee is reduced by S50 the second year. The farm is 550 acres, with 50 acres allotted to small experimental plots, and 80 acres to larger ones. They have 11 breeds of cattle, nine of sheep, and thr(>e of hogs — all good specimens — for the instruction of the students. The dairy department is fully equipped for instruction in all its various branches, also the feeding and management of cows. There is a good laboratory for practical work in cliemistry, a botanical building, greenhouses, &c., for thorough work in botany and horti- culture. Candidates are admitted from any part of Her Majesty's dominions, but must be holders of certificates or diplomas. In June, 1.S92, there were no less than 18,000 visitors to tliis college, chiefly farmers and their families. The college also sends a deputation, com- posed of a representative of the college and two other good men qualified to discuss some of the many questions which are of interest and practical importance to the farming community, into those counties which have formed a farmers' institute — which must consist of so many members paying a small subscription — to lecture during the month of January. In 1893 there have been 119 meetings. In the summer term students in attendance are required to work at least 10 hours a day, for which they are paid at the rate of 4 cents to 10 cents per hour, according to value. Students on instruction are not paid. Left for Toronto the same evening.
Nov. 8th. — Thanks to Mr. John Hallam, who accom- Toronto. panied us, we visited the pork-packing establishment of
William Davies & Co., killing 3,000 hogs a week ; price 5| cents per lb., | cent less for heavy weights. We were much interested with the expeditious way in which the work was done, taking only 16 minutes from killing to weighing. The pork is shipped to England. Freight from Toronto to Liverpool, 37 cents per 100 lbs. ; Liverpool to London, 28 cents. Thence to the brewery of William Davies & Co. (no relation to the former William Davies). After that, drove to Mr. Davies's farm — 450 acres. Saw a grand thoroughbred stallion, " The Mikado;" also a Clyde, "Energy;" and a Shorthorn bull, " Northern Light ; " also some prime Shropshire sheep, carrying on an average 9 lbs. of unwashed wool, which brings 12^ cents per lb. Rams carry from 14 lbs. to 18 lbs. of wool. The young stock was also a very good lot, and I think the very best, taken all together, we have seen in Canada. The Provincial and Dominion Governments combine for the purpose of selecting the best stock to be sent to the " World's Fair," sending a Government expert to the diiferent farmers who wish to exhibit, and paying the cost of freight each way. Mr. Davies has his own racecourse for training his Thoroughbreds. We were told of a fine tract of land in Huron and Bruce Counties, 100 miles west from here. Arrived at Ottawa about 6 a.m., November Oth. After taking our leave of Mr. A. M. Burgess and other gentlemen, we left for Montreal, and embarked on the s.s. " Parisian " the following evening, finally leaving Quebec on the 12th November with some feelings of regret ; arrived at Liverpool on the 21st November, having made a pleasant passage.
Ji/% T. PitCs Bei^ort. 31
I must first of all apologise for bavijig so tediously Conclusions, asked you to follow me through this grand counti}-,
but I wish to show you what it is capable of from Ontario to the Pacific ; and if the language is weak, the facts are strong, I think, in demonstrating the vast resources of the country. In my opinion, it is an incalculable boon to an over-populated country like England to have a place so near, v>here the same language is spoken, M'here a very large number of her toiling sons and daughters may migrate and build up happy, and far more prosperous, homes than they can possibly do in the Old Country. Taxes are very light (on one half -section I was informed S12 ; and on another half-section JS!28 per annum was the total amount paid), and are applied in procuring the necessities of civilisation, with none of the extravagances of the C)ld Country. They are also levied on capital as well as on land, in this way- — that land companies and speculators who hold large tracts of land have to pay the same tax on their unsettled land as farmers have on theirs.
With land so easily acquired, such light taxation, so Advantages grand a climate — except, probably, from the middle
of Canada. of December to the middle of April, when the
cold is far greater than we experience in England, though, from its dryness, borne so much more easily ; with laws equal to our own, and maintained at far less cost, as seen by the total amount of taxes, and owing to the comparative absence of crime ; with education free till pupils avail themselves of the collegiate schools and universities, when the fees, I believe, are about S20 per annum, comparing m.ost favourably with our own institutions of a similar kind ; with the incalculable assistance rendered to the farmer by the experimental farms dis])ersed over the whole Dominion, and the Agricultural College at Gruelph ; with the freedom, not license, of life there, as contrasted with that obtainable in older countries, especially our own, and which has an overwhelming charm for most people ; — with these advantages, I fail to see why thousands of our people do not avail themselves of the prize open to them. And of one thing be sure — that if the English people do not grasp it the prize will be lost. And here I will point out that there are now Dutch, Germans, and Americans surveying the country with a view to settling large portions of it with their own people ; and as Great Britain will be Canada's market, I fancy we should prefer being flooded with produce by our own people rather than by strangers. A wave of depression is passing over the whole world, apparently, and every nation is seeking a new field where people can live and do better than where they are. Such a field is Canada, and I know of no other to compare with it.
To revert to the climate again, and from what I have Climate. gathered since my return, this appeal's to be the
bugbear, and the main prejudice against the country. I do not pretend to say what the winter is like ; but, judging from the robust and healthy men, women, and children you meet with throughout Canada — and remember there is little or
32 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
no room for a medical man, except in cases of accident — and from the produce of the soil in every variety, especially fruits of all kinds, except tropical ones, grapes and peaches being grown by the ton in the open air in the eastern provinces, I do not believe the winter is more trying than our own, with our charming East wind in April or JMay, and our everlasting damp. I only regret I have not spent a winter there ; and if ISir Charles Tupper will be good enough to invite me to do so, I shall be only too thankful to go : say from Decembt^r 1st to April 15th, a period which is very generally devoted to anmsements — sleighing, tobogganing, &c. I should also add there is a great variety of sport to be had in the country.
I was very much struck by the frequent assertion by Prospects for farmers that their individual locality was the garden Farmers. of Canada, and that no better land could be found
in the Dominion ; and on no occasion did we hear any regret at having come out, or intention of returning except to visit friends — excepting from one or tvi'o who probably would succeed nowhere. The question now comes : With such a splendid country near, to which one can so easily migrate, would one succeed there better than one can here, with little or no means? Undoubtedly, yes. If you have a good pair of hands, and will use them intelligently — probably on some occasions from 10 to IG hours a day — if you have a little practical knowledge of agriculture, and if you practise rigid domestic economy for a few yeai-s — say 5 to 10 — then you will find yourself comparatively well off, wdth a freehold of 160 acres of good land, at a prime cost of only SIO. Try to realise the result of 10 years' life in England as suggested above, and compare the result of the same period of life spent in the North- West. If, on the other hand, you have means, you can go to the earlier settled ])rovinces and buy an improved farm, where you will have your house, stables, barns, &c., already built, and your land in cultivation, or you can go in for fruit-growing. For my own part, were 1 young, I should decidedly go to the North- West, and lay out my farm to my own liking ; but, verging on the sixties, I feel it rather late to make a fresh start, though I have at the present time a son in Canada, whom I met while there, and who, after 2| years' stay, preferred to remain rather than return with me. If, on the other hand, you have no taste for farming, you can invest your money in a large variety of enterprises realising good profits. Minerals abound in Canada ; stores, banking, lumber, woollen and flour mills, and, in British Columbia, fishing, are ordy a few industries wanting capital to develop them and make a good return. There are a large number of M.P.'s engaged in agriculture, and, recognising that those engaged in it are the backbone of prosperity, do all in their power to develop it for the good of the country generally; whereas our Government throw all the burdens and odium possible on the land, and its owners.
To those with limited means who contemplate settling in Canada, may I offer a few cautions ?
1. Don't attempt it unless you are young and healthy.
2. Commence by working with a farmer at least one or two years.
Mr. T. Pitt's Report. 33
3. Don't buy before you are able to pay for your g(jods.
4. Don't have remittances from home. That simply means the
latter end being worse than the beginning.
5. Don't cultivate more land than you are able to manage well
(and there is a great temptalion to do this where land is so plentiful and easily acquired), and prepare better seed beds than is now usually done. G. Take care of your implements. Proper attention to them is deplorably wanting at present.
7. Go in for mixed farming, and do not be lured into the un-
profitable and half-time system of grain-growing.
8. Don't be a pupil paying a premium. This is a fallacy, and
means valuable time and money lost.
9. Don't marry until you are comfortably settled — say six
or seven years, unless you take a wife able and willing to work on the farm, as well as in the house.
I was repeatedly told that those now in the best position are invariably the men who came out with little or no money.
"Were I migrating to any part of Britain or Greater Britain, there is none I would prefer to Canada, where you can live on half the income with similar surroundings. And to the powers that be may I humbly suggest that they compel the railway companies to make a fire guard ? for though the law as it stands at present, 1 believe, holds them liable for any damage, proof of the origin of the fire is difficult, and valuable feed is destroyed wholesale, and 1 fear the majority of fires is caused by sparks from the engines. Also, that a school of cookery might be profitably established, for though the materials are good and all that could be desired, there is still room for improvement in the art of cooking.
In conclusion, I wish most heartily to thank all the Government officials. Members of Parliament, the Mounted Police, superintendents of the various institutions visited by us, railway officials, and other gentlemen with whom we were brought into contact during our trip from the Atlantic to the Pacific, for the very courteous, generous, and affable manner in which they treated us, without exception. And to one other gentleman — Mr. E. P. Leacock — who acted as our guide and pilot through the country, I wish to express my sincere appre- ciation of his untiring and unselfish devotion to the object of our visit and our individual comforts. I have endeavoured to be thoroughly truthful in this Iveport, and quite free from all colouring, and shall be only too pleased to give more detailed accounts of the country to all who may wish it. I regret the delay in sending in my Keport, which has been due to my having met with an accident to my ri^ht shoulder in Canada on the 29th September, the effects of which I still feel, and which has made writing rather a painful operation, and from which date I have been unable to handle a gun, and shall not be able to do so for the remainder of the season.
34 The AgricuUural MesQurces of Canada^
THE REPORT OF MR. A. J. DAVIES,
Upper Hollings, Pensax, Tenbiiry, Worcestershire.
In submitting my Eeport on the agricultural resources of the Dominion of Canada, as seen in my recent visit, at the invitation of the Govern- ment, I do so with a full comprehension of the responsibility that attaches itselL' to these Eeports. On the one hand, fear lest any words of mine should detract or under-estimate its enormous capabilities as an agricultural country, its vast stores of mineral wealth, its mighty forests of timber, its rivers and lakes teeming with fish and wild- fowl ; on the other, I feel I owe a duty to my countryman in warning him that if he fails to realise what he has to undergo in the way of hardships and privation, on his emigration to a new country, disap- pointment is bound to be the result.
One thing I would say at the outset : It seems to me to matter little whether in the future her boundless prairies are peopled by the Anglo-Saxon race or by the more Northern races of Europe, — whether or not the chain of empire which encircles the earth, and of which she now forms one of the strongest links, should ever be broken, — the posi- tion of Canada in a foremost place amongst the nations of the world is assured.
In company with five other delegates, I sailed from The Voyage. Liverpool, per s.s. " Vancouver," of the Dominion
Line, on Thursday night, August 24th, steaming into the beautiful Loch Eoyle to Moville, to take on the mails, about noon on the following day. Life at sea on board the Atlantic liners has been so often and so graphically described, that little needs now to be added. Suffice to say that, in common with a large number of the hundreds on board, I found myself vow- ing, when undergoing the unpleasant sensations of sea-sickness, that if ever I set foot on England's shore again thei'e would be no more sea for me ; now, after experiencing the undoubted bene- fit to my health that has accrued through that same sickness, I think how lightly I would again undertake such a voyage. I would certainly take this opportunity of thanking and bearing testimony to the kind- ness and courtesy shown by the officers and crew of the " Vancouver " to their passengers. We were ujifortunate in that, though nearly the whole distance across the Atlantic the sea was like a mill pond, we steamed for 1,300 miles through a dense fog. We passed through the Straits of Belle Isle on the Wednesday night, arriving at Eimouski on Eriday night, where a tender fetched off the mails and a few passengers. In steaming up the St. Lawrence an exciting incident occurred in the rescue of a man and boy from a boat which had been overturned.
Mr. A. J. Baviess Rcjiort.
35
"We arrived at Point Levis about 2 p.m. on Saturday, September Quebec. 2nd ; here the steerage passengers disembarked, and, as the
vessel stayed some hours before proceeding to Montreal, we crossed the river by ferry-boat, and took a drive round Quebec. This old and interesting city, whieh has played such an important part in the history of Canada, stands on the base and summit of a lofty crag projecting into the St. Lawrence. We paid a visit to the Plains of Abraham, where, in 1759, the English h-oops under "Wolfe defeated the French under General Montcalm. A fine monument marks the spot where General Wolfe fell wounded to death. From the citadel splendid views of the surrounding country were obtained. We arrived in Montreal on Sunday, September 3rd.
On the day following our arrival we were awakened by Montreal, numerous bands of music, and on inquiry found it was Labour Day — in other words, a day set apart by the different Labour societies of Canada as a public holiday. In wit- nessing the different processions of working men which paraded the streets, I was very much struck with their well-dressed and healthy appearance. We spent Monday in seeing the cliief sights of the city. Standing on the mighty St. Lawrence River, the great highway, not only of Canada, but of the Northern States of the Union, Montreal ranks as one of the finest cities in the world. By the dredging gt the river down to Quebec the largest ocean steamships can now come ap, and the steamships of the Dominion, Allan, and Beaver Lines are moored
PAELIAMENT BUILDINGS, OTTAWA
alongside the wharves; and when the works now in progress are completed, vessels of 2,000 tons will be able to penetrate inland, through its magnificent system of canals, to the great lakes in the very heart of the continent. The streets are well paved, and lighted by electricity;
36 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
electric cars run in every direction, at nominal fures ; while in their " JMoinilain,"* an eminence some 900 feet high, to the north of the city, tliey iiave one of the Hnest public parks in tlie world.
From Montreal we proceeded to Ottawa, the cai)ital of Canada. Ottawa. Here, what strikes the visitor at first sight are the magnificent
Houses of the Dominion Parliament. The day after our arrival we were fortunate enough to meet a gentleman who had travelled with us
viz., Lieiit.-Gen. Laurie, a former member of the Dominion Parliamt-n^, and ex-Minister of Agriculture for the pro- vince of Nova Scotia. He evinced the greatest interest in the dele- gates, conducting us over the Houses of Parliament, and accom- panying us round the experimental farm in the afternoon. What struck me most in the buildings was the splendid library, which in its arrangements appears perfect. Among the many notable persons to whom we were introduced in connection with the Govern- ment, none was more popular with the delegates than the Postmaster- General, Sir Adolphe Caron, a French Canadian. In a short speech he expressed the great loyalty felt by the French Canadians to the English Throne, and, pointing to the tattered flags hung in his room, under which his ancestors had fought, quoted the words of Sir Etienne Tache, that the last shot in defence of Canada would be fired by a French Canadian.
In the afternoon we paid a visit to the Government The Experimental Farm. This is the chief one, four
E.vperwiental others being distributed through the country — viz., Farm. at Nappan, Nova Scotia; Brandon, Manitoba ; Indian
Head, North-West Territory; and Agassiz, British Columbia. The work done by these farms, and their value to the settlers, cannot be over-estimated. Not only do they undertake the work similar to that carried out at Rothamstead and elsewhere in this country, but, by experimenting with the different kinds of grain, grasses, &c., as to their suitability to the various soils and climate of the country, they save the settlers enormous expense and disajjpoint- ment. We first visited the laboratory, where, amongst other interesting experiments being carried out, was one as to the action of the sun on farmyard manure: after exposing the manure to the sun for three months, it was found on again analysing it that the only loss sustained was that of a small percentage of ammonia. We drove round the farm, but found the splendid crops of wheat, oats, and peas had been nearly or quite spoilt by the phenomenal rainfall experienced prior to our visit. We passed several plots of maize 10 ft. high; this is converted into ensilage for winter feeding. The most extensive experiment which Professor Eobertson is now carrying out is an attempt to make a whole-meal ensilage, viz., one that shall contain all the elements necessary for fattening purposes. This he hopes to do by mixing green corn with the haulm of beans with the corn on, and the seeds of^ the sunflower. Several acres of each have been grown, and will be con- verted into ensilage, and afterwards used for fattening purposes. The result, I feel sure, will be watched by many outside the Dominion of Canada as of great importance. Another interesting part of the farm
Mr. A. J. Davies's Re]^ort. 37
was the grass plots ; here some 150 different kinds of grass were growing in plots, a tabulated statement of the yield of each being kept. Of our English grasses the best is timothy, which is largely used for pastures througiiout Canada. After a yisit had been paid to the fowl-house and piggeries, where some very interesting experiments were being carried on in the crossing of pure breeds, a visit was paid to the vinery, were some 120 varieties of grapes were growing. We afterwards adjourned to Professor Eobertson's house, where we had an opportunity" of tasting some native wines. Some idea of the work done by these farms may be gathered when I state that no less than 16,905 3-lb. samples of grain were distributed free to over 9,000 applicants during the past year. A voluminous report from the several professors and managers is issued annually, containing a full account of the different experiments, and can be obtained at a nominal price. I should also add that great attention is being given to the dairy industry of the country, with the result that to-day Canada is actually exporting more cheese than the United States. The value of the cheese exported to England during the past year was over S9, 000, 000. As will be seen from this short account of the work done by these experimental farms, they are an institution which England might copy Vvith great advantage to her agriculture. Valuable as has been the work of Sir J. B. Lawes and other gentlemen, it has still failed to give that interest to the generality of English farmers as the same work carried out by the Government of Canada has done in a very much shorter time in that country. Still, it is only fair to add that the requirements of these experiments are far greater in a new country than in an old one, where the experience of centuries has taught the English farmer to expect certain results from certain cropping of the land ; and yet, without his being able to explain why, of recent years the chemist has added his knowledge, to the great advantage of agriculture in general.
I very much regret that in the short time at our disposal Ontario. we were not able to see more of Ontario, one of the
oldest provinces in Canada, as the little I saw of it strongly imbued me with the idea that here many of our English farmers might come with advantage — not with the idea, as the pioneers of this now beautiful country, to hew their way through the primeval forest, but that they might purchase farms in an improved state very much lower than they could hope to in the Old Country. These farms are in the market for various causes, but a very frequent cause is that the farmer, having reared a family, and seeing no available land cheap enough to put his sons on, prefers to sell out and go west with his family where there is more room. My reason for thinking that this is the place for the English farmer is that it seems to me that there would not be that break from old associations as would be the case further west. Here he would find all those adjuncts to civilisation that we think so necessary in this country, while even the style of farming is very similar to ours; the only things one seems to miss are the green hedgerows, which here are replaced by wood and wire fences.
38 The Agricultural Mesources of Canada.
We paid a visit to Toronto, the capital of the province, Toronto. situate on Lake Ontario. It well deserves its appellation
of the " Queen City." Its streets are well paved, and lighted by electricity; it has some very fine churches and public buildings ; and as one walks down its busy streets and sees the familiar English names — unlike Montreal and Quebec — one could quite fancy we were in some English to\A'n. At the time of our arrival the annual exhibition, or "Fall Fair," as it is called, was being held. These autumn shows, or fairs, are a curious mixture of an exhibition of farm produce, manufactures, and a kind of pleasure fair, including what we should term in England a " fete." Nearly every township throughout the Dominion of Canada holds one annually. The larger cities have permanent exhibition buildings, those at Toronto being very fine. Unfortunately, we were a day or two too soon to see the exhibits of stock, although we had a very good opportunity of seeing what the province could produce in the way of fruit, vegetables, corn, and other like produce. In Toronto are the large works of the Massey-Harris Company, whose farm machines are known ail over the world. The orchards of Ontario are very fine, apples, pears, peaches, and grapes being largely grown, large quantities being sent to England. The province of Ontario contains more largo towns than any other ; besides Toronto and Ottawa, it has fine cities in Hamilton, London, Kingston, Brantford, Guelph, and many others. We paid a visit to the world-famed Falls of Niagara, and then took train for the great prairie land of the West.
We left Toronto for Winnipeg, the capital of Mani- The Canadian toba, on the Thursday evening, arriving there on the
Pacijic llailway. following Sunday. The line runs for nearly the whole distance through one interminable forest. For 1,300 miles the train rushes past one long natural panorama of wood, lake, and river — a fitting avenue to the great plains of the West. As intending settlers will require to travel for some days on the great transcontinental line, known as the " C. P. E.," I will briefly describe this enormous railway. Stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, crossing over the Rocky Mountains at an elevation of nearly 6,000 feet, it forms one of the greatest engineering feats of modern times. To the arrangements of this railway for the comfort of its passengers I can give nothing but unqualified praise. The trains are what are known as " corridor trains " — viz., you enter them from the end of the carriage, and are able to pass through the whole length o£ the train. Each train is fitted with smoke rooms, lavatories, and bath rooms, while at different points first-class dining cars are attached, in which meals, equal to the best hotels, can be obtained for the sum of 75 cents, or 3s. The cars, which in the daytime are fitted with luxurious seats, are convertible at night into comfortable sleeping apartments. This not only applies to the first class traveller, but to those travelling at a very much cheaper fare. In fact, in Canada the emigrant will find himself a person of some importance, as both the Government and the railway companies appear to study his comfort and convenience to the utmost.
Mr. A. J. Davies's Be^^ori. $9
The province of Manitoba is situate in the very centre Manitoba, of the North American continent, being midway between
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans on the east and west, and the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico on the north and south. Its area is 73,956 square miles, nearly the whole of which is suitable for agricultural purposes. The climate is Avarm in summer, and cold in winter. The summer mean is 65° to 67^, which is very nearly the same as the State of New York. But in winter the thermometer sometimes — but very occasionally — falls to 50° below zero. In speaking of the climate I have to state the information given me by residents, rather than my own observation, as during the time we v/ere in Manitoba — in the month of September — the climate was nearly perfect. What surprised me most was the fact that compara- tively few people complained of the severely cold weather that is experienced; but, as stated by them, the cold, as measured by the thermometer in Manitoba, as compared with England, is very different, the extreme dryness of the air, coupled with the fact that the sun nearly always shines, making the cold very much more bearable than it would be with us. Still, however, the residents complain of the length of the winters, which can easily be understood when we consider that they are usually frozen up from the middle of November till the beginning of April. During that time the farmer can do but little except draw his corn to market, draw wood, and attend to his stock. Very little snow falls on the prairies, the average depth being about 18 inches, and the native horses can graze "out all the winter. The soil is a deep black mould, or loam, resting on a subsoil of tenacious clay. INIuch as I had heard and read of the marvellous richness and fertility of this soil, I was perfectly unprepared to find it so productive.
We arrived in Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba, on Winnipeg. Sunday, September 10th. Situate on the junction of the Red and Assiniboine Eivers, it bids fair to become the Chicago of Canada, as it commands the trade of the vast region to the north and west. Since 1870, when it was known as Fort Garry, with 290 inhabitants, it has risen with marvellous rapidity ; to-day it has a population of about 30,000. It has many fine buildings of stone and brick, several first-class hotels, electric cars run on its main streets, while the city is lighted with electricity. It has also become a great railroad centre. The Canadian Pacific Eailway has two branches leading southward, on either side of the Eed Eiver, to Emerson and Gretna, on the United States boundary, con- necting at the latter point witli the daily train service of the Great Northern Eailway for St. Paul, Minneapolis, Chicago, &c. Two branch lines go south-west to Souris and Napinka, in Southern Mani- toba ; and two others, of the Canadian Pacific Eailv>ay, run north, one to the old town of Selkirk, and the other to Stonewall. The Hudson Bay Eailway also begins here, and is completed to Shoal Lake, 40 miles north-west.
The day following our arrival we had an interview with Commis- fiioner Smith, the Government agent, and Mr. L. A. Hamilton, the
40
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
Land Commissioner of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, which owns several million acres of land on either side of their main line and branches. In the afternoon we drove to Stonewall, some 20 miles distant, a place which in England would be termed a village, here dig- nified by bcnng called a town. The drive from Winnipeg to Stonewall lies through an uncultivated area; indeed, for 20 to 30 miles round Winnipeg we found, to our astonishment, that, with some of the most fertile land in the province, little has yet been taken up. AVe found, on inquiry, that the greater portion is in the hands of specu- lators, who have been holding in the hope of getting much higher prices than its real agricultural value. Most of them now are, how- ever, anxious to sell at prices ranging from S3 to $10 per acre. To intending settlers who have capital at their command, I would strongly recommend them to pay a visit to the many fertile tracts here before going west ; bearing in mind that the difference in the carriage of the grain to Winnipeg, over lands farther west, must of necessity soon pay for the land. In our drive to Stonewall we passed several remarkably good fields of wheat and oats, notably one of the latter, which could not have been less than 80 bushels per acre.
The following are the prices of farm products at Winnipeg ; Prices. the figures are taken from The Commercial, a journal of
commerce, published weekly, and are rebable : —
|
Articles. |
Particulars. |
l8T Decemdeb. |
||
|
1890. |
1S91. |
1892. |
||
|
Wheat ... Oats Hay Beef Veal Pork Mutton Chickens ... Ducks Geese Turkeys Butter Eggs •J |
Off farmers' waggons, per bushel of GO lb?. „ ,, per bushel of 34 lbs. Prairie, per ton of 2,000 lbs., loo'e ... Fresh, by carcass, wholesale, per lb. ... » )> n >> J) )> » )) »> J1 >» >5 Wholesale, per lb. )) ,, ... )) ,, ,, ,, Select dairy, in tubs, wholesale, per lb. Fresh; per lb Pickled, wholesale, per dozen ... Fresh, per dozen |
Cents. 75 29 5.75 05A Ofif 07 09 11 11 13 20 25 23 30 |
Cents. 77 26 7.00 05 OGf 07 10 oyi lo' 10 12 22 25 20 30 |
Cents. 68 25 6.00 05 06.J 06i 10 10| 11 11 12i 21 25 20 30 |
Note. — The prices in 1893 were about the same as in 1892.
Stonewall boasts of a market, stores, grist mill, and has Stonewall, its weekly paper. We stayed here the night at an
hotel, the proprietor apologising for any shortcomings by saying his wife had gone to Winnipeg to see after a help. This appears one of the discomforts that new-comers will find — the dearth of servant girls. Bad as it has become of late years in it is far woi-se here. I often thought how much better o£E
England ,
Mr. A. J. Davies's Report.
41
some of the thousands of our factory girls in England might be if they would only make themselves conversant with house work, and come out h<ere, where there is room for, I might say, thousands, with every
WINNIPEG
Hon. Mr. Jaclson's Farm.
prospect of obtaining comparatively well-to-do husbands. "For God's sake," said a young fellow, as our train steamed out of a station in the North-West, " send us some girls." On our arrival at Stonewall we paid a visit to the farm of the Hon. S. Jackson, the Speaker of the Manitoban Parliament.
If there was one thing more than another which struck me in Manitoba, it was that sterling independence of character and absence of false pride which seemed to characterise all alike. The man whose ancestors kept their pedigree will fare no better here than the humblest labourer, if he does not show those qualities of independence and industry, coupled with a good business capability. Here was a man whoso ])osition one would have thought would have placed him above any manual labour, but on our arrival we found him busily engaged superintending threshing operations, he himself stacking the straw. They had just finished threshing oats, and were fixing the machine in a field ready to thresh the wheat from the stook. The oats threshed that day had yielded 40 bushels per acre. The land here, judging from the crop, aj)peared very good. The crop of wheat was the ninth in succession, with one crop of oats intervening ; it would yield about 30 bushels per acre. As the Manitoban Parliament sits during the winter months, when nearly all work on the farm is suspended, Mv. Jackson is able to devote the summer months to his farm. His staff of men consists of one regular man, a boy for three months in spring during eeed-time, and a s("cond man for two months during harvest. This year he grew ] 60 acres of corn, cutting it himself with a self-binder reaping
PAKT HI ,4
42 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
machine, his two men stocking it. In the evening we paid a visit to Mr. Jackson's home, where we spent a very pleasant evening with some of Mr. Jackson's local friends. Here we had an opportunity of seeing that home comforts are to he had even in Manitoba.
Tiie follo\^iug day we drove back to Winnipeg, Bach to Winnipeg. via the Penitentiary and Kildonan. On our
way to the Penitentiary in the morning, we ])assod several children on their way to school. The Penitentiary of Manitoba is where those convicts are located whose sentence is penal servitude. AVe were introduced to the governor, Lieut.-Col. Irvine, who personally conducted us over the prison, and afterwards round the farm, which is entirely worked by convicts. We drove into a field Avhere two bullock teams were at work at the plough, being driven by the prisoners, an armed guard pacing up and down on the hcad-ridge. The governor is an ardent agriculturist, and hopes to make the establish- ment to some extent self-supporting. The country around Stony Mountain, as the eminence on which the prison is situate is called, is as level as a billiard table as far as the eye could reach, and put one in mind of the boundless ocean. Prom the Penitentiary we drove some 10 or 12 miles through some capital land, very little of which is taken up, being held by the speculators mentioned before. We passed several parties who were haymaking, camping out on the prairie for that pur- pose. The grass, which at this time of the year is dried into hay before cutting, is from 1 to 2-^ ft. in height. All owners of land are glad to sell the right of cutting hay for a small sum per ton, so that a few industrious men might make a very good living by cutting and deliver- ing it to Winnipeg. We passed through the old Selkirk settlement, founded in the early part of the present century by Lord Selkirk, of chiefly Scotch settlers. Here we saw a field which had been cropped continuously for 70 years without any manure being applied, and which had this year grown a good crop of wheat. It struck me that the farming in this district might be much improved. On our way back to Winnipeg we called at a newly erected pork-packing establish- ment. The methods adopted here, although on a much smaller scale than at Chicago, which I afterwards visited, compared very favourably.
I cannot but think that the Manitoban farmer might Pig-Eaising. turn his attention to the production o£ hogs much
more than he does at present. As his products have to go for long distances to market, it is obvious that he should try and send them in the most concentrated form. By turning all his second quality wheat into pork he v»'ould be doing this. Not only this, but he has often frozen wheat (of which I shall speak hereafter) that, it seems to me, should be converted into pork, rather than take just what the dealers like to give, as is the case at present. The pigs were being all purchased by live weight, viz., 5 cents per pound. Taking into consideration the cost of production, as against that in England, I think it compares most favourably with the average price obtained in England. As Manitoban farmers are complaining of the low price of wheat, I merely give this as a suggestion.
Mr. A. J. Davies's Rejjort. 4^
When at Stonewall I obtained the price of farm iuiplcnieuts iroin the local agent of the IMassey-Harris Co. The fcjllowiiig were the cash prices, delivered at Stonewall: — Parm waggon, ,£14; "Bruiitford" mower, .£10 10s. ; " Buckeye " mower, £9 ; horse rake, £5 10s. ; Massej-Harris binder, including extras, ,£28; 10-ft. drill, £22 ; " sulky " plough, £10 ; single plough, £3 10s.
Prom "Winnipeg we journeyed by the Pembina branch Southern of the Canadian Pacific Railway to Killarney. During Manitoba, the journey we passed through the Mennonite settle- ment. These rather peculiar people, whose creed forbids them to carry arms, were originally from Germany, but were expelled by Frederick the Great and settled in Eussia, Avhere the Empress Catherine granted them exemption from military service for 100 years. Finding there was little probability of a further exemption, at the expiration of that time they emigrated to Canada, where the Govern- ment granted them a fertile tract of land, and freedom from military service for ever. Although for a time very exclusive, they are rapidly becoming more assimilated with the Canadians, many of the latter having married daughters of the Mennonite settlers, who make at least useful, if not beautiful, wives. Around Pilot Mound, through which we passed, more mixed farming is apparent, quite a large number of cattle being shipped to England from this point. Ivillarney, so nai)ied by a native fi*om the Emerald Isle, is pleasantly situated on a lake after Avhicli it is called, from its supposed resemblance to the famous lakes in the " Owld Counthry." Mr. Fergus O'Brien, the Irishman in question, very kindly took me for a long drive after our arrival. Mr. {3'Brien, who is a bit of a celebrity in his way, combines the following trades for a livelihood, viz. : stonemason, farmer, and postman ; besides being a reporter, poet, and orator. AV^e drove round the beautiful lakes, teeming with wild ducks, on a visit to a Scotch farmer who has established a large dairy farm here. He informed me that he had come out there four years before with about SJ600. Has built himself a good house, barn, and stables. Has about 60 cows. He owns a half-section of land — viz., 320 acres — but by herding his cows he can run them over a large stretch of country not yet cultivated. AVe paid a visit to the dairy, where chiefly cheese is made. By a clever arrangement the whey runs from the dairy down a series of spouts to the piggeries, which are merely a large fenced-in j'ard. The price obtained for his cheese during the past year ranged from SIO to $16 per 100 lbs. ; for pork, B4th per 100 lbs., live weight. The taxes paid here on a quarter- section of land — viz., 160 acres — were : school, >S8 ; road, $4. This constitutes the whole direct taxation to which the farmer is subjected, and, is indeed, much higher than in many other parts of Manitoba I visited.
From Killarney we drove to Glenboro', passing through Glenboro' and the crofter settlement. As the emigration of these Pelican Lalce. people had been undertaken by tlie Government of this country, I was anxious to see the result. In the first place, it struck me the location was not unsuitable, taking intf) consideration that the men had chiefly been used to fishing and
44
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
mixed farming, if so it can be called. The land is specially adapted for corn-growing, as well as mixed farming, so that, in regard to the former, the men had to undertake what was somewhat new to them. Nor do they bear altogether a good character from their neighbours as to their methods of business, being,
^??
^
^-^ -^>" ^-^ ^.^^^^^^^L^
A CROFTER STABLE AND FARM-YARD
they allege, too fond of running into debt when not necessary. On the other hand, when the men were persevering and industrious, there could be no doubt their position was vastly improved. From the crofter settlement we passed through the valley of Pelican Lake. We paid a visit to a capital farm, owned by Mr. Overend. The farm is 320 acres in extent. This year he grew 107 acres of wheat, which he estimated \^ould yield 2,500 bushels. JNIr. Overend has just built himself a substantial house facing the lake; he has one of the best vegetable gardens in Manitoba, the water melons being particularly fine. This farm would be about eight miles from a railway station, where the corn could be sold. We then drove through a rather poor country — most of which is, however, cultivated — to Belmont, where we stayed for lunch. This small town is prettily situated on a branch line of the Northern Pacific and Manitol)a Rail way, and over- looks several small lakes abounding with wild-fowl. In the afternoon we drove to Glenboro' through a splendid country ; in fact, it gave one the idea of being in an enormous wheat-field. The country, which is chiefly rolling prairie, has a much less desolate appearance than the level prairie. Although this district had suffered very much from two or three days of hot wind, that had blown at a time when the wheat was in the milky state, and consequently reduced the yield very much, yet it struck me as one of the best farmed wheat-growing districts that we visited. The day after we arrived 1 drove round the district west of Glenboro' with Mr. Doig, the member for that division of the Manitoban Parliament. Although Mr. Doig has a business in Glenboro', he is also a large farmer. As may be supposed, in a country
Mr. A. J. Davies's Report.
45
so essentially an agricultural one as is Manitoba a large number of farmers are members of the local Legislature. As the Parliament meets during the winter months, they are able to do this without interfering \\ith their farm work. "We passed one of Mr. Doig's farms where threshing was going on ; the wheat was yielding 15 bushels per acre. At one time 5lr. Doig had expected about double this, but owing to the hot winds before mentioned it was yielding badly.
If there was one operation more than another I was struck TliresMng with in Manitoba, it was threshi'ig. Nearly the whole is and Mixed done by men who may be styled professional threshers. Farming. They own the machines, and find sufficient men to
accompany them ; the price paid by the farmer being four cents, or twopence per bushel, the farmer boarding all the men. To an English farmer the amount threshed appears at fii'st incredible.
CfiOFTERS THEESHING.
the average day's work being about 1,500 bushels; but at one place I afterwards visited I was informed by a thresher that he had last year threshed 2,260 bushels in eight hours, and this statement was corro- borated by several farmers present. The machines used are very much smaller than our English ones, and differ very essentially in their work- ing parts, the principle being to grind the wheat out of the ear, rather than rub it out as with us. The ricks are always built in pairs, the machine being placed between them, and threshing both at the same time. The machine winnows the wheat to about the same extent as the old single-blast threshing machine in this country. Owing to the extreme dryness of everything, the engine works at about double the distance from the machine that ours do. How necessary this pre- caution is was shown by the fact that in one district four machines were burnt during our visit. Straw is used for fuel, the engines fed by this developing from 16 to 18 horse-power. During my drive with
46
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
Mr. Doig I called at the farm of Mr. Smeaton, who has half a section of laud This year he grew 1 60 acres of wheat ; he expected his crop to produce the sum of SI, 000, his cost of doing so, outside his family, being about S200. This year he bare-fallowed 90 acres of land. _ This old English custom appears to find ? good deal of favour with Manitoban farmers, as, besides increasing the fertility and keeping the land clear of weeds, it enables the farmer to keep the least possible amount of labour— a considerable item x'here labour is scarce and dear. Mr. Smeaton, who hails from Scotland, while pleased with the country, was strongly of
■p:'i^^^
&^«
*iii|£sy'^''"-''''*^ '
■**'■ '''-- 'i'..;* 'V7>,!3''*'J'W1'
WHEAT STACKS, MANITOBA.
opinion that, owing to the low price of wheat now prevailing, mixed farming is becoming a necessity in those parts now wholly given np to the production of wheat. Grlenboro' has two large corn elevators. To Englishmen the use of these are puzzling ; but on taking into con- sideration the different conditions that prevail here, I believe them to be not only a necessity, but also one of the many economical means used to place their wheat on the English market at the minimum of expense. They are usually owned by private individuals or companies, who purchase wheat in the district, or else by a body of farmers, who co-operate to build them for storing their grain, I went over one of the latter, which in its arrangements is similar to most of the others in the country. The farmer draws his waggon to the side of a bin outside the elevator, into which he shoots his bags of wheat, the bags holding about 2 bushels. Erom that time till the wheat arrives in England it will not be again moved by manual labour. An elevator
Mr. A. J. Davies's Report. 47
takes tlie wheat from the bin to an enormous cleaning machine, which thoroughly removes all chaff and dirt ; from there it is transported to the weighing bin, which here would weigh 100 bushels at a time. Ey the time the farmer has shot his last bag of wheat into the bin, and got to the weighing machine, his wheat is there ready to be weighed. The official in charge weighs, and having graded it (it is graded into several samples), he removes a slide, and the wheat is transported by means of elevators to the top of the building, where it descends into one of the bins, which each hold some thousands of bushels. An ingenious arrangement enables the official to direct the grain into any of the bins (here 30) he wishes, by merely turning a handle on the ground floor. The farmer pays a small sum per bushel per week for storage. He will probably not get any of his own wheat when he sells, as the same grades are all mixed ; but he will, on producing his ticket for, say, a thousand bushels of No. 1 hard, get that amount and quality of wheat, although, perhaps, it is grown by someone else. The elevators have storage room for from 50,000 to 500,000 bushels.
From Glenboro' we travelled to Souris, or Plum Welsh Farmers. Creek, as it was originally called, a small town
situate on a creek of that name. Here, in company with one of the "Welsh delegates, we drove out a few miles to visit some Welsh settlers. The first place we called at was one of two brothers, who own adjoining farms. On inquiry, we found he was not at home, being with his brother on a neighbouring farm shooting prairie chicken. These birds, which much resemble grouse, are about the size of pheasants, and are very plentiful in some parts of Manitoba and inQ North-West. Owing to their indiscriminate slaughter, the local Legislature of Manitoba have enforced a close time for them, also forbidding them being exposed for sale. With true American cuteness, I saw a man advertising in Winnipeg that, as you could not sell them, he would store them for yourself and friends in a cool chamber at 5 cents per head. These brothers, who had emigrated from Wales some eight years ago with practically nothing, had each a good farm, with a small stock of horses and cattle, also the necessary implements for working their farms, including each a self-binding reaping machine. Wheat is, however, their chief production, and they complained of the low price now ruling, viz., 50 cents for the first quality No. 1 hard, which, coupled with the bad yield this year — which in this district was from 9 to 17 bushels per acre — had made it an unproductive year for them. They, however, spoke highly of the country. We drove to a neighbouring farm, owned by Mr. R. S. Jones. He came out from Wales 12 years ago ; had a capital of iSTOO when he arrived in Winnipeg. Here he contracted a chill which nearly caused his death. For four years he was practically able to do nothing. He was fortunate in having a wife above the average in industry and capability. Having takem up a section of laud, she, with the kind aid of neiglibours, managed to get a rough house erected, and a small quantity of land under crop. For the first few years, with a young family and an invalid husband, their little stock of caj)it:il exhausted, theirs was indeed a hard lot. To-day they own half a
48
TJie A(/ricultural Resources of Canada.
section of land— 320 acres — and rent another half-section. They have erected a large and substantial house, have 30 head of cattle, besides horses. The cattle include a dairy of cows, which are milked and managed by Mr. Jones's daughters ; they having at the time of our visit nearly a ton of butter in stock, for which they hoped to realise 25 cents per pound. I came away from this farm with the idea that, while this family would do well in any country, they were eminently the class of peofjle wanted in Manitoba.
From Souris we drove to the wheat city of Brandon. Brandon. A good deal of the land we passed was of rather a
light nature, and the crops appeared to have suffered from the want of rain. Round Kenniay we saw, however, some good land. Brandon is beautifully situated on high ground ever- loolcing the Assiniboine River. Although only 12 years old, it has a population of over 5,000. Its streets, as indeed are most of the small towns of Canada, are lighted by electricity. It has five large grain elevators, a flour mill, and a saw-mill, and is the dis-
GRAIN ELEVATOU, BRANDON
tributing market for a very extensive and well-settled country. Near here is the well-known farm of Mr. Sandison, which is now, however, in other hands. On the opposite side of the valley is the Manitoba Asylum for the Insane, to which we paid a visit. We were very pleased at the good order and management everywhere prevalent.
Mr. A. J. Bavies's Rejtort. 49
We spent the Sunday at Brandon, and met the other TJie portion of the Delegation which had left England the
Rvperimental week before the party I was with did. Here, as else- Farm. where, we were able to go to a place of worship of any
denomination. On the following morning we paid a visit to the experimental farm. As mentioned before, this one works in connection with the head one at Ottawa. The farm is well cultivated, and afforded us an opportunity of seeing what the land would do under good cultivation. Wheat had yielded this year 20 to 30 bushels per acre ; barley, W to 60 bushels ; oats, 40 to 70 bushels. During the past year no less t lan 200 different varieties of grass have been tried, and over 300 varieties of corn, A recent experiment carried out on this farm shows in a marked manner the inherent capabilities of this soil, A plot of land was dressed with 24 loads of farm-yard dung, while a similar plot was unmanured. The latter gave equal results in the yield of grain, while the manuring would appear to have retarded the ripening of the grain by a few days.
One of the most successful farmers I met here was Successful Mr. Robert Hall, of Grisvvold, who farms 1,000 acres on Farmers. Section 18, by the side of the Assiniboine River. He
has grown wheat on about 300 acres annually, half the ground being bare fallow or new land. His average yield from 1881 to 1891 was 27 bushels per acre, the average price obtained being 67 cents per bushel. He estimates his crop this year at from 20 to 25 bushels per acre. His cost of production of wheat he estimates at about 30 cents per bushel, including threshing. He has 300 acres of pasture for his horses and cattle. This year he sold nine three- year-old steers, weighing 1,350 lbs. each, at 2| cents per lb., live weight. From here we drove out east some nine miles. We passed the farm of a man who had come out from Norfolk some six years ago. He spoke well of Manitoba, but complained of the difficulty of obtaining help. Our next visit was to the farm of Mr, Kemnay, a Scotchman, who owned a flock of 120 sheep. As we had seen as yet practically no sheep in Manitoba, we were anxious to see how they fared, hence our visit to this farm. JNIr. Kemnay, who commenced sheep-farming a year ago, considers he has cleared STOO this year with his llock. The great drawback to general sheep-farming would seem to be the long period they require to be housed. Mr. Kemnay has built a large barn, with yard adjoining, for this purpose. In the top part is constructed a large hay loft, which was filled with hay cut on the prairie. The sheep were cross-bred ; a good ram of the Cotswold breed was used this year. Mr. Kemnay sold his lambs this year from S5 to i&6 per head. Although out in the field on our arrival, he, with that true hospitality which characterises all farmers here, hastened to provide us tea in his bachelor quarters. In addition to his sheep, he goes in for growing wheat and oats, and speaks with confidence of the future,
From Brandon we took train to Qu'Appelle, We
Qu^AppeUe and had now entered that ]jortion of Canada known
Indian Head. as the North-West Territories, whose capital
is at Regina. It is divided into four provincial
50
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
districts, named, respectively, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca. The province of Assiniboia contains the valley of the Qu'Appelle, which is a favoured part of the North- West, and is being rapidly settled up. The climate of this province is very similar to that of Manitoba. Its soil also is similar, but in some parts, especially round Indian Head, is of a stiffer character. The day after our arrival we drove to Indian Head, passing the residence of Mr. Sheppard, Lord Brassey's agent, who kindly accompanied us. Near here we passed a very fine herd of Shorthorn cattle being herded by a
HYDE FABU, QU APPELLB.
boy on horseback. At Indian Head are situate the celebrated Bell Farm of 14,000 acres, 4,000 acres of which was cultivated, the Alliance Parm, and the Sunbeam. At the Alliance we saw a field of 1,400 acres of wheat in stook. Amongst the farms visited here was that of Mr. W. Dickson, who was threshing a splendid lot of wheat which was yielding 40 bushels to the acre. He has 280 acres of wheat this year. He spoke highly of the district, as well he might, seeing that his crop this year would realise nearly £1,000 sterling, even at the low price prevailing, I drove over the farm of Mr. Tipper, adjoining, a young settler from Ontario. He has 300 acres of wheat this year, and esti- mates it will yield 30 bushels per acre. From him I learnt there was land to be bought in the neighbourhood at from S5 to S7 per acre. The wages paid to indoor servants in this locality was, for the eight spring and summer months, $20 per month ; four winter months, 8^10 to $12 per month ; board and lodging, of course, included.
Mr. A. J. Davies^s Rej)ort.
51
I paid a visit also to a young farmer from "Worcestershire, who had been out ^ome three or four years. He had just finished harvest that day — September 20th. He stated that he had done fairly well, but complained of the cold winter. After paying a visit to the Alliance Farm, we drove to the Government Experimental Farm. Of the magnificent crops here I think what struck me most was a plot of
To Regina and Calgary.
camekon's farm, qu'appellb.
onions, the finest I had certainly ever seen. The samples of red currants preserved in bottles were also the finest I had seen. Here, as at the other experimental farms, I was struck with the excellence of the corn crops, and which, as mentioned before, chiefly owe their superiority to the more thorough cultivation than is given the land by the Manitoban farmers.
From Indian Head we proceeded to Calgary. The line for some distance runs through a more or less cultivated district, especially round Eegina, the capital of the North-West Territories, as well as the head- quarters of the Mounted Police, a semi-military organisation, who are stationed at intervals over the North- West to look after the Indians and preserve order generally. Near Balgonie we passed the first of the farms of the Canadian Agricultural Company, a farm chiefly devoted to grain-growing. This farm produced 40,000 bushels of wheat in 1891.
From Eegina to Calgary the train rushes through a country which is chiefly one great treeless plain, occupied by sheep and cattle ranchers, although the land is said to be adapted for corn-growing. Calgary, a town of some 4,500 inhabitants, is charmingly situated on the Bow Biver; in the distance can be seen the snow-tipped wall of tlie Eocky Mountains, which divide the North-West from British Columbia
62
The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
Two branch lines of railway run from here, one north to Edmonton, and another south to Macleod. Only a few years oW, Calgary has some handsome streets, lighted by electricity; it is the centre of a largo
BOW RIVEK, CALGARY.
ranching district. Here I saw a portion of a herd of fat bullock?, 5,000 in number, which were being shipped to England. I was very much amused at the get-up of some of the would-be cowboys, who were only too evidently fresh from the Old Country.
Erom Calgary we proceeded to Edmonton by train, Edmonton. some 200 miles north. The country, which for some
distance out of Calgary is bare and treeless, as you get farther north becomes much more interesting. Indeed, this district, which has only been opened up for the past two years, 1 myself preferred to any other west of AVinnipeg, as far as the general appearance of the country was concerned. Imagine an enormous English park, studded with groves of trees, interspersed with lakes teeming with wild-fowl, while the long prairie grass affords shelter to thousands of chicken, and you have the country from Eed Deer to Edmonton. As may be expected, this part is being rapidly settled up ; still there are some millions of acres of land available to settlers. The town of Edmonton, the present terminus of the line, is situate on both sides of the great Saskatchewan Kiver. The main portion of the town is situate on the north side of the river some two miles from the station. The traveller is driven down a steep hill to the river, over which the vehicle is transported on a ferry-boat, which is propelled across the river by the action of the stream. The bed of this river contains some quantities of gold, which is obtained by washing. We saw several men at work with their primitive apparatus, consisting of a trough, into which the gravel and sand is shovelled with a long-
Mr. A. J. Davies's Report. 53
handled ladle. The gold-washer pours water into the trough, washing the gravel over a screen, under which is affixed a small piece of hlanket. The smaller particles of sand which contain the gold pass over the blanket, the gold dust being caught. When the washer finds there is sufficient gold in the blanket, he washes it in a bag containing mercury, which assimilates with the gold. Such is the method of obtaining this precious mineral on the great Saskatchewan. The amount earned, of course, varies with the amount in the stuff washed, but from $2 to $5 per day is the average per man. Edmonton stands over a portion of a large coal-field ; so abundant is the coal that, in spite of the high rate of wages, it is delivered into Edmonton for S2J, or 10s., per ton. The town is lighted by electricity, which is generated by an engine placed near to the river close to the mine of coal, so that it can be produced at the minimum of expense. We paid a visit to the old Hudson Bay fort, now dismantled to a large extent of its former glory, two old brass cannon on broken-down carriages being at present its only means of defence.
In the afternoon of the day following our arrival, we took a drive of some 25 miles, passing through the half-breed settlement of Saint Albert. The first part of the drive was through a country newly settled ; we saw some of the finest crops of corn on our tour, most of it being in stook at the time of our visit — September 22nd. Several crops of oats we saw would yield from 80 to 100 bushels per acre ; while on a field overlooking the Sturgeon River I saw the finest crop of barley I had ever seen growing. The straw, which was as bright as silver, was 6 ft. long, containing long, well-shaped heads. Round Saint Albert the land is chiefly held by Erench half-breeds ; you had only to look at the architecture of their houses, which differs from the English or Canadian settlers, to ascertain this. They are not good farmers ; and on the day of our visit were congregated at Saint Albert to decide a pony race, although their corn was in the fields. The inhabitants of this locality claim to have a better climate than that of Manitoba, although during our visit we experienced a snow-storm, while hard frosts occurred at night. These early snow- storms are experienced annually, and correspond to our equinoctial gales ; the weather clearing up after, and sometimes remaining open till nearly Christmas. During the severe frosts of winter they experience what are t.ermed " chinook " winds, which blow over the Rocky Mountains from the Pacific, the temperature being raised in a few minutes several degrees. On September 2h-d we took a long drive to Eort Saskatchewan, the headquarters of the Mounted Police for this district. Although the land is being rapidly taken up, we passed through thousands of acres of fine agricultural land still wanting settlers. About four miles from Eort Saskatchewan we passed some farms owned by an Englishman and his sons, who last year were able to supply no less than ;i(),000 bushels of oats to fulfil a contract, the whole of that quantity grown on their own farms. In this part of the country prairie chickens were very plentiful. We spent Sunday in Edmonton. in the afternoon I paid a visit to the burial ground of the Iliidson Bay Company; in the evening to church, where, in listening to the
54 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
old familiar psalms and hymns, I could have fancied myself at home in the Old Country. We left Edmonton next morning for Wetaskiwin, a drive of 45 miles, whence we took train to Calgary. Of this part of Canada I must say I received nothing but favourable impressions from a farming point of view; its only drawback, as far as I could judge, being the great distance to the Eastern ports. At present the towns of British Columbia are, however, able to take most of its surplus produce. I should perhaps mention the many herds of fine cattle we saw, most of them comparing most favourably with our English Shorthorns. From inquiries I made at Edmonton, and in the small townships between there and Calgary, servant girls are much wanted. In Edmonton they Avere obtaining no less than $25 per month in hotels, and in private families from $10 to $12 per month; in both cases with board and lodgings. The wages paid in other occupations there were as follows : — Masons, $2| to $4 ])er day ; joiners, ^'2^ to $3| ; labourers, $14 to $2 per day ; teams: ers, $30 per month, with board. Wheat was fetching from 40 to 60 cents per bushel ; oats, 20 to 25 ; barley, 20 to 25 ; potatoes, 25 to 75 cents per bushel, according to time of year. Beef, from 3 to 4| cents per lb., live weight ; pigs, 7 to 8 cents per lb., live weight.
Erom Calgary we took train for Victoria, the capital of Through the British Columbia. For 60 miles after leaving Calgary Rocky the line runs through a great ranching country — horses
Mountains. and cattle on the lower grounds, sheep on the hills,
which rise in a succession of terraces towards the Rocky Mountains. It is with almost a feeling of awe that one approaches the mighty range of mountains which stretch like a gigantic wall down the one side of the North American continent. Some 30 miles from the entrance to the pass by which the Canadian Pacific Eailway crosses this formidable barrier, is situate the "National Park of Canada," being a reservation some 26 miles long by 10 miles wide, embracing parts of the valley of the Bow, Spray, and Cascade Rivers, Devil's Lake, and several noble mountain ranges. At Banff, where there are hot and sulphur springs, is a very fine hotel ; as may be expected, it is a very favourite resort for invalids and others. Five miles below are some fine coal mines, where true anthracite coal of fine quality is obtained. It would be manifestly out of place to give in this Report the various impressions produced in one's mind as the train thundered on through the solitudes of these great mountain passes ; it must be seen for its grandeur to be in any way appreciated. Having ascertained that the annual show was taking place at Now Westminster, we decided to alter our route and pay a visit there before proceeding to Victoria.
As a good deal of misconception prevails in this British country respecting British Columbia, I may mention
Columbia. that it extends from north to south about 700 miles, and
from east to west 500 miles ; its superficial area is about 380,000 square miles. Vancouver Island, on which is situate Victoria, the capital of the province, is separated from the State of Washington by the Strait of San Juan de Fuca. It is oblong in shape, extending north- westerly parallel with the mainland, from which it is divided by the
Mr. A, J. Barnes's Rej^ort.
55
channel of the Strait of the Griilf of Georgia, a distance of 300 miles, with a varying \A-idth of from 20 to 60 miles. The climate varies cdlisiderably in different parts of the province, but, taken as a whole, it is much more moderate and equable than any other province of the Dominion. The area of land suitable for agricultural purposes is, however, small. In the interior a large tract of country is suitable only for ranching ; but nearer the coast, and on the Isle of Vancouver, the climate is suitable for mixed farming.
New Westminster, a flourishing town with a population New of 8,000, is pleasantly situated on the Eraser Eiver. It is
Westminster the headquarters of the salmon-tinning industry, whose and products are shipped to all parts of the world ; it has also
Vancouver. several large saw-mills. The day following our arrival we
paid a visit to the exhibition. The exhibits of vegetables and roots were particularly fine. The samples of grain more resembled our English corn, rather than that of Manitoba and the North-West. The grain, too, was in most cases damp. As befitted a country where one of the chief articles of commerce is lumber, some splendid
▲ LAEGE TEEE (gIRTH, 55 FT.), STANLEY PARK, VAVCOCVEB.
specimens of timber were on exhibition, single planks measuring 54 in. across. The show of stock was small, and, compared to our English shows, disappointing. It is only fair to add that in no case were they got up for show, as wo in England understand it, but were in good healthy condition. In the afternoon we took a trip up the Eraser Eiver to see some reclaimed marsh lands. Steaming up the
56 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
river in a small steam launch, one could not but be struck with the extra- ordinary quantity of fish to be seen. Some idea of the plenitude of salmon may be gathered from the fact that the price paid by the can- neries for salmon weighing from 6 to 15 lbs. each was only 5 cents per fish. The lands we visited are a portion of a rather extensive area on which a reclamation scheme is being carried out by a company. Situate by the side of a tributary of the Eraser Hiver, this land is flooded at spring by the overflow of the river consequent on the melting of the snow on the mountains, and a large embankment has been made to con- fine the river in its bed. Several thousand acres are already reclaimed, and are now for sale, the price asked being ($50 per acre. We also visited a lumber mill, where we had an opportunity of seeing the marvellous way in which the huge logs are handled and sawn up, From New Westminster we journeyed through the forest by the electric railway to Vancouver, some 12 miles distant. In May, 1886, the site of this marvellous town was covered with a dense forest; to-day it has a population of 18,000. Situate on Coal Harbour, a widening of Burrard Inlet, it has a splendid harbour, and a regular steam- ship service to China and Japan, as well as Australia, is maintained; it is also the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Eailroad. We took a drive round its splendid natural park, in which are standing some of the finest trees in the world.
From here we took boat to Victoria, the capital of Victoria. British Columbia, situate on the southern extremity of
Vancouver Island. This city, the population of which num- bers some 20,000, has an extensive trade. It has a Chinese quarter, which is extremely interesting to visitors. Through the courtesy of the Admiral commanding, we attended divine service on the Sunday (the day of our visit) on board the flactihip, the " Koyal Arthur," of the Pacific Squadron, then anchored at Esquimault, some four miles from Victoria. Needless to say, it proved a very interesting visit, and was much appreciated. Through the kindness of Mr. Duns- muir, a large landed proprietor, as well as owner of some large coal mines, who placed a special train at our disposal, we paid a visit to the extensive coal mines of Nanaimo and Wellington. The Isle of Van- couver is mainly covered with forest, and only a small quantity is as yet cleared for farming purposes. Its climate is, I imagine, admirably suited for mixed farming, especially fruit-growing. Here holly and other evergreens flourish, being the only trees of the kind I saw in Canada ; while in a garden at Wellington I saw beds of splendid flowers in full bloom, then untouched by frost. At Duncan, some 40 miles from Victoria, we alighted, and took a drive through a good stretch of fair farrLing country. At one farm we saw the most English-like flock of sheep we had seen on our tour.
From Nanaimo we proceeded by boat to Vancouver, ChilJixvaclc and thence by rail to Chilliwack. Here were undoubtedly Agassiz. some of the best farms we had seen on our visit.
We paid a visit to the farm of Mr. Wells, a large dairy farmer. He has a capital herd of some 60 cows, chiefly Holsteins and Avrshires. He makes both cheese and butter, for
Mr. A. J. Davirs's Report. 57
which he obtains a ready sale. He has all the latest dairy appli- ances, including cream separators, &.c. ; also a Babcock tester for testing the quality of the milk. We saw a splendid crop of maize, 14 ft. in height, which would be made into ensilage. Large quanti- ties of timothy hay are grown in this district, and exported to the neighbouring towns of New Westminster and Vancouver. Aided by a fertile ?oil and moist climate, large quantities are grown — in some cases as much as from 4 tons to 5 tt)ns per acre. A good deal of fruit is also grown.
It was, howerer, in the new industry of hop-growing Hojp-Qroiving. that I was perhaps most interested. Coming from near the well-known Teme Valley, in Worcester- shire, where such large quantities of hops are grown, I was greatly interested in the yards here, and afterwards at Agassiz. I paid a visit to the farm of Mr. Dunville, who this year had grown a ton per acre, and this with what we in England would term very primitive cultivation. Split cedar poles are used, and these are strung -with string ; they are picked by Indians, of whom there are any number available at present. The kilns are constructed to burn wood, of which there is an abundance at hand. Aided by a soil and climate peculiarly adapted for hop-growing, I cannot but think it is an industry that will assume considerable dimensions. I had a long conversation with a Mr. Hammersley, a gentleman from Oxfordshire, England, who has gone in for hop-growing rather largely near Agassiz, and who this year shipped some tons to England. The carriage from Agassiz to London — some 3,000 miles by rail, besides the sea voyage — was only 3 cents per lb. Taking these facts into consideration, I believe that in the future British Columbia will become a formidable competitor to English hop-growers. So rapid is the growth, that I saw some acres that had been planted with cuttings on May 20th of this year (1893), which had yielded 800 lbs. of hops per acre. Thinking that the grower must have made some mistake, I inquired of the manager of the Government Experimental Earm as to the correctness of this statement ; he, however, corroborated it in all particulars. We paid a short visit to this farm, which was, however, managed on much the same lines as the others visited. Some extensive experiments were, however, being carried out in growing fruit and forest trees at different elevations.
From here I proceeded with Mr. .1. Roberts direct to Winnipeg — the other portion of our party staying at Banff — where, after an interview with Mr. Smith, the Dominion Lands Commissioner, we started for Chicago, where we had a good opportunity of seeing the position of Canada as regards her productions in competition with the nations of the world. Of this I shall speak hereafter.
As these Reports are chiefly used for supplying reliable Conclusions, information to intending emigrants, I have carefully
refrained from giving any undue colouring to any of the districts visited. I have spoken of a few of the chief charac- teristics of (he provinces visited. 1 shall now add a few n^marka as to the class of men who are wanted, and who are likely to
PAEX III. 5
5S The Agricultural Resoiirces of Canada.
succeed, as far as 1 coultl judge i'rom my visit. Large as has been the uumbers who have sought novi' homes beyond the seas from this country in the past, still larger numbers vi'ill require to do so in future. Tear by year it has become apparent that tlie number ivquired to till the land of tliis country has been decreasing ; while, vast as is our trade in manufactures and minerals, their capacity for absorbing more labour would appear to be exhausted ; and should we in the future keep as our portion of the world's trade our present volume, we are still face to face with an ever-increasing population. Emigra- tion has thus become a necessity ; and though, in my opinion, Canada might be, from her climatic influences, more fitted for the more Korthern races of Europe, yet, from her nearness and accessibility to the Mother Country, her boundless prairies will be peopled by the Anglo-Saxon race.
To anyone who is getting a fair living here 1 Peojile ivlio would say, Don't emigrate ; but to those who are
should Emigrate, not I believe Canada offers many advantages. The
old idea that anyone can farm in a new country is, I believe, a great mistake. Many cases there were, I admit, Avliere men perfectly ignorant of farming in this country had done M'cU in Canada, more especially at wheat-growing ; but since the great fall in the price of that commodity, these classes of men Avith little practical knowledge of mixed farming are now sulfei'ing. To the great army of English farmers' sons I believe Canada offers, as a field of settlement, many advantages. Ko greater illustration of the dearth of land in this country is afforded than in a year like the present, when the farmers' losses have been almost unprecedented. Yet, if a farm is to let, there are a dozen applicants— at least, such is the case in Worcestershire. Yet within a fortnight's travel are some of the most fertile lands of the earth, whose freehold can be purchased for less than is paid annually for rent here. At the same time capital is undoubtedly wanting in Canada. The farmer who can command, say, a thousand pounds is far more likely to suceeed, provided he does not rush into rash speculation, than he could possibly do at home. Although there are undoubtedly openings for good working men Mithout capital, still not to the same extent as I should have expected. Undoubtedly the class of men who would benefit themselves most are small farmers with families, and some capital ; to this class I could honestly recommend emigration. Where several families could go together, I think they miglit form communities amongst them- selves, which would help to relieve that monotony sure to be found in a new country. Still, to all I would say that they must not expect to find it plain sailing. Undoubtedly, to my mind, the climate is the greatest drawback; but I was very surprised not to hear more com- plaints than 1 did. The length of the winters appears to be felt more than their severity. In the summer months the plagues of flies and mosquitoes are undoubtedly an annoyance, to new-comers more especially. To the ne'er-do-well I would say. By all means avoid Canada ; as I would to the lazy and improvident : they have not yet displayed that interest in their welfare that is done in this country,
Mr. A, J. Davies's Report. 69
where we have uudoubtedly educated by our Poor Law tliat pest to society, the professional tramp. ■
As I have before mentioned, I believe there are many Openings good openings in Ontario for men conversant with
in Ontario, farming, and who have some capital. Here the change
from the English methods of farming is not nearly so great as in the North-AVest. I have been corroborated in my views of this by a gentleman who farms largely in this country, and who spent some time in Ontario during the past summer. This gentleman (Mr. R. Phipps, of Buekenhill, Bromyard) has carried on an excellent philanthropic work for some years, at his own expense, in keeping a Home for 50 lads, taken chiefly off the streets of London ; these he ti'ains and educates, giving them insight into farm work, and then sending a large number to Canada ; there they are placed with farmers. Mr. and Mrs. Phipps visited during the past summer the majority of these lads whom they have sent out, and of course he had a splendid opportunity of seeing the position of the Ontario farmers, and judging of any openings there might be for Englishmen ; and, as stated before, he thinks that there are many good openings there for indus- trious men with some capital. I may say, in passing, that no class of men in Manitoba made better settlers than the young farmers from Ontario ; and a large number are located there.
As stated before, I left Winnipeg in company with Mr. J. Canada versus lioberts for a trip to the Chicago Exhibition. I was the United States, nowhere more struck with the need of directing the stream of emigration towards Canada than I was at the boundary line between the States and Manitoba. On the one side a country all taken up, and now adorned with many a village scene ; on the north side the still boundless prairie, with only settlers here and there, and yet, of the two, I should judge the soil was more fertile, the climate practically the same. On the one side you are still a member of that great Empire on which the sun never sets ; you are still in possession of those rights and liberties so dear to an Englisliman. Your strong right hand can be raised in her defence Avithout any violation of your honour. You are still able to aspire, if you think tit, to a place in the Legislature of your adopted country. On the other you may have all the benefit of the laws of a free country ; but to have the rights of citizenship you must become an alien of your own land, and be prepared (though God forbid) to be called upon to tight against the country of your birth. Neither can you aspire to a place in the Government of your adopted country, as only American-born are allowed. These may appear small things, but the patriotic Englishman, with a love for his own country, •w'ill, J think, weigh well this matter in his choice of a new home.
We arrived in Chicago on the Sunday previous to The World's " Chicago Day," when a successful attempt was made Fair — by the people of this aspiring city to lick creation in
Canada's the way of attendance, no less tlian 750,000 passing the
Successes. turnstile during the day. In her agricultural exhibits
generally Canada may well feel proud at the position she has attained. It was, however, in her dairy exhibits that Canada
60 The Agricultural Resources of Canada.
showed her superiority and acliieved lier greatest triumphs. I append a summary of the results of the two competitions in which she took part, wiiich speak for themselves : —
June Exhibition op Cheese. Total number of single entries of cheese from Cfiuada and the
United States 667
Of these, Canathi sent, from over 100 different factories 162
Nearl.v all of these entries were in the classes for Cheddar or factory cheese.
Total awards for Cheddar cheese 138
Of these, Canada took 129
Leaving for the United States ... .. ... 9
31 exhibits of Canadian cheese scored higher than the highest United States cheese.
OcTonER Exhibition of Cheesk
Total number of single entries from Canada and United States in
Cheddar or factory classes 606
Of tliese, Canada sent 5'-'4
Total awards for cheese (made previous to 1803) ... 110
Canada took all of these. Total awards for cheese in Cheddar or factory clashes (made in
1803) 414
Of these, Canada took 309
Leaving for the United States ... ■•• 45
130 exhibits of Canadian cheese in these clo?ses scored higher than the higliest United States cheese.
In Cheddar or factory classes, for the two competitions of June and
October in which Canada took part, the entries and awards arc as
under : —
Number of Fxhibita. Awards.
United States 586 ... 54
Canada 687 ... . 607
Nor should I forget her mammoth cheese, weighing some 22,000 lbs., every ounce of which was statt'd to be good. Prom Chicago we returned to Ottawa, where we had a pleasant interview with the ]\Iinister of the Interior, the Hon. T. M. Daly, as well as other gentlemen connected with the department. From there we left for home via JNIontreal. I should like to take this means of thanking those gentle- men connected with the Dominion Government who by their never- failing courtesy contributed so much to the success of our tour. Nor should I wish to forget our guide through many strange experiences — viz., Mr. Leacock — who a few hours after 1 had wished him adieu received the unlonked-for and mournful intelligence of the death of his wiie. His unremitting kindness and attention I shall ever gratefully remember. It has been suggested to me that I was bound to write a good report of the country, seeing that the Government had paid our expenses. I would like to say that by no one have we been requested to write other than a fair report, neither were we in any \\ay hampered as to what districts we should visit ; we were left a perfectly free hand. In fact, I may say that before I myself was finally selected as a delegate I informed the High Commissioner that I should wish to write a fair and independent report. I landed in Liverpool on October 24th, exactly two months from the time I had started, after having accomplished a journey of some 15,000 miles.
61
APPENDIX A.
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT CANADA.
The Dominiou o£ Canada includes the whole of British General North America to the north of the United States, and
Information. has an area of nearly 3,500,000 square miles. It is divided into eight separate provinces, and the population at the last census was 4,829,411 — viz.: Prince Edward Island, 109,088; Nova Scotia, 450,523; New Brunswick, 321,294 ; Quebec, 1,488,586 ; Ontario, 2,112,989; Manitoba, 154,472; the North-West Territories, 67,554; British Columbia, 92,767; and unorganised Territories, 32,168. The extent of the country will be better understood by stating that it is larger than the United States without Alaska, and nearly as large as the whole of Europe.
The government of the coimtry has at its head Constitution and the Governor-General, the representative of Her Government. Majesty. The Dominion Parliament consists of the
Senate and of the House of Commons, and the government of the day is in the hands of the majority, from whom the Privy Council, or the Cabinet, who act as the advisers of the Governor- General, are taken. The members of the Senate are nominated for life by the Governor-General, and the duration of the House of Commons is fixed by the Act as five years. Each province has also its local Parliament, in some cases of two Houses, as in Prince Ed\\ ard Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec, and in others of only one, as in Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia. The head of the Provincial Government is known as the Lieutenant-Governor, and is appointed by the Governor-General. The constitution of Canada is contained in the British North America Act, 1867, which defines the . powers both of the federal and of the local Legislatures. It may be said, generally, that the former deals with matters concerning the community as a whole, and the latter with subjects of local interest. Twenty-seven years' experience has demonstrated that the country has made great progi'ess under the existing institutions, and the prin- ciple of union is recognised by all political parties as the sure foundation on which the future of the Dominion depends. There is a free and liberal franchist; in operation, both for tlie Provincial iind Dominion Parliaments, which gives most men the benefit of a vote. In the provinces there are county and township councils for regulating local affairs, such as roads, schools, and other municipal purposes, so that the government of the Doiniiiion is decentralised as far as practicable, in the spirit of the Imperial legislation before mentioned.
Nothing connected with Canada is so much misrepresented Climate. and misunderstood as its climate, but it has only to be
experienced to b(; thoroughly appreciated. It is warmer in summer and much colder in winter than iu Great Britain; but
62 General Information ahout Canada.
the heat is favourable to the growth of fruit and the crops, and in every way pleasant and beneficial, and the cold is not prejudicial to health or life. In fact, Canada is one of the healthiest countries in the world. The winter lasts from the end of IVoveinber or the beginning of December to the end of March or middle of April ; spring from April to May; summer from June to September; and autumn from October to the end of November. The seasons vary sometimes, but the above is the average duration of the different periods. The nature of the climate of a countiy may be measured by its products. In winter most of the trades and manufactures are carried on as usual, and, as regards farming, much the same work is done on a Canadian farm in autumn and in winter as on English, Scotch, or Irish homesteads. Ploughing is not possible, of course, in tlie depth of winter, but it is done in the autumn and early spring, and in the winter months cattle have to be fed, the dairy attended to, cereals threshed, machinery put in order, buildings repaired, carting done, and wood-cutting, and preparations made for the spring work, so that it is by no means an idle season. One thing is perfectly certain — that the country would not have developed so rapidly as it has done, and the population would not have grown to its pres'int proportions, had the climate been unfavourable to the health, pros- perity, and progress of the community. Of course there are good and bad seasons in Canada, as everywhere else, but, taken altogether, the climate vidll compare very favourably with other countries in similar latitudes.
As the temperature in Manitoba and the North-West Temperature. Territories is frequently referred to, it is desirable to quote official statistics bearing on the question. The mean temperature at Winnipeg in the summer is 60"3°, and during the winter 1°; Brandon, 58-1° and -1-8°; Rapid City, 62-2° and 27°; Portage-la-Prairie, 61-8° and 12-6°. In the North-West Territories, the summer and winter mean temperatures at the specified places are as follows:— Eegina, 59-2° and -2-4°; Calgary, 55-6° and 12-2°; Edmon- ton, 55-2° and 11*3°. It is very evident the temperature only very occasionally reaches the various extreme limits that are sometimes mentioned, or the mean winter temperatures could not be anything like the figures above quoted.
Eeference has been made elsewhere to the agricultural Products of products of Canada. The country also possesses great Canada. wealth in the timber contained in the immense forests, and
in the minerals of all kinds, including coal, gold, silver, iron, copper, <tc. Then, again, the fisheries along the extensive coasts, both on the Atlantic side and on the Pacific, and in the inland waters, are most valuable and varied, and are valued annually at several millions sterhng. The principal fishes are salmon, trout, cod, herring, mackerel, halibut, and haddock. Oysters and lobsters are also most nume- rous. The manufacturing industry already occupies a most important position, and is growing more extensive every year. Almost every kind of manufacture is carried on. This activity is not confined to any one part of Canada, but is apparent in all the older provinces,
General Information about Canada. 63
and will no doubt in time extend to the western parts of the Dominion also.
Reference is sometimes made to some Canadian farms Mortgages. being mortgaged. It should be borne in mind, however, that a proportion of the Canadian farmers start with little or no capital. In order to provide capital in such cases, the farm is mortgaged, but the loan companies, as a rule, do not advance more than half the value of the properties. The interest paid bears no com- parison to the rent of similar-sized farms in the United Kingdom, and the fact of the existence of a mortgage, in these circumstances, is not detrimental to the position of the farmer. Not only is the interet^t invariably paid, but the experience is that the loans are paid off as they mature. The losses of the Canadian companies are comparatively small, and the investment, therefore, is a good one to the lender, and an advantage to the farmer.
Canada's trade — import and export — amounts to nearly Trade Imports £50,000,000 per annum, and is largely with Great and Exports. Britain and the United States, the balance being exchanged with European countries, the West Indies, South America, Australasia, China, and Japan. The figures given above only include the outside trade, and do not embrace that done between the various provinces. Free trade, in its entirety, exists within the boundaries of the Dominion, and the local business is very large, as the tonnage carried on the railways and canals and on the coasting vessels will show. It may be stated that the revenue now amounts to about JS36, 000,000 per annum, of which about S20,000,000 — equal to 17s. per head of the population — is obtained from customs duties on goods imported into Canada.
Markets, either within or without the Dominion, exist Marlcets. for all the products of the country, n,nd no difficulty
is found in this respect. New markets have been pro- vided by the establishment of lines of steamers to the West Indies, Australasia, China, and Japan, which are now in operation. Canada is well served with railway and water communication, and the shipping owned in Canada is so large that it occupies a high place in the list of ship-owning countries of the world. A railway extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and each province possesses excellent railway accommodation; in fact, there are over 15,000 mik'S of line in operation at the present time. The rivers aud canals have been so nuich improved of late years, that the largest ocean-going steamers can moor alongside the wharves at Quebec and Montreal, and it is possible for a vessel of 500 tons burden to pass from the Atlantic into the groat lakes. The enlargement of the canals now in progress, which is to be completed in 1895, will pei'mit ocean vessels of 2,000 tons gross burden to pass to the head of Lake Navigation witliout breaking bulk.
The distinctions of class do not exist in Canada to the
Social same extent as in the mother country. There is no law
Distinctions, of primogi'uiture, and there are no paupers ; a feeling of
healthy independence pervades all classes, which no duuLt
64 General Information about Canada.
arises from tlie fact that every farmer is the owner of his acres, is his own master, and is free to do as he wills — a state of things conducive to a condition of freedom unknown in older countries. Then, again, taxation is comparatively light, and many social dilhculties, still under discussion in Great Britain, were grappled with in Canada years ago. Eeligious liberty ])revails ; there is practically free and unsectarian education ; a free and liberal franchise exists ; local option in regard to the liquor traffic is in operation ; the duration of the Parliament does not exceed five years, and the members are paid for their services ; marriage with a deceased wife's sister has been legalised ; and there is no poor law system, although orphans and the helpless and aged of both sexes are not neglected, being cared for under the municipal system. And, again, a good system of local government is at work in every province. The system of education in force — under the super- vision and guidance of the Provincial Governments — enables the best education to be obtained nt a trifling cost, and therefore the poor, as well as the rich, can make themselves eligible for the highest positions in the country. In principle the system in operation is the same in the different provinces, although the details may differ somewhat. In each school district trustees are elected to manage the schools for the inhabitants, who pay a small rate to\\ards their support, the balance being met by considerable grants from the local governments.
British subjects settling in Canada do not require to be naturalised. They are entitled to all the same rights and privileges as their fellow British subjects who may have been born there ; indeed, the removal of a family to Canada makes no more difference in their position, as British subjects, than if they had gone instead to any city, town, or village in the United Kingdom, Of course it is a different tiling if they go to the United States or any other foi*eign country. In that case they must renounce their birthright, and their allegiance to their sovereign and their flag, before they can enjoy any of the political advantages of citizenship ; and in many parts of the United States land cannot be bought, or sold, or transferred, excepting by naturalised persons.
Intending settlers in Canada are strongly advised Government to communicate, either personally or by letter.
Agents in the with the nearest agent of the Canadian Govern-
United Kingdom, ment in Great Britain (see Preface) before they leave, so as to obtain the fullest and latest advice applicable to their cases. Cards of introduction to the Govern- ment Agents in Canada are also supplied to desirabk) persons. Any information supplied by these geiitlenieii may be thoroughly relied upon.
Then, again, on reaching Canada, or at any time afterwards, the nearest Government Agent should be consulted, as they are in a position to furnish accurate particulars on all matters of interest to the new arrival.
The Dominion Government has agents at Quebec, Mon-
Government treal, Halifax, and St. John, the principal ports of landing
Agents in in Canada ; and the various Provincial Governments also
Canada. supervise immigration as far as possible. At Toronto,
Ontario, the Superintendent of Immigration is Mr. D.
General Information about Canada. 65
Spence, 65, Simcoe Street; and in Victoria, British Columbia, Mr. Jessop, the Provincial Grovernment Agent, should be consulted. The following is a list of the various Immigration Agencies under the supervision of the Department of the Interior: —
( Commissiouer of Dominion Lands, ~4
Winnipeg, Man. ^in charge of Outside Service in Manitoba > Mr. II. 11. Smith.
( and the North- West Territories )
Agents at Ports of Call /or Steamships in Canada: —
Mr. E. M. Clay ... Halifax, N.S. I Mr. P. Doyle Quebec, Q.
,, S. Gardkek ... St. John, N.B. | ,, J. Hoolahan ... Montreal, Q.
Dominion Lands Agents in Canada tvho act as Immigration Agents : —
W H. HiAM Brandon, Man.
W. G. Pentland Birtle, ,,
John Plesher ... Deloraine, ,,
W. M. HiLLiARD... Minnedosa, ,,
W. H. Stevenson liegiua, N.W.T
Amos RowE Calgary, ,,
J. G. Jessup ... Red Deer, ,,
JouN McTaggaet Prince Albert,,
Thos. Andekson Edmonton, N.W.T.
C. E. Puipps ... Oxbow, ,,
E. Brokovski ... Battleford, „
Geo. Young ... Lethbridge, ,,
T. B. Ferguson Saltcoats, ,,
John McKenzie New Westminster,
B.C.
E. A. Nash ... Kamloops, B.C.
The best time for persons with little or no capital to go out is from April to July — the earlier the better. Domestic servants may start at any time of the year.
There are no free or assisted passages to Canada. The No Assisted full ordinary steamship fares must be paid by all immi- Passagcs. grants, and they must also have enough money in
addition to pay for their railway fares from the port of landing to their destination, and to provide board and lodging until woi'k is secured. The Government does not render any assistance in these matters, and all new-comers must be self-supporting. The Government Agents do not book passengers, and intending emigrants are advised to consult the local steamship agents on that subject. Neither do they recommend any one line more than another. They are quite im[mrlial in both respects.
it is not necessary to say anything in detail about the Boolcing various steamers going to Canada, or about the fares. All Fassages. such information can be obtained from the advertising
columns of the newspapers, or from the steamship agents, who are to be found in every town or village. Passengers are recommended to take through tickets (including ocean and rail tickets) to their destinations in Canada. They are issued by the steamship companies, and in this way it is often possible to save money — as through tickets often cost less than the ocean ticla^t and the Canadian rail ticket if taken separately. Many of the railway companies in Great Britain issue cheap railway tickets from various places to the ])orts of embarkation, such as Liverpool, London, and Glasgow, and in tliese cases information may be obtained from the railway booking offices.
Passengers should pay particular attention to the labelling Luggage. of th(ur luggage, and labels may be obtained from the
steamship comi)aui(;s. They sliould also bear in mind that the steamship companies only carry free a limited quantity of baggage,
66 General Information ahout Canada.
according to the class of ticket taken, and that the railway companies may charge for anything over 150 lbs. weight. The Canadian Pacific Eailway carry 300 lbs. free for emigrants proceeding to Manitoba and the North- West Territories. Care shoiud be exercised in deciding what had better be taken to Canada. Furniture, and heavy and bulky goods of that description, had better be left behind, as the freight charged for extra baggage makes it an expensive luxury ; all houseliold requirements can be purchased in the country. Agricultural implements and tools should not be taken out, as the most improved articles of this description adapted to the country can be purchased in any village in Canada. Skilled mechanics and artisans, when recommended to go out, may take their tools, but they must remember what is stated above, and also that in the Dominion all these things can be bought at reasonable prices. Emigrants may be safely advised to take a good supply of underclothing, heavy and light, for winter and summer wear, house and table linen, blankets, bed-ticks, and any other articles of special value which do not take up much room.
Settlers' effects are admitted free of customs duty if Settlers' Efects they come within the terms of the following clause of free of the customs tariff : —
Customs Duty. _ Settlers' Ejects, viz. .—Wearing apparel, household fur- niture, professional books, implements and tools of trade, occnpation, or employment, which the settler has had in actual use for at least six months before removal to Canada, musical instru- ments, domestic sewing machines, live stock, carts, and other vehicles and agricultural implements in use by the settler for at least one year before hia removal to Canada, not to include machinery or articles imported for use in any manufacturing establishment or for sale : provided that any dutiable article entered as settlers' effects may not be so entered unless brought with the settler on his first arrival, and shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of without payment of duty until after two years' actual use in Canada ; provided also that, under regulations made by the Minister of Customs, live stock, when imported into Manitoba or the Korth-West Territory by intending settlers, shall be free, until otherwise ordered by the Governor in Council.
Wages — which, of course, vary from time to time — are, Wages. as a general rule, from a quarter to one-half higher
than in Great Britain, but in some trades they are even more. The cost of living is lower, upon the whole, and an average family will, with proper care, be much better off in Canada than at home. There are very good openings in Canada for the classes of persons recommended to go out, but it must be borne in mind that hard work, energy, enterprise, and steadiness of character are as essential there as in any other country. Indeed, perhaps they are more necessary; but, on the other hand, there is a much better chance of success for any persons possessing these qualities, and who are able and willing to adapt themselves to the conditions of life obtaining in Canada.
Persons with capital to invest will find many openings
Capitalists. in Canada. They can engage in agricultural pursuits,
taking up the free-grant lands or purchasing the
improved farms to be found in every province, or in mining, or in
the manufacturing industries. Again, a settled income will be found
General Information about Canada. 67
to go much farther in Canada, and while the climate is healthy and the scenery magnificent, there are abundant opportunities for sport ; and the facilities for education are not to be excelled anywhere.
Young men should go to Manitoba, the North-West, Where to go. or British Columbia. Older men, with capital and young families, should go to one of the older provinces, and either buy or rent an improved fai'm. This, however, is only a general statement, and individual cases must be decided by the special circumstances of each. In Manitoba and the North- West, and in some parts of British Columbia, pioneer life on free grants, or away from railways, is attended with a certain amount of inconvenience, and an absence of those social surroundings which may be obtained in the older settled parts of these and other provinces, and this fact should be borne in mind by those who are considering the subject. But even in these districts improved farms may be purchased at reasonable rates.
It is difficult to lay down a hard-and-fast rule as to the Capital amount of capital necessary for farm work. The answer necessary, depends on the energy, experience, judgment, and enter- prise of the person who is to spend the money, the province selected, whether free-grant land is to be taken up or an improved farm rented or purchased, and many other details. It may safely be said, however, that if a man has from £100 to .£200 clear on landing, and some knowledge of farming, he is in a position to make a fair start on the fi-ee-grant land in Manitoba and the North-West; but it is generally advisable to obtain some experience of the country before commencing on one's own account.
There is a large and growing demand for male and Farm female farm servants in every part of the Dominion.
Servants. Machinery of various kinds is in daily use, but labour is scarce notwithstanding, and good hands can in the proper seasons find constant employment. Many persons of this class who started as labourers now have farms of their own in some of the finest parts of the Dominion. Market gardeners, gardeners, and persons understanding the care of horses, cattle, and sheep, may also be advised to go out.
So far as numbers are concerned, perhaps the largest demand Domestic of all is for female domestic servants. The wages are good, Servants. the conditions of service are not irksome, and comfortable homes are assured. Domestic servants should go at once on their arrival to the nearest Grovernment Agent. These gentlemen often have in their offices a list of vacant situations, and will refer applicants to the local ladies' committees, so that they may have the benefit of supervision and guidance, until they are satisfactorily placi^d. Servants should, however, take their characters with them, and must bear in mind that good records are just as indispensable in Canada as elsewhere. They may safely go out at any time of the year.
There is little or no demand for females other than
OtJier Classes domestic servants. Governesses, shop assistants, nurses,
of Labour. &c., should not go out unluss proceeding to join
friends able and willing to aid them iu gettijig
68
General Information about Canada,
employment. Mechanics, general labourers, and navvies are advised to obtain special information as to their respective trades before going out. The demand is not now so great as it was a few years ago, and such men, especially with large families, are not encouraged to set out on the chance of finding employment. They may be safely advised to start when going to join friends who advise them to do so, or if they have the inclination and the knowledge to enable them to change their callings and become agriculturists.
Clerks, draftsmen, shop assistants, and railway employSs are not advised to ejnigrate unless proceeding to appointments already assured. Any demand for labour of these kinds is fully met on the spot.
No encouragement is held out to members of the legal and medical and other professions, schoolmasters, and persons desiring to enter' the military and civil services, to go to the Dominion, especially in cases where immediate employment is necessary. There are always openings and opportunities for men of exceptional abilities with a little capital ; but, generally speaking, the professional and so-called lighter callings in Canada are in very uiuch the same position as they are in the United Kingdom, the local supply being equal to, if not greater than, the demand.
»^
CANOEING.
69
APPENDIX B.
THE CANADIAN EXHIBITS AT CHICAGO.
The Canadian exhibits at the Chicago Exhibition having been referred to in several of the delegate's Reports, it has been considered desirable to publish such facts as are available as to the success which the Dominion obtained on that occasion in competition with the world. The American Press are unanimous in conceding that Canada will reap a greater benefit from the World's Pair than any other country. The variety of the vegetable products of Canada served to illustrate in a manner, hardly to be shown in any other way, the climate and the fertility of its soil ; while the exhibits of mineral wealth, of its fisheries, and of its manufacturing industries demonstrated the possibili- ties of future development.
It may be said that Canada was unrepresented on many of the juries connected with several of the groups of exhibits, and on others the Canadian members were of course in a minoi'ity. It is eminently satisfactory to find, therefore, that the awards in all classes of exhibits have been so numerous, and frequently coupled with remarks of a flattering nature.
The following is an extract from the report of the British Consul at Chicago to the Earl of Eosebery, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, on the Chicago Exhibition: —
Canada has been brought prominently frrwnrd in a manner which can scarcely fail to assure permanent benefit. Its chief exhibits weie natural pro- ducts, though the colony was represented in every department except electricity. Its cheese and butter exhibits were remarkable, and gained a disproportionately large number of awards, beating all competitors ; Jaimii is understood to have sent a special commission to examine and report on the methods adopted by the colony in tliese matters The shov,- of animals, especially sheep, met with great approval. The quality of Canadian fruit was generally recognised. The exhibit of grain and other products of the north-western provinces has shown what can he grown, and as a result many inquiries have been made with a view to settlement in those parts. The same api)lies to British Columbia, regarding which province overtures have been made by quite a colony of Austrian subjects for settlement, with a view to fruit-growing and general farming.
The Canadian exhibits in this important department Agriculture, were excelled by none in quality and appearance. The
excellence of the wheat was the subject of general com- ment, and a considerable demand has already arisen on the part of United States farmers for seed grain from Manitoba and the North- AVest Territories. Canada obtained 1,016 awards in this group, including 776 awards for cheese and butter. This does not comprise the awards obtained by Manitoba, which have not yet been received. It is understood that in tin; tests for quality, made under chemical analysis on behalf of the Exhibition authorities, Manitoba No. 1 Hard Red Fyfe wheat gave the very best results.
70 The Canadian ExMhits at Chicago.
The exhibitions of cheese and butter were the largest of Cheese and their kind ever made on the North American continent. Butter. Two competitions were arranged for Cheddar or factory
cheese, in the months of June and October. In the first named, the United States entries numbered 505, and the Canadian 162. There were 138 prizes awarded, of which Canada took 129, and the United States 9. Thirty-one exhibits of Canadian cheese also scored higher points than the best United States cheese. In the October competition for the same class of cheese, made previous to 1893, there were 82 entries from the United States, and 524 from Canada. There were 110 prizes offered, and Canada secured them all. There were also 414 awards for cheese made in 1893. Of these, Canada obtained 369, and Uie United States 45. In these two com- petitions, therefore, the United States entered 587 exhibits and took 54 ])rizes, as against Canada's 686 entries and 608 prizes. There were three judges for cheese, two for the United States, and one for Canada. The significance of this result is enhanced when considered in conjunction with the difference in the population of the two countries — 65 millions against 5 millions. Canada now exports several millions of pounds of cheese per annum more than the United States to the English market, her exports to the mother country having risen from 30,889,353 lbs. in 1875 to 127,843,632 lbs. in 1892. In the butter competition, Canada took 27 awai'ds. The great development of the cheese industry in recent years has interfered, no doubt, with the expansion of the butter trade. The steps, however, that have been taken of late years to encourage this industry are having effect ; and the Dairy Commis- sioner of the Dominion has expressed an opinion that wirliin five years' time the manufacture of butter in Canada will be equal to that of cheese, both in quality and quantity. In 1893 Canada exported 43,193 cwts. of butter to Great Britaui.
The absence of awards for Canadian agricultural Agricultural machinery is explained by the withdrawal of the Machinery. exhibits from competition, it having been decided
that machines adapted to field work should be judged by field tests. As this would have necessitated bringing duplicate machines to Chicago at great expense, or the spoiling of the actual exhibits for show purposes during the remainder of the Pair, the greater number of Canadian and United States exhibitors withdrew from competition. Professor Thurston, the chairman of the jurors on agricultural implements, and consulting mechanical engineer to the Exposition, stated that in design, finish, and smootliness of operation the Canadian machinery was equal to anything in the Exhibition.
Canada obtained 65 awards. The list included seven Horticulture, different awards for Canadian grapes — a valuable tribute
to the climate of the country. The small number of awards is due to the fact that awards were only given to collective exhibits, and not to individual exhibitors, or for each variety of fruit shown. AVith regard to the vegetable display, it was admitted that the Canadian exhibit was greatly superior to any other. Both fruit and
The Canadian Exhibits at Chicago. 71
vegetables won tlie highest praise from the jurors for variety, excel- lence, and quality; and in this connection the report of the Bx'itish Consul is especially interesting.
Canada more than sustained at Chicago her splendid Livestock. record at Philadelphia in 1876 in this department, the live stock and poultry exhibited having secured more than one-half of the total prizes offered. In cattle, \A'ith 184 entries, Canada took 104 prizes, 17 medals, and 3 diplomas; against 532 entries of the United States, and 306 prizes and 13 medals. In horses, Canada had 96 entries, and 44 prizes, 2 gold medals, 10 medals, and 3 diplomas; the United States, 446 entries, 257 prizes, 6 gold medals, 12 medals, and 4 diplomas. In sheep, Canada, with 352 entries, secured 250 prizes, 5 silver cups, and 8 diplomas; against the United States' 478 entries and 193 prizes. In swine, Canada's 68 entries obtained 64 prizes, and the United States' 96 entries 67 prizes. In poultry and pet stock, Canada was awarded 501 prizes with 1,147 entries, and the United States 671 prizes with 2,453 entries. The grand totals were : Canada, 1,847 entries and 1,175 prizes; the United States, 4,005 entries and 1,494 prizes. This must be regarded as a very great success especially when the populations of the United States and Canada are taken into account. All the Canadian sheep and swine were bought by the Commissioner for Costa Rica.
The committee of jurors considered the Canadian fish Fish aiid exhibit the best and most complete in the Ex-
Fisheries. position. Twenty-four individual exhibitors also
obtained medals.
No single exhibit in the mining building attracted Mines and more attention, and came in for more favourable
Mining. comment, than the Canadian display ; and the fact
that there were 67 collective exhibits which took gold medals and diplomas in competition with other countries, speaks highly for the variety and richness of the mineral resources of the Dominion. The collections of ornamental and precious stones were much admired, and orders were subsequently received from two of the leading manu- I'acturing jewellers of New York. The nickel ore exhibits were mentioned as being higher in grade than any other shown at the Fair. Canadian copper also obtained a flattering award ; and the fine exhibit of anthracite and bituminous coal from all the mines in the North- West Territories, now being worked, attracted a great deal of interest.
The machinery exhibit was a small one, but almost Machinery. every exhibit took a prize, 43 gold medals and diplomas
falling to the Dominion. Professor Thurston, chairman of the jurors, and consulting mechanical engineer to the Exposition, stated, in an address, that in design, finish, and smoothness of work- ijig the general machinery shown by Canada was equal to anything shown ; and that, as compared with the exhibit made in 1S76 at Philadelphia, Canada had made greater relative progi-css in manufac- turing, since that time, than any other nation tailing j)art in the Exhibition.
72
The Canadian Exhibits at Chicago.
In this department Canada obtained 80 medals and Transportation, diplomas. The Canadian Pacific Railway train was
referred to as the finest and most complete on exhi- bition, which reflects great credit on the position manufacturing enterprise has reached in Canada.
The great development in the industries c)f the Manufactures. Dominion is illustrated very aptly by the following
retiu*n, taken from the census of 1891 : —
|
1881. |
1891. |
Increase. |
Per Cent. |
|
|
Numltpr of estaWishmcnts ... |
49.923 |
75,768 |
25,845 |
51-8 " |
|
Capital invested |
$165,302,C-j:} |
$353,836,817 |
$188,584,194 |
114-0 |
|
Nninbcr of employes ... |
25 +,935 |
3o7.865 |
112,930 |
44-43 |
|
Wages paid |
$59,429,002 |
$99,762,441 |
$40,.3.33,439 |
67-86 |
|
Co't of raw material |
$179,918,593 |
$255,983,219 |
$76,064,626 |
42-3 |
|
Value of products |
$309,676,068 |
$475,445,705 |
$165,769 637 |
53-5 |
Canada had a most interesting exhibit of manufactures, which secured 124 awards, and drew an appreciative statement from the president of the jurors on textiles — a member of the Austrian Commission, and him- self a manufacturer of high-grade cloths in Austria — to the effect that the progress made by textile manufacturers in Canada had been more rapid during the last five years than that of any other country show- ing industrial products. It will be remembered by many readers of these pamphlets that Canada's display of manufactured articles at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in 1886 attracted much attention.
The educational system of the Dominion has a world-wide reputa- tion, and the exhibits in that department were naturally, therefore, an object of sustained interest throughout the course of the Exhibition. 191 awards were obtained by Canada. No better evidence of the excellence of the display can be had than that in a section supposed to be the smallest among the Canadian exhibits, such a large number of awards should have been secured.
FRAIRIB CHICKENi.
MOOORQUODALE & Co., LIMITED, MAP ENQI
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Complete Copies of the Tenant-Farmers' Eeports, and other Illustrated Pamphlets on Canada, and cards o£ introduction, may be obtained, post free, on application to
The High Commissioner for Canada (Sm CHAELES TUPPEE,Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B.), 17, Victoria Street, London, S.W. ;
Or to the following Canadian Government Agents : —
Mr. John" Dyke, 15, Water Street, Liverpool;
Mr. Thomas Geahame, 40, St. Enoch Square, Glasgow ;
Mr. W. Stuabt, Nethy Bridge, Inverness ;
Mr. P. Fleming, 44, High Street, Dundee ;
Mr. Ernest Wood, 79, Hagley Eoad, Birmingham ;
i\Ir. J. W. Down-, Bath Bridge, Bristol ;
Mr. George Leart, Garden House, William Street, Kilkenny.
Several of the Provinces of Canada have agencies in Great Britain,
as follows : —
Ontario . . . . Mr. P. Byrne, Nottingham Buildings, 19,
Brunswick Street, Liverpool.
British Columbia Mr. H. C. Beeton, 33, Einsbury Circus, London,
E.G.
iS'EW Brunswick Mr. James I. Fellows, 56, Holborn Viaduct,
London, E.C.
Manitoba . . . . Mr. A. J. McMillan, 33, James Street, Liverpool.
NoA^A Scotia . . Mr. John Howard, 143, Cannon Street,
London, E.C.
Samples of Canadian produce, of all kinds, from the dijfferent Provinces of the Dominion, may be seen at the Imperial Institute, South Kensington, London. Visitors should inquire for the Cana- dian Curator (Mr. Harrison Watson), or the Assistant Curator (Mr. F. Plumb), from whom information and pamphlets can be obtained.
;
i^'
THE BEAUTIES
OF
COBBETT.
SELECTED FROM HIS VARIOUS WORKS,
No I.
LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE PROPRIETOR BY W. STRANGE, il, PATERNOSTER ROW ;
AND A, WAKELIN, (LATE J. CLEAVE,) 1, SHOE LANE,
OHK I>OOR FROM FLEET STREET.
Price Twopeticc*
XONDOKt W HOUSTO'IN, rniNrEK, 11. CKANE COUUT, FI.KET STREEI.
THE
BEAUTIES OF COBBETT.
We cannot commence the Beauties of Cobbett better, than 1)^ selecting a few gems from his grand work, '• The Advice t(> Young Men," which, next to the Bible, shoukl be the Home- Book of everv Ensflisliman's house.
THE NECESSITY OF AN INDEPENDENT SPIRIT.
Start, I beseech you, with a eonviction firmly fixed on your mind, that you have no right to live in this world ; that, being of hale body and sound mind, you have no right to any earthly existence, without doing work of some sort or other, unless you have ample fortune whereon to live clear of debt ; and, that even in that case, you have no right to breed children, to be kept by others, or to be ex- posed to the chance of being so kept. Start with this convictiou thoroughly implanted on your mind. To wish to live on the labour of others is, besides the folly of it, to contemplate afruitfl at the. least, and, under certain circumstances, to meditate oppression arid robberv.
1 suppose you in the middle rank of life. Happiness ought te» be your great object, and it is to be found only in independence. Turn your back on Whitehall and on Somerset-House; leave the Customs and Excise to the feeble and loM-minded ; look not for success to favour, to partiality, to friendship, or to what is called mtcre.sf: write it on your heart, that you will depend solely on your own merit, and your own exertions.
THE MISERIES OF DEPENDENCE.
He who lives upon any thing but his own labour, is incessantly Surrounded by rivals : his grand resource is that servility in vvliich he is always liable to be surpassed. He is in daily danger of beinic , out-bidden ; his very bread depends upon caprice; and he lives in a state of uncertainty and never-ceasing fear. He is not, indeed, the dog's life, " /lunger and idleness;'" but it is worse; for it js " idle;
ness with slavert/,'^^ the latter hein^ the just price of the former. Slaves frequently are v,c\\ fed and well e/ad : but slaves dare not speak ; they dare not he suspected to t/iink difterently from their masters: liate his acts as much as they m.ay: he he tyrant, be he drunkard, be he fool, or be he all three at once, they must be silent, or, nine times out of ten, aflect approbation: though possessing a thousand times his knowledge, they must feign a conviction of his superior understanding ; though knowing that it is they who, in fact, do all that he is paid for doing, it is destruction to them to seem as if ilien thought any portion of the service belonged to them ! Far from nie be the thought, that any youth who shall read this page would not rather perish than submit to live in a state like this ! Such a state is fit only for the refuse of nature; the halt, the half- blind, the unhappy creatures whom nature has marked out for de- gradation.
THE SECRET OP INDEPENDENCE.
The great source of independence, the French express in a pre- cept of three words, " Vivre de j)eu,'\\\'\\\c\\ I have always very much admired. " To live upon little'" is the great security against slavery; and this precept extends to dress and other things besides food and drink.
DRESS.
Dress should be suited to your rank and station ! a surgeon or physician should not dress like a carpenter! but there is no reason why a tradesman, a merchant's clerk, or clerk of any kind, or why a shopkeeper or manufacturer, or even a merchant; no reason at all why any of these should dress in an expensive manner. It is a great mistake to suppose that they derive any advantage from ex- terior decoration. Men are estimated by other men according to their capacity and willingness to be in some way or other useful; and though, with the foolish and vain part of women, fine clothes frequently do something, yet the greater part of the sex are much too penetrating to draw their conclusions solely from the outside show of a man : they look deeper, and find other criterions whereby to judge. And, after all, if the fine clothes obtain you a wife, will they bring you, in that yv\i&, frugality, good sense, and that sort of attachment that is likely to be lasting? Natural beauty of person is quite another sort of thing : this always has, it always will and must have, some weight even with men, and great weight with women. But this does not want to be set off" by expensive clothes.
Female eyes are, in such cases, very sharp : they can discover beauty though half hidden by heard, and even by dirt, and sur- rounded by rags: and, take this as a secret worth half a fortune to you, that women, however personally vain they may be themselves, despise personal vanity in men.
A MODERN ERROR.
A great misfortune of the present day is, tliat every one is, in his own estimate, raised above his real state of life : every one seems to think himself entitled, if not to title and great estate, at least to live without icorh: This mischievous, this most destructive, way of thinking has, indeed, been produced, like almost all our other evils, by the Acts of our Septennial and unreformed Parliament. That body, by its Acts, has caused an enormous debt to be created, aud inconsequence, a prodigious sum to be raised annually in taxes. It has caused, by these means, a race of loan-mongers and stock- jobbers to arise. " These carry a species of gaining, by which some make fortunes in a day, and others, in a day, become beggars. The unfortunate gamesters, like the purchasers of blanks in a lottery, are never heard of; but the fortunate ones become the companions for lords, and some of them lords themselves. We have, within these few years, seen many ot these gamesters get fortunes of a quarter of a million in a few days, and then we have heard them, though notoriously amongst the lowest and basest of human crea- tures, called " honourable gentlemeiC ! In such a state of things, who is to expect patient industry, laborious study, frugality and care ; who, in such a state of things, is to expect these to be employed in pursuit of that competence which it is the laudable wish of all men to secure 1
INDUSTRY.
We cannot all be " knights'' aiiA ^^ gentlemen': there must be a large part of us, after all, to make and mend clothes and houses, and carry on trade and commerce, and in spite of all that we can do, the far greater part of us must actually work at something ; for unless we can get at some of the taxes, we fall under the sentence of Holy Writ, " He who will not work shall not eat." Yet, so strong is the propensity to be thought " gentlemen'" ; so general is this desire amongst the youth of this formerly laborious and unassum- ing nation; a nation famed for its pursuit of wealth through th« channels of patience, punctuality, and integrity; a nation famed for its love of solid acquisitions and qualities, and its hatred of every thing showy and false: so general is this I'eally fraudulent desire amongst the youth of this now " speculating" nation, that thousands upon thousands of them are, at this moment, in a state of half starvation, not so much because they are too lazif to earn their bread, as because they are too proud! And what are the consequences ? Such a youth remains or becomes a bur- den to his parents, of whom he ought to be their comfort, if not the support. Always aspiring to something higher than he can reach, his life is a life of disappointment and of shame. If marriagt; /jefal him, it is a real affliction, involving others as well as himself. His lot is a thousand times worse than that of the common labour- ing pauper, Niueteen times out of twcuty a preiuaturc death ivM'aits
6
him : anri alas ! Iiom' nmneroiis are the rases in which tliat death is must miserable, not to saj' ignominious ! Stupid j'l'idt- is one of the symptoms of nttulnrxs. Of the two madmen mentioned in Don Quix- ote, one thought himself Neptune, and the other Jupiter. Shak- speare agrees with Cervantes; for. Mad Tom, in King Lear, being asked who he is, answers, " I am a tailor run mad ^\\i\\ prided How many have Me heard of, who claimed relationship with itohlc- 7)ipn and kings ; while of not a few each has thought himself the Son of God! To the puhlic journals, and to the observations of every one, nay, to the " cnuufi/ Itoialic. asylutits'" (things never lieard of in England till now), I ap])eal for the fact of the vast and hideous increase of wadness in this country ; and, within these few years, how many scores of young men, who, if their minds had been miperverted l)v the gambling principles of the day, had a probably long and happy life before them ; who had talent, personal endowments, love of parents, love of friends, admiration of large circles; who, had, in short, everything to make life desirable, and vVho, from mortified pride, founded on false pretensions, Itave put an end to their own existence.
AMUSEMENT.
It is recorded of the famous Alfred, that he devoted eiglit hours of the twenty-four to hi/jour, eight to rest, and eight to recreation. He was, however, « king, and could be t/iinking during the eight hours of recreation. It is certain, that there ought to be hours of recreation, and 1 do not know that eight are too many ; but, then observe, those hours ought to be well-chosen, and tbe sort of recre- ation ought to be attended to. It ought to be such as is at once innocent in itself and in its tendency, and not injurious to health, 'i'he sports of the field are the best of all, because they are condu- cive to health, because they are enjoved by day-light, and becaTise they demand early rising. The nearer that other amusemests ap- proach to these, the better they are. AtoMU-life, which many per- sons are compelled, by the nature of their calling, to lead, pre- cludes the possibility of pursuing amusements of this description to anv very considerable extent ; and young men in towns are, gene- rally speaking, compelled to choose between books on the one hand, or gaming and the play-house on the other. Dancing is at once ra- tional and healthful: it gives animal spirits: it is the natural amusement of young people, and such it has been from the days of Moses: it is enjoyed in numerous companies: it makes the parties to be pleased with themselves and with all about them: it has no tendency to excite base and malignant feelings ; and none but the most grovelling and hateful tyranny, or the most stupid and despi- cable fanaticism, ever raised its voice against it. Tiie bad modern habits of England have created one inconvenience attending the enjoyment of this healthy and innocent pastime ; namely, late hours, which are at once injurious to health and destructive of order and of industry. In other countries people dance by day-light. . Here
they do no*; and, therefore, you irrnst, in this respeet, submi-t to the custom, though not without robbing the darning nio^ht of as many hours as you can. ^ ^
GAMKLING.
•Gaming is always criinmaf, either in itseW, &r in its tendency. The basis of it is covetousness ; a desire to take from others sonie- «hing, for which you have civen, and intend to give, no equivalent. 3?-© gambler was ever yet a happy man, and very few gautblers have escaped beilig miserable; and' observe, to ff a me for liof/iini;- is still gaming, and naturally leads to gaming for something. It is sacri- ficing time, and that,'too, fur the worst of purposes. I'he hours that young men spend in this way are houvs murdered ; precious hours, that ought to be spent either in reading or in writing, or in pes^t, preparatory to the duties of the dawn.
TAVERN T.\I/KERS.
" SWw me a mam's compardons,"' says the proverb, " and I will tell you wluittlie man is ;" and this is, and must be true ; because all men seek the society of those who think and art somewhat like them- selves: sober men will not associate with drunkards, frugal men will not like spendthrifts, and the orderly and decent shun the noisy, the disorderly, and the debauched. It is for the very vulgar to herd together as singers, ringers and smokers ; but, there is a class rather higher still more blamable ; I mean the tavern-haunters, the gay companions, who herd together to do little but talk, and who are so fond of talk, that they go from home to get at it. The con- versation amongst such persons has nothing of instruction in it, and is generally of a vicious tendency.
DECENT COJIPANY.
Young people naturally and commendably seek the society of those of their own age; but, be careful in choosing your compa- nions; and lay this down as a rule never to be departed from, that no youth, nor man, ought to be called y on r/hV/^/, \v\\o is addicted to indecent talk, or vho is fond of the society of prostitutes. Either of these argues a depraved taste, and even a depraved heart ; an absence of all principle and of all trust-worthiness ; and, I have re- marked it all my life long, that young men, addicted to these vices never succeed in the end, whatever advantages they may have, whe- ther in fortune or in talent. Fond mothers and fathers are but too apt to be over-lenient to such offenders; and, as long as youthlasts and fortune smiles, the punishment is deferred; but, it comes at hist; it is sure to come; and the gay and dissolute youth is a de- jected and miserable man. After the early part of a life spent in illicit indulgencie.s, a man is nnwort/ii/ of being the husltaud of a virtuous woman; and, if he have any thing like justice i# him, how
8
< he to reprcjve, in his children, vices in wliich he himself so lonf ndiilscil ?
INDKPF-NDRNCr. IX CHOICE OF COMPANIONS.
If you h:ive t(t choose, choose companions of your own rank in
i/r as nearly as may he ; l)ut, at any rate, none to whom you ac-
]<no\vle(la:e injfriorily ; for, slavery is too soon learned : and, if the
/nind he howed down in the youth, it will seldom rise up in the
man.
MANNERS.
In your manners he neither hoorish nor hlunt, but, even these are prcferahle to simperinij and crawling. I wish every English youth could see those of the United States of America ; always civil, never sernile. Be o/jefiiinif, wliere obedience is due ; for, it is no act of meanness, and no indication of want of spirit, to yield implicit and ready obedience to those who have a right to demand it at your hands. In this respect England has been, and, I hope, always will be, an example to the whole world. 'J'o this habit of willing and prompt obedience in apprentices, in servants, in all inferiors in station, she owes, in a great measure, her multitudes of matchless merchants, triulesmen, and workmen of every description, and also the achievements of her armies and navies. It is no disgrace, but the contrary, to obey, cheerfully, lawful and just commands. None are so saucy and disobedient as slaves : and, when you come to read history, you will find that in proportion as nations have beenyree has been their reverence for the laws.
VALUE OF MOPESTY AND SOBRIETY.
Monet/ is said to he power, which is, in some cases, true ; and the same may be said of knoicfeflffe, but superior sobriett/, industrif and activifi/, are a still more certain source of power; for without these, hnowledtre is of little use ; and, as to the power which money gives, it is X\\Ato^ brute force, it is the power of the bludgeon and the bayonet, and of the bribed pres i, tongue and pen. Superior sobriety, industry, activity, though acc.jmpanied with but a moderate portion of know- ledge, command rc8|cct, because they havegreatand visible influence- The drunken, the lazy, the inert, stand abashed before the sober and the active, fiesides, all those whose interests are at stake prefer, of necessity, those whose exertions produce the greatest and most immediate and visible effect. Self-interest is no respecter of per- sons : it asks, not who knows best what ought to be done, but who is most likely to do it: we may, and often do, admire the talents of lazy and even dissipated men, but we do not trust them with the care of our interests. If, therefore, you would have respect and in- fluence in the circle in which you move, be more sober, more indus- trious, more active than the general run of those amongst whom vou live. •
5^
REAL KNOWLEDGE.
Learning^ me^ns knowlcdsre; and, Imt a comparatively small part. of useful knowledge comes from books. Men are not to lie called ignorant merely because they cannot make upon pajier certain marks with a pen, or because they do not know the meaning of such inarks when made by others. A ploughman may be very learned in his line, though be does not know \vhat the letters p. I. o. n. g. h mean when he sees them combined on paper. The first thing to be required of a man is, that he understand well his own calling, or profession ; and, be you in what state of life you may, to acquire this knowledge ouglit to be your first and greatest care. A man who has had a new-built house tumble down will derive little more consolation from being told that the architect is a great astrono- mer, than this distressed nation now derives from being assured that its distresses arise from the measures of a long list of the greatest orators and greatest heroes that the world ever beheld.
PERSEVERANCE IN STUDY.
Perseverance is a prime (juality in every pursuit, and particularly in this. Yours is. too. the time of life to acquire this inestimable habit. IVfen fail much oftener from want of perseverance than from Avant of talent and of good disposition: as the race was not to the hare but to the tortoise : so the need of success in study is to him who is not in haste, but to him who proceeds with a steady and even step. It is not to a want of taste or of desire or of disposition to learn that we have to ascribe the rareness of good scholars, somuch as to the want of patient perseverance.
DANGERS OF POVERTY.
A man, oppressed with pecuniary cares and dangers, must be next to a miracle, if ho have his mind in a state fit for intellectual labours: to say nothing of tlie temptations, arisiuL', from such dis- tress, to aband'on good principles, to suppre-s useful opinions and useful lacts: and, in short, to become a disgrace to his kindred, and an evil to his countrv, instead of being an honour to tiie former, ami ablessingto the latter. To be poor and independent, is very nearly an impossibility.
WHAT )'OVERTV KKALLY IS.
Poverty is not a positive, but .i relative term. Ui rke observed, and very truly, that a labourer who earned a siiflMicncy to main- tain him as a labourer, and to maintain him in a suitalde manner; to give him a sufficiency of good food, of clothing, of lodging, and of fuel, ought not to be called a poor man; for that, thougli he had little riclu-s, though his, conipaied \\ith (hat nf a lOrd, was a state of poverty, it was not a .state of poverty in itself. \V"henj therefore,
10
I say that poverty is the cause of a depression of spirit, of inactivity aud'of servilitv iii men of literary talent. [ must say, at the game time, that the' evil arises from their own fault: from their having created for themselves imaginary Mants ; from their having in- dulged in unnecessarv eniovments, and from their having caused that to he poverty, which would not have heen poverty, if they had been moderate in their enjoyments.
FALSE PRIDE.
The s/iaiiir ofporerfi/, the shame of being thought poor, is a great and fatal weakness, though arising, in this country, from the fashion of the times themselves. When ^ irood man, as in the phraseology of the citv, means a rir/i maiu we are not to wonder that every one wishes to' he thought richer than he is. When adulation is sure to f(dlow wealth, and when contempt would be awarded to many if thev were not weulthv, wliv are spoken of with deh'rence, and even lauded to the skies, 'because their riches are great and notorious; M-hen this is the case, w^e are not to be surprised that men are ashamed to he thought to he poor. This is one of the greatest of all the dauirers at the outset of life: it has brought thousands and hundreds of thousands to ruin, even to ptcuniury rmn. One of the most amiable features in the character of Aniericau society its this; that men never boast of tlieir riches, and never disguise their ju.verty: but they talk of both as of any other matter fit for public conversation. No man shuns another because he isjioor: no man is preferred to another because he is rich, in hundreds and hun- dreds of instances, men, not worth a shilling, have been chosen by the people and enlrnstcd with tlieiv vi^•hts and interests, in prefe- rence to men who ride in their carriages.
This shame of being thought poor, is not only dishonourable in itself, and fatally injurious to men of talent; but it is ruinous even in a jjrcioiinri/ poiiit of view, and equally destructive to larmers, traders, and even gentl*iH«n of iandetl estate. Jt leads to everlast- ing efforts Ui disguisp mivs portrf-i : the carriage, the servants, the wine, (oh. that fatal winri) tlie 'spirits, the decanters, the glasses, all the table apparatus, the dros.s. the horses, the dinners, the par- ties, all must be kept up; not so much becau-se luj or she who keeps nr gives them, has anv pleasure arising therefroni, as because not to keep and iiivc them." would pive rise to a suspicion ofthf ward of niean^ so to give and keep ; and thus thousands ujjuu thousands are yearlv brought into a state of real poverty by their great anxiety lint tit h''. 'ffioiio/ti jjoor. liook round you, mark well what you behold, »ud say if tins be n(»t the case. In 'how many instances have you seen niost amiable and even most industrious fajuilies brought to ruin by nothing but this ! Mark it well; resolve to set this false shan»e at defiance, and when von have done that you have laid the first stone of the surest found'ation of your future tranquillity of
ind. 'I'here are thousands of families,' at this very n)oment, who
IM
«
are thus 8trug£;liag to keep up appearances. The farmers aucom- inodate themselves to circunistanoes more easily than tradesmen and professional men. They live at a greater distam-e from their neighbours: they can change their style of living uuperceived: they can banish the decanter, change the dishes for a bit of bacon, make a treat out of a rasher aTid eggs, and the world is none the wiser all the while. But the tradesman, the doctor, the attorney, and the trader, cannot make the change so quietly, and unseen. The accursed wine, which is a sort of criterion of the style of living, a sort of scafe to the plan, a sort of kei/ to the fiiue ; this is the thing to banish first of all ; because all the rest follow, aiulcoiue down to their proper level in a short time. The accursed decanter cries footman or waiting maid, puts bells to the side of the wall, screams aloud for carpets; and when I am asked, " Lord, w/i/tt is a glass of wine?" my answer is, that, in this country, it is et'f*v/Mm/,s* it is the pitcher of the key; it demands all the other unnecessary ex- penses; it is injurious to health, and must be injurious, every bot- tle of wine that is drunk containing a certain portion of ardent spirits, besides other drugs deleterious in their nature; and, of all the friends to the doctors, this faishionable beverage is the greatest. And, which adds greatly to the folly, or, I should say, the real vice of using it, is, that the parties themselves, nine times out of ten, do not drink it by choice; do not like it; do not relish it; but use it from mere ostentation, being ashamed to be seen even by their own servants, not to drink wine. At the very moment 1 am writing this, there are thousands of families in and near Loudon, whod aily have wine upon their tables, and ivliu drink it too, merely because their own servants should not suspect them to be poor, and not deem them to be genteel; and thus families by thousands are ruined, only because they are asliaiued to be thought poor.
There is no shame belonging to poverty, which frequently arises from tlie virtues of the impoverished parties. Not so frequently, indeed, as from vice, folly, and indiscretion ; but still very frequently. And as the Scripture tells us, that we are not to '• despise the poor because he is poor ' ; so we ought not to honour the rich becau.se lu; , is rich. The true way is, to take a fair survey of the character of r u m;m as depicted in his conduct, aiul to respect him, or despise ^tiui, according to a due estimate of tluit character.
ADV.tXTAOES OF RE.\»Y MONEY TRANSaGTIONS.
There Is a trade in London, ca.lletl the "• tally-trade"', by which, household goods, coals, clothing, all sorts of things, are sold upon credit, the seller keeping a faUif, and receiving payment for the
foods, little by little; so tliat the income and tlie earnin<;s of the uyers are always anticipated ; are always gone, in fact, before they come ju or are earned; the sellers receiving, of course, a great deal more than th<^ proper proht.
Without supposing you to descend to so low a grade as this, and
12
pv'on supposino: you to be lawyer, doctor, parson, or merchant ; it is still the same thini:^, if you purchase on credit, and not, perhaps, in a much less degree of disadvantage. Besides the higher price that you pay, there is the temptation to have what you really do not iva>if. The cost seems a trifle, when you have not to pay the money until a future time. It has been observed, and very truly observed, that men used to lay out a one pound note when they would not lay out a sovereign: a consciousness of the intrinsic value of the filings produces a n^entiveness in the latter case more than in the former : the sight and the touch assist the mind in forming its con- clusions, and the one pound note was parted with, when the sove- reign would have been kept. Far greater is the difference between ilredit and Ready money. Innumerable things are not bought at all with ready money, which would be bought in case of trust : it is so much easier to order a thing than to prn/ for it. A future day ; a day of payment nmst come, to be sure, but that is little thought of at the time ; but if the monev were to be drawn out, the moment the thing M'as received or offered, this question would arise, " Can / do u'it/ioid if?" Is this thing indispensable ; am I compelled to have it, or suffer a loss or injury greater in amount than the cost of the thing.' If this question were put, every time we niake a pur- chase, seldom should we hear of those suicides which are such a disgrace to this country.
SPECULATION.
The great temptation to this gambling is, as is the case in other gambling, the snccats of the few. As young men who crowd to the army, in search of rank and renoMn, never look into the ditch that holds their shiughtered companions : but have their eye constantly fixed on the General-in-chief : and as each of them belongs to the ■same prof sshni. and is sure to be conscious that he lias equal merit, every one deems himself the suitable successor of him who is sui-- rounded with Aides des camps, and who moves battalions and columns bv his nod; so with the rising generation of " specu- lators: they see the great estates that have succeeded the pencil- box and the orange-basket; they see those whom nature and good laws made to black shoes, sweep chimnies or the streets, rolling in carriages, or sitting in saloons surrounded by gaudy footmen with napkins twisted round their thumbs ; and they can see no earthly reason why thev should not :ill do the same ; forgetting the thou- sands and thousands, who, in making the attempt, have reduced themselves to that beggary which, before their attempt, they would have regarded as a thing impossible.
POLLY OF GOING TO LAW.
In all situations of life, avoid the trammels of the law. Man's nature must be changed before law-suits will cease ; and, perhaps,
m
it would be next to impossible to make tliem less frequent tkan they are in the present state of this country ; but though no man. .who has any property at all, can say that he will have nothing to do with law-suits, it is in the power of most men to avoid them in a considerable degree. One good rule is to have as little as possible to do with any man who is fond of law-suits, and who, upon every slight occasion, talks of an ap])eal to the laM'. Such persons, from their frequent litigations, contract a habit of using the technical terms of the Courts, in which they take a pride, and are, therefore, companions peculiarly disgusting to men of sense. To such men a law suit is a luxury, instead of being as it is, to men of ordinary minds, a source of anxiety and a real and substantial scourge. Such men are always of a quarrelsome disposition, and avail them- selves of every opportunity to indulge in that which is mischievous to their neighbours. In thousands of instances men go t,o law for the indulgence of mere anger. The Gernuins are said to bring spite- actions against one another, and to harass their poorer neighbours from motives of pure revenge. They have carried this their dis- position with them to America; for which reason no one likes to live in a German neighbourhood.
Before you go to Law, consider well the cost; for if you win your suit and are poorer than you were before, what do you accompUsh? You only imbibe a little additional anger against your opponent: you injure him, but do harm to yourself Better to put up with the loss of one pound than of two, to which latter is to be added all the loss of time, all the trouble, and all the mortification and anxiety attending a law-suit. To set an attorney to work to worry an({ torment another man is a very base act ; to alarm his family as well as himself, while you are sitting quietly at home. Ifamanowe you money which he cannot pay, why add to his distress without the chance of benefit to yourself? Thousands of men have injured themselves by resorting to the law ; wliile very few ever bettered themselves by it, except such resort were unavoidable.
SOCIETY.
There is such a thing as your quiet " pipe-and-pot companions," which are, perhaps, the most fatal of all. iVIothing can be conceived more dull, more stupid, more the contrary of edification and rati- onal amusement, than sitting, sotting, over a pot and a glass, sending out smoke from the head, and articulating, at intervals, nonsense about all sorts of things. Seven years service as a galley-slave would be more bearable to a man of sense, than seven months con- finement to society like this. Yet, such is the effect of habit, that, if a young man become a frequenter of such scenes, the idle pro- pensity sticks to him for life. Some companions, however, every man must have; but these every well-behaved man will find in private houses, where families are ft)und reading, and where the- suit^ible intercour.5e takes place between women and men. A man
14
that cannot pass an evening without drink merits the name of a sot. Why should there be drink for the purpose of carrying on conver- !=ation .' Women stand in need of no drink to stiniuhite them to con- verse ; and I have a thousand times admired their patience in sitting quietly at their work, while their husbands are engaged, in the same room, Mitli bottles and glasses before them, thinking nothing of the ^•xpense, and still less of the shame which the distinction reflects upon theui. We have to thank the women for many things, and particularly for their sobriety, for fear of following their example in Mhich men drive them from the table, as if they said to them : *' you have had enough; food is sufficient for you; but we must remain to fill ourselves Mith drink, and to talk in language which your ears ought not to endure." When women are getting up to retire from the table, men rise in honmw of them ; but, they take special care not to follow their excellent example. That which is not fit to be uttered before women is not fit to be uttered art all ; and it is next to a proclamation tolerating drunkenness and in- decency, to send women from the table the moment they have swal- lowed their food. The practice has been ascribed to a desire to leave them to themselves ; but why should they be left to them- selves? Their conversation is always the most lively, while their persons are generally the most agreeable objects. No : the plain truth is, that it is the love of the drink and of the indecent talk that send M omen from the table ; and it is a practice which I have ahv.iys abhorred. I like to see young men, especially, follow them out of the room, and prefer their company to that of the sots who are left behind.
HOW to READ HISTORY.
I haVe slightly mentioned History and Geography in the preceding letter; but I must here observe, that, as to both these, you should begin with vour own country, and make yourself well acquainted, not only with its ancient state, but with the origin of all its principal institutions. To read of the battles which it has fought, and of the intrigues by which one king or one minister has succeeded another, is very little more profitable than the reading of a romance. To understand well the liistorv of the country, you should first understand how it came to be divided into counties,, hundreds, and into parishes ; how judges, sheriffs, and juries first arose; to what end they were all invented, and how the changes with respect to any of them have been produced. But, it is of particular consequence, that you ascertain the state of the people in former times, which is to be ascertained by comparing the then price of labour irifh the then price of food. You hear enough, and you read enough, about the glorious wars in the reign of King Edward the THIRD ; and it is very proper that those glories should be recorded and remembered ; but you never read, in the works of the historians, that, in that reign, a common labourer earned threepence-halfpenny s day; and that a fat sheep was sold, at tii« same time, for ohc
15
shilling and twopence, and a fat hog. two y^ara old, for three shil- lings and fourpeuce, and a fat goose for twopence-halfpcnnv. You never read, that woman received a penny a dav for hay-niaking or weeding in tire corn, and that a gallon of red Mine was sold for fourpence. These are matters which historians have deemed to be beneath their notice; but they are matters of real importance: they are matters which ought to have practical effect at this time ; for these furnish the criterion whereby we are to judge of our con- dition compared with that of our forefathers. The poor rates form a great feature in the laws and customs of this country. Put to a thousand persons Mho have read what is called the history of Eng land ; put to them the question, how the poor rates came? and nine hundred and ninety-nine of tiie thousand will tell you, that they know nothing at all of the matter. This is not history ; a list of battles and a string of intrigues, are not history, they communicate no knowledge applicable to our present state ; and it r*ally is better to amuse oneself Mith an avowed romance, which latter "is a great deal worse than passing one's time in counting the trees.
History has been described as affording arguments of experience ; as a rf>cord of what has been, in order to guide us as to what is likely to be, or Mhat ought to be ; but, from this romantic history, no such experience is to be derived: for it furuislies no facts on which to found arguments relative to the existing or future state of things. To come at the true history of a country, you must read its laws: you must read books treating of its usages and customs, in former times; and you must particular! v inform your- self as to prices of labour and of food. By reading the single Act of the 23rd year of Edward the Third, specifying the price of labour at that time; by reading an Act of Parliament passed in the 24th year of Henry the Sth ; by reading these two Acts, and then reading the Preciosum of Bishop FleetM'ood, which shoMs the price of food in the former reign, you come into full possession of the knoM ledge of M'hat England was in former times. Divers books teach hoM' the divisions of the country arose, and how its great institutions Mere established ; and, the result of this reading is in store of knoMledge, which will afford you pleasure for the M'hole of your life.
HOW TO BEAD l'aOPE|il»V.
There is one thing ahvavs to be guarded against ; and that Is, not to admire and applaud any thing you read, merely because it is the fusiiion to admire and ap])huKl it. Read, consider well M'hatyou read, irom i/our own judirment, and stand by that judgment in de- spite of the sayings of Mhat are called learned men, until fact er argument be offered to convince you of your error. One m riter praises another ; and it is very possible for Mriters so to combine as to cry down and, in some sort, to destroy the reputation of any one who meddles with the combination, unless the person thus assailed be blessed M'ith uittommon talent and uncommon perseverance. .
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DOMESTIC HAPPINESS OP THE POOR.
Music, indeed! Give me a mother singing to her fat rosy baby, and making the honsering with lier extravagant and hyperbolical pncomiinns on it. That is the music which is ' the food of love ;" and not the formal, pedantic noises, an affectation of skill in which is now-a-days the ruin of half the young couples in the middle rank of jife. liCt any man observ(>, as I so frequently have, with delight, the excessive' fondness of the labouring people for their children. Let him observe with what pride they dress them out on a Sunday, with means deducted from their own scanty meals. Let him observe the husband, who has toiled all the week like a horse, nursing the baby, wliile the wife is preparing the bit of dinner. Let him ob- .serve them both abstaining from a sufficiency, lest the children should feel the pinchings of hunger. Let him observe, in short, thewhole of their demeanour, the real mutual affection, evinced, not in words, but in unequivocal deeds. Let him observe these things, and, having then cast a look at the lives of the great and wealthy, he will say, with me, that, when a man is choosing his partner for life, the dre^d of poverty ought to be cast to the winds. A labourer's <;ottage, on a Sunday; the husband or wife having a baby in arras, looking at two or three older ones playing between the flower-bor- ders going from the wicket to the door, is, according to my taste, the most interesting object that eyes ever beheld ; and, it is an ob- ject to be beheld in no country upon earth but England. In France, a labourer's cottage means « s/zet/with a ilung-hcap before the door; .and it means much about the same in America, where it is wholly .inexcusable. In riding once, al)out five years ago, from Petworth to Horsham, ou a Sunday in the afternoon, I came to a solitary cottage which stood at about twenty yards distance from the road. There was the wife with the baby in her arms, the husband teach- ing another child to walk, while /<>«/• more were at play before them. I stopped and looked at them for some time, and then, turning my horse, rode up to the wicket, getting into talk by asking the dis- tance to Horsham. I found that the man worked chiefly in the woods, and that he was doing pretty well. The wife was then only fwenty-two. and the man only twentti-Jive. She was a pretty Moman, ^-ven for Sussex, which, not excepting Lancashire, contains the prettiest women in England. He was a very fine and stout young .man. " Why," said I, "how many children do you reckon to have <it lastT' "I do not care how many," said the man: " God never sends mouths without sending meat." " Did you ever hear," said I ■" of one Parson Malthiis?" '• No, Sir." " Why. if he were to hear of your works, he would be outrageous ; for he wants an act of parliament to prevent poor people from marrying young, and from having such lots of children." " Oh! the brute!'' exclaimed the wife : while the husband laughed, thinking that I was joking. I asked the man whether he had ever hud relief from the parish ; and upon answering in the negative, I took out my purse, took from it
ir
enough to hait my horse at Horsham, and to clear my turnpikes to Worth, whither I was going in order to stay awhile, and gave him all the rest. Now, is it not a shame, is it not a sin of all sins, that people like these should, by acts of the government, be reduced to such misery as to be induced to abandon their homes and their country, to seek, in a foreign land, the means of preventing them- selves and their children from starving ( And this has been, and now is, actually the case with many such families in this same coun- ty of Sussex ?
THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS.
That levitv, which, in a French girl, I should not have thought a great deal of, would have frightened me away from an Englisli or an American girl. When \ was in France, just after I was married, there happened to be amongst our acquaintance a g.\y, sprightly girl, of about seventeen. I was remonstrating with her, one day, on the facility with which she seemed to shift her smiles from object to ob- ject ; and she, stretching one arm in an upward direction, the other iu a downward direction, raising herself upon one foot, leaning her body on one side, and thus throwing herself into -a flybig attitude, answered my grave lecture by singing, in a very sweet voice (sig- nificantly bowing her head and smiling at the same time), the fol- lowing lines from the vaudeville, in the play of Figaro;
Si I'amour a des allies ; N'est vG pas pour voltiger ?
That is, if love has ?('(««•.*.• is it not to flutter about with ? The wit, argument, and manner, all together, silenced me. She, after I left France, married a very worthy man, has had a large family, and has been, and is, a most excellent wife and mother. But that which does sometimes well in France, does not do here at all. Our man- ners are more grave : steadiness is the rule, and levity the excep- tion. Love may volfige in France; but, in England, it cannot, with safety to the lover : and it is a truth which, 1 believe, no man of attentive observation will deny. that, us, in general, English wives are more u'MJ-«i in their conjugal attachments than those of France, so, with regard to individuals, that those English women who are the most light in their manners, and who are the least constant in their attachments, have the smallest portion <d' that vannth, that indescribable passion which (Jod has given to human beings as the great counterbalance to all the sorrow* and suflerings of life.
HISTORY OF A NEEDLE.
JVho is to tell whether a girl will make an industrious woman i How is the purblind lover especially, to be able to ascertain whe- ther she, whose smiles and dimples and bewitching lips have half
18
bereft liim of his senses; how is he to 1»e able to judge, from any thins: ^hat he can see, whether the beloved object will l)e industrious or lazy ^ ^\'hv, it is very difficult : it is a nuitter that reason has very little to do M'ith; but there are, nevertheless, certain outward and visible signs, from Mhich a man, not wholly deprived of the use of his reason, may form a pretty accurate judgment as to this matter. It was a storv iu l*]\iladcl|thia, some years ago, that a young man, who was courting one of three sisters, happened to be on a visit to her, when all ithe three were present, and when one said to the others, " I wonder where ovr needle is." Upon which he withdrew, as soon as Mas consistent with the rules of politeness, resolved never to think more of a girl who possessed a needle only in partnersbi]>, and ^vho, it appeared, was not too mcII informed as to the phice where even that share was deposited.
SIGNS OP INDU8TRV Iff M'OMEX.
Never mind the pieces of needle-work, the tambouring, the maps of the world made by her needle. Get to see her at work upon a mutton chop, or a bit of bread and cheese; and, if she deal qiiickly with these, vou have a ])retty good security for that activity, thut stirring in(lustr\-, without which a wife is a burden instead of being a help. And, as to hve, it cannot live for mere than a month or two (in the breast of a man of spirit) towards a lazy woman.
Another uuirk of imlustry is, a y/oVA- step^ and a somewhat hcanj tread, showing that the foot comes doM'n \\\t\\ -a lienrti/ good ivUI ; and if the body lean a little forward, and the eyes keep steadily in the same direction, wliile the feet are going, so much the better, ibr these discover ear nest nests to I'.rrive at the intended point. I do not like, and 1 never liked, your sauntering, soft-stepping girls, who move as if they M'ere pertt^ctly iudiflerent as to the result ; and, as to the A/w part of the story, whoever expects ardent and lasting affection froni one of these saunterius: girls, will, M-hen too late, find his mistake: the character runs the sanu; all the way through; and no man ever yet saw a sauntmMng girl, who did not, when mar- ried, make a »/«m'^-/.v// M'ife. and a cold-'hearted mother ; cared very little for eitlier by husband or children : and, of course, having no store of those blessings which are the natural resources to apply to in sick«e«i6 and in old age.
Eurty-rising is another nucrk of industry ; and though, in the higher'situations of life, it niay be of no importance in a mere pe- cuniary pmnt Off view, it is, ev«n there, of iujportan*e in ©•ther re- spects ; for it is, I should imagine, pretty difficult to keep love alive towards a woman who never sees the dew, never beholds the rising sun, and mIio constantly comes diTC^ctly fnotn a reeking bed to the breakfast table, and "there chews about, without appetite, the cheicest morsels of human food. A man might, perhaps, endure this for a month or two. without being disgusted; but that is am- ple allowance of time. And, as to people in the middle rank of life.
19^
where a living and a provision for children is to be sought by la- bour of some sort or other, late rising in the wife is ccrtnin ruin ; and, never was there yet an early-rising wife, wlio had been a late- rising girl. If brought up to late rising, she will like it; it will he her /tabif ; she will, when married, never want excuses for in dalging in the habit ; at first she will be indulged without bounds ; to make a change afterwards will be difficult; it will be deemed a wrong done to her; she will ascribe it to diminished affection ; a quarrel must ensue, or, the husband must submit to be ruined, or, at the very least, to see half the fruit of his labour snored and lounged away. And, this is being rigid? Is it being harsh; is it being hard upon women ? Is it the offspring of the frigid severity of age? It is none of these: it ai-ises froui an ardent desire to pro- mote the happiness, and to add to the natural, legitimate, and salu- tary influence of the female sex. The tendency of this advice is to promote the preservation of their health; to prolong the duration of their beauty ; to cause them to be beloved to the last day of their lives; aiid to give them, during the whole of those lives, weight and consequence, of which laziness would render them wholly unworthy..
AN EXTRAVAGANT WOMAN.
The outward and visible and vulgar signs of extravance are wi^s^ broaches, bracelets, buckles, neeklaces, dia/nnnds (real or mock), and, in short, all the hard-ware which women put upon their persons. These things may be proper enough in palaces, or in scenes resem- bling palaces ; but, when they make their appearance amongst peo- ple in the middle rank of life, where, after all, they only serve to show that poverty in the parties, which they wish to disguise ; when the nasty, mean, tawdry things make their appearance in this rank of life, they are the sure indications of a disposition that M'ill ahvays be straining at what it can never attain. To marry a girl of this disposition is really self-destruction. You never can have either property or peace. Earn her a horse to ride, she wants a gig; earn the gig, she will want a chariot ; get her that, slu' will long for a coach and four: and, from stage to stage, she will torment you to the end of her or your days; for, still there will be somebody with a finer equipage than you could give her; and, as long as this is the case, you will never have rest. Reason would t(^ll her, that she could never be at the top, that she uiust stop short at some point short of that ; and that, therefore, all expenses in the rivalship are so much thrown away. But, reason and broaches and bracelets do not go in company : the girl who has not the sense to perceive that her person is disfigured, by parcels of brass and tin (for they are generally little better) and other hard-ware, stuck about her body; the girl that is so fo(dish as not to perceive, that, when silks and cottons and cambrics, in their neatest form, have done their best, nothing more is to be done ; the girl that cannot perceive this, is too great a fool to be trusted with the purse of any man.
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CLEANLINESS.
A w/tife-j/ellow cravat, or shirt, on a man, speaks, at once the cha- racter of his wife ; and, be you assured, that she will not take with your dress, pains which she has never taken with her own. Then, tlse manner nf ptdthtir on the dress is no bad foundation for judsjin^. U it be carelessly, slovenly, if it do not fit properly. No nuitter for its mean quality: mean as it may be, it may be neatly and trimly put on : and, if it be not, take care of yourself, for, as you will soon find to your cost, a sloven in one thing is a sloven in all things. The country-pet>ple judge greatly from the state of the covering of the ancles; and, if that be not clean and tight, they conclude, that all out of sight is not what it ought to be. Look at the shoes. If they be trodden on one side, loose on the foot, or run down at the heel, it is a very bad sign ; and, as to slipshod, though at coining down in the morning, and even before day-light, make up your mind to a rope, rather than live with a slip-shod wife.
Oh! how much do women lose by inattention to these matters ! Men, in general, say nothing about it to their wives ; but they think about it; they envy their luckier neighbours; and, in numerous cases, consequences the most serious arise from this apparently tri- fling cause. Beauty is valuable ; it is one of the ties, and a strong tie too; that, however, cannot last to an old age ; but, the charm of cleanliness never ends but with life itself I dismiss this part of my subject with a quotation from my "Year's Residence in Ame- rica," containing words which I venture to recommend to every young woman to engrave on her heart ; " The sweetest flowers, when they become putrid, stink the most; and a nasty woman is the nas- tiest thing in nature.'"
knowledge of domestic affairs.
Without more or less of this knowledge, a lady, even the wife of a peer, is but a poorish thing. It was the fashion in former times for ladies to understand a great deal about these affairs, and it would be very hard to make me believe, that this did not tend to promote the interests and honour of their husbands. The affairs of a great family never can be well managed, if left wholly to hirelings ; and there are many parts of these affairs in which it would be unseemly for the husband to meddle. Surely, no lady can be too high in rank to make it proper for her to be well acquainted with the characters and general demeanour of all the female servants. To receive and give them characters, is too much to be left to a servant, however good, and of service however long. Aluch of the ease and happi- ness of the great and rich, must depend on the character of those, by whom they are served : thev live under the same roof with them ; they are frequently the children of their tenants, or poorer neigh- bours ; the conduct of their whole lives must be influenced by tlie examples and precepts Mhich they here imbibe ; and when ladies
21
consider how much more weii^ht there must be in one word from them, than in ten thousand from a person who, call her what vou lite, is still a.fe/loic-serva?if, it does appear strange that thev should forego the performance of this, at once important and pleasing part of their duty. It was from the mansions of nohlemen and sjentle- men, and not from hoarding-schools, that farmers and tradesmen formerly took their wives ; and thousjli these days are gone, with little chance of returning, there is still something left for ladies to do in checking that torrent of immoralitv which is now crowdin<r the streets with prostitutes, and cramming the jails Mith thieves.
AX EXAMPLE FROM RKAL LIFE.
For my part. I do not know, nor can I form an idea of. a more unfortunate heing than a girl M'ith a mere hoarding-school educa- tion, and without a fortune to enable her to keep a servant, when married. Of what use are her accomplishments .' Of what use her music, her drawing, and her romantic epistles ? If she he good in fier nature, the first little faint cry of her first bahy drives all the Clarissa Harlowes out of her head for ever. I once saw a striking- instance of this sort. It was a climh-over-tlie-wall match, and J gave the hride away, at St. Margaret's Church, AVestmiuster, the pair heing as handsome a pair as ever I saw in my life. Beauty, however, though in double quantity, would not pay the baker and butcher; and, after an absence of little better than a year, I found the husband in prison for debt; but I there found also his wife, with her baby, and she, who had never, before her marriage, known what it was to get water to wash her own hands, and whose talk was all about music, and the like, was now the cheerful sustainer of her husband, and the most aflectionate of mothers. All the music and all the drawing, and all the plays and romances were gone to the winds ! The husbaml and baby had fairly supplanted them ; and even this prison-scene was a blessing, as it gave her, at this early stage, an opportunity of proving her devotion to her husband, who, though I have not seen him for about fifteen years, he being in a part of America which I could not reach M'hen last there, has, I am sure, amply repaid her for that devotion. They have now a nume- rous family (not less than twelve children, I believe), and she is, 1 am told, a most excellent and able mistress of a respectable house.
A SULKY WOMAN.
Suf/ciness, if you be not too blind to perceive it, is a temper to be avoided by all means. A sulky man is bad enough ; what, then, must be a sulky woman, and that woman a ivifc ; a constant inmate, a companion, day and night ! Only think of the delight of sitting at the same table, and sleeping in the same bed, for a week, and not ex- change a word all the while! Very bad to be scolding for such a length of time ; but this is far better than sulks If you have your eyes, and look sharp, you will discover symptoms of this, if it un-
22
happHy exist. She will, at some time or other, sliow it towards one or other of the family ; or, perhaps, towards yourself; aud you may he quite sure that, in this respect, marriage will not mend her. Sulkiness arises from capricious displeasure, displeasure not founded in reason. The party takes offence unjustifiahly ; is unahle to frame a coniplaint, and therefore expresses displeasure by silence. The remedy for sulkiness is, to suffer it to take its full swin^ ; but it is better not to have the disease in your house; and to be married to it is little short of madness.
A GRUMBLING AVOMAN.
Quernloitsness is a great fault. No man, and, especially, no woman, likes to hear eternal plaintiveness. That she complain,, and roundly complain, of your want of punctuality, of your coolness, of vour neglect, of your liking the company of others: these ai-e all very well, more especially as they are frequently but too just. But an everlasting complaining, without any rhyme or reason, is a bad sign. It shows want of patience, and, indeed, want of sense. But, the contrary of this, a cold indiff'croice^ is still worse. " When will yon come again I You can never find time to come here. You like any company better than mine." These, when groundless, are very teasing, and demonstrate a disposition too full of auxiousness; but, from a girl who always receives you with the same civil smile, lets you, at your own good pleasure, depart with the same ; and who, when you take her bv the hand, holds her cold fingers as straight as sticks, I say (or should if I were young), God. in his mercy, preserve me !
BE.4.UTV.
Though I have reserved this to the last of the things to he desired In a wife, 1 by no means think it the last in point of importance. The less favoured part of the sex say, that '' beauty is hut skin-deep ;'^ and this is very true ; but, it is very aorcrahle, though, for all that. Pictures are only paint-deep, or pencil-deep ; but we admire them, nevertheless.
THE ADVANTAGE OP BEAUTY IN LIFE.
There arises so many things, siclmess, misfortHne in business, losses, many many things, wholly unexpected; and, there are so many circumstances, perfectly nameless^ to communicate to the new- married man the fact, that it is not a real angel of whom he has got the possession ; there are so many things of this 'sort, so many and such powerful dampers of the passions, and -so many incentives to cool reflection ; that it requires something, and a good deal too, to keep the husband in countenance in this his altered and enlightened state. The passion of v,omen does not cool so soon : the lamp of their love burns more steadily, and even brightens as it burns: and, there is, the young man may be assured, a vast difference in the
effect of the fondness of a pretty woman and tliat of one of a diftVreut descri'jttion : and, let reitsoii and philosophv sav what thcv m ill, a man will come down stairs of a niornins: ht-tter i)lf>ased after seeing the former, than he would after seeing the latter, in her night-cap..
WALE FLIRTATIONS,
Nor has a man any right to sport with the affections of a young woman, though he stop short of positin: promises. A'anitv is gene- rally the tempter in this case; a desire to he regarded as being admired by the women: a very despicable species of vanity, but frequently greatly mischievous notwithstanding. Y<»u do not, indeed, actually, in so many words, promise to marry ; but the general tenor of your language and deportment has that meaning ; you know that your meaning is so understood; and if you have not such meauino ; if you be fixed by some previous engagement with, or greater liking for, another; if you know you are here sowing the seeds of disappointmcut ; and if you, keeping your previous engage- ment or greater liking a secret, persevere, in spite of the admo- nitions of conscience, you are guilty of deliberate deception, in- justice and cruelty; you make to Clod an ungrateful return for those endowments which have enabled you to achieve this in- glorious and unuianlv 1riuui]>li; and if, as is frequently the case, you i(lori/ in suck triumph, you may have person, riches, talents to excite envy ; but ever)- jukit and huaKwie man will abhor your heart.
ox LOVE.
In cases not quite so dr'cided, (ihsencc, tJie sight of new faces, the sound ef iww voices, geuerallv serve, if not as a radical cure, as a mitisration. at least, of the disease. But, the w'orst of it is, that, on this point, we have tlie girls (and women too) against us! For they look u])on it as a right that every lover should be « little viaddish ; and, every attempt to rescue him from the thraldom imposed by their charms, they look upon as an overt act of treason against their natural sovereignty. No girl ever liked a youuii' man less for Ids having done things fo4ilish and Mild and ridiculous, provided she was sure that love of her had been the cause : let lier but be satisfied upcm this score, and there are very few things which she will not for^^ive. And, though wholly unconscious of tiie i";ut, she is a great and sound phihfsopher after all. For, from the miture of things, the rearing of a family always has been, is, and must ever be, attended with cares and troubles, which must infallibly produce, at times, feelings to be combat(,'d arid overcome by notliing short of that ardent affection M'hich hrst brought the parties together. So that, talk as Parson Malthi's likes about " moral restraint ;'' and report as long its the Conunittees of Parliament please about pre- venting '^- premature and i,ti])ri>ri(lent marriag(;s"' amongst the la- twuring classes, the passion that they M'(iuld restrain, while it is necessary to the existence of mankind, is tlie greatest of all the
24
compensations for the inevitable cares, troubles, hardships, aixl sorrows of life; and, as to the marriaires, if they could once be rendered universally provident, every generous sentiment wiiuld quickly be banished from the world.
PRUDENTIAL MARRIAGES
Young men will naturally, and almost necessarily, fix their choice on young women in their own rank in life ; because from habit and intercourse they Mill know them best. But, if the length of the girl's purse, present or contingent, be a consideration with the man, or the length of his purse, present or contingent, be a consideration with her, it is an affair of bargain and sale. I know that kings, princes, and princesses are, in respect of inarri.age, restrained by the law: I know that nobles, if not thus restrained by positive law, are restrained, in fact, by the very nature of their order. And here is a disadvantage which, as far as real enjoyment of life is concerned, more than counterbalances all the advantages that thev possess over the rest of the community. This disadvantage, generally speaking, pursues rank and riches downwards, till you a])proach very nearly to that numerous class who live by manual labour, becoming, however, less and less as you descend. You generally find even very vulgar rich men making a sacrifice of their natural and rati- onal taste to their mean and ridiculous pride, and thereby providing for themselves an ample supply of misery for life. By preferring ''^provident marriage' to marriages of love, they think to secure themselves against all the evils of poverty; but. If poverty come, and come it may, and frequently does, in spite of the best laid plans, and best models of conduct; if properfti comr, then where is the counterbalance for that ardent mutual affection, which troubles, and losses, and crosses alwavs increase rather than diminish, and m hich, amidst all the calamities that can befall a man, whispers to his heart, that his best possession is still left him unimpaired .' The Worces- tershire Bakonkt, who has had to endure the sneers of fools on account of his marriage with a beautiful and virtuous servant maid, would, were the present ruinous measures of the Government to drive him from his mansion to a cottage, still have a source of hap- piness ; while many of those, who might fall in company with him, would, in addition to all their troubles, have, perhaps, to endure the reproaches of wives to whom povert\^, or even humble life, Avould be insupportable.
If marrying for the Scike of money be, under any circumstances, despicable, if not disgraceful : if it be, generallv speaking, a species of legal prostitution, only a little less shameful than that which, under some governments, is openly licenced for the sake of a tax ; if this be the case generally, what ought to be said of a young man, who, in the heydey of youth, should couple himself on to a libidinous woman, old enough, perhaps, to be his grandmother, ugly as the night-mare, oflensive alike to the sight and the sin,ell, and who should
25
pretend to fore her too: and all this merelv », the sake of her money f Why, it ought, and it, doubtless, would be said of hira, that his ronduct was a libel on both man and woman-kind ; that his name ou2;ht, for ever, to be synonymoMS with Itaseness and nasti- ness, and that in no ag^e and in no nation, not marked by a general depravity of manners, and total absence of all sense of shame, every associate, male or female, of such a man, or of his filthvmate, would be held in abhurrencc. Public moralitv would drive such a hateful pair from society, and strict justice wonld hunt them from the face of the earth.
MARRIAGE.
You should never forget, that marriage, which is a state that every young person ought to have in view, is a thing to lastybr life ; and that, generally speaking, it is to make life Imppy or miserable ; for, though a man may bring his mind to something nearly a state oi indifference, even that is misery, except with those who can hardly be reckoned amongst sensitive beings. Marriage brings numerous rares, which are amply compensated by the more numerous delights which are their companions. But to have the delights, as well as the cares, the choice of the partner must be fortunate. \ say Jhrtu- nate ; for, after all, love, real love, impassioned affection, is an in- gredient so absolutely necessary, that no perfect reliance can be placed on the judgment.
WOMANLY DELICACY.
It is not enough that a young woman abstain from every thing; approaching towards indecorum in her behaviour towards men ; it is, with me, not enough that she cast down her eyes, or turn aside her head with a smile, when she hears an indelicate allusion : she ought to appear not to understand it, and to receive from it no more impression than if she were a post.
STEADINESS OF CONDUCT.
By the word Sobriety, in a young woman, I mean a great deal more than even a rigid abstinence from that love of drink, which 1 am not to suppose, and which I do not believe, to exist any thing like generally amongst the young women of this country. I mean a great deal more than this ; F mean sohrietj/ of conduct. The word sober, and its derivatives, do not confine themselves to matters of drink: they express steadiness, seriousness, carefulness, scrupulous propriety of conduct ; and they are thus used amongst country peo- ple in many parts of England. When a Somersetshire fellow makes too free with a girl, she reproves him with, " t^ome ! be sober! And when we wish a team, or any thing, to be moved on sleadili/ and with great cure, vre cry out to the carter, or other operator, "■ Soberhf, soberly.'" Nom', this species of sobriety is a great qualification iu
26
the person you mean to make your M'iti\ Skippinis;, cap«riac^, romp- ing, rattlino: girls are rery amusiitt£: -wliere ail costs and other con- sequences are out of the question; and llu'v mm/ U'^i-nnw. sit/ier m tfee Sonierset^iive sense of the word. Hut while you have no cer- tainhj of this, you have a i)resuiiiptive arj; uinent on tlie oth«r side. 'I'o be sure, wh«n jCfiris are mere, r.hiidi-ciu tliey are to play and romp like children. But, when they arrive at that aj:e which "turns their thoughts towards that sort of' connexion which is to V>e theirs for life; when tlicy l>egin to think of havinii the command of a house, however small or poor, it is time for t^iem to cast away the levity of the child. It is natural, nor is it very wron?. that I know of, for children to like to t^^ad about and to see all sorts of strange sights, though I do not approve of this even in children : but, if I could not have found a young ivomnn (and I am sure I should never have married an old one) who I was not surt- possessed all the qua- lities expressed by the word sobriety, 1 should have remained a bachelor to the ewd of that life, which," in that case, would, 1 am sa- tisfied, have terminated without my having performed a thousandth part of those labours which have "been, and are, in spite of all po- litical prejudice, the M^onder of all who have seen, or heard of them. Scores of gentlemen have, at different times, expressed to me their, surprise, that I was " ahmiys in .ynrits ,-" that n(jthing pnlled me dmvn; and the truth is, that, throughout nearly forty years of troubles, losses, and crosses, assailed all the while by more numerous and powerful enemies than ever man had before to contend with, and performing, at the same time, labours gi-eater than man ever before performed fall those labours rquiring mental exertion, and some of them mental exertion of the highest order ; the truth is, that, throughout the whole of this long time of troubles and of labours, I have never», known a single hour of real anxiety; the troubles have been no troubles to me; I have not known what lowness of spiriis meaned; have been more gay, and felt less care, than any bachelor that ever lived. "You are alinm/s in spiriis, Cobbett !"' To be sure; for why should I not? Poirr/^y I have always set at defiance, and I could, therefore, defy the temptations of riches ; and, as to home and chil- dren, 1 had taken care to provide myself with an inexhaustible store of that '■'■sobriety,'' which I am so strongly recommending my reader to provide himself with ; or, if he cannot' do that, to deliberate long • before he ventures on the life-enduring matrimonial voyage. This ^ohr'i&ty \^ ?i i\t\e to trust-worthiness ; and this, young man, is the treasure that you ought to prize far above all others. Miserable is the husband, who, when he crosses the threshhold of his house, car- ries with him doubts and fears and suspicious. I do not mean sus- picions of the yjV/(?/iY// of his wife, but of her care, frugality, atten- tion to his interests, and to the health and morals of his children. Miserable is the man, who cannot leave all unlocked, and who is not sure, quite certain, that all is as safe as if grasped in his own Jiand. He is the happy husband, who can go awavll at a momeiifs warning, leaving his house and his family with as little anxiety as he quits
^27
i»n inn, Tiot more fearins: to iind, on his return, anv thing wrong, than he would fear a discontinuance of the rising and setting of the sun.
A LOVE AFFAIR.
I, in one of my rambles in the woods, in which I took great •delight, came to a spot at a very short distance from the source of one of these creeks. Here Ma8 every thing to delight the eye, and especially of one like me. Mho seem to have been born to love rural life, and trees and plants of all sorts. Here were about two hun- dred acres of natural meadow, interspersed with patches of maple- trees in various forms and of various extent ; the creek (there about thirty miles from its point of joining the St. John) ran doM'n the middle of the spot, m hich formed a sort of dish, the high and rock hills rising all round it, except at the outlet of the creek, 4ind these hills crowned with lofty pines: in the hills were the sources of the creek, the waters of which came down in cascades, for any one of which many a nobleman in England would, if he could transfer it, give a good slice of his fertile estate ; and in the creek, at the foot of the cascades, there were, in the season, salmon 'the finest in the world, and so abundant and so easily taken, as to be used for manuring- the land.
If nature, in her very best humour, had made a spot for the ■express purpose of captivating me, she could not have exceeded the efforts which she had here made. But I found something here besides these rude ivories of nature ; I found something |in the fashionino- of which man had had something to do. I found a large and well-built log dwelling house, standin2: (in the month of Sep- tember) on the edge of a very good field of Indian Corn, by the side of which thei-e was a piece of buck-wheat just then mowed. I found a homestead, and some very pretty cows. I found all the things by which an easy and happy farmer is surrounded: and I found still something besides all these ; something that was destined to give me a great deal of pleasure and also a jjreat deal of pain, both in their extreme degree: and both of which, in spite of the lapse of forty years, now make an attempt to rush back into my heart
Partly from misinformation, and partly from miscalculation, I had lost my way ; and, quite alone, but armed with my sword and a brace of pistols, to defend myself against the bears, I arrived at the log-house in the middle of a moon-light night, the hoar frost covering the trees and the grass. A stout and clamorous dog, kept off by the gleaming of my sword, waked the master of the house, Wflo got up, received me with great hospitality, got me something^ to eat, and nut me into a' eather-bed. a thing that I had been a stranger tor or some years. I, being very tired, had tried to pass tfie night in the woods, between the trunks of two large trees, which had fallen side by side, and within a y\\.x^\ of each other. ' I had made a nest for myself of dry fern, and had made a covering by laying boughs of spifuce across the trunks of the tree*. But unable
28
to' sleep on account of the cold; becoming: sick from the great quantity of water that 1 had drank during tlui day, and being, moreover, alarmed at the noise of the bears, and lest one of them should find me in a defenceless state, 1 had roused myself up, and crept along as well as I could. So that no hero of eastern romance ever experienced a more enchanting change.
1 had got into the house of one of those Yankee Loyalists, ■who, at the close of the rerolutionary war (which, until it had suc- ceeded, was called a rebellion) had accepted of grants of land in the King's Province of New Brunswick ; and who, to the great honour of England, had been furnished with all the means ofinaking new and comfortable settlements. I was suffered to sleep till breakfast time, when I found a table, the like of which I have since seen so juany in the United States, loaded with good things. The master and the mistress of the house, aged about fifty, Avere like what an English farmer and his wife were half a century ago. There Mere two sons, tall and stout, who a])peared to have come in from work, and the youngest of whom was about my age, then twenty-three.' Bi.t there was another member of the family, aged nineteen, who dressed according to the neat and simple fashion of New England, whence she had come with her parents five or six years before) liad her long light-brown hair twisted nicely up, and fastened on the top of her head, in which head were a pair of lively blue eyes, associated with features of which that softness and that sweetness, so characteristic of American girls, were the predominant expressions, the whole be- ing set oft' by a complexion indicative of glowing health, and form- ing, figure, movements, and all taken together, an assemblage of beauties, far surpassing any that I had ever seen but once in my life.
That,o?Jce was, too, two years agone ; and, in such a case and at such an age, two years, two whole years, is a long, long while! It was a space as long as the eleventh part of my then life! Here was X\\& present against the absent: here was the power of theeyt>,y pitted ugainst that of the memory : here were all the senses up in arms to subdue the influence of the thoughts : here was vanity, here was j)assion, here was the spot of all spots in the world, and here M'ere also the life, and the manners and the habits and the pursuits that I delighted in: here was every thing that imagination can conceive, united in a conspiracy against the poor little brunette in England! What, then, did 1 fall in love at once with this bouquet of lilies and roses? Oh! by no means. I was, however, so enchanted with the place; I so much enjoyed its tranquillity, the shade of the maple trees, the business of the farm, the sports of the water and of the woods, that I stayed at it to the last possible moment, promising, at my departure, to come as often as I possibly could; a promise which I most punctually fulfilled.
Winter is the great season for jaunting and aanang (called frolick- ing) in America. In this Province the river and the creeks were the only roads from settlement to settlement. In the summer we travelled in canoes; in winter in sleighs on the ice or snow. During
29
more than two years I spent all the time I could with my Yankee friends: they were all fond of me: I talked to them ahout country affairs, my evident delight in which they took as a compliment to themselves: the father and mother treated me as one of their chil- dren: the sons as a hrother; and the daughter, who was as modest and as full of sensihility as she was heautiful, in a way to which a chap less sanguine than I was would have given the tenderest inter- pretation; which treatment I, especially in the last-mentioned case, most cordially repaid.
It is when you meet in company with others of your own Age. that your are, in love matters, put, most frequently, to the test, and exposed to detection. The next door neighhour might, in that country, he ten miles off. We used to have a frolic, sometimes at one house and sometimes at another. Here, where female eyes are very much on the alert, no secret can long be kept ; and very soon father, mother, brothers and the whole neighbourhood looked upon the thing as certain, not excepting herself, to whom I, however, had never once even talked of marriage, and had never even told her that I loved her. But I had a thousand times done these by impli- cation, taking into view the interpretation that she would naturally put upon my looks, appellation and acts ; and it was of this, that 1 had to accuse myself. Yet I was not a deceiver; for my affec- tion for her was very great: I spent no really pleasant hours but with her: I was uneasy if she showed the slightest regard for any other young man. I was unhappy if the smallest matter afi'ected her liealth or spirits : I quitted her in dejection, and returned to her with eager delight. Many a time, when I could get leave but for a day, I paddled in a canoe two whole succeeding nights, in order to pass that day with her. If this was not love, it was first cousin to it ; for as to any criminal intention I no more thought of it, in her case, than if she had been my sister. Many times I put to myself the questions: " What am I at I Is not this wrong? /f7ii/ do 1 goV .But still I went.
Then, further in my excuse, my /jjv'o;- engagement, though care- fully unalluded to by both parties, was, in that thin population, and owing to the singular circumstances of it, and to the great talk that there always was about me, perfecthj well known to her and all her family. It was matter of so much notoriety and conversation in the Province, that General Carleton (brother of the late Lord Dorchester,) who was the Governor when I was there, when he, ahout fifteen years afterwards, did me the honour, on his re- turn to England, to come and see me at my house in Duke Street, Westminster, asked, before he went away, to see my wife, of whom he had heard so »i7<c/i before her marriage. So that here was no de- ception on my part : but still I ought not to have suffered even the most distant hope to be entertained by a person so innocent, so amiable, for whom I had so much affection, and to whose heart I had no right to give a single twinge. I ought, from the very first, to have prevented the possibility of her ever feeling pain on my ac-
count. 1 was young, to be sure; but I was dd cnougb to kruyvr wliat was my duty in this case, and I ouglit, dismissing my own feelings, to have had the resolution to perform it. ^ The last jiarting eame; and now came my just punishment! The time was known to every body, and was irrevocably fixed ; for I had to move with a regiment, and the embarkation of a regiment is an epoch in a thinly settled province. To describe this parting would be too painful even at this distant day, and with this frost of age, upon my head. The kind and virtuous father came forty miles to see me just as I was going on board in the river. His looks and words 1 have never forgotten. As the vessel descended, she passed the mouth of that creek, which I had so often entered with deiliglrt; and though England, and all that England contained, were before ine, I lost sight of this creek with an aching heart.
On what trifles turn the great events in the life of man? If I had received a cool letter from my intended wife; if I had onlv heard a rumour of any thing from which fickleness in her might have been inferred ; if I had found in her any, even the smallest^ abatement of affection ; if she had let go any one of the hundred strings by which she held my heart ; if any of these, never 'would the world have heard of me.
EXPENSE OF KEEPING A SERVANT.
In London, or near it, a maid servant cannot be kept at an ex- pense so low as that of thirti/ pounds a year ; for, besides her wages, board and lodging, there must be a fire solely for her ; or she must sit with the husband and wife, hear every word that passes between them, and between them and their friends ; mIucIi will, of course, greatly add to the pleasure of their fireside ! To keep her tongue still would be impossible, and, indeed, unreasonable ; and if, as may frequently happen, she be prettier than the wife, she will know how- to give the suitable interpretation to the looks which, to a next to a certainty, she will occasionally get from him, who, as it were jn mockery, she calls by the name of "waiter." This is almost down- right bigamy ; but this can never do ; she must have v^fire to herself. Besides the blaze of coals, however, there is another sort oi flame that she will inevitably covet. She will by no means be sparing of the coals ; but, well fed and well lodged, as she will be, whatever you may be, she will naturally sigh for the fire of love, for which she carries in her bosom a match always ready prepared. In plain lan- guage, vou have a man to keep, a part, at least, of every m eek ; and the leg of lamb, which might have lasted you and your wife for three days, will, by this gentlei"an"s sighs, be borne away in one. Shut the door against this intruder; out she goes herself; and if she goes empty-handed, slie is no true Christian, or, at least, will not be looked upon as such by the charitable friend at whose house
■ she meets the longing soul, dying partly with love and partly with
Jiunger. -
ALSO, JUST PUBLISHED, THlE
LIFE OF W. COBBETT, Esq.
M. P. FOR OLDHAM, WRITTEN BYHIMSELF.
THE SEVENTH EDITION, Price Two Pence.
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TO THE PUBLIC.
This work will be completed in about twelve or fourteen numbers, and will contain a selection of the various fine passages which abound in the voluminous productions of this nervous and original Avriter.
With the last number of this work, a preface, title page, appendix, index, and a fine portrait of Mr. Cobbett will be published — thus rendering this pub- lication a complete treasure house of those excellent and rich gems which are scattered through the works of the finest writer which this country has produced.
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31
DUTY OF A WIFE.
But the wife may not be ahle to do all the work to be done in the house. Not ahle! A yoiino: w»)man not able to cook and wasli, and niend and make, and clean the house and make the bed for one young man and herself, and that youu? man her husband too, who is quite willing ^^if he be worth a straw) to put up with cold dinner, or with a crust; to get up and light her fire ; to do any thing that the mind can suggest to spare her labour, and to conduce to her convenience! Not able to do this i Then, if she brought no fortune, and he Imd none, she ought not to have been ahle to i/iarn/ : and, let me tell you, young man, a srnall fortune would not put a servant-keeping wif© upon an equality with one who required uo such inmate.
A KIND HUSBAND.
This was the way that we began the married life: and surely, that which we did with pleasure no young couple, unendowed with fortune, ought to be ashamed to do. But she may be ///; the time may be near at hand, or may have actually arrived, when she must encounter tluit particular j)ain and danger of which i/on have been, the happy cause! Oh ! that is quite another matter! And if you now exceed in care, in watchingsover her, in tender attention to all her wishes, in anxious efforts to quiet her fears; if you exceed in pains and expense to procure her relief and secure her life; if you, in any of these, exceed that which I would recommend, you must be romantic indeed ! She deserves them all, and more than all, ten thousand times told. And now it is that you feel the blessing con- ferred by her economy. That heap of money, which might have been squandered on, or by, or in consequence of, an useless servant, you now have in hand whereM'ith to procure an abundance of that skill and that attendance of which she stands in absolute need; and she, when restored to you in smiling health, has the just pride to reflect, that she may have owed her life and your happiness to the effects of her industry.
AGAINST DRINKING IN PUBLIC HOUSES.
Drinking clubs, smoking clubs, singing clubs, clubs of odd-fel- lows, whist clubs, sotting clubs: these are inexcusable, they are censurable, they are at once foolish and wicked, even in single men; what must they be, then, in hushunds ; and how an^ they to answer, not only to their wives, but to their cliildrcn, for tliis j)rofligate abandonment of their homes ; this ))reach of their solemn vow made to the former, this evil exam))le to the latter?
Innumerable are the miseries that spring from this cause. The expense is, in the first place, very consideraldc. I much question whether, amongst tradesmen, a shilHn<r a night pays the average score ; and that, too, for that which is really worth nothing at all, and canuBt, even by possibility, be attended with any one single ad-
32
Taiitaoe, however gniall. Fifteen pounds a year thus throMu away, would amount, in the course of a tradesman's life, to a decent for- tune for a child. Then there is the injury to health from these night adventwres ; there are the yw^JTe/s ; there is the vicious hahit of loose and filthv talk; there are the slanders and the backhitings ; there are the admiration of contemptihle wit, and there the scoffings at all that is sober and serious.
PUNCTUALITY WITn A M'IFE.
If men have appointments with lords, they never dream of break- ing them : and 1 can assure them that wives are as sensitive in this respect as lords. I had seen many instances of conjugal unhappiness arising out of that carelessness which left wives in a state of uncer- tainty as to the movements of their husbands; and 1 took care, from"the very outset, to guard against it. For no man has a right to sport M ith the feelings of any innocent person Avhatever, arid particularly with those of one who has committed her happiness to his hands. ' The truth is, that men in general look upon women as having no feelings different from their om n ; and they know that they themselves would regard such disappointments as nothing. But this is a great mistake: women feel more acutely than men; their love is more ardent, more pure, more lasting, and they are more frank and sincere in the utterance of their feelings. They ought to be treated with due consideration 1 ad for all their amia- ble qualities and all their wpaknessee, and nulhing by which their minds are aiiectcil ought to be deemed a trifle.
MATERNAL AFFECTION.
When we consider what a young woman gives up on her M'edding day ; she makes a surrender, an absolute surrender, of her liberty, for the joint lives of the parties; she gives the husband the abso- lute risiit of causing her to live in Mhat place, and in Avhat manner and M-hat society, he pleases ; she gives him the power to take from her, and to use,'for his own purposes, all her goods, unless reserved by some legal instrument ; and, above all, she surrenders to him her person. Then, when we consider the pains which they endure ifor us, and the large share of all the anxious pr.rental cares that fall to their lot; when we consider their devotion to us, and how unshaken their affection remains in our ailments, even though the most tedious and disgusting ; when we consider the offices that they perform, and cheerfully perform, for us, when, Mere we left to one another, we should perish from neglect ; when we consider their devotion to their children, how evidently they love them bet- ter, in numerous instances, than their own lives ; when we consider these thinffs, how can a just man think any thing a trifle that af- fects their happiness? I was once a-oins:, in my gig, up the hill, In the village of Frankford, near Philadelphia, when a little girl,
33
about two years old, who had toddled away from a small house, Mas lying baskius in the sun, in the middle of the road. About two hundred yards before I got to the child, the teams, five bi^ horses in each, of three watrons, the drivers of which had stnjipcd to drink at a tavern on the brow of the hill, started off, and came, nearly abreast, galloping down the road. I got my gig off the road as speedily as 1 could ; but expected to see the poor child crushed to pieces. A young man, a journeyman carpenter, who was shingling a shed by the side of the rovd, seeing tiie child, and seeing the danger, though a stranger to the parents, jumped from the top of the shed, ran into the road, and snatched up tlu' chil-i, from scarcely an inch before the hoof of the leading horse. The horse"s leg knocked him down ; but he, catching the child by its clothes, flung it back, out of the way of the other horses, and saved himself by rolling back M-ith surprising agility. The mother of the child, who had, apparently, been washing, seeing the teams coming, and seeing the situation of the child, rushed out, and catching up the child, just as the carpenter had flung it back, and hugging it in her arms, uttere 1 a shriek such as I never heard before, never heard since, and, I hope, shall never hear again ; and then she dropped down, as if perfectly dead! By the application of the usual means, she was restored, however, in a little while; and I, being about to depart, asked the carpenter if he were a married man, and whether he were a relation of the parents of the child. He said he was nei- ther: '• Well, then," said I, " you merit the gratitude of every father and mother in the world, and I will show mine, by giving you what I have,"' pulling out the nine or ten dollars that I had in my pocket. " No ; I thank you, Sir," said he: " I have only done what it was my duty to do."
Bravery, disinterestedness, and maternal affection surpassing these, it is impossible to imagine. The mother was going right in amongst the feet of these powerful and wild horses, and amongst the wheels of the wagons. She had no thought for herself; no feel- ing of fear for her own life ; her shneks was the sound of inexpres- sible joy; joy too great for her to support herself under. I'erhaf»» ninety-nine mothers out of every hundred would have acted tlie same part, under similar circumstances. There are, comparatively, very few women not replete with maternal love ; and, by-the-by, take you care, if you meet with a girl who "/.v not ftmd of chihlreii^' not to marry her hi/ any means. Some few there are who even make a boast that they " cannot bear children," that is, cannot endure them. I never knew a man that was good for much who had a dis- like to little children; and I never knew a woman of that taste who was good for any thing at all. I have seen a few suck in the course of my life, and I have never wished to see one of them a second time.
BROKEN PROMISES.
But when promises have been made to a young woman; when they have been relied on for any considerable time; when it is ma- uifest that her peivce and happiness, and, perhaps, her life, depend
m
»f|)on their fulfilment; when thinfjs haveWcn rarried tothis lenjrth, the chanije in the lover oiio:lit to be announced in the manner niostlike- ly to make the disappointment as supportable as the case will admit oi; for, thoughit is better to break the promise than to marry one while you like another better; though it is better for both parties, you have no right to break the heart of her, Avho has, and that, too, tvith your accordanre, and, indeed, at your instigation, or, at least, by your encouragement, confided it to your fidelity. Yon cannot help your change of affections ; but you can help making the transfer In such a way as to cause the destruction, or even probable destruc- tion, nay, if if it were hut the deep misery, of her, to gain whose heart you had pledged your own. You ought to proceed by slow degrees; you ought to call time to your aid, in executing the paiiv fnl task; you ought scrupulously to aroid every thing calculated to aggravate the sufferings of the disconsolate party.
A striking, a monstrous instance of the conduct contrary of this has recently been placed upon the melancholy records of the Coroner of Middlesex; which have informed an indignant public, that a young man having first secured the affections of a virtuous young woman, next promised her marriage, then caused the banns to be publ'shed, and the very day appointed for the perfonnance of the ceremony, married another woman, in the same church; and this, too, without, as he avowed, any provocation, and without th«smallest intimation or hint of his intention to the dissappointed party, who, tmable to support existence under a blow so cruel, put an end to that existence by the most deadly and the swiftest poison.
SOTTISH HUSBANI>S.
When left to ourselves we all seek the company that we like best ; the company in v»'hich we take viost delight: and therefore every husband, be his state of life what it may, who spends his leisure time, or who, at least, is the habit of doing it, in company other than that of his wife and family, tells her and them, as plainly by deeds as he could possibly do by words, that he takes more delhjht in nther conipam/ than in theirs. Children repay this '.vith disregard for their father; but to a wife of any sensibility, it is either a dagger to her heart or an incitement to revenge, and revenge, too, of a Species with which a young woman will seldom be long in want of the means to gratify. In conclusion of these remarks respecting rfhsentee husbands, I would recommend all those who are prone to, or likely to fall into, the practice, to remember the words of Mrs, Sullen, in the Beaux Stratagem: "My husband," says she, ad- dressing a footman M'hom she had taken as a paramour, "comes reeling home at midnight, tumbles in beside me as a salmon flounces in a net, oversets the economy of my bed, belches the fumes of his drink in my face, then twists himself round, leaving me half naked, and listening till mornine: to that tuneful nightingale, his nose." It is at least fjrty-three years since I read the Beaux Stratagem,
-and 1 now quote from iiieiuory ; but die pasfia?r«ha8 always prciiri-fxl to mc whenever 1 have seen" a sottish hiisliund: and tlimi h tliat species of rerenj^e; for tie takiuir of whidi the lady hkuIc this apo- lo^T, was earryim,^ the thino- too far, yet I am reaily to confess, that if I had to sit in jiidjiiieiit on her for taking- t-uh revt'n<ie. niv sen- tence would be very lenient; for what rij;ht has such a hiishaud to trs])v^etJfUeUh/? He has broken his V(»w ; and bvwhat rule of rijiht lias «he to be bound to hers i She thoui;ht thiit she was niarrvTng a man ; and «he finds that she was married to a be;ust. He has, in- deed, comniitTed no offence that ffic /aw nf the laud can reach; but he has violated the vow by which he obtained possesion of her per- Kon ; and, in the eye of justice, the compact between them is dis- •solved.
I-OVB TO CHILDREN.
It IS aji old saying, '" Praise the child, and yon make love to the mother;" and it is surprising how far this w ill go. To a fond mother you can do nothing so pleasing as to praise the baby, and, tlie yoiiuger it is, the more she values the compliment. Say fine things to her, and take no notice of her baby, an<i she will despise you. I have often beheld this, in many women, with great admira- tion; and it is a thing thst no husltand ought to overlook ; for if the wife wish her child to he admired by others, what must be the ardour of her wishes with regard to his admiration. Tiiere was a drunken dog of a Norfolk man in our regiment, who cinie from Thetford, I recollect, who used to say, that his wife would forgive him for spending all the pay, and the washing money into the bar- gjain, " if he would but kiss her ugly brat, and say it was preltv." Now, though this was a very profligate fellow, he had philosn])hi/ in him; and certain it is, that there is nothing worthy of the name of conjugal happiness, unless the husband dearly evince that he is fond of his children, and that, too, from their very birth.
DOMESTIC UNHAPPINESS.
Of the remedies in the case of rea'hi had w'lrfs, squan lerers, drunk- ards, adultresses, I shall speak further on ; it being the habit of us all to put oft' to the last possible moment the performance of disr agreeable duties. But, far short of these vices, there are sevcnUj faults in a wife that may. if not cured in time, le.id to great unhap- ness, great injury to the interests as well as character of her hu.s- baml and children ; and v/hich faults it is, therefore, the husband's duty to correct. A wife may be chaste, sober in the full sense of the word, industrious, cleanly, frugal, and may be devoted to her liusband and her children to a decree so enchanting as to make them all love her beyond the power of words to express. And jet she may, partly under the influence of her natural disposition, and partly encouraged by the great and constant homaje paid to lier virtues, and presiiming, too, on the piin with which ^he kuuus het:
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will Avould Ik- tli^,var!.Ml ; slip may, %vuh all her virtues, be thus led to abohlintei'fri'tuvc in tfit (tjfhirs of fni' husband ; iii.-vy attempt to dic- tate to him in matters quite out of her own sphere; and, in the pursuit of the gratification of her love of power and command, niay wholly overlook the acts of fcdiy or injustice which she would induce her hushand to contmil, and o\erlook, too, the contemptible thing that she is making the man whom it is her duty to honour and obey, and the abasement of whom cannot take place m ithout some portion of degradation falling upon herself. At the time when "TIIKISOOK" came out, reiatixe to the late ill-treated Queen Caroline, 1 was talking upon the subject, one day, with a parson^ who had not read the Hook, but who, as was the fashion xx ith all those Mho were looking up to the government, condemned the Queen unheard. '"Now," said 1, ''be not so shamefully unjust ; but ^e^ the book, read it. and then give your judgment." — '•• Indeed," said his wife, who was sitting hy, "but HE SH'AN'T," pronouncing the words shu lit with an eiiiphasis and a voice tremendously mascu- line. " Oh!" said I, --if he SHA" N"T, that is another matter; but, if he sha' n't read, if he sha" n't hear the evidence, he sha'n't be looked !ipon, by me, as a just judge ; and I sha' n't regard him, in future, as having any opinion of hi.i o\\ n in any thing." All which the husband, the poor hen-pecked thing, heard Arithout a word escaping his lips.
A husband" .'j SUPERIORITY,
Women are a sisterhood, 'i'hey make commou cause in behalf of the ACA' ; and, indeed, this is natural enough, when we consider the vast power that the lav: gives us over them. ''J'he law is for us, and thev combine, wherever they can, to mitigate its effects. 'J'his is perfectly natural, and, to a certain extent, laudable, evincing fellow- ieeling and public spirit : but when carried to tlie length of " he sha" lit," it is despotism on the one side and slavery on the other. iV'atch, tliercfore, the incipient steps of encroachment ; and they cimie on so slowlv, so softly, that you must be sharp-sighted if you perceive them; but tlie moment you do perceive them: your love will blind vou for too long a time ; but the moment you do perceive them, put "at once an eflectiial stop to their progress. Never mind the pain that it may give you : a day of pain at this time will spare you years of pain in time to come. Many a man has been miserable, and made his w ife miserable too, for a score or two of years, only for want of reso- lution to bear one day of pain : and it is a great deal to bear ; it is a great deal to do to thwart the desire of one whou) you so dearly love, and whose virtues daily render her more and more dear to you. But (and this is one of the most admirable of the mother's traits) as she herself will, while the tears stream from her eyes, force the nauseous medicine down the throat of her child, whose every cry is a dagger to her lieart ; as she herself has the courage to do this for the sake of her child, why should you flinch from the performance of a still more important and more sacred duty towards herself, as well as towards vou and vour children?
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AUTHORITY OF HUSBAND AND AVIFE.
*< A house divided against itself," or, rather, in ilself, *• cannot stand ;" and it is divided against itself if tliere he a Uiuided aul/iorift/. The wife ought to be /ward, and jnilitn/fy heard ; she ought to be re.isoned with, and, if possible, convinced ; but if, after all endeavours in tliis wav, she remain opposed to the husband's opinion, his will must be obeved ; or he, at once, becomes nothing ; she is, in fact, the master, and he is nothing but an insignificant inmate. As to matters of little comparative moment; as to what shall be for dinner; as to how the house shall be furnished; as to the management of the house and of menial servants : as to tliose matters, and many others, the wife may have her way without any danger; but when the questions are, what is to be the calling to be pursued ; what is to bi; the place of residence ; wh-At is to be the style of living and scale of expence; what is to be done with property : what tiie manner and place of educating children ; what is to be their calling or state of life ; who are to be em|)loyed or entrusted by the husband ; what are the prin- ciples that he is to adopt as to public matters ; whom he is to have for coadjutors or friends ; all these nmst be left sidely to the husband ; in all these he must have his will ; or therejiever can be any harmony in the family.
;[ PREVENTION OF JEALOUSY IN A WIFE.
One thing every husband can do in tlic way of prevention : and that is, to give no ground for it. And here, it is not sufficient that he strictly adhere to his marriage vow; he ought further to abstain from every art. however froe from guilt, calculated to awaken the slightest degree of suspicion in a miu'l, the peace of which he is hound by every tie of justice and liumanity not to disturb, or, if he can avoid it, to suffer it to be disturbed by others. A woman that is very fond of jher husband, 'and this is the case with nine-tenths of English and American women, does not like to share with another any, even the smallest portion, not only of his affection, but of his assi- duities and applause : and, as the bestowing of them on another, and receiving pavmenl in kind, ran serve no purpose other than of grati- fying one's vanity, they ought to be abstained from, and especially if the gratification he to be purchased with even the chance of exciting uneasiness in her, whom il is your sacred duty to make as happy a>^ you can.
For about two or three years after I m as married, I. retaining some of my military manners, used, both in France and America, to romp most famously with the girls that came in my way ; till one day, a\ Fhiladel[(hia,'my wile said to me, in a very gentle manner, " Pon> do that; I do not liki; it." 'I'iiat was quite enough: I had nevt-r thought on the subject before ; one hair of her head was more dear to me than all the other women in the worbl, and this I knew that she knew ; but i now saw that this was not all that she had a right tp
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from nip ; T saw, tliat site liad the furtlier claim upon me tliat I should abstain from every tliiiifj that might iiidiiee others \o !)elie\e that there was any otlier woman for wliom, oven if I were at iiljorty, I had any affection. I hcseech young married men to. hour this is mind; fur, on SOUK! trifle of this sort, tlie happiness or itiiserv of a loner Ijte fre- quently turns. If the mind of a wile he disturl)ed on this score, every possible means ought to be used to restore it to peace ; and though her sus|)icions be perfectly groundless; though they he wild as the dreams of madmen ; tliongh they may present a ini.xture of the furious and the ridiculous, still they arc to be treated with the greatest lenity and tenderness ; and if, after all, you fail, the frailty is to he lamented as a misfortune^ and not punished as a fault, seeing that it must hawfti its foundalion in a feeling towards you, which it would be the basest of ingratitude, and the most ferocious of cruelty, to repay by hnrsk- aess of any description.
CONDUCT TO A WIFE.
The truth is, tluit the greatest securitv of all agaiH<4 jealousy in a vvife is to show, to prone, bv yewr aets, by your words also, but n;ior&- f'speciallv by your «(?/,v, that you prefer her to all the world ; and, as 1 said bef'jre, 1 K-now of no act that is, in this respeet, equal to spending^ in her coinpanv every moMient of vour leisure time. Every body knows, and young wives better tlian any body else, that people, who can chorfse, will be where l/iei/ li'/ie best to he, and that they will be airti'ili' with tlrose ^"/lose campionii tfan/ Inst lika, I'he matter is very plain, (heu, and i d-o heseeck yuu to be;ir it in nainil. Nor do 1 see the u.'^gr, or sense, of keeping a great dietil ol cmnpttm^, aa'. it i« called. Wiiat otnpanv c;m a vuiino- nutn and «iMfn:in w»nt more than their two selves, and their cinldiien, if th«y liu\ e any ? If ht're be iKit com- patiy enough, it is but a sad affair, 'i'lie pernicious tww^ are brought fortli by th« coi«panv-keeping, tiie rival expenses, the si>ttings up l»6e at nio-ht, the seeing of " the liidk-s h(fn>->;,'' and u trhousaud squabbler :;<nd disagieeab'e conseq«ene2s. But, tii*' great thing of all is, that this hamki'ritig after c^rtMipaHV, pro'ves, cteaidy f)ro-ves, tUa<t you ^traKf s^metkiHg bet/ond the sfiein-t^ of ymtr v^fe ; aci'd that &he is s:itre to feci most acutely: the bare fact contains hh imputation against lier, and it is p-rcttysini-e to lay l!'i<? fctimlaitio-n o"!" jcy.kmsy, or t>f i-oiiiething stiH worse.
KINDNESS DURING ILLNESS.
When men are ill, fliey feel every neglect with double angtiisli, and H'hat then must be in such cases thfi feelings of women, whose ord in arj-^ j'eelrnijs are so mucli more acute than tJiose of tr>en ; wh;»t must be their feeliFfgs in case of neglect in ilfness, and especially if the neglect come from tlu: hrixhund! Your own heart will, I hope, tell you wiiat those feelings must be, and wiil spare me the vain attempt to des<;ribe them ; and, if it do thus instruct you, yon will want no argument* f j'oni me__ \o induce you, at such a season, to prove the sincerity cd
3^
your jiffectioii by every kind word and kiinl act tlwtt your iniiid can sugg;est. This is tlie time to try you , atil, be you assured, tli.it th<; iiupiession left on her mind now will l)e tlie true ;uid /asflii<j; im|)re«- gion ; and, if it be good, will be a better preservative iigaiiist lier iieiug jealous, than ten thousand of your [o-oiessions leu thousand times repeated. In vSticli a case, you ought to spare no expense that you can possibly aflford ; von on<;litto ncgkct nuthing that your nieiuis will enable vou to do ; for, wiiat is the use of money if it be not to be ex- pended in this case ? Ihit, more than all the rest, is your own perswial attention. This is the valuable thing; this is the great balm to the sufftirer, and, it is efficacious in proportinn as it is jn-oved to be sincere. Jjcave nothing to other hands tiiat you can do vourself; the iniuil has a great deal to do in all the ailments of the body, and, bear in mind, that, whatever be the event, you have a more than ample reward. I cannot press this poii^t tuo strongly upon you; the i)t'd of sickness presents no charms, no allurements, and women kn(»w this «ell ; ihttj' watch, in such a case, your every word and every look ; and now it is tliiit their confidence is secured, or their suspicions excited for life. ^
INFIDELITV IX A HUSBAND. i,
F To be snre, infidelity in a man is less heinous than infidelity in the wife; but still, is the niarriatje vow nothing? Is a promise si.lemnly made betore God, and in the face of tlw world, nothing? Is a vitt^ latiou of a contract, and that, too, with a feebler party, nothing id which a man ought to he ashametl i Jiut, besides all these, there is tine eriitUy. First, you win, by great pains, jierhaps, a woiiums aflfee- tions ; then, in order to get pcvssession of her person, you ina;iry her; then, after enjoyment, you break your vow, you bring upon her tlie mixed pitv and jeers of the world, and thus you leave her to weep ou t her life. Murder is more horrible than this, to be snre, and the criminal law, which punishes divers other criiiuis, does not reach this; jMit in the eye of reason and of iu<;ral justice, it is surpassed by very few of those crimes. I'uss'unt may be pleaded, and so it may, for almost every other crime of which iiiaii can beguiltv. It is not a crime (tguinst tialm'e ; nor are any of these which men commit in conse- quence of their necessities. /"/«:■ leinptutioa i^ grtut ; and is not the temptation great whi.ii men thieve or rob I In short, there is no excuee f)W an aet so unjust and so cruel, aiwi the world is just as to this JOJattcr; for, I liave always observed, that, however men are disposed id laugh at tiiese bre;t<:ii'is of vows in men, the iu-t seldom fails to produce i'Jury to the whole cljiiracier; it leaves, after all the joking, B stain, and, amongst tho.>e « ho depend on charactei- for a livelihood, it often produces ruin. At the very leai-t, it makes an unhappy and wrangling family ; it makes children despise or hale their fathers, ana. it atiords an example at the thougiit tif the ultimate conseipiences of whidi a father ought to shudder. In such a case, children will take part, and they ought to take part wiili the mother: she is the injured party; the sliame brougiit upon her allaches, in part, to them ; they
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feel the injustice done tliem ; and, if such a man, when the grey hairs and tottering knees, and pipitig voice come, look round liini in vain for a prop, let him, at last, he just, and acknowledge that he has now the due reward of his own wanton cruelty to one MJioni he liad solemnly sworn to love and to clierish to the last hour of his or iier life.
THE PURITV OF WOaiEN.
The widows of the Hindoos burn themselves in the pile that con- sumes tlicir liiishands ; but tlie Hindoo u-idmcers do not dispose of themselves in this way. 'J'he widows devote their bodies to complete destruction, lest, even after the death of their husbands, they sliould be tem])ted to connect tliemsclves witli other men ; and tliougli this is carrying delicacy far indeed, it reads to Christian wives a lesson not unworthy of their attention ; for, though it is not desirable that their bodies should be turned into handfuls of ashes, even that transnuitation were preferable to that infiiJelity which fixes the brand of shame on the cheeks of their parents, their children, and on those of all who ever called them friend,
A bachelor's life,
Tiie cares and IrovUes of tlie married life are many ; but, are those i»f the single life itw I Take the y«>H/«T, and it is nearly the same M-ith the tradesman ; but, take tlie farmer for instance, and let him, at the age of twenty-five, go into business unmarried. See his maid servants, probably rivals for his smiles, but certainly rivals in the charitable distribution of his victuals and drink amongst those of their own rank; hehold llicir guardianship of his pork-tub, his bacon-rack, his butter, cheese, milk, poultry, eggs, and all the rest of it: look at their care of all his household stuff, his blankets, sheets, pillow-cases, fowels, knives and forks, and ])articularly of his crockery ware, of which last they will hardly exceed a single cart-loail of broken bits ill the year. And, how nicely tliey will get up and take care of his linen and other wearing-apparel, and always have it ready for him without his thinking about it! If absent at market, or especially at a distant fair, how scrupulously they will keep all their cronies out of his house, and what special care they will take of his cellar, more par- ticularly that which holds the strong beer! And his groceries, and his spirits, and his ?«/«« (for a bachelor can afford it), how safe these will all be! Jiaclielors have not, indeed, any niore than married men a security for health \ but if our young farmer be sick, there are his fouple of maids to take care of him, to administer his medicine, and to j)erform for him all other nameless offices, which in such a case are required ; and what is more, take care of every thing down stairs at the same time, especially his desk with the money in it ; Never will they, good-humoured girls as they are, scold him for coming home too late ; but, on the contrary, like him the better for it; and if he tjave drunk a little too much, so nnich the better, for then he will
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sleep late in the mrrning, and wlien he comes out at last, he will find that his men have \ ;;en ao /tun/ at work, and that all his animals have teen taken sucli good care of!
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF A MARRIED AND SINGLE LIPE. '
Besides, is the money all? Wiiat a life to lead! No one to talk to without going from lionie, or withimt getting some; one to come to you; no friend to sit and talk to: pleasant evenings to pass! No- tody to share witli you your sorrows or your pieiisures: no soul having a common interest with you: all around yon taking care of themselves, and no care of you: no one to cheer you in moments of depression : to say all in a word, no one to lore you, and no prospect of ever seeing any such one to the end of your days. For as to p<irents and brethren, if vou h;ive them, they liave other and very dif- ferent ties ; and, however laiidalde your feelings as son and brother, those feelings are of a different character. 'I'lien as to gratifications, from which you will iiardiv abstain altogether, are they generallv of lettle expense? and are they attended with no trouble, no vexation, no disappointment, no jealousy even, and are they never followed by shame or remorse I
SECOND MARRIAGES.
There is seldom an apology to be offered for a mother that will hazard tlie happiness of Iter children bv a second marriage. The law allows it, to be sure; but there is, as Prior says, "something beyond the letter of the law." I know what ticklish ground I am treading on liere ; but though it is as lawful for a woman to take a second husband as for a man to take a second wife, the cases are different, and widely- different, in the eye of morality and of reason ; for, as adultery in the wife is a greater offence than adultery in the husband ; as it is more gross, as it includes prostitution ; so a second marriage in the aoinan is more gross than in the man, argues great deficiency in that delicacy, that innate modesty, which, after all, is the ^o-reo^ c/iarm, the charm of charms, in the female sex. I do not li/cc to hear a man ta//: of hiy Jirst P'lfe, especially in the presence of a second ; but to hear a woman thus tul/c of her Jirst /lusband, has never, liowever beautiful and good she might be, failed to sink her in my estimation. I have, in such cases, never been able to keep out of my mind, that conculcnation of ideas, which, in spite of custom, in spite of the frequency of the oc- currence, leave an impression dei'ply disadvantageous to the party ; for after the greatest of ingenuity has exhausted itself in the way of apology, it comes to this at last, that the person has a second timi undergone that surrender, to which nothing but tlie most ardent affec- tion, could ever reconcile a chaste and delicate woman.
A BAD HUSBAND.
In the making one's choice, no human foresight or prudence ran, in ^ill cases, guard against an unhappy result. There is one sptcieb of
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tiisbaixls to 1)6 occasionally met with in all countries, meriting: par- ticular reprobation, and causing us to lament, tiiat there is no law to pnnisli (iffenders so enormous. 'J'licre was a man in l*ensylvania, ap- parently a very amiable young man, having a good estate of his own, and iriarryinga most beautiful woman of liis own age, of rich parents, and of virtue perfectly sputless. He very soon took to both gioning iftnd di'infiiiio- (the last being tlie most fashionable vice of the country) ; he neglected his affairs ami liis family; in about four years spent iiis estate, and became a dependent on his wife's father, together M'ith hig wife and three children. Even tiiis would liave been of little conse- quence, as far as related to expense; but he led the most scandalous life, and was incessant in his demands of money for the purposes of that infamous lite. All sorts of means Merc resorted to to reclaim him, and all in vain; and the wretch, availing himself of the pleading of his wife's affection, and of his jooM-er oi)er the children more especially, continued for ten of twelve years to plunder the parents, and to dis- grace those, whom it was liis bounden duty to assist in making happy. At last, going out in the dark, in a boat, and being partly drunk, lie went to the bottom of the Delaware, and became food for otters or fishes, to the great joy of all who knew him, excepting only his amiable wife. 1 can form an idea of no baseness equal to this. 'J'lierc Ss more of baseness in this character than in that of the robber. 'I'he man who obtains the means of indulging in vice, by robbery, exposes himself to the inflictions of the law ; but though he merits punish- ment, he merits it less then the base miscreant who obtains his means by his threats to disgrace his mvn n-ife, children, and the wife's parents. The short way, in such a case, is the best ; set the wretch at defiance ; resort to the strong arm of the law wherever it will avail you; drive him from your house like a mad dug; for, be assured, that a being so base and cruel is never to be reclaimed : all your efforts at persuasion are useless; his promises and vows are made but to be broken ; all your endeavours to keep the thing from tlie knowledge ot the world, only prolong his plundering of you ; and many a tender father and mother have been ruined bv such endeavours; the whole story must come out at last, and it is better to come out before you be ruined, than after your ruin is completed.
CHILDREN.
" Little children,'' says the Scripture, ' are like arrows in the hands of the giant, and blessed is the man that hath his quiver full of them ;" a beautiful figure to describe, in forcible terms, the support, the power, which a fattier derives from being surrounded by a family. And what father, thus blessed, is there, who does not feel, in this sort of support, a reliance which he feels in no other? In regard to this sort of sup- port there is no uncertainty, no doubts, no misgivings ; it h ynvrself that you see in yinjr children : their bosoms are the safe repository of even the whispers of your mind : they are the great and unspeakable* delight of your youth, the pride of your prime of life, and the props of
43
your old age. Tliev proceed from tliat love, tlie pleavurea of wliich no t»>ne:»ie or pen can aile(;tiate!\ (icscribe, and ilie vai ions blessings U'bicli tliev bring are equally inca]iable of description.
8UCKMNG.
Yonr first dnfy towards tbein is resolutely to prevent tlieir drawing the means of life Jvotn any hreust Out hvrs. 'J'liat is their oun ; it it tlieir hirthriglit ; and if that fail from any natural cause, the place of it ought to he supplied by those means which are frequently resorted to without employing a liirelitig breast. I am aware of the too frequent practice of the contrary ; I am well aware of the tiffence which I shall iiere give to many; but it is for me to my duty, and to set, with regard to niyself, consequences at defiance. In the first place, no food is so congenial to tlie child as the milk of its own mother; its quality is made by nature tu suit the age of the child ; it conns with tlie child, and is calculated precisely for its stt luacli. And, then, what suit of a mother must that be who can endure the thought of seeing her child at another breast ! 'J'he suckling uuiy be attended with great pain, and it is so attended in many cases : but this pain is a necessary consequence of pleasures foregone ; and, besides, it has its accompanying pleasures too. No mother ever suflered more than mjr w ifc did (rtiiu s-uckling her children. How many tinus have I seen her, when the child was beginning to draw, bite her lips while the tears ran down her cheeks! Yet, having endund this, the Muilcs came and dried up the tears; and the little thing that had caused the pain received abundant kisses as its punisliment. Why, now, did I not love her tie more for this ? Did not this tend to rivet her to my heart? She was enduring thisyf^- wc ; and would not this endearing thought have been wanting, if I had seen the bal y at a bicast that 1 had hired nt\d paid for ; if I had had fuo rccmcii, one to bear the child and another to give it milk ? Of all the sights that this world affords, the most delightful in my eves, even to an unconcerned spectator, is, a mother with her clean ami iut baby lugging at her breast, leaving ofl' now-anil-tben and smiling, and she, occasionally, half smoihering it with kisses. What muit that sight be, then, to the father of the child f
LOVE OP CHILnBEN.
Having gotten over these thorny places as quickly as possible, f gladly- come back to the Baeir.s; with regard to whom I shall have no prejudices, no afTcctation, no false |)ri(le, no sham fears to encounter; every heart (e.Krept there be one nuule of flint) being with me here. •'Then were there brought unto him Utile ihiUlrrv, that he should put his bands on them, aiul piav : and the disciples relmked them. But Jesus said, Suffer little children, and forbid them not to come unto me ; for of such is the kiugd(/m of heaven." A figure most forcibly expressive of the character an-'i beauty of innocence, ;ind, 9,% the aanie time, utusjt aptly illustrative of the doctrine of regcneratioa.
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AnJ W'liere is tlje man ; the woman who is not fond of habies is nol worthy the name ; but where is the man who does not feel his heart ^^oftcned ; who does not feel himself become gentler ; who does noi lose all the hardness of his temper ; when, in any way, for any purpose, or by any body, an appeal is made to him in behalf of these so helpless, and so perfectly innocent little creatures ? Tlie man, and especiallv i\\G father, who is not fond of habies ; who does not feel his heart softened when he touches their almost boneless limbs ; when lie •sees their little eyes first begin to discern ; when he hears tlieir tender ;M*cents ; the man whose heart does not beat truly to this test, is, to say the best of him, an object of compassion.
A man's love for his young children.
Let no man imagine that the world will despise him for helping to take care of his own child : thoughtless fools may attempt to ridicule; the unfeeling few may join in the attempt; but all, whose good opinion is worth having, will appla\id his conduct, and will, in many cases, be disposed to repose confidence in him on that very account. To say of a man, that he is fond of his family, is, of itself, to say that, in private life at least, he is a good and trust-worthy man; aye, and In public life too, pretty much ; for it is no easy matter to separate the two characters ; and it is naturally concluded, that he who has been flagrantly wanting in feeling for his own flesh and blood, will not "be very sensitive towards the rest of mankind. There is nothing more winiable, nothing more delightful to behold, than a young man ♦especially taking part in the work of nursing tlie children ; and how "often have I adu)ired this in the labouring men in Hampshire! Ft is, indeed, gencmlli/ the same all over England ; and as to America, it would be deemed brutal for a man not to take his full share of these cares and labours.
DOJIESTIC HAPPINESS OF THE POOR.
One great source of the unhappiness amongst mankind arises, how- ■Tver, from a neglect of these duties; but, as if by way of compensation for their privations, they are much more duly performed by the poor than by the rich. The fashion of the labouring people is this : the husband, when free fron» his toil in the fields, takes his share in the nursing, which he manifestly looks upon as a sort of reward for his labour. However distant from his cottage, his heart is always at that home towards which he is carried at night, by limbs that feel not their weariness, being Hrge<l on by a heart anticipating the welcome of those who attend him there. Those who have, as I so many hundreds of times have, seen the labourers in the woodland parts of Hampshire and Sussex, coming, at night-fall towards their cottage- pickets, laden with fuel for a day or two; whoever has seen three or four little creatures looking out for the fathers approach, running in «;o announce the glad tidings, and then scampering out to meet him, N^linging round his knees, or hanging on iiis skirts; whoever has
45
witnessed scenes like this, to witness which has formed one of the greatest delights of my life, will hesitate long hefore he pretVr a life of ease to a life of lahour ; before he prefer a comniunication with children intercepted by servants and teachers, to that coninmnicatioii which is Iiere direct, and which admits not of any division of aftection. Then comes the Sunday ; and, amongst all those wiio keep no servants, a great deal depends on tlie manner in which the father (employs that dai/. When there are two or three children, or even one child, the first thing after the breakfast (which is late on this day of rest), is to wash and dress the child or childreri. 'J'hen, while the mother is dressing the dinner, the father, being in his Sunday-clothes himself, takes care of the child or children. When dinner is over, the mother puts on her best; and then, all go to church, or if that cannot be, wliether from distance or other cause, all pass the afternoon together. 'J'his used to be the way of life amongst the labouring people ; and from this wav of life arose the most able and the most moral people that the world ever saw. until grinding taxation took from them the means of obtaining a sufficiency of food and of raiment ; plunged the whole, good and bad, into one indiscriminate ma^s, uder the degrading and hateful name of paupers.
FONDNESS OF CHILDREN FOR THEIR PARENTS.
The children of the poorer people are, in general, much fonder of their parents than those of the rich are of theirs : this fondness is reciprocal ; and the cause is, that the children of the former have, from iheir very birth, had a greater share than those «)f the latter — of the personal attention, and of the never-ceasing endearments of their parents.
ENTRUSTING THILDREN TO SERVANTS.
Then they must be had even to assist in taking care of children, let them be assistants in the most strict sense of the word ; let them not he confided in; let children never be left to them alone; and the vounger the child, the more necessary a rijiid adherence to this rule. 1 shall be told, perhaps, by some careless father, or some plav-liaunting mother, that female servants are ivomen, and have the tender feelings of women. Very true; and, in general, as good and kind in their nature as the mother herself. But they are not the mothers of your children, and it is not in nature that they should have the care and unxiety adequate to the necessity of the case. Out of the immediate care and personal superintendance of one or the other of the |>arcnts, or of some trusty relation, no young child ought to he suffered to be, if there be, at whatever sacrifice of case or of property, any possibility of preventing it: because, to insure, if possil)le, the perfect form, the straight limbs, the sound body, and the sane mind of you'" children, is the very first of all your duties. To provide fortunes for them ; to make provision for their future fatne ; to give them the learning Tiecessary to the calling for whicli you destine them: all these may be
46
duties, and the last is a duty ; hut a duty far greater tlian, and prior to, all these, is the duty of neglecting nothing within your power to insnre them a sane mhtd in a sound and undeforiued body. And, good God ! how many are the instances of deformed bodies, of crooked limbs, of idiotcy, or of deplorable imbecility, proceeding solely from young children being l«ft to the care of servants ! One would imagine, that one single sight of this kind to be seen, or beard of, in a whole nation, M'ould be sufficient to deter parents from the practice. And what, then, must those parents feel, who have brought this life-long; sorrowing on themselves ! When once the tiling is doHC, to repent is unavailing. And what is now the worth of all the ease and all the pleasures, to enjoy which the poor sufferer was abandoned to the carp <jf senauts !
NOISE.
Many a score papers have I written amidst the uois« of children, and in my whole lite never bade thenj be still. When they grew up to be big enougli to gallop about tli* houi»e, 1 have, in wet weather, wheo they could not go out, written the whole day amidst noise that would have made some authors liaU niad. It never annoyed me at all. But a Scotch piper, whom an old lady, who lived beside us at Brompton, used to pay to come and play a long tune every day, 1 was obliged to bribe into a breach of contract. That which you are phased tvith, however noisy, does not disturb you. 'J'hat which is indifferent to you has n*)t inore effect, 'i'he rattle of coaches, the clapper of a mill, the fiill of water, leave your mind uiadisturbed. But the sound of titc pipe, awakening the idea of the lazy life of the piper, better paid than tlie lahouriog man, drew the mind aside from its pursuit; and, as it really was a innsance, occasioned by the money of my neighbour, 1 thought myself justified in abating it by the siune sort oi' means. -
THE CHILDREN OF THE P«OR.
Tlie poor niusit use the cradle, at least until they have other chil- dren big enough to hold the, bahy, and to put it to sleep; and it Is truly wonderful at Ik)w early an age they, either girls or bojs, will do this business faithfully and well. You see them in the lajies, and an tlie skirts of woods and commons, lugging a bah}- about, when it sometimes weighs half as much as tlie nurse. I'he poor mother is frequently compelled, ia order to help to get bread for her children, to go to a distance from hoiuc, and leave the group, ba.by and all, to take care of the house and of themselves, the eldest of four or five, not, perhaps, above six or s«ven years old ; and it is quite surprising, that^, considering the nii'ilUuns of instaiwes^in which this is limie in £nglan4t in th« cour&e of a year, so very, very kw accidents or injuries arisj^ from the practice : and not a iumdredth part so many as arise in the comparatively few instances in which childreti are left to the care of servants. In stiiuuier time you see these little groups rolling about u|> the greeii, or amtuigst the iteatli, nut far fram the cottage, and at a
47
mile, perliaps, from any other dwelliti?, tlie dog tlieir only protector. Anil M'iiat fine and straiglit anil healtliy and fearless and acute
{lersotg they become! It used to be remarked in Philadflpbia, when I ived there, that tliere waa not a single man of any eminence, whether doctor, lawyer, merchant, trader, or any thing else, that had nut heea born and bred in the country, ami of parents in a low state of life. Examine London, and you will find it much about the same. From Urn very childhood they are from necessity entrusted with the care of somethhig vuluiMc. 'I'hev practically learn to think, and to calculate as to consequences. Thev are thus taught to remember things; and it is quite surprising what memories they have, and how scrupulously a little carter-bov will deliver half-a-dozen messages, each of a different purport from the rest, to as manv persons, all the messages committed to him at one and the same tinu*, and he not knowing one letter of the alphabet from another. VViien I want to remember something, and am out in the field, and cannot write it down, I say to one of tlie men, or hoys, come to me at sudi a timo. and tell me so and so. He is sure to do it ; and I tiierefore look npon the memorandum as written down. One of these children, boy or girl, is innch more worthy of bein^ entrusted with the care of a baby, any body's baby, than a servant- maid with curled locks and with eyes rolling about for admirers. The locks and the rolling eyes, verv nice, and, for aught I know, very proper things in themselves; but incompatible with the care of your baby. Ma'am; her mind being absorbed in contemplating the interest- ing circumstances which are to precede her baring a sweet biiby of her own; and a sweeter than yours, if you please. Ma'am; or, at least, such will be her anticipations. And this is all right enough; it is natural that she should think and feel thus; and knowing tiiis, you are admonished that it is your bounden duty not to de.legate this Bacred trust to any body.
FOOT) POR CHILDREX.
The first thing, in the rearing of children, who have passed from the baby-state, is, as to the body, plenty of good food ; and, as to the mind, constant good example in the parents. Of the latter I shall Cpeak more by-and by. With regard to the former, it is of the greatest importance, that children be well fed ; and there never was a greater error than to believe that they do not need good food. Every one knows, that tt» have fine horses, the colls nnist be kept Well, and that it is the same with regard to all animals of every sort and kind. 'I'he fine horses and cattle and sheep all come from the rich pastures. 'I'o have tiiem fine, it is not sufficient that they have plenty nf food when young, but that they nave rich food. Were there no liuid, no pasture, in Kngland, but such as is found in Middlesex, Esseex, and Surrey, we should sec none of those coach- Horses and dray-horses, whose height and size make us stare. It is the keep when young that makes the fine animal.
There is no other reason for the people in the American States
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being generally so much taller and stronger than the people in Eng- land are. Their foretatliers went, for tlie greater part, from England. In tlie four Northern States they went wholly from England, and thenj on their landing, they founded a new London, a new Falmouth, a new Plymouth, a new Portsmouth, a new Dover, a new Yarmouth, a new Lynn, a new Boston, and anew Hull, and the country itself they called, and their descendants still call. New England, 'rjiis country of the best and boldest seamen, and of the most moral and iiappy people in the world, is also the country of tlie tallest and ablest-bodied men in the world. And M'hy ? Because, from their very birth, they have an abundance of good food ; not only of food, but oU'kh food. Even when the child is at the breast, a strip of berf-stealc, or some- thing of that description, as big and as long as one's finger, is put into its band. When a baby gets a thing in its hand, the'first thing it does is to poke some part of it into its mouth. It cannot hite the meat, but its gums squeeze out the juice. When it lias done with the breast, it eats meat constantly twice, if not thrice a day. And this abundance of good food is tlie cause, to he sure, of the superior size and strength of the people of that countrv.
rADVANTAGES OF A TALL BIAN.
I' A tall man is, whether as labourer, carpenter, bricklayer, soldier or sailor, or almost anything else, ivortli more than a short man : he can look over a higher thing; he can reach liigher and wider; he can move on from place to place faster ; in mowing grass or corn he takes a wi<ler swarth, in pitching he wants a shorter prong ; in making buildings he does not so soon want a ladder or a scaftold ; in tighting he keeps his body farther from the point of his sword, 'I'o be sure, a man mmj be tail and weak: but, this is the exception and noi the rale : height and weight and strength, in men as in speechless animals, generally go together. Aye, and in enterprise and courage too, the powers of the body have a great deal to do. Doubtless there are, have been, and always will be, great numbers of small and enter- prizing and brave men ; but it is not in vattire, that generally :<peafcing, those who are conscious of their inferiority in" point of bodily strength, should possess the boldness of those who have a contrary description.
; To what but this difference in the size and strength of the opposing combatants are we to ascribe the ever-to-be-blushed-at events of our last war against the United States ! The hearts of our seamen and soldiers were as good as those of the Yankees : on both sides they had sprung from the same stock: on both sides eqjially well supplied with all the materials of war : if on either side, the superior skill was on ours: French, Dutch, Spaniards, all had confessed our superior prowess : yet, when, with our whole undivided strength, and to that strength adding the flush and pride of victory and conquest, crowned even in the capital of France; when, with all these tremendous advan- tages, and with all the nations of the earth looking on, we came foot
49
fo foot and yard-arm to yard-arm witli the Americans, the result was such as an Ivnglisli pen refuses to describe. Wliat, then, was the great catixe of tins result, wiiicli filled ua witli shame and tlie world with astonisiiment ? Not the want of courage in our men. 'I'here were, indeed, some moral causts at work; but the main cause was, the great siiperiorty of size and of bodily strength on the part of the enemvs soldiers and >.ailors. It was so many men on eacii side; but it was men of a different size and strength ; and, on the side of the foe men accustomed to daring enterprise from a consciousness of that strength.
Wiiv are abstinence and fasting enjoined by the Catholic Cliurch? Whv, to make men hu)n/jle,meek-, and turn-;; and they have this effect too ; this is visible in whole nations as well as in individuals. Sn that good food, and plenty (d it, if not more necessary to the forming of a stout and able body than to the forming of an active and enterj)rising gpirit. Poor food, short allowance, while they clieck tiie growth of the child's bodv, check also the daring of the mind ; and therefore, the starving or pinching system ought to be avoided by all means. Children should eat often, and as much as they like at a time. They will, if at full heap, never take, uf plain fond, more than it is good for them to take They may, indeed, be stuffed with cakes and sweet i/ii/igs till they be ill, and, indeed, until they bring on dangerous dis- orders: but, ai meat plainly and ivcU cooked, and of bread, tiiey will never swallow the tenth part of an ounce more than it is necessary for them to swallow. Ripe fruit, or cooked fruit, if no sweetening take place, will never hurt them ; but, when they once get a taste for sugary stuff, and to cram down Lads of garden vegetables; when ices, creams, tarts, raisins, almonds, all the endless pamperings come, the doctor must soon follow Mith his drugs. 'J'he blowing out of the bodies of cliildren with tea, coffee, soup, or warm li- quids of any kind, is very bad; tliese have an effect precisely like that wliich is produced by feeding voung rabbits, or pigs, or other voung animals upon watery vegetables : it makes them big-bellied Hnd bare-boned at the same time; and it effectually prevents the frame from becoming strong. Cliildren in health Mant no drink 4)ther than skim milk, or butter-milk, or whey ; and, if none of those be at hand, water will do very well, provided they have plenty of good meat. Cheese and butter do very well for part of the day. Puddings and pies ; but always without sugar, which, say what people will about the iv/iolsomcness of it, is not only of no use in the rearing of children, but injurious; it forces an appetite: like strong drink, it makes daily encroachments on the taste: it wheedles down that which the stomach does not want : it finally produces illness; it is one of the curses of the country ; for it, by taking off the bitter (d" the tea and coffee, is the great cause of sending down into the stomach those quantities of warm water by wliich the body is debilitated and deformed and the mind enfeebled. 1 am addressing myself to persons iu the middle walk of life; but no parent can be sure that his child will liot be compelled to labour hard for its daily bread; and then, how
Tast is tlie difffrence between one wlio has been pampered " itli sweets and one « lio lias Ijeen reared on plain fooJ and simple drink !
GOOD AIR.
It is the duty of parents to provide, if possible, against this danger to the health of tlieir oifspring. 'J'o he sure, wlicn a man is ro situated tliat he cannot give Iiis cliildren sweet air without p\itiitig hiniselt into a jail for debt; when, in short, lie has the dire choice of sickly chil- dren, children with big heads, small lini!)?, and ricketty joints: or diililreii sent to the poor-house: when this is his hard lot, he must decide for the former sad alternative: but before he will convince me that this is his lot, he must prove to nie, that he and his wife expend not a penny In the decnratinn of their persons; that on his table, morning, noon, or night, 7iol/iiug ever comes tliat is not the produce of English soil ; that of his time not one hour is wasted in what is called pleasure ; that down his throat not one drop or morsel ever goes, unless necessary to sustain Hie and health. How many scores and how many hundreds of men have I seen ; how many thousands could I go and point out, to-morron-, in London, th^ money expended on whose guzzlings in ptn-ter, grog and wine, would keep, and keep well, in the country, a consideralile part of the year, a wife surrounded by healthv chililren, instead of being stewed up in some alley, or back room, With a parcel of poor creatures about her, whinn she, though their fond mother, is almost ashamed to call hers! Compared with the life of sucli a woman, that of the labourer, however poor, is para- dise, 'i'ell me not of the necessity o( providing mnneii for them, even if you waste not a farthing : you can provide them with no money equal in value to health, and straight limbs, and good looks: tliese it is, if within your power, your buuiiden duly to provide tor them: as to providing then? uitii money, you deceive yourself: it is your own avarice, or vanity, that you are seeking to gratify, and not to ensure the gootl of ytnir children. Their most precious possession is health and strength ; and you have no right to run the risk of depriving them of these lor the sake of heaping togeiher money to bestow on them : you have the desire to see them rich : it is to gratify j/ourself that you act in such a case; and you, however you niav deceive your- self, "are guilty of injustice towards them. You would be ashamed to see them without fortune : but not at all ashamed to see them without straight limhs, without colour in their cheeks, without strength, withn out activity, and with only half their due portion of reason. j
Bin. COCBETr's TREATMENT OP IIIS OWN CHILDREN.
' As to bodily exercise, they will, when they begin to get about, take, if vou let them alone, just as inucli of it as nature bids them, and no more. That is a pretty deal, inde.'d, if they he in health ; and, it is your duty, now, to provide for their taking of that exercise, when they begin to be what are called boys and gids, in a way that sliall tend to
give them riie greatest degree of pleasnre, accompanied viih the^ smallest risk of pain : in otlier words, to nutke their lives nx pltasani as you possibly van 1 li;i\(> always admired tlie sentiment of RorfSBAir, uj)on this shbject. " 'I'iie l)oy die;;, perliaps, at tlie age of ten or twelve. Of what ttse, then, •a\\ the restraints, all the privations, all the pain, that you have inflicted upon him ? He fails, and leaves vour mind to brood over the possibility of yonr bavii\2; abridged a life so dear to you." I do not recollect the verv words ; but the passage made a deep impression upon niy tuind, just at the time, too, when I was about to become a father ; and 1 was resolved never to bring upon myself remorse from such a cause ; a resobition from which no importunities, coming from what quarter thev miglit, ever induced me, in one single instance, or for one single moment, to depart. I was resolved to forego all the means of making nnine\ , all the means of living in any thing like fashion, all the means of obtaining f;ime or distinction, to gi\e up everv thing, to become a comniDn labuurer, rather than make my children lead a life of restraint and rebuke; I could not be sure that my children would love me as they loved their own lives; but f was, at any rate, resolved to deserve such love at their hands ; and, in j)os5;e?siu"n of that, I felt that 1 coald set calamity^, of whatever descripti<tn, at defiance.
Now, prneeediiig fo rehite what was, in this respect my line of co!:dnct, I ant not ]>re*ending that trcry man, and particularly every man linng in u fi»'-t>. can, in all respect.-, do as I did in the rearing «p of children I'mt, m utanv respects, any man may, whatever may he ins state of life. For I 4'\d not lead an" idle life ; I had to work constantly for tke means of living : mv occuputioa requirdl unremitted attention; I had nothing but my labour to rely on; and I bad no frie>Ml, tt* \riioiii, in case of ncwl, I cwuld fly for assistance : I always saw t.li»« possibility, and even the probability, of being totally ruined by the liiuid of power; hnt, happen what wonbl, I was resolved, that, a« long a-s 1 coiikl euuse them to du it, my children should lead happy lives : aiid h^ppy lives tltey did lead, if ever children did in thiswliole world.
'I'he ftrst thingftluit I did, when the fourth child had come, was to ge^ m/o the rouutry^ ;iiid s« far as to render a going backward and forward to Lfrndott, at slu^rt intervals, quite tMit of the question. Thus was hffiltM. the greatest oi all things, provided for, as far as I was able to ii;ake the provision. Next, my being ahiuiyx at home was secured as far as pi!S.>-iU!e ; alwavs with them to set an e.xample of early rising, sobriety, ami application to sojnething or other, (.'hildrcn, and especially bovs, will hitve some otit-ttf-doors pursnitb; and it was my dutv to It'ad tlieni to choose su4;h pursuits as couibine<l future utility witii pre;<eiit innocence Kach bis flower-bed, little garden, i)iantalioa of trees ; rabbits, dogs, asses, horses, pheasants and bares ; hoes, spades, whips, guns; always some object of lively itvterest, and as much carnrstiicss and ImsHe about liie various objects as if our living had s«)lelv depended ujM.n them. I made every tiling give way to the great object of making their lives huppy and innocent. 1 did nut
52
know what they might he in time, or what might be mv lot ; hut I was resolved not to be the cause of their being unhappy then, let what might become of us afterwards.
ON THE EXHIBITION OF CHILDREN.
, I was, as T am, of opinion, that it is injurious to the mind to press book-learning upon it at an early age: I always felt pain for poor little things, set up, before " company," to repeat verses, or bits of plays, at six or eiglit years old. I have sometimes not known which way to look, when a mother (and, too often, a fatlier), whom I could not but respect on account of her fondufss for her child, has forced the feeble-voiced eighth wonder of the world, to stand with its little hand stretched out, spouting tlie so/i/oqui/ of Hainlcf, or some such thing. I remember, on one occasion, a little pale-faced creature, only five years old, was hroueht in, after the feeding part of the dinner was over, first to take ins re^rular h;ilf glass of vintner's brewings, comumnly called wine, and then to treat us to a display of his Mon- derful genius. The subject was a speecii of a robust and hold youth, in a Scotcli plav, the title of which I have forgotten, but the speech began with, " My name is Norval : on the Orampian-hills my father fed liis flocks," And tliis in a voice so weak and distressing as to put me in mind of the plaintive squeaking of little pigs wlien the sow is lying on them. As we were going home (one of my boys and I) he, after a silence of half a mile perhaps, rode up close to the side of my horse, ami said, " Papa, where he " tiie Grampian Hills T" " Oh," said I, " fiiey are in Scotland ; poor, barren, beggarly places, covered with heath and rusiies, ten times as barren as Sherril Heath." " But," said he, '• how could that little boy's father feed /lis flocks there, then ?" I was ready to tumble off the horse wilii laugiiing. ( I do not know any thing much more distressing to the spectators than exhibitions of this sort. Everv one feels, not for the child, for it is insensible to the uneasiness it excites, but for the parents, whose amiable fondness displays itself in tliis ridiculous manner. Upon these occasions, no one knows what to sav, or whither to direct his looks. 'I'he parents, and especially the fond muther, looks sharply round for the so-evidenilv merited applause, as an actor of the name ofMuNDEN, whom I recollect thirty years ago, used, when he had treated us to a witty shrug of his shoulders, or tuist of his chin, to turn his face up to the gallery for the clap. If I had to declare on niy oath which have been the most disagreeable moments of my life, I verily believe, that, after due consideration, I should fix upon those, in which parents, whom I have respected, have made me endure exhi- bitions like these ; for, this is your choice, to be insincere, or to give off t nee.
And, as towards the child, it is to he tinjnst, thus to teach it to set a high value on trifling, not to say misciiievous, attainments ; to make it, whether it be in his natural disposition or not, vain and conceited. The plaudits which it receives, in such cases, puffs it up in its own
53
thoughts, sends it out into tlie world stuffed with pride and insolence, which must and will he extracted out ot it hy one means or another; and none but those who have had to endure tiie drawing of firmly fixed teeth, can, I take it, have an adequate idea of the painlulness of this operation. Now, parents have no right thus to indulge their own feelings at the risk of the liappiness of their childrcii.
THE HAPPINESS OF CHILDRKN.
I must insist, and endeavour to impress my opinion upon the mind of every fatlu^r, tliat his children's happintss ought to he his first object; that /)(>oA--lfarnin<^, if it tend to militate against this, ought to be disregarded ; and that, as to money, as to fortune, as to rank and title, that father who can, in the destination of his children, think of them more than of the fiujipiness of those children, is, if he he of sane mind, a great criminal. Who is there, having lived to the age of thirty, or even twenty years, and having the ordinary capacity for ob- servation ; who is there, being of this description, who must not be convinced of the inadequacy of riches, and wiiat are called honours to insure happiness '^ Who, amongst all the classes of men, experience, on an average, so little of real pleasure, and so much of real pain as the rich and the lofty ? Pope gives us, as the materials fur happiness, '•'■ health, peaee, and vonipetencey Aye, hut what is peace, and what is competence? If, by ;ye«ce he mean that tranquillity ot mind which innocence and good deeds produce, he is right and clear so far : for we all know that, without health, which has a well-known positive meaning, there can be no happiness. But competence is a word of unfixed meaning. It may with some, mean enough to eat, drink, wear, and be lodged and warmed with ; but with others, it may include horses, carriages, and footmen laced over from top to toe. So that, here we have no guide ; no standard ; and, indeed, there can be none. But as every sensible father must know that the possession of riches do not, never did, and never can, afford even a chance of additional happiness, it is his duty to inculcate in the minds of his children to make no sacrifice of principle, of noral obligation of any sort, in order to obtain riches, or distinction; and it is a duty still more imperative on him, not to expose them to the risk of loss of health, or diminution of strength, for purposes which have, either directly or indirectly, the acquiring of riches in view, whether for himself or for them.
MR. COBBETT's education OP HIS CHILDREN.
With these principles immoveably implanted in my mind, I became the father of a family, and on these principles I have reared that family. Being myself fond of book-leurninfr and knowing well it8 powers, 1 naturally wished them to possess it too; but never did I impose it upon any one of them. My first duty was to make then\ healthy and strong, if I could, and to give them as much enjoymeht of life as possible. Boru and bred up in the sweet air myself, 1 was
m
Ttso\-e<\, tliat tli«y should be bred up in it too. Ei)jt)viiig' rural scenes and sports, :i« I l>;>'i done wlieii ;i buy, as much as any one that ever was ])orn, I "as resolved that thev sliould liave the saiuo enjoviueuts tendered t.o theui. When I wa* a very little hoy, I was, in tlie biuley- soM'ing season, going alotiii' by the side of a ^''hl, near Waveruy Abbey; the f)riuiroses a!id hlue-beUs bespangling tiie banks on both sides of me ; a thousiind linnets sini;ing in a spreading; oak over my head; wliiie the jingle oftiie traces ami tlie wliistling of the plough- boys saluted my ear from over the edge; and, as it were to snatch me from the enchantment, tlie hounds, at that instant, having started a hare in the banger on the other side of the field, came up scampering over it in full cry, taking me aft<er theni many a mile. 1 was not more than eight years old ; hut this particular scene has presented itself to my mind manv times every year from that day to this. I always enjoy it over again ; and I was resolved to give, if possible, the same enjoynients to my chiblren.
Men's circum.stauces are so various; there is such a great variety in their situations in life, their business, the extent of tiieir pecuniary means, the local state in which they ai'e placed, their internal resources ; the variety, in all these respects, it; so great, that, as apj)licabie to eveiy family, it would be impossilile to lay down any set of rules, or maxims, toucliiug enen/ matter relating to the management and rearing up of children. In giving an account, therefore, of my own conduct, in this respect, I am tiot to be understood as supposing, that t;ren/ father ean, or ouglit, to attempt to do Me same; but while it will be seen, that there are tnani/, and these the most important parts of that con- duct, that all fathers nuiy imitate, if they choose, there is no part of It which thousanils and thousands of fathers might not adopt and pursue, and adhere to, to the very letter.
I effected everv thing without scolding, and even without command. Mv children are a fa?nily o\' scholars, each sex its appropriate species of learning; and, I c(Mild safely take my oath, that I never ordered a. child of mine, sim or daughter, to look into a book in my life. My two eldest sous, when about eight years old, were, (or the sake of tiieir health, placed for a very short time, at a ('lergyman's at Michel- BEVER, and my eldest dangiiter, a little (dder, at a scliool a few miles from liotley, to avoid taking them to London in the winter. But, with these exceptions, never had they, while children, teacher of any description; atil I never, and nobody else ever, taught anyone of them to read, write, or any thing e'se, except in conversafiou ; and, yet, no man Mas ever more anxious to be tlie father of a family of clever and learned persons.
I accomplished mv purpose indirectly. The first thing' of all was health, which was secured by the ileeply-interesting and never-ending sports of the field and pleasures of the garden Luckily these things Were treated of in books and pictures of emlless variety ; so that on wet days, in tonff eveiiins;s, tiiese came into play. A large, strong table in the middle of the room, their mother sitting at her work, used to be surrounded with them, the baby, if big enough, set up in a \i\s\\ chair. Here were ink-stands, pens," pencils. India rubber, and
55
paper, all in abundiiiicc, and every one scrabMed about aa be or sIk pleased. 'I'bere were prints of animals of all sorts ; books treating of them : others treating of gardening, of flowers, of luisbandrv, of hunting, coursing, siiooting, fishing, ])ianting, aiuJ, in short, of every thing, with regard to which we hud snmcthing to do. One would be trying to imitate a bit of my writing, another draivhig the pictures of some of our dors or horses, a third poking over Jieivick'x Quadntpeds, and picking out what he said about them; b\it our book of never- failing resource was the French Mmson Rustique, or Farm- HousB, which, it is said, was the book that first tempted Di'ques- NOIS ([ tliink that was the name), the famous pliysician, in tlie reign of Louis XIV., In leant to read. Here are all th^ J nur-l eg ^ed animals, from the horse down to the mouse, /joW/v/jV^ and all; all the birds^ reptiles, insecti ; all the modes of rearing, managing, and using the tame cues all the moiles of taking the wild ones, and of destroving those thatjare mischievous; all the various traps, springs, nets; all the implements of husbandry and gardening ; all the labours of the field and the garden exhibiteij, as well as the rest, in plates ; and, there wag I, in my leisure moments, tojoiutiiis inquisitive group, to rt-ad the French, and tell them what it meaned in E/iglis/i,\v\\en the picture did not sufficiently explain itself. I never have been without a copy of this bo ik for forty years, except during the time that f was fleeing from the dungeons of Castlereagh and Sidmouth, in 1817 ; andj when I got to Long Island, tjie Jirst book 1 bought was another Maison Rustique.
What need had we of schools ? What need of teachers ? What
iieel of sculdng and force, to induce ciiiidren to read, write, and love
books ? What need of cards, dice, or of any games, to " A'ill time ;"
but, in fact, to implant in the infant heart a love of gaming, one of
the most destructive of all human vices? We did not want to "/fill
time/' we were always btisi/, wet weather or dry weather, winter or
summer. There was no force in any case ; no command ; no authority i
none of these was ever wanted. To teach the children the iiabit of
early rising was a great object ; and every one knows how young
people cling to their beds, and how loth they are to go to those beds.
This was a capital matter ; because, here were industry and health both
at stake. Yet, I avoided command even here; and merely off'ered a
reward. Tlie child that was down stairs first, was called the Lark
Jbr that day ; and, further, sal at my right hand at dinner. 'I'liev soon
discovered that to rise early they must go to bed early ; and thus was
this most important object secured, with regard to girls as well as
boys. Nothing more inconvenient, and, indeed, tnore disgusting, than
to have tojdo with girls, or young women, who lounge in bed; "A
little more sleep, a little more slumber, a little more folding of the
hands to s'eep." Solo.^iox knew them well : he had, [ dare say, seen
the breakfast cooling, carriages, ami horses, and servants waiting, the
sun coming burning on, the day wasting, the night grawing dark too
early, appointments liroken, and the objects of journevs defeated; and
all this from the lolloping in bed of persons wno ought to have risen
56
with the sun. No beauty, no modesty, no accomplishments, are » compensation for the effects of laziness in woman ; and of all the proofa of laziness, none is so unequivocal as that of lying late in l)ed. Love makes men overlook this vice (for it is a vice), U>r a tv/iife ; but, this does not last for life. Besides health demands early rising : the manage- ment of a house imperiously demands it ; hwt health, that most precious possession, without M'hicii there is nothing else worth possessing, demands it too. 'I'he morning air is tiie most wholesome and strength- ening: even in crowded cities, men might do pretty well with the aid of the morning air ; but how are they to rise earlv, if they go to bed' late ?
i; But, to do tlie things I did, you must love homeyonr^e\f ; to rear up children in this manner, you must live with ihcm ; you must make them, too, feel, bv your conduct, tliat you prefer this to any other mode of passing vour time. All men cannot lead this sort of life, but many mav; anil all much more than many do. My occupation, to he sure, was chieflv carried on at home ; but, I had always enough to do; 1 never spent an idle week, or even day, in my whole life. Yet I f()und time to talk with them, to walk, or ride about tvith them ; and wiien forced to go from home, always took one or more with me. You must be good-tempered too with them : they nuist like ?/««/• company better than anv other person's ; they nnist not wish you away, not fear your coming back, not look upon your de])arture as a holiduij. When my business kept me Awny frcnn the scrahbling-\A\)\e, a petition often came, that I would go and /«//.' wilh the group, and the bearer generally'was the youngest, being the most likely to succeed. When I went from home, all followed me, to the outer-gate, and looked after me till the carriage or horse was out of sight. At the time appointed for my return, all were prepared to meet me; and if it were late at night, they sat up as long as they were able to keep their eyes open. This love of parents, and this constant pleasure at home, made them not even think of seeking pleasure abroad ; and they, thus, were kept from vicious playmates and early corruption.
This is the age, too, to teach children to be trusl-worfht/,~Rnd to be merciful, and humane. We lived in a garden o( about two acres, partly kitchen-garden with walls, partly shrubbery and trees, and partlv grass. There were the peaches, as tempting as any that ever grew, and yet as safe from fingers as if no child were ever in the g^arden. It was not necessury to forbid. 'I'he blackbirds, the thrushes, the whitethroats, and even that very shy bird the goldfinch, had their nests and bred up their young ones, in great abundance, all about this little spot, constantly the play-place of six children ; and one of the latter had its nest, and brought up its young ones, in a raspberrt/-busk. within two yards of a walk, and at the time that we were gathering the ripe raspberries. We give dogs, and justly, great credit for sagacitv and memory ; but the following two most curious instances, which i should not venture to state, if there were not so many wit- nesses to the fncts, in my neighbours at Botley, as well as in my own familyj will show, that birds are not, in this respect, inferior to the
L
5t
canine race. All country people know that the ski/larA- is a verj' shv bird ; that its abode is the open fields : tliat it settles on the ground only ; that it seeks safety in the wideness of space ; that it avoids enclosures, and is never seen in gardens. A part t)f our ground was a grass-plat of about forft/ rods, or a quarter of an acre, which, one one year, was left to he mowed for hay. A pair of larks coming out of tiie fields into the middle of a pretty po])ulous village, chose to make their nest in the middle of this little spot, and at not more than about thirty-fice ijanls from one of the doors of the house, in which there were about twelve persons living, and six of those children, who had constant access to all parts of the ground. There we saw the cock rising up and singinsf, then taking his turn upon the eggs; and by and by, we observed him cea^e to sing, and saw them both con- sfant/i/ rngag'ed in bringing food to the young ones. No unintelligible hint to fathers and mothers of the human race, who have, before marriage, taken delight in nnisic. But the time came for moicing thr grass! I waited a good many days for the brood to get awav ; but, at last, I determined on the dav ; and if the larks were there still, to leave a patch of grass standing round them. In order not to keep them in dread longer than necessary, I brought three able mowers, who would but the whole in about an hour ; and as the plat was nearly circular, set them to mow round, beginning at the outside. And now for sagacity indeed ! 'I'he moment the men began to whet their scythes, the two old larks began to flutter over the nest, and to make a great clamour. When the men began to mow, they flew round and round, stooping so low, when near the men, as almost to touch their bodies, making a great chattering at the same time ; but before the men had got round with the second swarth, they flew to the nest, and away they went, young ones and all, across the river, at the foot of the ground, and settleil in the long grass in my neighbour's orchard,
The other instance relates to a Housemarten. It is well known that these birds build their nests under the eaves of inhabited houses, and sometimes under those of door porches , but we had one that built its nest in the house, and upon the top of a common doorcase, the door of which opened into a room out of the main passage into the house. Perceiving the marten had begun to build its nest here, we kept the front-door open in the daytime: but were obliged to lasten it at night. It went on, had eggs, young ones, and the young ones flew. I used to open the door in the morning early, and then the birds carried on their aff'airs till night. The ne.xt year the hiarten came again, and had another brood in the same place It found its old nest; and having repaired it, and put it in order, went on. again in the former way ; and it would, I dare say, have continued to come to the end of its life, if we had remained there so long, notwithstamiing there were six healthy children in the liouse, making just as much noise as they pleased.
Now, wliat sagacity in these birds, to discover that those weri places of safety ! And how happy must it have made ua, the parents, to be sure that our children had thus deeply imbibed habits the con-
58
trary of cruelty ! For, be it engraven ou your heai't, young u\h^ that, wliatever ;ii)pearances may Hiiy to tlie contrary, cruelty is always accoMip.inieii \vitl» cnwurdice,A\v\ also with pi'r/{<lj/,w]xeii tliat is calleil for hv tlie circninstanci's of the case ; and tliat habitual, acts of cruelty to other creatures, will, nine times out of fen, produce, wiien the power is possessed, cruelty to liuuian beings. 'I'he ill-usage of horses, and particularly asses, is a grave and a jist charge againsi; this nation. No other nation on earth is guilty of it to the same ex-? tent. Not only by blows, but by privation, are we cruel towards these useful, docile, and patient creatures; and especially towards the last, which is the most docile and patient and lal)orious of the two; whilu the food that satisfies it, is of the coarsest and least costly kind, ami ia quantity so small ! In the habitual ill-treatment of this animal, whicl^, in addicion to all its labours, has the milk taken from its young one* to administer a remedy for our ailments, there is something that be-^ speaks ingrutitude hardly to be described. In a Rrgister that I wrote from Long Island, I said, that amongst all the tilings of whicll I had been bereft, I regretted no one so nnicli as a very diminutive mare, on vvhicli my children had all, in succession, learned to ride« She was become usele s for them, and, indeed, t\>v any other purpose; but the recollection of her was so entwined with so n)any past cir- cumstances, which, at that distance, niv mind conjured up, that ( really was vevy uneasy, lest she should fall into cruel hands. Uy s^ood luck, she was, alter a while, t\irned out on the wide world to sliift for herself; and when we got back, and had a place for her to .?/«//(/ in, from her native forest we brought her to Kensington, and she is now at liarn Ki\m, about twenty-six years old, and I dare say, as fit as a mole. Now, not only have I no mora! right (considering my ability to pay for keep) to deprive her of li:"e; but it would be unjust and ungra/fful, in me to withhold from lier sufficient food and lodging to make life as pleasant a> possible while that life last.
In the meanwhile the book-learning crept in of its own accord, by Mnperceptit>:e degrees. Chihlreii nat orally want to be like their parent-!, and to d'> what they ilo : tlie bovs following their fatlier, and the girls their niolher; and as I was always writing ov reading, mine naturally desired to do something in the saoie way Bat, at the same time, they heard no talk i'nim fools or drinkers ; saw me with in) idle, gabbling, empty companions : saw no vain and afTected coxcombs, and iiotaivdry a;id extravaj;^ant women : saw no nasty gonnandi/.ing; and heard no gahhle about play-houses and romances and the other nonsense that fit boys to be lobi)y-loiingers, and girls to be the ruin of industrious and fruijal young men.
We wanted no stimulants of tliis sort to keep up our spirits : our various pleasing pursuits were quite suffijient for tliat; ami the bnitk' learning came amongst the rest of the pleasui'e<, to which it was iix some sort, necessary. I remember that, one year, I raised a pro.li ^^ious cro]) of fine melons, nnder hiud-glasses ; and I learned how to do it from a ijarde ling book ; or, at least, that book was necessary to remind me of the details. Having passed part of an evening in talking to
ALSO, JUST PUBUSHED,
THE
LIFE OF W. COBBETT, Esq,
M. P. FOR OLDHAM, WRITTEN BY HIMSELF.
THE NINTH EDITION, Price Tuo Pence.
TO THE PUBLIC.
This work will be completed in about twelve or fourteen numbers, and will contain a selection of the various fine passages which abound in the voluminous productions of this nervous and original writer.
With the last number of this work, a preface, title page, appendix, index, and a fine portrait of Mr. Cobbett will be published — thus rendering this pub- lication a complete treasure house of those excellent and rich gems which are scattered through the works of the finest writer which this country has produced.
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